Tanzania small carnivore conservation action plan

Transcription

Tanzania Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan
The Tanzania Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan
Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute
(TAWIRI)
19th-21st April 2006, TAWIRI, Arusha, Tanzania
Sarah M Durant, Charles Foley, Lara Foley, Chediel Kazaeli, Julius Keyyu, Edwin Konzo, Alex
Lobora, Novatus Magoma, Simon Mduma, Godwell E. Ole Meing`ataki, Midala BDVM, Linus
Minushi, Noah Mpunga, Pauline M. Mpuya, Mwemezi Rwiza, Rehema Tibyenda,
Edited by Durant, SM, De Luca, D, Davenport, TRB, Mduma, S, Konzo, E and Lobora, A
Table of Contents
1.
Agenda ....................................................................................................................163
2.
Summary...................................................................................................................164
3.
Introduction...............................................................................................................165
4.
Small carnivore distribution and abundance..................................................................167
5.
How to get information...............................................................................................245
6.
Conservation threats ..................................................................................................251
7.
Conservation and research priorities ............................................................................254
References.........................................................................................................................262
Appendix I List of Participants ............................................................................................269
Citation:
TAWIRI 2009. Tanzania Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan. Pages 162-269 in Tanzania
Carnivore Conservation Action Plan. TAWIRI, Arusha, Tanzania.
162
1. AGENDA
Day 1
Time
08.30-08.45
08.45-08.50
08.50-09.00
09.00-09.30
09.30-09.45
09.45-10.30
10.30-10.35
10.35-11.00
11.00-11.30
11.30-12.30
12.30-14.00
Event
Responsible
Registration
Flora Kipuyo
Official opening
Simon Mduma
Self introduction
All
Meeting background
Sarah Durant
Agreement on the agenda
Alex Lobora
Introduction to small and medium carnivore conservation Noah Mpunga
Group photograph
All
Tea / coffee
Distribution and abundance by species
Alex Lobora
What do we know?
All
Distribution
Density
Trends
Lunch
Current threats to each species
14:00-15:30 Conservation threats to felids and mustelids
15:30-16:00 Tea / coffee
16:00-17:00 Conservation threats to canids, civets, genets and
mongooses
All
All
Day 2
Information and conservation needs
08.30-09.00
09:00-10:30
10.30-11.00
11:00-12.30
12.30-14.00
14.00-15.00
Outline of research methods
Prioritization of information needs: Felids and mustelids
Tea / coffee
Prioritization of information needs: Canids, civets, genets
and mongooses
Lunch
Conservation Needs:
Sarah Durant
All
All
Discussion as to how to address and manage threats to each species
14:30-15:30
15:30-16:00
16:00-17:00
Recommendations for conservation: Felids and mustelids
Tea / coffee
Recommendations for conservation: Canids, civets, genets
and mongooses
All
All
Day 3
08.30-09:30
Summary of previous 2 days:
Distribution, data gaps, threats, information needs
Sarah Durant
Regional Priority setting for research and conservation
09:30-10:30
10.30-11.00
11:00-12:30
12.30-14.00
14:30-15:30
15:30-16:00
16:00-16:30
16:30-16:45
Felids and mustelids
Tea / coffee
Canids, civets and genets
Lunch
Mongooses
Tea / coffee
Summing up
Official closing
All
All
All
Facilitator
Representative from TAWIRI
163
2. EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
This report covers the proceedings of the First Tanzania Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan
Workshop held at TAWIRI on 19th-21st April 2006. The workshop brought together key
stakeholders to assess existing information and establish a consensus on priorities for research and
conservation for 28 species of small to medium carnivore in Tanzania (excluding cheetah, wild
dogs, aardwolf, spotted hyaena, striped hyaena, leopard and lion, all of which were covered in
other workshops). Recent records were used to confirm the presence of 27 of these species in
Tanzania. These were three species of cats or felids: serval (Leptailurus serval); caracal (Caracal
caracal) and wild cat (Felis silvestris). Five mustelids: Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis);
spotted-necked otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); honey badger (Mellivora capensis); striped weasel
(Poecilogale albinucha); and zorilla (Ictonyx striatus). Four canids: bat-eared fox (Otocyon
megalotis); black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas); golden jackal (Canis aureus); side-striped
jackal (Canis adustus). Four viverrids: common genet (Genetta genetta); large-spotted genet
(Genetta maculata); servaline genet (Genetta servalina); and African civet (Viverra civettina). One
palm civet: two-spotted palm civet (Nandinia binotata). Ten mongooses or herpestids: bushy-tailed
mongoose (Bdeogale crassicauda); Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon); banded
mongoose (Mungos mungo); dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula); marsh mongoose (Atilax
paludinosus); Meller’s mongoose (Rhyncholgale melleri); slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea);
Sokoke dog mongoose (Bdeogale omnivora); Jackson’s mongoose (Bdeogale jacksoni) and whitetailed mongoose (Ichneumia albicauda). Records were received for an additional species: miombo
genet (Genetta angolensis) need verification. Two of the species listed are classified as threatened
by IUCN: Jackson’s mongoose and Sokoke dog mongoose.
The records from the Tanzania carnivore database were used to compile distribution maps for
each species. The diversity of Tanzania’s carnivores is impressive; however there is very little
information on most species. Nonetheless, a number of threats were identified, which were listed
as due to decreases in prey availability, land use change, anthropogenic killing, inadequate
management, disease and domestic animals. Different species had varying vulnerability to each
threat which is likely to be, at least in part, mediated by interspecific competition with other
carnivore species. There is a need to obtain further information on distribution, ecological
requirements and threats for most species. It is important that Tanzanians are informed about
how to identify the different species, and a bank of DNA and tissue and representative specimens
was prioritised to provide a resource to aid research and identification. National and regional
conservation priorities were listed for 18 species: caracal; serval; wild cat; spotted-necked otter;
African clawless otter; striped weasel; golden jackal; side-striped jackal; black-backed jackal; bateared fox; African civet; Two spotted palm civet; servaline genet; miombo genet; Meller’s
mongoose; marsh mongoose; Sokoke dog mongoose; and Jackson’s mongoose. A further four
species were listed as not threatened, but have realised or potential economic importance: honey
badger due to conflict with honey gatherers; banded mongoose due to conflict in some areas with
ground nut farmers; and white-tailed mongoose and Egyptian mongoose due to a potential
benefits from the ability of both species to control rodent populations. Another four species were
listed as unlikely to be threatened, however information needs were identified, largely to do with
establishing extent of distribution and genetic phylogeny: common genet; large-spotted genet;
slender mongoose; and bushy-tailed mongoose. The remaining two species were listed as not
threatened and no national or regional priorities were identified: zorilla and the dwarf mongoose.
Managers need information on the status and threats of all these species to plan management
activities, mediate conflict where it exists, and enable conservation. The priorities laid out in this
action plan report provide a first step in this process which, when implemented, will aid the
conservation of the species covered in the plan and improve our understanding of the
requirements of each species.
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3. INTRODUCTION
The First Tanzanian Small Carnivore Conservation Action Plan Workshop was held 19th-21st April
2006 in the meeting room of the Tanzania Carnivore Unit, at the Tanzania Wildlife Research
Institute (TAWIRI) headquarters in Arusha. The workshop brought together stakeholders to assess
existing information and set priorities for the conservation of 28 species of small to medium
carnivores in Tanzania. These are three species of small to medium sized felids or cats: serval
(Leptailurus serval); caracal (Caracal caracal) and wild cat (Felis silvestris). A total of five
mustelids, including two species of otter: Cape clawless otter (Aonyx capensis) and spotted-necked
otter (Hydrictis maculicollis); one badger, the honey badger or ratel (Mellivora capensis); and two
species of weasel or polecat: striped weasel (Poecilogale albinucha) and zorilla (Ictonyx striatus).
Four species of canid: bat-eared fox (Otocyon megalotis); black-backed jackal (Canis mesomelas);
golden jackal (Canis aureus); side-striped jackal (Canis adustus). Five species of viverrids including
the genets and civets: common genet (Genetta genetta); large-spotted genet (Genetta maculata);
miombo genet (Genetta angolensis); servaline genet (Genetta servalina); and one civet, the
African civet (Viverra civettina). One species of palm civet: the two-spotted palm civet (Nandinia
binotata). Finally, there are ten species of mongoose or herpestid: bushy-tailed mongoose
(Bdeogale crassicauda); Egyptian mongoose (Herpestes ichneumon); banded mongoose (Mungos
mungo); dwarf mongoose (Helogale parvula); marsh mongoose (Atilax paludinosus); Meller’s
mongoose (Rhyncholgale melleri); slender mongoose (Galerella sanguinea); Sokoke dog mongoose
(Bdeogale omnivora); Jackson’s mongoose (Bdeogale jacksoni) and white-tailed mongoose
(Ichneumia albicauda). Two these are classified as threatened by IUCN, Jackson’s mongoose and
Sokoke dog mongoose. Four species of carnivore are not documented in Tanzania, although they
have distributions that border the country. It is possible they occur in Tanzania, although it should
be stressed that there is no evidence for this as yet. These are the golden cat (Profelis aurata); the
Congo clawless otter (Aonyx congica); the long snouted mongoose (Herpestes naso); desert dwarf
mongoose (Helogale hirtula). There are a further seven species of carnivore in Tanzania, cheetah
(Acinonyx jubatus), lion (Panthera leo), leopard (Panthera pardus), wild dog (Lycaon pictus),
spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta), striped hyaena (Hyaena hyaena) and aardwolf (Proteles
cristatus) which have been covered in separate action plans (TAWIRI 2007a; 2007b; 2007c;
2007d).
Fig. 1
Participants at the meeting, from back and starting from left. Back row: Lara Foley, Noah Mpunga.
Middle row: Novatus Magoma, Rehema Tibanyenda, Pauline M. Mpuya, Sarah Durant, Charles Foley,
Simon Mduma, Linus Minushi. Front row: Julius Keyyu, Alex Lobora, Mwemezi Rwiza, Edwin Konzo,
Midala.
165
TAWIRI, through the Tanzania Carnivore Project, has been collecting information on all carnivores
in Tanzania including those listed above since 2002. Despite this effort, information on most small
to medium carnivore species in the country is still limited, making it difficult to plan for their
conservation. This workshop aims to document what we currently know about the status of these
species and their conservation across the country and to set priorities for future research and
conservation. The workshop was attended by 16 participants from TAWIRI, Wildlife Division (WD),
Tanzania National Parks (TANAPA), Ngorongoro Conservation Area Authority (NCAA), Forestry and
Beekeeping Division (FBD) together with experts from WCS’s Southern Highlands Conservation
Programme. These proceedings form a chapter for the small carnivore section in the Tanzania
National Carnivore Conservation Action Plan.
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4. DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE
The Tanzania Carnivore Project has been collecting information on the distribution of all species of
carnivore across the country since 2002 through its Carnivore Atlas project. Of the 28 species
judged to be resident and hence covered in this report, there is at least one reliable recent record
for all species. The majority of the information contributed to the atlas project is from the northern
sector, principally due to the better infrastructure and higher number of visitors in the region;
whereas, data from the south, west and central regions are more limited.
The group agreed on the following regions as the basis for regional analysis:
Northern region - Serengeti, Maswa, NCA, LGCA, Kilimanjaro, Mt Meru, Mkomazi
This region also includes the area around lake Natron.
Maasai steppe - Tarangire, Manyara, Simanjiro, Mkungunero
Northwest and central region - Ugalla, Mahale, Minziro, Bukoba, Rubondo, Singida, Dodoma,
Tabora, Moyowosi/Kigosi
Rukwa-Lukwati - includes Katavi, Ruaha, Rungwa, Lwafi
Selous-Niassa - includes Mikumi, Lindi
Coast - includes Mtwara, Zanzibar and Saadani
Southern Highlands - includes Mbeya, Rungwe, Kitulo, Mpanga/Kipengere
This region also includes the Livingstone mountains and Usangu Game Reserve.
Eastern Arc Mountains - includes Usambaras, Uluguru, Udzungwa
This region also includes the north and south Pare mountains, Nguru’s Nguu and Rubehos.
These regions are more detailed than in the other carnivore reports within the national Carnivore
Conservation Action Plan, reflecting a higher habitat and area selectivity for several of the species
covered in this report. The group explored and summarised evidence for species distribution within
each region. Information on distribution was obtained from a number of different sources including
the Tanzania Carnivore Atlas database at TAWIRI, published literature, unpublished reports,
workshop participants and personal communications. Information is separated into ‘historical
records’ more than 10 years old and ‘recent records’ obtained within the last 10 years.
4.1 The serval: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Leptailurus serval
Other names in use in Tanzania: Serval (English), Mondo (Kiswahili)
CITES: Appendix II. 2006 Tanzania quota: 160 live animals.
IUCN Red List: least concern (2001), with an overall downward trend.
Fig. 2. Serval
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Physical description.
The serval (Leptailurus serval) is a medium sized cat, a pale sandy colour, with bold elongated
black spots that merge into longitudinal stripes on the back and legs. Black morphs (melanistic
forms) are not uncommon in Tanzania. The coat can also have a small spotted pattern, not
dissimilar to that of a cheetah, but this pattern has not been recorded in Tanzania. The tail is
relatively short, compared to the other two spotted cats in east Africa, leopards and cheetahs, and
the species is substantially smaller with relatively long legs. The ears are very prominent, and are
characteristically marked on their back by bold large white spots on a black background. The
species has a head and body length of 67-100cm and a tail length of 24-35cm. Males are slightly
heavier than females, weighing 13kg (range 10-18kg) compared to an average of 11kg (range 8.712.5kg) for females (Kingdon 1977). Whilst a number of different subspecies have been described,
partly because of the wide variation in coat pattern, the current thinking is that all servals in subSaharan Africa are one subspecies: L. s. serval (Nowell and Jackson 1996; Skinner and Smithers
1990). They have five digits on the front feet, however the fifth digit is a dew claw, set far back
from the main digits and does not mark the spoor. The hind feet have 4 digits. The claws are
retractable and do not appear on spoor unless in slippery ground. The dental formula is 3/3-1/13/2-1/1=30.
Ecology
Servals are found in savannah habitat and grasslands, but are also common in montane habitats
including bamboo and forest, as long as they include grassy glades or moorland. At lower altitudes
they can be found along margins of forests and in reedbeds and marshes (Kingdon 1977). They
can also be found in cropped fields (Msuha pers. comm.), and hence are potentially able to adapt
to changing land use patterns from pastoral to agricultural land. Their diet includes a wide range
of small mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians and insects (particularly termites, beetles and
grasshoppers) (Kingdon 1977; Nowell and Jackson 1996). Those recorded are: murid species
Mastomys, Arvicanthis, Lemniscomys, Dasymys; mole rates, Tachyoryctes and Cryptomys; ground
squirrels, Xerus erythropus; and cane rats, Thryonomys. Birds recorded as prey are: Quails,
Coturnix; spurfowl, Ptermistes; guineafowls, Numidia; bustards, Otidae (Kingdon 1977; Nowell and
Jackson 1996) and Abdim’s storks (Sphenorhynchus abdimii) in northern Tanzania (Geertsema
1985; Barrett and Newman pers. comm.). They have also been recorded eating other carnivores
such as dwarf mongoose (Durant pers. obs.) and vegetables and fruits (Kingdon 1977) and were
reported to often take domestic livestock such as chickens, goats and sheep in some regions
(Davenport pers. comm.). They sometimes cache food.
Geertsema’s study of individually recognised servals in Ngorongoro crater in the 1970s remains the
most detailed study of serval ecology to date (Geertsema 1985). Of the prey species she recorded,
larger rodents are preferred; in Ngorongoro crater, the main species taken were swamp and Nile
rats, and frogs (Geertsema 1985). Prey are located by sight and hearing, using the servals
specialised ears. Once located, rodents are caught by jumping on to them on the ground, large
prey are stalked by eye to as close as possible followed by a short rush – chases are usually much
less than 100m, and birds are caught using an often spectacular leap where the bird is grabbed
from the air by the front claws, or a short charge on the ground. In the crater servals were largely
crepuscular (Geertsema 1976; 1985), however both diurnal and nocturnal prey have been
recorded in the diet elsewhere, suggesting that in some areas they may be nocturnal (Kingdon
1977; Van Aarde and Skinner 1986), but this may be due to human disturbance (Bowland 1990).
The species is solitary and thought to be territorial. Females and males may differ in terms of
faecal marking, as in captivity females tend to mark the same place, whilst males exhibit a more
random pattern (Kingdon 1977). There is very little known about wild servals, however
Geertsema’s study in Ngorongoro crater estimated territory size of at least 11.6km2 for one male,
which overlapped with the ranges of at least two females (Geertsema 1976, 1985). Home ranges
in southern Africa have been recorded as substantially smaller at between 2-3km2 for two male
servals (Van Aarde and Skinner 1986) and substantially larger at 15-30km2 (Bowland 1990).
168
Mortality and reproduction
Servals give birth to 2-3 young in a well hidden lair in dense vegetation, a hollow tree or down a
hole (Kingdon 1977). The maximum litter size has been variously noted as 5 (Kingdon 1977); 4
(Wackernagel 1968) and 3 (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Out of 20 litters in captivity, litter size
averaged 2.35 cubs (Wackernagel 1968). Gestation is 73 days (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In
Uganda and eastern DRC there appear to be two birth seasons which coincide with the wet
seasons, in March-April and again September-November (Kingdon 1977), however in Ngorongoro
crater the birth season appears to be in the mid to late dry season, probably so that the rains
coincide with the period when the cubs are older but still dependent, and require more
provisioning (Geertsema 1985). Cubs are blind and helpless when born. They have been recorded
as reaching 19 years in captivity (Nowak 2005) and at least 11 years in the wild (Geertsema pers.
comm.). Cubs are independent at around 6-8 months, and may stay within their natal range for up
to and over their first year (Geertsema 1985). Age at sexual maturity in captivity is 18-24 months
(Nowell and Jackson 1996).
Causes of mortality are little known. Servals are probably subject to most feline diseases, but there
is little information. Leopards and cheetah have been seen to pursue servals (Kingdon 1977;
Durant pers. obs), although there are no records of deaths in this way. Domestic dogs may also
chase and kill servals. The skin of the species can sometimes be sold as a young leopard making
the species potentially vulnerable to resumption in the fur trade.
Distribution and habitat
The serval’s broad habitat preference means it has a widespread distribution across sub-Saharan
Africa, and is thought to occur across the Sahelian belt south of the Sahara, and through east and
southern Africa. It is excluded only from the central and west African forests, and the deserts of
southern Africa, north Africa and the horn of Africa. Proximity to water is thought to be essential,
together with adequate cover, presumably for hunting and lying up during rest periods (Van Aarde
and Skinner 1986). Whilst the species used to occur north of the Sahara, there are only a few
relict populations in the Atlas Mountains and northern Tunisia (Nowell and Jackson 1996). It is
thought to have a widespread distribution in Tanzania (Kingdon 1977; Skinner and Smithers
1990).
Widespread across the Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Conservation Area and recorded in
the Loliondo Game Controlled Area immediately to the east of Serengeti National Park and to the
east and west of lake Natron (Fig. 3). There are also records from Kilimanjaro National Park from a
camera trapping survey in 2004-5, where 42 sightings were recorded in the forest and plateau
over 1001 days, including 9 sightings of melanistic servals. There were no records from Maswa,
Grumeti and Ikorongo Game reserves, although the species is probably present. In a recent
camera trap survey in Arusha National Park over 1073 camera trap days no servals were recorded.
There are no recent records from Mkomazi, however the species was recorded there in the late
1990s (Eltringham et al. 1999).
Maasai steppe - Tarangire, Manyara, Simanjiro, Mkungunero.
There are records from Manyara National Park and from Tarangire National Park (Fig. 3), including
three sightings from a camera trap survey in northern Tarangire over 1169 days in 2004-5. A more
recent camera trap survey towards the centre of the park had an even higher number of sightings
(Msuha pers. comm.). There are few records from outside protected areas, but the species has
been observed to the east of Tarangire, and just south of Moshi, There are no records from
Mkungunero Game Reserve, although the habitat should be suitable for the species.
Tabora, Moyowosi/Kigosi.
There are few records from this region (Fig. 3). There is one sighting in Moyowosi Game Reserve,
and there are camera trap sightings (1 photograph out of 653 camera trap days) in a survey in
Mahale National Park. There are no recent records from Tabora, Bukoba, Rubondo, Singida,
Dodoma, Singida, Kigosi Game Reserve or from Minziro forest reserve, despite a recent camera
169
trap survey in the region covering over 1,500 camera trap days. Historically, the species has been
hunted and/or sighted in Ugalla and Burigi Game Reserves (Caro et al. 1998b; Thomas 1962) and
there is a record of a serval to the east of lake Victoria, just south of Minziro Forest.
There are records of serval on the edges of Katavi National Park and Rukwa and Muhesi Game
Reserves, including one on the border of Kisigo Game Reserve. The Southern Highlands
Conservation Programme (SHCP) report the presence of serval south of lake Tanganyika and in
Lwafi Game Reserve (De Luca et al. 2006). However there are no recent records from Ruaha
National Park or Rungwe, Usangu and Lukwati Game Reserves.
There are records of serval from the northern part of the Selous Game Reserve. There is also a
record reported from a game district warden just north of Lindi and one record just east of the
northern section of the Selous, again, reported by a game district warden. There is an older
sighting record from the Kilombero valley (Starkey 1997). The SCHP report serval from Mikumi
National Park (Davenport pers. comm.) but there are no recent records from Lukwika or Manjesi
Game Reserves nor in the entire Selous/Niassa corridor. However Kingdon (1977) reported several
records in the Niassa corridor and it is probable that the species still occurs throughout this area.
.
Fig. 3 Map of records of
servals submitted to the
Tanzania Carnivore Project
since 2002 up until the time
of the workshop. Data
submitted are in two forms,
either
as
direct
GPS
locations, or as a grid square
as identified on the map. The
former data type are plotted
on the map directly, whilst
the latter data type are
plotted at the centre of the
reported grid square.
Leptailurus serval
170
There are no recent or historical records from this region
The SHCP report serval as present on Mount Rungwe and in the Livingstone Mountains (De Luca
and Mpunga 2004). Serval are probably also present in the Usangu plains and in Chunya in Mbeya
region. Kingdon (1977) reports several serval records west, south and southeast of lake Rukwa.
There are no records of the species in this region in the carnivore atlas database (Fig. 3).
There are records of serval in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Fig. 3), including one record
from camera trapping surveys (De Luca and Mpunga 2005a; 2005b) and sightings of M. Menegon
(pers. comm.). There are no recent or historical records of serval in other areas although they are
probably present in many.
4.2 Caracal: Summary of current knowledge.
Scientific name: Caracal caracal
Other names in use in Tanzania: Caracal (English), Simbamangu (Kiswahili)
CITES: African population Appendix II (Asian population appendix I), no quota listed for Tanzania.
IUCN Red List: Least concern but the population is in decline
Fig. 4. A caracal family.
Physical description
Caracals are generally uniformly coloured a tawny brown to brick red, although black individuals
have been recorded (Nowell and Jackson 1996). They are tall with relatively short legs, a broad
head, short tail and very distinctive ears which are topped with black tufts about 4.5cm in length,
which distinguishes the species from the golden cat. The ears have long white hairs within and are
black behind, and their rim and base have crisp black margins which make the ears stand out
against their background (Kingdon 1977). The face is very distinctive, with white on the chin and
throat, and a black line from the eye to the nose. They are the largest of the small cats, with a
head and body length of 76(60-91.5)cm and tail of 23-31cm (Kingdon 1977). Females are lighter
than males, with males weighing 13(7.2-19)kg and females 10(7-15.9)kg in southern Africa
(Skinner and Smithers 1990). The feet have four digits plus one dew claw, which does not show in
spoor, on the fore feet, and four digits on the hind feet. The claws are fully retractable and do not
show on spoor except on wet ground, when they might be extended to grip. Vocalisations include
meows, growls, hisses and coughing calls (Kingdon 1977). There are 2 subspecies in sub Saharan
Africa, with C. C. caracal resident in Tanzania. The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-2/2=24 or 3/3-1/13/2-1/1=30 (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
171
Ecology
The carcacal prefers dry country – woodland, savannah and scrub. It is found in stony deserts, but
avoids sandy deserts. According to studies in southern Africa, caracals take a variety of prey,
ranging from rodents, hares and hyrax to small antelope, occasionally as large as adult springbok
and young kudu (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species is known for its ability to catch birds,
leaping high into the air to knock them down with their paws after they are flushed out from the
ground. They have also been recorded as taking invertebrates and reptiles. The mammalian prey
list includes dik-dik, duiker, hyraxes, hares, various rodents and monkeys (Kingdon 1977). Mean
daily food intake for captive animals has been estimated as 500g for males and 316g for females
(Moolman 1986). There is little published data on caracal from Tanzania, however in the Serengeti
they have been recorded as taking storks (Barrett pers. comm.). Caracals have rarely been
recorded to take carrion, however they have been recorded as scavenging from cheetah, although
only after the cheetah voluntarily left the carcass, and they can be attracted to traps provided bait
is relatively fresh. Caracal have been recorded as caching kills in trees, as with leopards, however
this behaviour is thought to be uncommon (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species is
predominantly nocturnal but is often observed in the day time, particularly in protected areas
(Nowell and Jackson 1996).
In South Africa home ranges of males were recorded as 5.1-48km2, with marked overlap, whilst
female home ranges were 3.9-26.7km2 but with very slight overlap (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
Substantially larger home ranges have been reported in the Negev of Israel, averaging 221km2 for
males and 57km2 for females, with male ranges encompassing several female ranges (Nowell and
Jackson 1996). The species is solitary, although there are occasional observations of groups with
more than one adult, and is thought to be territorial.
