D1 Definition of a VR-based CME - ITIA-CNR

Transcription

Project No. :
Start :
Duration :
FP6 -2005 -IST -5No.035079
May 2006
36 Months
D1 Definition of a VR based collaborative digital
manufacturing environment
Project co-funded by the European Commission within the Sixth Framework Project (2002-2006)
Dissemination Level
CO
Partners:
Authors:
Due Date:
Version:
Confidential
IPA, ITIA, LMS, PPS
Carmen Constantinescu, Christoph Runde, Johannes Volkmann (IPA), Chris Lalas (PPS),
Marco Sacco, Dan Liu (ITIA), Christos Pavlopoulos, Menelaos Papas (LMS)
Feb 2007
06.4
Version
03
04
05
05.1
05.2
Date
2006-10-20
2006-12-03
2006-12-15
2006-12-22
2007-01-09
06
06.1
06.2
2007-01-09
2007-01-12
2007-01-12
06.3
2007-01-17
06.4
2007-01-19
Keywords
Author Address data
Delivery date
Comments
New Structure (IPA: C. Constantinescu)
Updated Contributions (LMS)
New Template (SZTAKI: B. Kadar)
New Contributions and update (IPA: C. Constantinescu)
Final Template (SZTAKI: B. Kadar) and overall formatting
(IPA: J. Volkmann)
Update (PPS)
Update (ITIA)
Quality Management Team and contributing partners
evaluation and improvement (SZTAKI: B. Kadar, ITIA: M.
Sacco, LMS, PPS)
Executive Summary (IPA: C. Constantinescu) and
Conclusions (ITIA: M. Sacco)
Final Tweaks (IPA: C. Constantinescu, J. Volkmann)
Collaborative Working Environments; Digital Factory; Virtual
Reality
Name: Carmen Constantinescu
Partner: Fraunhofer IPA
Address: Nobelstr. 12
70569 Stuttgart
Phone: +49 (0) 711 970 1934
Fax:
+49 (0) 711 970 1220
E-mail: [email protected]
2007-02-15
i
CONTENTS
CONTENTS .........................................................................................................................II
FIGURES........................................................................................................................... IV
TABLES ........................................................................................................................... VII
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ................................................................................................. VIII
1
MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING: PROBLEM STATEMENT, CHALLENGES .....1
1.1
Manufacturing Engineering: a holistic approach ........................................................ 1
1.2
Digital and Virtual Factory and Manufacturing ............................................................ 2
1.3
Collaborative and Sustainable Life Cycles Management for Manufacturing
Engineering................................................................................................................................. 3
1.4
2
Collaborative Manufacturing Life Cycle Management challenges and risks............ 4
FOUNDATIONS OF COLLABORATIVE MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENTS......6
2.1
Digital Factory................................................................................................................. 6
2.1.1
2.1.2
2.2
Virtual Reality................................................................................................................ 14
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.3
Definition of collaboration ......................................................................................................... 30
Challenges in collaboration....................................................................................................... 31
Benefits of collaboration ........................................................................................................... 33
Existing approaches.................................................................................................................. 33
COLLABORATIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENTS (CWE) .......................................36
3.1
CWE Challenges, approaches and technologies ...................................................... 36
3.1.1
3.1.2
3.1.3
3.2
Mobile and collaborative workspace......................................................................................... 37
Collaborative virtual environment ............................................................................................. 39
Collaborative support trends..................................................................................................... 43
CWE Analysis ............................................................................................................... 45
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
3.2.5
4
Differentiation vs complementarity of concepts ........................................................................ 16
Applications of VR within the Digital Factory ............................................................................ 17
Collaboration ................................................................................................................ 30
2.4.1
2.4.2
2.4.3
2.4.4
3
Definition of Virtual Reality........................................................................................................ 14
Virtual Presence and Immersion............................................................................................... 15
Relationship between Digital Factory and Virtual Reality ........................................ 16
2.3.1
2.3.2
2.4
Definition of Digital Factory......................................................................................................... 6
Digital Factory solutions available on the market ....................................................................... 7
Evaluation methods .................................................................................................................. 45
Evaluation criteria ..................................................................................................................... 46
Evaluation cases for Virtual Teams and Group Work Systems................................................ 46
Technical inadequacies ............................................................................................................ 48
Organisational inadequacies .................................................................................................... 48
CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................50
APPENDIX A – SURVEY OF REAL-TIME COLLABORATIVE SOLUTIONS ..................51
APPENDIX B – CWE RESEARCH TOPICS .....................................................................57
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APPENDIX C – SIMILAR EUROPEAN PROJECTS.........................................................63
APPENDIX D – CWE SYSTEM DEMONSTRATORS .......................................................66
APPENDIX E – COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF COLLABORATIVE
MANUFACTURING ...........................................................................................................88
5
REFERENCES..........................................................................................................90
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FIGURES
Figure 1: Manufacturing Engineering, a holistic approach ................................................................................ 1
Figure 2: The phases of planning the factory structures: from old existing structure (yesterday factory), to the
real structure as it is today (digital factory), to the desired structure of tomorrow (virtual factory).................... 2
Figure 3: The harmonization of Product and Factory Life Cycle under the “Crossing-Life Cycles Point”......... 3
Figure 4: Zeltzer’s AIP cube ............................................................................................................................ 15
Figure 5: Virtual Reality as a component of the Digital Factory ...................................................................... 16
Figure 6: Virtual assembly scene .................................................................................................................... 17
Figure 7: Analysis of geometry alternatives for assembly ............................................................................... 17
Figure 8: The experimental setup and typical third and first person views provided by Jack ......................... 18
Figure 9: Evaluation of coating process with metaphors................................................................................. 19
Figure 10: Real-time seam creation ................................................................................................................ 19
Figure 11: Head and Torch Input Sources ...................................................................................................... 19
Figure 12: Implicit robot programming with VR ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 13: Work place evaluation with VR....................................................................................................... 20
Figure 14: Mannequin assembly execution ..................................................................................................... 20
Figure 15: Ergonomic simulation in desktop environment using a virtual human ........................................... 20
Figure 16: VRShoe - Shoe style design .......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 17: VRWashMachine - Aesthetical validation ...................................................................................... 22
Figure 18: ARBike - Usability Validation.......................................................................................................... 22
Figure 19: VRFactory – Plant Design and Simulation ..................................................................................... 22
Figure 20: VR based modular factory design .................................................................................................. 23
Figure 21: VR based shop floor design ........................................................................................................... 23
Figure 22: VR based factory building design................................................................................................... 23
Figure 23: Scheme of hardware-in-the-loop .................................................................................................... 23
Figure 24: Design of material flow systems..................................................................................................... 24
Figure 25: Spatial representation of logistic goods ......................................................................................... 24
Figure 26: Design of a safe work cell .............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 27: Training on an industrial control ..................................................................................................... 25
Figure 28: Maintenance scene ........................................................................................................................ 26
Figure 29: The simplified process plant case study ........................................................................................ 26
Figure 30: The process plant within the maintenance environment................................................................ 26
Figure 31: Mockup 2000i2 JET simulation ...................................................................................................... 26
Figure 32: Line configuration in 3D.................................................................................................................. 27
Figure 33: 3D model with additional documentation content........................................................................... 27
Figure 34: „Data for Life principle“ for VR data according to Flaig (1998b)..................................................... 28
Figure 35: View onto entire factory in 3D ........................................................................................................ 28
Figure 36: Augmented reality scene for assembly support ............................................................................. 29
Figure 37: Haptic tele presence....................................................................................................................... 29
Figure 38: Screenshot of a scene with 3 avatars representing dislocated users ............................................ 29
Figure 39: 3D presentation of control with sales information .......................................................................... 30
Figure 40: DiCODEv platform.......................................................................................................................... 34
Figure 41: The ‘‘Showcase’’ view of the 3-D Car prototype with ‘‘Walk’’......................................................... 34
Figure 42: Collaborative design of a fixture with the web-based CPD Platform.............................................. 35
Figure 43: Research strategies and approaches for mobile and collaborative workspace............................. 37
Figure 44: Real time conferencing................................................................................................................... 48
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Figure 45: Real time typing.............................................................................................................................. 48
Figure 46: Jabber interface.............................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 47: Trillian interface .............................................................................................................................. 51
Figure 48: Miranda interface............................................................................................................................ 51
Figure 49: Geim interface ................................................................................................................................ 51
Figure 50: Skype.............................................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 51: Babble ............................................................................................................................................ 52
Figure 52: Hot Conference .............................................................................................................................. 52
Figure 53: Voice Café ...................................................................................................................................... 52
Figure 54: RealVNC......................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 55: Glance ............................................................................................................................................ 53
Figure 56: GoToMeeting.................................................................................................................................. 53
Figure 57: InstaColl tool................................................................................................................................... 53
Figure 58: Shinkuro tool .................................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 59: Grouper tool.................................................................................................................................... 54
Figure 60: InstantPresenter ............................................................................................................................. 54
Figure 61: FlashMeeting.................................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 62: 3wVP .............................................................................................................................................. 55
Figure 63: SightSpeed ..................................................................................................................................... 55
Figure 64: Microsoft Research ........................................................................................................................ 56
Figure 65: Qnext .............................................................................................................................................. 56
Figure 66: ConVoq........................................................................................................................................... 56
Figure 67: AMI@Work special interest group.................................................................................................. 58
Figure 68: Bartlett’s CVE categorisation model – part 1 ................................................................................. 68
Figure 69: Bartlett’s CVE categorisation model – part 2 ................................................................................. 68
Figure 70: Augmented collaborative work space – example 1........................................................................ 68
Figure 71: Augmented collaborative work space – example 2........................................................................ 69
Figure 72: User studies on a variety of tasks and interface types................................................................... 70
Figure 73: Example scenario: travel agent able to display route-planning information overlaid on a physical
map .................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Figure 74: Steerable projection systems enable the extensive and intricate combination of electronic
information with real objects and space .......................................................................................................... 71
Figure 75: Example scenario: the customer receives a simplified electronic representation of the detailed
physical map that the agent works with........................................................................................................... 71
Figure 76: User in an augmented collaborative space, able to use physical space and objects within the
space as a scratchpad..................................................................................................................................... 71
Figure 77: Basic architecture of virtual round table ......................................................................................... 72
Figure 78: An example of virtual round table scenario .................................................................................... 72
Figure 79: A collaborative map in a previous study used a radar view to display the collaborator’s viewports
......................................................................................................................................................................... 73
Figure 80: A collaborative virtual environment investigated combinations of egocentric and exocentric frames
of reference...................................................................................................................................................... 74
Figure 81: Sample CVW screen ...................................................................................................................... 75
Figure 82: CVW Floor Layout: Original (left) and Immersive (right) ................................................................ 75
Figure 83: Sample avatars .............................................................................................................................. 76
Figure 84: Components of the DRRIVE system.............................................................................................. 78
Figure 85: The CABANA in CAVE mode......................................................................................................... 79
Figure 86: A perspective view rendering of a HIVE collaboration session...................................................... 79
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Figure 87: Software components of DDRIVE .................................................................................................. 79
Figure 88: Gesture based 3D object modeling system ................................................................................... 80
Figure 89: Server-dependent data sharing method......................................................................................... 80
Figure 90: Proposed data sharing method ...................................................................................................... 81
Figure 91: 3D data sharing mechanism and procedure .................................................................................. 81
Figure 92: Client system structure................................................................................................................... 82
Figure 93: Prototype system organization ....................................................................................................... 82
Figure 94: The architecture of CVE for feature-based modelling.................................................................... 83
Figure 95: CVE system modules ..................................................................................................................... 83
Figure 96: CVE-VM system overview.............................................................................................................. 85
Figure 97: Client Interface ............................................................................................................................... 85
Figure 98: Structural schema representing the focal elements of research.................................................... 86
Figure 99: The duality of structure................................................................................................................... 86
Figure 100: OneSpace tool.............................................................................................................................. 89
Figure 101: eDrawings Professional................................................................................................................ 89
Figure 102: Windchill ProjectLink platform ...................................................................................................... 89
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TABLES
Table 1: Newly launched projects in new working environment...................................................................... 63
Table 2: The ongoing projects within the new working environment............................................................... 63
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Manufacturing enterprises, in this approach called factories, are confronted today with new models of
competition and new collaborative modes of operation. The modern view of manufacturing approaches the
factory as complex socio-technical system, being oriented towards economical and human efficiency and
effectiveness. The factories have to provide competitive industrial goods and support services at decreased
prices, high quality, by exceeding the customers’ expectations. They have to be adapted permanently and
quickly react to the needs and requirements of markets and economic efficiency.
Motivated by these challenges, the DiFac project aims at developing innovative models, methodologies and
tools for supporting the manufacturing engineering collaboration, from the development of digital mock-ups
and virtual prototypes over the factory planning, production simulation, real-time operation and maintenance
up to humans’ assistance and training. Virtual Reality (VR) represents a valuable enabling technology whose
employment foster, drive and support the collaboration between the mentioned main activities and the
involved human factors.
The overall goal of the deliverable D1 “Definition of a VR based collaborative digital manufacturing
environment” represents the description of the collaborative manufacturing environments (CME) through the
definition and state-of-the-art of its main concepts, models, methodologies and tools. The scientific
objectives are structured in three main parts, as follows.
The first part, “Manufacturing engineering: Problem statement, Challenges” aspires at clearly motivating the
presented work. It introduces Manufacturing Engineering as “key technology to implement innovations and to
design products, services, processes and manufacturing systems”. The holistic view of manufacturing
engineering approaches the engineering of factory structures, design engineering, process engineering, the
development of required tools and application systems at all levels i.e.: manufacturing network, segment or
system, machine or equipment, subsystems and processes. The generic definitions of Digital and Virtual
Factory, Products and Manufacturing are harmonised and then build the innovative concept of Collaborative
and Sustainable Life Cycles Management of Manufacturing.
The “Foundations of Collaborative Manufacturing Environments”, the second part of D1, presents the basic
elements of such environments through their definition and several main aspects. The Digital Factory is
introduced through the state-of-the-art and available solutions on the market. Virtual Reality is presented as
the main enabling visualisation technology by pointed out its role in creating virtual presence and immersion.
The relationship Digital Factory and Virtual Reality for the purposes of the implementation of manufacturing
environments is revealed, as well. The collaboration in manufacturing is detailed through challenges,
benefits and existing approaches.
The last part of D1, “Collaborative Working Environment (CWE)” represents the background of Collaborative
Manufacturing Environments, by enabling the seamless and natural collaboration amongst a diversity of
agents (humans, machines, etc) within distributed, knowledge rich and virtualized working background. The
current and state-of-the-art approaches and technologies are briefly introduced and then evaluated
according to several methods and criteria.
“Conclusions” points out the relevance of the briefly introduced approaches, technologies and tools for the
design and development of the collaborative manufacturing environments, by representing a main
contribution for the implementation of the DiFac approach and platform. The Appendixes A “Survey of realtime collaborative solutions”, B “CWE research topics”, C “Similar European projects”, D “CWE system
demonstrators” and E “Commercial applications of collaborative manufacturing” support with detailed
information the area and main topics of digital and virtual manufacturing.
The used methods to perform the activities and to achieve the planned goal and scientific objectives are the
state-of-the-art of a specific scientific topic, e.g. digital factory, and market overview, e.g. in the field of
commercial solutions for real-time and collaborative commercial solutions.
The main outputs of deliverable D1 “Definition of a VR based collaborative digital manufacturing
environment” enhanced with the “Work groups and patterns in collaborative digital manufacturing” (D2) and
the “Ergonomic requirements for and human safety and productivity” (D3) and “Presence requirements for
group work in rich virtualised environment” (D4) represent the foundations of the development of the DiFac
environment and platform for manufacturing engineering.
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1 MANUFACTURING ENGINEERING: PROBLEM
STATEMENT, CHALLENGES
For clearly positioning the topics related to the collaborative manufacturing environments in the wide area of
Manufacturing Engineering and motivating the presented work, the first chapter aims at presenting the
complexity of the Manufacturing Engineering and the main role of collaboration models, methodologies and
tools. It introduces the Manufacturing Engineering as large accepted in the scientific community “key
technology to implement innovations and to design products, services, processes and manufacturing
systems”. The holistic view of manufacturing engineering approaches the engineering of factory structure,
design engineering, process engineering, the development of required tools and application systems at all
levels: manufacturing network, segment or system, machine or equipment, subsystems and processes. The
generic definitions of the digital and virtual factory, products and manufacturing are harmonised into the
innovative concept of Collaborative and Sustainable Life Cycles Management of Manufacturing, briefly
introduced through its challenges and analysed regarding the envisioned risks.
1.1 Manufacturing Engineering: a holistic approach
Manufacturing is a dynamic socio-technical system, which is operating in a turbulent environment. Changes
are normal and continuous at all levels (Westkämper 2005; Kirchner and Winkler 2003). Innovative
manufacturing envisioned as a new paradigm of the socio-technical system is oriented to permanent best of
class and usage of resources by fast implementation of novel solutions. Innovative manufacturing is
knowledge-based and operates with the latest state-of-the-art manufacturing and ICT technologies.
Confronted with new models of competition and new modes of operation, the factories have to provide
competitive industrial goods and support services at decreased prices with high quality, overcoming the
customers’ expectations.
Manufacturing Engineering is the key technology to implement innovations and to design products, services,
processes and manufacturing systems. The implementation process requires the employment of efficient
tools, based on the state-of-art knowledge, expertise and best practices in manufacturing engineering.
Manufacturing enterprises, the factories, have to rethink their organizational structures and basic activities to
accommodate the changes foreseen in manufacturing processes. Manufacturing Engineering addresses
simultaneously all interrelated aspects of a product life cycle from design to recycling and disposal. The area
of Manufacturing Engineering is the centre of manufacturing development. It is embedded in networks of:
product engineering, material and component suppliers, manufacturing suppliers and customers.
Manufacturing Engineering processes take place in the manufacturing system.
Manufacturing Engineering is a holistic approach (Figure 1), which includes the engineering of the factory
structure, the development of the organization, the design engineering, the process engineering and the
development of the required tools and application systems. At all levels, e.g. manufacturing network,
segment or system, machine or equipment, subsystems and processes, the factory and its manufacturing
processes can be defined in their “current” and/or “future” states, under the so-called “digital” and
respectively “virtual” representations. This relates to the employed models, methods and digital tools or
simulation applications and systems used to represent the static or the dynamic states.
Manufacturing
Network
Standards
as Integrators
Manufacturing
Segment/System
Global Standards
Manufacturing
Engineering
Manufacturing
Machines, Equipment
Peripherals
Standard Interfaces
Open Networks
Subsystems
Control , Sensors,
Actuators
Function Elements
Processes
© Westkämper, IPA/IFF Stuttgart, 2006
Figure 1: Manufacturing Engineering, a holistic approach
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1.2 Digital and Virtual Factory and Manufacturing
Digital manufacturing uses a wide range of engineering and planning tools and applications to integrate
efficient and effective new information and communication technologies into manufacturing processes. The
main area of research is the development of integrated tools for industrial engineering and adaptation of
manufacturing taking into account the configurability of systems. Digital manufacturing employs the
distributed data management, tools for process engineering, tools for presentation and graphic interfaces,
participative, collaborative and networked engineering, multi-modal interfaces. Digital manufacturing has as
main output the representation of the factory as it is today, e.g. the static image or the so-called “digital
factory and manufacturing”.
Starting with this digital representation of the factory and manufacturing and employing the virtual
manufacturing technologies, simulation tools and specific applications and systems, the factory and its
manufacturing processes are represented in their dynamics. This is the reflection of the “actual” state on the
future, the so-called “virtual factory and manufacturing”. The representation of the states “yesterday-todaytomorrow” of the factory and the employed technologies are drafted in Figure 2.
Two states of factory and manufacturing processes are distinguished: the “digital” and the “virtual” states
(Westkämper 2003). This makes a clear difference between the models, methods and tools used for
planning the factory. For the static representation of a factory and manufacturing as it is, the models,
methods and tools of digital manufacturing are employed. This is defined as digital factory and
manufacturing. To project the factory and manufacturing processes in the future, simulation and 3-D/virtual
reality models, methods and tools are used. This approach, as very clearly drafted in Figure 2, is original and
differentiates itself from other given and recognized standard definitions of the digital factory: “The digital
factory is the generic term for a comprehensive network of digital models, methods, and tools – including
simulation and 3D/Virtual Reality visualization – which are integrated by a continuous data management
system” (VDIa).
© Westkämper, IPA/IFF Stuttgart, 2006
Scientific Management
advanced Industrial Engineering
Digital
Engineering
PPS
MRP
Knowledge-based Manufacturing
Adaptation
Management
Simulation
Digital
Factory
Data Collection
Data Analysis
Feedback
Old
Factory
Structure
as it was
Yesterday
On-line and
In-Situ
Real
Factory
as it is
Today
Real-Time
Adaptive
and
Configurable
Systems
Instructions
Knowledge
Future
Virtual
Factory
as it will be
Time
Tomorrow
Figure 2: The phases of planning the factory structures: from old existing structure (yesterday
factory), to the real structure as it is today (digital factory), to the desired structure of tomorrow
(virtual factory)
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1.3 Collaborative and Sustainable Life Cycles Management for
Manufacturing Engineering
The modern view on manufacturing engineering resides in migrating the Life Cycle paradigm into the factory
as a whole, its corresponding products, manufacturing processes and technologies. The idea of “Product Life
Cycle” is essential for the path to sustainability by expanding the focus from the production site to the whole
factory and product life cycle. The main goal of Factory and Product Life Cycle thinking is to reduce resource
use and to improve the technical and social performance, in various stages of a factory and product’s life
(SETAC 2004; Kapp 2005; Aldinger 2006). Life Cycle Management is the application of Life Cycle thinking
and models to modern manufacturing engineering practice, with the aim to manage the total and
comprehensive life cycle of the factory and its products and manufacturing processes and services towards
more sustainable consumption and production. Life Cycle Management is about systematic integration of the
product sustainability into the manufacturing strategy and planning, product design and development
decision making and communication and collaborating applications. By implementing the Life Cycle
Management capability, considerable benefits, such as faster time to market, lower costs, reduction of
rework and rejection dates and more component and technology reuse are achieved. This approach gives
the image of a three-dimensional life cycle space for factory, pro-ducts, and manufacturing processes. Each
of these entities has its own life cycle, consisting of specific phases. Figure 3 presents the factory and
product life cycles in their relevant life phases.
Figure 3: The harmonization of Product and Factory Life Cycle under the “Crossing-Life Cycles
Point”
Each factory follows a life cycle from its initial concept in the mind of an entrepreneur to the ecological
dismantling, through a series of stages or phases (Aldinger 2006). Despite the identified and recognized
phases: design and planning, construction, operation and maintenance, refurbishment or obsolence and
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end-of-life phase or dismantling, this work focuses on the first phase, design and planning the factory. In this
phase, in great interdependence with the life cycle of products and used technologies, the factory processes
and its production facilities are planned.
Figure 3 traces the factory’s life along investment planning, engineering, process planning, construction &
ramp-up, production, service and maintenance, and finally, dismantling or refurbishment. Two states of
factory and its manufacturing processes have been distinguished (Aldinger 2006; Westkämper 2006):
“digital” and “virtual”, making a clear difference between the models, methods, technologies and tools of
advanced Manufacturing Engineering (aME) used (Westkämper 2006). Digital factory represents the static
image of a factory, modeled and re-presented by using digital manufacturing and modeling technologies.
The projection of the factory into the future, through simulation and 3D/Virtual and Mixed Reality
technologies represents the virtual factory. Applying the authors’ concepts regarding the digital and virtual
factory (Aldinger 2006; Westkämper 2006), the factory life phases can be structured as follows. From
investment planning to construction and ramp-up, the factory is digital. In these phases, it exists in its virtual
form as well, being permanently optimized through simulation. Then the digital and virtual factory is
constructed and ramps up. All remaining phases trace the real factory.
Simultaneously, the products, which will be manufactured in the factory, are passing through the main
phases of their life cycle, planning, development, design, rapid prototyping, production, usage & service and
recycling. By transferring the authors’ concepts concerning the digital and virtual factory to the products,
products are digital and virtual between planning and rapid prototyping phases. The real product lives from
production to recycling.
The central part of Figure 3, the overlapping of the factory operation & maintenance and the manufacturing
of products in the so-called production phase, represents the crucial and at the same time critical point,
called “Crossing-Life Cycles Point”. Here, virtual products and factories become reality. The real product is
built into the real factory. Then the manufacturing processes are implemented by using the most suitable
technologies. At this point, all the already performed engineering activities and efforts are to be proved and
verified. In this phase, the real factory has to be highly transformable in order to quickly respond to the
changes occurring in the product world: frequent product launches, increased product complexity as a
consequence of using advanced and emerging technologies, e.g. the fast development of micro and nano
electronics, increased micro computerization, and new materials development.
