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Top Left: Psilocybe weilii photo by anonymous
Top Right: Lophophora williamsii cross section photo by Kada
Bottom: Papavar somniforum photo by Planter
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Dragibus Magazine
Note from the Editor....
Here we are with the second issue of Dragibus and a lot is happening in the scientific realm of entheogenic study. It is
almost as if we have been in a second ‘Dark Ages’. Science has been put on the back burner to politics and disinformation spreads
like wildfire. Cancer, the black plague of the 20th Century, runs rampant while the studies showing Cannabis’ cancer fighting effects are ignored and Cannabis continues to be criminalized. Low doses of LSD or Psilocybin mushrooms are being used by cluster headache sufferers to suppress the pain of their severe headaches, with the threat of jail looming overhead. Peyote is outlawed
in its native range and Iboga healers helping battle addiction are being arrested...
But it seems the tides may be turning. Many countries around the world are questioning the validity and usefulness of
the ‘War on Drugs’. There are also several conferences devoted to the re-emergence of psychedelic studies. Below is some information on a few recent conferences that you may have missed and a couple you might want to be at. We hope to have articles featuring some of these events in upcoming issues and until then, enjoy the second issue of Dragibus Magazine.
Steve R.
September 27-30th: Psychedemia featured symposiums on psychedelics and health, art, and ethics, as well as discussion on relevant modern research and theory at the University of Pennsylvania.
October 6-7th: The 2012 Interdisciplinary Conference on Psychedelics Research in Amsterdam.
October 12-14th: The 6th Annual Horizons: Perspectives on Psychedelics in New York.
October 13-21st: The 2012 ‘Origins of Consciousness’ Tour in Australia. From the website “Join Graham Hancock, Dennis McKenna and Mitch Schultz as we unravel some of the BIG questions and take you on an inspirational journey to reconnect with our
sacred past, help us understand our present challenges and work towards transforming the future.”
October 26-28th: The Spirit Plant Medicine Conference in Vancouver echoes the same sentiment about the changing tides. Their
website states “It’s beyond coincidence that the use of visionary/healing/awakening plants such as ayahuasca, psilocybe mushrooms, iboga, peyote, cannabis, and others is spreading rapidly at this time.”
April 18-22nd, 2013: Psychedelic Science 2013 in Oakland, Ca. Hosted by the Multidisciplinary Association for Psychedelic Studies (MAPS), the Psychedelic Science conference will host an incredibly diverse group of speakers and topics, as well as workshops
on modern research into the use and nature of psychedelics.
Cover and above background
images by Kada
Table of Contents
Dragibus Publishing An Interview with a Commercial Khat Grower in South Africa
Publisher/Editor
Steve Rudd
PO BOX 1271
Snellville, GA 30078
[email protected]
Contributing Writers
Cunning Platypus, Kada, Eli Szabady,
Planter, World Seed Supply
Copy Editor
Casi Witherite
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OR SEND CHECK/MONEY ORDER TO:
Dragibus Publishing
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Sustainable Lophophora Cultivation
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8
Yarrow Pale Ale
28
Propagation of Sceletium tortuosum
31
Common Names:
Plants Lost in Translation
33
A Closer Look at Hops:
A Pictorial
35
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An Interview with Karl, a Commercial Khat Grower in
South Africa
by Cunning Platypus
Khat (Catha edulis) is a widely-cultivated perennial evergreen shrub, one of only
three species in the Catha genus. C. abbottii and C. transvaalensis, the other two members of
the genus, are little studied and are known only in a few small areas of South Africa (Voogelbreinder 2009). Khat is cultivated and distributed across much of Africa and Arabia; predominantly in Ethiopia, Somalia, Eritrea, and Yemen. While khat is the name most familiar
to English speakers, it is also known as miraa, chat (in Ethiopian Amharic) and jimaa.
Millions of people around the globe chew khat on a daily basis, for its stimulating and
mildly euphoric effects. Khat contains natural stimulants, most notably cathinone. UnfortuTop: Bundles of harvested khat.
nately, in much of the world, khat is now controlled or illegal. Here in the United States, the
Bottom: Karl with a happy
status of khat is perhaps intentionally ambiguous. The plant itself, while being viewed by the
customer.
DEA as ‘an illegal plant’, appears not to be regulated. However, the chemical cathinone, one of
khat’s primary alkaloids, is classified as a Schedule 1 chemical and there have been successful prosecutions for possession of khat leaves (fresh or dried) intended for ingestion. According to the US Department of Justice (2012), schedule
1 controlled substances “have a high potential for abuse, have no currently accepted medical use in treatment in the
United States, and there is a lack of accepted safety for use of the drug or other substance under medical supervision.”
Karl B. was a commercial khat grower in South Africa, up until October 2008 when Catha edulis became illegal his country. He has grown khat for upwards of 20 years.
CP: How did you get into the business? How did you acquire your farm?
Karl: From an early age I have had an interest in plants that affect the consciousness so as a result a lot of the people that I associated with had similar
interests. One of them (M) asked me if I had heard of, or knew where to find
Catha edulis in the bush. And thus begun a series of coincidences that led to me
growing khat.