Reproduction and mortality
There is little known about the reproduction and mortality of caracals, and what data there is
comes from southern Africa. They are thought to breed all year round with an oestrus of 1-3 days
and a cycle of 14 days (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Gestation is 78-81 days and litter size in
captivity averages 2.2 kittens, ranging between 1-4 (Nowell and Jackson 1996). In the wild the
maximum litter size reported differs between three (Nowell and Jackson 1996) to six kittens
(Kingdon 1977). Kittens are born in a secure shelter, a cave, a hollow tree or down an aardvark’s
burrow (Kingdon 1977). The males are able to breed from 12.5-15 months and the females from
14-16 months in captivity, and they are thought to be able to produce around one litter annually.
They have been recorded as living up to 19 years in captivity, with an age of last reproduction of
18 years. There is little information on mortality, although they have been recorded as being killed
by lions (Pienaar 1969) and they are persecuted in southern Africa. The fur has been reported as
having no commercial value (Kingdon 1977), although elsewhere there are reports of the species
being trapped for its skin (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
Caracals inhabit drier savannah and woodland areas in sub-Saharan Africa, with a strong
preference for more scrubby arid habitats. They do not occur in the central and west African
tropical rain forest belt, but have been recorded in montane forests. In Tanzania their published
distribution covers much of the country, except the northwest, appearing to be excluded from a
line northwest of Katavi National Park, Singida, and Kilimanjaro (Nowell and Jackson 1996).
There are records of the species from south and north Serengeti National Park, and from the
border of the Ikorongo and Grumeti Game Reserves (Fig. 5). There are also records from the west
of Ngorongoro Conservation Area, and outside the protected area system to the east of the park,
west and southeast of Lake Natron. The species is not recorded in Maswa Game Reserve, although
it is likely to be present as the habitat is suitable. There are no recent records of the species from
Kilimanjaro area or Mount Meru but the species has been recorded in Mkomazi National Park.
172
There are published observations around Kilimanjaro (Child 1965; Grimshaw et al. 1995), some of
which are fairly recent, and hence the species is likely to be present in this area.
There are records from Manyara National Park and from Tarangire National Park (Fig. 5). There
are a few records from outside the protected area in Simanjiro – one to the east of Tarangire, and
a couple just south of Moshi. There are no records from Mkungunero Game Reserve. There are
older records which, although few, are widespread across this region (Kingdon 1977).
There are no records from this region (Fig. 5), despite camera trap surveys in Mahale National
Park (653 camera trap days) and Minziro forest reserve (>1,500 camera trap days).
There are recent records of caracal from Katavi and Ruaha National Parks (Fig. 5). However there
are no records from elsewhere in this region, except for a few historical records close to the
southern shore of Lake Rukwa (Kingdon 1977; Vesy-FitzGerald 1964).
Caracal submitted to the
either
as
direct
GPS
Caracal caracal
173
There are no recent or known historical records of the species from this region. However, its
presence in the northern Udzungwas (De Luca and Mpunga 2005a; 2005b) means that it is likely
to occur in Mikumi National Park (see below).
There are no recent or historical records of the species from this region.
There are records of caracal in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Fig. 5), including from
camera trap surveys by De Luca and Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) where the species was photo
trapped once out of 210 nights in a survey of the northern sector of the park. There are no recent
or historical records elsewhere in this region.
4.3 African wildcat: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Felis silvestris
Other names in use in Tanzania: Wild cat (English), paka mwitu (Kiswahili)
CITES: African population Appendix II. 2006 Tanzania quota: 100 live cats.
IUCN Red List: Least concern, but the population is in decline
Fig. 6 Wild cat hunting.
The African wildcat is the common name for the subspecies lybica within Felis silvestris. The
species is very similar in size and appearance to the domestic cat, and the two can be difficult to
distinguish in the field. The background colour of the coat ranges from reddish to sandy yellow to
tawny brown to grey and is typically marked with faint tabby stripes and spots. The tail has several
dark bands and a blackish tip. There is wide variation in colour, but pale forms tend to live in drier
zones and darker forms in more humid areas (Kingdon 1977). There is supposed to be a reddish
or rusty brown tint to the backs of the ears for the group and the pure strain has longer legs than
the domestic cat (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Head and body length is 55(47-66)cm and tail length
is 34(20-38)cm. Males are slightly heavier than females weighing an average of 5(3.7-6.5)kg
compared with 4.3(3-5.5)kg. The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-3/2-1/1=30. As with the other small
cats, the wild cat has 5 digits on the front feet and 4 on the hind feet, however the first digit on
the fore feet is set back and does not show in spoor, whilst all claws are fully retractable and only
show on slippery ground when they might be extended to prevent slipping.
Ecology
Wild cats live in virtually all habitats, from desert and savannah to swamp and forest. They are
primarily nocturnal, but are also active early morning and late afternoon. In southern Africa, where
the species has been most studied, the main prey species are rodents. A variety of birds, reptiles
and amphibians are also taken, as well as other mammals, including young antelope. Insects and
174
arachnids, including solifuges and scorpions, are also frequently taken, but they seldom scavenge
carrion (Nowell and Jackson 1996). The species is solitary, although its relative, the domestic cat,
can be social. It is probably territorial, although there is little data to confirm this.
The species appears to have a distinct birth season in southern Africa, which has been recorded as
September-March (Skinner and Smithers 1990). There is little data from east Africa, although
Kingdon (1977) notes that breeding may take place throughout the year, but is likely to peak in
the wet season. Gestation in captivity has been recorded as 56-63 days (Green 1991) and litter
size in captivity ranges from 1-5. A single study in the wild from 7 females in Botswana estimates
mean litter size as 3.4 with a range of 2-5 (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Kittens are born in a lair in
a hollow tree, hole, rock crevice or under heavy cover (Kingdon 1977). They are born blind, open
their eyes at 1-14 days, and are mobile and active at one month, and accompany their mother
when she is hunting before three months of age (Kingdon 1977). The family will break up when
the kittens reach six months, and they become sexually mature soon after one year old.
Longevity has been recorded as up to 15 years in captivity (Nowell and Jackson 1996). There is
virtually no data on mortality, however wild cats are probably susceptible to all the diseases
affecting domestic cats. They have been recorded as being killed by pythons, and can be killed by
dogs or shot in retaliation for poultry depredation (Kingdon 1977).
The species occurs across a variety of habitats ranging from desert to forest, and has been
recorded at over 3,000m (Kingdon 1977), and is reported to only be absent from tropical rain
forest. Density is likely to vary widely with prey availability as is common with other small cat
species. In Israel a density of 1/km2 was estimated in open oak forest on hilly and rocky ground
(Nowell and Jackson 1996), elsewhere estimates in optimal conditions are thought to be 0.30.5/km2 (Nowak 2005). In east Africa, the home range of a single male wild cat was estimated as
4.3km2 near Nakuru, Kenya (Nowell and Jackson 1996). Densities in the Serengeti National Park
have been estimated at between 0.1-1.0/km2 (Waser 1980). It is probably the most abundant felid
species; however it is threatened by hybridisation with domestic cats leading to an increasing
rarity of pure wild cats.
Previous maps of distribution in Tanzania suggest the species should be widespread across
Tanzania (Nowell and Jackson 1996). However it is likely that areas around urban centres, or
villages, are occupied by domestic wild cat hybrids, and not pure wild cats. Pure strains of wild cat
are now likely to be found only in protected areas remote from humans (Nowell and Jackson
1996), however they are not always easy to distinguish from domestic cats.
There are numerous records of the species from south and central Serengeti National Park, but
none from the western corridor or the north (Fig. 7). There are also no records from Ikorongo,
Grumeti and Maswa Game Reserves. There are few, but widespread, records from Ngorongoro
Conservation Area, and outside the Serengeti protected area system to the east of the park, west
and southeast of Lake Natron. The species has been recorded to the west of Kilimanjaro and north
of Arusha, but there are no records from Arusha National Park, despite an extensive camera trap
survey. The species is listed to occur in Mkomazi Game reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999).
There are records from Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, including camera trap survey
records for the latter (Fig. 7). Outside these protected areas there is limited information, except for
a record south of Lake Eyasi, and a couple of records to the northeast and east of Tarangire
National Park. There are no records of the species from Mkungunero Game Reserve.
There is a single record from Mahale Mountains National Park but no records from Ugalla,
Moyowosi and Kigosi Game Reserves (Fig. 7). Outside the protected areas, there is a single record
175
east of Dodoma, but no further records across the region. The species was not recorded in Minziro
Forest Reserve despite an extensive camera trapping survey in 2006.
There are records of wild cat on the northeast boundary of Katavi National Park, but there are no
records elsewhere in the region, including Rukwa, Lukwati, Usangu, Rungwe, Muhesi or Kisigo
Game Reserves nor in Ruaha National Park (Fig. 7). There is a historical observation from the
Rukwa Valley (Vesey-FitzGerald 1964).
Fig. 7. Map of records of wild
cat
submitted
to
the
either
as
direct
GPS
Felis silvestris
There are records of wild cat from the northern part of the Selous Game Reserve, however there
are no recent or historical records from Mikumi National Park or Lukwika or Manjesi Game
Reserves nor from the entire Selous/Niassa corridor (Fig. 7).
There are no recent or historical records from this region.
The species has been recorded in the Mbeya mountain range and the montane grasslands in
Makete (Davenport and De Luca pers. comm.). There are no records of the species elsewhere in
this region (Fig. 7).
176
There are records of the species from the north of Udzungwa Mountains National Park and in the
vicinity of Iringa (Fig. 7), including records from camera trap surveys (De Luca and Mpunga
2005a; 2005b).
4.4 Spotted-necked otter: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Hydrictis maculicollis
Other names in use in Tanzania: Spotted-necked or spot necked otter (English), fisi maji
(Kiswahili).
CITES: Appendix II, Tanzania has a 2006 quota of 100.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), Vulnerable (1999). The population is denoted as currently
stable.
Fig. 8. Spotted-necked otter.
This otter is usually dark or medium brown with spots and streaks of paler colour on the throat
and underside of the neck and belly. The paws are webbed with claws, but the teeth are small and
specialised for catching fish rather than crustaceans as with the other African otters (Foster-Turley
et al. 1990). The species is slimmer and has a longer tail than the clawless otters. Head and body
length is 46-76cm, tail is 40 (30-51)cm. Males are slightly heavier than females, weighing 5(3.59)kg on average compared with 4(3-5)kg for females (Kingdon 1977). There are five digits on both
hind and fore feet, which are clearly marked in spoor.
There are two subspecies listed for Tanzania H. m. nilotica around Lake Victoria, and H. m.
chobiensis in southwest Tanzania (Kingdon 1997). A variety of vocalisations have been recorded,
including a throaty whistle, common amongst otter species, a short ‘yang’, a loud harsh mewing
call, a bird like chattering that can rise to a trilling noise and a gasping noise which can become a
spluttering snort (Kingdon 1977). The latter is used to express alarm. The dental formula is 3/31/1-4/3-1/2=36.
Ecology
The species depends on fish and hence prefers larger rivers, lakes, swamps and wetlands than the
clawless otters. It has not been recorded in sea water. Haplochromids are thought to be the most
important food fish in Lake Victoria (Proctor 1963). They usually hunt fish of 10-20cm in length,
but have been recorded killing fish up to 60cm (Kingdon 1977). Fish species, other than
Haplochromids, found in their diet include species of Bagrus, Barbus, Clarias, Protopterus and
Tilapia, as well as molluscs, frogs, crabs, waterfowl and other birds, their nestlings and eggs, mice
and aquatic insects and their larvae (Kingdon 1977). They mainly hunt by sight and hence need
clear unpolluted water with numerous small fish, crabs and frogs. Long reeds, grass and bushes
177
are essential to provide cover, and holes or other shelters are also needed. It is largely diurnal or
crepuscular in Tanzania.
The species is one of the more social species of otter, and is frequently seen in groups. There
appear to be quite dramatic seasonal changes in grouping patterns, leading to groups as large as
20 between January to May (Kingdon 1977). There are distinct sexual groupings with young or
non breeding males being driven away from larger groups of males (Proctor 1963). Males are not
tolerated by females and young of less than 3 months, during this time the females are
accompanied only by their young (Proctor 1963). Once the young are mobile the intolerance
breaks down, and families may be joined by young from previous litters (Proctor 1963) - this is
probably when large groups are seen (Kingdon 1977).
Females may have their litters in ‘holts’ in rock crevices, floating papyrus, small islands, and even
in roots or hollow branches of riverine trees (Kingdon 1977), probably in September (Proctor
1963). Gestation is just over two months, and the young stay in the holt for the first two months,
learning to swim as soon as they leave the holt (Kingdon 1977). They stay continuously with the
mother for nearly a year, although they reach adult size at around seven months, and the mother
is fiercely defensive (Kingdon 1977). They attain sexual maturity in their third year. Litter size for
the genus is 1-5, but usually two or three (Nowak 2005).
Not much is known about their mortality, however they do get tangled and drown in fishing nets.
A struggling otter frequently attracts other group members, which also get caught and drown
(Kingdon 1977). The species is reported to be hunted by many people (De Luca and Davenport
pers. comm.). Kingdon (1977) notes that the fur is worn as a wristlet as it is thought to help treat
infections of the eyes or nose. Captive otters have a high mortality, suggesting they may be
subject to a variety of diseases (Kingdon 1977).
The published distribution is extensive, stretching across most of sub-Saharan Africa, but excluded
from arid habitats such as the Sahara desert, the horn of Africa, northeast Kenya, most of central
Tanzania, northern Mozambique, Zimbabwe, South Botswana, Namibia, and much of South Africa
(Foster-Turley et al. 1990). However this distribution probably reflects the lack of information
about the species.
Previous maps of distribution in Tanzania suggest the species occurs along the borders of the
country and by the rift lakes, but is absent from the rest of the country (Foster-Turley et al. 1990).
Kingdon (1977) notes the species as being common in parts of Lake Victoria around rocky shores,
and also occurring in lakes Tanganyika and Nyasa, but lists the species as absent from most of the
eastern rift valley lakes and from many east coast rivers. The species is cryptic and shy and can
easily be confused with the cape clawless otter, making it difficult to gather information on the
species. It is probably much hunted, but may be widely distributed across Tanzania.
The species is listed as occurring in the Serengeti National Park (Sinclair and Arcese 1995);
however we have received no records of it occurring there, except outside the western corridor on
the shores of Lake Victoria (Fig. 9). There is also a record near Musoma, again on the shores of
Lake Victoria, but no records elsewhere in the region.
Among records of otter scat from Manyara National Park (Fig. 9), the presence of fish in at least
one sample suggests spotted-necked otters; however there are no recent or historical records from
elsewhere in the region.
The species has been recorded in Rubondo National Park (Fig. 9), which is one of the most reliable
places to see the species. The species is likely to occur in other areas around Lake Victoria. There
178
is also a record from Moyowosi Game Reserve and a record from Mahale Mountains National Park.
There are two records of the species from the Dodoma region and historical records from Bukoba
and Kagera river (Proctor 1963) and Kaserazi island (Elliot 1940). There is also a historical record
from Ugalla Game Reserve (Thomas 1962).
There is a record for the species from the north of Katavi National Park, but no records from
elsewhere in this region (Fig. 9).
There are no recent or historical records of the species across this region.
There are no recent or historical records of the species across this region.
spotted-necked
otter
submitted to the Tanzania
Carnivore Project since 2002
up until the time of the
workshop. Data submitted
are in two forms, either as
direct GPS locations, or as a
grid square as identified on
the map. The former data
type are plotted on the map
directly, whilst the latter
data type are plotted at the
centre of the reported grid
square.
Hydrictis maculicollis
The species has been recorded on the shores of Lake Nyasa by the SHCP (De Luca et al. 2006),
but there are no records from elsewhere in the region. There are also historical records from
Mbamba bay, Lake Nyasa (Swynnerton 1951) and additionally from the southern end of Lake
Tanganyika (Proctor 1963).
179
The SHCP has recorded the species close to Sao hill in Mufundi District, Iringa region (De Luca et
al. 2006).
4.5 Cape clawless otter: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Aonyx capensis
Other names in use in Tanzania: Cape clawless or African clawless otter (English), fisi maji
(Kiswahili – note this name is the same as for other otter species, though where species overlap
they may be differentiated by local vernacular names).
CITES: Appendix II. 2006 quota for Tanzania: 100 live animals.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), population stable.
Fig. 10 Cape clawless
otter photographed in
Mahale Mountains
National Park.
This species is substantially larger than the spotted-necked otter, it is also stockier and has a
shorter tail relative to body length (Kingdon 1977). It is usually dark brown, however it is paler
ventrally but without the spots and streaks which characterise the spotted-necked otter. The pale
ventral colour stretches up along the side of the face up to the ear edges. It can be easily
confused with the Congo clawless otter, but for this species the pale ventral colour is much paler,
close to white, and there is a clearly defined black mark between the eyes and the nostrils. The
paws are not webbed and claws are almost completely absent. There are five digits on both hind
and fore feet, which are clearly marked in spoor. Head and body length is 72-91cm, tail is 4071cm. Males are slightly heavier than females, weighing 20(18-28)kg on average compared with
18(13-19)kg for females (Kingdon 1977). Young otters chirp continuously, whilst adults make a
loud contact whistle. A meowing wail, which at high intensity breaks into a fierce bark, is reported
to denote mild aggression (Kingdon 1977). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/3-1/2=36.
Ecology
The species can occupy a wide range of habitats, providing there is water, ranging from swamps,
rivers, streams, lakes and estuaries at all altitudes (Kingdon 1977). It has been recorded on sea
coasts as well as near freshwater. It depends mainly on crustaceans, molluscs, bony mudfish of
the silurid suborder and water tortoises. The freshwater crab, Potamonautes, is probably the most
important food in most areas (Kingdon 1977). The range of prey recorded includes mussel-like
Unio spp., large aquatic snails of the genera Pila and Lanistes, catfish Bagrus and Clarias, mud
turtles, Pelomedusa, and frogs, water fowl and eggs, monitor lizard and crocodile eggs, cane rats
and other rodents, and dragonfly larvae (Kingdon 1977). They can subsist in areas where
freshwater crabs are absent (Watson and Lang 2003).
180
The species is less sociable than the spotted-necked otter, and is seldom seen in groups larger
than four or five individuals, and it is nocturnal. Three distinct groups were known to inhabit <5km
of the wooded Ruanda Valley in southwestern Tanzania (Kingdon 1977), but aside from this
observation there is no information on ranging patterns elsewhere in Tanzania. Droppings or
‘spraint’ are placed along water edges, usually at resting spots overlooking water (Kingdon 1977).
On South African coasts, the species has been recorded at densities of 1/1.9km of coast, with dens
spaced at intervals of 470m (Arden-Clarke 1986). A single radio tracked male had a minimum
home range of 19.5km of coast with a core area of 12.0km, whilst a female had a 14.3km home
range with a 7.5km core area, and the home ranges of 4 adult males overlapped completely and
were seen foraging together. This leads to the conclusion that there was a clan-type social
organisation in this species with groups of related animals defending joint territories (Nowak
2005).
Gestation is 63 days, and 2-5 young are born in a holt, which is sited in a burrow, crevice, root or
reed tangle (Kingdon 1977). It is not clear as to whether breeding is seasonal. The young otters
open their eyes at about 4 weeks and emerge from the holt for periods from this time. At one year
old the young lose their woolly fluff and acquire an adult coat. Otters have been killed by
crocodiles and monitor lizards (Kingdon 1977). The species is not thought to be attracted to fishing
nets like the spotted-necked otter, due to its preference to crabs rather than fish, and hence is not
a danger to fisheries. However, like the spotted-necked otter, its fur is prized.
The published distribution is extensive, stretching across most of sub-Saharan Africa, but excludes
very arid habitats such as the Sahara Desert, the horn of Africa, northeast Kenya, Namibia and
Botswana. It is also excluded from the central African rainforest which is occupied by the Congo
clawless otter (Foster-Turley et al. 1990).
Previous maps of distribution in Tanzania suggest the species is widespread across the country
(Foster-Turley et al. 1990). The species is cryptic and shy and can easily be confused with the
spotted-necked otter, making it difficult to gather information on distribution, but it may still be
widely distributed across Tanzania (Fig. 11).
The species was listed as occurring in the Serengeti National Park by Watson (1968) but not by
Sinclair and Arcese (1995). However we have received no records of the species from this region
(Fig. 11).
Among records of otter scat from Manyara National Park, the presence of crustaceans in at least
one scat sample suggests clawless otters; however there are no recent or historical records from
elsewhere in the region.
The species has been recorded in Rubondo National Park, inland, rather than on the lake shore like
the spotted-necked otter (Fig. 11). There is also a record from southern Moyowosi and a clear
photograph (Fig. 10) from Mahale Mountains National Park, which was verified to be the Cape
clawless species and not the Congo clawless. There are also records of the species from the
Dodoma region.
There are records for the species from Katavi National Park and a record from Ruaha National
Park, but no records from elsewhere in this region (Fig. 11). The SHCP has recorded the species in
Lwafi Game Reserve and southern Lake Tanganyika.
There is a record of the species from Mikumi National Park (Fig. 11).
181
There is a single record of the species occurring close to the coast between Dar es Salaam and
Lindi of unconfirmed veracity. However a skin of a specimen caught at Selander bridge in Dar es
Salaam by Richard Lamprey is held in the University of Dar es Salaam museum (Davenport and De
Luca pers. comm.).
The SHCP has recorded the species in the area of the Livingstone Mountains and Mount Rungwe
(De Luca and Mpunga 2004).
There are records of the species around Iringa and in Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Fig. 11)
including from targeted surveys (De Luca and Mpunga 2004; 2005a; 2005b; Rovero and De Luca
2007). A skin of an unusual coloration was found in the Udzungwas (De Luca and Mpunga 2004;
2005a).
the cape clawless otter
square.
182
4.6 Striped weasel: Summary of current knowledge.
Fig. 12 Striped weasel found dead on the road by Tanzania Carnivore Monitoring Unit staff close to
Minziro Forest Reserve.
Scientific name: Poecilogale albinucha
Other names in use in Tanzania: Striped weasel (English), chororo (Kiswahili), njololo
(Kisukuma), mbilis (Maa).
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (1996), population trends not listed.
A black and white striped weasel, similar to the zorilla, except smaller, with the white fur on the
face extending over the top of the face, a completely white tail, much shorter fur and very short
legs (Kingdon 1977). The coat is black with four white and three black stripes down the back, the
legs and underparts are black. It should be noted that the white colour can vary in the same
individual, to light yellow or even a quite deep buff (Kingdon 1977). The head and body length is
25-36cm, the tail 13-23cm (Kingdon 1977). Males are larger than females, in southern Africa
weighing on average 263(218-355)g compared with 173(116-257)g for females (Skinner and
Smithers 1990). There are 5 digits on each foot, however the first digit only shows in spoor of the
fore foot, the hind foot appearing to have only four digits (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Claws
usually mark on the spoor. The species is usually silent but can utter a loud sound between a
growl and a shriek when alarmed, and has several vocalisations associated with threat, defence
and greeting (Nowak 2005). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-2/2-1/1=28.
Ecology
There is very little known about this species. It is almost entirely nocturnal, and is probably rarely
above ground or outside thick vegetated habitat. It is found in a variety of habitats including forest
edge, grassland and marsh (Nowak 2005). It has been suggested that the species depends on
gerbils, blesmols and/or root rats, and is adapted to hunt within their burrows (Kingdon 1977).
Their diet consists mainly of small mammals and birds but also includes snakes and insects. The
weasel catches and kills its prey by grabbing the throat or the neck and hanging on until the victim
is dead. It can capture large prey relative to its body size, including springhare. It kills venomous
snakes by repeatedly provoking the snake to strike, until the snake tires and slows when it is
seized by the back of the head. They have a large appetite, and will eat three to four rats a night
(Kingdon 1977).
The species generally rests during the day within a burrow, which ends in a rounded chamber in
which they hoard prey. The area around the den is usually marked with defecation (Kingdon
1977). They occasionally raid chicken yards and kill and eat the birds. There is no information on
social or ranging behaviour, except that striped weasels have been trapped either as singletons, in
pairs, or in groups including an adult female and up to three young (Kingdon 1977). The species is
able to emit a noxious odour from its anal glands when under stress or attack.
183
Gestation is 31-33 days with a litter size of 1-3 kits. Females are polyestrous and can mate a
second time in a season if their first litter is lost. Kits start taking solid food after 35 days, open
their eyes at 51-54 days, are completely weaned at about 11 weeks, and are nearly full grown at
20 weeks (Nowak 2005). A male has been recorded as first mating at 33 months and a female had
her first litter at 19 months. Longevity is unknown, although there is a report of one individual
living for 5 years after capture (Smithers 1971).
There is no information on mortality; however it is almost certainly at risk from domestic dogs. Its
skin is used for ornaments and medicine.
There is very little information on the distribution of this species. Published records suggest the
species occurs from the north of the DRC to South Africa, but is excluded from Namibia. The
species is thought to be widespread across Tanzania (Kingdon 1977; 2004), but is likely to vary
greatly in local abundance.
Fig. 13 Map of records of the
striped weasel submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
Project since 2002 up until
the time of the workshop.
Data submitted are in two
forms, either as direct GPS
184
There are two records of the species from this region - the edge of Serengeti National Park and
Loliondo Game Controlled Area, and another to the southeast of Lake Natron (Fig. 13).
There is a single recent record of a specimen found dead on the road from this region – from
Minziro Forest Reserve (Fig 12). There are historical records from Bukoba and Tabora (Swynnerton
1951) and from Minziro and Bukoba, between Moyowosi and the Tanzania border, Tabora, Singida
Area and just southeast of Mahale Mountains National Park (Kingdon 1977).
There are no records of the species from this region. There are historical records from the
immediate east of Lukwati Game Reserve (Kingdon 1977).
The SHCP report the species as present in the Rungwe-Kitulo area (De Luca and Mpunga 2004).
There are no records of the species from this region from the carnivore atlas (Fig. 13).
The species has been reported as present in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (De Luca and
Mpunga 2005a; 2005b). There are no records of the species from this region from the carnivore
atlas (Fig. 13).
