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GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
Sustainable Community Based Mangrove
Plantation Projects: Three Case Studies from
Palawan Island, The Philippines
Dimithri Devinda Jayagoda, Graduate School of Asia Pacific Studies (Doctoral Program) Ritsumeikan Asia
Pacific University, Beppu City, Oita Prefecture, Japan. E-mail: [email protected]
Darshi Manohari Gamage, Chiikikagakukenkyusho (Area Development) Consultant, Oita Prefecture, Japan
E-mail: [email protected]

I. INTRODUCTION
Abstract— Undoubtedly, mangroves and associated wildlife
show signs of degradation in almost every region of the world.
Historical data proves that in 10 regions, there have been
continuous mangrove losses between the periods 1980 to 2005.
The Philippines have lost its mangrove cover quite severely. In
1920, the country had 500,000 hectares of mangrove cover that
has reduced to 117,000 by the year 1995. The heavy loss of
mangrove forest in the world is due largely to human activities.
There are community based mangrove plantation and livelihood
projects conducted in the City of Puerto Princesa, on Palawan
Island, Philippines, namely “Love Affair with Nature”, “Firefly
watch in Iwahig mangrove forest” and “Mangrove Paddleboat
tour in Sabang” were implemented and continued by the true
efforts of the lord mayor, Edward Hagedorn. Valentines day
mangrove plantation has been continuing annually since 2003.
Mangrove forests have provided nursery grounds for fish,
prawns and crabs and as supported matter, which are valuable
sources
of
food
for
crustaceans
and
fishes.
angroves are trees or large shrubs, including ferns
and palms, which normally grow in or adjacent to the
intertidal zone and which have developed a special
adaptation in order to survive in this environment”
(World Atlas of Mangroves 2010). Malena (1998) mentioned,
“Mangroves are a community of intertidal plants including all
species of trees, shrubs, vines and herbs found on coast,
swamps, or border of rivers.” The term ‘mangrove’ can be
used for both the ecosystem and the plant families that have
developed specialized adaptations to live in this tidal
environment (Tomlinson, 1986). Mangroves can be found in
some Northern latitudes as high as 32 degrees, even though it
is quite unique within 25 degrees North and South of the
Equator (Maltby 1986). Mangroves cover an area of between
190,000 and 240,000 square kilometers (km2) globally and it
counts for one quarter of the world’s tropical and sub-tropical
coastlines (Kelleher 1995). The world Atlas of mangrove 2010
suggests that the total area of remaining mangrove in the third
millennium is only 150,000 square kilometers. These
calculations are done based on the available national statistics.
Mangroves are considered as a rare global habitat. They
currently make up less than 1 percent of tropical forests
worldwide, and less than 0.4 percent of the global total forest
estate (39,520,000 square kilometers) (FAO 2006).
“M
A unique methodology has been used in this study and
photography has been used to document many of the qualitative
findings. These Mangrove Plantation and livelihood Projects can
be adopted in various other islands in the Philippines and the rest
of the world. Recommendations are given to further improve the
mangrove plantation project and to also stabilize and increase
community participation. The qualitative data gathered from the
local high-ranking officials and academia in Puerto Princesa
proves that the mangrove is no longer being harvested and is
continuously regaining through both the natural and planting
processes of reforestation and afforestation. Findings from the
interviews with local community prove that everybody in the city
is aware about the importance of mangroves and that they are
participating in the planting of and protecting the mangroves
planted area in every possible manner. These qualitative findings
are proved by available quantitative national statistics and which
clearly shows the mangrove forest cover and the upland forest
cover are increasing in Puerto Princesa during the last two
decades.
II. DECLINE OF MANGROVES IN THE WORLD
There are two main types of sources causing heavy destruction
of mangroves. Increasing population pressure in the coastal
areas and over-harvesting of timber and other wood products
is one type of destruction of mangrove forests. The second
type is, in recent years, a more significant cause appears to be
the demand for land by key primary sector economic
development activities, such as mining, conversion to salt
ponds, shrimp ponds, agricultural and aquaculture expansion
(Barbier 2003). From 1989, shrimp farming has increased over
400 percent in tropical countries since1989 and its share of
world shrimp production increased from 5 percent in 1982 to
over 30 percent by 1996 (Anderson and Fong 1997). Naylor et
al. 2000 said that farmed fish and shellfish in the coastal zone
Keywords-Community Participation, Environmental projects,
Leadership, Mangroves, Sustainability
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© 2012 GSTF
GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
have more than doubled in the past 15 years and there is a
huge increase in global demand.