The Crossing-Life Cycles Point shows the results of the preceding phases concerning the manufacturing of
products under optimum conditions (time, quality, costs). The point not only highlights the efficiency and
effectiveness of the used models, methods, technologies and tools for planning and designing products,
processes and factories in digital and virtual world, but also the appropriateness of using them. The main
advantage resulting from this approach is the transformability and changeability of the factory structures
throughout their whole life, according to the manufactured products, the corresponding manufacturing
processes, and the technologies used under economical conditions. Thus, in the operation phase the factory
is already prepared to react to a change regarding a new release of a traditional product or a new product, a
newly implemented state-of-the-art manufacturing process or the use of an innovative technology. These
foreseen and possible changes have already been taken into consideration in the planning phase. Then, the
factory is able to respond adequately and to adapt itself to these changes and turbulences in order to remain
competitive. The information gathered in the production phase represents a valuable input for continuously
replanning and adapting.
1.4 Collaborative Manufacturing Life Cycle Management challenges
and risks
An orchestration or harmonization of the specific life phases of product, manufacturing processes and
technologies with the planning phase of the factory represents a great challenge. This approach is called
Unified and Sustainable Life Cycles Management.
There is a risk associated with the things in the world, which have a life cycle themselves, as in the case of a
factory. The manufactured products, the corresponding manufacturing processes and the technologies used,
all these subordinated factory entities, have their own life cycles. Each life cycle can be represented, at the
end, as independent software application; therefore, a software technology infrastructure has to be
formulated to allow for the seamless linkage and integration of software application and systems,
representing various life cycle aspects. Because phases of these life cycles tend to be independent of each
other, the current challenges and then the research efforts have to be coordinated towards integrated and
unified life cycle paradigm. This unified life cycle paradigm builds upon current technologies and is
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DiFac IST5-035079
backwardly compatible while embracing future emerging technologies. Only when two of these life cycles
coincide and one affects the other there is connectivity and a transfer of information at the interface. The
current research approaches have to identify 1) linkage points (i.e., portals) between life cycles, 2) the type,
and form of data passing between life cycles, and 3) conditions when life cycles interact and communicate.
This is expected to be overcome by developing and integrating new technologies and tools, e.g. information
and communication technologies (ICT), digital manufacturing technologies, collaboration models and tools,
used to trace factories, products, processes and technologies over their life cycle from engineering to the
end of their lives. Several strategies to support the required orchestration have to be mentioned: applying the
simultaneous engineering for bridging the product design and process planning, and the development of
suitable strategies for R&D in order to link the product planning and development and factory investment and
engineering. The last can be achieved through the development of advanced and innovative manufacturing
technologies.
The envisioned solution for minimizing all risks and losses related to the Crossing-Life Cycles Point is the
development of an environment for factory and product life cycle management, by collaboratively integrating
the latest technologies and tools used to follow the factories and their products along their lives. The taking
into consideration of the human and ergonomic aspects has to give originality and innovation feature to the
concept as a whole. The vision of this work represents the “transformable and adaptable factory” which has
to react quickly and appropriately to the internal and external turbulences, by using new collaboration and
integration models, methods and procedures along the value chain.
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2 FOUNDATIONS OF COLLABORATIVE
MANUFACTURING ENVIRONMENTS
The chapter “Foundations of Collaborative Manufacturing Environments” (CME) presents the basic elements
of the collaborative manufacturing environments through their definition and several main aspects. The used
method is the state-of-the-art and market overview and study. Digital Factory is introduced through the stateof-the-art and available solutions on the market. The Virtual Reality is presented as the main enabling
visualisation technology by pointed its role in creating virtual presence and immersion. The relationship
Digital Factory and Virtual Reality for the implementation purposes of manufacturing environments is
revealed, as well. The Collaboration in manufacturing is detailed through challenges, benefits and existing
approaches. These main elements of CME have to be enhanced in the sense of immersing the user in the
environment and adding presence and immersion measuring capability. The human and ergonomic aspects
for the purposes of safety and productivity have to be taken into consideration as the future work.
The Collaborative Manufacturing Environment is defined in this work as the instantiation or adaptation of
Collaborative Working Environments for the purposes of Manufacturing Engineering, by giving reality to the
Digital Factory, Virtual Factory, VR-based Immersion and Presence and Collaborative Life Cycles
Management.
2.1 Digital Factory
2.1.1 Definition of Digital Factory
Zäh analysed several definitions of Digital Factory and concluded that it represents both the model of a
factory and also the tools used to create this model (Zäh 2003). Like Reinhart (2003) he identifies the
following three digital factory components:
•
modelling and visualisation,
•
simulation and evaluation,
• data management and communication.
Zäh suggests giving reality to the digital factory elaborated by Reinhart in its virtual production concept
(Reinhart 1999b). He defines virtual production as continuous, experiment-ready planning, evaluation and
control of production processes and production resources by the means of digital models (Reinhart 1995b;
Reinhart 2002b). Reinhart points to the common view onto factory, man/machine/device and technology
(Reinhart 2002b). Many examples for the use of digital models for simulations purposes can be found at
Bayer (2003). Quell and Kiel underline the importance of an integrated data management, especially as a
supporting instrument of knowledge management (Quell 1999; Kiel 2001).
Westkämper defines the Digital Factory as a mapping of the static content (immovable property, resources,
media supply) of an existing real factory (Westkämper 2003; Westkämper 2004a). Westkämper distinguishes
this definition in particular from the Virtual Factory, which comprises dynamic aspects of a factory model
(process models, logistics models, simulation models), as well.
Quell identifies the following elements of the digital factory: 3D machine visualisation, event simulation,
manufacturing process simulation, ergonomics simulation (Quell 1999).
Lurse lists the following tasks of the digital factory (Lurse 2002): parts list processing, process planning,
assembly planning, cost planning and calculation, operational planning, programming of numeric controls
and industrial robot cells, ergonomic analysis, production logistics planning, factory layout planning, factory
simulation. Lurse mentions also a number of suppliers of digital factory IT systems and solutions (Delmia,
Tecnomatix, EDS, FlexSimED, Mantra4D, vrcom, Lanner Group, Cosimir Festo Didactic).
Walter refers to the concept of virtual manufacturing and subsumes it as a realistic, integrated computer
model of a manufacturing location. This model includes single processes as well as the entire factory with all
necessary functions to support planning, simulation, development, production control and maintenance
(Walter 2002). According to Walter this model serves for simultaneous process and product development,
communication, decision making, and documentation during the whole product life cycle – from the first
concept to the realisation of the production facility (the factory).
The guideline 4499 “Digitale Fabrik – Grundlagen“ elaborated by the Association of German Engineers VDI
(VDI 4499) defines the digital factory as follows: “the digital factory is a superordinate concept of an allembracing network of digital models, methods and tools – including simulation and 3D visualisation – that
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are integrated by a continuous data management. The goal is to plan, evaluate and improve holistically all
relevant structures, processes, and resources of the real factory in combination with the product”. This VDI
guideline further lists the following application areas of the digital factory:
•
product development (as supplier of input data into the digital factory like 3D product model,
structure, functions of product),
•
production planning (production processes, production systems, industrial production sites,
surveillance of realisation),
•
production ramp-up (implementation and start of production, planning, selection and acquisition of
resources, scheduling),
•
operation/manufacturing (support of business and technical processes, creation of PLC, robot, and
NC programs),
•
order processing (control and surveillance of production by production orders).
2.1.2 Digital Factory solutions available on the market
Regarding the huge number of planning tasks within the digital factory as outlined in chapter 1.2.1. there is
also a vast number of available commercial tools and solutions. As building up an entire prototype of a
factory requires the combination of many of those planning tools, there are already two integration platforms
available that should be mentioned. These are shortly presented in the following subsections.
2.1.2.1 CAD systems
Currently available CAD systems support 3D CAD. The classification of different CAD systems is based on
the used operating concepts, complexity, price and the mathematical geometry representation. The following
application areas should be mentioned, strong related on several main features:
1. Product development:
•
aesthetic aspects: Within the worldwide car and aerospace industry, Dassault’s CATIA V5 solution is
the leading and dominant platform with a market share of far more than 50% (80% in worldwide car
industry). The core field of application is the design of the aesthetic components of the car body and
interior. Available at: http://www.3ds.com/products-solutions/plm-solutions/catia/overview/
•
technical components: For technical product components like car power train, jet engines,
Parametric Technology Corporation’s (PTC) Pro/Engineer is the leading system (PTC 2006).
Available at: http://www.ptc.com/appserver/mkt/products/home.jsp?k=403
2. Industrial engineering:
For machine and industrial equipment design is in use mainly PTC’s Pro/Engineer (PTC 2006).
Further on, the quite simpler CAD systems Autodesk AutoCAD and Dassault’s SolidWorks are well
spread in industry (SolidWorks 2006). Available at:
http://www.ptc.com/appserver/mkt/products/home.jsp?k=403,
http://usa.autodesk.com/adsk/servlet/index?siteID=123112&id=2704278,
http://www.solidworks.com
3. Factory planning:
Some CAD systems either specialised in factory planning or their respective companies offer
extension kits for factory planning purposes. One well known system is UGS’s FactoryCAD, which
allows building a factory layout on the basis of a huge layout library of all resources like machines,
floor, conveyors and much more. Another CAD system explicitly for factory layout design is Bentley’s
MicroStation. Available at:
http://www.ugs.com/products/tecnomatix/plant_design/factory_cad.shtml
http://www.bentley.com/en-GB/Products/MicroStation/
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2.1.2.2 Integration platforms
The market of integration platforms is currently characterised as a typical duopoly, respectively there are two
ICT key players which are following a strategy to offer all-embracing digital factory solutions including
engineering data management, manufacturing process planning and simulation of various kinds of
processes related to manufacturing. These are as follows:
I) Dassault’s Delmia product consists of solutions for:
A) Process planning:
1. DELMIA Process Engineer is a tool for process and resource planning, providing a solution for
early recognition of process risks, re-use of proven processes, traceable changes and decisions and
access to scattered process knowledge. This treatment of the relationships between product,
process and manufacturing resource data, including plant layout, helps to avoid planning mistakes
and obtain a precise overview, early in the process, of the required investment costs, production
space and manpower.
2. PPR Hub and Navigator allow user to access the entire planning content and all logical
relationships stored in DELMIA Manufacturing Hub. Product, process and resource items and their
relations as well as planning prerequisites and objectives can be accessed by a Windows like user
interface.
3. DPM Shop is an interactive 3D product and process information resource tool to enhance workers
performance. DPM Shop uses visually intuitive, graphically intensive, easy-to-use engineering
product and manufacturing process data and delivers work instructions directly to the shop floor to
replace expensive, error-prone, and hard-to-manage paper-based systems.
B) Process detailing and validation:
1. DPM Assembly solution supports the assembly process planning and verification. It incorporates a
single, unified interface for pre–planning, detail planning, concurrent engineering and assembly
process verification.
2. DPM Fastener Planning provides a tool for the Automotive Body in White process-planning domain
that will allow engineers to design automotive body assembly processes, manage spot welds and
other fasteners, select resources and validate the process plan using an interactive 3D environment.
3. DPM Machining Planning enhances the ability of manufacturing industries to cut down in time and
cost to machine parts. These solutions comprises of a suite of applications based on a infrastructure
that encapsulates numerous activities in the machining domain.
4. DPM Inspection Planning enables users to create and optimize Inspection processes (programs).
Users define processes based on design and tolerance information and validate their work using
simulation and collision detection. The resulting inspection process is associative to geometry and
tolerance information and can be updated automatically after modification of the measured resource.
5. MTM Planning/Industrial Engineer allows users to efficiently and reliably determine the time
required to perform a specific job sequence based on commonly used time measurement methods
or company-proprietary time standards. Its user interface is compatible with the Microsoft Office
standard and allows multiple users to work quickly and efficiently.
C) Resource modelling and simulation:
1. Robotics:
Delmia IGRIP offers a solution for tooling definition, workcell layout, robot programming, and
workcell simulation. It is much more than a basic offline programming system. It can capture the
underlying philosophy of and intent of the robot programmer allowing the company to capture and
reuse best practices, leverage programming knowledge and automate the repetitive work of robot
programming. DELMIA IGRIP is a physics-based, scalable robotic simulation solution for modelling
and off-line programming complex, multi-device robotic workcells. IGRIP can be used to quickly and
graphically construct workcells for applications such as welding, painting, dispensing, material
removal and machine tending.
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2. Machining:
DPM POWERTRAIN is a solution to addresses the machining process planning lifecycle for
automotive powertrain development. DPM Powertrain integrates product engineering and process
planning in a collaborative engineering environment enabling process designing, planning, verifying,
managing and documenting the machining processes.
Delmia Virtual NC is the digital manufacturing solution for rapidly emulating, validating and
optimizing NC machine processes. Virtual NC’s simulation environment enables manufacturers to
validate the post processed NC program off-line, in a digital environment, thereby keeping the actual
machine tool in production.
3. Control Engineering:
Delmia Automation offers a solution for control engineering and automation lifecycle management.
Current offerings enable programming of various Programmable Logic Controllers (PLC), and
validation of these logics against a virtual machine, a cell, or an entire line and the performance
analysis of these systems. DELMIA V5 Automation allows control departments to work in parallel
and share information with mechanical and electrical departments earlier in the development process
allowing optimization of engineering processes.
4. Factory:
Delmia QUEST is a 3D digital factory environment for process flow simulation and analysis,
accuracy, and profitability.
5. Inspection:
Delmia INSPECT is a offline CMM programming, simulation and verification solution that offers
direct associativity between inspection features, tolerance parameters and geometry features of the
CAD master model. Developing and verifying inspection programs becomes a single step process
allowing CMM programs to be automatically updated.
D) Ergonomics:
Delmia Human add-on solution is a human modelling bundle that offers the user to create and
manipulate advanced, user-defined digital human manikins, "workers" in the DELMIA environment
for human/product interaction and worker process analysis early in the product lifecycle. Human addons allows users to create detailed customized manikin's for an intended target audience, specifically
analyze how the manikins will interact with objects in the virtual environment and determine operator
comfort and performance in the context of a new design.
II) UGS’s Tecnomatix solution consists of the following components shortly presented according their
usage:
A) Part manufacturing:
Part Manufacturing Planner allows users the access to process data for re-use, editing or review
from a central source. It is aimed at reducing time and errors in the piece-part manufacturing
process. By integration of automated routines and quality checks embedded throughout the entire
process definition, product quality increases. The use of automated routines for reporting, change
control, and workflow are also instrumental in supporting manufacturing engineers. As a TeamCenter
application, the Part Manufacturing Planner provides a common platform and a single source where
all the planners in the manufacturing organisation can go to find information, communicate with each
other and collaborate on the part manufacturing planning process.
eM-Machining allows to balance lines by allocating operations according to machine specifications.
The software calculates operating cycle times and generates a respective NC tool path. Discrete
event simulation models provide a dynamic perspective of the balanced production line. It allows
users to analyze throughput, work-in—process, resource utilisation and buffer sizes. eM-Machining
Methods is used to describe company-specific manufacturing resources and machining methods.
This includes machines, holders, adapters, cutters, inserts, tool assemblies, tool sets, fixing tools,
materials, machinability data and parametric tool path motions.
eM-Machining Planner is used by the process planners and the NC programmers. Based on a 3Dsolid of the work piece, the system recognizes manufacturing features and suggests setups,
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machining operations, cutting tools, tool paths and technological data like feeds and speeds.
Manufacturing times and costs, as well as production plans, APT- and CLdata-files are determined.
eM-Machining Line Design (add on to the eM-Machining Planner module) is used by planners
responsible for machining line design within OEMs and Line Builders. The module enables users to
perform process planning for machining lines consisting of any number of general-purpose machine
tools or transfer line machining units. The key characteristic of a machining line is that the
component enters the line on the first machine, moves from one machine to the next and leaves the
line at the last machine. With this module, users can optimize the operation and tool selection based
on the capabilities of the line and can balance the line by allocating the operations to the machines.
The module also supports the definition of parallel (multi-spindle) operations.
eM-Machining Portal is used to document, communicate and exchange process information. It
supports the Web-based generation and distribution of standard and customer-specific reports, work
instructions and documentation.
eM-Machining Feature Definition can be used to define machining features in those situations
where 3D CAD solid data are not yet available. This applies to the proposal generation process of
Line Builders and to the early Machining Line Design phases within OEMs. These features are
subsequently written to a STEP-like feature file which can be imported by the eM-Machining Planner
module.
eM-Machining Performance Analyzer can be used to analyze the dynamic behavior and the
throughput of a machining line. Aspects like buffer sizes and locations, resource utilization, meantime-between-failure and mean-time-to-repair can be taken into account.
eM-RealNC is an off-line tool for analysis and optimization of NC programs. Depending on the batch
size (job-shop or large-volume), reduction of setup times or shortening of cycle times are two
benefits. eM-RealNC enables the user to identify and realize potential savings in machining
processes at an early stage.
eM-Machining RealNC provides full NC (ISO) simulation by using a standard NC machine and NC
controller. By using this module, users can simulate material removal, perform full machine
kinematics simulation, verify that the NC program is collision free and check for rest material.
eM-Press enables to design, simulate and optimize stamping processes. It helps detect design
errors of die designs, parts flow and tooling movements. By simulating a complete line in detail, the
planner can optimize a press line without hardware mock up. eM-Press provides a 3D environment
for interactive design and optimization of dies and press lines. The simulation includes dies, part
flow, mechanization, grippers, suction cups and robots.
B) Assembly planning:
Assembly Process Planner is a collaborative solution for planning of manufacturing assembly
processes. The need to get more products to market faster has driven manufacturers to distribute
production over many, often geographically remote, plants and contract manufacturers. This requires
technologies and methodologies that allow manufacturers to efficiently author, simulate and manage
manufacturing information throughout their organization and with each other. The Assembly Process
Planner addresses how a product has to be manufactured and provides the link between product
design systems that address what has to be manufactured and shop-floor execution systems that
address when and where. Features of the Assembly Process Planner are product data management
(PDM) level management of manufacturing data, enabling users to track the entire lifecycle of
manufacturing information like product data, common product and manufacturing (process, resource,
plant) data management system, modelling of manufacturing processes and lines using a complete
set of interoperable tools, analysis and management of operations, resources, variants and changes,
automatic internet-based reporting and visualization of manufacturing information, integration with
engineering applications and IT systems.
eM-Planner enables planners across the enterprise to collaboratively plan and manage
manufacturing processes for entire plants, lines and single operations. eM-Planner allows to
evaluate manufacturing alternatives, coordinate resources, optimize throughput, plan for multiple
variants, implement changes and estimate costs and cycle times in the very early stages of concept
planning. Features of the eM-Planner are modeling of manufacturing processes and lines using a
complete set of interoperable tools, analysis and management of operations, resources, variants and
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changes, internet-based reporting and visualization of manufacturing information and integration with
engineering applications and IT systems.
Box Build Planning is an end-to-end solution for designing, optimizing and validating electronic
box-build NPI (new product introduction) processes and transferring them to volume manufacturing
plants. Its process-oriented environment allows OEMs, CEMs and EMS providers to collaborate on
the development of manufacturing processes and is a facilitator of outsourcing.
PCB Assembly and Test solution from is a solution for the design and optimization of PCB (printed
circuit boards) assembly and test processes. By covering the entire NPI process, from CAD import
through manufacturing recipe generation, and by supporting single platform and mixed-vendor lines,
this solution helps to improve NPI process and maximize the uptime and throughput of lines.
eM-Assembler is a tool that facilitates part assembly and disassembly planning processes. Using
original CAD data, the planner can conduct a static analysis and detect design errors early in the
design phase of the process. He can further more create optimal insertion and extraction paths and
define the best assembly and disassembly sequence of operations. eM-Assembler also enables to
examine service and maintenance procedures prior to building the first physical prototype. Features
of eM-Assembler are 3D visualization, use of original CAD data, creation of insertion and extraction
paths, static collision analysis, dynamic collision detection, complete assembly sequence definition
using Gantt charts and tree diagrams and simulation including human, robot and tool resources.
eM-Workplace PC (Robcad) enables the design, simulation, optimization, analysis and off-line
programming of multidevice robotic and automated manufacturing processes in the context of
product and production resource information. It provides a concurrent engineering platform to
optimize processes and calculate cycle times. eM-Workplace integrates a powerful set of processspecific applications for a wide range of processes, including spot-welding, arc welding, laser- and
water-jet cutting, drilling and riveting, and human operations. eM-Workplace simultaneously models
all physical characteristics of robots and other automated devices, enabling users to verify the
accessibility limits (reach target, define path, avoid collisions and calculate cycle times) while
developing a planning concept. Features of eM-Workplace are interoperability with major MCAD
systems (i.e., no data translation required), robots/machines/tools/equipment libraries, modelling of
components, modelling of complex kinematics of robots and other mechanisms, 3D layout definition
of workcells, 3D path definition with reachability check, collisions detection and optimized cycle time,
motion simulation and synchronization of several robots and mechanisms, modelling and
optimisation of the whole manufacturing process SOP (Sequence of Operations), OLP (Off-Line
Programming), optimized programs downloaded to robots on the shop floor and up-load of existing
production programs for optimisation.
eM-Spot and eM-Weld address the spot-welding design process while taking into account critical
factors such as space constriction, geometric limitations and welding cycle times. Features such as
gun search, automatic robot placement, path cycle-time optimizers, and weld point management
tools enable to create virtual cells, simulations, and programs that accurately reflect the physical cell
and robot behavior. eM-Spot and eM-Weld also enable off-line programming of robots.
C) Ressource management :
Resource Manager provides a library to manage a range of manufacturing resource data, including
data from machine tools, cutting tools and gages, to robots, welding guns and manufacturing
process templates. The software allows to define a structure under which data can be classified and
to conduct parametric search queries to retrieve the data. The Resource Manager is an application
based on and tightly integrated with the Teamcenter data management platform. This allows data to
be retrieved from the Resource Manager and used directly within Teamcenter Manufacturing and NX
CAM. In addition, the Resource Manager can be configured as a standalone library system.
D) Plant design and optimisation:
eM-Plant enables the modelling and simulating of production systems and processes. Using Plant
Simulation, the planner can optimize material flow, resource utilization and logistics for all levels of
plant planning from global production facilities, through local plants, to specific lines. eM-Plant allows
the creation of computer models of logistic systems (e.g., production) to explore system
characteristics and optimize performance. The computer model enables users to run experiments
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and what-if scenarios without disturbing an existing production system or - when used in the planning
process - long before the real system is installed. Extensive analysis tools, statistics and charts let
users evaluate different manufacturing scenarios and make fast, reliable decisions in the early
stages of production planning. eM-Plant helps planners to detect and eliminate problems that
otherwise would require cost- and time-consuming correction measures during production ramp-up,
to minimize the investment cost for production lines without jeopardizing required output and to
optimize the performance of existing production systems by implementing measures that have been
verified in a simulation environment prior to implementation.
FactoryCAD is a factory layout application. Instead of drawing lines, arcs, and circles, FactoryCAD
allows to work with objects that represent the resources used in a Factory, from floor and overhead
conveyors, mezzanines and cranes to material handling containers and operators.
FactoryFLOW is a graphical material handling system that enables engineers to optimize layouts
based on material flow distances, frequency, and costs. Factory layouts are analyzed by using part
routing information, material storage needs, material handling equipment specifications, and part
packaging (containerization) information. FactoryFLOW’s layout evaluation tools model the effect of
layout changes before undertaking the risk and expense of physically reworking inefficient layouts.
And optimized factory designs bring factories online faster, compress time to launch, and improve
production efficiency. Customer testimonials show that users have recovered their investment in
software and training in the first year, and often in the first study.
FactoryFLOW is a graphical material handling system that enables engineers to optimize layouts
based on material flow distances, frequency, and costs. Factory layouts are analyzed by using part
routing information, material storage needs, material handling equipment specifications, and part
packaging (containerization) information. FactoryFLOW uses aisle network information to find the
shortest distance between any two points to identify the closest incoming dock and storage area to a
part's point of use. Material flow studies are performed on alternate layout configurations and
automatically compared to determine which layout is better. FactoryFLOW generates Euclidean
(point-to-point) material flow diagrams, actual path flow diagrams, aisle congestion diagrams, and
quantitative reports so engineers can compare layout options and improve production efficiency.
Factory Mockup enables factory engineers and management to fly through, walk through, inspect,
and animate motion in a rendered 3D factory model. Factory Mockup also provides design
collaboration activities for these engineers so they can view, measure, and inspect for clearance in a
3D virtual factory model.
eM-Sequencer is a scheduling solution for sequencing orders and allocating orders to parallel lines.
If many different products and variants have to be produced, and sequencing of orders is restricted
by a large number of rules, eM-Sequencer assists in improving the schedule quality. It will also help
to reduce the manual effort for producing feasible schedules.