4.7 Zorilla: Summary of current knowledge.
Scientific name: Ictonyx striatus
Other names in use in Tanzania: Zorilla or striped polecat (English), kicheche (Kiswahili),
Olipilis (Maa), kainai (Kiiraqw), kipoporu (Kichagga), nyilili (Kisukuma).
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 14 Zorilla.
A black and white polecat, similar to the striped weasel except larger and with less white above
the face, much longer fur and a bushy tail, dark at the base. The head and body length is 34(2838)cm, the tail 23(20-30)cm and the weight 1.3(1.02-1.4)kg (Kingdon 1977). The face markings
have been noted as being highly variable between individuals and hence could be used for
individual recognition (Kingdon 1977). They do not vocalise much, grunting occasionally, and
185
growling when alarmed. There are five digits on each foot and all five digits mark the spoor
(Skinner and Smithers 1990). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-3/3-1/2=34.
Ecology
The zorilla has a wide habitat range from woodlands and grass savannahs, to highland areas, but
seems to avoid dense forests (Nowak 2005). Diet appears to centre on beetles and their larvae
and mice, but also includes all small mammals up to the size of a hare, small and medium sized
birds, reptiles and their eggs, frogs and a variety of invertebrates, mainly insects (Kingdon 1977;
Skinner and Smithers 1990). Food is found by scent and is very often dug out of dry dung. The
species is almost entirely nocturnal. Zorillas seem to have a fairly nomadic existence, but nothing
much is known about sociality or ranging behaviour, although they are thought to be solitary
(Nowak 2005).
When the zorilla is distressed or alarmed, it will spray a foul smelling and caustic secretion from
anal stink glands, and may also sham death (Kingdon 1977).
Gestation is 36 days with a litter size of 2-3 kits (Kingdon 1977). The species gives birth in a
burrow which may be natural or dug by the mother. The young are born blind, take solid food
after about 32 days, open their eyes at 40 days, are completely weaned at 18 weeks, and almost
full grown at 20 weeks (Nowak 2005). A male has been recorded as first mating at 22 months and
a female bore her first litter at 10 months. A captive zorilla has been recorded as living over 13
years (Nowak 2005). Zorillas are frequently killed on roads. Diseases are unknown.
There is very little information on the specific distribution of this species, however despite a wide
distributional range it is thought to be nowhere common (Skinner and Smithers 1990). It has a
widespread range across Tanzania (Kingdon 1977).
There are no records of the species from inside the Serengeti National Park, however it is recorded
on the edge of the park to the northeast and west, as well as on the border with Ngorongoro
Conservation Area (Fig. 15). These sightings include camera trap records in Ngorongoro highlands
where the species was trapped frequently (16 records out of 915 camera trap days). There are no
records from Grumeti, Ikorongo and Maswa Game Reserves but several records from the
Ngorongoro highlands around the crater and to the northeast of the Conservation Area. There is a
further record between Ngorongoro and Arusha, and several records in Arusha and Kilimanjaro
National Parks, including camera trap photos during a survey in Arusha National Park. There are
no records from the Lake Natron area or from Loliondo Game Controlled Area with the exception
of an observation on the boundary of the Serengeti National Park. The species is listed as being
present in Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999).
The species has been recorded in Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, and to the west of
Tarangire towards Singida, but nowhere else in the region (Fig. 15).
There are recent records from Mahale Mountains National Park and east of Dodoma, but no
records from elsewhere in the region (Fig. 15). There are historical records from Bukoba and
Tabora (Swynnerton 1951) and from Tabora, Bukoba, north of Kigosi Game Reserve and Tabora
(Kingdon 1977).
There are records from Katavi National Park but no other records from this region (Fig. 15).
There are no records of the species from this region (Fig. 15). There are historical records from
north of Manjesi Game Reserve (Kingdon 1977).
186
zorilla submitted to the
either
as
direct
GPS
There are no records of the species from this region (Fig. 15), however the species was listed as
being present near Lindi nearly 100 years ago (Hollister 1919).
The SHCP report the species as present in the Rungwe-Kitulo area and elsewhere in the Mbeya
region (De Luca and Mpunga 2004) but there are no records of the species from this region from
the carnivore atlas (Fig. 15).
De Luca and Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) report the species as present in the Udzungwa Mountains
National Park. There are historical records from the Usambaras and Pare Mountains (Kingdon
1977). There are no records of the species from this region from the carnivore atlas, except in the
vicinity of Iringa town (Fig. 15).
187
4.8 Honey badger: Summary of current knowledge.
Scientific name: Mellivora capensis
Names in use in Tanzania: Honey badger or ratel (English), nyegere (Kiswahili), nkarungurungi
(Maa), iselle (Kichagga)
CITES: Appendix III/w. 2006 quota for Tanzania: 100 live animals
Fig. 16. Honey badger
The honey badger is a thick-set animal, with grey upperparts, surrounded by a white border, and
black underparts and limbs (Fig. 16). The legs are short and have very large strong claws. The
skin is very loose and extremely tough (Nowak 2005). Anal glands secrete a vile smelling fluid,
used for self defence. Head and body length is 60-77cm, tail length 16-30cm and weight 8(7-13)kg
(Kingdon 1977). The paws each have five digits with long non-retractable claws which mark in the
spoor (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The species is usually silent except for a harsh grating growl
when annoyed (Nowak 2005). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-3/3-1/1=32.
Ecology
Honey badgers occur across a wide range of habitats, ranging from savannah to forest and wet
grasslands. They are largely nocturnal, resting during the day among rocks, in hollow logs or trees,
and in burrows, which it is able to dig itself. They are sometimes also active diurnally, and are
probably flexible in their habits. Its diet includes small mammals, the young of large mammals,
birds, reptiles, including tortoises, arthropods, carrion, and vegetation. Much of the badger’s food
is dug out of the ground by its powerful front legs and claws. Honey and bees are an important
component of the diet, particularly at certain times of the year (Kingdon 1977). Damage to hives
by ratels in central and western Tanzania peaks in July and October, and is low during the rainy
season (Kingdon 1977), suggesting that honey is particularly important in the diet at this time. It is
because of badger’s preference for honey that the species has developed a remarkable association
with a bird – the honey guide (Indicator indicator). The bird will lead a badger to a bee hive by
calling repeatedly using a characteristic call; the badger, on hearing the call, will follow the bird,
and when it finds the hive, break it open and eat the honey. There is always a substantial amount
of honey and insects left over to reward the bird, leading to a profitable symbiotic association.
Honey badgers are primarily terrestrial, but can climb, which they do in pursuit of honey.
Honey badgers are generally seen alone or in pairs. There is little information on social behaviour
or ranging patterns, but they are occasionally seen in larger groups. The species has a well
deserved reputation of being very aggressive and devoid of fear, and has even been known to
steal kills off of adult male lions (Van Lawick pers. comm., Kingdon 1977).
188
There is little information on reproduction or mortality for this species and what there is comes
from outside east Africa. Honey badgers have a gestation period of 153-162 days and produce
litters of 1-4 cubs (usually two) (Hancox 1992). The young are born in a grass-lined chamber and
remain close to the burrow for a long time. They reach puberty at about 1 year old. The species is
known to suffer from canine distemper (Kingdon 1977). The longest lifespan recorded in captivity
was over 26 years (Nowak 2005).
There is very little documented information on the distribution of this species, although occurring
across a wide range of habitat from open, dry savannah to dense forest and from the Cape to
Morocco and Ethiopia, Sudan and Somalia, excluded only from sand desert. It has been recorded
at high altitudes above 4,000m (Sillero-Zubiri 1996). Its range extends east to India and Nepal.
Despite the wide range it is thought to be nowhere common (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The
species is widespread across Tanzania (Kingdon 1977).
There are many records of the species from inside the Serengeti National Park, although these are
largely concentrated in the south of the park where most data contributors are based, and there is
only one record to the north of the park near Klein’s gate, and another record near Ikoma (Fig.
17). There are records from Grumeti Game Reserve and southeast of Maswa Game Reserve, but
no records from Ikorongo Game Reserve. There are many records from Ngorongoro Conservation
Area, particularly the area bordering the Serengeti, but also from the highlands and the northeast
boundary. There are fewer records outside protected areas; however there is a record to the west
of Lake Natron. There are many records of the species in Kilimanjaro and Arusha National Parks,
and the species has been recorded in the latter park during a TAWIRI camera trap survey (one
photo out of 1073 camera trap days). There are recent and historical records from Mkomazi Game
Reserve (Kingdon 1977, Eltringham et al. 1999).
The species has been recorded to the south of Manyara National Park, but not from inside the
protected area. It has also been recorded in Tarangire National Park, including five sightings out of
1169 camera trap days during a camera trap survey, and to the east of Tarangire towards Arusha
(Fig. 17). Although the species has not been recorded elsewhere in the region, the frequency of
observations suggests that it is likely to be present across much of the region.
There are records in Mahale Mountains National Park, Minziro Forest Reserve (including 1 camera
trap record) and east of Dodoma, but no records from elsewhere in the region (Fig. 17). There are
historical records from Bukoba, Burigi Game Reserve, northern Kigosi Game Reserve, and the area
around northern Tanganyika (Kingdon 1977), there is also a historical record from Lake Manyara
National Park (McColaugh 1989).
There are records from Katavi and Ruaha National Parks, as well as from the boundary between
Muhesi and Kisigo Game reserves (Fig. 17). The SHCP have recorded the species in a camera trap
survey in southern lake Tanganyika (De Luca et al. 1006). Kingdon (1977) reports numerous
historical observations of the species close to Lake Rukwa, and Vesey-FitzGerald (1964) also
reports the species to have been present in the Rukwa valley.
There is a single record of the species from this region from the northern Selous Game Reserve.
There are several historical records from the Selous (Kingdon 1977, Caro 1998a), Mikumi National
Park (McColaugh 1989) and Kilombero valley (Starkey 1997).
There is one record of the species close to the coast between Lindi and Dar es Salaam (Fig. 17).
189
There are no records of the species from this region from the carnivore atlas, however the SHCP
have recorded footprints and scat in the Rungwe-Kitulo ecosystem in Mbeya region.
The species has been recorded many times in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, south of the
Udzungwas, and to the north of the Selous (Fig. 17), including during camera trap surveys (De
Luca and Mpunga 2005a; 2005b; Rovero and De Luca 2007). The species has also been recorded
in the Mbatwa and Matundu forests (De Luca and Mpunga 2005a; 2005b; Rovero and De Luca
2007). There are historical records from the Usambaras (Kingdon 1977).
honey badger submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
locations, or as a grid
square as identified on the
map. The former data type
are plotted on the map
directly, whilst the latter data
type are plotted at the centre
of the reported grid square.
4.9 Golden jackal: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Canis aureus
Names in use in Tanzania: Golden or common jackal (English), bweha wa mbuga (Kiswahili)
CITES: Appendix III.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), population trends increasing.
190
Fig 18 Golden jackal.
The golden jackal is a medium sized canid, which has a coat colour ranging from a pale creamy
yellow to a dark tawny hue seasonally. The coat on the back is often a mixture of black brown and
white hairs which can make the species appear to have a dark back similar to the black-backed
jackal. The tail is bushy with a tan to black tip. The legs are relatively long and the feet are slender
with small pads. Mean body mass of 5.8kg for females and 6.6kg for males (Moehlman and Hofer
1997), head to body length in India has been published as ranging from 74-84 cm and tail length
of 20-24cm, however Indian jackals appear to be heavier than east African jackals (Sillero-Zubiri et
al. 2004). There are as many as 12 subspecies described across the range. Vocalisations consist of
a complex howl repertoire beginning with 2-3 low pitched howls and culminating in a high pitched
staccato of calls (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). They are easily induced to howl by other jackals. The
dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/3=42.
Ecology
Golden jackals are omnivorous and opportunistic. Their diet varies according to season and
habitat. In Tanzania, they consume invertebrates, fruit, rodents, lizards, snakes, birds, hares and
Thomson’s gazelle (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). In other areas diets are similarly variable, although
the relative contribution of each component varies markedly. Single jackals hunt smaller prey such
as rodents, hares and birds and use their hearing to locate rodents and then pounce on them by
leaping in the air. They also dig out gerbils from their burrows and have been observed to hunt
young, old and infirm ungulates that can be 4-5 times their body weight (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
2004); however packs are much more successful than single individuals at hunting larger prey.
Golden jackals often scavenge off of kills of other predators, such as lion, leopard, spotted hyaena,
wild dog and cheetah. In some areas jackals are heavily reliant on carrion and garbage. They may
cache food by burying for later consumption. They can coexist with the other two species of jackal,
black-backed and side-striped, probably through resource partitioning.
Their social organisation is reported to be extremely flexible depending on availability and
distribution of food resources (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The basic social unit is a breeding pair of
a male and female, but this can sometimes be accompanied by a current litter of pups and/or
offspring from former litters (Moehlman 1983; 1986; 1989). The species usually forms long term
pair bonds and the pair marks and defends territories together, hunts, shares food and cooperatively rears young (Moehlman 1983; 1986; 1989). Average group size is 2.5 in Serengeti
(Moehlman and Hofer 1997). Scent marking takes the form of urination and defecation around
denning areas and on intensively used trails. Recorded home ranges vary from 1.1-20km2 (SilleroZubiri et al. 2004).
In Tanzania there is a distinct breeding season, with mating typically occurring from October to
December, and pups born after a 63-day gestation in December to March (Moehlman 1983; 1986;
1989). Timing of births coincides with an abundance of food supply – which is close to the start of
191
the long rains in Tanzania. Females typically produce only one litter per year. Pups are born in
underground dens, with 1-3 openings and which are 2-3m long and 0.5-1m deep. Young pups can
be moved between 2-4 dens prior to emergence from the den. Mean litter size is 5.7 (range 1-8)
in Tanzania, with an average of two pups emerging from the den at three weeks old (Wyman
1967). Pups are born blind, but their eyes open at 9 days and their teeth erupt at 11 days after
birth (Moehlman and Hofer 1997). The mother will continue to suckle the cubs for 8-10 weeks.
Both parents and helpers from previous litters help provision and guard new pups. The male also
feeds his mate during her pregnancy and both male and helpers provision the female during
lactation (Moehlman 1983, 1986, 1989, Moehlman and Hofer 1997). The presence of helpers
results in higher pup survival (Moehlman 1986).
Spotted hyaenas have been observed to kill and eat golden jackals, and cheetah have been
observed to chase them, and have killed and eaten other canids such as bat-eared foxes and
black-backed jackals (Durant pers. obs.). It is likely they are vulnerable to other large carnivores in
the ecosystem. Their propensity to scavenge means they are vulnerable to poisoned bait outside
of protected areas. They are commonly killed on roads. They are vulnerable to canid diseases,
such as rabies and distemper, and skin diseases such as mange and ticks and fleas. In Tanzania,
golden jackals have been recorded as showing antibodies to canine parvovirus, canine herpes
virus, canine coronovirus and canine adenovirus (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The maximum lifespan
in the wild was recorded in the Serengeti at 14 years (Moehlman and Hofer 1997).
The species is widespread across Northern Africa stretching as far east as Thailand and Myanmar,
and as far north as Austria. Northern Tanzania represents the southernmost limit of its range. It is
tolerant of dry habitats including semi-desert but can also live in the evergreen forests of Thailand,
and has been recorded at elevations as high as 3,800m (Sillero-Zuberi 1996).
Within Tanzania, the published distribution includes the northeast of the country, stretching
around 300-400km south of the Kenyan border, from the Rwanda border in the west across to the
vicinity of Kilimanjaro in the east, but not occurring within 200km of the coast. Generally, the
pattern of sightings agrees with the published distribution (Fig. 19, c.f. with Sillero-Zuberi et al.
2004), except for a lack of observations west of Lake Victoria, and is in agreement with the range
published by Kingdon (1977). Given the species preference for drier areas in Tanzania, it seems
unlikely that the species occurs in the region west of Lake Victoria. Published densities in Tanzania
can be quite high with densities as high as four adults per km2 in Serengeti National Park
(Moehlman 1983;, 1986; 1989). A survey of the southern plains of the Serengeti estimated golden
jackal density to be 0.47/km2 (confidence limits 0.20-1.11) in the dry season 2002 and 0.58/km2
(0.25-1.36) in the wet season 2003. Densities were strongly related to habitat and, whilst there
were virtually no golden jackals in the long grass plains in both seasons, densities in the
intermediate grass plains were 0.23/km2 (0.09-0.57) and 0.46/km2 (0.20-1.07); and in the short
grass plains 0.66/km2 (0.28-1.55) and 1.25/km2 (0.53-2.92) in dry and wet seasons respectively
(Durant et al. under review). Preliminary results from a repeat survey in 2005 suggests that
densities have not changed between surveys, however the population has declined from an earlier
surveys conducted in 1977 and 1986 (Durant et al. under review). The causes of such a decline
are unclear.
There are many records of the species from inside the Serengeti National Park, although these are
concentrated in the south of the park where most observers are based, and are largely limited to
the plains area of the park (Fig. 19). The population on the plains in the south of the park has
declined since its levels in the 1970s but has been roughly stable since 2002 (Durant et al.
unpublished data). There are no records to the north or west of the park near Klein’s gate. There
are also no records from Grumeti or Ikorongo Game reserves, but there is a record from the
southeast of Maswa Game Reserve. There are many records from across the Ngorongoro
Conservation Area. There are also records to the west, south and east of Lake Natron, and many
192
records of the species in and around Arusha National Park. There are no records from Kilimanjaro
National Park, despite an intensive camera trapping survey there.
The species has been recorded in Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, however not frequently
(Fig. 19). There are also records to the south of Lake Eyasi, south of Lake Manyara National Park
and 100km to the west of the boundary of Maswa Game Reserve.
golden jackal submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
There are no recent or historical records of the species from this region; it is unlikely to be
present.
There are no recent or historical records of the species from this region except for a single
observation from Selous Game Reserve (Fig. 19) – however this is most likely a black-backed or
side-striped jackal that was misidentified as a golden jackal.
193
present.
present.
4.10 Black-backed Jackal: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Canis mesomelas
Names in use in Tanzania: Black-backed or silver-backed jackal (English), bweha nyakundu
(Kiswahili), nchewe (Kihehe).
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), population trends stable.
Fig. 20 Black-backed jackal
The black-backed jackal is slightly larger than the golden jackal. The species is distinguished by a
dark saddle on the back, a black bushy tail and a red tinge to the flanks and limbs (Fig. 20). Males
are slightly larger than females. The overall body colour is rufous brown and there is a black stripe
which slopes obliquely from behind the shoulder to the top of the rump. The back is marbled black
and white which gives an overall silver appearance in mature individuals, giving rise to its
alternative common name – silver backed jackal. In South Africa it has a mean body mass of 7.4kg
for females and 8.1kg for males, head and body length ranges from 69-90 cm, and tail length 2024cm (Stuart 1981); however weights differ between different areas and the average weight in
East Africa is 8.5kg (Kingdon 1977), slightly higher than for southern Africa. The dental formula is
3/3-1/1-4/4-2/3=42. The number of subspecies ranges from six to two: C m. mesomelas in
Southern Africa, and C. m. schmidti in East Africa and in Tanzania (Kingdon 1997).
The species is very vocal and uses a high pitched whining howl to communicate within groups, and
to advertise territories (Moelhman 1983; Estes 1991). There is a wide variety of alarm calls.
Ecology
Black-backed jackals are generalist feeders and their diet varies with food availability, according to
season and habitat. They have been recorded as consuming small to medium sized mammals
including murids, springhares and young ungulates, reptiles, birds and birds eggs, carrion and
human refuse as well as invertebrates and plants (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). On the coast they
194
have been recorded as eating beached marine mammals, fish and mussels. Invertebrates, such as
termites and insects are commonly eaten. They often forage in pairs, and groups of as many as 10
individuals have been recorded at large carcasses of herbivores. Pairs of individuals cooperate in
prey capture, to obtain a higher overall success rate (Lamprecht 1978). They have been recorded
as taking adult antelope in the Serengeti (Van Lawick and Van Lawick Goodall 1970). Small
mammalian prey are caught in a manner similar to that of the golden jackal, through good hearing
and a leap followed by an accurate pounce. They are nocturnal and/or crepuscular, but activity
periods commonly extend into the day (Kingdon 1977; Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
A monogamous mated pair forms the basic social structure, and the pair bond appears to be lifelong in most cases (Moehlman 1979; Estes 1991). The species is territorial and uses faeces and
urine to demarcate territorial boundaries (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Territories are stable and
intruders are aggressively expelled, although water sources may be shared. Density and group size
are variable depending on food and its distribution, and hence home range sizes are highly
variable, ranging from 1-18 km2 (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). In the rift valley in Kenya home ranges
have been recorded as 1.8km2, ranging between 0.7-3.5km2 (Fuller et al. 1989).
In southern Africa there is a distinct breeding season, and it is likely that this is also the case in
Tanzania. Pups are born in underground dens, which often have multiple entrances, and which
may be used over several years. Litter size ranges between 1-6 in Tanzania. Pups first emerge
from the den at 3 weeks and are weaned at 8-9 weeks to become completely independent of the
den at 14 weeks (Moehlman 1979). Both parents and helpers from previous litters may help
provision and guard new pups, and the presence of these helpers results in higher pup survival
(Moehlman 1986). Pups reach sexual maturity at 11 months and can disperse over large distances
– more than 100km has been recorded (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Black-backed jackals compete with many other carnivores; however their generalist habitats help
them avoid intense competition. They often scavenge off of kills of other predators, such as lion,
leopard, spotted hyaena, wild dog and cheetah (Wyman 1967). They coexist with the other two
species of jackal – golden and side-striped, probably through resource partitioning, but are
thought to displace side-striped jackals from grassland habitat, despite their smaller size, due to
higher levels of aggression (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Spotted hyaenas, leopards and cheetahs
have been observed to kill and eat black-backed jackals (White pers. comm.), and it is likely they
are vulnerable to other large carnivores in the ecosystem (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Their
propensity to scavenge makes them vulnerable to poisoned bait outside of protected areas. They
are commonly killed on roads, possibly due to scavenging road kills. They are vulnerable to canid
diseases, such as rabies and distemper, and skin diseases such as mange and ticks and fleas. The
maximum lifespan in the wild is thought to be 10-12 years (Haltenorth and Diller 1980).
The species is found in a wide variety of habitats including arid coastal desert, montane grassland,
arid savannah and scrubland, open savannah, woodland savannah mosaics and farm land. They
have been recorded at altitudes higher than 3,000m, including on the Kilimanjaro plateau at an
altitude of 3,600m during a Tanzania Carnivore Project survey. In general black-backed jackals
show a preference for open habitats and tend to avoid dense vegetation (Pienaar 1969). Where
more than one jackals species occur in sympatry the trend is for black-backed jackals to use the
open grasslands when sympatric with side-striped jackal or wooded savannah when sympatric with
golden and side-striped jackals. The species has a discontinuous distribution range, and is found in
two separate populations, one in East Africa, the other in southern Africa (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
2004). Tanzania holds only the east Africa population, and the published distribution occurs in the
north–central area in a triangle coming down from the Serengeti and Mkomazi, narrowing to a
point in the vicinity of Rungwe Game Reserve. It has not been recorded as occurring outside this
area. The records contributed to the Tanzania Carnivore Atlas are more widespread than this
distribution, with a number of reliable sightings outside this area (Fig. 21, and see below).
195
A recent survey in the south plains of the Serengeti National Park estimated black-backed jackal
numbers to be 135 across 2379 km2. This survey area was largely over the southern grasslands,
which is not optimal habitat for black-backed jackal, elsewhere densities have been recorded as
around 0.4 jackals/km2 (Rowe–Rowe 1982), and much higher densities have been recorded
around food rich seal rookeries reaching a maximum of 16-32/km2 (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
However, the Serengeti plains estimate is the only estimate of abundance or density for the
species in Tanzania.
black-backed
jackal
square.
There are many records of the species from across Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro
Conservation Area (Fig. 21). There are also records from Grumeti and Ikorongo Game Reserves,
and from the southeast of Maswa Game Reserve. There are fewer records outside the protected
areas, however there are records to the west and south of Lake Natron, and in and around Arusha
National Park and a single record from Kilimanjaro National Park. There is also a record from
Mkomazi Game Reserve and a number of records south of Arusha. Finally, there is a single record
of the species outside the western border of Serengeti National Park close to Lake Victoria.
196
The species has been recorded in Lake Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, particularly the
northern sector of Tarangire (Fig. 21). There are also records south of Lake Eyasi and south of
Lake Manyara. There are historical records from Mbulu and Babati Districts (Swynnerton 1951).
The species has been recorded in Moyowosi Game Reserve and Mahale National Park (Fig. 21).
There are records of the species being killed by tourist hunters in Burigi and Ugalla Game Reserves
(Caro et al. 1998b) and occurring in Gombe and Rubondo Island National Parks (McColaugh 1989).
There are also historical records from Tabora and Ugalla Game Reserves (Swynnerton 1951).
The species has been recorded in Katavi and Ruaha National Parks, and Muhesi Game Reserve
(Fig. 21). The SHCP reports the species as occurring across southern Tanganyika (De Luca et al.
2006).
The species has been recorded in Mikumi National Park, but there are no recent records for Selous
Game Reserve (Fig 21). There are additional records of 16 individuals being killed by tourist
hunters (Caro 1998a) and an older historical record from the Selous Game Reserve (Swynnerton
1951).
There are no recent or historical records of the species from this region except for a single
observation near the coast midway between Dar es Salaam and Lindi (Fig. 21).
There are no records of the species from this region (Fig. 21). There are historical records from
Njombe District (Swynnerton 1951).
The species has been recorded northeast of Iringa, close to the Udzungwa Mountains National
Park (Fig. 21). De Luca and Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) list the species as being likely to occur in this
region. There are also historical records from Morogoro region (Swynnerton 1951), including within
the Ulanga district (Lamprey 1963).
4.11 Side-striped jackal: Summary of current knowledge
Fig. 22 Side-striped jackal
Scientific name: Canis adustus
Names in use in Tanzania: Side-striped jackal (English), bweha (Kiswahili)
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), population trends stable.