the trend, the positive note is that mangrove area changes in
2000–2005, shows a reduction of the annual rate of loss in all
regions. “The world mangrove experts are of the opinion that
the long-term survival of mangroves is at great risk due to
fragmentation of the habitats and that the services offered by
the mangroves may likely be totally lost within 100 years”
(Duke et al., 2007). Some other estimates show that global
loss rates annually at 1 million hectare, and in some regions
facing a danger of complete loss (Kathiresan and Bingham,
2001). Global mangrove cover has been declining at an
alarming rate, and it has lost about 35 percent of the total area
in the past decades. Therefore the coastal mangrove systems
are now considered as one of the “most threatened” ecosystem
and much threatened than coral reefs and tropical forests
(Valiela et al. 2001). During past 30 to 40 years, in Asia, Latin
America and Africa have lost between 30 and 70 percent of
their mangrove area (Spalding et al. 1997; WRI 1996).
Whenconsidering the country level, Indonesia, Mexico,
Pakistan, Papua New Guinea and Panama has recorded largest
losses of mangroves during the 1980’s which counts for 1
million hectares and this is the land area of Jamaica (FAO
2006).
Figure 1 clearly shows that during the period 1980 to 2005,
there was a dramatic loss in mangrove forest in every region
except for Australia. South East Asia, North and Central
America, Pacific Ocean and East Asia show the highest
decrease and it is more than 20 percent in 25 years. But when
analyzing the global trend in terms of declining comparatively
there is a slight reduction. In 1980`s the annual global loss is
1.04 percent and in 1990`s it is 0.72 percent and further
dropped to 0.66 percent during five year period in 2000`s.
However Duke et al (2007) estimates that the decline is 1 to 2
percent and Valiela et al (2001) estimates it as 2.07 percent
per year. These estimates are significantly higher than the
FAO estimates.
Figure1: Decline in mangrove by regions between 1980- 2005
1980
1990
70,000
2000
60,000
2005
Area (Km2)
50,000
III.
MANGROVES IN PHILIPPINES
The Philippine mangrove forest area was estimated to be
around 450,000 hectares in 1920 and due to conversion to
fishponds and salt beds, cutting of trees for firewood and other
domestic uses and reclamation for industrial or other
development purposes. This area has reduced to less than
150,000 hectares that is distributed among 22 percent in
Palawan, 32percent in Mindanao, and 23 percent in Eastern
Visayas and Bohol (DENR 2011 interview). Also Cheryl et al
2005 mentioned that the mangroves in Philippines was
500,000 hectares in at the early 1900’s and reduced to 117,700
hectares by 1993 spread in 18,000 kilometer long shoreline.
There is a record of mangrove depletion at a rate of about
3,700 hectares per year, during 1980 to 1991 specially due to
conversion to fishponds and due that old growth mangrove
areas are reduced to less than 20,000 hectares, about 65
percent of which are found in Palawan and the remaining in
Zamboanga del Sur (Cheryl et al 2005).
40,000
30,000
20,000
10,000
0
Region
Figure 2: Decline of Mangrove Resources in the Philippines
Source: Estimations based on FAO 2007 data
Mangrove raea (Hectares)
Over different time periods, factors influencing the structure
and function of mangrove forests change in relation to global,
regional and local scales (Duke et al. 2007). Rate of mangrove
loss is three to four times higher than overall global forest
loss, which was estimated at 0.22 percent per year in the
1990’s, dropping to 0.18 percent per year in the five years to
2005 (FAO 2006). The countries in the three regions of East
Asia, South East Asia and Pacific Ocean, have the highest
annual rate of declining more than 1 percent. Even though the
mangrove forests are still facing major threats, the rate of loss
has been decreasing recently. From a record of 187 000
hectares lost annually in the 1980`s (–1.04 percent per year)
has reduced to 102 000 hectares annually (–0.66 percent per
year) during the 2000–2005 period (FAO 2006). By analyzing
600,000
500,000
400,000
300,000
200,000
100,000
0
1918
1970
1980
1988
1993
1995
Year of record
Mangroves
Source: Modifications based on DENR Statistics 1998
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GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
Princesans participated in this massive mangrove tree-planting
project. The project aims to protect and conserve remaining
mangroves/beach forest tree species and to rehabilitate
denuded coastal areas. The project has been successfully
continuing to date and as of April 2009, the city government
of Puerto Princesa was able to enrich/rehabilitate 58.5 hectares
of denuded mangrove areas in adjoining barangays of San Jose
and San Manuel. So far, 56,500 mangrove seedlings and
29,000 propagules were planted, with a survival rate of 71.7%
(City ENRO 2011).