E) Human performance and ergonomics:
Jack is an ergonomics and human factors product that helps enterprises to improve the ergonomics
of product designs and workplace tasks. This software enables users to position biomechanically
accurate digital humans of various sizes, assign them tasks and analyze their performance. Jack
(and Jill) digital humans can tell engineers what they can see and reach, how comfortable they are,
when and why they're getting hurt, when they're getting tired and other important ergonomics
information. This information helps organizations design safer and more effective products faster and
for less cost. Ultimately, Jack helps companies bring factories on-line faster and optimize productivity
while improving worker safety.
eM-Human enables the design, analysis and optimization of detailed human operations. eM-Human
provides a wide range of 3D virtual human models that allow accurate simulation of manual tasks, as
well as the analysis of ergonomics and assembly time. eM-Human provides intuitive feasibility
checks of human tasks, interactive improvement of manual workplaces and evaluation of different
design variants. Product features are female and male models in different percentile sizes, advanced
kinematics and motion capabilities, retransformation of the entire body, standard postures for
standing and sitting, macros for fast task modelling and simulation, automatic following of moving
devices, posture library, reach envelopes for fast workplace configuration, time analysis, field-ofvision analysis, online visualization of results, screen captures (avi) for documentation and
presentation and generation of ergonomic reports and animated work instructions.
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eM-Work Instructions enables to generate electronic work instructions directly from eMPower
planning and engineering applications. These documents can be accessed from anywhere using a
standard Web browser. eM-Work Instructions increases productivity, efficiency and quality on the
shop floor by facilitating direct communication between engineers and shop floor personnel.
F) Product quality planning and analysis:
Tecnomatix Product Quality planning includes an analysis tool to predict the amounts and causes
of variation in manufacturing processes. This helps to reduce the negative impact of variation on
product quality, product cost and time to market. With this tool, engineers can create a 3D digital
prototype to simulate the production run, including a full representation of parts, tolerances and
process variation. The model predicts if there will be assembly build problems and identifies their
root causes - before physical parts are made or tooling is cut. Tecnomatix Product Quality also
enables to generate complex inspection programs for machines and perform quick and accurate
analysis by comparing inspected data with specified design features and tolerances. The software
uses nominal CAD geometry to generate, optimize and verify off-line inspection programs for CMMs
and NC machine tools. It helps to interpret component and assembly tolerances defined by product
design that can be used during programming for the identification of critical features and analysis of
inspection results.
G) Production management:
Xfactory is a Tracking and Production Management system. It is an open platform combined with
software applications that manage the day-to-day plant operations and the plant's integration to the
extended enterprise and its supply chain. Xfactory is designed to capture and communicate real-time
manufacturing data from the shop floor. It makes it easy to connect to a wide variety of external data
sources such as serial devices and OPC servers and associate the data with manufacturing events
in the system to automatically drive the production environment. Xfactory is designed to track all
aspects of manufacturing production - providing defect tracking, traceability, route and materials
enforcement, and providing a complete and accurate product genealogy to reduce work in progress,
to lower cost of errors, and to lower cost of compliance with government regulations. Xfactory also
makes it easy to communicate with other business systems with its PLM/ERP Connector. This
connector uses a standards based XML implementation of the ISA 95 standard to allow customers to
expand its interoperability with high-end business systems.
eM-PLC enables the off-line programming of Programmable Logic Controllers (PLCs). eM-PLC and
STEP 7 Professional allow engineers from both mechanical design and control departments to work
in parallel and share information. The software enables the automatic generation of PLC programs
directly from the virtual manufacturing cell and allows for "virtual commissioning" prior to building the
equipment on the shop floor.
H) Manufacturing data management:
Teamcenter Manufacturing is an information management engine based on Teamcenter
Engineering, with several extensions that adapt its applicability to the manufacturing environment.
Teamcenter Manufacturing serves as the foundation for UGS' Tecnomatix suite of digital
manufacturing solutions, enabling companies to quickly assess the impact of their decisions on
product, process, plant and resource requirements. Teamcenter Manufacturing extends Teamcenter
Engineering which is focused on managing product definition and related information, to manage a
wider set of data created in the manufacturing planning stage of the product lifecycle. The tools
available in Teamcenter Engineering for workflow, change management, integrated visualization
options, configuration management and integration tools are all available and directly relevant for
Teamcenter Manufacturing. Teamcenter Manufacturing is the enabling technology behind
Tecnomatix Process Planner and Resource Manager. These applications establish the relationships
and associations between product, process, plant and resource, which are the basis for the creation
of a manufacturing plan.
eBOP Manager provides quick and easy access to electronic Bills of Processes (eBOPs) and other
manufacturing information that are stored in the eMServer. The eBOP Manager makes it easy to
search, navigate and view eBOPs in real time and at different levels of detail from a bird's eye view
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and Pert chart of processes, to detailed 3D information of manufacturing facilities and products.
Incorporating real-time, dynamic streaming, eBOP Manager users can interact with and exchange
3D manufacturing information over the Web, even over low-bandwidth networks. With the latest
manufacturing information at the click of a mouse, manufacturers can make decisions and respond
to market demand with levels of confidence and efficiency.
III) Data management:
A few years ago the digital factory scientific community believed that integrated digital factory solutions, that
comprise the entire product life cycle and the factory life cycle will be build along engineering/product data
management systems (EDM systems, PDM systems). 5 years ago Metaphase and MatrixOne have been the
EDM/PDM systems with the highest market shares. EDM/PDM systems are able to store any files with
product related information like CAD drawings, documentation, instructions and so on. Further more
EDM/PDM systems allow defining user roles and access rights to data, developments processes including
design freeze states and releases.
Now it showed that the biggest EDM/PDM vendors have been acquired by those companies which are
offering digital factory solutions and well known CAD systems. Metaphase now is developed into UGS’
TeamCenter Enterprise whereas MatrixOne and the former Enovia PDM solutions belong to Dassault.
•
UGS TeamCenter Enterprise (formerly Metaphase). Available at: http://www.ugs.com/products/teamcenter/
Dassault Enovia SmarTeam: Available at: http://www.3ds.com/products-solutions/plm-solutions/enovia•
smarteam/overview/
•
•
Dassault Enovia VPLM: Available at: http://www.3ds.com/products-solutions/plm-solutions/enovia-vplm/overview/
Dassault Enovia MatrixOne: Available at: http://www.3ds.com/products-solutions/plm-solutions/enoviamatrixone/overview/
There are still a number of other EDM/PDM systems. The most important of them are product of the CAD
systems companies and thus these EDM/PDM systems are directly integrated to the respective CAD
systems like AutoDesk: Autodesk Productstream. Available at:
http://www.autodesk.de/adsk/servlet/index?siteID=403786&id=6562670
IV) Stand-Alone Simulators:
•
Incontrol’s Entreprise Dynamics, Lanner Group’s Witness and Rockwell’s Arena are plant and
material flow simulators with comparable functionality like Delmia’s QUEST and Tecnomatix’ eMPlant.
•
Human solution’s RAMSIS is a human model solution with similar functionality like Delmia Human
and Tecnomatix’ eM-Human Jack.
2.2 Virtual Reality
2.2.1 Definition of Virtual Reality
The concept of Virtual Reality (VR) represents a special way of interactive communication between human
and computer. Despite approaches and systems for Virtual Reality exist since the years sixties of the
twentieth century (Sutherland 1965; Sutherland 1968) there is still no standard definition of Virtual Reality.
Nevertheless some core declarations have been widely diffused to the scientific community.
Within a Virtual Reality environment, also called Virtual Environment, the user perceives the computer
generated information as three dimensional images, spatial sound, tactile, kinaesthetic, olfactory or gustatory
feedback. At the same time the psycho-motoric and physiological behaviour of the user is tracked and used
to manipulate the Virtual Environment (Barfield 1995a; Bauer, C. 1996). The VR display technology
addresses the user’s perception cues, the VR sensing technology tracks the user’s psycho-motoric and
physiological behaviour. An environment that uses a number of perception cues is called multimodal
environment. A VR system is further on defined as the aggregation of a computer platform (the VR
computer), data to describe a 3D scene, input and output devices that enable human computer
communication and a program environment. The input and output devices constitute interface between
human and computer and are thus called interface devices further on. The sum of an interface device and its
respective software is hereby defines as interface system.
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2.2.2 Virtual Presence and Immersion
A Virtual Environment is an interactive, multi sensory, three-dimensional computer generated environment.
Virtual presence describes the degree of presence or inclusion of a human within a Virtual Environment. In
this sense, virtual presence is further defined as the feeling to be present in a cognitive and physical way
with one’s visual, auditory or force generating display devices, that are driven by a computer system (Barfield
1995; Witmer 1998).
The goal of tracking human behaviour for virtual world manipulation is to immerse the user into a Virtual
Environment and to make himself part of the Virtual Environment. VR systems that fulfil this condition are
called immersive VR systems (Barfield 1995b). Technologically this means that the user’s operations are
tracked and interpreted in such a way, that the computer generated environment reacts exactly how a real
environment would do. An application example is the change of a view perspective due to a user movement.
Immersion is a psychological state, characterised by a feeling of immersion into an environment that
generates continuous stream of stimuli and experience (Witmer 1998). If a Virtual Environment produces a
higher degree of immersion, it provides stronger presence. Zeltzer uses the degree of presence as a means
of measurement to characterise Virtual Environments (Figure 4) (Zeltzer 1992). Besides the degree of
presence, Zeltzer uses autonomy and interaction as co-ordinate axis. In this case autonomy describes the
independence of further processes in the environment like physical models or autonomous behaviour
agents. Interaction is the accessibility to model and system parameters, thus interaction possibilities for the
user. Witmer and Singer identified the factors influencing presence and classified them into four groups
(Witmer 1998):
•
Sensory factors: Sensory modality, environmental richness, multimodal presentation, consistency
of multimodal information, degree of movement perception, active search,
•
Distraction factors: isolation, selective attention, interface awareness,
•
Control factors: degree of control, immediacy of control, anticipation of events, mode of control,
physical environment modifiability,
•
Realism factors: scene realism, information consistent with objective world, meaningfulness of
experience, separation anxiety/disorientation.
Stanney analyzed the influence of presence on the user performance in a virtual environment. He concludes
that increasing degree of presence will lead in principle to a reduced complexity of operating and navigator
efforts whereas the user performance will rise (Stanney 1998).
Figure 4: Zeltzer’s AIP cube
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2.3 Relationship between Digital Factory and Virtual Reality
2.3.1 Differentiation vs complementarity of concepts
According to the previous chapter the digital factory comprises a digital model of a production site or of a
factory and the digital tools to create this model. Quell, Reinhart, Zäh, and the VDI guideline 4499 explicitly
name 3D visualisation as one part of the digital factory (Quell 1999; Reinhart 2002b; Zäh 2003; VDI 4499).
The basis of 3D visualisation is 3D data.
An environment of virtual reality or virtual environment is according to the above chapter an interactive, multi
sensory, three-dimensional computer generated environment, in which the user feels cognitively and
physically present with visual, auditive, tactile, kinaesthetic, olfactory and gustatory senses.
The VDI guideline 4499 sees Virtual Reality as a model class of the digital factory (VDI 4499). Other
examples of model classes are accordingly architecture, the development process chain, design, simulation,
animation and ergonomics. But results of architecture and simulation may also be presented in virtual
environments. Design tasks may be performed within virtual environments. Virtual Reality can also use
animation techniques (example: key frame animation technique in VRML (ISO 14772-1)). Thus it is
problematic to see VR as an independent model class of the digital factory.
Due to the previous chapter the digital factory models comprise structures, process and resources,
especially 3D data. Additionally the tasks to be solved may have a strong spatial character (e.g. robotics,
work place design). The context of virtual reality and the digital factory is rather that the digital factory’s 3D
models can be driven by a VR system in such a manner that they formulate a spatial environment for the
user. In this context, VR represents the user interface to the program applications of the digital factory
(Figure 5 and (Koch 2000)). Virtual Reality is one method for perception and interaction with the models of
the digital factory and can be seen as an alternative means to windows-icon-menu-pointer (WIMP) systems
(Haselberger 2003; Scali 2003; Gauldie 2004) or alphanumeric. Figure 5 gives an overview.
Figure 5: Virtual Reality as a component of the Digital Factory
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2.3.2 Applications of VR within the Digital Factory
Companies worldwide are introducing new technologies into the production cycle to increase their
effectiveness and generate faster responses to market demands. Before the manufacturing process, a
designed object should be verified to make sure that all construction constraints are obeyed; a project could
be easy or a time-consuming and expensive process, depending on the complexity of the object. As an
alternative for physical prototyping and testing, more computer techniques are being incorporated for
visualising and testing the functionality of the objects. VR is recognised as the technology that can offer to
the user the ability to see and explore in a realistic manner new products or concepts before they exist in
reality. The costs involved in virtual prototyping are often essentially lower than a similar test on real
prototypes. Standard Web technologies are leading to easier, more effective and more generalized
applications (Jezernik 2003). The integration of virtual reality with manufacturing applications fits perfectly.
VR is usually defined as a computer-generated simulation of a three-dimensional environment, in which the
user is both able to view and manipulate the contents of that environment. In VR, the visuals, sounds and
sensations create an actual experience, leaving the user free to explore the environment, gather information,
and effectively solve problems. VR can be easily used to explore the feasibility of a range of tools and
techniques that support advanced manufacturing (NIST 2006). VR technology currently covers many digital
factory application fields due to its multiple application opportunities (Flaig 1995b; Dai 1998; Boud 1999;
Gillner 1999; Weyrich 1999; Beier 2000; Barfield 2001; Cunha 2001; Petzold 2000), as follows:
1.
Assembly planning
VR applications within assembly have two focuses. The first one is the assembly line/systems planning, the
second one represents the proof of mountability/assembility of geometrical prototypes. The planning of
assembly systems includes the design of entire assembly lines up to the design and evaluation of manual
assembly processes (Allen 1995; Heger 1997; Bauer 1998; Bauer 1999; Drews 1998; Reinhart 1999a; Ye
1999; Koch 2000; Krause 2000; Petzold 2000; Barfield 2001; Georg 2001; Alt 2002; Mersinger 2002;
Westkämper 2002a; Westkämper 2002b; Nikolakis 2003).
Figure 6: Virtual assembly scene
Figure 7: Analysis of geometry alternatives for
assembly
Assembly operations call for accurate manoeuvres in order to build in any new product. A trial and error
approach is often employed in the planning of manufacturing processes (Chryssolouris 2004). Manual
assembly tasks are typical cases in which human involvement is critical, due to its influencing the operation
feasibility, cycle time, working comfort and safety. However, physical prototyping and experimentation for
investigating human factors increases both the development cycle time and the cost. Thus, there has been a
strong need for integrating human factors into the design and verification of industrial processes by using
advanced simulation techniques. Assembly environments in virtual reality have gradually integrated the
outputs of research activities of many research groups into the area of virtual assembly and human –
oriented process simulation using VR. In addition, many interaction techniques are used to provide realistic
capabilities for the immersive manipulation of virtual objects within a virtual environment such as grasping,
voice commands and collision detection techniques (Figure 6, Figure 7). The environment developed in
(Gaonkar 2005) has many advantages for studying assembly operations, chief among them being the
inclusion of the whole humanoid for studying accessibility, reach and ergonomics (Figure 8). This immersive
virtual reality environment (IVE) includes visual feedback of objects to be grasped and of collision, auditory
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feedback, voice activated commands for navigating in the virtual world and capturing postures, behaviours
such as rotation of jigs when a virtual button is pressed, etc. An interactive visualization solution for complex
virtual assembly environments is developed in (Wang 2006). The solution combines a dynamic spatial
dataset of virtual assembly model and a few visibility optimization approaches. By integrating a dynamic
transformation mechanism with the spatial data set, the proposed virtual assembly model is well suited to
represent dynamically changing virtual assembly scenes. Visibility optimization approaches are developed
based on the proposed virtual assembly model.
Figure 8: The experimental setup and typical third and first person views provided by Jack
2.
Planning of manufacturing processes
For the planning of manufacturing processes ((DIN 8580) VR applications have been developed that enable
a fast and correct perception of a (intermediate) digital product. A method that is frequently used is to
compare assembly processes of alternative parameter settings (comparative visualisation).
There are VR applications for forming /casting: MAGMA 2005), shaping (Gillner 1999; Koch 2000; Huhn
2002a; Huhn 2002b; Huhn 2002c; Huhn 2002d; Huhn 2002e; Huhn 2004), separating (Tönshoff 2000;
Straube 2001; Klocke 2003b; Straube 2004), joining (Tschirner 2002; Luczak 2003; Hillers 2004) und coating
(Figure 9) (Westkämper 2004b) have to be mentioned, as well.
Additional functionality for carrying out manual welding operations is also available in virtual environment
since many innovations have been developed, by providing functionality for an immersive and interactive
process execution within a virtual environment. The simulation features of this environment enable the user
to set up, execute and validate the results of a welding process (Mavrikios 2006). The user can set-up a
welding machine and perform a welding operation with the appropriate tools (Figure 10). The simulation
environment provides interaction capabilities and supporting functions to assist the process performance or
to simplify complex process aspects. Moreover, in order to account for the need of quantitative process
performance validation, functions currently embedded only in mannequins’ technology applications have
been adapted for use within the immersive environment. A prototype mixed reality system was created to
allow a human to make a virtual gas metal arc fillet weld in the horizontal welding position (Figure 11). The
system records process parameters, which are displayed after welding for critique and instruction. This
represents a welder training approach that leverages current state-of-the-art VR technology (Porter 2005).
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Figure 9: Evaluation of coating process with
metaphors
Figure 10: Real-time seam creation
Figure 11: Head and Torch Input Sources
3.
Robotics
VR applications within robotics aim at developing and evaluating robot paths (Figure 12). This is done in
pure virtual settings and also in coupling with real robot systems. Both the observation and the steering of a
real robot are thus performed using its digital counterpart (Däinghaus 1994; Flaig 1994a; Flaig 1994b;
Neugebauer 1994a; Neugebauer 1994b; Ilar 1996; Neugebauer 1997; Schraft 1997b; Bhatia 1999; Koch
2000; Denkena 2004).
Figure 12: Implicit robot programming with VR
4.
Work place design
Virtual environments for work place design solve ergonomic and time-related questions. Work place design
issues can be requirements according posture and motion for the worker at his work place (Figure 13, Figure
14, Figure 15). Further problems concern the layout of bins or the supply infrastructure like electricity,
pressure air, light, noise (Allen 1995; Heger 1997; Bauer 1998; Bauer 1999; Deisinger 2000; Koch 2000;
Petzold 2000; Doil 2003a; Hagenmeyer 2003; Whitman 2004).
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Human behaviour in real time is simulated through. In fact, human performers can be replaced, in virtual
environments, by a computational human model, also called "virtual human" or "mannequin" that can be
used as a subject in simulated tests. Mannequins can be either programmed to perform a specific task or
can be driven by human motion data. In order to enhance the realism in the mannequin’s motion, the second
method is more suitable (Chryssolouris 2004). Software tools that are used to manually fine-tune joints of the
digital humanoid to achieve fully realistic postures are of relevant using, as well. Though several features to
facilitate the positioning process are implemented in these software tools, positioning of these humanoids
needs expertise and patience, since humanoids are complex inverse kinematics devices (Gaonkar 2005).
Virtual reality is common used for ergonomic evaluation methods. A number of ergonomic models, such as
the NIOSH lifting equation for recommended weight limit, and the GARG equations for energy expenditure,
have been adapted for use within an immersive and interactive environment (Chryssolouris 2000). For the
estimation of the necessary task variables required by the models, the position and orientation coordinates of
specific subject’s limbs are employed. Moreover, it is possible to map the interactions of an immersed human
onto a digital mannequin and carry out the ergonomic analysis of the assembly process in a desktop mode.
In this way, ergonomic analysis may be carried out with the use of standard tools of human simulation
software over a varying range of human populations. Based on the available models, the user is provided
with quantified estimations on important ergonomic measures. Traditional methods for ergonomic analysis
were based on statistical data obtained from previous studies or equations based on such studies (Jayaram
2006). In such a study (Montreuil 2000) an ergonomic group considered solutions to transform work
situations during a brainstorming session and weighing of the solutions. The standard analytical tools
included NIOSH lifting equation (Dempsey 2002), Ovaka posture analysis (Keyserling 2004) and Rapid
Upper Limb Assessment (McAtamney 2006).
Various commercial software systems are available for ergonomic studies. Hanson (2000) presents a survey
of three such tools: ANNIE-Ergoman, JACK, and RAMSIS, used for human simulation and ergonomic
evaluation of car interiors. The tools are compared and the results show that all three tools have excellent
potential in ergonomically evaluating car interiors in the early design phase. Jack (UGS 2006) is an
ergonomics and human factors product which enables users to position bio-mechanically accurate digital
humans of various sizes in virtual environments, assign them tasks, and analyze their performance.
Figure 13: Work place evaluation with VR
Figure 14: Mannequin assembly execution
Figure 15: Ergonomic simulation in desktop environment using a virtual human
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5.
Product/Process Design
VR and/or AR are playing an increasing role in developing the industrial applications, particularly in the
phases of product/process design and simulation. The main objective of the VR/AR environment supporting
these phases is to create a support tool for the whole design team (designers, technicians, marketing
people, decision makers and sample of consumers). The VR/AR allows to configure a new product (using
drawings coming from designers) and to simulate its behaviour thanks to the integration with the control-logic
of the product.
In the future mass customised manufacturing, VR/AR based product design will lead to better efficiency,
optimised ergonomics and higher satisfying quality. Sacco et al. (2001) examined some issues involved in
producing custom footwear on a mass-market basis. The VRShoe system (Figure 16) was developed to
provide designers with an interactive and immersive environment to draw or create or modify naturally the
shoe style line on a shoe model that was created before in the CAD system. The designer imports the shoe
last model and eventually, the style lines from the CAD or from the DB and can have a 3D immersive view of
the footwear. He/she can fly-through and move around the shoe model. The 3D stereoscopic effect is
implemented using stereoscopic glasses and a stereo projector, while the interaction device is a sensorised
pen and a sensorised last. In a second step VRShoe allows the designer to draw (create) or to modify,
directly on the shoe model, the style lines previously created in a commercial CAD. The new shoes, once
created and verified in the VRE, are sent back to the CAD where the 3D model is flattened to obtain the shell
and to step into the engineering phase of shoe design. The system permits to the designer to save time
reducing the number of action that he/she should do for acquiring new design components and adjust them
using CAD, and with time, the designer avoid waist of materials (great help for environment safeguard),
because the changes are virtual and not real. VRShoe can be also useful in a creative design moment
making also the consumer participating in a natural and user friendly way (Sacco et al. 2005; Mottura et al.
2003; Liao et al. 2005).
For product aesthetical design and usability validation, VRWashMachine (Figure 17) and ARBike (Figure 18)
are two examples. VRWashMachine is used to allow, in a virtual mode, to configure and validate new
washing machine. With simple operations the product layout’s editing and validation process can be
performed. The system allows the user to define the price category and the brand for each components
involved in the assembly of the prototype constrained by the usual design process rules. The system is
utilized both for the marketing team meetings as well for the designer team meetings: in this way, a
configuration session can be considered where a user (Active User, AU) interacts with the VE, and the other
users (Passive User, PU) can participate by viewing what’s happening in VR and they can directly interact
with the AU. So, a circular relationship is established between AU and PU where the AU is, according with
the cases, the main actor of the virtual experience because the himself performs the layout configuration,
and also he’s the “functional tool” of the PU meeting because the can follow the considerations and the
advices made in real-time in the VR environment. Besides it has been developed the integration of the
control of the product and information about sounds and vibrations coming from the specific labs. In such a
way a complete virtual product is available for aesthetical and usability validation. The same procedure is
under development for motorcycles. This time instead of using VR technology the Augmented one is used
with the effect to have a real mock-up of the product to which virtual parts are added. The purpose is not just
the aesthetical and functional validation of the product itself but also the training of the designer, actually not
used to evaluate virtual product. The mixed environment will help them to compare the real with the digital
they should learn (Sacco 2005; Mottura et al. 2003).
To shorten the time to market impacts heavily on the frequency of reconfiguring the manufacturing system.
Anytime a product is changed or modified in its essential component or new feature are added the
production process should be modified. The factory layout have to be reconfigured. The modular digital
factory aims to improve standardisation, specialisation, flexibility and adaptability (Sacco 2005). VRFactory
(Figure 19) is a system that allows model and simulate a factory in a virtual reality environment where both
the layout design and the production process are taken into account. The modular digital factory design is to
import module-oriented paradigm to design and create digital factory. To implement modular factory design,
the object-oriented modelling is adopted. The factory resources are standardised and modelled as objects
and have defined interfaces and properties. The properties of manufacturing resources can be made
available to sublevel classes via the principle of object inheritances. A central object oriented database,
Standard Facility Library (SFL) is created that stores all the standardised resource modules and reference
architectures (Sacco 2005; Liao et al. 2005).