A colleague of my wife introduced us to Dr. Manton Hirst, one of the
few people who had been researching the plant and its uses in the Eastern
Cape, who took me on a trip up to an area near Bolo, near the Transkei, where
I chewed and enjoyed the plant. After arriving home, I decided to check if the
plant was growing in our area. I asked the first person I saw on the road, an old
Xhosa man with an axe on his shoulder, who said that he would take me there
immediately and directed me to a farm 20km away that I had grown up on 20
years earlier. This was where I first started pruning khat trees. I picked a packet
and headed back home via town to resign from my job as a planning manager. I
was feeling euphoric enough not to care about the work and sure that something
would happen with the khat, and walked into 3 foreigners sitting on the side of
the road outside the bank. They were chewing khat so I asked them where they
got it and they said it was flown in from Kenya. Naturally the next question was
how much are you paying and then I showed them what I had picked; business
had started.
CP: Can you describe your farm, i.e., plot size, number of plants, growing conditions, growing tech, security, planting and harvesting, profit, etc.?
Karl: Initially, we pruned and picked from the wild patch that I had been directed to, as the rains were good and no irrigation was required (1996 - 1999).
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Staff was found in the area and the farmer was paid a percentage for use of the
trees which he had no use for anyway. By 1999 the good rains had eased off and we
decided to cultivate near a water source and closer to town where the market was.
We chose an area of 1500 square meters on a small holding owned by my partner,
who is the person mentioned in the first paragraph (M). His idea was to get a tea
product going and make a legitimate tea business, but the price the Arabs paid put
an end to that idea.
The soil was sub soil and clay when we started, so a lot of mulch, compost,
sticks, etc. were added, as well as liberal doses of calcium sulphate and magnesium sulphate. Prior to planting, trenches
were dug to facilitate drainage, and overhead micro-sprinklers attached to a fertilizer tank completed the set up. We
fertilized every two weeks or so with seaweed extract and another extract from the abattoir, which probably was not
halaal. About 5000 plants produced a constant production of around 100 packets
a week, each weighing 200 grams. This was enough for only about 30 customers
to get 3 times a week, which resulted in us having to get electric fences, armed
response, and guards on site. The rest of the Somalians thought we were just being
mean when we said there was not enough miraa for everyone.
Naturally, the price kept going up as the more affluent of the customers offered more and more to ensure they got delivery, and the less affluent kept devising
methods of stealing because they could not get it. Add to this the percentage of
customers who went bankrupt trying to keep up with the joneses, it was a love/ hate relationship at the best of times.
I had wives phoning begging me not to sell to Ali and Ali arriving begging for credit. Somali traders who resented the
idea of a white person and non-Muslim having control over them resulted in anonymous tips to the police about drug
dealing, while same traders continuously trying to pay workers off to steal while I was away, made the whole business
rather unpalatable near the end.
CP: Can you describe the day-to-day operations of your farm? What happened once the khat was picked?
Karl: Very slow paced and a real pleasure. Three ladies picked for three hours in the morning and one in the afternoon, weeding in between, and watering took place automatically in the evenings. All our customers resided within
100 km so there were no transport issues, and there was no stock left over at the end of every day.
CP: What were the biggest challenges of your farm?
Karl: The biggest challenge, other than stealing, was to make sure the staff pruned correctly. Incorrect picking was
more destructive than insects or stealing. We were in a temperate zone so the weather had no role to play.
CP: Who were your customers?
Karl: Somalians, Ethiopians, Yemenites, Kenyans, and one white guy, a German who started chewing in London. We
had no local South African customers, a point lost on the authorities who saw us as a threat. To what I am not quite
sure.
CP: Can you speak a bit about the plant itself, how it was picked, its potency, etc.?
Karl: It is all in the shoots. The leaves are merely a garnishing once they have changed to green, the fresh leaf at the
pre-chlorophyll stage and the bark of the stem are highest in cathinone.
We typically start harvesting after a two year period. I have heard from Yemenites that they wait until the tree
is four years old, some Ethiopians say after seven years only. We kept ours to a hedge about 3ft high because most of the
growth is concentrated in the top two feet of the plant. It makes no sense to allow it to grow taller and then battle to try
and pick. If allowed, this tree will reach a height 10m+.
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Potency is definitely increased by continuous picking and picking back to the same point every time; cathinone
is produced in response to being picked.
We harvested all the time. The first time you approach the plant to prune, you only prune a quarter of the plant, a week
later the next quarter and so on. By the time you finished last quarter, the first one is ready to pick, and so the cycle
continues, for as long as growing conditions are suitable, which include water, season, and feeding. In tropical areas,
there is a 30% drop in winter if the temp drops significantly. Frost will destroy all the soft shoots, but not the hard
leaves. Because the plants sucker continuously, a plant can live forever.
CP: Is khat self-fertile? How old are plants when they flower and produce seed? There are some pervasive rumors on
the Internet that khat cannot be reproduced by seed. This is demonstrably false, though why do you think these rumors
abound?
Karl: Yes, from about five years old. From what I have worked out using logic, most of our info on khat was from
Kenya and Yemen, and both these countries have been cultivating khat for longer than we have a written history about.
They have established lands and could triple their growing stock from suckers alone, so why leave plants to flower?
Their pruning regime would not allow flowering, and flowering also halts the shooting process as energy is diverted to
the flowering and fruiting process. I have met Arabs who did not even know the plants produced seed. It is only with
the advent of the Internet that people like me could get this info out.
CP: Many hobbyists (in the U.S. at least) seem convinced that khat is difficult to grow. Why do you think so many hobbyists here struggle to germinate/grow this plant?
Karl: Damping off at the 4 week onward stage is what kills most seedlings. Seedlings must be allowed to dry out completely before the next watering, soil must be good garden sand with no strong fresh compost as this encourages fungus
gnats and fresh compost will burn the seedlings.