Mangroves in Philippines are substantially changing over last
100 years. Huge quantities of mangroves are lost and
remaining areas are degraded to some extent. According to
Primavera 2000, 99.8 percent of mangroves in Manila Bay by
1951 are vanished by the year 1994. Further in Visayan
Islands the losses are dramatic and it counts for 95 percent of
mangroves lost during 1951 to 1994. Between 1968 and 1983
almost half of the total national mangrove area had decreased
and it counts for 237,000 hectares of mangrove (Fernandez,
1978). According to the Research and Development Extension
Framework
2007–2010 mangroves
have
degraded
continuously and about 25 percent of the original mangrove
areas have been converted into fishponds with an average rate
of 5,000 ha/year in 1970’s and early 1980’s.
The long-term objective of this program is to enrich the
coastal water natural resources of Puerto Princesa in ways that
are environmentally sustainable, socially equitable and
economically practicable. The short-term objective is to
protect and conserve the remaining mangrove/beach forest tree
species and to rehabilitate denuded coastal areas.
IV. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Both qualitative and quantitative approaches are used in this
study. The data was gathered from both secondary and
primary sources. The data gathering techniques used in this
study is desk research, interviews, case studies, observations,
photography, focus groups, and surveys. The interviews were
conducted at three different stages. The policy makers
including the city mayor, high ranked cityhall staff and city
environment office staff being interviewed on one to one basis.
Focus group discussions and one to one interviews were
conducted among the faculty members of the Palawan State
University, Palawan Council for Development (PCSD) and
other government organizations in the city. Three different
questionnaires were used to interview people at different
stages. Informal discussions and interviews were conducted
among community leaders, university students, fishermen’s
and participants at the Love Affair with Nature 2011. Several
tourists, boatmen are interviewed in during fire fly watch and
paddleboat tour. The author has participated in Love affair
with Nature project in 2011 and visited the planting site and
planning offices in both 2010 and 2011. Strict observations
were been done during these visits and photography was used
to record qualitative findings. Also observations and case
studies were conducted in two other mangrove based
ecotourism sites, to gather more information and opinions of
local citizens.
V.
Figure 3: Mass wedding followed by mangroves planting
Source: Author 2011
Mass wedding was introduced and mangrove seedlings serve
as a vow material of the newly wedded couple as an added
attraction to the project. In September 26, 2005 City
Ordinance No 287, an Ordinance declared February 14 of
every year as “Love Affair with Nature Day” in the City of
Puerto Princesa. It aims to institutionalize “Love Affair with
Nature Day” and to expand Valentine’s Day expression of
love from the traditional person-to-person to Mother Nature
and as a continuing call to ensure the protection and
sustainable use of natural resources. Thus, every thereafter,
massive mangrove tree planting and mass wedding has been
conducting.
THREE SAMPLE CASE STUDIES
CASE 1: “LOVE AFFAIR WITH NATURE”
The original idea was implemented by a group of boy scouts
and girl scouts in Puerto Pricesa City. They have organized a
mangrove plantation project in a valentines day and invited
mayor to deliver a speech. After the first event, City
Government of Puerto Princesa thru City Mayor Edward S.
Hagedorn is spearheading the “Love Affair with Nature.” The
program is one of the answers of Puerto Princesa to the call of
Mother earth to address the alarming Global Warming. It was
launched on February 14, 2003 by planting 2500 mangrove
seedlings to two-hectare denuded mangroves of Barabgay
(Community/village) San Jose. More or less 2500 Puerto
CASE 2: “FIREFLY WATCH IN IWAHIG MANGROVE FOREST”
This project was initiated by ABS-CBN investing money and
implemented together with the city government. They didn't
require any payment back but the community was requested to
protect the nature. This project was started in 2008 and
averagely 20 people from the local community worked per
night. There are 137 members of ICETA (Iwahig Community
Ecotourism Association) incorporated involved in this project.