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Figure 16: VRShoe - Shoe style design
Figure 17: VRWashMachine - Aesthetical
validation
Figure 18: ARBike - Usability Validation
Figure 19: VRFactory – Plant Design and
Simulation
The significant advantage of virtual reality for digital factory design is to increase planning speed and
reduction of cost. It provides a friendly 3D interface for factory building or shop floor design under virtual
reality environment. User will select the desired resource objects from the SFL, which have been stored
previously, and will put them on the virtual factory floor, connecting outputs to inputs and verifying the
hypothetical layout against the existing spatial constraints. In the case of factory building design (Figure 22),
the main purpose of the virtual reality interface is that of allowing the user to navigate in the building and
obtain an immediate and realistic feedback of design choices and change accordingly. In the case of a shop
floor design (Figure 21), the layout of production resources will be arranged well with consideration of factory
environmental constraints (Liao et al. 2004).
The virtual reality environment makes user available to freely navigate and assembly these module objects
in immersive environment, as shown in Figure 20. User can design factory building and evaluate
environmental impacts on the factory itself, create shop floor area and design layouts of the production
modules. The discrete event simulation tool allows for replaying the production process of the designed
digital factory. All the factory resources can be emulated with an intuitive and powerful visualisation effect on
three-dimensional (3D) VR interface. The design results can thus be verified and optimised.
Correspondingly, the resource and energy consuming can be reduced. The reference architecture applies
the standardised modules to construct template-like digital factory model that includes layouts as well as
related production process information and so on. It could be realised from different levels (of factory, sector,
line, or workstation) (Sacco et al. 2004).
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Figure 20: VR based modular factory design
Figure 21: VR based shop floor design
Figure 22: VR based factory building design
6.
Control Engineering
By using in control engineering activities the VR methodologies and tools, the users can evaluate the
combination of control logic, sensors and actuators. System architectures in use differ widely in terms of how
they integrate real world control system components like program logic and hardware parts. Simple VR
applications only indicate even the program logic; others integrate control simulators or allow connecting
hardware controls to the VR world (Figure 23) (Däinghaus 1995a; Flaig 1998g; Osmers 1998; Spath 2000;
Tönshoff 2000).
Figure 23: Scheme of hardware-in-the-loop
7.
Planning of material flow systems
Virtual environments can be used to design the layout and control of conveyors, stocks and workstations
supplied (Figure 24). For this reason geometrical and functional models of conveyor systems are brought
into service, even with aspects of control engineering (Schraft 1997a; Flaig 1998h; Barfield 2001; Bergbauer
2002; Bracht 2003b; Gausemeier 2004; Dangelmaier 2005b).
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Figure 24: Design of material flow systems
8.
Logistics
VR applications in logistics provide a basis for an analysis of logistics systems by their respective articles.
Analysers take a look onto article movements related to the factory layout as well as representations of
articles in spatial reference systems with axis made out of logistics quantities (like order frequency, order
value, regularity (Figure 25) (Flaig 1996b; Schraft 1997a; Flaig 1998b; Flaig 1998h; Dangelmaier 2005a;
Mueck 2005).
Figure 25: Spatial representation of logistic goods
9.
Safety engineering and worker protection
Work safety systems are designed and evaluated with VR methods. Some demonstrations even included a
worker model (Figure 26) (Däinghaus 1995b; Flaig 1996c; Flaig 1998e; Flaig 1998f; Flaig 1998k; EVICS
2003).
Figure 26: Design of a safe work cell
10. Training
VR for training can be used to present work processes, to advise a user to perform scenarios in a virtual
environment or to log user interactions during a training scenario. Situations may be simulated that stand for
a risk in terms of safety or costs (Breining 1997; Flaig 1998d; Flaig 1998e; Fahlbusch 2000; Fernandes
2003; Brüseke 2004; Fisser 2004; Wasfy 2005) (Figure 27).
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Very often VR techniques are used to train workers and other personnel before the real process takes place.
Hands-on practice under real conditions, besides being expensive, can – in some cases – become
dangerous both for the trainee and the system’s resources. Virtual reality technology has emerged as a
simulation technology with a great potential of supporting design and training activities by integrating humans
into the simulated environment (Mavrikios 2006). A very latest use of VR in training is the one presented in
(Ronkko 2006) where an astronaut training is being accomplished on Earth. Zero gravity conditions are
simulated to help to execute accurately tasks in outer space. Often haptic virtual reality has difficulty in
presenting appropriate morphological engagement to its users, but this need not be a problem. For example,
Moody in (Moody 2003) demonstrated that the use of haptic feedback in a virtual training simulator could be
used to train suturing skills when people were given a pairs of needle holders to grasp in order to manipulate
the virtual model. Additionally in (Fernandes 2003) a fully immersive VR visualization suite, called
“Cybersphere”, can be used in conjunction with a collaborative product suite to achieve an ideal training
environment for manufacturing industries. An intelligent virtual environment is described in (Wasfy 2004) for
training users in the operation of complex engineering systems. The environment combines an intelligent
agent facility, for tutoring, guiding and/or supervising the training; an object-oriented virtual environment
engine, for displaying the engineering system; and a simulator, for simulating the system controls. The
intelligent agent facility includes: (a) a hierarchical process knowledge base, (b) a rule-based expert system
for natural language understanding, and (c) a human-like virtual characters engine. Three types of objects
are used for representing the process knowledge, namely, processes, steps, and constraints.
Figure 27: Training on an industrial control
11. Resource planning
VR is used in resource planning activities to display 3D data related to the parts list, which is itself stored in
the resource planning system. For this purpose, the VR systems have been integrated with enterprise
resource planning (ERP) systems (Appl 2001). Breining describes an approach to model and to manage
business processes by the help of VR. Discussions about VR use in human resource planning concern the
role that VR may play for the distribution of qualifications in an enterprise (Duffy 2000).
12. Maintenance and repair
VR applications in maintenance and repair support these processes by including state diagnosis and
education applications to perform maintenance/repair processes. New developments also allow assistance
functions in real procedures in maintenance/repair (Flaig 1995a; Flaig 1998d; Flaig 1998e; Barfield 2001;
Stadtler 2002; Schwald 2003; Brecher 2004).
There are some special tasks that require very careful handling and many times it’s very critical how to
approach the mechanism that is to be maintained. In such operations very often human operators are
involved, along with all the difficulties in modelling and simulating their behaviour, due to the flexibility that a
human brings with it. Virtual Reality with its immersion and interaction capabilities offers an advanced tool
that needs to be properly exploited for the design of manufacturing, assembly and disassembly techniques,
to include the human behaviour, and the human dimensions, which up to now, have been difficult to be
incorporated (Chryssolouris 2000; Lu 1999). The development of a virtual environment for constraint based
assembly and maintenance task simulation and analysis of large-scale mechanical products has to be
mentioned, as well. The maintenance environment allows the user to select a component within the
environment. The computer then calculates all geometrically feasible disassembly sequences and allows the
self-animation or user-performed of the sequences (Figure 29, Figure 30, Figure 31).
One of the latest uses of virtual reality in maintenance process is the maintenance of the Joint European
torus (JET) (Figure 32), the world's largest nuclear fusion research facility investigating the use of nuclear
fusion. The JET machine undergoes an on-going program of upgrades and modifications facilitating a broad
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scientific program of experimentation and the maintenance are carried out remotely using telemanipulators
mounted on a robotic Boom, employing a ‘man in the loop’ approach. The system relies on the use of real
time 3D computer graphic models in a virtual reality environment for preparation and support of remotehandling operations with colour emphasis to highlight materials, components and systems requiring special
care (Sanders 2006).
Figure 28: Maintenance scene
Figure 29: The simplified process plant case
study
Figure 30: The process plant within the
maintenance environment
Figure 31: Mockup 2000i2 JET simulation
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13.
Machine design and project planning
VR applications support the definition and evaluation of a machine (Figure 32) (Grefen 1997; Ebbesmeyer
1999; Gausemeier 2000; Bracht 2001b; Bracht 2002; Doil 2003b; Nett 2002; Fischer 2003; Daniel 2005).
Figure 32: Line configuration in 3D
14. Documentation
VR worlds can serve as a platform to store knowledge about processes and planning steps (Figure 33).
Modelling can be done by an authoring tool or implicitly by logging the user interaction of a carrier of
knowledge. The knowledge is passed to a new user by experiencing the virtual environment (Flaig 1998d;
Cunha 2001; Eversheim 2002; Hillers 2004).
Figure 33: 3D model with additional documentation content
15. Factory life cycle management
With the ability of 3D worlds to store knowledge, to work in co-operation and to integrate results of many
factory planning steps (Figure 34), they become challenging for the factory life cycle management (Flaig
1998b; Flaig 1998c; Westkämper 1999; Gausemeier 2000; Cunha 2001; Joosten 2001; Kiel 2001; Runde
2001; Eversheim 2002; Gausemeier 2002; Neugebauer 2004), as well . The VR applications are very
intensively used in all phases of factory life cycle. .
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Figure 34: „Data for Life principle“ for VR data according to Flaig (1998b)
16. Factory planning
VR factory planning applications support the design and evaluation of building and facilities development,
construction, layout, operation and dismantle (Figure 35). Further on developments were made to integrate
and adjust singular planning sections within factory building structures. This latter approach thus requires
access to results of all the different planning topics mentioned above. Some topics were explicitly named:
assembly, manufacturing processes, material flow systems, logistics, robotics, and work places, control
engineering, safety engineering (Flaig 1997; Grefen 1997; Flaig 1998b; Gausemeier 2000; Westkämper
2000; Barfield 2001; Fahlbusch 2001; Bracht 2001a; Bracht 2002; Wiendahl 2002; Bracht 2003a; Doil 2003a;
Doil 2003b; Harms 2003; Reinhart 2003).
Figure 35: View onto entire factory in 3D
17. In-process support
Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality are used to provide computer-generated additional information during
real-world work procedures,. Technological solutions are made out of semi-transparent see-through devices
(head mounted displays) or non transparent video-see-through devices (hand held displays or head mounted
displays). Assistance and surveillance tasks both for the real production itself and for its planning are
mentioned in literature (Figure 36) (Flaig 1995a; Flaig 1998d; Stadtler 2002; Doil 2003a; Doil 2003b; Luczak
2003; Schwald 2003; Brecher 2004; Dangelmaier 2005a; Mueck 2005).
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Figure 36: Augmented reality scene for assembly support
18. Tele applications
Physical, real environments can be perceived and controlled over distance using the virtual counterpart
within a virtual environment. Existing developments comprise visual and haptic tele presence (Figure 37)
(Classen 1998; Flaig 1998i; Bhatia 1999; Mersinger 2001; Petzold 2000).
Figure 37: Haptic tele presence
19.
Co-operative VR-applications
Co-operative and collaborative VR uses the common space of perception and interaction to support
collaboration. Technical and methodological approaches include co-located and distributed cooperation for
concurrent engineering and simultaneous engineering (McLean 1997; Bergbauer 1998; Reinhart 1999a;
Singhal 1999; Automobilentwicklung 2000b; Koch 2000; Sihn 2000; Westkämper 2000; Billinghurst 2001;
Harms 2003; Runde 2004; Runde 2005) (Figure 38).
Figure 38: Screenshot of a scene with 3 avatars representing dislocated users
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20. Sales support
The use of VR in sales applications aims at sharing the product definition process between the vendor and
the customer. The common design process and the kind of product presentation lead to better product
understanding and increased identification with the product: the sales opportunities rise (Figure 39) (Bauer
1998; Flaig 1998i; Daniel 2005).
Figure 39: 3D presentation of control with sales information
All 19 mentioned digital factory VR applications cannot be regarded in an isolated of even separate way.
They complement each other. This becomes clear already by classifying them into specific tasks of the
digital factory, spanning tasks and work techniques. Also the work techniques may be combined (Billinghurst
2001).
2.4 Collaboration
2.4.1 Definition of collaboration
There are many definitions that can be assigned to the term of collaboration. As its Latin roots suggest,
collaboration reduced to its simplest definition means "to work together." The search for a more
comprehensive definition leads to a myriad of possibilities each having something to offer and none being
entirely satisfactory on its own. The most robust definition and the most commonly cited, seems to be found
in Barbara Gray's “Collaborating: Finding Common Ground for Multiparty Problems”. She describes
collaboration as "a process through which parties who see different aspects of a problem can constructively
explore their differences and search for solutions that go beyond their own limited vision of what is possible".
She also defines collaboration, as "a process of joint decision making among key stakeholders of a problem
domain about the future of that domain".
Below are some more commonly used definitions of collaboration:
“The interaction among two or more individuals that can encompass a variety of actions, such as
communication, information sharing, coordination, cooperation, problem solving, and negotiation”
“Collaboration is broadly defined as the interaction among two or more individuals and can encompass a
variety of behaviors, including communication, information sharing, coordination, cooperation, problem
solving, and negotiation".
“Collaboration is a mutually beneficial relationship between two or more parties who work toward
common goals by sharing responsibility, authority, and accountability for achieving results”.
ICT collaboration models, methodologies and tools have widened the scope of traditional collaboration.
Today, collaboration includes virtual workgroups that bring people together virtually via telephone,
specialized computer software, email or videoconference, essentially reducing distance and enhancing the
experience of physical interaction. Storage technologies together with relational databases and file systems
have created a new context to the meaning of collaboration - that of sharing or reuse.
Dispersed departments use collaboration technologies to share a presentation or a document. With the use
of versioning, they are able to simultaneously work on the same draft versions without duplicating efforts and
at the same time utilizing resources that can even be globally interspersed. Thus, technologies give
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collaboration a new meaning by reducing time and space barriers to bring people together delivering
additional value to businesses.
Therefore, a more appropriate definition of collaboration from ICT perspective would be:
“Real-time IT collaboration is a media that uses the Internet and presence technology to communicate
with co-workers as if they were in the same room, even if they are located on the other side of the world.
Real-time collaboration involves several kinds of synchronous communication tools such as:
•
Instant messaging,
•
Group chat,
•
Buddy list and other presence awareness technology,
•
Whiteboard collaboration,
•
Application sharing,
•
Desktop sharing,
•
Co-browsing,
•
Voice over IP,
• Video and audio conferencing tools.
Therefore, real collaboration technologies deliver the functionality for many participants to augment a
common deliverable. Record or document management, threaded discussions, audit history, and other
mechanisms designed to capture the efforts of many into a managed content environment are typical of
collaboration technologies”.
2.4.2 Challenges in collaboration
When designing collaborative applications, there is a big difference if the targeted user group is the private
consumer market or a company employee. The prominent collaboration tools from the consumer market like
instant messenger, chat, discussion forums, and subscriptions on web pages are all focusing on entertaining
communication and knowledge exchange of a loose association of people, or a group of buddies that share
some common interest but have no well defined goal of achieving something. The computer is used more as
a communication device and a virtual community place in which opinions are exchanged (SAP 2006). Very
useful would prove to be collaboration techniques that include whiteboard tools, allowing multiple users to
view a shared screen over the internet, and mark or draw on that screen with near instantaneous viewing by
everyone sharing the whiteboard (Prosca 2006; Gartenberg 2006). Most whiteboards provide temporary
viewing of markings. However, there are automated whiteboards that have side-mounted scanners, allowing
the markings to be saved electronically for printing or viewing on a computer. Interactive whiteboards such
as an InterWrite, PolyVision Walk-and-Talk, Promethean ACTIVboard, or SMART Board allow the user to
project a computer display onto a whiteboard using a projector. The user can then control the application and
draw mark-ups by writing directly on the whiteboard screen. Internet-based whiteboard software such as
Microsoft NetMeeting, Groupboard, or E-Chalk allows people to draw together on a virtual whiteboard over
the Internet without needing any special hardware. Each user connects to the whiteboard and they can see
what other users are drawing in real-time on their computer screen. Whiteboards are useful to illustrate ideas
and showing pictures for audience quickly and conveniently. In a collaborative session, all attendees can be
given permission to use the whiteboard to capture ideas (Gartner 2003).
Another challenge is the provision of an advanced web-based file sharing functionality that would enable
teams to organize and share large files and documents efficiently and quickly. This web-based
functionality/application does not require any special software on the user’s PC other than a standard
Internet browser. Team members are able to upload and download files from any location, allowing teams
that are not located in the same physical location to share and organize their information in a central place
that is still accessible to everyone on the team.
Nowadays, a very popular and efficient tool used is wiki. This is a type of website that allows users easily to
add, remove, or otherwise edit and change most available content, sometimes without the need for
registration. This ease of interaction and operation makes a wiki an effective tool for collaborative writing
(Wikipedia 2006).
Furthermore, bulletin boards (applications that allow a threaded discussion on a topic) allow the posting of
information for groups to easily access by category of type. Group members should be able to reply to the
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posting, and the system should automatically post their reply on-line and send email to all group members.
These applications are considered very effective for managing discussions on topics within a team.
Moreover, internet/shared presentations, is another useful functionality that allows a single presenter to
broadcast to hundreds or thousands of meeting distributed participants. The broadcasts can include voice
and graphics. Depending on the shared application, participants may need special software(s) to be preinstalled in their PC above a standard browser (Prosci 2006).
Additionally, with a document collaboration software would be able to eliminate the multiple versions of a
document that is being revised and rewritten many times. Such software allows a group of individuals to
collaborate on writing and development of a single document. In some applications, the document is viewed
in a text browser, and allows simultaneous editing by all users, with real time updates to all user screens.
Project teams can use this type of application for creating design documents, project plans, issue tracking,
and for documenting meeting notes in real time (Talk 2006). More specifically, this component in
collaboration is the joint development of, for instance, a document. Traditionally email has been the preferred
tool of use to distribute drafts for comments, but web-conferencing tools have made it possible for multiple
persons to work on the same document – at the same time – even though they are not co-located (Wu
2004).
Additionally, training is an issue that all companies around the world consider to be of major attention.
Distance learning supports the delivery of training and educational courses over the web and is considered
of major challenge in collaboration. Workers can participate in live presentations, access course material,
course calendars, view courses on their own schedule, take tests and conduct the other administrative
activities necessary for running multiple courses (Prosci 2006).
Telecommuting, telework, or working from home (WFH) is a work arrangement in which employees enjoy
limited flexibility in working location and hours. In other words, the daily commute to a central place of work is
replaced by telecommunication links. A frequently repeated motto is that "work is something you do, not
something you travel to" (Leonhard 1995). A successful telecommuting programme requires a management
style, which is based on results and not on close scrutiny of individual employees. This is referred to as
“managing by objective” as opposed to “managing by observation”. A more recent extension of
telecommuting is distributed work. Distributed work entails the conduct of organizational tasks in places that
extends beyond the confines of traditional offices. It can refer to organizational arrangements that permit or
require workers to perform work more effectively at any appropriate locations, such as their homes and
customers' sites - through the application of information and communication technology. An example is
financial planners who meet clients during lunchtime with access to various financial planning tools and
offerings on their mobile computers, or publishing executives who recommend and place orders for the latest
book offerings to libraries and university professors, among others. These work arrangements are likely to
become more popular with current trends towards greater customization of services and virtual organizing
(Wikipedia 2006).
One of the key trends is the bundling of technologies into packages. Gartner has coined the term Smart
Enterprise Suites (SES) for an integrated set of tools that unite a number of related technologies. They
define the features of an SES as including Content Management, Collaboration and Community Support,
Information Retrieval and Process Management. This is all delivered within a portal framework (Kjaer 2004).
Last but not least, chat and instant messaging allow real-time interaction including text chat and voice over
IP. These functionalities are considered very effective and useful for collaborative users or groups and aside
from these are provided to the internet users without any additional cost. Based on these functionalities,
multiple members can simultaneously participate in both chat and voice conference sessions (Gartenberg
2006). Chat systems permit many people to write messages in real-time in a public space. As each person
submits a message, it appears at the bottom of a scrolling screen. Chat groups are usually created by
allocating chat rooms through name, location, number of people, topic of discussion, etc. Access to rooms
can be grant through controlled access or with moderators. While chat-like systems are possible using nontext media, the text version of chat has the rather interesting aspect of having a direct transcript of the
conversation, which not only has long-term value, but allows for backward reference during conversation
making it easier for people to drop into a conversation and still pick up on the ongoing discussion (Gartner
2003).
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2.4.3 Benefits of collaboration
What industries expect from collaboration is to better manage time, cost, workforce and supplies in order to
increase the flexibility, productivity and product quality of the company. More specifically, managing time
better has as a result to allocate the appropriate time for every need of the company. Moreover, if workforce
is well trained and prepared for certain tasks, then the tasks are performed easier without troubles and
inefficiencies. From the company perspective, the expertise of employees and the effectiveness of their
collaboration are considered a human and social asset that increases agility and responsiveness to new
business goals. This requires general knowledge management solutions as well as the establishment of an
environment that helps people to successfully work together (SAP 2006). Collaboration technologies are
imperative in modern companies for developing ideas, creation of a design, achievement of a shared goal.
Such technologies deliver the functionality for many participants to augment a common deliverable. Record
or document management, threaded discussions, audit history, and other mechanisms designed to capture
the efforts of many into a managed content environment are typical of collaboration technologies. Although,
Virtual Reality (VR) is heading more and more in the direction of creating lifelike environments and
stimulating all of the users’ senses, the technology does not yet allow communication and interaction as it is
in the real world. A more abstract representation is sufficient in most CVEs. CVEs have emerged in various
forms in the recent years. Interaction and communication in these environments are realised in many
different ways. The users can send text messages, use audio and video communication; they can change
attributes of the simulation, can share data and might even be able to collaboratively manipulate this data
(Anthes 2005). What actually triggers collaboration and how it is done varies from person to person
depending on factors such as mutual trust, timing and distance. However, a series of components (e.g. how
to find a person, how to schedule a meeting) make up the collaboration process. Identifying these
components helps gather collaboration requirements. The next step is to assess the organization’s ability
and willingness to collaborate (Wu 2004).
Finally, today’s collaboration trends move towards activity-centric computing. The concept of activity-centric
computing focuses on enabling users to organize, navigate, manage and share information, such as e-mail
messages, calendar entries, instant messages and documents, around a particular activity or project.
Through the activity-centric model, information is grouped and processed in the same way that the human
brain arranges information -- according to the unique thought behind a project, and with all the related
associations of information kept intact. By organizing collaboration in a similar way to how people organize
their work and interact together, activity-centric computing means that enterprise collaboration solutions will
fit more naturally with how people actually work, resulting in greater personal and organizational productivity
(Gartenberg 2006).
2.4.4 Existing approaches
Today’s global business environment in manufacturing industry is characterized by unprecedented
competitive pressures and sophisticated customers, who demand innovative and speedy solutions.
Understanding and optimizing design processes is a cornerstone of success in these fast-changing
environments. A short time to market and maintaining a high quality level of a product have become the main
success factors (Pappas 2006). Here the development of a web-based platform for collaborative process
and product design evaluation is described. The Distributed Collaborative Design Evaluation (DiCoDEv)
platform provides real-time collaboration of multiple users at different sites on the same project. The
innovation concept of this platform lies in the use of Virtual Reality (VR) technology for the development of
the working display environment that provides also navigation, immersion and interaction capabilities for all
collaborative users in real time (Figure 40).
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Figure 40: DiCODEv platform
The main scope is to provide an efficient robust collaboration tool for the real time validation of a
manufacturing product or process, from the early stages of the conceptual design until the latest stages of
the production chain. A web-enabled PDM system, which facilitates various collaborative design activities
(Xu 2003) has been developed providing also 3D visualization capabilities (Figure 41). Another tool for
dynamic data sharing in collaborative design has been developed (Noel 2003), ensuring that experts may
use it as a common space to define and share design entities.
Figure 41: The ‘‘Showcase’’ view of the 3-D Car prototype with ‘‘Walk’’
A web-based collaborative product design platform for dispersed network manufacturing (Figure 42) has
been proposed (Zhan 2003). This platform enables authorized users in geographically different locations to
have access to the company’s product data, such as product drawing files stored at designated servers and
to carry out product design work simultaneously and collaboratively on any operating systems. Furthermore,
in (Park 2006), a knowledge-based approximate life cycle assessment system (KALCAS) is developed to
assess the environmental impacts of product design alternatives. It aims at improving the environmental
efficiency of a product using artificial neural networks, which consist of high-level product attributes and LCA
results. The overall framework of a collaborative design environment involving KALCAS is proposed, using
engineering solution CO™ based on the distributed object-based modeling and evaluation (DOME) system.