CP: For a typical chewer, how much material is used? Does Catha edulis take time/age to develop its potency? Are older
plants stronger than younger ones? At what age are the plants harvested?
Karl: Fifty grams of well pruned khat will definitely give an effect chewed over a two or three hour period; the older
the plant the more potent. We start picking at about two years old and we mix with the older plants, the experienced
chewers will separate the old from the young and bitch (that it’s now) much better. So yes the older the plant the more
potent.
CP: There are several known ‘varieties’ of Catha edulis (red, white, etc.) though most notably narrow-leaf and broad-leaf.
It looks as though your SA Catha resembles the narrow-leaf. Are you aware of any significant differences among the varieties?
Karl: There are patches of wild khat that contain all the varieties of khat known all growing in one area. This is known
as original khat. In these areas you will find big, broad leafed slow growing khat down to narrow leafed khat. Narrow
leafed khat is the hardiest as far as I can see and suckers the most readily and produces the most seed. However, the
broad leafed khat is the slowest growing and produces the least seed and it the most potent.
CP: How prevalent was/is khat use in South Africa? When did it become illegal? Is the S.A. government really cracking
down on khat, or is it primarily for show/political expediency?
Karl: It is only seen as a problem by a few white people, who have never chewed and who think that the chemical khat
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is extracted from Catha edulis. The local black constabularies chew it themselves and do not see leaves as a drug. It is
only chewed by locals in the areas that it occurs naturally and there is no record of it being a problem in those areas.
There are reports of Somalians being arrested and their khat being confiscated, but I have yet to hear of a report of a
local being arrested. I was given a document to sign by our local DEA-type branch, which stated that the trade in khat
leaves was illegal, and that the law was promulgated in October 2008, but having had enough of Somalians anyway,
did not challenge it. Most of the people chewing khat would be the 100,000 or so foreigners from up north. Local drug
users would rather support the Nigerians and corrupt police force to get their high rather than chew a packet of leaves.
Lastly, we in South Africa tend to follow the USA as far as misguided drug policy goes, at least at the moment.
Luckily, our police only
respond to complaints. So if you stay
under the radar and don’t make any
waves, then they won’t come looking
for you. So wild khat is still picked
every day and the Arabs still get supplied.
CP: What do you personally think
about Khat’s ‘harm-factor’? Should it
be legal?
Karl: It is harmless and non-addictive and should be legal. It would
be far better to outlaw obsessive
compulsive behavior and stupidity
than to outlaw a plant. I had customers who accepted that there was no
stock, and then there were the dumb
motherfuckers who threatened to kill
me if they could not get it. There is
nothing wrong with khat, provided
you stop chewing by the evening,
as sleep deprivation was the biggest
problem I noted. Also, one tends
to smoke too many cigarettes when
you are chewing, as khat opens the
lungs up very nicely. In all the years
I chewed khat I never had a cold,
probably because the highest chemical in khat is the ascorbic content.
CP: What happened to the farm?
What are you doing now? What
did you do with any remaining stock
(equipment, plants, seeds, etc.)?
Karl: Luckily, the farm was close to suburbia and my partner could sell it at a profit, the plants were removed and
given to friends, no equipment worth moving, and I am waiting for divine intervention or laying about pissing my wife
off.
References
Department of Justice. (2012). http://www.deadiversion.usdoj.gov/schedules/index.html. In Controlled Substance Schedules.
Retrieved September, 2012, from usdoh.gov
Voogelbreinder, Snu. Garden of Eden, 2009
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Sustainable Lophophora Cultivation:
Alleviating the strain on wild populations from over harvesting
Photos and words by Kada
Lophophora williamsii, or Peyote as it is more commonly called, is a small globular cactus without spines
that is used by the native people of North America for its spiritual and medicinal qualities. Lophophora williamsii is
one of the most concentrated plants containing the hallucinogenic alkaloid mescaline. Since the early 20th century,
peyote has spread worldwide and is cultivated in most countries where there are cactus collectors growing them.
Grown for its stunning beauty, Lophophora williamsii is considered a valuable collectors’ cactus as well as a sacrament of the highest order.
In the wild, Lophophora williamsii are located from the extreme southern United States (Texas) along
the Mexican border and down through central Mexico. In Mexico, where the majority of the range is for the entire Lophophora genus, Lophophora williamsii is often considered abundant at present time. In its northern-most
range in the United States, Lophophora williamsii is considered at risk due to improper harvesting methods, human
development, and farm land activities with machines as well as wild animals. This article will discuss an alternative
form of conservation that attempts to alleviate wild population strains from over harvesting and/or poor harvesting
practices through cultivation, a practice already adopted for use with many other medicinal herbs worldwide.
Despite the concerns for wild populations of Lophophora williamsii, which is already listed under appendix
2 of the CITES convention, the United States is one of the only countries in the world that has put a ban on the possession, cultivation and consumption of Peyote for anyone. The only exceptions are the few people with permission
from the DEA to collect peyote from the wild and registered Native American Church (NAC) members. They may
consume this sacrament; its use for this purpose dates back over 5000 years. NAC members are still not allowed too,
and could be prosecuted for cultivating this medicine and thus, the regulating officials have done a fine job of effectively allowing, and controlling, the decline of this species in the United States.
With the idea of preventing Lophophora williamsii from becoming seriously endangered in the future, we
attempt to give interest to those motivated to avoid causing another critically endangered species before it happens.