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GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
much visitors and sometimes only 5 visitors per week. But
there was an increase of visitors after 2008. In 2009 10,000
tourists enjoyed paddleboat tours and in 2010 the number was
increased up to 15,000. During the boat tour the tour guides
provides various information about mangrove and they show
various types.
The members consist of 11 boatmen, 3 information staff and
the rest are community members who invite for potential
tourists.
Figure 4: Iwahig Fiver and mangrove forest
Figure 5: Mangrove Paddle Boat tour in Sabang
Source: Author 2011
Source:
Advertising of this activity is conducted via local hotels, travel
agencies, tricycle drivers and word of mouth. Most of
mangroves are here for so many years and cannot be cut down
or harvested for any business. During the daytime and during
off-season boatmen and local community gathers together and
plant mangroves near the river. They strongly believe that
more mangroves will be a habitat for more fireflies and that
will results in more visitors and increased income. In the year
2010 there is a record of 7032 visitors. The safety is
guaranteed and the boatmen are well trained as lifeguards in
any case of an emergency situation. Safety jackets are used
and visitors can conduct small workshops or information
sharing meetings using the poster presentation at the sight.
One boat tour cost Peso 600 (approximately $7) and a boat
accommodates 3 visitors. The boatmen’s are very much
educated and they also tour guide while paddling the boat. The
boatman’s are well knowledgeable about the scientific, social
and environmental aspects of the mangrove and fireflies. Out
of the total daily income 50 percent goes to the staff worked in
that particular day and balance 50 percent goes to the
community organization. The local community can access that
money as a loan in an emergency at very low interest rate.
Author, Kumara 2010, 2011
Also visitors can enjoy the wild life sounds of birds and can
see snakes in the branches of mangroves. The tour guide sings
a song in the local language and also the translated version in
English, which expresses about the beauty and the importance
about mangroves. After the boat tour ends the visitors are
welcome to plant mangrove trees as a memory to leave in
Sabang. There will be 100 Peso ($ 2-3) charge for a boat ride
per each visitor. Also the visitors are welcome to provide
donations. From this earning 20 percent will be allocated on
protection of mangrove and barangay (village) development
project. The balance 80 percent will be divided among tour
guides. Also there is financial support provided for local
community when they are in an emergency, illness or
accident. In Sabang the total mangrove area is only about 4
hectares and which is the natural forest. There will be no
direct usage of the mangrove trees for livelihood activities.
Only the indigenous people are allowed to extract firewood
and the local community is now convincing them to use
alternative options. In the fallen branches of mangrove a worm
can be found called ‘Tamilo’. This is a local delicacy where
people eat the worm raw by dipping in lime juice. The tourist
can give donations and be allowed to try this very healthy
local delicacy.
CASE 3: “M ANGROVE PADDLE BOAT TOUR IN SABANG”
VI. OUTCOME OF THE CONTINUOUS PROJECTS
The Sabang mangrove tour is one of the fascinating attractions
of Palawan. There are about 3to 4 boats in operation in every
day. This project was initiated with the efforts of various
partner organizations both locally and internationally. This
project was initiated in 2002. The tour guide who works as the
boatmen at the same time, have received 15 day training and
every one of them are capable in communicating in English.
The promotions about the project are done through pamphlets
of the tour companies’ hoardings at hotels and information
centers at the airport. During 2002 to 2008 there were not
There was a study conducted by the PCSD in 2005 with
the support of JAFTA, which is the most reliable updated data
available to evaluate the mangrove forest cover in Puerto
Princesa. This study shows the current mangrove cover in
Puerto Princesa, which is 5,896.40 hectares, as shown in
Figure 5. The mangrove forest was 4,052 hectares in 1992.
Using SPOT satellite images PCSD has conducted the study in
1992.
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GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
upcoming projects. Mostly two types of mangroves are
planted in the projects due to the availability and accessibility
for seedlings. A variety of mangroves should be planted to
create the diversity. Plants like ‘Rhizophora’ can be planted
without pre-planting and they actually grow fast. Proper
system needs to be taking place in terms of removing plastic
bags from the seedlings. There was no garbage removal
system found on site at the moment of planting. The water
level got increased and most of the bags were floated in to Sea
due to high tied and for heavy raining which would create
other environmental issues. Huge amounts of sea grass were
uprooted in the mangrove-planting site because thousands of
people walked on top of them. Sea grass also needs to be
planted together with mangroves to increase the bio-diversity
of the planting project. There were no hording or leaflets
providing instructions on how to plant the mangroves. There
were observations that people planted the trees without
removing the plastic bag. To increase the survival rate, every
participant should be informed about the steps of proper
planting.