197
The side-striped jackal is overall grey or buff grey in colour, with a white or buff side stripe on its
side running from the shoulder to the top of the hip with a black lower margin, and a diagnostic
white tip to the tail (Fig. 22). None of the other species of jackal in Tanzania have a white-tipped
tail. It is the largest jackal in Tanzania, and males are slightly larger than females. In Zimbabwe
mean body mass is 9.4(7.3-12.0)kg for males and 9.3(7.3-10.0)kg for females (Smithers 1983),
head and body length in east Africa ranges from 65-81cm, and tail length 30-41cm (Kingdon
1977). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/3=42. A varying number of subspecies are listed,
however differences may not warrant a subspecies designation (Kingdon 1997). The species has a
wide vocal repertoire, including barks, growls, yaps, cackles, whines, screams, a croaking distress
call and a hooting howl (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Ecology
Side-striped jackals occupy a wide range of habitats, from farmland to towns, through wooded,
grass and bush savannahs, marshes and mountains (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). They tend not to
occur in thick forest. In areas with sympatry with the other two jackal species the side-striped
usually occupies areas of denser vegetation while black-backed and golden jackals dominate more
open habitats (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The species is omnivorous, and their diet varies according
to seasonal and local availability. They have been recording as eating wild fruit, small to medium
sized mammals, birds, invertebrates, cattle cake, grass, garbage and carrion (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
2004). There is very little evidence that they depredate livestock to a great extent.
The species forages solitarily, however family groups are occasionally observed. Despite often
being seen on their own, the species can occur in pairs and in family groups of up to seven
individuals (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The basis of the family group is the mated pair, which is
known to be stable over several years. Annual home range size has been recorded in Zimbabwe as
around 12km2, although there is great seasonal variation in the spatial use of home range (SilleroZubiri et al. 2004). Home ranges can overlap, by as much as 33% (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). They
are primarily nocturnal.
In southern Africa there is a distinct breeding season (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004), and it is likely that
this is also the case in Tanzania, although there is little published information (Kingdon 1977).
Gestation is 60 days, and litter size ranges between 4-6 pups (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Pup
mortality is thought to be high (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Pups are born in underground dens,
often in abandoned aardvark holes or excavated termitaria (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The den
chamber is 0.75-1m below the surface and 2-3m from the entrance. After weaning both parents
assist in rearing young, bringing food to the den throughout the night (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
There is some evidence that alloparental care of young occurs in this species, as with other jackal
species (Moehlman 1989).
Side-striped jackals are predated by leopards (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). They are also persecuted
or snared by people, and are vulnerable to being killed on the roads (Kingdon 1977). They are
vulnerable to canid diseases, including rabies, distemper, tick fever and mange, for all of which
they are known or suspected reservoirs and vectors for domestic dog infection (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
2004). Maximum longevity is thought to be 12 years (Haltenorth and Diller 1980).
The species is found in a wide variety of habitats including savannah and scrubland, woodlands,
urban and human modified environments, marshes and mountain habitats up to 3,000m
(Davenport and De Luca pers. comm.). The Tanzania Carnivore Monitoring Unit have recorded the
species at 3,600m during a camera trap survey on Kilimanjaro. They prefer moister habitats than
the other species, but avoid thick forest, although they can be found on forest edges and glades
(Kingdon 1977). Densities have been estimated as ranging from 0.07/km2 in the Sahel, to 0.50.8/km2 in western Zimbabwe to 1/km2 in commercial farmland in Zimbabwe (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
198
2004). The only density estimate available from Tanzania is 0.5(+/-0.31)/km2 in the Serengeti
National Park (McColaugh 1989). The species is widespread across the country.
There are many records of the species from across the Serengeti National Park and from Grumeti
Game Reserve (Fig. 23); however there are no records from Ikorongo or Maswa Game Reserves.
There are also many records from across Ngorongoro Conservation Area but, save for a single
record from the highlands, most records are from the boundary between the Serengeti and
Ngorongoro. There are no records elsewhere in the region, although there are historical records of
the species in Kilimanjaro National Park (McColaugh 1989, Rees 1964, Grimshaw and Foley 1990)
and Arusha (Vesey-FitzGerald 1964).
black-backed
jackal
There are no records of the species across this region (Fig. 23). It may be that it is displaced in
this relatively arid area by the black-backed jackal, which is likely to be dominant here.
Interestingly, in the published literature Cheffings (1979) states that the species is commonly
sighted in Tarangire National Park, which suggests that there may have been changes in the
199
ecology of the area since this time. There are historical records of the species in Lake Manyara
National Park (Swynnerton 1951).
The species has been recorded in Moyowosi Game Reserve and Mahale National Park (Fig. 23).
There are historical records of the species in Dodoma (Swynnerton 1951) and a more recent
published record from Ugalla Game Reserve (McColaugh 1989).
The species has been recorded in Katavi and Ruaha National Parks, and Muhesi and Rukwa Game
Reserves (Fig. 23). The SHCP reports the species as common and widely distributed across the
area (De Luca et al. 2006).
The species has been recorded in the Selous Game Reserve and there are a number of records
from the Selous-Niassa corridor close to the border with Mozambique (Fig. 23). There are also
published records of the species in the Matadi area of the Selous Game Reserve (Kaswamila et al.
2003).
There are a number of records of the species from this region between Dar es Salaam and Lindi
(Fig. 23), and McColaugh (1989) notes it as being widespread in the Lindi and Ruawa plateau
area.
There is a single record from this area south of Lake Rukwa (Fig. 23), however the SHCP lists the
species as relatively common in the region up to 2,900m, particularly on Mt. Rungwe and in the
Livingstone mountains, and it was the most photographed carnivore species in a camera trap
survey (De Luca and Mpunga 2004). There are historical records from Mbeya and Songea Regions
(Swynnerton 1951).
The species has been recorded close to Iringa (Fig. 23), and De Luca and Mpunga (2005a) list the
species as present in the Mwanihana forests and the northern sector of the Udzungwas.
4.12 Bat-eared fox: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Octocyon megalotis
Names in use in Tanzania: Bat-eared fox (English), kipara (Kichagga)
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Least concern (2004), population trends unknown.
Fig. 24 Bat-eared fox
200
The bat-eared fox is a small canid with slim legs, a long bushy tail, and large bat-like ears, from
which it derives its name (Fig. 24). The back of the ears, front part of the snout, face mask, front
and lower part of the back legs and the mid-dorsal part of the tail are all back, whilst a pale band
extends from across the forehead to below and up the first three quarters of the frontal rim of the
ears. Beige to honey coloured fur extends across the throat chest and under parts. The fur tends
to be paler in older individuals. The fur is thick and soft, with a black base and white tip giving a
grizzled appearance. Published weights from southern Africa are 4.0-4.1kg (range 3.4-4.9) for
males and 3.9-4.1kg (range 3.2-5.4) for females (Gittleman 1989, Smithers 1971), head to body
length 52.9cm (range 46.3-60.7) for males and 53.6cm (range 46.7-60.7) for females, with tail
lengths of 29.8cm (range 23.0cm-34.0cm) for males and 30.3cm (range 27.8-34.0cm) for females.
There are no published physical data for Tanzania. Bat-eared foxes have 4-5 functional lower
molars and 3-4 upper molars yielding a dentition of 3/3-1/1-4/4-3-4/4-5=46-50 – the largest
number of teeth for any non-marsupial land mammal. There are two subspecies O. m. megalotis in
southern Africa and O. m. virgatus in east Africa and hence in Tanzania. Vocalisations are mostly
soft and sparingly used except when alarmed or excited (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Ecology
Bat-eared foxes are more specialised in their diet than the other canids and, in Tanzania, depend
on harvester termites and beetles, but their diet is also supplemented by orthopterans, beetle
larvae and ants (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Elsewhere, such as Botswana, they have been recorded
as taking more arachnids and seasonal fruit, and they may also eat small mammals, birds and
eggs and reptiles, but this has rarely been recorded in East Africa. The diet changes seasonally
depending on availability. In the Serengeti dung beetles are the main source of food during the
rainy season when termite activity is reduced (Maas 1993a). When both dung beetles and termites
are scarce, beetle larvae are often dug up from the ground (Maas 1993a). Foraging techniques
depend on the type of prey, but food is generally detected by sound, making use of the species’
large ears, whilst walking slowly. In East Africa bat-eared foxes conduct most foraging activity at
night, whereas the species can be almost exclusively diurnal in southern Africa in winter. When
foraging, the group communicates through a low whistle to call each other to rich food sources.
There is no evidence of any predation on livestock or game; however the species is sometimes
attracted to carcasses to feed on fly larvae.
Whilst a monogamous mated pair forms the basic social structure for this species in southern
Africa, in East Africa bat-eared foxes live in stable family groups consisting of a male and up to
three closely related females with cubs (Maas 1993a; Waser 1980). Such females are often
mothers and daughters, all of which may breed. Females bonded with a male retain that bond
over their lifetimes. In the Serengeti average group size is 2.44 (+/-0.1; n=18) which increases to
6 (+/-; n=18) prior to dispersal of pups (Maas 1993). Home range size varies from 1km2 to more
than 3km2. In East Africa home ranges can overlap (Malcolm 1986), but can also be defended as
territories through patrolling and scentmarking if they are centred on important harvester termite
colonies (Maas 1993a). Frequent and extended allogrooming helps to strengthen group cohesion.
Bat-eared foxes are sympatric with several other small, medium and large carnivore species. They
have been recorded as attacking, mobbing and displacing competitors including cape foxes,
aardvarks, aardwolves, black-backed jackals, and even hyaenas and cheetahs. There are
components of their diet that overlap with other species, but the rank order of particular prey in
their diet differs between species.
Bat-eared foxes reach sexual maturity at 8-9 months. They have one litter per year with births
occurring from October to December (Maas 1993) after a gestation of 60-75 days (Sillero-Zubiri et
al. 2004). Litter size ranges from 1-6 cubs, averaging 2.56 in the Serengeti (n=90) (Maas 1993s).
Cubs are born in underground dens which are either dug by the parents or adapted from dens of
other mammals. They may have several entrances and tunnels can be up to 3m long (Sillero-Zubiri
201
et al. 2004). Cubs first emerge when they are 8-12 days old and can be moved between dens. The
males are involved with the cubs, spending more time than the females guarding them against
predators and taking them out on their first foraging missions. This high level of male parental
care enables females to maximise their foraging time and hence provide milk for the cubs. In the
Serengeti polygyny, communal breeding and indiscriminate allo-suckling is common, and the
number of cubs emerging from the den is inversely related to the number of breeding females
(Maas 1993a). They have been recorded as living up to 13 years in captivity (Sillero-Zubiri et al.
2004).
Causes of mortality include lack of food, resulting in starvation. Predation is also a factor, and
predators include spotted hyaena, martial eagle, spotted eagle owl, Verraux’s eagle owl, rock
python, cheetah, wild dog and leopard (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). Pups can also be predated by
black-backed jackal (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). In southern Africa they may be persecuted by
mistake, due to their habit of feeding on fly larvae in carcasses, which can lead people to regard
them as responsible for livestock death. They are hunted and trapped for fur in the colder months
by indigenous people in southern Africa, particularly in Botswana. Road kills are common. Disease
is thought to have an impact on populations, and rabies and canine distemper can cause drastic
declines in the populations in Tanzania (Maas 1993b; Roelke-Parker et al. 1996). Both these
diseases have been linked to reservoirs in domestic dogs (Carpenter et al. 1998; Cleaveland and
Dye 1995). In the Serengeti 90.4% of documented mortality was due to disease, with an
additional 3.2% to predation, and 3.2% due to road accidents (n=94) (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Trichinellosis has been found in one fox and canine parvovirus also isolated, but their effects are
unknown (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
Bat-eared foxes occur across the arid and semi-arid regions of eastern and southern Africa in two
discrete populations, representing each of the subspecies, and separated by 100km. The east
African population covers the southeastern corner of Sudan, the southern half of Ethiopia, most of
Somalia except the far north, northern Uganda, most of Kenya except the southeastern corner,
northern Zambia and northern Malawi. The species is thought to occur across much of Tanzania,
but is excluded from a band of around 400km from the northwestern and the southern
boundaries. The range overlaps almost completely with that of Hodotermes and Microhodotermes
(Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). The discontinuous nature of the distribution is similar to another termite
dependent species, the aardwolf, and a non-termite dependent species, the black-backed jackal.
The species is common in conservation areas in southern and eastern Africa, and is uncommon on
farms in South Africa where they are occasionally persecuted. Numbers fluctuate depending on
rainfall, food, breeding stage and disease. Published density estimates in Tanzania are 0.3-1.0/km2
in the Serengeti (Hendrichs 1972), and between 0-0.33/km2 in 2002, 2003 and 2005 (Durant et al.
unpublished data). In southern Africa densities vary from 0.3-14/km2 (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004). In
the Serengeti they are common in open grassland and woodland boundaries, but not on the shortgrass plains (Malcolm 1986).
There are many records of the species from the grassland areas in the southern Serengeti National
Park (Fig. 25). There are records from Grumeti or Ikorongo Game Reserves, and some records
from the southeast of Maswa Game Reserve. There are also several records from the Ngorongoro
Conservation Area, particularly on the western boundary. There are fewer records outside the
protected areas, however there is a record to the west of Lake Natron and in and around Arusha
National Park. There are no records from within Kilimanjaro National Park, but there are a couple
of records of the species outside the park to the west, close to the Kenya border, and midway
between the park boundary and Lake Victoria but these have not been verified by other observers.
There are published records of the species in Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999).
Abundance of this species has been estimated from the Serengeti Carnivore Census as ranging
between 0.00-0.33/km2 in 2002, 2003 and 2005 (Durant et al. unpublished data).
202
Records of the species are widespread across Tarangire National Park (Fig. 25). There are no
records from within Manyara National Park, but there are records from just outside the park to the
east and to the south of the lake. Outside the protected areas there are records from Simanjiro to
the east and southeast of Tarangire National Park, and to the west of the park towards Singida.
There are historical records of the species in Lake Manyara National Park (Swynnerton 1951) and
more recently by Prins (1987).
The species has been recorded in Moyowosi and Ugalla Game Reserves and Mahale National Park
(Fig. 25). There is one record of the species outside of the protected areas in this region to the
east of Ugalla.
bat-eared fox submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
square.
The species has been recorded in Ruaha National Park (Fig. 25), where it has been reported as
being common in the north of the park (Davenport pers. comm.). The SHCP report the species as
203
occurring in similar areas to the black-backed jackal, including Ruaha and southern Tanganyika,
within the Rukwa Region (De Luca et al. 2006).
The species has been recorded in Mikumi National Park.
There are no records of the species from this region except for a single observation near the coast
a third of the way between Dar es Salaam and Lindi (Fig. 25).
There are no records of the species from this region (Fig. 25). There is a historical record from
Mbeya District (Swynnerton 1951).
De Luca and Mpunga (2005a) concluded, from data collected during interviews with villagers, that
the species probably had a similar distribution to the black-backed jackal in this region, i.e. likely to
occur in the northern part of the Udzungwa Mountains National Park. There are historical records
of the species in the vicinity of Same, close to the Pare Mountains (Swynnerton 1951).
4.13 African civet: Summary of current knowledge
Fig. 26 African civet
Scientific name: Viverra civettina
Names in use in Tanzania: African civet (English).
CITES: Appendix III/w. 2006 quota for Tanzania 200 live animals.
The African civet is the largest African viverrid. It has large hindquarters, a dark facial mask and
white neck stripes, and has a distinctive spotted coat (Ray 1995). The species also has an erectile
dorsal crest, which is erected when alarmed, and a bushy tail which is laterally flattened and
pointed at the end. It has long non-retractile claws, and although it has five digits on each foot the
fifth is set back and does not appear in spoor (Ray 1995). The coat patterns is extremely variable,
the dorsal ground colour of the fur varies from near white to creamy yellow to reddish buff and is
covered by deep brown to black spots of blotches. The patterning is irregular and not arranged in
regular longitudinal lines, as in genets. The tail is generally black on the dorsal surface and is
marked by around five partial but diffuse rings of white, the paws and lower limbs are generally
back (Kingdon 1977). Melanism has been recorded in parts of the range but not in Tanzania.
In East Africa weight averages 12kg, with a range of 7-20kg (Kingdon 1977), a head and body
length of 67-84cm, and tail length of 34-46.9cm (Ray 1995). There appears to be no geographical
204
variation in size. There are five subspecies described, however there is considerable doubt as to
their taxonomic validity (Ray 1995). One of these subspecies, V. c. schwarzi, is restricted to
Zanzibar. The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40. Civets are largely silent, however they have a
short repetitive contact call, usually delivered three or four times in succession with as many as
seven notes in a sequence. It is most frequently heard when cubs are contacting littermates, and
occasionally used by adults to contact conspecifics.
Ecology
African civets live in both forest and open country, but they require some cover to provide a refuge
during the day, as they are predominantly nocturnal (Kingdon 1977). The species is absent from
more arid areas of Africa such as the Sahara and Eritrea, but can be found along river systems
that project into otherwise arid areas (Rosevear 1974). They have been seen at a wide range of
altitudes from sea level to as high as 5,000m on Kilimanjaro (Moreau 1944).
The species is omnivorous and eats a wide variety of foods. Most information comes from southern
Africa, where diets are comprised of wild fruit, carrion, rodents, insects, particularly crickets,
grasshoppers, termites, beetles and stick insects, birds, reptiles, molluscs, amphibians, arachnids
and vegetation (Ray 1995). Millipedes are also eaten in some areas (Randall 1977). In East Africa
the diet seems to be similar, but aquatic organisms also feature – such as crabs, snails and
mudskpippers and the eggs of ground-nesting birds (Kingdon 1977). The species has a reputation
for raiding cultivated gardens and chicken coops at night (Kingdon 1977). Food is detected
predominantly by smell and sound and prey is seized by the mouth, not the paws (Ewer and
Wemmer 1974). With large prey the first bite is directed at the skull, smaller prey can be seized in
any way (Ewer and Wemmer 1974). They can attack prey up to the size of a hare (Astley Maberly
1955). Aquatic prey is caught under water as the species is a good swimmer. They can eat as
much as 2kg in a night (Kingdon 1977). Civets often live near human settlements returning
regularly to a steady source of food from households (Kingdon 1977).
African civets use defecation sites called latrines or civetries (Bearder and Randall 1978; Kingdon
1977). Anal glad secretions are added to the dung to produce a long-lasting odour. Latrines are
primarily situated alongside roads or game trails that are also used as routes for movement
(Bearder and Randall 1978). They are located in clearings, often in shallow hollows or depressions.
In southern Africa individuals visit more than one latrine and a specific latrine will be used by more
than one African civet (Randall 1977). Civets also mark objects along established routes with
perineal gland secretions (Kingdon 1977). Foreign objects are also marked.
In captivity African civets are not monogamous (Mallinson 1973) and it is likely that bonds
between mated pairs in the wild are not maintained (Kingdon 1977). Females are overtly hostile
towards males immediately after the birth of their cubs in captivity. However the social system in
the wild is poorly known.
Civets are thought to have a breeding season in Kenya and Tanzania between March and October
(Haltenorth and Diller 1980), but in other parts of their range there is no distinct breeding season.
In captivity females attain sexual maturity at 1 year of age and males a little bit earlier – from 9
months to a year (Ewer and Wemmer 1974). Gestation is 60-81 days (Kingdon 1977) and hence in
captivity civets can produce their first litter at around 14 months. Females are polyestrous and are
able to have two or three litters per year. Litter size in captivity varies from 1-4 (Ray 1995).
Compared with most carnivores, young are born in an advanced state, furred, with eyes open
within a few days of birth and able to crawl (Ewer and Wemmer 1974; Kingdon 1977; Mallinson
1973). There is little information on wild civet cubs, however in captivity the young start to explore
outside their nest at 17-18 days. In the wild, cubs are kept in a nest when they are first born,
either in holes made by other animals or cavities under tangled roots (Kingdon 1977). These nests
are readily vacated if the animal is disturbed. The cubs are completely dependent on their
mother’s milk for up to 6 weeks, and start to eat solid food during their second month. Weaning
occurs between 14-16 weeks (Ewer and Wemmer 1974).
205
Civets may be attacked and killed by dogs, particularly as they are often attracted to households
when foraging for household waste. They may also be killed by humans, both for their meat, but
also in retaliation for raiding chicken coops (Kingdon 1977). Some cultures have taboos about
eating civet meat. Rabies has been recorded in wild civets in West Africa, and the species may act
as a reservoir for the disease (Enurah et al. 1988). Up until last century, civets were kept for their
perineal gland secretion, which was used for perfume and as a medicine to treat a variety of
aliments. Synthetic musk has now been developed, but this has not fully replaced natural civet,
nearly all of which is exported from Ethiopia (Dannefeldt 1985). They have been recorded as living
up to 14 years in captivity (Mallinson 1973).
African civets occur in a band through sub-Saharan African between 15 degrees north to 24
degrees south. Within this latitude they occur across a wide variety of habitats ranging from semi
arid savannahs to dense rainforest, including islands, such as Zanzibar. They are thought to occur
across Tanzania, and the data from the carnivore atlas project seem to confirm this. There is no
information on their density of abundance in any part of their range.
African civet submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
square.
206
There are several records of the species from the Serengeti, particularly from the centre of the
park and the western corridor, as well as the Ndutu area (Fig. 27). Density in the Serengeti
National Park has been estimated as less than 0.1 individuals/km2 (Waser 1980). There are a few
records from the eastern Ngorongoro Conservation Area and from Grumeti Game Reserve, but not
from Ikorongo or Maswa Game Reserves and no records from the stretch of arid savannah from
Serengeti to Kilimanjaro. There are records from Kilimanjaro and Arusha National Parks, from the
main road just south of Mkomazi Game Reserve and the species is listed as being present in
Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999). There is also a published record of the species in
Kilambeni village forest (Cordeiro et al. 2005).
The species has been recorded in Tarangire National Park (including one camera trap record in a
1169 camera trap day survey), and from Simanjiro, to the east of the park (Fig. 27). There is also
a single record of the species to the west of lake Eyasi and south of the Maswa Game Reserve.
Northwest and Central region - Ugalla, Mahale, Minziro, Bukoba, Rubondo, Singida, Dodoma,
The species has been recorded in Moyowosi Game Reserve, Mahale Mountains National Park and
Minziro Forest Reserve (including five camera trap records over 1,503 camera trap days) (Fig. 27).
There are no records outside these areas, except for one record to the southeast of Moyowosi
Game Reserve about 20km outside the protected area. There are published records of tourist
trophies from Ugalla Game Reserve (Caro et al. 1998a).
The species has been recorded in Ruaha and Katavi National Parks and Muhesi, Kisigo, Upangu
and Rukwa Game Reserves, but not in Lukwati Game Reserve (Fig. 27). The SHCP reports the
species as also occurring in Lwafi Game Reserve, southern Tanganyika (De Luca et al. 2006).
The species has been recorded in Mikumi National Park and the northern and eastern parts of
Selous Game Reserve (Fig. 27). There are also published records of the species from Kilombero
Valley (Starkey 1997).
There are a number of records of the species between Dar es Salaam and Lindi, as well as a few
records close to the main road from Dar es Salaam to Morogoro, around 50-100km from the coast
(Fig. 27). There are also numerous records from Zanzibar. There are published records of the
species in the Mbarawala area around Lindi (Msuya et al. 2004) and, further north, from Bombo
Forest reserve (Clarke and Dickinson 1995). Although civets are mentioned in connection with
Pemba and Mafia islands, they are introduced Indian civets (Viverricula indica), not the native
African species (Kingdon 1977).
The species has been recorded close to, and within, Kitulo National Park (Fig. 27 and De Luca and
Mpunga 2004). The SHCP also has records of the species in Rungwe Forest Reserve (De Luca and
Mpunga 2004).
There are records of the species in the Pare Mountains, and the Udzungwas, including within the
Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Fig. 27). There are also records from Iringa. De Luca and
Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) photo trapped the species 15 times in 884 camera trap nights within the
Udzungwa Mountains National Park in 2002. Between 2002 and 2005 Rovero photo trapped the
species another 26 times (Rovero and De Luca 2007). There are historical records from the east
and west Usambaras and the Uluguru Mountains (Rodgers and Homewood 1982), and from the
Ulanga district in Morongo region (Vesey-FitzGerald 1964).
4.14 Two-spotted palm civet: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Nandinia binotata
Names in use in Tanzania: Two-spotted or African palm civet (English)
207
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 28 Two-spotted palm civet photographed
during a camera trap survey of the Ukaguru
forest.
The palm civet is a semi arboreal or arboreal carnivore in a separate family – the Nandiniidae. The
two-spotted palm civet is a uniform olive brown with faint darker spots, but with two cream spots
on the shoulders, giving rise to its name. There are five digits on the fore foot and hind foot, each
with retractable claws. The inner digits are divergent from the other digits to form clawed thumbs
(Kingdon 1977). The weight is on average 2(1.70-2.1)kg, and head to body length 51(45-58)cm,
and tail 58(50-62)cm. It has a very distinctive call which can be used to identify it’s presence in an
area.
Ecology
Two spotted palm civets are largely arboreal and so depend on forest habitat. They have a mixed
omnivorous diet, or sometimes subsist entirely on fruit. Although fruit is mostly the commonest
food in east Africa, it can kill quite large prey, including birds and small mammals (Kingdon 1977).
It uses scent from glands on its belly, together with dung, urine to leave a trail along the branches
over which it travels (Kingdon 1977). It is nocturnal and solitary and appears to be at least
partially nomadic (Kingdon 1977). Adult male and female pairs have been seen together, but this
is unlikely to be a long lasting bond, as mothers with young have never been reported to be in the
company of adult males (Kingdon 1977). They are occasionally attracted in larger groups to
fruiting trees. Home range size in Gabon has been documented as averaging 45ha for females and
100ha for males (Charles-Dominique 1978). In this study the palm civets appeared to be territorial,
with male territories overlapping a number of female territories. Males drove away other males of
the same size, but allowed smaller males to remain inside their territories.