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Figure 42: Collaborative design of a fixture with the web-based CPD Platform
This framework allows users to access the product data and other related information on a wide variety of
application. Here is explored an approximate LCA of product design alternatives represented by solid models
in a collaborative design environment. Many authors have researched cooperative object manipulation.
Good examples are given in (Pinho 2002) where different attributes of single objects can be changed
simultaneously. In (Dong 2005), the concurrent object manipulation in a three dimensional environment is
described as the highest level of collaboration. All these scenarios incorporate complex communication and
interaction, but none of them provides abstract tools in form visualization of collaborative activities. Finally,
two applications of collaborative design and manufacturing environments were presented in 2005, the first
one is a collaborative assembly sequence planning system by Dong et al. (2005) and the second is a
collaborative virtual prototyping system for mechatronics prototype design by Shen et al (Wu 2004). In (Dong
2005), The author presents an approach of collaborative assembly sequence planning to validate the
“assemblability” of parts and subassemblies rapidly. In order to increase the planning efficiency and support
the collaborative planning, role-based model is exploited to compress or simplify the product. This research
shows that the typical or standard CSBAT (Connection Semantics Based Assembly Tree) can be applied to
a given assembly problem and presents the structure of the Co-ASP (Collaborative Assembly Sequence
Planning System).
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3 COLLABORATIVE WORKING ENVIRONMENTS (CWE)
The chapter “Collaborative Working Environment (CWE)”, by defining the enabling CWE as enabling the
collaboration between models, methodologies, tools, application systems and mainly the humans involved in
performing the collaborative activities in a manufacturing environment, respectively in a factory, represents
the one of the foundation towards the implementation of the Collaborative Manufacturing Environments. The
scientific objective represents the investigation of the state-of-the-art of CWE from several perspectives,
used technologies and demonstration capabilities, according the following aspects:
•
Analysis of the current CWE approaches, technologies and applications, are briefly introduced and
then evaluated according several methods and criteria;
•
Collection of research directions, topics and projects in the field of CWE (Appendix B and C);
•
Survey of CWE scenarios and demonstration systems as well as various applications (Appendix D).
3.1 CWE Challenges, approaches and technologies
Knowledgeable, productive and flexible employees, who contribute significantly to firm competitiveness
through innovation, characterize new working environments. Such employees are supported by ICTs in order
to improve their mobility, networking and interaction. New working environments will have a direct impact on
European competitiveness through:
•
strong level of industrial interests,
•
economical growth through innovation, and creativity and productivity of knowledge work and
creating innovative environments,
•
better quality jobs in teams and groups,
•
work and life balance,
• empowering citizens in the knowledge society.
Within the new working environments, the Collaborative Working Environment (CWE) will enable
seamless and natural collaboration amongst a diversity of agents (humans, machines, etc) within distributed,
knowledge, rich and virtualized working environments. Professional virtual communities and nomadic
personal access to knowledge are to be supported. CWE will provide collaboration services to make possible
the development of worker-centric, flexible, scalable and adaptable tools and applications. Thereby, CWE is
able to meet demand-driven research in real world settings, support multidisciplinary, connected work
environments for knowledge intense work and create possibilities for work communities and atypical work
relations to capture the full participation of all Europeans.
From the technical point of view, CWE concerns about the following aspects on the horizontal and vertical
levels:
•
the horizontal perspectives: Living labs, Technology platform, Open collaborative architecture,
Impact/socio-economic aspects, Communications,
•
the vertical perspectives: Interaction patterns, Mobility, Ad-Hoc P2P, Augmented group, Persistence
and Synchronization, Prototyping and Simulation, Context reasoning, Group decision-making,
Experience research.
The EU research community, Collaborative@Work, elaborated the main approaches and technologies
applied in developing the collaborative platform. Collaboration@Work is collaboration among individuals
engaged in a common task to achieve a shared objective using collaboration technologies. This concept was
introduced in the Collaboration@Work report 2004. At that time the focus was on collaboration services
providing functionalities at middleware level which could be reusable at the application-level. FP6 call 5
includes the Strategic Objective (SO) 2.5.9 ‘Collaborative working environments’ which aims at achieving this
common repository of collaboration services to be invoked by collaboration tools and integrated into large
validating applicators. Work to be carried out within this SO will contribute to the use of collaborative
technologies with a mediating role among distributed workers and as a glue to bring together diverse
technologies (such as mixed-reality, visualization, interfaces technologies) to support collaboration among
people and by interaction with other artifacts (robots, actuators, sensors).
The collaborative working environments address flexibility, mobility and ad hoc communication requirements.
This raises new demands on flexible collaboration support for intra- and inter-organizational communication
and co-operation processes. More advanced systems that support distributed task management, shared
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workspaces or workflows are still in their early adaptor phase compared to the use of email. This leads to the
effect that complex and rich co-operation processes are narrowed through simple communication
applications resulting in a cognitive overload of its users. Although the tools should support users in
organizing their work, people often complain about information and communication overload and the
disturbance of work. Therefore research is needed to develop concepts for a semantic-rich cooperation
support that reduces the complexity of monitoring and organizing the collaboration with different partners in
multiple projects and processes.
Due to the increase in inter-organizational co-operation, users form teams and communities across
organizational boundaries. This raises the issue of standardization and integration. Currently email is almost
the only communication media that supports inter-organizational co-operation between different systems.
Instant messaging, or shared workspace systems have not yet reached a status were systems of different
vendors can easily be integrated or combined. Thus often the first decision an inter-organizational team or
community has to make is the selection of the supporting collaboration environment. Since users are often
involved in different teams they have to learn and use different collaboration applications for different teams
and processes. Again this increases complexity and reduces the availability of time for creativity.
Therefore, the CWE approaches should address human-centric usability, collaborative platforms/upper
middleware, technology platforms and communities as the best way to integrate research, development,
demonstration, take-up, policy and legislation development.
In general, the CWE technologies are categorized by: 1) Mobile collaboration; 2) Computing; 3) Knowledge;
4) Virtualization; 5) Robotics. The CWE technologies strengthen the use of ICT for creativity and
collaboration. ICT for CWE plus new concepts and methods supports the collaboration through seamless
interaction in complex virtualized world. Knowledge organizations (human brains, procedures, business
processes) serve the collaboration together with the ICT. Both will result in: effectiveness in doing tasks
anytime, anywhere and with anyone; efficient allocation of resources; creation of new ideas, new products
and services; productivity, growth and competitiveness.
The next chapters will mainly investigate in detail the related approaches and technologies for 1) Mobile and
collaborative workspace, 2) Collaborative virtual environment; and 3) Collaborative support.
3.1.1 Mobile and collaborative workspace
The overall research strategies and approaches for mobile and collaborative workspace (Mosaic 2006),
towards such a collaboration environment are illustrated in the following diagram (Figure 43).
Figure 43: Research strategies and approaches for mobile and collaborative workspace
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The basis for such a co-operation environment represents the already existing and new developed cooperation services. Among the new services presence and awareness services will play an important role.
These services are needed for distributed cooperation to support users in their mutual understanding of the
status and progress of work as well as the work rhythms of other organizations. On top of these services an
integration layer enables the integration of different services. It further supports the interoperability of similar
services, e.g. two shared workspace systems, from different vendors, as well as the interoperation between
different architecture paradigms such as P2P or client-server. An important prerequisite for the realization of
such a layer is the development of interoperability standards. Within this environment users can organize
their resources according to their processes, activities, teams and communities. I.e. the documents and
messages exchanged within a project will no longer be scattered over the attachments of emails in email
folders, the local disk and a shared file system or a shared workspace. Based on a semantic integration of
the co-operation activities as well as the services, users can organize the environment according to their
project, team or community contexts. Within such a collaboration context the co-operation services are
offered through activity-functions such as share, inform, notify, send, but not as applications like an email
client, or a shared files browser.
This approach is disruptive and it requires users to adopt a new collaboration paradigm that is not based on
an application but on collaboration-activity and task-oriented thinking. This also requires that the objects
users deal with become collaboration-aware. This relates to electronic documents that become aware of the
co-operation processes they are involved in, but also to paper documents or other resources that will be
augmented with electronic tracking and identification means, such as RFID tags. This will enable the
association of the real with the electronic contexts, enabling the realization of innovative collaboration
support for new working environments.
Therefore, the mobile and collaborative workspaces have to face the following challenges:
1. Create new business models for a networked, collaborative and mobile society. Workers will no longer
work and cooperate with or through an application, but they will use a mobile collaboration service. All
the involved entities along the complex value chain will necessarily have to find flexible way to
collaborate reaching agreements to solve conflicts and to support and improve standards and
interoperability aspects.
2. Development of user-oriented design and tailoring methods for mobile workplaces. Local workplaces are
designed to support the organizational or group requirements and guidelines. However, mobile
workplaces are more specific to the individual or to the cooperating community. Therefore, methods are
needed to address the balance between the self-organization of mobile and local work as well as the
integration into the organizational procedures.
3. Paradigm shifting from application to activity-oriented system design. The basis for such a cooperation
environment is existing and new cooperation services such as email, conferencing, instant messaging,
shared workspaces or task and workflow management services. Among the new services presence and
awareness service will play an important role. An important pre-requisite for the realization of such a
layer is the development of interoperability standards. The cooperation services are offered through socalled activity-functions, such as share, inform, notify, send, but not as applications like an email client,
or a shared files browser.
4. Sharing multi-dimensional work contexts and telepresence. Community based and mobile workplace
cooperation includes multi-dimensional work contexts such as working simultaneously for different
companies, including their systems, processes, rules, cultures. This requires methods for easy switching
between workspaces.
5. Increasing the trust and security management in a mobile world. Security threats make it more and more
difficult to establish ad hoc cooperation spaces between arbitrary partners. The challenge is to integrate
trust and security into architecture as well as into a middleware in order to facilitate trustworthy
interactions between mobile workers and systems and maximize security for management of the
different situational contexts. Only when the systems enforce full trustworthiness, the mobile users will
accept the applications and will reap their benefits. This will require also new concepts for optimal
security services of the platforms.
On the basis of fully understand the social impact of distributed working relations, the mobile collaborative
workspace technologies should also identify the tools and services enabling end-user configuration of
community based workplaces in a mobile world, integrate the next generation mobile services into real
business and adapt home and business environment. From 2008 to 2012, the research strategies will stress
a few other points on: 1) multi-cultural and multi-lingual support; 2) intelligent adaptive workplaces; 3)
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semantic-based knowledge repositories; 4) non intrusive, ambient intelligent devices; 5) emotion detection;
6) Haptic control; 7) self-managing agents; 8) all-IP networks; 9) general mobile service architecture.
3.1.2 Collaborative virtual environment
Collaborative Virtual Environments (CVE) are more and more widely used for applications in many sectors
such as collaborative design and planning, education, training and so on. Collaborative virtual environments
require all of the system level functionality of single site and single user virtual environments to create
immersive data. In addition, CVEs require networking infrastructure to support communication and
synchronization between application software at each site.
As we know, multi-users, immersion, distributed virtual environment are the key features of today’s CVE.
This section will deal with the related CVE technologies involved in distributed network, collaborative
augmented reality and collaboration with wearable computers.
3.1.2.1 Distributed Collaborative Virtual Environment
Distributed virtual environment is a collaborative technology that enables various people which are
geographically separated, such as designers and developers in different fields, external consultants, and
customers to be involved in collaborative design and production activities. The distributed virtual environment
provides dislocated participants with opportunities to be aware of others’ presence and interact in a virtually
shared workspace without any temporal and spatial restrictions.
Nishino et al. (1999) revealed that there exist several high-level available frameworks and application
systems proposed to make distributed virtual environment a usable and practical technology. Recent
advancement in this direction is the application of distributed virtual environment technology for the early
conceptual design of new products such as the creation of original object shapes and patterns. It deals with
developing a framework for sharing undocumentable knowledge. Differing from the static 3D data exchange
and object sharing based on VRML and 3D avatars, this is a networked intuitive 3D modeling environment
enabling multiple participants to work on the same objects and share all intermediate information during realtime collaboration. The targeted system allows the designers to specify shapes and deformation patterns by
using their bimanual gestures captures with a pair of instrumented gloves. The intuitive hand gestures can
be directly translated into modeling operations. To approach the variance of human gesticulation, neural
networks are utilized to learn and recognize the required gestures for the modeling operations. Furthermore,
wireless communication is provided to establish the no wired links to Internet.
Distributed virtual environment on the network should easily support heterogeneous distributed platforms,
and can customize the functions based on the available resources for each client. Nishino proposes a new
method for simultaneous modifications from clients’ side and asynchronous data transmission is proposed
(Nishino et al. 1999). Compared with the traditional method of the centralized processing by the server, it
allows the clients to manage shared data and generate output with optimal resolutions in parallel without
burdening the network and the server.
Distributed virtual environment streamlines the integration of a range of collaboration applications as well as
the provision of higher layers of support for collaboration (Daily et al. 2000), such as, avatars, high fidelity
audio and video, shared artifact manipulation, GUI interface, gesture, voice input handling and possibly
feeling/cognition recognization and other immersive devices and software tools. As visualization and virtual
environment are critical enablers for next generation 3D model-based design and development processes,
the effort is to be done for extending the single site functionality of visualization software by constructing a
collaboration environment to match the performance of the available network and computing infrastructure.
A key component to effective collaborative virtual environments is the communication infrastructure.
CAVERNSoft from UIC EVL is a software library that allows VR developers to share information between
their applications. This is a hybrid system that combines a distributed shared memory model with distributed
database technology and real-time networking technology. This allows objects manipulated by one user to
immediately be perceived by all other users at remote locations. The VisualEyes software uses this library to
communicate keys or messages among components. Collaborative VisualEyes is a retrofitted version of
VisualEyes enabling global scale collaboration between VisualEyes applications. Collaborative VisualEyes
clients share 3D scene graph information by directly linking individual data nodes over a communiation
channel implemented with CAVERNSoft.
To support the requirement of distributed design, a dedicated network is essential in order to reduce latency
and variability of latency in delivery of packets between sites. The goal of system architecture is to support
so called “poly-modal” collaboration among participants with arbitrary hardware and software suites.
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Tang (2004) presents a new collaborative strategy to build a multi-user CVE for feature based modeling.
Some kinds of token-passing mechanism used during the modification of the model while other users can
only view or inquiry the locked product model are replaced by a new system architecture composed of
Collaborative Manager and Model Manager along with a few synchronization rules for updating from the
server. The new method solves the conflicts and defines a process for the non-locked multi-user
collaborative design in CVE. The basic idea behind the rules is that the system ensure the Session Models
to be snapshots of Part Model, and when a designer have already entered operation status, the system will
not update Session Model until the designer finishes or aborts the operation. These rules also reduce
network traffic loads for the system does not force Session Models to be always the same Part Model.
CORBA’s Interface Definition Language (IDL) and the Application Programming Interfaces (API) that enable
client/server object interaction within a specific implementation of an Object Request Broker (ORB). The
ORB provides interoperability between applications on different computers in heterogeneous distributed
environments and interconnects multiples object systems seamlessly.
There are several technologies that allow the development of distributed virtual reality systems (Kirner et al.
2001). VRML is a language that can be viewed locally or transferred through the Internet. VRML provides
powerful resources for modeling complex 3D scenes, but does not provide mechanisms to support the
control of multiple users. Java is a platform-independent, object-oriented language that aims to the
development of applications to run in network environments and the Internet. Nowadays, most of the
browsers are able to execute Java applications. The combination of Java/VRML makes possible the Java
code to access the events in the virtual world modeled in VRML, and manipulate them in order to enable the
users to have a smooth and coherent navigation. External Authoring Interface (EAI) technology is used to
allow a bi-directional communication between the Java applet and the VRML plug-in. The communication
between the Server and the Clients can be implemented by socket technology based on a set of messages.
3.1.2.2 Augmented Reality based Collaborative Virtual Environment
Augmented Reality (AR) is a blend of reality and virtuality, which will let users see each other, will allow
communication behaviors much more like face-to-face than like screen-based collaboration. In natural faceto-face collaboration, people use speech, gesture, gaze, and nonverbal cues to attempt to
communicate (Billinghurst et al. 2002). In many cases, the surrounding physical world and objects also play
an important role.
Particularly in design and spatial collaboration tasks, real objects support collaboration through their
appearance, physical affordances, such as size and weight, use as semantic representations, and ability to
create reference frames for communication. In contrast, most computer interfaces for collocated
collaboration create an artificial separation between the real world and the shared digital task space. People
looking at a projection screen or crowded around a desktop monitor are often less able to refer to real
objects or use natural communication behaviors. Observations of the use of large shared displays have
found that simultaneous interaction rarely occurs due to the lack of software support and input devices for
co-present collaboration.
AR technology is able to enhance such face-to-face communication. AR interfaces blend the physical and
virtual worlds so real objects can interact with 3D digital content and improve user’s shard understanding.
Tangible interaction methods can be combined with AR display techniques to develop interfaces in which
physical objects and interactions are as important as the virtual imagery. Technology for remote
collaboration also involves limitations. It is difficult for current technology to provide remote participants with
the same experience they would have if they were in a co-located meeting. Audio-only interfaces remove the
visual cues vital for conversational turn taking, leading to increased interruptions and overlap., difficulty
disambiguating between speakers and determining another’s willingness to interact. With conventional
videoconferencing, subtle user movements or gestures can not be captured. There are few spatial cues
among participants, the number of participants cannot readily make eye contact. Speakers also cannot know
when people are paying attention to them or when it might be permissible to hold side conversations.
Researchers have begun exploring how desktop and immersive collaborative virtual environments might
provide spatial cues to support group interaction. AR technology can provide spatial audio and visual cues to
overlay a person’s real environment and support remote collaboration. In this way, the remote participants
are added to the users’ real world rather than separating them from it.
The Studierstube researchers identified five key attributes of collaborative AR environments:
1. Virtuality – Objects that don’t exist in the real world can be viewed and examined.
2. Augmentation – Real objects can be augmented with virtual annotations.
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3. Cooperation – Multiple users can see each other and cooperate in natural ways.
4. Independence – Individual users control their own independent viewpoints.
5. Individuality – Displayed data can appear in different form for individual viewers depending on their
personal needs and interests.
Perhaps most important is the seamless nature of collaborative AR interfaces. Users see each other at the
same time they see virtual objects in their midst. Unlike some other CSCW (Computer-Supported
Collaborative Work) technologies, co-located AR interfaces do not separate the communication space from
the task space, allowing users to interact with virtual content by using familiar real objects.
AR technology can be also used to support remote collaboration. In an AR conferencing interface, a user
worn a lightweight HMD (with camera) and could see a virtual image of a remote collaborator attached to a
physical card as a life-size, live virtual video window. Computer-vision techniques are used to track black
squares on the card, ensuring the virtual video appeared precisely aligned with the real object. The overall
effect is that the remote collaborator sitting at a desktop computer appeared projected into the local user’s
real workspace. A number of other significant factors differentiate this type of conferencing from traditional
desktop videoconferencing. Users could arrange the cards on any surface to create a virtual spatial
conferencing space; the cards were also small enough to be carried easily, ensuring portability.
AR techniques are capable of supporting multi-scale collaboration, where users collaboratively view a data
set from different viewpoints. The interface also supports collaboration on multiple scales. Users can fly into
AR scenes, experiencing them as immersive virtual environments. Multiple users can be immersed in the
same virtual scene, seeing each other represented as virtual characters. More interesting, one or more users
can be immersed in the virtual world while others are viewing its content as an AR scene. Thus a group of
collaborators can share both egocentric and exocentric views of the data set, leading to greater
understanding of the virtual content.
Some authors, for example, Broll et al. (2000), Swing (2000), Sihn et al. (2000) and Reinhart et al. (1999)
have analysed a variety of AR applications for collaborative activities, among which, the following
collaborative environments or approaches are relevant for this work and shortly presented in the following
part:
Virtual Round Table (VRT)
The VRT is an interactive task-oriented cooperation environment based on AR technology. The VRT
environment enables participants of a work group to share a 3D application within their regular working
environment. Dynamic communication processes are supported by the VRT environment in a task oriented
approach. Besides common facial communication, the environment encourages non-verbal communication,
visual association, and sensorimotor abilities of the work group members. The basic idea of the VRT is the
perspectively correct 3D stereo visualization of a synthetic scene within the real world working environment
of the user using see-through projection glasses. AR is used as a key technology to enhance the real world
by virtual objects. In contrast to other technical scenarios based on shutter glasses, the VRT is location
independent and provides an individually adapted stereo view of the virtual world artifacts for each user. The
use of conventional, non-sensor-attached items as place holder objects enforces flexibility, expendability,
and local independence. The VRT emphasizes the use of common collaboration and cooperation
mechanisms used in regular meeting situations and extends them into the virtual environment.
The approach elaborated in Broll et al. (2000) highlights three critical aspects: Visualization, Tracking and
Registration, Object manipulation. The visualization of 3D objects is based on the multi-user virtual reality
toolkit SmallTool. This toolkit is currently available on IRIX, Solaris, Windows 9x/NT and Linux. However, PCbased solution for VRT application is focused on, which is able to use mobile laptops as soon as
sophisticated 3D acceleration becomes available. Augmentation is realized using semi-transparent stereo
projection glasses. The semi-transparent stereo projection of virtual objects into the real scene does not
allow for complete superimposition or covering of real object. It provides a more accurate view than
augmentation based on video mixing. The basic problem to be solved by all augmented or mixed reality
environments are the tracking of the users’ viewpoints to allow the perspectively correct visualization of
virtual objects projected into the real environment and the registration of real world objects or landmarks. To
be able to keep the visualization of the virtual scene permanently synchronized to the movements of the
individual user, the real world location and viewing direction of each participant has to be tracked
continuously and in real-time by an appropriate tracking device. Because of the high accuracy of the human
vision system, the realization of the device’s position and orientation detection mechanisms have to be highly
accurate. To give the user the freedom to move around and manipulate objects arbitrarily, the ideal system
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would be wireless as well as sourceless. Moreover, the tracking device should be insusceptible against
external ascendancies. Existing magnetic or ultrasonic tracking systems have to deal with problems such as
metal disturbances or occlusion, which are unacceptable for the application areas intended. In order to use
the inertial tracking system for an accurate six-degree-of-freedom tracking, a rather large local installation of
ultrasonic-based emitters has to be done. This limits the portability and location independence of the overall
system significantly. Moreover, the ultrasonic sensors are susceptible to occlusion. Additionally wired
sensors mounted to the user’s head restrict her possibilities to move and interact freely. In order to realize
the registration of real world objects as tangible interfaces to the virtual environment, a camera driven image
recognition process is used to register each physical object and track its movements. The main interaction
paradigm used within the VRT scenario is the manipulation of virtual objects by tangible real world
placeholder objects. The objects are then associated with a synthetic virtual 3D object.
The important research results are: the limited field-of-view of the light-weight glasses currently used disturbs
the user’s view significantly; the size of the see-through area is wider than the actual display. More advanced
displays can be applied such as virtual retinal displays, or holographic displays as soon as such devices
appear; it is particularly important to consider real objects covering virtual objects further away; Spontaneous
interaction with real-world objects is very important; in particular application areas, especially in the area of
construction, fully immersed walk-throughs may be required in addition to a pure augmented reality
environment.
Collaborative Virtual Workspace (CVW)
Collaborative Virtual Workspace is a collaborative computing environment maintaining a persistent virtual
space where users/immersive clients can communicate, collaborate, or share documents. Audio, video,
immersion or simple text-based interactions are all supported within CVW (Swing 2000). The CVW
environment is divided into virtual buildings. Each of which has several floors and a number of rooms on
each floor. It supports a number of different types of objects: users, folders, notes, whiteboards, URLs and
other documents. These can be imported from external programs and be shared with other users. Users can
speak or emote publicly within a room, or whisper to another user privately. They can page other users, or
locate them within the entire CVW environment. Users can also place a proxy of themselves in a room and
monitor activity in one room while remaining in another.
The CVW uses enhanced MUD (Multi-User Dungeon), Multi-Object-oriented (MOO) technology for its
messages and controls. It also uses IP/Multicast technology to provide the underlying network infrastructure
for multipoint video and audio conferencing. Each room in CVW has a unique multicast address on the
intranet in which the audio and video conferences are held. Documents are managed through a document
server, which not only provides a central location for the document, but also provides version controls for
group editing. The document exchange interaction is based on the HTTP protocol. Document types are
identified by MIME types, thus allowing users to add particular media types easily into a room. CVW will use
MIME to identify the proper allocation to launch for editing a particular document. Users are able o enter the
virtual room immersively, and interact with other users through avatars. The immersive display uses VRML
running within a web browser. The room dialog is maintained in a panel below the immersive window. One
floor is represented at a time within CVW3D. The default avatar is a simple model, showing a user’s face on
a sphere and affiliation on a cube. While, it can incorporate more detailed models or full motion avatars so as
to allow the user to customize his personal presence.