Figure 6: Mangrove cover in Puerto Princesa
Hectares
Mangrove
6000
4000
2000
0
1992
1998
2005
Year
Source: PCSD 2010
There is a slight increase in mangrove in 1998 compared to the
data of 2005. An official at PCSD mentioned that the study in
1998 was conducted by a private organization using a different
mechanism. Therefore, it is difficult to use a comparison
because the mechanism is different in both 1998 and 2005.
However, when comparing with the 1992 data, it is clearly
visible that the cover of mangrove forest in Puerto Princesa
has been increasing during last two decades.
Much advanced invitation system is needed to attract more
organizations to participate in the project. Proper advertising
system needs to implement to promote paddleboat tour and
fire fly watch. Regular Information Education Campaigns
(EIC) needs to be implemented and proper advice also needs
to be given to local community about the importance of
mangroves in terms of environmental protection and increased
economic gains. Increased tours and including the two tourism
projects in tourist packages will increase the number of
visitors. Almost everyone in Palawan is aware about the
“Love Affair with Nature” project, but not all of them
participate. Wider area is needed to be used for the community
to plant more trees. When they have more space and seedlings
are provided closer to planting area, there would be a higher
tendency that each person may plant more trees. More funds
are also needed for proper and strict implementation of
mangrove conservation projects. In addition, manpower such
as forest rangers is needs to be increased. The difficulty of
following international regulations is a huge issue and a proper
mechanism to measure carbon sequestration is required
together with more tools to monitor such as GPS systems.
Proper accesses to the two tourist sites are a major
requirement needed to increase the efficiency of livelihood
activities.
There is a positive growth of mangroves in the province
of Palawan as well as in the city of Puerto Princesa. It was just
29,910.14 hectares in 1992 and gained up to 57,386.52
hectares by the year 2005 in Palawan province as shown in
Figure 6. All these planted areas were placed under protected
status to form part of the Integrated Protected Area System
(IPAS). The increase of mangrove forest in Puerto Princesa
backs up by these local policies.
Figure 7: Mangroves on Palawan Island
Hectares
Mangrove
60000
40000
20000
0
1992
1998
2005
Year
VIII. CONCLUSION
Source: PCSD 2010
There is clear evidence as shown in the paper that
mangrove forests cover in the world is declining. In the
Philippines, this decline rate is huge in the past few decades.
But in Palawan however, there is one example that shows
different trends against the usual global trend. “Love Affair
with Nature” has following elements: Government
involvement, necessary law enforcement, political will, proper
leadership, community involvement, alternative livelihoods,
education campaign, involvement of all local and national
organization and willingness of local communities. These are
needed to change this trend of degradation of mangroves in to
VII. RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER IMPROVEMENT OF
PROJECTS
Site selection should be conducted in a scientific manner
so as to make sure that the most needed areas are been
selected as the planting sites. “Love affair with Nature”project
focuses more on planting mangroves closer to the sea. There is
a need to plant mangroves closer to land also. Planting on
riverbanks will also be another option to consider in the
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© 2012 GSTF
GSTF International Journal of Engineering Technology (JET) Vol.1 No.1, 2012
[5]
rehabilitation. This project is implemented and continued by
the true efforts and the leadership of the Mayor Edward
Hagedorn. Every citizen of the Puerto Princesa is proud to be
environmentally sound citizens. After conducting this study,
the authors have developed a framework of success for the
project “Love Affair with Nature” as shown in Figure 7. This
framework consists of the three pillars of Sustainability:
Economy, Environment and Society. The inputs and outputs
are mentioned under each category and these elements
guarantee the success and continuation of the project “Love
Affair with Nature”. The framework can also be used in other
parts of Palawan and other islands of the Philippines.
[6]
[7]
[8]
The left picture of the Figure 8 shows the Metropolitan Manila
city and the two pictures on right side show the Puerto
Princecsa city. These pictures were taken about one kilometer
away from ground level while traveling by an airplane. This
proves the efforts of the Puerto Princesa citizen’s love towards
the nature.