Little is known about the species. Breeding has been recorded as taking place at Amani between
July and August, whilst in Uganda there may be two birth peaks in some areas (Kingdon 1977). In
West Africa breeding appears to take place throughout the year (Rosevear 1974). Up to four
young are born in a litter, the norm is two, after a 64 day gestation in an arboreal shelter such as
a hollow branch (Kingdon 1977). Young become sexually mature in the third year (CharlesDominique 1978). There is not much information on mortality, although it is known to be hunted
in the Dabaga area for meat (De Luca and Mpunga 2004; 2005a; 2005b). Maximum longevity in
captivity has been recorded as over 15 years (Nowak 2005).
Palm civets are limited to forest habitat and hence occur through the forests of west and central
Africa, across southern Uganda and Kenya. Their distribution in Tanzania is thought to be along
the boundary to the north and the northwest of the country and then in a band from the
northeastern corner to the southwestern corner, across the highlands and the western forest
208
habitats (Kingdon 1977). This band narrows but continues through to Malawi, Mozambique, and
the western boundary of Zimbabwe. Published population densities are 5/km2 in rainforest in
Gabon (Charles-Dominique 1978).
The species is highly cryptic, nocturnal and forest-dependent, making observation very difficult.
Because of this, the Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project has received only five records of the species
across the country, however all represent reliable observations (Fig. 29). There is no information
on abundance in Tanzania.
There no records from this region except from Arusha National Park where it was recorded by the
Oikos project (Fig. 29). The species was listed as being present in the Serengeti Mara ecosystem in
Serengeti II (Sinclair and Arcese 1995), although the authors provide no specifics about any
records. Kingdon (1977) gives a historical record of the species in the northern Serengeti around
Kogatende, close to the Kenyan border. There are also historical records from Kilimanjaro forest
(Hollister 1919, Grimshaw et al. 1995).
two spotted palm civet
209
There are no records of the species from this region (Fig. 29). There is a historical record from
Lake Manyara National Park (Kingdon 1977).
Scat from the species has been recorded in Mahale and in Minziro Forest Reserve through a
camera trap survey (one sighting in 1,503 camera trap days) (Fig. 29). The species has not been
recorded anywhere else in this region.
There is a single record from Daudi Peterson in the Lukima area in Katavi National Park (Fig. 29).
There are no other records of the species from this region.
There are no records of the species from this region. There is a recent published record of the
species on Zanzibar Island (Perkin 2004).
The SHCP has photo trapped the species on Mt Rungwe and on the Livingstone Mountains (De
Luca and Mpunga 2004).
The species was photographed twice in 674 camera trap nights and subsequently photographed
once during surveys in Matundu forest within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park (Fig. 29; De
Luca and Mpunga 2004; 2005a; 2005b; Rovero and De Luca 2007). There are a number of records
throughout the East and West Usambaras (Cordeiro et al. 2005).
4.15 Common genet: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Genetta genetta
Names in use in Tanzania: Common or small-spotted genet (English), kano (Kiswahili).
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 30 Common genet
The genets in general are easily confused with each other and their taxonomy requires clarification
(Gaubert et al. 2004; 2005). All genets are predominantly arboreal with soft fur and retractable
claws. The common genet, or small spotted genet, is often confused with the large-spotted genet,
or blotched genet. As with all genets, the coat is spotted, with numerous dark brown spots linearly
distributed along their length on a sandy background. The ringed tail is almost as long as the body
and strongly tapered towards the end. The face has two distinct white patches under the eyes and
two indistinct white bands on the inner side of the eyes running on to the forehead. The chin is
white. It weighs between 1.3-2.25kg, and has a head to body length of 40-55cm and tail length of
210
40-51cm. There are five digits on fore and hind feet, but the fifth digit does not show in spoor.
The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2.
Ecology
The common genet feeds on small vertebrates (rodents, birds or reptiles), invertebrates and fruits
(Kingdon 2004). In Spain radio collared individuals had an average maximum home range size of
about 7.8km2 (Palomares and Delibes 1994), although one adult male wandered across 50km2
during 5 months (Palomares and Delibes 1988). Home ranges of adult males and females
overlapped greatly but those of animals of the same sex were exclusive, suggesting possible
territoriality.
Little is known about the mortality or reproduction for the species. In captivity a pair of common
genets produced two litters per year, with a gestation period of 56-77 days, and a litter size of 1-4,
although more usually 2-3. They have been documented as living a maximum of 21 years in
captivity (Nowak 2005). Females can den their young in the roofs of houses (Durant pers. obs.).
The common genet prefers drier habitats compared to the blotched genet, being associated with a
wide range of drier habitats, from seasonally arid woodlands to sparsely bushed near-desert, and
rocky areas. It is not water dependent. Their distribution in Tanzania is thought to be across the
majority of the country, excluded only from the far west around Lake Tanganyika, the southern
highlands, and to the west of Lake Victoria (Kingdon 2004). The Tanzania carnivore atlas project
has received several records of the species from across the country (Fig. 31), although records
which have no means of verification may be confused with large-spotted genet or vice versa, and
should be interpreted with caution as discussed below.
The species has been recorded reliably in the Serengeti, particularly in the vicinity of Seronera,
where it is seen frequently around houses, and Ndutu, where it is often seen at the lodge (Fig.
31). There are also reliable observations from Klein’s camp, and from Soitorgoss on the eastern
edge of the park. There are a couple of records from Ngorongoro Conservation Area, and to the
east of Lake Natron and west of Kilimanjaro, the latter due to a dead specimen photographed on
the Namanga road, and several records in Arusha National Park, including reliable camera trap
records. There are records of the species from Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999),
but there are no records from Kilimanjaro National Park.
The species has been recorded many times in Tarangire National Park in a camera trap survey (35
sightings out of 1,169 camera trap days) (Fig. 31). It has also been recorded reliably in Manyara
National Park, and on Manyara ranch and there are a few unverifiable, but probable, records to
the east of Tarangire National Park outside the protected area.
There are unverifiable records of the species from Mahale Mountains National Park, where it is
listed on the species list, but from nowhere else in this region (Fig. 31). It was not recorded during
an extensive camera trap survey in Minziro Forest Reserve.
There are reasonably reliable records of the species between Muhesi and Kisigo Game Reserves,
and in Ruaha and Katavi National Parks, but from nowhere else in this region (Fig. 31). The SHCP
has recorded the species in southern Tanganyika (De Luca et al. 2006).
There are reasonably reliable records of the species from Mikumi National Park and from the
northeast of the Selous Game Reserve.
211
Common Genet submitted
to the Tanzania Carnivore
square.
There are no records of the species from this region from the Carnivore Atlas, however the SHCP
list it as being present in Southern Tanganyika.
There are several reliable records of the species from Matundu forest within the Udzungwas
Mountains National Park from camera trap surveys (De Luca and Mpunga 2004; 2005a; 2005b;
Rovero and De Luca 2007). There are also records of the species to the north of the Udzungwas
(Fig. 31) and from Bombo Forest reserve (Clarke and Dickinson 1995).
4.16 Large-spotted genet: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Genetta maculata
Names in use in Tanzania: Large-spotted genet and blotched genet (English), kano (Kiswahili)
CITES: Not listed.
212
Fig. 32 Large-spotted genet
The large-spotted genet, or blotched genet, is often confused with the common genet. As with all
genets in Tanzania the coat is sandy and spotted, but the spots are larger than those found on the
common genet varying from almost black to a rusty colour. The tail is banded with 8 or 9 light
bands, and almost without exception black tipped, unlike the common genet which is white tipped.
Two dark bands arise from the back of the head and swing downwards over the shoulders where
they usually break up into spots or bars, and two further less distinct bars arise from the back of
the neck between the outer bars. The face has less distinct white bars than the common genet,
and a black chin. It weighs between 1.2-3.1kg, and has a head to body length of 40-55cm and tail
length of 40-54cm (Kingdon 2004). There are five digits on fore and hind feet, but the fifth digit
does not show in spoor, and the spoor is indistinguishable from that of the common genet
(Skinner and Smithers 1990). The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40.
Ecology
The large-spotted genet feeds on small vertebrates (rodents, birds or reptiles), invertebrates and
fruits, tending to concentrate more on invertebrates and fruits and less on vertebrates than the
common genet (Kingdon 2004). In Kenya radio collared individuals had average home ranges of
about 5.9km2 for males (n=3) and 2.8km2 for females (n=2) (Fuller et al. 1990).
Little is known about the species. A sample of 128 dead females showed an average of 2.9 (range
2-5) foetuses (Skinner and Smithers 1990). In Zimbabwe litters have been recorded in hollow
trees, in piles of loose boulders and in a house roof.
The large-spotted genet prefers moister habitats to that of the common genet, but there is some
overlap in the range of the species. It is widespread across most of sub-Saharan Africa, but does
not occur in the horn of Africa and southwest Africa. It is found in rainforest, riverine vegetation,
secondary growth forest, moist woodlands, and all moist forest and woodland mosaics.
In the Serengeti National Park, the species has only been recorded in the north, on the
northeastern park boundary (Fig. 33). It was recorded frequently during a camera trapping survey
in the Ngorongoro highlands (51 records in 915 camera trap days), in Arusha National Park (10
records in 1073 camera trap days) and in Kilimanjaro National Park and Forest Reserve (30 records
in 1001 camera trap days), including one record from the plateau above the tree line beyond
2,700m. There are also published records from Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999)
and historical and recent records from Kilimanjaro (Hollister 1919, Grimshaw et al. 1995, Moreau
1944) and from Kilambeni village forest (Cordeiro et al. 2005).
The species has been recorded in Tarangire National Park in a camera trap survey there (14
sightings out of 1,169 camera trap days) (Fig. 33). It was also recorded frequently in a very short
213
camera trap survey in Manyara National Park (16 sightings out of 74 camera trap days), and on
Manyara ranch. There are no recent or historical records far from protected areas.
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains and Rubondo National Parks, and in a camera
trap survey from Minziro forest reserve (7 sightings out of 1,503 camera trap days), but nowhere
else in this region (Fig. 33).
The species has been recorded between Muhesi and Kisigo Game Reserves, and in Katavi National
Park, but nowhere else in this region (Fig. 33). The SHCP has photo trapped the species in a
camera trap survey in southern Tanganyika (De Luca et al. 2006). There are also historical records
from the Rukwa Valley (Vesey-FitzGerald 1964).
Large-spotted
Genet
Genetta maculata
The species has been recorded in the north the Selous Game Reserve but nowhere else in this
region (Fig. 33).
214
The SHCP lists the species as being present in Mbeya region, and has recorded it on Mt. Rungwe
There is a sighting record of the species from just north of the Udzungwas Mountains National
Park and records of the species between the Udzungwas and Dodoma (Fig. 33). There are
additionally several records of the species from Matundu and Mwanihana forests within the
Udzungwa Mountains National Park from camera trap surveys (De Luca and Mpunga 2004; 2005a;
2005b; Rovero and De Luca 2007). Davenport et al. (under review) have recorded the species
from Mbizi near Sumbawanga. There are also records from the Usambaras, including Kilanga and
Lutindi areas of Mount Nilo Forest Reserve and Chome Forest Reserve (Cordeiro et al. 2005) and
historical records of the species from the East and West Usambara and Uluguru Mountains
(Rodgers and Homewood 1982).
4.17 Miombo genet: Summary of current knowledge.
Photo not available.
Scientific name: Genetta angolensis
Names in use in Tanzania: Miombo genet (English), kano (Kiswahili).
CITES: Not listed.
The Miombo genet was originally thought to be a subspecies of the large-spotted genet, but was
given a separate species classification based on molecular genetic analysis (Gaubert et al. 2004).
There is very little other information on the species. The pelage of the Miombo genet tends to
have a more reddish tinge than that of the other genets, with a dark gray or dark reddish-gray
background with black to brownish-black spots. The underside of the body is paler. The tail is
more thickly furred than in other species and has a black underside and eight black rings. The tail
tip may be light, or the last black tail ring may merge into a black tip. The face is dark gray with a
slightly paler supra-orbital spot. The sub-orbital region, front of the upper lip, and chin are white,
while the back of the upper lip and dorsal surface of the nose are black. There is also a black
stripe from the middle of the forehead that stretches along the spine. Very dark or melanistic
individuals are not uncommon (Haltenorth and Diller 1980; Estes 1991; Ewer 1973). It weighs
between1.3-2kg, and has a head to body length of 44-48cm and tail length of 38-43cm (Kingdon
2004). The dental formula is the same as in the other genets, 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2.
Ecology
Not known.
Not known.
The Miombo genet, as its name suggests is largely restricted to Miombo woodlands in Zambia,
Angola, Mozambique, DRC, Malawi and Tanzania. The distribution in Tanzania according to WCMC
is restricted to the western part of the country, stretching across one third of the country inland
(www.unep-wcmc.org). The northern distribution stops with the Rwandan border. According to
Kingdon (1997), it also should be present in southwestern Tanzania, including Rukwa and Mbeya
Regions, although the reality of the distribution of this species is far from clear. The Tanzania
Carnivore Atlas Project has received only seven records of this species (Fig. 34). Given the
215
difficulty of distinguishing the genet species, even by trained experts, all these non-verified
sightings should be regarded with extreme caution.
The species has never been recorded in this region, and is unlikely to be present as the habitat is
unsuitable.
The species has never been recorded in this region, and is unlikely to be present as the habitat is
unsuitable.
The species has not been recorded in this region, however the southern and western parts of this
region should have suitable habitat for the species.
Miombo Genet submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
There is one unverifiable record of the species in this region in the vicinity of Muhesi/Kisigo Game
Reserves submitted by Chris Parker (Fig. 34). The habitat of the region should be suitable for the
species.
216
The species has not been recorded in this region, according to the WCMC published distribution
the species should only be present in the south western section of the Selous Game Reserve
(www.unep-wcmc.org).
There are records of the species from this region between Dar es Salaam and Lindi submitted by
Dennis Ikanda (Fig. 34), however these records are of sightings only and hence are not verifiable,
and outside the published range of the species. The extreme difficulty of distinguishing miombo
genet from other species means that these records are likely to be common or large-spotted
genet. The habitat is not likely to be suitable and we conclude that the species is unlikely to be
present in this region.
There are unverified records of the species from this region, and skins are currently being
examined. There are no historical records. The region should contain suitable habitat.
There is a single record of the species from the Udzungwas Mountains National Park submitted by
Francesco Rovero from a camera trapping survey in the park; however, as noted before, miombo
genets are very difficult to distinguish from other species of genet. If valid, this would constitute
an expansion of the species range eastwards from that published.
4.19 Servaline genet: Summary of current knowledge
© Francesco Rovero
Fig. 35 Servaline genet photographed in a camera trap survey by Francesco Rovero.
Scientific name: Genetta servalina
Names in use in Tanzania: Servaline genet (English), kano (Kiswahili).
CITES: Not listed.
The servaline genet is relatively easy to recognise. It has a narrow face and relatively long legs,
with short fur with numerous black spots, close together over a light background, giving it a darker
appearance than the other species. There are four subspecies in East Africa, G. s intense, G. s.
bettoni, G. s. lowei and G.s. archeri. Only G. s. lowei and G. s. archeri are found in Tanzania, the
latter being the Zanzibar servaline genet, which was only recently described (Van Rompaey and
Colyn 1998). Lowe’s servaline genet, G. s. lowei, is little known and only recently re-discovered in
Tanzania (De Luca and Mpunga 2002; Brink et al. 2002). The species weighs between 1-1.12kg,
and has a head and body length of 41-50cm and tail length of 35-44cm (Kingdon 1977). The
dental formula is the same as the other genets, 3/3 1/1 4/4 2/2.
Ecology
Not known
217
Not known.
The servaline genet is restricted to forest habitat. Whilst it is widespread across the central African
forests, in Tanzania it has a very limited distribution and is documented in few areas in the Eastern
Arc Mountains and Zanzibar. The species can be confused with the other genets to the untrained
eye, and hence all non verified observations should be treated with extreme caution.
servaline genet submitted to
the
Tanzania
Carnivore
There is a single unverifiable observation from east of Tarangire from Nigel Thiesen (Fig 37),
however there are no confirmed observations or historical records. The species is unlikely to be
present in the region.
218
Whilst there are reports of the species in Mahale Mountains National Park (Fig. 36), these were not
confirmed by a camera trap survey in the area. There is an unverifiable record south of Singida,
but the habitat is unsuitable in this area, and the sighting is almost certainly common genet.
There is only one record of the species from this area in the northeastern Selous (Fig. 36),
however this record is unconfirmed and is unlikely to be correct as the habitat is unsuitable.
There are no recent or historical records of the species from this region outside of confirmed
records from the Jozani forest on Zanzibar island (Fig. 36, Goldman and Winter-Hansen 2003).
There are three records of the species from the Udzungwas Mountains National Park (Fig. 36). In
addition, De Luca and Mpunga (2002) photo trapped the animal at 900m and 1,800m of altitude in
bamboo forest during a camera trap survey in Udzungwa Mountains National Park, in Mwanihana
forest. Between 2002 and 2005 the species was photo trapped 17 times in the Udzungwas (Rovero
and De Luca 2007) and in 2005 the species was photographed twice in the Uluguru and Nguru
mountains at 1,310m and 1,180m respectively (Rovero et al. 2006). Brink et al. (2002) trapped
and photographed the species in west Kilombero.
4.19 Banded mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Mungos Mungo
Names in use in Tanzania: Banded mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 37 Banded mongoose
Banded mongooses are a medium size mongoose, brownish grey with dark brown bands edged
with yellowish or white across the back. The fur is coarse, and the tail is not bushy but covered
with coarse hair and tapered toward the tip. The foreclaws are long and there are five digits on
both fore and hind feet, with the fifth digit just visible on spoor to the rear of the foot, level with
the main pad. Head and body length is 30-45cm, tail length 23-29cm and weight is 1.0-2.2kg
(Kingdon 1977). The dentition is 3/3-1/1-3/3-2/2=36. The species is highly vocal, and individuals
219
communicate constantly through a twittering call with other members of their group whilst
foraging. There are also various agonistic growls and screams and alarm chatters.
Ecology
Banded mongooses are one of the best studied of the mongoose species. They prefer grassland,
brushland, woodland and rocky broken country. They live in communal underground dens, which
are normally placed in old termite mounds, but also in erosion gullies, abandoned aardvark holes
and hollow logs. Dens consist of 1-9 entrance holes, a central sleeping area of about 1-2 cubic
metres, and perhaps several smaller chambers. Dens are often temporary, although favourite sites
are returned to and can be occupied for as long as 2 months. Banded mongooses are diurnal, and
have an excellent sense of vision, hearing and smell. A group forages for several hours close to the
den resting in the hottest part of the day and foraging again in the evening, returning to the same
or a different den before sunset. If young are present in the den then the group return to the
same den. A group can cover 2-3 km per day, moving in a zigzag pattern and searching among
rocks and vegetation for food. The diet consists largely of invertebrates, especially beetles,
earthworms, grasshoppers and millipedes, but also includes small vertebrates and eggs. They have
been recorded as eating a wide range of prey, including crabs, scorpions, slugs, snails, lizards,
small snakes, reptile eggs, rodents, shrews, ground birds and their eggs and fallen fruit (Kingdon
1977). They often concentrate on dung piles when foraging, searching for dung beetles (De Luca
1998). Banded mongooses are adept at breaking even quite large eggs by grasping the object in
their forefeet and propelling it backwards against a hard object. They may also frequent garbage
dumps at lodges and around human habitation, where they feed not only on the garbage but on
invertebrates attracted to the dumps (De Luca 1998; Otali and Gilchrist 2004).
Group home range has been recorded as averaging 80.2ha (range 28-100ha) in the Queen
Elizabeth National Park in Uganda, but could be more than 400ha in the Serengeti (Rood – cited in
Kingdon 1977). Ranges overlap and intergroup encounters are noisy and hostile and can result in
chasing and fighting. Group size usually ranges between 10 and 20, but can be as many as 40
individuals, including adults of both sexes. There is a dominance hierarchy within the group,
however there is no reproductive suppression unlike in some other social mongooses – such as the
dwarf mongoose – and all adults will reproduce (De Luca and Ginsberg 2001). Females will mate
with several males at a time during oestrus. Groups are cohesive and stable, but can split off, and
there can be mating between different groups.
In East Africa reproduction occurs throughout the year and groups can breed as many as four
times per year. Females synchronise births so that several females give birth at approximately the
same time. Gestation is about 2 months and females often mate within 1-2 weeks after giving
birth to young (Nowak 2005). Litter size ranges from 2-6, but is more usually 2-3. Kits are born
blind and helpless, and raised communally by the group, suckling indiscriminately from any
lactating female and guarded by one or two adult males whilst the rest of the group forages. They
begin to travel with the others at about one month of age, and females become sexually mature at
around 9-10 months (Simpson 1964). The maximum lifespan recorded in captivity was 12 years
(Van Rompaey 1978). The species is almost certainly killed by other carnivores, but this has
seldom been recorded. The young have been observed being killed by marabou storks (De Luca
1998) and martial eagles (Durant pers. obs.), and predatory birds are probably their main
predators (Simpson 1964). In the Queen Elizabeth National Park, less than 50% of juveniles
survived to 3 months (Rood 1974). The species adopts a spectacular self defence when challenged
by other carnivores, amassing together and advancing against the threat in a writhing spitting
clump (Kingdon 1977). There is little information on disease, but the species may be subject to
rabies. In Uganda mortality of individuals over 6 months was 10% per year.
Banded mongooses have a wide habitat tolerance, and are excluded only from desert. They occur
in forests, however in the west and central African forests they are replaced by cusimanses, which
220
may be why they are, at least partly, excluded from these areas. The species has a widespread
distribution and is excluded from the Central African and West African forests, and occurs in a
narrow band across the Sahelian belt, across east Africa to the horn of Africa, but is excluded from
most of southern South Africa, southern Botswana, parts of Zimbabwe and south and west
Namibia (Skinner and Smithers 1990). In these areas in southern Africa the banded mongoose is
replaced by the meerkat. Densities can be quite high. In the Queen Elizabeth National Park in
Uganda densities have been estimated as around 18/km2. However density, in general, is difficult
to measure, and there are no comparable estimates for other habitats.
The Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project has numerous records of sightings of this species which are
widespread across the country (Fig. 38).
There are many records of banded mongooses from across the Serengeti National Park (Fig. 38).
There are fewer records from the North or West, but this is probably due to the relatively low
numbers of observers in these areas rather than a rarity of this species. Records from Ngorongoro
Conservation Area are more unusual, with records from the main road and around Olduvai Gorge,
but none to the northern border of the conservation area. It is possible that there is too little cover
and termite mounds to enable the species to survive in the more open parts of this protected area.
There are records of the species from Ikorongo Game Reserve, but no records from Grumeti or
Maswa Game Reserves. Further east there also records of the species in Arusha National Park but
surprisingly few records of the species outside protected areas. There are recent records from
Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999) and historical records from Kilimanjaro National
Park (Moreau 1944, Grimshaw et al. 1995, Child 1965).
The species has been recorded in Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, and to the southeast of
Lake Eyasi, and north and west of Tarangire National Park on the Maasai steppe (Fig. 38). It is
likely to be widespread across this region. There are also records from Mgori forest reserve
(Kaswamila et al. 2003).
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains National Park, Moyowosi and Ugalla Game
Reserves and around Singida (Fig. 38). There is no information from elsewhere in the region, and
the species was not detected in a camera trap survey in Minziro forest reserve.
The species has been recorded in Rukwa, Muhesi and Kisigo Game Reserves, and Katavi National
Park (Fig. 29). It has also been recorded outside protected areas, to the west of the Ruaha
complex, and to the east of Sumbawanga. It is likely to be widespread across the region.
There are several records of the species in the northeast of the Selous Game Reserve, and the
species has also been observed in Mikumi National Park (Fig. 38). It is likely to be widespread
across the region, and the lack of records is likely to be a reflection of the lack of data contributors
from this region. There are published records from Kilombero Valley (Starkey 1997).
The species has been recorded near Lindi and midway between Dar es Salaam and Lindi (Fig. 38).
Noah Mpunga (pers. comm.) has observed the species on the campus at Dar es Salaam University
where it is apparently seen regularly (Kagimilia pers. comm.).
There are scattered records of this species across the southern highlands (Davenport pers. obs.).
There are records of the species from the Udzungwas Mountains National Park, but no records of
the species from elsewhere in this region (Fig. 38). In 2002 De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a;
2005b) observed the species in the lowland forest in the Udzungwas. Between 2002-2005, the
species was recorded in a camera trap survey in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Rovero and
De Luca 2007). The species was historically commonly seen in Morogoro (Loveridge 1923),
221
including the Ulanga district (Rees 1964). There are also published recent and historical records
from the East Usambara Mountains (Rodgers and Homewood 1982), including Amani Nature
Reserve (Mercer 2000), Bombo Forest Reserve (Clarke and Dickenson 1995) and Mount Nilo Forest
Reserve Kilanga and Lutindi areas (Cordeiro et al. 2005).
banded mongoose
4.20 Dwarf mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Helogale parvula
Names in use in Tanzania: Dwarf mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
222
Fig. 39 Dwarf mongoose
Dwarf mongooses are one of the smallest mongoose species. They are a speckled colour,
generally brownish with a strong rufous tinge, the lower parts slightly paler than the upper parts.
The fur is soft. The foreclaws are long and sharp, and there are five digits on both fore and hind
feet, with the fifth digit appearing on spoor to the rear of the foot, level with the main pad, more
visible on the hind foot than the fore foot. Head and body length is 18-26cm, tail length 12-20cm
and weight averages 300g, ranging between 230-680g (Kingdon 2004). The dental formula is 3/31/1-3/3-2/2=36. As with the other Tanzanian social mongoose, the banded mongoose, this species
is highly vocal, and individuals communicate constantly through a series of chirps with other
members of their group whilst foraging. They also give a distinctive chu-chwee alarm call when
danger is spotted, usually on the appearance of a predator such as a bird of prey, jackal or snake.