The CVW uses a server for each building as the centralized coordinator for that building. The CVW clients
have several different versions currently in operation (TCL/TK, Java, etc.).
3.1.2.3 Collaborative Virtual Environment with Wearable Computers
One promising approach for Collaborative Virtual Environment is through the newest
generation of portable machines, wearable computers, coupled with improved wireless networking
infrastructure (Billinghurst et al. 2001). Worn on the body, wearable computers provide constant access to
computing and communications resources. In general, a wearable computer may be defined a computer
that is subsumed into the personal space of the user, controlled by the wearer and has both operational and
interactional constancy. Wearables are typically composed of a belt or backpack computer, see-through or
see-around head mounted display, wireless communications, hardware such as a CDPD cellular modem,
and a touch-pad or chording keyboard input device. This configuration has been demonstrated in a number
of real- world applications including aircraft maintenance, navigational assistance, and vehicle mechanics.
While wearable computers have been shown to be valuable for single user applications, less research has
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been conducted on how they can enhance collaboration. Wearable computers can also be used to enhance
communication among multiple remote people or between users at the same location.
Certain attributes of wearable computers make them attractive as tools for collaboration. The key
characteristics are identified by Fickas et al in 1997:
1. Hands-free operation, with one or no hands.
2. Mobility, are not tethered, allowing the user to roam freely.
3. Augmented Reality, see-through or see-around wearable displays allow the overlay of graphical
information onto the real world.
4. Perception, with connected sensors that measure aspects of the surrounding environment allowing
the computer to respond in an intelligent and context-sensitive manner.
Augmented reality and the computer’s ability to perceive aspects of its physical environment are the most
novel aspects of wearable systems. These attributes make wearable computers ideal platforms for CSCW
because they support seamlessness and the ability to enhance reality. Traditional CSCW research attempts
to use computer and audio-visual equipment to provide a sense of remote presence. The hope is that
collaborative interfaces will eventually be indistinguishable from actually being there. A better way to develop
interfaces for telecommunication is to focus on the communication aspect, not the tele- part. Wearable
computers will allow normal face-to-face collaboration but enhance it with capabilities that satisfy previously
unmet needs. The single-user wearable applications could be expanded to realize it, including:
1) Physically based hypertext in which graphics are overlaid over physical objects; 2) A remembrance agent
that continually searches the user’s hard disk for information relevant to the current
task and displays it in the user’s field of view, and 3) A face recognition tool that displays names and other
information above people in the user’s field of view.
Wearable computers are ideally suitable as a platform for collaborative interfaces to support remote
collaboration and collocated collaboration. Wearable computers are an approach to develop new insights
into the behavior of the Concurrent Enterprise (Boronowsky, Herzog and Lawo 2006). These novel computer
systems support their users or groups of users in an unobtrusive way in different industrial environments.
The basic idea is to allow the users to perform their primary task without distracting their attention enabling
computer applications in novel fields. Interaction with wearables by the user is minimal to realize optimal
overall system behavior. For this reason, a wearable computer has to recognize the current work situation of
a user by integrated sensors. Based on the detected work context the system has to push useful information
to its user, e.g. how to proceed with the work by probably reducing possible options to a minimum. Apart
from speech output, media could be optical systems presenting the information, e.g. via semi-transparent
glasses within the worker’s visual field.
One of the major challenges of this new technology is to investigate the user acceptance of wearables.
Suitable methods for user interaction and processes suited to wearables in industry are far from being
settled. Investigations show that methods to detect the work context and a general architecture of wearables
as well as a hardware and software platform for the implementation of wearables are urgently needed.
3.1.3 Collaborative support trends
Working environments in today’s knowledge centric economy will provide seamless access anywhere and
anytime to the broadest range of information and knowledge resources. Knowledge and information can be
found in persons, in databases, in robots, in sensors, scattered around in the network, as part of support
services, etc. Knowledge workers must therefore have the best means to access all those resources which
will allow them to acquire and create the knowledge and information needed to drive the economic
processes. Collaboration technologies are the fundamental components which will provide access to all
those resources in a working environment.
As the Internet provides the information transport capabilities needed to support data exchange, many tools
and services have been developed for supporting collaboration in disperse groups, communities, projects or
enterprises since the beginnings of the network. But there is still a long way to go before the full potential of
collaborative working environments is developed. The most successful tools and services, which have
appeared in the Internet during the last years, could be categorized as collaborative. For example: in P2P
many peers collaborate by sharing cheap storage capacity to create an immense database of shared
resources (songs, programs, videos, etc.); the blogosphere is a huge federation of diaries published on the
Web, which can be seen as a collaborative knowledge production system; a GRID is a huge association of
computing resources which collaborate to solve a complex problem; even the Web is a distributed and
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collaborative electronic publishing system, where each author will link his documents to the ones he wishes
to connect.
The most popular tools of the Internet can be also categorized as collaborative because they connect and
support groups, for example email and especially email lists, FTP and Web document repositories,
calendaring and scheduling tools, forums and communities over the Web, electronic meeting places,
conferencing with voice and video over IP, etc. Working environments at the corporate level have also
included with the passage of time more and more collaborative capabilities, which try to improve the
efficiency of the organization. For example most corporations have created Intranets where all the
information of the organization is published over a private Web, where teams of designers collaborate or
where email and Web based workflow procedures automate and accelerate the communication in the
enterprise.
There seems to be a strong trend in the Internet to support collaboration between all parties which have
access to the network and at all levels where it is possible. For example, a large part of the working groups
of the application and transport areas of IETF are working in collaborative technologies. Two of the main
developments of the World Wide Web Consortium, Web Services and the Semantic Web, address two major
problems, namely collaboration among services and semantic compatibility of data. This trend tries to define
all the open interfaces needed to allow collaboration and inter-working among all the resources which can be
found over the network.
In the near future, new areas for e-Collaboration technologies have to explore more sophisticated application
domains with a view to boost innovation in the business ecosystem. Among these future research lines, it is
worthy to mention:
1. Collaboration technologies for knowledge activation. Electronic collaboration can be used to harness and
use knowledge resources to support joint effects. Collaboration technologies are needed to determine
what action is required and is relevant, and to determine what knowledge is required to carry out the
determined action and initiate demand for action. The mediating role of electronic collaboration in
activating knowledge into action is an important one and has implications for example in the activation of
dispersed knowledge for the creation of customized goods and services.
2. Collaboration technologies for applied collective creativity. Collaboration technologies will encourage end
users to bring out freely new ideas and will empower knowledge workers to share them with others and
together create breakthrough concepts. It will support mass collaboration to promote collective creativity.
Collaboration environments will facilitate new ideas generation by linking interface and mixed-reality
technologies for use in virtual team environments. Through electronic collaboration teams will select the
best ideas, and orchestrate people and resources to create new products, services, business systems
and practices, which are required for innovation.
In addition to these advanced collaboration technologies, New Working Environments research will embrace
other areas based on emerging ubiquitous society paradigms. It will make use of networked devices
embedded in any terminal and product, which will allow continuous, seamless streaming of communications,
content, and services -exchanged among workers, artifacts and their partners and customers. Two of these
future research areas are:
1. Responsive ubiquitous office. The future office will be responsive to the goals and needs of users, based
on multiple sources of information about activity and interests. It will not infer users’ demands but will be
responsive to users’ demands leveraging on ubiquitous working environments with devices embedded in
terminals and goods. It is positioned at the crossroads of ICT-cognos to develop virtualized
environments that sense the activities of the worker and act on his demands. It will be implemented
through multi-technology and interdisciplinary complex systems including presence and context
management in an office environment, adaptive systems, multi-modal human computer interaction and
automated visual surveillance.
2. Robotics office. Future working environments will include human and robotic workers as partners,
leveraging the capabilities of each where most useful. The aim is to augment human capabilities via
robots that co-operate with humans. While considerable research has already focused on developing
robot systems, scant attention has been paid to joint human-robot teams. This future research is
expanded in a separate section within this publication.
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3.2 CWE Analysis
3.2.1 Evaluation methods
In this sub-section, the actually useful evaluation methods for CWE are described below (Ramage 2000;
Ricardo 2006). Their suitability is also briefly discussed in a collaborative context.
•
Heuristic evaluation: It relies on an evaluator's immediate reactions, intuitions and predictions,
categorised under a set of Design Principles and Usability Attributes. These define the desirable
properties of a usable interface, and typically include: consistency; feedback; user control; user's
model; clarifying metaphors (Principles); learnability; memorability; error recovery; efficiency; and
subjective satisfaction (attributes). These can be used as an intrinsic part of a Heuristic evaluation,
or as a useful framework for categorising interface characteristics after any evaluative method. For
collaborative application, additional issues such as awareness of other users, focus, coordination,
ownership and communication must be considered - although results become increasingly sketchy
given the complex group interactions of collaborative work. To an extent, heuristic evaluation is an
inevitable part of any system design process, as designers do something and then try to figure out if
they like it.
•
User testing: It generally takes the form of studies conducted by system designers with real users in
a semi-realistic use context. The aim is to see how the system is used and what usability or
functionality issues arise - typically qualitative data are collected, to feed back into the design
process.
•
Lab experiments: (Cognitive/Social Psychology) Laboratory experiments are quite widely used to
evaluate collaborative systems. These are used to collect quantitative data about a single specific
factor, attempting to screen out other influences.
•
Interviews & Questionnaires: They focus on Groups and Customer Feedback. Various methods
involving direct user reactions can be used to obtain various qualitative data about users'
experiences with systems (either immediately or a little while after use). They have been used
particularly as a way to capture data prior to further analysis and to improve a commercial product by
collecting customer feedback. Their subjectivity (in that direct user opinions are being collected)
makes them useful, but also limited.
•
Longitudinal trials and Semi-realistic ethnography: These sociological methods lie somewhere
between the unsituated lab experiment and the messy, real-world ethnographic study. They often
involve having one's colleagues (or a similar accessible, controllable group) use a system for a
prolonged period of time, before it is tried out on real users. Such studies can suffer from being
rather inward-looking, in that they end up focussing on their own research teams. However, such
methods are often highly instructive in practice, given some degree of care as to their wider
applicability.
•
Ethnography: The most realistic way of evaluating a system is to go into the place of work and watch
real users using it over a prolonged period. Data collected include audio and video-tapes of work
practices, field notes as to the most significant practices carried out by the participants, descriptions
and diagrams of the work setting, and samples of various artefacts (such as documents) which
illustrate the nature of work in the organisation. This approach has been used on its own to inform
systems design or as a way of providing data for further analysis using distributed cognition, activity
theory, social psychology and other methods. Traditionally, ethnography requires a long period of
immersion - months or even years - in the study setting before the ethnographer can perform an
informed analysis (not often practical in a systems design project). However, methods such as "quick
and dirty ethnography" (a brief study, typically a few days, with specific questions in mind as to the
nature of the work) can still provide useful amounts of data in a shorter time.
•
Conversation Analysis and Interaction Analysis: These methods study real group interactions as
revealed by their (directly recorded) conversation and actions. The aim is that of ethno-methodology:
to study the users' categories directly, rather than imposing a theoretical framework. They focus on
the detailed features of interaction (at various levels), either on conversations alone or on
interactions between people and between people and technology. However the undoubted
usefulness of such methods in CWE evaluation is offset by their amount of details, which results in
masses of transcript and/or video-tape to be analysed.
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•
Breakdown Analysis: A breakdown is defined as any incident where the user has cause to focus on
the system rather than the task. Breakdown analysis studies group interactions and conversation
transcripts to highlight such breakdowns. This is a useful method for identifying key problems
associated with user-system (or user-user) communication. However, the focus is necessarily
restricted, disregarding many other interesting aspects of collaborative work, such as the distribution
of roles and power amongst the group members. Like many of the other methods above, it might be
usefully used in conjunction with others.
3.2.2 Evaluation criteria
The following criteria might be considered when evaluate a CWE system, as summarized by Ramage
(2000).
•
Functionality: software engineering issues such as reliability, robustness and efficiency; but also the
particular technical novelties of a system
•
Efficiency: does the system do what is intended or needed?
•
Usability: is the system easy to use for its intended user population?
•
Standards: does the system fulfill the pertinent requirements of various standards-making bodies?
•
Effect on the individual: psychological, social, political questions are relevant here on what the
system does to its users
•
Effect on the workforce as a group: again, mainly socio-political questions will be relevant
•
Effect on the organization: does the system make the organization more profitable? A nicer place to
work? More bureaucratic? How does the organizational structure & culture change due to the
system's implementation?
•
Effect on the wider society: does the implementation of the system affect society outside the
organization? Are these changes positive or negative?
Some of these questions (particularly the first six) will be relevant to a given CWE system wherever it is
implemented; others (especially the last three) will only apply in a particular implementation within an
organization.
There is also a gradual widening of the scope of the evaluation as the focus moves from the internals of the
computer through its interface and to effects on groups of people. This distinguishes CWE evaluation from
individuals-oriented evaluation, which typically considers only the first five points, although it is not necessary
to do this there: single-user systems have individual, organizational and social implications too.
One final point on criteria is whether these are specified in advance, or emerge once the system has been
built or implemented. These will partly depend on which stakeholders have power within the evaluation:
managers will tend to privilege organizational effects; trade unionists will concentrate on workforce effects,
and so on.
Furthermore, the use of participatory evaluation methods will to some extent enhance the evaluation, by
feeding in participants' concerns and issues to the evaluation.
3.2.3 Evaluation cases for Virtual Teams and Group Work Systems
3.2.3.1 Virtual Teams
Powell et al. (2004) from USA reviewed the virtual teams in the CWE. Virtual teams represent a new form of
organization that offers unprecedented levels of flexibility and responsiveness and has the potential to
revolutionize the workplace. The review is organized around a life cycle model which includes four general
categories of variables: input, socio-emotional processes, task processes and outputs.
Inputs concern about four issues, Design, Cultural differences, Technical expertise and Training. They
represent the design and composition characteristics of virtual team and the endowment of resources, skills
and abilities with which the team begins its work. The design of the virtual team and the structuring of its
interactions, particularly early in the team’s life, have been found to impact the development of a shared
language and shared understanding by team members. Cultural differences appear to lead to coordination
difficulties and create obstacles to effective communications. The negative effect of cultural differences may
be mitigated by an effort to actively understand and accept the differences. A lack of technical expertise and
the inability to cope with technical problems has a negative effect on individual satisfaction with the team
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experience and performance. The virtual team members are affected more by the newness of the technology
being used than by the newness of the team structure itself.
Socio-emotional processes: The practitioner press points to relationship building, cohesion and trust as
fundamental processes that foster team effectiveness, while suggesting that virtual teams face significant
difficulty in achieving them. Virtual teams tend to have more of a task-focus and less of a social-focus than
traditional teams. Cohesion has been associated with better performance, but results found that collaborative
technologies hindered the development of cohesion in virtual teams. Trust development presents significant
challenges because it is difficult to assess teammates’ trustworthiness without ever having met them. Virtual
team that exhibit high trusting behaviors experience significant social communication as well as predictable
communication patterns, substantial feedback, positive leadership, enthusiasm, and the ability to cope with
technical uncertainty.
Task processes: They are the processes that occur as team members work together to accomplish a task
or goal. Major issues identified included communication, coordination and task technology-structure fit.
Communication is the core of any virtual team process. Due to the distributed nature of virtual team, virtual
team members have to rely heavily on information and communication technologies, but technology tends to
restrict the communication process because electronic media are intrinsically leaner than face-to-face
communication and convey a limited set of communication cues. Members of teams that rely on a variety of
different technologies to accomplish tasks are more satisfied and perform better.
Output: It focused on the performance of the virtual team. Specific aspects of performance such as decision
quality, number of ideas generated and/or time it took team members to reach a decision are identified.
Besides, the ultimate performance of the virtual team, satisfaction with the virtual team experience has also
been examined. However, many studies don’t clearly identify a specific theoretical perspective as guiding the
research.
3.2.3.2 Group Work systems
Pekkola, et al. (2002) from Finland pointed out that group work supporting systems, which include VR, are
usually laboratory systems. If these systems are commercial or used continuously in the real life, there is no
VR – unless the task is very much VR tailored, and 3D models and objects are included. When inspecting
the benefits of VR in the light of earlier discussions, they differ from prior research:
•
A shared sense of space is not relevant for group work. More important is the shared sense of place.
Only if the space has a special meaning for the task, situation or goal, a 3D view might be valuable.
But generally VR has no advantages over other media when creating an illusion of a place. A limited
field of view may even hamper the illusion as it provides an incomplete picture of an environment.
•
A shared sense of presence can also be supported by user lists, for instance. However, lists do not
support indirect awareness (“out of the corner of the eye”) nor spatial relationships (proxemics) that
are claimed to be few of the (greatest) benefits of VR. Therefore, in situations, where indirect
awareness is essential, VR most probably is the most valuable tool to be used. Otherwise, there are
no special roles for VR.
•
VR has minimal value for communication thus that claims of “benefits” is clearly invalid.
Communication, both verbal and non-verbal (excluding proxemics), often takes place through other
media, not through VR.
•
A way to share objects and models in the space is meaningful only if those objects are 3D models.
Otherwise sharing is accomplished easier through other media.
Shared sense of time claim still applies as it applies to every real-time groupware.
To them, it seems there is not much use for VR in the cooperative settings of the desktop environment. VR is
good for visualising 3D models and objects, representing spatial relationships between artefacts and
providing indirect awareness of other users, there is no doubt about that. But if those are not needed or are
not essential, VR is seldom out of the lab yet. But bearing space-place discussion in the mind, and
identification of problems in CAVE, there is a danger that they fall to the same trap with the desktop VR –
they try to create an illusion of place without considering the fact that place is formed by people and their
activities. They do not acquiesce to space. The main problems with 3D virtual realities for group work are
their self-centeredness (i.e. people must enter the VR environment regardless whether they need such an
interface), and more importantly, inadequacy in supporting shared objects (unless they are VR objects – and
in group work, they seldom are). The so-called benefits of the 3D environment are acceptable and applicable
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DiFac IST5-035079
only in a few, dedicated, VR tailored situations. For a generic groupware, there is usually no need for a VR
interface.
3.2.4 Technical inadequacies
Currently the most common methods for group document creation (any kind of document, whether it is a
word processor file, source code, etc) are to either write a portion of the document or pass it along (usually
by email), or to have a shared directory where everyone reads and writes the document. This requires that
everyone that has to collaborate on the document processing has either access to the shared directory, or
has access to email and everyone's address (neither of which are a great problem now). A problem with this
approach is that everyone must use programs that have filters that can read every other program that others
use.
Even if everyone has the same program, anyone that has worked with multiple users can confirm the
problems of people sharing documents written with different versions of the same program, let alone different
programs. Often problems such as these only show up after continued use, although, sometimes they can
show up at the start. Often there is no audit trail to show how the current document was reached (Talk 2006).
As a matter of fact, the issues that prevent the online collaboration tools are four key factors, namely, the
excessive cost of the large web conferencing systems, the complexity of the use since the systems were
integrating too many controls and having had little thought about the design of the user interface, the
workflow and the way people refer to tasks and terms in ways that are different from what developers use,
the complexity of setting up and configuration of the tools often requiring a server and technicians which
discourages many people from using it. And finally, the problem is that many complex collaborative tools are
designed by technical people and they have developed them similar to theirs philosophy and knowledge that
it is difficult for common people to adopt them (Grassroots 2005).
3.2.5 Organisational inadequacies
From organizational point of view there are some weaknesses as well. There are other types of collaboration
such as, real time conferencing, as shown in Figure 44 (e.g.: face to face meetings, video and phone, or net
conferencing) and real time typing (e.g.: Talk – Unix Talk, IRC – Internet Relay Chat, and ICQ – I seek you),
(Figure 45) but they are either interactive where it is hard to capture the information (other than remembering
who said what, when) or non-interactive where it is difficult to brainstorm together (Talk 2006). More
specifically, scheduling meetings are many peoples’ worst nightmare, and often valuable time is wasted
finding out who is available and when. Combine this with multiple time zones and calendaring systems and
this activity becomes even harder. Even when all the participants are lined up, finding suitable rooms and
supporting tools like telephone-conference phones, overhead projectors etc. just adds to the frustration
(Kjaer 2004).
Figure 44: Real time conferencing
Figure 45: Real time typing
In addition, the biggest hurdle in implementing collaborative techniques is convincing people to use it.
Training is required to make people comfortable using it, and if people don't feel comfortable with the
software, they won't use it. The company should be well organized and the employees should be given
incentives to contribute: the rewards could be either financial or psychological. In many cases collaboration
is at odds with the company's corporate culture so implementation will be disruptive. Shifting a corporate
culture from being competitive to being cooperative is no small undertaking. It will require changes at all
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DiFac IST5-035079
levels of the organization (Wikipedia 2006). In general, we are now seeing many new product offerings in the
collaboration space as well as new collaborative features being added to enterprise software e.g. ERP,
Portals etc.. Without careful management one will end up with multiple tools, and multiple internal standards
for what to use. This will have a negative impact on employees who just want simple technology that is easy
to use (Kjaer 2004).
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DiFac IST5-035079
4 CONCLUSIONS
The deliverable D1 ”Definition of a VR based collaborative digital manufacturing environment” is targeted at
the description of collaborative manufacturing environments (CME) through the definition and state-of-the-art
of its main concepts, models, methodologies and tools.
In this document, three important aspects about the collaborative manufacturing environment are examined
and detailed with definitions, solutions, approaches, cases, evaluations and analyses:
•
•
•
Manufacturing Engineering: problem statement and challenges;
Foundations of collaborative manufacturing environments;
Collaborative working environments.
“Manufacturing Engineering: problem statement and challenges” presented a holistic approach of
manufacturing engineering and identified existing problems, challenges or risks in Digital and Virtual Factory
and Manufacturing as well as the Collaborative and Sustainable Life Cycles Management of manufacturing.
In view of the main objectives of DiFac, detailed definitions of Digital Factory, Virtual Reality and
Collaboration are given. In addition, available solutions of Digital Factory and Collaboration, introduction to
Virtual Presence and Immersion, applications of VR within the Digital Factory are presented as the
fundamentals of the collaborative manufacturing environments.
Based on the description of the collaborative manufacturing environment, the last chapter, “Collaborative
Working Environments” focuses on the CWE approaches and technologies in the context of collaborative
workspace, collaborative virtual environment and collaborative supports. Furthermore, the evaluation
methods, criteria and cases for the CWE are introduced in brief. Technical inadequacies of the collaborative
tools and organisational inadequacies in the manners and implementation forms of collaboration techniques
are pointed out.
The annexes give a more detailed view on some specific aspects: the survey of real-time collaborative
commercial solutions, the CWE research topics, the list and a brief explanation of the projects within the EU,
the catalogue of CWE system demonstrators and market applications supports with detailed information the
area and main topics of digital and virtual manufacturing.
In short, the key goal of D1 is to give the reader an overview of the main methodologies and technologies
involved in the DiFac project and to present the point of view of the consortium for the realisation of a
common framework to support the Digital Factory realisation.
The expected outputs of D1, together with the “Work groups and patterns in collaborative digital
manufacturing” (D2), the “Ergonomic requirements for and human safety and productivity” (D3) and
“Presence requirements for group work in rich virtualised environment” (D4), will contribute to the modelling
of the collaborative manufacturing environment for the VR based future Digital Factory. The mentioned
methodologies and technologies in D1 are fundamental for constructing an innovative and common CME
framework for the development of a supporting toolset, based on the three pillars of DiFac: Presence,
Collaboration and Ergonomics.
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DiFac IST5-035079
APPENDIX A – SURVEY OF REAL-TIME
COLLABORATIVE SOLUTIONS
Many commercial real-time collaboration tools have been developed by several companies for effective
online collaboration among distributed co-workers and others involved entities (Grassroots 2005). These
tools can be classified into the following categories.
•
Instant messaging (IM) solutions provide real time text chat with any of the contacts that are online but
integrate also video, audio, scheduling, and most interesting of all, the capability of incorporating all
major IM tools (e.g.: msn, yahoo, AOL). As a result, there is no need to install many different applications
to stay in touch with the contacts. These tools are: Jabber (2006) (Figure 46), Trillian (Cerulean 2006)
(Figure 47), Miranda (2006) (Figure 48) and Geim (2006) (Figure 49).
Figure 46: Jabber interface
Figure 47: Trillian interface
Figure 48: Miranda interface
Figure 49: Geim interface
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
Voice over IP tools offer voice communication, as well as text messaging, with very good quality of voice
and furthermore it is able to reach every phone around the world or a mobile phone and additionally
receive calls while online. Some of the top quality tools are Skype (2006) (Figure 50) and Babble (2006)
(Figure 51).