It should be said now that any future serious decline of Lophophora williamsii is completely and 100% preventable
and can be done with very little effort and money. All that remains is the will to do so and government policy which
is not genocidal in nature. With that said, let’s get into the cultivation of Lophophora williamsii to prevent further
endangerment of this powerful and sacred medicine.
The Botany of Lophophora williamsii
Lophophora williamsii is a Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) plant. Being a CAM plant, Lophophora
williamsii has evolved to be able to not only control its gas exchange more efficiently, but it also has a different form
of carbon fixation which is more efficient than that of C3 type plants. CAM plants are more often than not from dry
climates and this adaptation has allowed the plants to close up their stomata, which are like pores on the surface of
the skin and can open and close to exchange gasses. Stomata are what allow the plants to breathe; other leafy plants
also have these in their leaves. The difference between CAM plants and non-CAM plants is that when daytime is
upon them and it is very hot, CAM plants are able to shut their stomata; stopping or greatly limiting gas and water
loss and thus, preventing further dehydration. When temperatures drop, usually at night, the stomata will once again
open and allow gas exchange with which the collected CO2 can be stored for the next day to be used in photosynthesis.
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Peyote Morphology
From top to bottom, Lophophora williamsii can
be divided into three sections: the roots, the hypocotyl (the
area between the root and the first pair of leaves from a seed
grown plant), and the stem. With Lophophora williamsii,
the above ground green portions are often termed “button”
or “crown” and when mentioned in this article, refer to the
stem of the plant. Flowers and fruit will be discussed separately in the reproduction portion of this article.
Stem Morphology
Lophophora williamsii stem and leaves are fused,
giving the appearance of a leafless plant. Only in the early
Cross section of a 3.5 year old, 4cm diameter, Lophophora williamsii.
stages of seedling growth can any leaf type structure be ob- Note the increased vascular tissue at the roots and where the cortex is
served, as is common with many cactus species. Some cactus located.
species, namely Pereskia sp and Pereskiopsis sp, do indeed
have true leaves.
The epidermis of the Lophophora williamsii stem is the outer most layer responsible for protecting the plant
from pathogens, water loss, and general protection from the external environment. Below are some more cellular
walls, or layers, that give rise to the shape and structure of the plant. The only openings in the epidermis, allowing the
exchange of gas, are the stomata, which are closed during the hot days and open at night, when it is cooler.
Beneath the epidermis is where most of the chlorophyll is located; in the outer reaches of the cortex. The
cortex is the area between the outer cell walls and the vascular bundle. The further into the peyote stem, the less green
pigmentation there is due to lesser light penetration. The cortex is responsible for two major functions: photosynthesis
and water storage. It is the cortex which gives Lophophora williamsii, and other cacti, their succulent nature. Unlike
other, non-cactus, succulent plants such as some Euphorbia species, the cortex is riddled with smaller vascular tissues, phloem and xylem, which help give it support and allow for increased size. Other succulents are often limited in
their maximum diameter due to lack of appropriate transport throughout the succulent inner tissue. For this reason,
Lophophora williamsii, and other cacti, can attain a large diameter. The main stem tends to grow new shoots after a
certain size and rarely exceeds 15-20cm diameter in exceptionally large specimens.
Within the cortex, located in the center, is the vascular bundle. The vascular bundle is the main transport unit
from the roots to the shoots. Like the inner bark of a tree, this is where all the water and nutrition the plant takes in
from the roots gets transported through. The vascular bundle grows directly from the roots right to the apical meristem. There are also smaller vascular bundles that reach out from the vascular bundle to each areole. Lophophora williamsii areoles are where one sees the wool emerging. When a new stem develops, or shoot, it is from the areole that it
must emerge.
The distance from the epidermis to the vascular bundle in Lophophora williamsii can be anywhere from a few
millimeters in small plants to probably more than 10cm. In terms of water transport between cells, this is a very large
area, and the plant would not be able to efficiently, or quickly, transport water throughout the cortex. For this purpose,
they have evolved something called cortical bundles. These tissues branch outwards within the cortex effectively distributing vascular tissue throughout the cortex providing fast and more efficient transport of water and sugar.
Root Morphology
Lophophora williamsii roots can be divided into three main categories. The tap root which grows right from
the seed and forms a thick succulent root that is often either solitary or forked. The tap root, or primary root, defined
by emerging from the embryonic radicle, is often a great anchor for the plant and also provides water storage. Tap roots
do little to no absorption of water or dissolved nutrients except when young when fine roots with root hairs can be
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found. Tap roots also contain essential transport tissues to pump water and
nutrients up to the stem from the other roots that are more involved with water absorption.
Secondary roots are found growing from the tap root and are associated with water uptake and transport. They tend to be 1-3mm in diameter
and more woody than the finer roots. These roots are often less efficient at
water uptake than the filamentous roots due to fewer root hairs as the tissue
ages.
Filamentous roots are the smallest roots; the hair-like roots seen often
nearer to the lower portions of the main root system. Well cared for plants
with ample water can be found all the way up to just below the soil line.
These roots do the bulk of water and nutrient uptake as they have many fine
root hairs suited to absorb liquids.
There is one more type of root: advantageous roots. These differ in the
above three root types in that they form from stem or leaf tissues in the plant
and not from other roots. Primary/tap roots emerge from the seed. Secondary and filamentous roots, also known as lateral roots, emerge from other
roots. These root types are important to remember when we discuss special
cultivation methods later in this article.