Ecology
Dwarf mongooses are found in a variety of habitats, ranging from savannahs, woodlands and
mountains, but are not found at altitudes above 2,000m. They are mainly terrestrial and diurnal,
spending the night in underground dens, usually in termite mounds, among gnarled roots of trees
and in rocky crevices. Dens are changed frequently, but favourite sites are revisited. They live in
organised groups, with a strict hierarchy. Home range is shifted every few months, presumably
due to changes in food supplies. In the Serengeti, group home ranges average 30ha, overlapping
by 5-40% with the ranges of one to four neighbouring packs and containing 10-20 den sites within
each home range (Rood 1978). Den sites are marked with secretions from the cheek and anal
glands. Rasa (1985) documents larger home ranges of 0.65-0.96km2, with little overlap and which
are traversed every 20-26 days, which is about the length of time it takes for marking secretions
to disappear. The species is particularly common in areas with plenty of termitaries, raising the
possibility that these shelters may be necessary for their survival (Kingdon 1977). The mounds of
Odontotermes seem to be preferred for den sites (Rasa 1985). Kingdon (1977) observed that
faeces do not seem to be used for marking, and although the group tend to use the same spot,
this is generally in a corner or crevice, away from the sleeping den, however Skinner and Smithers
(1990) note that dens where mongooses are resident are characterised by substantial
accumulations of scats in the vicinity of the entrances.
Group size is usually 10-12 but may be as large as 40. The groups are matriarchal, founded and
led by the oldest female (Keane et al. 1994). The second ranking individual is her mate, usually
the oldest male. These two dominant individuals are monogamous and are usually the only
individuals of the group to produce offspring, suppressing sexual activity in subordinates. There is
a hierarchy within the subordinates, with the youngest individuals less than three months old,
ranking highest. Within any age class females are dominant over males. The subordinate adults
help in raising the young, cleaning, carrying and warming them, and bringing food to them. They
223
also take turns baby sitting whilst the rest of the group forages. The group is highly social, and
there have been many observations of extra care being provided to sick or injured members. If the
dominant female dies the group may split, but usually her position is taken over by the oldest
female within the pack (Rood 1990).
The diet consists mainly of insects (Rasa 1977; Rood 1990) but also includes small vertebrates,
eggs and fruit: scorpions, myriapods, spiders, worms, slugs, snails, frogs, rodents, reptiles, birds
and their eggs have all been recorded (Kingdon 1977). These are excavated from decayed wood,
earth or crevices after being located by sound or smell and then digging with their long claws. As
with the banded mongoose, eggs are broken by kicking them backwards against a stump or rock.
Dwarf mongooses have been reported as having a symbiotic relationship with hornbills, which they
follow, catching grasshoppers flying from their feet, whilst providing an early warning system in
return (Rasa 1983), and with some species of lizards, which are reputed to feed on the pellets of
the mongoose (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
In the Serengeti National Park, where most information on this species comes from, births occur
mainly in the wet season from November to May, and the alpha female usually has three litters per
year (Rood 1980). Subordinate females and males usually do not reproduce, but occasionally they
may mate, but have never been observed rearing offspring, probably because of infanticide
(Skinner and Smithers 1990). Subordinates may lactate and suckle the young of the alpha female
(Rasa 1980). In captivity in Europe females have been recorded as giving birth twice a year,
entering oestrus 4-7 days after the end of lactation. Gestation is 49-56 days and the number of
young per litter is usually around 2-4, with a mean of 3.04 (Rasa 1986), but can range from 1-7.
The kits are suckled for at least 45 days, but are brought solid food by group members once they
are about three weeks old (Kingdon 1977). Survival of the young and/or litter size increases with
adult group size (Rood 1990; Rasa 1986). The young start to forage with the group by the time
they are six months, with females reaching sexual maturity from 107 days (Zannier 1965),
although social restrictions normally delay breeding for several years, if they reproduce at all. Full
physical maturity is attained at around three years, very late for such a small species (Rasa 1972).
Mortality is little documented, but Kingdon (1977) notes that the survival of young in one litter was
well below 50%. Mongooses are predated by hawks, including chanting goshawks, tawny eagles,
marital eagles; other carnivores, including Egyptian and slender mongoose; black-backed jackals,
honey badgers, and snakes, including pythons, spitting cobras and puff adders (Rasa 1983; Rood
1990) and serval (Durant per obs.). Their tendency to explore and forage away from the group
may also lead to them getting lost (Kingdon 1977). They are eaten in some areas by people, and
are often persecuted as egg thieves, although their capacity for reducing rodent populations
should make up for any loss of eggs. The maximum lifespan recorded in captivity is 12 years
(Nowak 2005).
Densities are undocumented for this species, but given their small home range size, are likely to
be high in suitable habitat. Published distribution covers all of Tanzania, ranging from southern
Somalia to the northern part of South Africa, and stretching across to southwestern and central
Angola and the extreme south of DRC (Kingdon 2004). The species also occurs in southeast
Uganda, southern Kenya, Zambia, Mozambique, Malawi, northern Namibia, Botswana, and along
the borders of Zimbabwe. It is principally a savannah species associated with semi-desert and dry
open woodland and grassland.
The Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project has several records of this species from across the country
(Fig. 40).
The species has been documented in the Serengeti National Park, in the central area, to the north
and towards the west (Fig. 40). It is probably widespread across the park. It has also been
224
recorded around Olduvai Gorge around the northern border of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area
and Serengeti National Park, and outside the park in the Loliondo Game Controlled Area, close to
the Kenyan border. It has been recorded in Grumeti and Ikorongo Game Reserves but not in the
Maswa or Mkomazi Game Reserves. There are no observations of the species in Arusha and
Kilimanjaro National Parks – it is likely that these parks are too high for the species, however it has
been observed in the west Kilimanjaro region. There are also records from Mkomazi Game Reserve
(Eltringham et al. 1999).
dwarf mongoose submitted
The species has been recorded in Tarangire National Park, and to the southeast of Lake Eyasi, and
east of Tarangire National Park on the Maasai steppe (Fig. 40). It has not been recorded in
Manyara National Park.
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains National Park, Moyowosi Game Reserve, east
of Dodoma, and Mwanza but nowhere else in this region (Fig. 40). The species was not detected
in a recent camera trap survey in Minziro forest reserve.
225
The species has been recorded in Rukwa, Muhesi, Rungwa and Kisigo Game Reserves, and Katavi
and Ruaha National Parks (Fig. 40). It has not been recorded outside the protected areas in this
region.
There are a few records of the species in the northeast of the Selous Game Reserve, and the
species has also been observed in Mikumi National Park (Fig. 40). There are no other records in
this region.
The species has been recorded near Lindi and between Dar es Salaam and Lindi, and around
100km west of Saadani National Park (Fig. 40). There are no other records in this region.
There are records of the species close to Iringa, but there are no other records of this species in
this region (Fig. 40). In 2002 De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a; 2005b) report that the species
was claimed to be present by more than 60% of people interviewed in the vicinity of Udzungwa
Mountains National Park.
4.22 Slender mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Fig. 41 Slender mongoose (photographed in
Botswana)
Scientific name: Galerella sanguinea
Names in use in Tanzania: Slender mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Slender mongooses are characterised by grizzled short hair which is a yellowish grey, or khaki,
with a long dark tail generally turned up at the end. But there is a wide variation in colour and
dark brown or near black individuals are not uncommon. The mongoose is long bodied and short
legged. They are generally silent, but occasionally make a scolding cry of alarm. There are five
226
digits on both fore and hind feet, but the fifth toe is not visible in spoor, except in soft substrates.
Head and body length is 26.8-33.8cm, tail length 24-29cm and weight averages 600(425-683)g for
males and 500(350-515)g for females (Kingdon 1977). The dentition is 3/3-1/1-4/3-2/2=38.
Ecology
Slender mongooses are more arboreal than most mongoose species, able to climb up and down
trees with great rapidity, although the species still spends a large amount of time on the ground.
Their diet includes species as large as squirrels, rodents, particularly rats and murids, insects and
birds, chameleons, bird eggs and nestlings, snakes, lizards, toads, frogs. In Namibia they have
been reported as eating fruit, nuts and berries. They have been recorded as killing and eating
dwarf mongooses. Kingdon (1977) reports rats and murids as forming the major portion of the
diet, whilst Skinner and Smithers (1990) report insects as being more important. They are
frequently mobbed, no doubt due to their predatory habits. They find their food when foraging,
and when they locate prey they adopt a stalking posture, with their head down and their legs
crouched. Large preys are killed with bites at the neck, and most of the prey is eaten. In East
Africa they appear to be diurnal, although they have been reported as being nocturnal elsewhere.
During the night they make use of holes in the ground fallen trees, crevices in rocks, and
termitaria.
Little is known about ranging patterns. A range of about 1km2 was estimated on the basis of
trapping records in central Kenya (Taylor 1970); however it is not clear whether or not they are
territorial. They are thought not to scentmark, either through using their anal glands, or through
scat (Kingdon 1977). There are reports of stable male coalition formation occurring in this species
(Waser et al. 1994).
Very little is known about reproduction in the wild, although they do seem to pair bond at least
during the rearing of the young, however this relationship appears to break down when the young
reach adulthood (Kingdon 1977; Ansell 1970). Five gravid females had a mean of 1.8 (1-2)
foetuses (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The young are born in den sites similar to those used at
night. They are reported to be taken by birds of prey and they are very sensitive to large birds
flying overhead. The species has been reported as suffering from rabies (Asterly Maberly 1963);
rickettsia (Heisch et al. 1962) and nematodes and flea parasites (Loveridge 1923).
The species occurs across a wide range of habitats from arid scrubland through bush and
woodlands through to high forest and papyrus swamps, ranging up to altitudes of 2,500m. It is
thus widespread across Africa, and is excluded only from the Sahara desert, the central African
rain forests, and the southern third of South Africa and the Namibian coastal strip. There is no
information on density. It is documented to be widespread across Tanzania.
The Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project has several records of sightings of this species which are
distributed across the country (Fig. 42).
The species has been documented in the Serengeti National Park, in the central area, to the north
and towards the west (Fig. 42). It is probably widespread across the park. It has also been
recorded around Olduvai Gorge around the border of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and
Serengeti National Park. It was recorded during the camera trap survey in Ngorongoro
Conservation Area 20 times in 915 camera trap days, including one sighting of the melanistic form.
There are also records of the species in Arusha and Kilimanjaro National Parks and in Mkomazi
Game Reserve.
The species has been recorded in Lake Manyara and Tarangire National Parks, and to the
southeast of Lake Eyasi, and east of Tarangire National Park on the Maasai steppe (Fig. 42).
227
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains National Park but not elsewhere this region,
including during an extensive camera trap survey in Minziro Forest Reserve, although it is likely to
be widespread.
slender mongoose submitted
Project since 2002 up until the
time of the workshop. Data
either as direct GPS locations,
or as a grid square as
identified on the map. The
former data type are plotted on
the map directly, whilst the
latter data type are plotted at
the centre of the reported grid
square.
Galerella sanguinea
The species has been recorded in Kisigo Game Reserve, and Katavi and Ruaha National Parks (Fig.
42). It has not been recorded elsewhere in this region, although it is likely to be widespread.
There are a few records of the species in the northeast of the Selous Game Reserve, but no
records from Mikumi National Park (Fig. 42). There are no other records in this region but, again,
it is likely to be widespread throughout.
The species has been recorded between Dar es Salaam and Lindi, and approximately 100km west
of Saadani National Park (Fig. 42). There are also a number of records from a camera trapping
228
survey on Zanzibar (Goldman and Winther-Hansen 2003). There are no other recent or historical
records in this region.
The species has been recorded to the south of Lake Rukwa, but there are no other records in the
Carnivore Atlas Project of the species from this region (Fig. 42). The SHCP reports the species on
Mt. Rungwe and the Livingstone Mountains up to an altitude of 2,300m and it is widely spread
throughout the Mbeya Region (De Luca and Mpunga 2004).
There is a record of the species close to Iringa and from the Udzungwa Mountains National Park
(Fig. 42). In 2002 De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a; 2005b) observed the species near the
headquarters of Udzungwa Mountains National Park.
4.23 White-tailed mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Ichneumia albicauda
Names in use in Tanzania: White-tailed mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 43 White-tailed mongoose with young.
White-tailed mongooses are relatively large, with a speckled greyish coat resulting from black
guard hairs protruding from a whitish to yellowish woolly underfur. The basal half of the tail takes
the underlying body colour, without the black speckling, turning to white to the end, although the
end of the tail is occasionally black. The tail is strongly tapered, being very bushy at the base, and
very narrow at the end. The legs are relatively long and black in colour, and there are five digits
on both fore and hind feet, but the fifth toe is not visible in spoor. The species can be confused
with Meller’s mongoose, as this mongoose can also have a white tail. Selous mongoose also has a
white tail but is not found in Tanzania, and the rare dog mongooses often have white tails, but are
taller and more dog-like in appearance.
Head and body length is 47-71cm, tail length 35.5-47cm and weight averages 3.5 (Kingdon 1977),
with a recorded range of 1.8-5.2kg (Kingdon 1977; Taylor 1972). Males are only slightly heavier
than females. The dentition is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40. The species is highly vocal, using a whimpering
call to keep in touch with each other, a vibrating and guttural purr, a muttering noise when
digging, and a loud, rather dog-like, yap or bark which is probably associated with sexual activity
(Kingdon 1977). There are supposedly six subspecies, with I. a. igeana distributed across most of
Tanzania, whilst I. a. grandis may be dominant in the southern areas (Taylor 1972).
229
Ecology
White-tailed mongooses are found mainly in savannahs and grassland, preferring areas of thick
cover, such as forest edge and bush-fringed streams. It is terrestrial and fairly strictly nocturnal,
denning in the day underground in porcupine or aardvark burrows, termite mounds, cavities under
roots, tangles of vegetation or crevices in rocks. The diet consists mainly of insects and also
includes snakes, other small vertebrates, fruit and carrion (Kingdon 1977, Nowak 2005, Skinner
and Smithers 1990). As with the banded and dwarf mongoose, white-tailed mongooses are able to
break eggs by hurling them against hard objects. The diet varies seasonally, with the species
making use of flying termites, grasshoppers, dung beetles and pupae and caterpillars during
periods of high abundance. It is a common scavenger around areas of human habitation.
White-tailed mongooses are normally seen solitary or in pairs or family parties, but are
occasionally seen in larger groups (Kingdon 1977). Not much is known about mating behaviour,
but as two adults are sometimes seen with subadults, pairs may have relatively long term
associations. Home range size is little documented. One mongoose in Kenya had a home range
size of 8km2 (Taylor 1972). In the Bale Mountains in Ethiopia, average range size was 3.2 km2 for
three adult males and 2.6 km2 for an adult female. In Tanzania the only information comes from
the Serengeti, where average home range size was 0.97km2 for adult males and 0.64 km2 for adult
females (Waser and Waser 1985). Male ranges did not overlap in this study, neither did the ranges
of some females, but there was overlap between several females and their offspring. There was
compete overlap between ranges of opposite sexes.
The species is able to produce a noxious secretion from its anal scent glands, which it may use in
self defence (Kingdon 1977).
The white-tailed mongoose is thought to give birth to 2-4 young in a burrow (Kingdon 1977).
However in the Serengeti, litter sizes of more than 2 post emergence have never been observed
(Waser and Waser 1985). There may be a birth season as all litters observed by Waser and Waser
(1985) in the Serengeti were seen most frequently in the long rains from February to May, with no
young observed in the long dry season (Waser and Waser 1986). The young are independent by
the time they reach 9 months. The longest lifespan recorded in captivity was 10 years (Jones
1982). Raptors are probably important predators (Taylor 1972), although, due to their nocturnal
habits, these are more likely to be owls than diurnal raptors. Many mongooses die on the roads,
probably aggravated by the species scavenging from road kills (Taylor 1972), and the species may
attack poultry and hence can be persecuted by people. It is also vulnerable to attack by dogs. Like
other mongooses they are possibly involved in the transmission of rabies and they are known as a
reservoir for rickettsia-borne disease. Cestode worms have been recorded in the species (Ortlepp
1963). The maximum lifespan recorded in captivity is 10 years (Crandall 1964).
Kingdon (1977) reports that in the Singida area white-tailed mongooses are regarded much like
the black cat in the west, as a witch’s familiar, while in Teso the skin is used to protect babies. It is
not clear whether these beliefs have any impact on wild populations.
The species is widespread across a range of habitats, and occurs all across the southern part of
the Arabian peninsula and in Africa from Senegal to southeastern Egypt and south to northeastern
Namibia and eastern South Africa, but it does not occur in the dense forest zone of West and
Central Africa nor in the deserts of the north or southwest. It has been found up to an altitude of
2,500m. There is no information on density anywhere in its range. It is widespread across
Tanzania.
The Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project has several records of sightings of this species in Tanzania,
mainly in savannah habitats (Fig. 44).
230
white-tailed
mongoose
The species has been documented in the Serengeti National Park, in the central area, but not in
the north and towards the west (Fig. 44). It is probably widespread across the park, but has not
been recorded in these areas due to a lack of observers. There are also records of the species
around Olduvai Gorge at the border of the Ngorongoro Conservation Area and Serengeti National
Park. The species has also been recorded in Grumeti, Ikorongo and Maswa Game Reserves.
Outside the Serengeti there are a number of records from Loliondo Game Controlled Area to the
east of the park and beyond Lake Natron, northeast of the NCA. The species has also been
recorded in Arusha National Park, including during a camera trap survey there, and close to Moshi.
It has not been recorded inside Kilimanjaro National Park, despite a camera trap survey there in
2004-2005, but was recorded on the main road from Moshi to Dar es Salaam, close to Mkomazi
Game Reserve as well as within the reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999). There are published historical
records of the species in Kilimanjaro National Park (Grimshaw and Foley 1990).
The species has been recorded in Tarangire National Park (Fig. 44), where it is probably at high
densities as it was sighted very often during a camera trap survey in the north of the park (79
sightings out of 1,169 camera trap days). It has also been recorded outside the parks to the south
231
Lake Manyara, east of Tarangire National Park on the Maasai steppe and in Swaga Swaga Game
Reserve.
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains National Park but not elsewhere this region
(Fig. 44), although it is likely to be widespread. It was not recorded in the recent camera trap
survey of Minziro Forest Reserve, and is probably not present in the forest, as the habitat is
unsuitable. There is a historical record of the species in Ugalla Game Reserve (Thomas 1962).
The species has been recorded in Kisigo/Muhesi Game Reserve, and Katavi and Ruaha National
Parks (Fig. 44). It has not been recorded elsewhere in this region, although the SHCP note that it
is likely to occur in southern Tanganyika and there are historical records from the Rukwa Valley
(Vesey-FitzGerald 1964).
There is a record of the species in the northeast of the Selous Game Reserve, but no records from
Mikumi National Park. There are no other records in this region, but it is likely to be widespread
throughout savannah habitat.
There are no recent or historical records of the species in this region. The habitat may be
unsuitable.
There are no recent or historical records of the species in this region.
There are records of the species close to Iringa and from the Udzungwa Mountains National Park
(Fig. 44). In 2002 De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a; 2005b) recorded the species four times in
210 nights during a camera trapping survey of the Udzungwas. They also found a road kill of the
species in the same area. Between 2002-2005 the species was recorded in a camera trap survey in
Matundu forest (Rovero and De Luca 2007). The species has also been observed killed on the
main road west of the Pare mountains when a specimen was taken (T. Davenport pers. comm.).
4.24 Egyptian mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Herpestes ichneumon
Names in use in Tanzania: Egyptian mongoose, Ichneumon (English)
CITES: Not listed.
© Charles Foley
Fig. 45 Egyptian mongoose.
The Egyptian mongoose is also known as the large grey mongoose, or Ichneumon. It is a large
mongoose with a wide distribution. The coat is a grizzled grey with a conspicuous black tassel on
the tail, which tends to be held up when moving. The species adopts a low slung reptilian gliding
gait when moving, with the legs partly hidden by body fur. Head and body length is 48-60cm, tail
length 33-54cm and weight ranges from 1.7-4kg (Kingdon 1977). The feet have five digits, but the
232
first digit is very small, and usually doesn’t show in spoor. Males are only slightly heavier than
females. The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40.
Ecology
Egyptian mongooses are widely distributed across savannah habitat but tend to be associated with
riparian conditions (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Their diet includes mainly rodents and other small
mammals, but also frogs, reptiles, crabs, eggs and sometimes fish. Insects are often an important
component of their diet, including beetles and termites. Larger prey are also important, including
birds. Prey are caught when encountered whilst walking in dense habitat. It does not climb, unlike
the slender mongoose. It has been reported as using a distinctive tail chasing behaviour to attract
and lure prey (Kingdon 1977). It is also a powerful digger and will often dig to find prey.
The species is usually solitary or in pairs, however there are several observations of large groups
and up to seven individuals have been seen foraging together. The mongoose is usually diurnal,
and is seldom seen at night, where it rests in termitaries, culverts and natural crevices. There is
little information on mating behaviour, social systems, or range size, however it does appear that
the species forms at least temporary pair bonds and shares the rearing of young (Ben-Yaacov and
Tom-Tov 1983). It has been suggested that they live in polygynous families of one male with up to
three females and cubs (Smithers 1983). They mark their home ranges with anal glad secretions
on items such as big stones situated near habitually used trails. Permanent latrines are used by all
family members to mark home ranges (Ben-Yaacov and Yom-tov 1983).
The mongoose is not generally regarded as a problem around poultry – possibly because of its
diurnal habits.
There is little information on mortality and reproduction. They are thought to have a birth season,
and a gestation of 60 days and mean litter size is 3.3 (range 1-4 n=10) (Skinner and Smithers
1990). Pups first appear outside the nesting place at about 6 weeks. Their eyes are close when
first born, and react to movement around day 21 and sound on day 25, suggesting a slow
development relative to the other mongooses. At four weeks they are fully mobile, and they
remain with their family until one year or older (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The species has lived
up to nearly 13 years in captivity. They have been shown to have antibodies for two types of
rickettsia in Kenya (Heisch et al 1962) and a pneumonic virus which can affect humans has also
been found in this mongoose (Wier and Horsefall 1940).
The species is widespread across savannah habitat, and occurs across much of Africa, except the
dense forest zone of central Africa and the deserts in the north, southwest and the horn of Africa.
Its distribution extends into the coastal belt in north Africa and southern Europe and countries
bordering the eastern Mediterranean. There is no information on density anywhere in its range in
sub-Saharan Africa. It is widespread across Tanzania. The species is not seen frequently and so
there are not many records in the Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project database (Fig. 46).
The species has been documented in the centre and west of Serengeti National Park (Fig. 46).
There are records of the species around Olduvai Gorge at the northern border of Ngorongoro
Conservation Area and Serengeti National Park, and at Ndutu. The species has not been recorded
in Grumeti, Ikorongo and Maswa Game Reserves. Outside the Serengeti protected areas there is
only a single record of the species, which is to the southeast of Lake Natron. There are no records
of the species in Arusha National Park, although it has been recorded in Mkomazi Game Reserve
(Eltringham et al. 1999) and Kilimanjaro Forest (Grimshaw et al. 1995).
The species has been recorded in the north of Tarangire National Park, and to east of the park on
the Maasai steppe (Fig. 46). It has not been recorded elsewhere in the region.
233
The species has been recorded in Mahale Mountains National Park and northeast of Kigoma,
towards Moyowosi, but nowhere else in this region (Fig. 46).
The species has been recorded in Kisigo and Rukwa Game Reserves, and Katavi National Park, but
not elsewhere in this region (Fig. 46).
Egyptian
mongoose
De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a; 2005b) report the species in the Udzungwa Mountains
National Park on the basis of data collected from interviews.
234
4.25 Marsh mongoose: Summary of current knowledge.
Scientific name: Atilax paludinosus
Names in use in Tanzania: Marsh or water mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 47 Marsh mongoose.
The Marsh mongoose is also known as the water mongoose. It is another large mongoose with a
wide distribution, but is more highly specialised than many of the other mongooses and is
dependent on water. The coat is brown with a sprinkling of black guard hairs, sometimes with a
greyish tinge, and the fur is long and shaggy. The head is usually lighter than the back and the
underparts are paler. It is heavily built. Head and body length is 46-62cm, tail length 32-53cm and
weight ranges from 2.5-4.1kg (Kingdon 1977). Despite its aquatic habits, its feet lack webbing.
The feet have five digits, but the first digit is very small, and does not show in the fore foot in
spoor, and only shows in the hind foot if the ground is soft. The four main digits are very long and
tend to splay on soft ground, giving it a characteristic and distinctive bird-like appearance. Males
and females are of equal weight. The dentition is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40. They have three main
vocalisations which are used frequently, a bray produced during mating and agonistic encounters,
a grizzle produced to indicate distress or warning, and humpf produced for attention or
appeasement. All these calls are highly variable.
Ecology
Marsh mongooses are found in a variety of habitats, but are seldom far from water sources which
tend to be bordered by dense vegetation (Rosevear 1974). It has been recorded at an altitude of
2,500m (Kingdon 1977). Favourite haunts are marshes, reedy streambeds and tidal estuaries. The
species is an excellent swimmer and diver. It is thought to be particularly adapted to Papyrus
swamps (Kingdon 1977). Such habitats have a restricted biodiversity due to the deoxygenated
water, and harbour organisms specialised to these conditions. The species forages around water
and along borders of streams and marshes. Its diet covers the specialist creatures found in
papyrus, but also the wide range of the animal life that is found in foraging areas, regular foods
include mussels, crabs, fish, frogs, snakes, eggs small rodents and fruit (Kingdon 1977, Rosevear
1974). More recently it has been feeding on the introduced Louisiana crayfish which are becoming
increasingly widespread across East Africa. It extracts prey from holes and crevices, systematically
working its hands through mud. It will throw creatures with shells such as snails and crabs against
hard surfaces to break the shells and has favourite rocks which it uses for this purpose (Kingdon
235
1977). It will also take offal found at fishing villages. There are conflicting records of the species
being diurnal, crepuscular and nocturnal (Nowak 2005; Rowe-Rowe 1987).