Figure 50: Skype
•
Figure 51: Babble
Web Conferencing tools allow IM, voice over IP and many valuable features that enable a simple online
meeting. iVocalize (2006) tool enables integrated recording, and a searchable blog which creates a full
transcript where anyone can find what is told during a meeting. Another tool is the HotConference (Telco
2006) (Figure 52) which offers unlimited meetings for unlimited users and finally, in this category there is
also the VoiceCafe (2006) (Figure 53) tool also enabling web conferencing capabilities.
Figure 52: Hot Conference
Figure 53: Voice Café
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
Screen Sharing solutions are a very effective way to collaborate online as it allows to broadcast
whatever is appeared in ones screen in any number of participants are invited to join in. These solutions
do not require any special software to be installed and work in any operation system. These platforms
enable also IM, voice over IP, invitation management or even remote control of the mouse and the
keyboard. Some of the most known and easy operating products are RealVNC (2006) (Figure 54),
glance (Glance 2006) (Figure 55), GoToMeeting (Citrix 2006) (Figure 56) and eBLVD (Enc 2006).
Figure 54: RealVNC
Figure 55: Glance
Figure 56: GoToMeeting
•
Document Sharing is one of the latest trends in online collaboration area. The InstaColl (2006) (Figure
57) tool enables the actual data sharing of a document or a presentation. More specifically, someone
can invite anyone else within the document or the presentation and edit it together. It is a strong
supporter of Microsoft Office applications and works on Windows technology.
Figure 57: InstaColl tool
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
File sharing is becoming more and more popular among internet users and many tools exist already in
this category. There are many commercial tools such as Dropload (2006), Shinkuro (2006) (Figure 58)
and grouper (Grouper 2006) (Figure 59) that in fact are open free web resources where it is able to send
large files to anyone. With file sharing any user has a secure web space where can be kept documents,
files etc and additionally interact with other users via IM, screen sharing etc.
Figure 58: Shinkuro tool
•
Figure 59: Grouper tool
Live Presentations through the web gives the opportunity to give a presentation to many other people
without losing too much time with traveling. Some of the effective tools are namely the PresenterNet
(2006) which allows to upload a PowerPoint presentation and automatically modify it to Flash keeping
the quality of the presentation. Another tool in this category is the InstantPresenter (2006) (Figure 60)
which enables, IM, and Voice over IP.
Figure 60: InstantPresenter
•
Recording is something that anyone would find useful in an online collaborative meeting.
FlashMeeting (2006) (Figure 61) and TechSmith (2006) gives this opportunity as well as to
effectively distribute the outcome of the recording.
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DiFac IST5-035079
Figure 61: FlashMeeting
•
Video Conferencing tools enable and facilitate greatly the instant ability and desire to communicate with
each other. Three tools here are 3wVP (2006) (Figure 62), SightSpeed (2006) (Figure 63) and Microsoft
Research (Microsoft 2006) (Figure 64) which offer video and audio live communication.
Figure 62: 3wVP
Figure 63: SightSpeed
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DiFac IST5-035079
Figure 64: Microsoft Research
•
Full Collaboration tools can be named those tools that integrate the most of the tools that have been
mentioned above. The following tools have been developed very lately and these are the Qnext (2006)
(Figure 65) tool, and the ConVoq (2006) (Figure 66) tool which enable IM, Voice over IP, Screen
Sharing, Video Conferencing and others.
Figure 65: Qnext
Figure 66: ConVoq
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DiFac IST5-035079
APPENDIX B – CWE RESEARCH TOPICS
According to the Report (2005), the major categorization of R&D activities within CWE is done as follows:
•
Worker mobility
•
Collaborative technologies
•
Knowledge worker
•
Robotics at work
•
Ambient intelligence at work
•
Collaboration in the media industry
• International collaboration
And the current principle research focuses are on:
•
Development and use of collaboration technologies
•
Reference architecture for collaborative work
• Seamless integration of heterogeneous platforms, tools applications and services
New scientific research on CWE are directed towards:
•
Fundamental research on the nature of group collaboration, beyond current focus on considering the
group as a collection of individuals but paying attention to what is unique about group behaviors.
•
New technological research in the adaptation and contextualisation into integrated environments of
several technological pillars: P2P systems, applied robotics, knowledge activation, mixed reality.
The New Working Environments unit of the European Commission’s Information Society Directorate-General
fosters Information Society Technologies (IST) research to catalyze systemic innovation, in order to enable
high-quality and productive person-centric and collaborative new working environments in Europe. To
achieve this aim it is necessary to link European ‘dream team’ communities of research and deployment in a
cross disciplinary manner. The AMI@Work family of self-organizing ERA communities links people in all 25
EU Member States and beyond for a European Research and Innovation Area (ERA) at work. This family
facilitates new working environments innovation, ERA-wide and in EU 6th and 7th Framework Programmes
of research. This family consists of self-organising communities, facilitated by elected leaders, in
collaboration with EU projects MOSAIC and SEEMseed, and the New Working Environments unit of the
Information Society Directorate-General of the European Commission, together with related Commission
services. These communities represent potential cross-fertilizing technology themes and challenging
validation environments with a significant technological, economic and societal impact. The AMI@Work
family of ERA communities itself is a real-life collaboration experiment. ’Practice what we preach’.
These communities are based on web-based membership registration by interested individuals. Following
preparatory workshops in Brussels in March and in Budapest in May, the main launch event was held in
Brussels from 7 to 9 June 2004. The first day was dedicated to AMI@Work communities, including
leadership elections. On the second day, the plenary session launched the AMI@Work family of ERA
communities, as well as EU Information Society Technologies projects related to the Strategic Objective
‘Applications and Services for the Mobile User and Worker’. The third day focused on information,
networking and partnering for the future EU IST Calls for Proposals as well as AMI@Work Special Interest
Groups.
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DiFac IST5-035079
Figure 67: AMI@Work special interest group
In Figure 67, horizontal communities are representing the so-called "technology push" while the vertical
communities are representing the famous "application pull". Many participants, from 25 European countries
and beyond, have already registered to this initiative. An extensive and concrete list of the research topics
from every community is listed below:
1.
Collaboration@Work
The collaboration platforms for engineering processes that have to be mentioned, as follows:
•
SOA for Collaborative Work: Service Oriented Architectures for supporting Collaborative Work
•
Collaboration Awareness: Collaboration Awareness support for distributed engineering teams
•
Collaboration for Knowledge Communities: Collaboration within Knowledge Communities
•
Community based Collaborative Workplaces: Collaborative Work and collaboration Awareness
within online Communities acting as a networked workplace
•
New collaboration approaches: i.e. people-concept-networking-centric approach to complement
existing document-centric or process-centric approaches
•
Collaboration middleware: interoperable software environment enabling users to use indifferently any
collaboration tool
•
Collaboration anywhere at anytime: mobile working environment enabling users to interact whenever
they need it and wherever they are.
•
Collaborative Workplace Living labs: Living labs experimentation environments for Collaborative
workplace innovation involving all players including users at the earlier stage
2.
Knowledge@Work
•
Access to knowledge anywhere anytime: mobile working environment enabling users to access
knowledge whenever they need it and wherever they are.
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
Connective knowledge methods and tools: all methods and tools supporting connective knowledge
•
Distributed knowledge management: architectures, tools and techniques supporting the distributed
KM
•
Inter-enterprise knowledge management: KM systems for inter-enterprise applications
•
Knowledge clusters: linking knowledge items into clusters
•
KM in Ambient Intelligence: KM support into Ambient Intelligence related applications
•
KM in Community based Collaborative Workplaces: KM support to on-line communities where
members have to collaborate
•
KM in Mobile Technologies: mobile technologies supporting KM
•
Eco-Knowledge in Information environments: ecological knowledge collection and organisation,
relative tools and technologies for Eco-Knowledge application and management
•
KM standards: technical and managerial standards for KM
3.
Mobility@Work
•
Mobile workplace innovative applications: Mobile workplace innovative applications in key industries
and sectors
•
Mobile workplace platforms and technologies: platforms and technologies supporting mobile
workplaces
•
Mobile work scenarios and roadmap: exploring mobile work vision scenarios and developing
innovation roadmap to reach the vision
•
Mobile workplace and Ambient Intelligence: Mobile workplaces into Ambient Intelligence related
applications
•
Mobile workplaces transition impact: Societal and organisational aspects of introducing mobile
workplaces
•
Mobile Workplace Living labs: Living labs experimentation environments for mobile workplace
innovation
4.
SEEM@Work
•
SEEM Vision: Single Electronic European Market(SEEM) vision
•
SEEM Registries: EU-wide Marketplaces, Business Registries and Business Communities/Networks
•
Technologies for searching Business Opportunities: Methods and technologies for searching and
finding Business Opportunities within the EC
•
Technologies for building Marketplaces: Technologies and approaches for building Marketplaces,
Registries and Communities
•
Architectures for building Marketplaces: Architectures, Methods and Models for building
Marketplaces
•
Inter-enterprise business processes: Implementation of Cross-Company Business Processes and
Cooperation using Registries and Repositories
•
Exchange of Business Documents: Exchange of Business Documents within inter-enterprise
cooperation environments
•
SEEM Standardisation: Standardisation of Business Documents, Harmonisation of Business
Processes
•
Optimizing Supply Chains: Optimizing Supply Chains with Marketplaces and a Single European
Market
•
Business Concepts and Business Models: Business Concepts and Business Models within EU-wide
market, Opportunities
•
Implementing SEEM-related standards: UDDI, ebXML, BPEL4WS etc.
•
eRegistry/Repository architecture and technology: eRegistry/Repository architecture and technology
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
SEEM Legal and regulatory implications: Legal and regulatory implications of the Single European
Market
•
SEEM cultural and linguistic impacts: Overcoming cultural and linguistic barriers in a Single
European Market
•
Consumer and data protection: Consumer and data protection in the Single European Market
•
SEEM Pilot cases: Single electronic market pilot cases experiences
•
SEEM and SMEs: SME participation in the single electronic market: requirements, visions and
opportunities
•
SME market integration: SME market integration challenges from a technical and business viewpoint
•
SEEM Security: Security and Personalisation Issues
•
Sector specific impact: Sector specific impact of a Single European Market
5.
Rural@Work
•
Rural mobility scenarios: Potential scenarios for deployment of mobile technologies
•
Rural mobile applications: Deployment of mobile technologies for various rural applications
•
Collaborative Work in Rural settings: Generic solutions for collaborative work in different contexts
•
Rural ICT attractiveness: ICT infrastructure for attractive, working and living environments
•
Rural@work technology platform: technology platform to explore and support Rural@work
•
Rural on-line Communities: Creation of the "Community" concept for rural people networking
applications
•
Vision for Rural & Regional Work: Requirements, visions and scenarios for Rural & Regional Work
•
Social, cultural and economic potential: Social, cultural and economic potential of ICT services in
rural areas
•
Rural transition through ICT: How information technologies can be used both to protect and
transform rural areas?
•
Requirements visions: Requirements visions of end users, arising challenges
6.
Engineering@Work
•
Integrated PSO Engineering: Integrated Engineering of Products, Services and Organisations
•
Ambient Intelligence in engineering processes: RFID, Smart Tags and Sensors technologies within
Engineering processes
•
IE in Community based Collaborative Workplaces: Integrated Engineering in Community based
Collaborative Workplaces
•
Life-cycle & Service Engineering: Life-cycle & Service Engineering
•
Engineering and Mobile technologies: Engineering and Mobile technologies
7.
Well-being Services@Work
•
Support for mobile health professionals: Support for mobile health professionals
•
Collaboration Support for health professionals: Support for collaboration among (mobile) health
professionals
•
Workflow support for virtual care teams: Workflow support for virtual care teams in chronic or acute
care
•
Facilitation of informal care networks: Facilitation of informal care networks
•
Support for the citizen at work: Support for the citizen at work including workers with health
challenges
•
Intelligent assistive work environments: Intelligent assistive work environments to optimise health
and wellbeing in the future workplace
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
8.
Provision of positive lifestyle and wellbeing support: Provision of positive lifestyle and wellbeing
support to optimise health and wellbeing for citizens and workers (prevention)
Media@Work
•
Creative problem solving: Work process, creative problem solving and context based technologies
for collaborative knowledge work
•
New value chains and business models: New value chains and business models for communitycentric content production in media rich knowledge work Modelling technology mediated knowledge
work processes, individual differences and contextual and situational impacts
•
Multimodal tools for producing content: Multimodal tools for producing content for community-centric
in media rich knowledge work
•
Knowledge work environments as media rich environments: Knowledge work environments as
media rich environments
•
Personalization and dialogical technologies: Personalization and dialogical technologies for media
rich knowledge work
•
Increasing knowledge worker information processing bandwidth: Increasing knowledge worker
information processing bandwidth from technology
•
Technologies for creativity: Technologies for creativity in media rich knowledge work environments
•
Pleasure promoting technologies and calm technologies: Pleasure promoting technologies and calm
technologies in media rich knowledge work environments
•
Social presence, emotion and collaborative technologies: Social presence, emotion and collaborative
technologies in knowledge work
•
Risk management in media rich knowledge work environments: Risk management in distributed and
collaborative media rich knowledge work environments
•
Multimedia content indexing, retrieval and tools: Multimedia content indexing, retrieval and tools for
media rich knowledge work
9.
Logistics@Work
•
Sustainable Logistic systems: Logistic systems for Sustainable Fruit and Vegetable Production
•
e-Agro Business and Production Chain Management: e-Agro Business and Production Chain
Management
•
Virtual Agro-Logistic Information Systems: Virtual Agro-Logistic Information Systems
•
Manufacturing Logistics: Manufacturing Logistics
•
Supply Chain Design in the transportation: Supply Chain Design in the transportation
•
Logistic systems for sustainable cities: Logistic systems for sustainable cities or Intelligent City
Logistics
•
Logistics strategies: Logistics strategies - The Modernisation of the City Logistic
•
Organisation of logistic services: Organisation of logistic services
•
Management of logistic services: Management of logistic services
•
Supply Chain Management: Supply Chain Management
•
Costing of logistics services: Costing of logistics services
•
Information Exchange and Controllability: Information Exchange and Controllability in Logistics
•
Ambient Intelligence in Logistics: RFID, Smart Tags and Sensors technologies within Logistics
•
Community based Collaborative Workplaces: Integrated Logistics in Community based Collaborative
Workplaces
•
Reverse Logistics: Reverse Logistics
•
3PL & 4PL: 3PL (third party logistics) & 4PL (fourth party logistics
•
Global Outsourcing: Global Outsourcing
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DiFac IST5-035079
•
Environmental logistics: Environmental logistics
•
DSS and communication technologies: Decision support systems and communication technologies
•
Enhancing customer service in logistics: Enhancing customer service in logistics
10.
LivingLabs@Work
•
Studying human beings in ICT rich environments: Increased understanding of the human being in
the IT landscape - behaviour, learning, attitudes etc.
•
Exploring the innovation process: The innovation process, its methods, the implementation,
leadership issues, governance role and the role of the citizens.
•
Collaborative research approach: Environments and the supportive methods for increased
interdisciplinary co-operation in projects - the collaborative research approach.
•
The pan-European approach: Differences in culture, context etc. Integration of new member states.
•
Experimenting new services: Supporting the development of a mobile society - service and
technology interoperability, the role of emerging technologies (like ambient technologies, link to item
1 above)
•
Business and social value chains and models: Changing business and social value chains and
models, the role of emerging technologies of driving change, essential components.
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APPENDIX C – SIMILAR EUROPEAN PROJECTS
The recently launched projects in new working environment (2006) are shown in Table 1, and the ongoing
projects with EU in the same scope are shown in Table 2:
Table 1: Newly launched projects in new working environment
Project Name
Collaboration@
Rural
CoSpaces
Type
Objectives
IP
A collaborative platform for working and living in rural
areas
Innovative collaborative work environments for
individuals and teams in design and engineering
CoVES
InContext
Collaborative virtual engineering for SMEs
Interaction and context based technologies for
collaborative teams
POPEYE
ROBOT@CWE
STREP
Professional peer environment beyond edge computing
Advanced robotic systems in future collaborative
working environment
Table 2: The ongoing projects within the new working environment
Project
Type
Objectives
Name
AMI@NE
SSA
Development of long-term shared vision on AMI technologies
TFOOD
for a networked agri-food sector
Research strategy for agri-food and rural domain.
AMI4SME
STREP
Ambient intelligence technology for systemic innovation in
manufacturing SMEs flexible manufacturing control &
industrial maintenance
AMIRA
STREP
Multimodal intelligence for remote assistance Safety/business-critical field work (roadside assistance, fire brigade)
BEACON
STREP
The potential socio-economic impact of broadband access
and use on new forms of pan-European trading, collaborative
work and advanced public service provision Broadband use
for eWork, eBusiness, eGovernment
BEANISH
SSA
Buildind Europe-Africa collaborative Network for applying IST
in Health care sector Europe – Africa collaboration in
healthcare
BrainBrid
ges
CA
CASCOM
STREP
Collaborative technologies and environments enhancing the
seamless creativity process, leveraging the full European
potential. European community for collaborative working
environments
Intelligent platform for mobile, context-aware
applications/services(Generic platform) validation in pervasive
healthcare
COMIST
SSA
AMI@work -COMmunities stimulating participation of NMS
and ACC organisations in eWork and eBusiness related IST
activities eWork innovation in new member states
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DiFac IST5-035079
CREATE
SSA
Creative processes for enterprise innovation Methodology for
creative working, validated in household appliance, motorbike
industries
eLOGMA
R-M
CA
Web-based and mobile solutions for collaborative work
environment with logistics and maritime applications (includes
3rd party target country: PR China) mobile actors in logistics
and maritime sector (traders, resellers, railway carriers,
shippers, consignees, insurers, agents, forwarders etc.)
ENGAGE
CA
Engineering emotional design community for affective design
(for consumer needs)
Mobile distance working platform Pump manufacturer,
healthcare trust
Innovative ambient intelligent based services to support lifecycle management of flexible assembly and manufacturing
systems agent-based collaborative platform (industrial product
cycle)
Network of excellence on virtual reality and virtual
environments applications for future workspaces Virtual reality
ERA (aerospace, energy, automotive)
EUDOMAIN
InAmI
STREP
STREP
INTUITIO
N
NOE
IST World
SSA
Knowledge base for RTD competencies collaborative
research (new member states, associate countries)
LIAISON
IP
Satellite-supported seamless & personalised LBS for the
working environment Mobile workers in remote maintenance,
emergency service
MobileIN
STREP
Open framework for service creation & execution in multidomain heterogeneous network environments (Generic telco
platform)
MobiLife
IP
Context-aware mobile services in 3G and beyond Families,
family-work interface
Mobile worker support environments: aligning innovation in
mobile technologies, applications and workplaces for locationindependent cooperation and networking lead support project
for the ‘ami@work’ family of communities
Awareness enhancement for multilingual and multicultural
mobility issues Mobile value chain actors
MOSAIC
SSA
MuliMob
SSA
POMPEI
STREP
P2P location & presence mobile services for crisis
management safety, security, emergency services
PRIME
STREP
Providing real integration in multi-disciplinary environments
game based business simulation for industry
SEEMSE
ED
STREP
Study, evaluate and explore in the domain of the single
electronic European market open seem platform (proof of
concept – pollutant waste industry)
SHARE
STREP
Push-to-share mobile service platform Rescue service
workers
SIMS
SSA
Supporting innovation of SMEs in the mobile services and
application supply business smes developing mobile services
and applications
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DiFac IST5-035079
SNOW
STREP
Authoring & exploitation of multimodal mobile documentation
for nomadic workers Industrial maintenance, repair, overhaul
worker
SOCQUI
T
SSA
Social Capital, Quality of Life and Information Society
Technologies: Evidence-based dynamic modelling support for
the IST Priority Special interest group on IST and social
capital
ULTRA
STREP
Portable augmented reality for industrial maintenance
Industrial maintenance worker
WearIT@
Work
IP
Wearable mobile computing in industrial settings Mobile
worker (e.g. in manufacturing)
CORELA
BS
CA
Coordination of activities towards the establishment of cocreative Living Labs as the foundation of a Common
European Innovation System on several levels
MyCarEv
ent
Mobility and Collaborative Work in European Vehicle
Emergency Networks – deals with new technologies,
applications and services for the automotive aftermarket. Key
area of the project is the mobile service world.
LABORA
NOVA
Next generation Collaborative Tools which will change
existing technological and social infrastructures for
collaborating and support knowledge workers and
eProfessionals in sharing, improving and evaluating ideas
systematically across teams/companies and networks.
Provision of the vision that by 2012 every Professional in
Europe is empowered for seamless, dynamic and creative
collaboration across teams, organizations and communities
through a personalized collaborative working environment.
ECOSPA
CE
IP
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DiFac IST5-035079
APPENDIX D – CWE SYSTEM DEMONSTRATORS
Collaborative Awareness Demonstrators
•
Ami@Work: The on-line collaborative environment of the research communities for new working
environment. It is aiming at providing valuable information about research fields of the different
communities as well as supporting members’ discussion and interaction.
•
SmartGroups: Offering groups a variety of utilities to support CoWorking or CoPlaying. These include a
polling function, table and document sharing facilities, and a group calendar. SmartGroups is WAPenabled and has a friendly, menu-driven graphical interface. Smartgroups is free.
•
eGroups: Offers on-line discussion forums, voice chat, document storage and retrieval, a shared
calendar and group e-mail. Also provides an archive of previous messages along with several other
collaboration utilities.
•
Sift Powering: online communities – best practice, white papers, case studies and links.
•
Uptilt: is a website service dedicated to user participation. Uptilt allows webmasters to proliferate their
sites with fully searchable message boards (threaded and flat), trivia games, multiple polls, event
calendars, email referrals and newsletters - each and all contributing to individual and community
involvement.
•
Lotus: Quickplace IBM offers a build-it-yourself extranet tool for team collaboration.
•
Facilitate.com: provides a suite of tools to support collaboration.
•
GroupSystems: is a pioneer in "best practice automation" specialising in collaborative meeting
technologies.
•
SneakerNet: is a new Internet conferencing service that focuses on remote delivery of multimedia
presentations.
•
4Projects: Providing web based collaboration for project team members, using a centrally located and
maintained information management system.
•
CommunityZero.com provides next-generation web-based community development and hosting services
to Internet users worldwide.
•
WebCrossing provides full-featured virtual community support technology and services.
•
Wiki, according to the people who host the "WikiWikiWeb," is a "composition system; it's a discussion
medium; it's a repository; it's a mail system; it's a tool for collaboration. Really, we don't know quite what
it is, but it's a fun way of communicating asynchronously across the network."
Discussion Forums
•
Grouputer: A unique groupware product from Australia that uses multiple keyboards to allow a group of
people to contribute simultaneously to the group discussion. The screen is divided into windows, one for
each participant. Participants can see each other's anonymous contributions.
•
QuestMap: A "graphical group communication and problem-solving tool" that provides teams with a
means for recording and structuring their dialogue.
•
ezboard: Easy, but not simple. You can create a "free, fully customisable online" CoWorking community.
•
Quick Topic; Supports single topic, asynchronous discussions, allowing you to invite readers to discuss a
piece of work you publish on the web.
•
GeoCities: One of the most popular engines for building discussion groups. Also offers a news server.
•
Groupboard: A free, interactive, multi-user whiteboard, with chat and a message board that you can put
up on your own website.
•
ICQ: The pioneer of free Internet Chat. The ICQ (I Seek You) instant messaging system allows users to
send messages and files and to cut and paste.
•
NeoPlanet: Combines Instant Messaging with a browser.
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Mailing Lists
•
Delphi Offers free e-mail, chat, archiving, search, websites, "expert views" and the ability to send any
message to a friend.
•
GroupVine A free discussion group service where you can join others, or create your own on-line
community.
Document Management and Collaboration
Document collaboration is when you need not just to make files available to each other, but also to support
the continued co-development of that information.
•
CommonSpace A collaborative writing tool designed specifically for enabling a group of individuals to
work together at the same time on a document.
•
MeetingWorks A series of templates for processing agenda items.
•
OpenText A comprehensive knowledge management environment similar to Lotus Notes.
•
Correlate A tool for organizing and sharing knowledge resources.
•
Punch WebGroups and Instant Folders Punch WebGroups is designed specifically to support version
control and tracking.
•
NetDocuments Easy to use web-based document sharing service.
•
My docs online Offers an easy-to-use environment for online storage, retrieval and distribution.
•
Driveway Free access to up to 25 megabytes of secure online file storage and sharing.
•
eFax Transmits faxes electronically, right to your virtual desktop, for instant online retrieval and
paperless storage.
•
Council A Macintosh-based electronic meeting system for enhancing face-to-face meetings. Using a
suite of software tools, participants can brainstorm, vote, record and present information, collaboratively
and simultaneously.
•
SameTime Includes awareness of online users, conversation and document & application sharing.
Collaborative Learning
Planned and used effectively, training and development is an excellent management tool which should not
be overlooked. At the present time the internet is playing an increased role in many aspects of business,
including training and development.