Large Lophophora williamsii showing how large
the tap root is and where the lateral roots tend to
concentrate. Also note the soil line defined by the
brown and green coloration of the stem.
Lophophora williamsii Growth Parameters
Many times when people are growing a new plant, they first turn to
where they are from in the wild and attempt to copy the conditions found
there. This is a good technique for new or poorly understood species;
Lophophora williamsii, however, is neither new to cultivation nor poorly understood. In this section, we will discuss
cultivation techniques of Lophophora williamsii in a semi-controlled environment. It should be noted all our trials and
experiments with Lophophora williamsii cultivation were, and still are, conducted in the south of Taiwan with minimum night temperatures of 10C and average temperatures in the day in the mid-20s (C) with summers in the 30s (C).
It is very wet and humid here as well; hence the necessity for protection against prolonged rain which we provide in
the form of a greenhouse. Furthermore, it is essential to understand that the environment any plant grows in can alter
any or every aspect of cultivation and so we try to provide a general guideline for optimal peyote growth that can be
adjusted to a wide range of variables.
Light
In early stages of all Lophophora species’ growth, they should be considered semi-tropical in nature. They need
high humidity, moisture and protection from extreme conditions, such as intense light. That is to say, until they gain
in size and are more versatile in their ability to handle varying climatic conditions such as drought; they are far more
sensitive to environmental extremes when small. We will discuss specifics of seedling care in the propagation portion
of this article.
It can be tricky discussing the lighting needs of Lophophora williamsii when considering various climates
around the globe. Full sun in a cloudy country is a completely different scenario than full sun in a sunny equatorial
region. When the term “full sun” is used, it is intended to mean that of summer sun in south-western United States,
which is very bright and often has a high UV index.
Lophophora williamsii will grow in this type of intense sun, but may not do so as fast and is at high risk of
receiving sunburns. All plants are capable of being sunburnt, even cactus. Lophophora williamsii, although requiring
good strong light for many hours, is not capable of withstanding prolonged direct sun. The first signs of too much sun
are often pigmentation change. Especially in younger plants such as seedlings, excessive light may turn the plant a red-
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brown color. When such an event occurs in a relatively fast order, the plant becomes stressed and undergoes a transition of pigments called the xanthophyll cycle. In many plants you see yellows, oranges and reds become apparent. If the
light is too strong for even pigment change to aid in saving cellular damage, cells start to be destroyed. In severe cases,
this can be a fatal affair. Damage can range from a few weeks of slowed growth due to stress, to some surface areas
becoming scared, to possible death in incredibly strong or prolonged intense light. The only remedy for this situation
is less light. Seedlings often turn slightly red when moved from their protected seedling areas to a stronger light source
such as being moved from a propagator to outside.
The amount of available light, measured in lumens, required for optimum seedling growth is often quite a lot
less than that of larger plants. A great seedling light source is T8 fluorescent bulbs placed approximately 10-20cm away
from the light. When seedlings are grown outside under the sun, an 80% shade cloth should be sufficient.
Large plants can sometimes be grown outdoors without any shade and this is going to depend entirely on the
local climate and sun intensity. In southern Taiwan, shade cloth is not needed. However, in the south-western United
States, it will be needed somewhere in the range of 30-60% shade. The most common causes of light stress are either
when the plants change location or when there is extended periods of cloud cover followed by bright clear skies. In
places where it can be dark then suddenly very bright, it is advantageous to have a moveable shade cloth system on
wires where the shade cloth may be moved quickly over the plants in times of increased light intensity. Other means of
shading plants can be used as well, but shade cloth is very convenient and easy to set up. Cultivating peyote in greenhouses will also have the added benefit of some of the sun’s light not penetrating the cover material. Different plastics
and glasses have different light penetration qualities and one will need to contact the manufacturer to find out what
percent of light passes through and also at what spectrum it passes through.
The sun is full spectrum, it contains all wavelengths. When using indoor lighting, lights in the red and blue end
(2700-3500K for red and 6000-6500K for blue) are more suitable. The middle range of the visible spectrum is not as
readily photosynthesized by plants, which tend to use more blues and reds. Other pigments that are yellow-red in color,
such as carotenoids, are more suited to photosynthesizing the green light; however, these pigments are in far shorter
supply than chlorophyll and thus not considered important enough to make a large difference in growth.
Photoperiod is another consideration; the length of the day. Outdoor growing means the sun comes up and
down when it does and there is nothing you can do to lengthen the natural photoperiod outdoors unless artificial lighting is installed. Young seedlings started indoors or under lights outdoors should receive 18 hours a day of fluorescent
lighting. The increase of light hours per day of indoor lighting is due to the generally poor quality and intensity emitted
by most bulbs relative to the sun.
Temperature
A tray of Myrtillcoactus geometrizans that have died from severe sunburn.
During scorching hot days, CAM plants are adapted
to close their stomata in an effort to conserve moisture
while the outside conditions are often hot and dry. In
many non-CAM plants that are placed in very high heat
and dryness, wilting will occur. Cacti, among many
other species of plants, have adapted to conserve water
via closing up their gas exchanging areas (stomata) to
prevent evapotranspiration. Because of this adaptation,
Lophophora williamsii does very little in the way of gas
exchange during the day.
For optimum growth, slightly cooler temperatures during the night are ideal. In our experience, a daytime
temperature of 20-27°C and a night drop to 17-23°C has provided some of the best growth we have seen.