Dung is deposited at dung sites in open areas, generally near the waters edge. It also marks with
its anal gland, usually in a hand stand position, and urinates and cheek rubs (Skinner and Smithers
1990). The species is able to eject foul smelling fluid from anal sacs that it uses in self defence
(Kingdon 1977). It is solitary (Baker 1998), and it has been suggested that it is territorial (Kingdon
1977).
There is little information on mortality and reproduction. The young are probably born in burrows
in stream banks or on mounds of vegetation among reed beds (Nowak 2005). There is no
evidence of a breeding season in East Africa. The gestation period is 69-80 days (Baker 1992), and
litter size ranges from 1-3, but is usually 2-3. The young open their eyes at 9-14 days and are
weaned at 30-46 days, reaching adult size at approximately 27 weeks (Baker 1992; 1998). The
longest lifespan recorded in captivity is just over 19 years (Nowak 2005). There is no information
on disease in this species.
The species is hunted because it is reputed to be a poultry thief, and its habitat has declined
drastically.
The species is widespread but confined to an area south of the Sahara and excluded from the drier
areas in the horn of Africa and to the southwest. Density in the Serengeti National Park has been
estimated as between <0.1 and 4.3 per km2 (Waser 1980). It is widespread across Tanzania
(Kingdon 2004, Skinner and Smithers 1990), however it is not seen frequently and so there are not
many records from the Tanzania Carnivore Atlas project database (Fig. 48), although the
distinctive nature of its spoor make it easier than the other mongoose species to identify by
secondary sign.
The species has been documented once in the Serengeti National Park, around Simba Kopjes (Fig.
48). There is also a record of the species on the northern boundary of Ngorongoro Conservation
Area towards Lake Natron. The species has not been recorded in Grumeti, Ikorongo and Maswa
Game Reserves nor outside the protected area system. There is a record of the species in Arusha
National Park. Historical records include a sighting near Soit le Moytonyi in the Serengeti National
Park in the early 1990s (Durant pers. obs.), and it was reported to be well distributed in
Ngorongoro Conservation Area in the 1960s (Ole Saibull 1966).
The species has been recorded in the south of Tarangire National Park, there are no records of the
species elsewhere in this region (Fig. 48).
The species has been recorded in Moyowosi Game Reserve, Rubondo Island National Park and
Minziro Forest reserve, and there is a sighting to the east of Dodoma, but it has not been recorded
elsewhere in this region (Fig. 48). In an extensive survey of Minziro Forest Reserve the species
was recorded five times in 1,503 camera trap days.
The species has been recorded in Kisigo-Muhesi and Rukwa Game Reserves and Katavi National
Park (Fig. 48). It has not been recorded elsewhere in this region.
The species has been recorded in the northeast of the Selous Game Reserve, at Chada camp, but
there are no records from Mikumi National Park or elsewhere in the region (Fig. 48). There are
also records from Kilombero valley (Starkey 1997).
236
The species has been recorded about 100km to the west of Saadani National Park, however there
are no other records of the species in this region (Fig. 48).
The SHCP report that the species is present in Rungwe Forest Reserve and Kitulo National Park
Marsh mongoose submitted
square.
The species has been recorded within the Udzungwa Mountains National Park, and slightly outside
the park to the southwest, and close to Iringa (Fig. 48). In 2002 De Luca and Mpunga (2004;
2005a; 2005b) recorded the species 32 times in 674 camera trap nights in a survey of the
Udzungwa Mountains National Park. Between 2002-2005 the species was recorded in another
camera trap survey in the Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve (Rovero and De Luca 2007). There are
historical records of the species in the east and west Usambaras (Rodgers and Homewood 1982).
237
4.26 Meller’s mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Fig. 49 Meller’s
mongoose
photographed in
a camera trap
survey in
southern
Tanzania
Scientific name: Rhyncholgale melleri
Names in use in Tanzania: Meller’s mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Meller’s mongoose is a poorly known mongoose, with a yellowish brown coloration, paler
undersides and head, and dark feet (Fig. 49). It has coarse black guard hairs protruding from close
underfur and a bushy tail which is heavily outlined in black when fluffed out. It is similar in
appearance and build to the white-tailed mongoose, but with a much shorter and blunter muzzle.
There is considerable variation in tail colour in this mongoose, and there are morphs with pale
tails, adding to the confusion with the white-tailed mongoose. Hind soles are hairy to the roots of
the toes. Head and body length is 44-48cm, tail length 28-40cm and weight averages 2.5kg, and
ranges from 1.7-3kg (Kingdon 1977). The feet have five digits, but the first digit is very small, and
does not show in the spoor of either fore or hind foot. The hind foot is clearly much larger than
the fore foot. Males are slightly lighter than females, although they are roughly the same size. The
dentition is 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40. Nothing is known of the vocalisations of this species.
Ecology
Meller’s mongooses are restricted to the woodland belt and to moister and more heavily grassed or
wooded areas such as drainage lines and rocky outcrops (Kingdon 1977). What little information
exists, suggests that the species is terrestrial, nocturnal and solitary. The diet includes wild fruit,
termites and probably small vertebrates. It has been suggested that the species is associated with
termitaria, Macrotermes and Hodotermes spp., which have been suggested to be their principal
food (Skinner and Smithers 1990). Support for this conjecture comes from an analysis of the
stomach contents of 23 stomachs of Meller’s mongoose wild caught in Zimbabwe, which were
comprised nearly entirely of these termite species. Other diet items in this analysis were
Orgoptera, reptilies, Myriadpoda, Coleoptera and amphibians (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
Another stomach from a Meller’s mongoose in eastern Zambia contained only termites and two
centipedes (Ansell 1965).
There is little information on mortality and reproduction. Litter sizes of 2-3 have been recorded
(Nowak 2005). There is no other information on this species.
238
The species has a limited and sporadic distribution centred around what appear to be four discrete
populations, one in eastern South Africa, the second in a band through central Zimbabwe
stretching in a narrow strip through Mozambique to the coast, the third from Zambia, southern
Malawi and central Mozambique, and the fourth in Tanzania on the Maasai steppe (Skinner and
Smithers 1990). Kingdon (1977) documented the species from just east of Shinyanga, and east
and west of Morogoro, but suggested that quite a large area of Tanzania might be suitable habitat.
They are nowhere common throughout their range; however the apparent lack of continuation
between different parts of their range may be due to a lack of knowledge about the species
presence (Skinner and Smithers 1990). The Tanzania Carnivore Project has received only three
records of the species, only two of which can be confirmed (Fig. 50).
Meller’s
mongoose
The species has been documented once close to the eastern boundary of the Serengeti National
Park, around Soitorgoss (Fig. 49). Whilst this record was submitted by a very experienced
naturalist, it requires verification. If valid, this would present a significant range extension.
239
There are no recent or historical records of the species in this region. However Kingdon (1977)
conjectured that the species should occur in this region.
There is a single record for the region from the Kilombero Valley (Starkey 1997).
De Luca and Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) report that the species is present in the Udzungwas as it was
photographed during a camera trap survey in the Mwanihana Forest of Udzungwa Mountains
National Park.
4.27 Bushy-tailed mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
Scientific name: Bdeogale crassicauda
Names in use in Tanzania: Bushy-tailed mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
Fig. 51 Bushy-tailed
mongoose.
This is a smaller mongoose, and very little known. There is considerable variation in colour, but the
predominant general colour is some shade of grey or brown with black legs. The legs are relatively
long. Four females and three males from Zimbabwe measured 69.5(67.2-72.0)cm and 69.3(65.574.0)cm respectively total length, 24.9(23-26.5)cm and 25.9(22.9-28.5)cm tail length and 1.57
(1.34-1.77)kg and 1.93(1.82-2.10) kg weight (Skinner and Smithers 1990). All Bdeogale
mongooses have only four digits on both fore and hind feet. There are several subspecies, two of
which are found in Tanzania, one is found only on Zanzibar: B. c. tenuis, which is smaller and
darker than the mainland form, the other is B. c. crassicauda. The dental formula is 3/3-1/1-4/42/2=40.
Ecology
The species has been described as rare, unspecialised, nocturnal, insectivorous and solitary (Taylor
1986, 1987). It inhabits woodland and moist savannah, whilst the other members of the same
genus live in tropical forests. However so few specimens have been caught or identified it is
difficult to be sure about the species’ habitat requirements. The Zanzibar subspecies feeds almost
entirely on insects, especially ants and termites, but may also take crabs and rodents. Stomach
240
analysis shows that the species consumes insects, reptiles, amphibians, murids, myriapods, Ranae,
Scorpions, Gastropods and some grass. The insects include termites, Orthoptera, grasshoppers,
Coleoptera. Reptiles include variable skink, Kirk’s rock agama, common house snake. Amphibians
included the red toad and common toad, Bocage’s burrowing frog, the savannah ridged frog and
the Mozambique ridged frog. Muridae were multimmate mouse, Myriapoda were millipedes,
Aranae the baboon spider, and Cateropods the slug. This suggests that the bushy-tailed mongoose
is probably predominantly insectivorous, but it will eat other invertebrates, small mammals and
reptiles (Skinner and Smithers 1990).
Little is known. A bushy-tailed mongoose was found in the stomach of a Vipera rhinoceros (Peters
1852).
The published distribution documents the species as being confined to Zanzibar, and in a strip
from the southwestern border where Lake Malawi meets Mozambique up to just south of the
Moshi to Dar road, and then a spur to the west as far as Mount Meru and Kilimanjaro (Kingdon
1977). This range excludes Mkomazi Game Reserve. Most of the records within the Tanzania
Carnivore Atlas are from camera trapping studies, and hence are very reliable, and show
numerous range extensions (Fig. 52) which have fundamentally modified our understanding of the
distribution of the species.
The species has been documented in Ngorongoro highland forest during a camera trap survey in
2005 (six sightings out of 915 camera trap days) and in Arusha National Park, again in a camera
trap survey in 2006 (45 sightings out of 1073 camera trap days). The frequency of trapping in
Arusha Park suggests it is common in this protected area. There is a historical record from
Mkomazi Game Reserve (Eltringham et al. 1999).
The species was not seen in Minziro Forest Reserve during an extensive camera trap survey in the
area, but it is listed on the Mahale National Park species list, and subsequently confirmed through
a camera trap survey (Fig. 52).
There is a record of the species from Katavi National Park (Fig. 52), this record cannot be
confirmed. There are no recent or historical records from elsewhere in the region
There is a published record from the Kilombero Valley (Starkey 1997) however there are no other
recent records from the region. Taylor (1986) records two specimens of this species captured
within the Selous-Niassa corridor midway between the Selous and Lukwika Game Reserves, and
Kingdon (1977) documents a couple of specimens from a similar area. Kingdon also documents a
specimen captured just to the east of Lukwika Game Reserve (Kingdon 1977).
The species has been recorded in Zanzibar in Jozani Forest during a camera trap survey (Goldman
and Winther-Hansen 2003) (Fig. 52) and in the Mbarawala area near Lindi (Msuya et al. 2004).
There are no other recent records of the species from the area, however there are some historic
records from the area just northwest of Lindi and close to Pande Game Reserve (Kingdon 1977).
There are no recent records of the species in this region (Fig. 52). Taylor (1986) recorded a
specimen close to the northern border with Malawi, just south of Mbeya.
There are numerous records of the species from the Udzungwa mountains National Park,
principally from camera trapping surveys conducted by De Luca and Mpunga (2004; 2005a;
241
2005b) and Rovero (Rovero and Deluca under review), who also recorded the species in the
Udzungwa Scarp Forest Reserve. There is a recent record from Amani nature reserve (Mercer
2000) and a historic record from the East and West Usambaras (Rodgers and Homewood 1982).
Bushy-tailed
mongoose
4.28 Sokoke dog mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
No photo available
Scientific name: Bdeogale omnivora
Names in use in Tanzania: Sokoke dog mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Endangered (B1+2c), 1996 (classified as subspecies, but now regarded as
separate species). Population trend unknown.
242
The Sokoke dog mongoose is a small mongoose, smaller than the bushy-tailed but bigger than a
slender mongoose. It has a pale cream coloured body and dark brown limbs and tail. The head
and shoulders are palest and almost white (Kingdon 2004). Head and body length is 34-45cm, tail
length 18-24cm and weight is estimated at around 0.7-1.6kg (Kingdon 2004). The dentition is the
same as the other dog mongooses: 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40.
Ecology
The species is very rare and is not much known. It is predominantly nocturnal. It has been
documented in coastal forests, appearing to make use of evergreen thickets but ranging through a
mosaic of forest, savannah and cultivation. Not much is known about the diet, but the few
specimens collected contained insects, birds and fruits.
Unknown
The published distribution was, until recently, confined to Kenya, on a strip of coastal forest
between the river Galana and Mombassa. There were previous records of the species from the
east and west Usambara Mountains (Allen and Loveridge 1927); however until 2005, no recent
observations there or elsewhere were reported. The authors noted that their skinners recognised
the species from the Uluguru Mountains, although its presence has never been confirmed in this
area. Of the two specimens collected by Allen and Loveridge, one was from Magamba, and the
other from Magoroto. It was recently sighted in Tanzania, in the east Usambara Mountains at night
on a trail from the Sigi visitor centre towards Chemka village (Göller 2005).
4.29 Jackson’s mongoose: Summary of current knowledge
No photo available
Scientific name: Bdeogale jacksoni
Names in use in Tanzania: Jackson’s dog mongoose (English)
CITES: Not listed.
IUCN Red List: Vulnerable (B1+2c), 1994. Population trend unknown.
The Jackson’s dog mongoose is a medium sized mongoose, slightly larger than the bushy-tailed. It
has long fur, especially on the tail, which is pale and bushy, and very yellowish tints on the neck
and throat (Kingdon 2004). Its legs are black, and its overall colour is pale greyish. Head and body
length is 52-57cm, tail length 27-36cm and weight 2-3kg (Kingdon 2004). The dentition is the
same as the other dog mongooses: 3/3-1/1-4/4-2/2=40.
Ecology
The species is very rare and is not much known. It is thought to be nocturnal and crepuscular. In
Kenya it occurs in montane forests and bamboos zones, and in lowland forest immediately south
of Mount Elgon, but it has only recently been discovered in Tanzania. Its diet mostly consists of
army ants of the genus Anona; but it also eats caterpillars, beetles, millipedes, snails, lizards and
snake eggs. The juveniles depend on rodents – about 80% of their diet compared with 5% in
adults – as it is possible that coping with well defended columns of army ants may depend on
maturity and learning (Kingdon 1997).
Unknown
243
The published distribution was, until recently, confined to Kenya, on the Kenyan mountains and in
lowland forest immediately south from Mount Elgon. It has recently been discovered in the
Udzungwa Mountains National Park by De Luca and Mpunga (2005a; 2005b) during a camera trap
survey and by Rovero during a similar survey (Rovero and De Luca 2007). It is very localised and
rare within the Matundu forest in this area (De Luca and Rovero 2006).
4.30 Other species
Several other carnivore species have their ranges close to that of Tanzania and may be present in
Tanzania. These include the desert dwarf mongoose, which was listed in Mkomazi Game Reserve
(Eltringham et al. 1999) but there are no other records, the long-snouted mongoose, the Congo
clawless otter and the golden cat.
244
5. HOW TO GET INFORMATION
5.1 Information on status: Available methods
There are several methods that can be used to survey small carnivores. Which method is selected
for use depends on the questions that need to be addressed and the suitability of that method for
a particular region (Norton-Griffiths 1978). Key methods appropriate for small carnivore surveys
identified in this workshop include those identified in previous workshops, such as spoor counts,
radio collaring, line transect surveys, tourist photos, detection dogs, questionnaires, camera
trapping, baiting, records of attacks and visual search. Additional methods relevant to small
carnivores are hair snares which can be used in combination with baiting; trapping, marking and
releasing for mark-recapture analysis; using sand traps to capture spoor when implementing a
spoor count; and road kill counts. Call-in playbacks and tourist photos were dropped as they were
deemed not relevant for these species. Each appropriate technique is discussed below, together
with a list of their main advantages and disadvantages as agreed within the workshop.
5.1.1 Questionnaires
Questionnaire surveys of residents within a region can be used to collect information on small
carnivore species in two key ways. Firstly, they can be used as a simple presence/absence survey,
by gathering information from residents in an area on sightings. Secondly, they can be used as an
in depth survey to not only gather information on distribution, but also to assess levels of conflict
with people, threats and attitudes of residents to small carnivore species in their area. All data
gathered through questionnaire surveys need to be interpreted with caution, as interviewees will
not necessarily respond honestly and openly to questions. Furthermore, many of the small
carnivores are difficult to identify even by trained experts, and hence identification of rare
carnivores can seldom be depended on, however repeated observations of species with a limited
distribution can help pinpoint likely areas for in depth surveys.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
Perhaps the only feasible method for mapping distribution at a national scale
Relatively cheap
Relatively low manpower demands
Can be implemented by relatively unskilled field workers, although field workers should be
able to identify the species themselves.
Can provide extra information on potential threats – such as conflict with people.
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
Provides only very coarse data – cannot detect local changes in population density.
Provides no information on other potentially important factors such as demographics,
ranging patterns and disease.
Requires highly skilled labour when combined within a GIS framework.
There is cultural variation in veracity of responses to interviews and in levels of knowledge.
Needs validation.
Points of information
•
•
Time scales and area need to be clearly defined when implementing questionnaire surveys.
All questionnaires need careful design and analysis, but particularly those looking at conflict
and threats.
5.1.2 Spoor counts and sand trapping
In this method either spoor are recorded whilst walking along a track, or sand ‘traps’ are placed
out, perhaps near bait, and spoor in the sand are recorded. For the larger species some tracking
may be possible by vehicle, in which case the vehicle should be mounted with a specially modified
chair on which a skilled tracker can be seated. Standard methods for density rely on the recording
of all spoor that is fresh (less than 24 hours old) seen on the track. In the case of sand traps these
can be wiped clean every 24 hours, making it easier to interpret age of spoor. Such information
245
can then be used to generate a spoor frequency, e.g. the number of kilometres travelled per spoor
detected (Stander 1998), which can then be used as an index of density. The method can work for
large carnivores, but is not without its problems, and is not much used for smaller carnivores due
to the difficulties in unambiguously identifying spoor for many of the smaller species. Trackers
need to be sufficiently trained to distinguish spoor accurately between the species.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Relatively easy to implement
Can provide presence/absence data, but also relative abundance providing soil substrate
and habitat similar, trends, and density if calibrated against a known density.
Low technology
Relatively cheap
Trackers are in most cases available
Can provide information about other species in the area
Can be used in areas where animals are shy and hard to locate
Can be used at all times of year
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
A suitable soil substrate required in order to detect spoor or sand traps need to be used to
capture spoor if the substrate is unsuitable.
The method is untested for all the species here
Relies on a good network of roads and trails
Requires well trained trackers
Accurate species identification is almost impossible for some of the smaller carnivores.
5.1.3 Driven or walked transects
In this method transects are driven and all individuals seen of one or more target carnivore species
are counted along the transect line. For optimum effectiveness distance based methods should be
used (Buckland et al. 1993) whereby the distance of each individual or group seen from the
transect line is recorded. The data can then be analysed with DISTANCE software and used to
generate an estimate of overall density. The method relies on a sufficient number of groups of the
target species to be seen and recorded – generally a minimum of 30 groups are needed for a
statistically reliable estimate of density. This makes it unsuitable for use in areas where target
species are rarely seen or are very shy. Nocturnal species can be counted in the same way, but
driving at night and using a spotlight to locate individuals.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
Relatively easy to implement
Can provide density estimates
Can provide other useful data such as densities of other mammal species in the area
Can provide information on habitat preferences
Disadvantages
•
•
•
Will not work in areas where animals are very shy
Will only work well in open areas – cannot be used in bushy areas where animals are
difficult to see.
Data analysis is complicated and requires training.
5.1.4 Detection dogs
In this method highly trained domestic dogs are used to find indirect signs, usually scat, in much
the same way as dogs are used by the police to find narcotics. Scat can either be counted as in
spoor counts (see above) to give a density estimate, or DNA can be extracted and typed to provide
a unique genotype that can then be used in a mark-recapture analysis framework to provide a
more accurate estimate of density. The method has been used successfully in this way in the US to
estimate population densities of several carnivore species, including kit foxes and grizzly bears
(Smith et al. 2001; Smith et al. 2003; Wasser et al. 2004), however, aside from a training program
conducted by the Serengeti Cheetah Project in Laikipia in July 2004, the method is largely untested
246
in Africa. The training program demonstrated that it is possible to train Kenyan dogs to locate and
distinguish wild dog and cheetah scat from other scat such as that from jackals, it is unlikely that
scat from any of the carnivores species here would present a problem. The method may also be
used to identify carnivore biodiversity in an area.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
Potentially useful outside protected areas
Can provide DNA for individual identification and hence accurate monitoring
DNA samples can provide extra information – such as population structure
Scat samples can provide extra information on diet
Relatively cheap to implement (except when using DNA analysis).
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
•
Method untested in Africa
Requires training of both dogs and handlers
DNA analyses currently expensive and labour intensive
Would require a change in permit regulations if used inside protected areas
Requires good veterinary care
Requires a dog with appropriate behavioural characteristics
Requirements
•
•
•
Requires good safety protocols and pre planning
Dogs require frequent breaks when working
Dog needs to be bonded with handler
5.1.5 Camera traps
For this method cameras are linked to a beam that detects any changes in infrared, such as when
an animal moves in front of the camera. Whenever such a change is detected the camera takes a
photograph, hence the expression ‘camera trap’, and in so doing produces photographic evidence
of the carnivore community in an area. Cameras are usually positioned along animal trails which
show active use. Photographs of many of the small carnivores can be used for individual
recognition as each individual has unique markings, in the form of spots or blotches for genets and
civets and stripes for banded mongooses. Once they are put in place, the cameras are generally
left undisturbed for a minimum of two months, except for battery checks and changing film. The
method works best for individually recognised animals, where a library can be established of
individuals within an area. Mark recapture analysis is then used to estimate population size. The
technique has been very effective for surveying tigers and jaguars (Karanth and Nichols 1998;
Silver et al. 2004). The method works best in forest and for species with relatively small home
ranges.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
Useful in forested areas where visibility is poor and most of the other methods difficult to
implement
Can provide accurate density estimates when using individual recognition.
Can provide useful other additional information such as the carnivore and prey community
in an area.
Can provide information on shy and nocturnal species which are not normally seen.
The photographs generated are useful for local, national and international PR, and hence
provide additional benefits.
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
Set up equipment is costly and can only be used in relatively secure areas, otherwise likely
to be stolen.
Equipment is very sensitive to weather – if it rains a lot or it is very hot, then this can cause
the equipment to malfunction.
Cameras require frequent checking, particularly in savannah areas, because of a high
density of primates and ungulates.
If used with bait it can attract non target species which can use up film.
247
5.1.6 Visual search
This method relies on an observer locating individuals of one or more target species from a vehicle
without using aids such as radio collars but by relying entirely on visual cues such as via binoculars
or spoor. Since many species are largely nocturnal and cryptic, relying on visual search may be
problematic for generating sufficient information for monitoring. However it has been used
successfully for some species including banded mongoose (De Luca 1998) and serval (Geertsema
1976; 1985).
Advantages
•
•
Can provide important distribution data
Not labour intensive
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
Unlikely to work in areas where animals are shy
Habitat dependent – requires good visibility
Data are biased towards well visited areas with good visibility
It is difficult to provide good information at the population level except in a few open areas
(e.g. Ngorongoro crater) and for a few species (e.g. servals and otters).
5.1.7 Radio collaring
With this method VHF, GPS, mobile phone or Satellite collars are fitted to an individual of a target
species to enable relocation or recording of position. For most such collars, the collar allows
subsequent relocation of the collared individual, due to a signal transmitted from the collar, either
to a VHF receiver, via a mobile phone receiver or via a satellite. Some GPS collars do not transmit
a constant signal, but store GPS reference points visited by the animal, at a set rate (once, twice
or several times a day) and transmit a signal only when they drop off after a set time, to allow
them to be located and the data retrieved and downloaded to a computer. In order to fit the collar
the individual first has to be captured and immobilised by anaesthesia.
The method allows the collection of accurate data on ranging patterns that are not biased by
habitat visibility, unlike methods relying on visual relocation. This method also provides accurate
estimates of density for strongly territorial species.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
Can provide a huge amount of data, not only on population size, but also on disease
monitoring, ranging patterns, identification of threats to the population and demographic
information including birth and survival rates
Relatively low manpower demands
Density estimation is most accurate for territorial species without overlapping home ranges
as generally territory size is used to estimate density.
Provides good information on movements including habitat use, avoidance/attraction to
people/livestock etc., particularly when used in a GIS framework
Disadvantages – only if using satellite and GPS collars
•
•
•
•
•
•
Makes use of relatively complicated technology – and hence implementation requires some
training.
Relatively expensive
Some satellite/GPS collars may require substantial support from manufacturers including
further costs for data downloads
Some species are difficult to trap in order to fit radio collars.
Requires a well-trained veterinarian to minimize any potential risks of immobilization
Not popular with tourists in well visited areas unless accompanied by good PR
Recommendations
•
Collar should be as light and inconspicuous as possible
248
5.1.8 Records of attack
Records are kept by Wildlife Division in Dar and at district level on any reports of attacks on people
and livestock. The main problem with these records is that reporting is seldom consistent between
and within regions, especially for livestock attacks and there are unlikely to be any records for the
main source of conflict for the small carnivores - poultry.