[9]
[10]
[11]
Figure 8: From Manila to Puerto Princesa
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
Duke, N.C., Meynecke, O.J., Dittmann, S., Ellison, A.M.,
Anger, K., Berger, U. Cannic, S., Eiele,K., Ewel, K.C.,
Field, C.D., Kodedam, N., Lee, S.Y., Marchand, C,
Nordhanus, L., and Dahdough‐Guebas, (2007) A world
without mangroves? Letters. www. Sciencemag.org. p41.
FAO (Food and Aggriculture Organization) (1994)
Mangrove forest management guidelines. FAO Forestry
Paper 117. Rome.
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization) (2006) Global
Forest Resources Assessment 2005: Progress Towards
Sustainable Forest Management, Rome, Forestry
Department, FAO
Fernandez, P.M. (1978). Regulations and their impact on
mangrove areas for aquaculture – the Philippine
experience. Workshop Proceeding on the conversion of
mangrove areas to aquaculture, Iloilo, pp. 78‐84.
Kathiresan, K. and Bingham B. L. (2001) Biology of
mangrove and mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine
Biology, 40: 81-251.
Kelleher, G., Bleakley, C. and Wells, S. (1995) A Global
Representative System of Marine Protected Areas.
Volume 1. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority, The
World Bank and World Conservation Union.
Maltby, E. 1986. Waterlogged Wealth: Why Waste the
World's Wet Places? London: Earthscan Publications.
Mark Spalding, Mami Kainuma, Lorna Collins (2010)
World Atlas of Mangroves, Eaerthscan publications.
Melana, D. M. (2000) Mangrove Management Handbook.
Manila: Coastal Resource Management Project of the
Department of Environment and Natural Resources.
Spalding, M., Blasco, F. and Field, C. (1997) World
Mangrove Atlas. International Society for Mangrove
Ecology, World Conservation Monitoring Centre 1997.
Tomlinson, P.B. 1986. The botany of mangroves.
Cambridge, UK, Cambridge University Press.
Valiela, I. J.L. Bowen and J.K. York (2001). „Mangrove
Forests: One of the World‟s Threatened Major Tropical
Environments.‟ BioScience 51(10), 807-815.
World Resources Institute (WRI) (1996) World Resources
1996-7. World Resources Institute. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Source: Author 2011
Authors:
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Dimithri Devinda Jayagoda (Sri Lankan) is
pursuing a Ph.D. in the Graduate School of Asia
Pacific Studies at Ritsumikan Asia Pacific
University (APU) – Japan. Dimithri earned a
master’s degree from APU in development
economics and a bachelor’s degree in business
administration.
He
has
also
completed
Postgraduate Diploma in Marketting from the
Chartered Institute of Markerting – United
Kingdom. He is the founder of “Dimi on
Education,” an open Facebook group that shares
educational information.
The authors would like to thank the Mayor Edward Hagedorn,
faculty of Palawan State University, staff of City Hall and City
Environmental Office, staff of PCSD and the citizens of
Puerto Princesa City. A special thank goes to Professors
Susumu, Sanga and Fellizar for their tireless support during
this research. Also a special thank goes to APU faculty
member Mr. Simon Bahu for enormous support.
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
REFERENCES
Anderson, J.L. and Fong, S.W. (1997) "Aquaculture and
International Trade." Aquaculture Economics and
Management 1(1):29-44
Barbier, E.B. (2003) “Habitat-Fishery Linkages and
Mangrove Loss in Thailand,” Contemporary Economic
Policy, forthcoming.
Cheryl Joy J. Fernandez, Rodelio F. Subade and Paul
Erwen T. Parreño (2005) 8th National Symposium in
Marine Science held in Palawan State University, Puerto
Princesa City on October 20-22, 2005.
City Environment Office. (2011) “Love Affair with
Nature”, internal communaication document, Puerto
Princesa City.
Darshi Manohari Gamage (Sri Lankan) has
graduated from the college of Asia Pacific studies
of Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University-Japan in
2009. She has specialized in the field of tourism
and currently working as a development-consultant
at Chikikagaku- kenkyusho in Oita, Japan.
Currently Darshi is the person in charge of two
websites. One website is called “C-Voice” and
which is targeting Japanese people and foreigners
to come and experience the beauty, uniqueness,
culture and special events in rural areas of Japan.
The other website is known as “Nippon” and this
website focus on promoting unique things of Japan
to foreigners and it has an open Facebook group
for interaction.
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