It has been shown that wild Lophophora can withstand extreme temperatures in both directions. In a study
conducted by Martin Terry, a plant was brought back to grow in human care after it had seen temperatures estimated
at -10 to -15°C. They found that Lophophora could indeed survive such extremes, though the stem received permanent
damage including the death of the apical meristem which resulted in new stems emerging from lower portions of the
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stem. Obviously, these temperatures should be avoided whenever possible, but plants exposed to such temperatures
should not be discarded unless obvious signs of rot are present.
On the other side of extremes, Lophophora williamsii are known to be able to withstand temperatures for brief
periods up to 62°C in a greenhouse. These temperatures clearly caused stress to the plant. However, no part of the plant
was physically injured during these extremes and although growth was severely stalled temporarily, it was not detrimental to the plant’s health. Although air temperatures may be in the 30s, surface temperatures are often quite a lot
hotter, so the plants are quite well suited to withstand fairly high heat. Plants watered during excessive heat and especially during times of cool weather, less than 10°C, are more prone to root rot. Ideal temperatures for the faster growth
of Lophophora williamsii are in the 17-30°C range.
Water
Many small cacti species with a large succulent tap root tend to be more sensitive to over watering than those
with large fibrous root systems. Fungal and bacterial rot are real concerns to a peyote grower.
Perhaps the biggest two points of contention within the cactus collecting industry are water and soil, and both
are intrinsically intertwined. Soil is more or less the regulating factor in how well the water is absorbed and stored
within the pot or ground, and the two really do directly affect each other. Soils made up of fine materials such as clay
retard water penetration and have higher water retention than that of larger materials such as gravel, which drains
quite freely but holds relatively little water.
Along with the penetration and retention of water, there are the added variables of temperature, wind and
humidity; all of which play key roles in how fast the water in the ground will evaporate from the soil. For example, 1
liter of water dumped into a bag of clay is going to evaporate far faster in Egypt than it will in Iceland due to the high
temperature. The Egyptian bag will also evaporate far faster than a bag placed in Borneo due to the humidity being
so much lower, despite both locations having equally high temperatures. These considerations are all important when
thinking about water.
With the exception of new cuttings and seedlings,
the soil media should be completely drenched all the
way through when watered, then allowed to fully dry
within 2-7 days. If it is drying sooner then there is a
problem with either the soil composition, the quantity of
soil and/or the amount of water used. If the soil media is
drying too fast and water is supplied at sufficient levels to see excess water draining from the pot, one may
consider either a new soil makeup or a larger pot. Conversely, if the water is not drying fast enough, it could be
due to there being too much soil media (i.e. too large a
pot), low temperature; lack of air flow or extremely high
humidity such as seen in the tropics.
In the author’s location, Lophophora williamsii are
watered weekly with pots being drenched and remaining
moist for four days. After the soil media is completely
dry, through and through, an additional 2-4 days is
given for the pots to remain dry. This is to avoid any
buildup of pathogens, especially fungal and bacterial
ones, which in turn greatly reduces the risk of rot in the
roots; this can be quite serious if it progresses unnoticed.
Watering schedules in colder temperatures, under
10°C, should be greatly reduced because the soil media
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will take far longer to dry out; the plant will likely be in a state of slowed growth or even full dormancy. Plants grown in
colder temperatures should be watered fairly infrequently to avoid root issues, perhaps once a month as a start. Some
fine tuning will need to be made in each growers own micro climate for optimum results.
Watering method? From the top or from the bottom? Many larger greenhouse setups use pan style benches in
which they can flood the entire bench, wait for the pots to soak up the water, and drain away any excess water at the
end. This is by far the fastest and most convenient way of watering plants on a large scale, though it has some drawbacks. First and more important, plants growing in true soil and that remain wet longer risk the spread of disease and
pests. With each pot sharing the same water, the transmission of disease is of greater concern. With Lophophora williamsii grown in “soilless” media, this is far less of a concern, though some insect pests could become an issue with this
method.
Watering from the top has a few advantages over bottom watering at the cost of being more time consuming
unless an automated system is installed. The biggest advantage is the plant stems get washed, all the dust and grime is
removed from the epidermis and the plant can ultimately exchange gas better, which is of more importance to leafy
plants but still holds true for peyote. It also forces nutrients and gasses from the top down through the soil out the bottom, so there is a far more even distribution of resources available to the plant. Bottom watering is not as effective at
getting heavy minerals to the upper portions of the soil.
Watering from the top does have a degree of risk as well. Frequent watering can keep the plants stem too moist,
which can lead to rot. Watering in the day in intense sun can have a magnifying glass effect when the light hits the
water droplets on the plant and this has led to sunburn in the past with small plants, though is not frequently an issue.
Watering from above with plants that have multiple stems allows water to become trapped in cracks, requiring a longer
time for the water to evaporate. Care should be taken to space between each watering; far enough apart that the stem
can be fully dry. Last but not least, when watering from above, hitting the soil can remove the soil from the pot, hence a
top dressing is often preferred (see soil portion of this article).
Nutrition
In most peoples’ perspective Lophophora williamsii will be an incredibly slow growing plant that does not ever
reach large sizes. In actual fact, this means they are very cheap to grow. Whereas many other medicine crops require
a larger amount of fertilizers, peyote is quite content with little and not so demanding, though this is compensated for
extremely slow and small harvests. As discussed more in the soil section, making the soil good can often avoid, or at
least reduce, chemical reagent based fertilizers.