Advantages
•
•
•
Coarse indication of presence
Indicate conflict hotspots
Centralised record keeping (data are available at WD and district offices)
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
•
Records of livestock attacks are under reported and inconsistent and difficult to interpret
(could be under or over reporting)
There are cultural variations in reporting (e.g. Maasai under report attacks)
Absence of reports does not necessarily imply absence of conflict hotspot
Problems in species identification for small carnivores
Currently no system in place for recording attacks by small to medium carnivores.
5.1.9 Baiting and/or hair snares
This technique uses bait to attract a target small or medium carnivore species to an area for
research and information - not for hunting. A well-designed baiting survey in an area where
animals are attracted to bait can yield information on numbers and density if combined with
individual recognition of the animals coming to bait and a total count, either through visual means
or via DNA extracted from hair snares. It can also yield information on presence when not used in
a rigorous design or without individual recognition.
Advantages
•
•
•
Establishes presence
Repeated baiting in an area over several sites can provide information on trends and allow
monitoring of individuals
May attract other carnivores which can provide useful information about the carnivore
community
Disadvantages
•
•
•
•
There are potential consequences of conflict for local people if not planned carefully
Could be ineffective in many areas, particularly those with a history of poisoning
Species identification from hair can be difficult – requires a hair library and microscope or
DNA extraction and genetic analysis – both require well trained personnel (the SHCP have
accumulated an extensive library of reference material in Mbeya).
There is a limited ability to target particular species, although some scents can be quite
species specific.
5.1.10 Den, midden and spraint counts
In this technique den, midden and/or spraint sign are recorded in an area. Many of the small and
medium carnivores scent mark, often in well marked latrines or middens, and/or use dens, which
can often be located more easily than the individual animals, particularly for nocturnal species.
Advantages
•
•
•
Can provide information on presence and absence.
Can provide an index of abundance – particularly for otters and civets
Relatively cheap
Disadvantages
•
Difficulty in distinguishing dens of different species
5.1.11 Road kill counts
In this technique individual carnivores seen killed on a road are identified by species and recorded.
249
Advantages
•
•
•
Can provide information on carnivore presence across the country.
Relatively cheap.
Can provide tissue for DNA and specimens for collections.
Disadvantages
•
Depends largely on tarmac road coverage.
5.1.12 Mark-recapture
In this technique animals are trapped using standard trapping protocols then marked and released
and re-trapped at a later date. The proportion of marked individuals re-trapped is then used to
estimate population size using mark-recapture statistics. The method was developed for small
mammals, and can provide accurate estimates of density. Live trapping, without marking, can also
give a good indication of biodiversity in an area.
Advantages
•
•
•
•
•
Useful in forested areas where visibility is poor and most of the other methods difficult to
implement
Can provide accurate density estimates.
Can provide useful other additional information such as other carnivores in an area
Useful for species without distinctive individual coat patterns that cannot be recognised in a
camera trap survey protocol
Can provide information on disease and genetics if tissue samples are obtained
Disadvantages
•
•
•
Method has not been shown to work for all species.
Some species can be trap shy.
Traps need to be strong enough to withstand large predators
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6. CONSERVATION THREATS
In this session the group examined potential threats to small to medium conservation in Tanzania.
The group identified the threats for the species group as a whole and discussed the evidence for
each threat for each species and its significance to populations. The threats fell into seven major
categories: Prey availability; land use change; anthropogenic killing; inadequate management;
disease; tourism; domestic animals; interspecific competition. Interspecific competition is a feature
of natural ecosystems, and so the latter category is a constraint, rather than a direct threat. Here
we go through each threat category together with associated subcategories, and identify which
species are subject to each threat. This information is supported with evidence from the published
literature.
6.1 Prey availability
6.1.1 Termite distribution change
Termites were singled out as a potential threat for termite specialists.
Species susceptible: Bat-eared fox, possibly Meller’s mongoose.
6.1.2 Loss of prey
Species susceptible: All species especially prey specialists such as cats, striped weasel and otters.
6.1.3 Decline in scavenging opportunities
This is potentially important for species dependent on scavenged meat.
Species susceptible: No species entirely dependent on scavenging – but jackals could be affected
as they partly depend on scavenged food (Sillero-Zubiri et al. 2004).
6.2 Land use change
6.2.1 Reduction in habitat quality – degradation of natural habitat
Species susceptible: All species with some exceptions – these are human tolerant species which
thrive in human altered land including civet, common genet and side-striped jackal, slender
mongoose, white-tailed mongoose and wild cat. There is a need for further information about the
benefits and costs of habitat change to different species.
6.2.2. Habitat conversion (either due to deliberate land use change or inadvertent due
to flooding or lowering of water table)
Species susceptible: All species are potentially affected – but the specific impacts depend on the
type of conversion e.g. conversion to pine plantation or urban use is likely to have more impact
than conversion to agriculture.
6.2.3 Resource extraction
Species susceptible: Impacts depend on the extent of resource extraction – whilst sustainable
resource extraction need have none or very limited impact it is usually unsustainable.
Unsustainable extraction leads to habitat change and hence overall impacts are similar to a
reduction in habitat quality.
It may have additional effects if it results in more people becoming resident in areas, including
noise, use of dogs etc. which can affect all species.
6.2.4 Fragmentation
Species susceptible: Forest dependent species are particularly affected by habitat fragmentation
(because agricultural land is more similar to savannah than forest).
Bushy-tailed mongoose, servaline genet, palm civet, Jackson’s mongoose and Sokoke dog
mongoose
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6.2.5 Pollution includes pesticides/herbicides/rubbish
Species susceptible: All species, particularly the otters
6.2.6 Global warming
Species susceptible: All species but particularly those which are habitat specific, bushy-tailed
mongoose, Jackson’s mongoose, Sokoke dog mongoose and servaline genet.
6.2.7 Fire management
Species susceptible: Indirect impacts will affect similar species as those affected by a reduction in
habitat quality, there is a need for more information on the direct impacts of fire.
6.3 Anthropogenic killing
This encompasses deliberate and targeted hunting, accidental killing and retaliatory killing due to
loss of livestock, it therefore can be carried out by a wide variety of people with varying knowledge
of the species concerned.
6.3.1 Road kill
Species susceptible: Forest species are probably less likely to be affected, whilst smaller carnivores
are probably most affected including civets, white-tailed mongoose, genets, zorilla, striped weasel.
Golden jackals and servals are probably also affected, but to a lesser degree. Tarmac roads
probably pose more of a threat than earthen roads.
6.3.2 Mistaken identity
Species susceptible: servals can be mistaken for leopards, marsh mongoose can be mistaken for
otters.
6.3.3 Medicinal use
Species susceptible: Otter parts are used as an aphrodisiac (widespread across cultural groups),
and bands of otter skin are used on babies to protect against witchcraft (e.g. the Hehe among
other cultural groups); the honey badger is eaten in the belief that it will make the consumer
tough in fighting (in the Udzungwa area).
6.3.4 Cultural use
Species susceptible: for example - striped weasels are used to protect a shamba from ‘theft’
(nyakyusa, safwa, sangu); serval cat skin is used by local doctors and ceremonial dancers for
traditional clothing.
6.3.5 Illegal hunting
Species susceptible: As for cultural and medicinal. Carnivores are hunted for food by particular
cultural groups, such as the Hadzabe and Hehe. The palm civet particularly targeted in the Iringa
and Morogoro area.
6.3.6 Snaring
Species susceptible: Probably only affects medium sized carnivores. There is no information on its
impact at the population level and the issue warrants further investigation.
6.3.7 Retaliatory killing (illegally killed carnivores after livestock attacks)
Species susceptible: Affects all species which attack livestock – genets, mongooses (except dog
mongooses and dwarf mongooses), honey badgers (particularly by beekeepers), weasels, zorillas,
civets, jackals, cats, otters, palm civets. Bat-eared foxes are not affected.
6.3.8 Poisoning
Species susceptible: Affects all species which come to bait (probably not dog mongooses, bateared fox, and some cat species)
6.3.9 Illegal trade
Species susceptible: No evidence of an impact at present but there is trade in serval skins.
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6.3.10 Problem animal control (i.e. legally killed problem carnivores permitted by WD)
Species susceptible: Probably not a major impact
6.4 Inadequate management
6.4.1 Lack of clear legal framework outside Pas
Species susceptible: All species
6.4.2 Outdated laws
6.4.3 Inadequate resources (human and financial)
6.4.4 Lack of education within local communities (negative attitudes to carnivores)
6.4.5 Lack of involvement of local communities in conservation activities
6.4.6 Lack of land use plans in community areas
Species susceptible: Species that are habitat specific are particularly affected, specifically the
bushy-tailed mongoose, Jackson’s mongoose, Sokoke dog mongoose, servaline genet and striped
weasel.
6.5 Disease
6.5.1 Domestic animals/wildlife interaction
Species susceptible: All canids (rabies, CDV and worms).
6.5.2 Human/wildlife interaction
Species susceptible: No serious disease known except for rabies.
6.5.3 Endemic disease
Species susceptible: All species are potentially affected, particularly social species such as canids
and mongooses. All species are also potentially affected by anthrax
6.6 Tourism
No major threat currently known, but there is a need for more information
6.7 Domestic animals
6.7.1 Hybridisation
Species susceptible: Wild cat
6.7.2 Dogs attacking small carnivores
Species susceptible: A major threat to all species
6.8 Interspecific competition
Competition is a natural feature of ecosystems; however human impacted landscapes can affect
the natural ecology and cause some species to dominate. When this is combined with habitat loss
and fragmentation, there are potentially strong impacts, particularly on small populations. This
process will particularly affect species with large home ranges and low density, but there is a need
for more information on the exact impacts.
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7 CONSERVATION AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES
In this last part of the meeting the group used the information above to establish research and
conservation priorities. For this they used the information on species distribution and status; the
threats facing each species; and the tools available to address these threats to establish overall
priorities for all species of small to medium carnivores in Tanzania. The inputs from the
management and research authorities from WD, TANAPA, TAWIRI and NCAA were particularly
important for this session.
The group identified the following priorities for all carnivore species:
•
•
•
Design and print an identification poster for all carnivore species in Tanzania and distribute
widely (responsible: TCP- TAWIRI)
Establish a DNA and tissue bank at TAWIRI
For all small carnivores – representative specimens to continue to be collected and placed
in appropriate institutions for training and to collect DNA to establish population structure.
(responsible: TAWIRI Carnivore centre, Mweka, University of Dar, SUA, SHCP (to be
handed over to appropriate institution if project ends)
The group identified the following specific national priorities for each species:
7.1 Caracal
The group agreed that there was a strong need to gather more information on this species.
National priorities:
•
•
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country
Establish home range size in representative habitat
Establish the relative importance of threats outside protected areas in representative
habitats
Review existing trophy quotas
Regional priorities:
Northern region (Serengeti, Maswa, NCA, LGCA, Kilimanjaro, Mt Meru, Mkomazi)
• Establish trends in this region as it is likely to be a stronghold for the species.
7.2 Serval
As with the previous species, there was a strong need to gather more information on this species.
•
•
•
•
•
Establish home range size in representative habitat - outside of Ngorongoro crater
Establish density in representative habitats
Establish trends in hunted areas
Establish the impact of retaliatory killing in representative habitats
Southern Highlands (including Mbeya, Rungwe, Kitulo, Mpanga/Kipengere)
• Gather further information on trends, ecology and anthropogenic killing in the
Kitulo/Rungwe area.
• Maintain ongoing efforts in increasing education and prevention of killing in Rungwe and
Kitulo (responsible: SHCP)
• Reduce access to Rungwe and Kitulo National Park (responsible: FBD and WD)
• Install project manager in Rungwe Forest Reserve (responsible: FBD)
• Change status of Rungwe Forest Reserve to a Nature Reserve (responsible: FBD) and
propose to increase status to National park (responsible: TANAPA) both within MNRT
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7.3 Wild cat
As with the previous species, there is a strong need to gather more information on this species.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Establish the extent of hybridisation around a representative area and comparison with a
remote protected area
Assess the impact of dogs on the species in a representative high dog density area
Enforce existing laws to keep domestic cats out of protected areas
Develop and initiate an education program to increase awareness of hybridisation as a
conservation issue.
Ensure surveillance and control of hybrids, prioritising areas around human settlements in
protected areas
There were no regional priorities.
7. 4 Spotted-necked otter
•
•
•
•
•
Initiate a study on ways to reduce conflict with fisherman in a high density otter area.
Initiate a study of the impact of illegal fishing activities, such as poisoning, on otters.
Initiate an education program to train managers in protected areas and fisheries in otter
species identification (responsible: TAWIRI)
Promote sustainable fishing practices (responsible: TAFIRI and Fisheries Division)
Northwest and central region (Ugalla, Mahale, Minziro, Bukoba, Rubondo, Singida, Dodoma,
Tabora, Moyowosi/Kigosi), which is thought to be a stronghold for spotted-necked otters.
• Establish trends in Rubondo and Mahale
• Establish abundance and home range size in Rubondo
• Develop techniques to keep otters away from fishing nets (responsible: TAWIRI)
• Promote and maintain pollution surveillance (responsible : NEMC)
Rukwa-Lukwati (includes Katavi, Ruaha, Rungwa, Lwafi)
• Initiate pollution surveillance of lake Rukwa and Nyasa (responsible: NEMC)
7.5 African Clawless Otter
•
•
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country.
Establish as to whether there is conflict with fisherman
Develop techniques to keep otters away from fishing nets (responsible: TAWIRI)
Promote and maintain pollution surveillance (responsible: NEMC)
• Establish the presence of the species in the Serengeti through surveys of the Mara river
and western Grumeti
Rukwa-Lukwati (includes Katavi, Ruaha, Rungwa, Lwafi)
• Establish population trends in Ruaha National Park.
• Assess the impact of cultural killing on the population around Lwafi Game Reserve.
• Initiate education program in Rukwa to reduce medicinal use (responsible: SHCP)
Southern Highlands (includes Mbeya, Rungwe, Kitulo, Mpanga/Kipengere)
• Establish population trends in Rungwe and Kitulo
• Assess the impact of cultural killing on the population in Rungwe and Kitulo
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Maintain education program in Rungwe to reduce medicinal use and expand to Kitulo
(responsible: SHCP)
Eastern Arc Mountains (includes Usambaras, Uluguru, Udzungwa)
• Establish population trends in the Udzungwa Mountains National Park
• Maintain community conservation program in Udzungwas to reduce medicinal use
(responsible: TANAPA)
•
7.6 Striped weasel
There is very little information on this species, and so conservation activities must await results
from survey work and research.
•
Establish the distribution across the country, it is particularly important that sighting points
are geo-referenced with a high accuracy in order to determine habitat preferences and
sites of local abundance.
• Initiate a study to investigate ways to humanely trap in areas where known to occur –
Rungwe and Kitulo – in order to facilitate an in depth study of the species.
7.7 Zorilla
There is thought to be no immediate threat to this species and hence there are no national or
regional priorities.
7.8 Honey badger
Honey badgers frequently come into conflict with honey gatherers, and hence have an impact on
local livelihoods, with potentially negative repercussions on the species. However there is at
present very little information about the extent and severity of this conflict and so there is a need
for further information. Conservation activities will be dependent on results from research.
Compile a list of local methods used to prevent raiding of hives and test their effectiveness.
Initiate an ecological study of the species in a representative area where beekeeping is also
economically important
There are no regional priorities.
•
•
•
7.9 Golden jackal
•
•
•
Establish the importance of disease in population dynamics
Evaluate the impact of interspecific competition with other jackal species
• Maintain domestic dog vaccination programs around Serengeti together with disease
surveillance to test effectiveness of ring vaccination programs on limiting rabies and CDV
within protected areas.
7.10 Side-striped jackal
•
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•
•
•
7.11 Black-backed jackal
•
•
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country, particularly the limits to the species range.
7.12 Bat-eared fox
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country, particularly the limits to the species range.
7.13 African civet
There is thought to be no major national threat to this species and hence there are no national
priorities. However there are some regional priorities as the species is a frequent component of
bushmeat for some cultural groups.
Eastern Arc Mountains (includes Usambaras, Uluguru, Udzungwas)
• An investigation into the impact of bushmeat hunting on the population in the areas around
the Udzungwa Mountains National Park.
7.14 Two spotted palm civet
Initiate a study of diet in order to establish the relative importance of different fruits and
hence trees.
Coast (includes Mtwara, Zanzibar and Saadani)
• Subspecies on Zanzibar may be particularly vulnerable to hunting by dogs and so an
investigation is needed to establish the impact of dog predation on the population.
•
•
257
Improve law enforcement and forest protection in Zanzibar (responsible: Department of
forest fisheries fruits and trade)
• Improve law enforcement and forest protection in Rungwe Forest Reserve (responsible:
FBD)
Eastern Arc mountains (includes Usambaras, Uluguru, Udzungwa)
• Establish the impact of bushmeat hunting on the population around the Udzungwas
Mountains.
• Improve law enforcement and forest protection in Udzungwa and Usambara Forest
Reserves (responsible: FBD)
•
7.15 Common genet
The common genet is not immediately threatened in Tanzania.
Initiate a study to understand the ecological separation between different species which
can then be used to predict distribution.
• Collect representative specimens and place in appropriate institutions for training and
collect DNA to establish population structure.
•
•
7.16 Large-spotted genet
The large-spotted genet is not immediately threatened in Tanzania.
•
•
7.17 Servaline genet
The servaline genet is known from only a few areas, two with a separate subspecies – Zanzibar’s
Jozani Forest, the Udzungwa Mountains National Park and the Nguru and Ukuguru Mountains.
Such a limited distribution is a cause of concern and makes this species a high priority.
•
•
•
•
Establish the status of the species in the country.
Collect representative specimens and place in appropriate institutions for training and
Coast (includes Mtwara, Zanzibar and Saadani)
• Enforcement of existing laws to protect habitat
• Establish home range size of Lowe’s servaline genet in the Udzungwa Mountains National
Park and conduct an in depth study to establish the distribution across the park.
• Conservation activities to be initiated pending results from survey.
258
7.18 Miombo genet
• Establish home range size in a representative area.
• Establish the status of the species in the country.
Regional and national conservation activities to be initiated pending results from research.
•
•
7.19 Banded mongoose
There is no conservation threat to this species, however there is conflict with people in some
areas, particularly with ground nut farmers, and this needs to be addressed.
No national priorities.
Northwest and Central region (Ugalla, Mahale, Minziro, Bukoba, Rubondo, Singida, Dodoma,
Tabora, Moyowosi/Kigosi)
• Initiate a study to investigate means of reducing conflict with ground nut farmers in the
Mwanza and/or Shinyanga regions.
7.20 Dwarf mongoose
There is no conservation threat to this species.
7.21 Meller’s mongoose
•
•
•
Establish the status of the species in the country.
Conservation activities to be developed and initiated pending results from survey work.
7.22 White-tailed mongoose
There is no conservation threat to this species, and the species has a potential benefit to people in
terms of controlling rodents and reducing crop damage.
National priorities.
•
Initiate a study to establish economic value in controlling rodents in agricultural land
No regional priorities
7.23 Egyptian mongoose
There is no conservation threat to this species, and the species has a potential benefit to people in
terms of controlling rodents and reducing crop damage.
•
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country; this should be aided by distributing
photographs to PA managers to assist with species identification.
Establish home range and diet in representative habitat
Initiate a study to establish economic value in controlling rodents in agricultural land
259
7.24 Slender mongoose
There is no conservation threat to this species.
7.25 Marsh mongoose
•
•
Establish the distribution across the country through targeted surveys.
Conservation activities to be developed and initiated pending results from surveys.
7.26 Bushy-tailed mongoose
Not currently known to be threatened.
•
•
•
Establish a comparative index of abundance that can be used to compare between areas.
Initiate a DNA study to establish population structure and genetic differentiation between
different areas
7.27 Sokoke dog mongoose
The only known population of this species in Tanzania is in the east Usambaras. There is an urgent
need for survey work needed to establish its presence in other parts of the eastern arc mountains.
•
Establish the distribution and status in the country through targeted surveys.
Regional priorities
• Establish a monitoring program for the species
• Protect important habitat by targeting key known localities for species identified by surveys.
• Distribute photographs or posters amongst local community to raise awareness and gather
information about the species.
• Further conservation activities to be developed and initiated pending results from surveys.
7.28 Jackson’s mongoose
The only known population of this species in Tanzania is in the Udzungwa Mountains. There is an
urgent need for survey work needed to establish its presence in other localities as well as
establishing its status in known areas.
•
•
Establish the distribution and status in the country through targeted surveys.
Initiate a DNA study to establish differentiation from Kenyan populations.
Regional priorities
• Initiate more targeted surveys across eastern arcs to establish presence and population
status.
• Initiate a detailed ecological study in the Udzungwas to establish habitat needs, diet
preferences and home range.
• Protect key habitat by targeting known localities for the species, as identified from surveys.
• Distribute photographs and/or posters amongst local communities to raise awareness and
gather information.
260
•
Further conservation activities to be developed and initiated pending results from surveys.
7.29 Additional species
There are a number of species which have distributional ranges adjacent to Tanzania that may
occur in Tanzania, but are as yet undiscovered. The following priorities were established for these
species.
7.29.1 Golden cat
• Establish presence or absence in country, by initiating surveys targeted at the following
possible areas – Monduli; Nou forest; Congo forest in the Northwest – Minziro to Mahale;
and southern Tanganyika forests (south of Katavi).
7.29.2 Desert dwarf mongoose
• Establish presence or absence in country by initiating surveys targeted at the following
possible areas - northeast Tanzania near the Kenyan border and coast
7.29.3 Congo clawless otter
• Establish presence or absence in country by initiating surveys along the shores of lake
Tanganyika.
7.30 The Way Forward
Managers need information on the status and threats to small and medium carnivores in their
areas to plan management activities to enable their conservation, as well as assessing the impact
of these activities on their conservation. The proceedings of this workshop synthesise what is
currently known about all small carnivore species in Tanzania, and make use of the participants’
knowledge and experience to establish tools for their conservation, including conservation targeted
research and management tools. All participants are deeply proud of Tanzania’s international
status for conservation, and wish to maintain this reputation. The hard work that participants put
into this workshop and report reflects this wish, and will hopefully lead to a more effective
monitoring and management programme, hand in hand with training and further capacity
development.
Acknowledgements
We would like to thank the Tanzania Carnivore Centre staff for enabling this workshop to run
smoothly, particularly Flora Kipuyo, Zawadi Mbwambo and Jumanne Ramadhani and Leah Martin.
Maurus Msuha’s involvement as project manager for the Tanzania Carnivore Project over the first
three years of operation was essential to the success of this workshop. We would also like to thank
TAWIRI for their assistance in organising the workshop. Amy Dickman and Nathalie Pettorelli
assisted in editing the report. A large number of individuals contributed to the database used to
map distributions in this report, including Amanda Barrett, Anne Hilborn, Antonio Sirolli, Augustine
Minja, Bernard Kissui, Carnivore Disease Project, Chada Camp, Charles Foley, Chris Parker,
Christian Kiffner, Claire Lewis, Clive Jones, Daleen Funston, Daniel Moore, Daniela De Luca, Daudi
Peterson, David Erickson, David Moyer, Dennis Ikanda, Dominic Lever, Craig Doria, Dorine Jansen,
Edward J. Salali, Elizabeth Singleton, Emmanuel John Matalika, Emilian Kihwele, Emma Wilcox,
Ephraim Mwangomo, Ernest Eblate, Ezra Ilomo, Flora Kipuyo, Francesco Rovero, Gemes Shayo,
Giacomo Albo, Giulia Gionchetta, Gus Mills, Hadas Kushnir, Ifura Ukio, Howard Fredrick, James
Nando, Janemary Ntalwila, John M. Njita, Jules Knocker, Julius Mollel, K. Boswell, Kirsten Skinner,
A. Koisenge, Lara Foley, Luca Giannone, Luke Samaras, Lydia Beaudrot, Jonathan Lymo, M. S.
Licky, Machali Boniface, Marc Baker, Mike Becker, Mike Peterson, Moses Mungure, Moses
261
Pallangyo, Noah Mpunga, Charles Musa, A. Mziray, Ndutu Lodge, Neil Baker, Nigel Theisen,
NOMAD, Paul Funston, Pete Coppolillo, Richard Knocker, Said Kagoma, Samweli Mtoka, Serengeti
Lion Project, Shaaban Langwen, Simon Braat, Sinyaeli Pallangyo, Stephan Kronow, Steve Makacha,
Sultana Bashir, Terry Forghen, Thad Peterson, Theophil Ng'unyali, Thomas Shabani, Trevor Jones,
Laura Vacondio, Viv and Peter Raymond, Hamisi, Yustina Kiwango, Zawadi Mbwambo. The
workshop was funded by the Darwin Initiative of the UK and the Tanzania Carnivore Project has
had additional support from the Wildlife Conservation Society and the Zoological Society of
London.
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268
WCS/SHCP
TCP, TMAP, ZSL and WCS
WD
FBD
WD
TAWIRI
TMAP
TCP and TMAP
Tarangire Elephant Project, TMAP, ZSL and WCS
TMAP
Tarangire Elephant Project
Tarangire Elephant Project and WCS
TAWIRI
TMAP
TANAPA
Noah Mpunga
Sarah Durant
Rehema Tibanyenda
Pauline M. Mpuya
Mr. Midala, B.M.C.M
Simon Mduma
Mwemezi Rwiza
Alexander Lobora
Charles Foley
Konzo Edwin
Linus Munishi
Lara Foley
Julius Keyyu
Chediel Kazael
Godwell E. Ole Meing`ataki
269
Organization/Institution
NCAA
Name
Novatus Magoma
Participants
Appendix I
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
Box
1475 Mbeya
661 Arusha
1994 Dar es Salaam
426 Dar es Salaam
1994 Dar es Salaam
661 Arusha
661 Arusha
661 Arusha
2703 Arusha
661 Arusha
12472 Arusha
2703 Arusha
661 Arusha
661 Arusha
369 Iringa
Contact address
Box 1 Ngorongoro
Email
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]
[email protected]

Tanzania small carnivore conservation action plan

Transcription

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