•
Bizwise A business briefing entitled ‘Using the Internet to Train Your Employees.
•
Blackboard, Inc. A free array of tools including chat, document sharing, whiteboard, calendar. Even
though the tools are structured to support US educational objectives, it offers an environment that is
suitable for any application.
•
NiceNet Free, and advertisement-free, virtual
conferencing, calendar, and document sharing.
•
Plato Designed for Computer-Based Education, but it has produced an on-line community due to its
communication features.
classroom
environment
including
messaging,
CVE systems and architectures
Distributed Virtual Environments
Bartlett (2004) from Australia presented a novel and significantly complex categorisation model for DVEs:
implementation architecture and participant observable issues, see below (Figure 68 and Figure 69).
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Figure 68: Bartlett’s CVE categorisation model –
part 1
Figure 69: Bartlett’s CVE categorisation model –
part 2
Augmented Collaborative Spaces and Collaborative Management
Billinghurst et al. (2002) adopted augmented reality technologies for collaborative spaces and collaborative
management. It is pointed out that tangible interaction methods can be combined with AR display techniques
to develop interfaces in which physical objects and interactions are as important as the virtual imagery, as
illustrated in Figure 70 and Figure 71.
Figure 70: Augmented collaborative work space – example 1
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Figure 71: Augmented collaborative work space – example 2
Pingali (2003) from USA elaborated that, as collaborative environments evolve beyond the desktop, they see
the emergence of a new class of augmented collaborative spaces that employ various devices and
technologies to merge electronic information with physical space to support collaboration, both local and
remote. To be effective, such spaces should give people the flexibility to combine their individual resources
with the resources available in the space, while presenting appropriate information, taking into account the
larger process within which a collaborative activity takes place. This demands richer ways of capturing
content and actions, new ways of presenting multimodal information, and developing an architecture and
infrastructure that unifies individuals, spaces, and processes to facilitate collaboration.
The user studies (Figure 72) on a variety of tasks and interface types are provided. Their work in steerable
interfaces (Figure 74) represents a first step in this direction. They have described several examples of the
interfaces (see Figure 73, Figure 75 and Figure 76) that can be produced from taking advantage of these
characteristics and expressions. Despite early promising results, a lot of research work needs to be done
before collaborative AR interfaces are as well-understood as traditional telecommunication technology.
Better display and input devices are needed. Rigorous user studies must be conducted on a variety of tasks
and interface types. Hybrid interfaces integrating AR technology with other collaborative technologies need
further exploration.
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Figure 72: User studies on a variety of tasks and interface types
Figure 73: Example scenario: travel agent able to display route-planning information overlaid on a
physical map
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Figure 74: Steerable projection systems enable the extensive and intricate combination of electronic
information with real objects and space
Figure 75: Example scenario: the customer receives a simplified electronic representation of the
detailed physical map that the agent works with
Figure 76: User in an augmented collaborative space, able to use physical space and objects within
the space as a scratchpad
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Collaborative Augmented Multi-User Environment
Broll et al. (2000) from Germany introduced a new collaborative augmented reality environment - the Virtual
Round Table. This environment is designed to support location-independent mixed reality applications,
overcoming the limitations for collabo-ration and interaction of existing approaches. Moreover it extends the
physical workplace of the users into the virtual environment, while preserving traditional verbal and nonverbal communication and cooperation mechanisms.
The Virtual Round Table (VRT) is an interactive task-oriented cooperation environment based on augmented
reality technology [8]. A prototype of the Virtual Round Table is currently developed and evaluated within the
CAMELOT (Collaborative Augmented Multi-User Environment with Live Object Tracking) project. The Virtual
Round Table environment enables participants of a work group to share a 3D application within their regular
working environment. Dynamic communication processes are supported by the VRT environment in a task
oriented approach. Beside common facial communication the system particularly encourages non-verbal
communication, visual association, and sensorimotor abilities of the work group members.
The basic idea of the Virtual Round Table (Figure 77) is the perspectively correct 3D stereo visualization of a
synthetic scene within the real world working environment of the user using see-through projection glasses.
Augmented reality is used as a key technology to enhance the real world by virtual objects.
They presented their approach of a collaborative virtual environment based on augmented reality
technology. The Virtual Round Table provides an interactive, location-independent, 3D-enhanced working
environment for multiple users. By the use of new interaction techniques based on the combination of real
world objects and virtual world artifacts we provide an intuitive and natural approach to interact with virtual
objects. By that the Virtual Round Table environment extends the user’s workplace into time and (3D-)
space, providing the basis for new types of collaborative applications. Figure 78 provides an example of the
VRT scenario.
Figure 77: Basic architecture of virtual round
table
Figure 78: An example of virtual round table scenario
In their future work they will continue their work with the six-degree-of-freedom MOVY tracker to provide a
high-quality low-cost view-point registration solution. Object tracking will be enhanced in order to provide
information on object orientation in addition to the pure location information. Video-based augmentation will
be further evaluated. The impact on health risks when using head-mounted projection displays within regular
working situations requires further investigation. Initial application scenarios will be tested with selected user
groups to influence the further develop-ment of the user interface metaphor and to ensure the overall
intuitiveness of the approach.
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Distributed Spatial Collaboration
Schafer et al. (2005) from USA investigated a case of an existing group which is interested in rearranging
their lab furniture, although all of the group members are rarely together at the same time to discuss the
changes. Their work designs and evaluates a novel prototype based on a previous one (Figure 79) to
investigate the group’s spatial collaboration needs.
This work addresses the problem of supporting distributed, spatial collaboration. It presents a unique
prototype (Figure 80) that uses multiple representations to enable distributed spatial collaboration. Focusing
on the realistic task, the prototype allows the members of a research group to explore different furniture
arrangements for their lab space. The study confirms the usefulness of multiple representations of the same
space. It demonstrates collaborators choosing the different interfaces to position objects. It also realizes the
utility of offering both similar and different representations. More importantly, it highlights the need for
awareness techniques that transcend multiple representations. Providing additional visual indicators of all
the collaborators in both interfaces would have allowed the participants to communicate between the
representations. Lastly, the study reflects on the need for process support in spatial collaboration solutions. It
offers a unique feature that could allow the collaborators to understand the areas where people are working
and the progress the group is making.
Figure 79: A collaborative map in a previous study used a radar view to display the collaborator’s
viewports
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Figure 80: A collaborative virtual environment investigated combinations of egocentric and
exocentric frames of reference
Immersive collaborative virtual workspace
Swing (2000) from USA presented a prototype of collaborative computing environment created by the
MITRE Corporation, see Figure 81 and Figure 83. CVW maintains a persistent virtual space where users can
communicate, collaborate, or share documents. Audio, video or simple text-based interactions are all
supported within CVW.
The CVW collaborative environment is divided into virtual buildings, each of which has several floors and a
number of rooms on each floor (Figure 82). Typically, the building might be devoted to a high-level
organization or general topic, while each floor is devoted to a specific organization, or more specific topic.
The individual rooms host the actual collaborative sessions.
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Figure 81: Sample CVW screen
Figure 82: CVW Floor Layout: Original (left) and Immersive (right)
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Figure 83: Sample avatars
Team Table for a Continuous Factory Planning
Sihn et al. (2000) from Germany developed a new framework for a round table for integrated rough factory
planning. It focuses on configuration and data management process integration. This enables an online
system performance evaluation based on continuous availability of current data. The new framework is
supported by a planning round table as a tool for team-based configuration processes integrating the
knowledge of all persons involved in planning processes. A case study conducted at a German company
shows the advantages which can be achieved by implementing the new framework and methods.
The backbone fo this new framework is the strong bidirectional link between the configuration process which
supports the process of defining alternatives of the factory structure and the data management system. The
system is based on a new user interface developed by the ETH Zuerich and Tellware. This new interactive
principle enables the direct interaction of a team with the computer system through an image recognition
soft-and hardware solution. The team works on an ordinary table onto which a two-dimensional image of a
planning area is projected, assisted by a three dimensional model which is projected onto the wall. the
marking of objects on the table is done through small bricks with a reflection device. This procedure of
picking the objects is technically realized through a camera scanning the image on the table and recognizing
the reflection device. The configuration of the position and the numbers of the planning resources are
working directly with the new interaction principle. The configuration of an attribution of the resources and an
integration of information on products and processes is realized by placing a smaller brick onto an object.
This smaller brick opens the individual data sheet of the resources and gives the possibility to add or change
the data of the machine and to link processes or products to the machine.
Advanced collaborative platform for professional virtual communities
Ratti (2006) from Italy built a supporting platform (the Advanced Collaborative Platform ACP) for professional
Virtual Communities (PVC) inside the ECOLEAD project. It covers: in defining the identified user
functionalities, arranged accordingly the main life-cycle phases (PVC operations, Virtual Team Creation, and
Virtual Team operations); in defining the reference architecture and the development environment of the
platform for deploying PVC portals; in identifying the peculiar and specific functionalities to the PVC
paradigm.
The ACP will integrate under a unique entry point the social, knowledge and business workspaces which
provide a real innovation in the field of PVC. In particular the preliminary results and the feed back from the
end users demonstrations activated have shown a real need of this collaborative platform. Moreover the
current software results, released with the first ACP prototype, have been satisfactory. Currently then end
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users are testing and validation the first release of the ACP: the result of these activities will be the input for
the next release of the platform planned for March 2007.
Cooperative platforms through heterogeneous communication networks
Shahin (2006) from Italy addressed the concept of cooperative platform where distributed resources (i.e.,
instrumentation and circuits, multimedia archives and applications, desktop) interconnected through
heterogeneous communication network are remotely accessed and configured by users having Internet
connectivity. Perspectives and the experiences made within projects devoted to this topic are reported in this
paper, with the aim to enlighten related issues and present possible solutions. These solutions could provide
great benefits in favour the SMEs for what concern the collaborative design and engineering.
Virtual and augmented reality supporting people consciousness within CWE
Antoniac (2006) from Finland and Italy presented a vision of a virtual space of networked individuals, based
on Virtual & augmented Reality, forming ad-hoc presents a vision of a virtual common interests. The basic
idea is how to connect people and concepts together, what methods to use, and how to make the
collaboration and the exchange of information more fluent and easier to handle. Important issues like how
community and browsing through the people-concepts maps, within a VAR environment, are discussed. A
possible and their benefits into providing much faster and broader access to existing knowledge and people
know-how, thus providing more tools and new technologies to professional engaged into knowledge
intensive work.
Decision support in strategic control on the base of Knowledge Management
Cherniahovskaya (2006) from Russia represented solution of problem of strategic control decision quality
increasing on the base of knowledge management. The hypertext knowledge base for collaborative
knowledge gathering, storing, management and presentation is developed. Objective-cognitive analysis
methodology is presented for the hypertext knowledge base design. This methodology integrates methods of
the objective analysis and design with the Unified Modelling Language, semantic analysis and ontology
analysis of domain. The algorithm of the case based reasoning for the decision support is presented. There
is also shown the sample of application of intelligent decision support system in education process.
Secured open source-based set of tools for collaborative networks
Hartescu (2006) from Romania presented a secured open source-based set of tools managing and
disseminating documents in heterogeneous software (source code files, database objects, graphical objects,
text files etc) for collaborative networks.
The paper motivates the utilization of open source models for the maintenance and adaptation of the
application or generic software. It describes the representation of the software in Internet computing, the
architecture of the open source-based XML repository manager and the most important issues for its
implementation.
The system uses encrypting and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can access
the collaborative network and the data cannot be intercepted. It sues secure socket connection (SSL) to
transmit all sensitive information during confidential processes.
The application has been tested in an integrated system, with several servers running Windows 2000 and
Linux, connected in a collaborative network. The system was configured easily, and it has worked very fast
because the communication protocol transmits just the information needed.
The systems targets cover three areas:
•
Content engineering: is a cooperative task of experts in the domain of SMEs management and
information specialists from the IT and multimedia domain. Their outputs are digital modules, consisting
of the combination of the management methods, realized by advanced IT solutions.
•
Platform engineering: generate the technical framework, supporting the management process and ebusiness. The platform engineering is based on available standards and methods and executed by
integration for IT specialists and IT solutions.
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•
Business engineering: is a collaborative work which integrates all the activities of the management and
IT professional partners. The target of the business engineering is to offer new management solutions,
via the modern methodology and technology.
•
The systems uses encryption and other security mechanisms to ensure that only authorized users can
access the collaborative network and the data cannot be intercepted.
CVE Applications
Distributed design in virtual environment
Daily, et al. (2000) from USA described the integration of several components to enable distributed virtual
design review in mixed multi-party, heterogeneous multi-site 2D and immersive 3D environments. The
system provides higher layers of support for collaboration including avatars, high fidelity audio, and shared
artifact manipulation. The system functions across several interface environments ranging from CAVEs to
Walls to desktop workstations. At the center of the software architecture is the Human Integrating Virtual
Environment (HIVE) , a collaboration infrastructure and toolset to support research and development of
multi-user, geographically distributed, 2D and 3D shared applications. The HIVE functions with VisualEyes
software for visualizing 3D data in virtual environments. They also describe in detail the configuration and
lessons learned in a two site, heterogeneous multi-user demonstration of the system between HRL
Laboratories in Malibu, California and GM R&D in Warren, Michigan.
This paper describes the integration and application of capabilities developed at HRL Laboratories and
General Motors Research & Development Center (GM R&D) in a system for Distributed Design Review In
Virtual Environments (DDRIVE) (Figure 84). A central goal of the effort was to extend the single site
functionality of GMR&D’s visualization software by constructing a prototype collaboration environment to
match the performance of the available network and computing infrastructure. Collaboration infrastructure
development to support seamless integration of a range of collaboration applications was emphasized.
This paper has described a complex system (Figure 87) enabling a widely distributed collaborative virtual
environment, as well as a number of lessons learned and technical details of importance in implementing
these types of systems. The application of distributed design review in virtual environments (Figure 85 and
Figure 86) motivated the development of key aspects of the system. The DDRIVE system provides an early
concept demonstration.
Figure 84: Components of the DDRIVE system
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Figure 85: The CABANA in CAVE mode
Figure 86: A perspective view rendering of a HIVE collaboration session
Figure 87: Software components of DDRIVE
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Distributed virtual environment for designing original products and crafted objects
Nishino et al. (1999) from Japan proposed a new approach (Figure 88) to collaboratively designing original
products and crafted objects in a distributed virtual environment. Special attention is paid to concept
formulation and image substantiation in the early design stage. A data management strategy and its
implementation method are shown to effectively share and visualize a series of shape-forming and modeling
operations performed by experts on a network (Figure 89, Figure 90 and Figure 91). A 3D object
representation technique is devised to manage frequently updated geometrical information by exchanging
only a small amount of data among participating systems. Figure 92 and Figure 93 give the client structure
and the prototype system organization.
Figure 88: Gesture based 3D object modeling system
Figure 89: Server-dependent data sharing method
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Figure 90: Proposed data sharing method
Figure 91: 3D data sharing mechanism and procedure
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Figure 92: Client system structure
Figure 93: Prototype system organization
CVE for Feature based Modeling
Tang (2004) from USA and China proposed a new method to solve the conflicts and define a process for
non-locked multi-user collaborative design. Based on this method, we have implemented a prototype system
integrating C++, Java3D and VML, CORBA technologies to achieve flexibility and efficiency in CVE for
feature based modeling. They presented a new method to overcome the above problems and to build a
multi-user CVE for feature based modeling. They described the system architecture (Figure 94 and Figure
95) analyzed the system interactive graph of multi-user collaborative modeling and define some terms
involved, analyzed the feature operations occur on the server side, and presented their method to solve
conflicts and to reduce network traffic costs, presented the implementation details of our prototype system to
test the method.
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Figure 94: The architecture of CVE for feature-based modelling
Figure 95: CVE system modules
Shared VR for Concurrent Design of Assembly Systems
Reinhart et al. (1999) from Germany described a shared virtual system which enables the concurrent design
of (not only) assembly systems. It allows two or more participants to get connected and to examine the
virtual model of an assembly system. Changes made to the model by any participant, like grasping and
studying geometric objects or starting and stopping robot programs, are distributed to every connected
system. Through this tool, solutions can be found very quickly, whenever there is a need for a short dated
coordinated decision. The shared virtual environment focuses on the cooperation occurring during the threedimensional planning of assembly systems. Working with the system is divided up into four major steps: 1)
Notifying your collaboration partners that you want to initiate a conference; 2) Initial setup of the system at
every site; 3) Testing, discussing and possibly modifying the virtual assembly system; 4) Making the right
decision and finish the conference.
The shared virtual environment was implemented using the commercially available 3D simulation system
AnySIM as the underlying 3D assembly planning environment. VR devices can be used for visualization and
interaction with an assembly layout in AnySIM.
The first application of the shared virtual environment was done within a demonstration of the Institute for
Machine Tools and Industrial Management (iwb) held on the SYSTEMS fair in Munich in October, 1998. The
scenario chosen for the demonstration consisted of two collaborating partners working with it. One user took
the role of a manufacturer of assembly systems, the other the role of the principal who wants to take a look
at the current state of assembly planning. On the assembly system a drill machine should be assembled.
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Multiscale Collaboration in Virtual Environments
Adding multiscale capabilities to collaborative virtual environments can potentially help people work on very
large electronic worlds. Zhang et al. (2003) from USA introduced the implications and design of mCVE
systems, and then focused on a study of the effectiveness of a mCVE in supporting a cross-scale task. Their
experiment shows that user performance on cross-scale tasks is needed improved.
CVE for educational applications
Kirner et al. (2001) from Brazil presented a Collaborative Virtual Environment (the CVE-VM, see Figure 96,
developed to support educational applications involving collaborative learning (the client interface is shown in
Figure 97). CVE is a multi-user, distributed system that works on the Internet and intends to improve and
facilitate learning, according to the concepts of constructionism. The much reduced number of similar
systems presently available motivated the development of CVE-VM. Moreover, educational applications can
be extensively improved with the use of Collaborative Virtual Environments, primarily if the are available on
the Internet.
The article intended to contribute to the development of such Collaborative Virtual Environments, so the
article focused mainly on logical design and implementation aspects.
CVE-VM represents a very useful experience of developing Collaborative Virtual Environments, mainly in
Brazil. Future already planned work includes the refinement and improvement of the system, such as:
•
Add sound and graphical resources in the Chat;
•
Enhance the message changing, aiming o get a better system performance;
•
Include a module to make possible the analysis of the behaviour of system users and
•
Extend the Virtual World Library to enable the construction and exploration of new virtual worlds related
to different themes;
•
Test the system in schools, aiming to identify its usability and contribution to the learning process of
children and teenagers students.
Other improvements are also being considered, such as:
•
Use of more realistic avatars, presenting real faces obtained by photos of the users;
•
Use of an authoring tool added to the system, to allow the collaborative construction of new objects;
•
Generation of new versions of the system using alternative software, like Java3D and X3D;
•
Search for new educational applications, such as on-line games.
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Figure 96: CVE-VM system overview
Figure 97: Client Interface
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Collaborative working in a large pharmaceutical company
Evans (2005) from UK presented the ongoing case study of a large pharmaceutical organization currently
undertaking a number of changes to their work practices. These collaborative changes are being facilitated
by groupware systems. In many instances this has led to the rejection of or resistance to the more complex
tools. The paper outlines research based on a perspective informed by Structuration theory, that provides
the organization with an approach to supporting staff in this new ‘collaborative environment ’. An example,
drawn from the case study, shows how such support might be developed and presents a set of
recommendations for supporting a particular group, based on this research schema (Figure 98 and Figure
99).
The paper presented details of an ongoing case study in the manufacture and supply department of a large
pharmaceuticals organization. This organisation has recently begun to roll out a wide variety of groupware
with the explicit aim of developing and sustaining a new ‘collaborative culture ’. Employees, in many cases,
have been asked to alter their expectations of their work processes. This research aims to provide a means
of supporting this change through the development of a sensitizing approach, or schema, based on
Structuration Theory, for coaching users of groupware.
Figure 98: Structural schema representing the focal elements of research
Figure 99: The duality of structure
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Knowledge-based collaboration in Construction Industry
Sorli (2006) from Spain, Portugal, and Germany: this paper focuses on the topics of Communities &
Networks but it also covers some issues on Collaborative Enterprises, Collaborative Process & Workspaces,
and Business to Business networks. It is based mainly on the collective project Know construct (COLI-CT2004-500276) starting in March 2005. the project aims to develop a common internet-based platform for
SMEs from the construction sector to provide an effective combination of two general functionalities: an
innovative decision making support system regarding the products characteristics, application and other
consultancy services for SMEs’ customers applying the “web enabled dialogue”, and a system for SMEs to
support an advanced form of co-operation through the creation of Knowledge Communities of SMEs in
Construction Industry. The system supports the integration, management and reuse of the area specific
knowledge via a common knowledge base. The system is intended to be used with in the Associations to
collect and exchange the business area specific knowledge among the members (SMEs) in a form of
essential expertise, reachable anywhere, at any time.
Shared workspace to support interpersonal knowledge connection
Pallot (2006) from Italy, Germany, and Bulgaria presented a virtual space of networked individuals within online communities through the integration of several technologies, namely shared workspace, wikis, and
blogs, to better support interpersonal knowledge connection. While shared workspace technology has been
widely deployed to support project teams, very little has been done so far regarding the use of wiki and blog
technologies in the context of supporting on-line communities (e.g. Wikipedia) of knowledge workers. The
main idea of this paper was to integrate those technologies together and to use the resulting collaborative
environment as knowledge networking instrument where formalised concepts and members’ profile are key
components to support people-concepts networking. Overall this kind of technology integration could be
providing much faster and broader access to existing knowledge and people know-how, thus providing more
opportunities or alternatives to professionals engaged into knowledge intensive work.
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APPENDIX E – COMMERCIAL APPLICATIONS OF
COLLABORATIVE MANUFACTURING
One commercial platform that enables organizations to achieve seamless integration in manufacturing
systems by building specific solutions on existing or legacy ERP (Enterprise Resource Planning), MES
(Manufacturing Execution Systems) systems is the one from Wripo Company. Wipro's Collaborative
Manufacturing Enabler is a layered solution using a messaging bus middleware as a network layer and
connects to various applications through adapters (Wipro 2006). Applications communicate, publish, listen or
subscribe to, messages from the bus. Data is thus published only once and distributed to all applications.
The characteristic features of the tool are the Application Connectivity which is about providing integration
middleware that allows information to flow between applications and ability to determine appropriate
destination for the information flow; the process integration that supports business processes and manages
based on runtime data ensuring that processes are within boundaries of parameters. Process integration
allows actions of applications to be controlled from a centralized middleware solution and the modelling and
monitoring that enables organizations to collect, view and analyse data from runtime systems thus effectively
providing necessary information for continuous process improvement
ARC Advisory Group has developed a Collaborative Manufacturing Manager (CMM) which provides a useful
model for manufacturers, regardless of their particular circumstances, to help think through all the
complexities of collaboration that they need to consider. CMM establishes the idea that emerging
technologies and business process management practices can be applied almost universally to obtain
significant benefits (ARC 2006). It connects critical applications, production systems, and enterprise
information, to maximize the responsiveness, flexibility, and profitability of the manufacturing enterprise, in
conjunction with its value network partners.
A very promising tool (Figure 100) is OneSpace.net of the CoCreate Company (CoCreate 2006).
OneSpace.net is an internet-based collaboration and connectivity solution that makes it easy to bring
suppliers, remote team members, and customers together into a project. This tool generates accurate
representations of 2D and 3D product designs that anyone can view, mark up, and measure. Also enables a
safe web space where new projects can be created, data can be exchanged and roles can be managed. A
meeting centre exists where team collaboration members can schedule online meetings and interact in realtime using engineering applications (such as MCAD, ECAD and CAE analysis) and Microsoft Office
applications.
Another commercial tool (Figure 101) is eDrawings Professional (Pappas 2006). The tool enables the
effective collaboration with everyone involved in product development by using eDrawings software, the first
email-enabled visualization and communication tool that eases sharing of product design information.
eDrawings files are almost 95% smaller than their equivalent CAD models. The characteristics of eDrawings
are: marking on the file, displaying cross sections, dimension measurement, part transfer, exploding views,
shade, animations, edits ACad DFX DWG SolidWorks files (SolidWorks 2006).
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Figure 100: OneSpace tool
Figure 101: eDrawings Professional
The Windchill ProjectLink platform of PTC (Figure 102) provides a virtual space where many users can
collaborate for the production of a product (PTC 2006). The platform enables the information, data, tasks and
deliverables management, automated New Product Introduction, Advanced Product Quality Planning and
downloading and uploading files via internet (NIST 2006). The following picture shows the Windchill
ProjectLink working environment.
Figure 102: Windchill ProjectLink platform
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