If water soluble fertilizers are to be used, lower concentrations are ideal; the bottle neck in peyote cultivation
is with the roots. They can only take in and use so many nutrients, unlike leafy plants which may produce kilograms of
plant mass a year, Lophophora williamsii in the 3-6cm range tend to accumulate less than 5 grams in mass per year wet
weight. Limited growth means less fertilizer is needed. Fertilizers are often coded with a three number concentration
that reflects how much of a given chemical is in the fertilizer. The numbers 10-10-10 reflect N-P-K which is NitrogenPhosphorus-Potassium. Any fertilizer slightly higher in nitrogen should be fine. Many fertilizers also come with some
micronutrients added, but these will hopefully be added to the soil as well and they are rarely of concern as they should
be available to the plant through good soil and/or the fertilizer the grower uses. A 10-10-10 with micronutrients added
diluted half strength seems to work well for Lophophora williamsii when used every 2-6 weeks.
Slow release fertilizers are gaining huge popularity among cactus growers. They come in various forms, but are
essentially tightly packed units; often balls or pellets of fertilizer that slowly release over time through watering. These
types of fertilizers tend to have lower values of NPK due to their long lasting effect and their release every time the
plant is watered. Some care should be taken not to over fertilize the plant, though this is not easily accomplished with
peyote. The author prefers using organic pellet style fertilizer mixed into the soil media.
Soil
The term “soil” should be used loosely in order to refer to the medium in which Lophophora williamsii grows.
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Many peyote growers tend to use mineral that is rock-based amendments and this is technically a form of soil-less hydroponics. For convenience, and to avoid splitting hairs, this article refers to soil as any material in which Lophophora
williamsii will be growing in, mineral based or organic.
As stated earlier, the most important aspect of soil is not nutrition but water retention and permeability. Every
grower will need to fine tune his or her own soil media to match that of their environment and this is the exact reason
why there are so many soil media formulations. Each one is both bad and good; depending upon the climate they are
used in.
In areas that have high humidity and where things tend not to dry fast, a soil media with larger inorganic materials are preferred. Dry areas that have very fast evaporation times are better suited to soil mixes with more water retentive amendments. An entire library could be written on all the possibilities of soil makeup alone, so it is not realistic
here to attempt anything other than an understanding of our final goal in the hopes it will aid other growers in figuring
out the best mix for their area and growing style.
The following tend to be conductive of faster drying times:
•
Hot temperatures
•
Lots of air movement (open air, wind)
•
Low humidity
•
Darker colors (e.g. black pots)
•
Container materials (e.g. terracotta)
•
Porous soil media that doesn’t retain moisture
(sand, gravel, pumice etc.)
The following tend to be conductive of slower drying times:
•
Cool temperatures
•
Stagnant air (indoors, closed greenhouse etc.)
•
High humidity
•
Lighter colors (e.g. white pots)
•
Container materials (e.g. plastic and metal)
•
Fine structure of soil media and/or very absorbent media (clay, coco, peat, vermiculite etc.)
Throughout the years of growing in a wet tropical environment, followed by growing peyote in a greenhouse,
the author has decided on a great soil mix that performs quite well when the environment is controlled for moisture.
The author’s soil mix for Lophophora williamsii is divided into the layers when put into the pot. The first layer is made
up of a large grade, non-absorbent rock based material to aid in drainage. Pumice, perlite, and gravel all work well.
However, in our gardens we use pumice. This will allow water that collects at the bottom of the pot to be limited in the
amount that can be wicked up into the real soil and preventing possible extended wetness.
The second layer of the mix is the bulk of the pots contents, where everything is made for the plant to feed. Mix by
volume:
•
3 parts coarse sand/gravel (5mm size),
•
1 part pumice (5-10mm size)
•
1 part fine sharp sand (1mm size)
•
1 part coco powder (not the larger chunks or fibers). Coco powder is preferable to peat moss because it does not decompose quite the same and becomes less acidic
in time. The resulting mix is mixed with 1 tablespoon of pellet fertilizer per 12cm (4”). This soil media is added into
the pot while planting the plant and filled up to 2-4cm below the top of the pot.
14
Lastly, a top dressing of a heavy rock material is added on top of the soil to fill the pot. Simply sifting the coarse
sand and using the biggest pieces for top dressing is sufficient. Although
also aesthetically pleasing, this is actually intended to prevent soil loss
through watering. This becomes increasingly important with the quantity
of plants grown as with high numbers of pots to be watered, the likelihood of being rough when watering is increased. A hand held watering
wand is commonly used in greenhouse cactus production. Wands are
fast, easy on the person doing the labor, fairly evenly distributed and
again it is fast. With water coming from above and soaking the soil,
anything that may contain staining agents such as tannins (e.g. some
fertilizers, coco coir and peat) can stain the epidermis of the plant. This
is not overly harmful to the plant if it is not too excessive, but it is quite
aesthetically displeasing. The top dress of larger grade rock prevents this
staining to varying degrees.
Dragibus Magazine
Common materials used for drainage
and faster drying times:
•
Pumice
•
Perlite
•
Coarse sand and fine gravel
•
Vermiculite
(aids drainage but holds water)
Common materials used as water retentive amendments:
•
Coco-coir (coco “powder” is better without the many fibrous strands)
•
Peat moss (eventually has acidic PH and is often substituted with coco)
•
Vermiculite
•
Potting soil (has much organic debris and best avoided)
•
Clay based soils (use in very small amounts)
•
Worm castings (1-5% by volume is good)
All rock based materials, and even coco, are best when rinsed well before use. Rocks will have dust surrounding them. When placed in pots, dust will collect near the bottom creating a silt layer. This greatly reduces drainage and
creates higher moisture levels in the soil. When the sand is rinsed well, this is not often a problem.
Pots & Containers
Based solely on the need for faster drying times of the soil, it is preferable to grow Lophophora williamsii in
a container of some form rather than in the ground. This is because the ground can be inconsistent in the time it will
take to dry and sometimes it will not dry beneath the surface, which can lead to root issues. Lophophora williamsii
obviously grows in the ground in the wild, but we do not wish to wait as long nor lose as many plants, such as what
happens in the wild. For production, pots are essential. For aesthetics, growing in the ground can be quite lovely where
the climate allows.
Plastic, metal, concrete or terracotta pots are perhaps another debate just as big, though not as important as
the soil debate. For production, cheap, durable, and easy to move pots are ideal. That means plastic. Terracotta pots are
pretty, but heavy, expensive, breakable, and space wasters. Concrete is more commonly used for beds, but some people
make their own concrete pots. Concrete pots have the same draw backs as with terracotta except they are cheaper and
more customizable. Metal is not ideal due to how hot it can get. Furthermore, it is a safety issue when around children
(rough edges/rust) and they tend to be expensive. Plastic is, in the author’s opinion, is the best all-around pot material
for peyote because it is cheap, durable, and easy to move in comparison to the other potting options.
This article is aimed at conservation, which means quantity. For that reason alone, round pots are horrible
wasters of space. Square pots are far better as they fit together snug and there is very little wasted air space between
pots. Pentagon and hexagon style pots are also worthwhile as they fit snug, but most pots of this style are expensive and
tend to have a wide decorative lip at the top, wasting more space.
The color of the pot is best to be darker to aid in faster drying times. If the area the Lophophora williamsii will
be grown in is exceptionally hot, a lighter color might be
preferable to avoid excessive heat buildup in the pots. Pot
color is pretty low on the priority list of important factors
of peyote cultivation.
Drainage of the pots is also essential. The pots,
when filled with soil media and 10-15cm in height, should
drain well when watered after only 5-10 seconds. Many
pots have very fine drainage holes which tend to get
plugged quite readily by roots, fine soil particles or even
mineral deposits over time from water and fertilizers.
Plastic pots can have more holes drilled in the bottom
if necessary. About 15% of the bottom of the pot should
contain drainage holes. If the holes are too small, drill
larger ones about 1cm in diameter. If the pot contains
drainage holes that are too large and soil media routinely
falls through, cut a section of plastic screen and place it
in the bottom. Adding a plastic screen to the bottom will
Square plastic pots are used to cultivate peyote in an efficient and cost
solve the problem.
effective manner.
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The Propagation of Lophophora williamsii
There are two major ways to propagate Lophophora williamsii: Reproductive and vegetative. Lophophora
williamsii is the only member of the genus which is capable of self-fertilization. Meaning a single plant can pollinate
its own flower and produce a viable seed that can go on to further reproduce. This form of propagation requires the
grower to sow the seeds and bring up the plant through all the hurdles of being a small plant.
Vegetative propagation of Lophophora williamsii does not require flowers, pollination or seeds. This is often
achieved via cuttings, grafting or tissue culture. Cuttings and grafting will be discussed here as tissue culture is more
involved and beyond the scope of many growers. However, tissue culture is an ideal tool for the mass proliferation of
plants. Peyote tissue culture is documented and proven relatively easy to accomplish.
With vegetative propagation, there is no exchange of genes between two genetically unique individuals and
thus, there is theoretically zero genetic variation between the parent plant and the cutting; in reality, a clone. With species of plants that cannot successfully fertilize themselves and produce seed, two cuttings from the same parent plant
will also not be able to reproduce, though this is not relevant for Lophophora williamsii as it can successfully self-pollinate.
Lophophora williamsii from Seeds
Peyote propagation from seed is the traditional route of cultivating this species of cactus. There is a certain
degree of skill and patience required for bringing up peyote from seed through to maturity. It is often agreed that the
first six months of a peyote button’s life is the most unsure; high risk of mortality. Smaller Lophophora williamsii do
not have the succulence, in both stem and root, to withstand prolonged dry spells and can dehydrate fairly easy. It is in
this stage of life when an otherwise xerophytic plant tends to be more tropical in preference.
Seeds and seedlings are far more prone to infection from fungal pathogens and great care should be given to
avoid a tray of seedlings from rotting. Excessive moisture will result in mold outbreaks. The soil media used in seedlings should be free of organic debris that might facilitate spore germination and possible fungal attack on the small
plants. Using a mineral based soil for sowing seeds helps avoid problems with mold. Good seedling mix will still drain
well and dry faster if left open. Use different types of sand and rock in combination with a little vermiculite or other
water retentive medium. A two part coarse sand, two part fine sand and one part vermiculite (about 3-5mm) is a good
mix for sowing Lophophora williamsii seeds.
Seeds, once cleaned from the fruit and dried for
a few days, should be placed on top of the already moist
medium and misted from above to let them settle in place.
Using a diluted concentration of hydrogen peroxide in the
mist at first may help kill any fungi, bacteria or algae that
are already growing on the surface.
One of the most important aspects of raising
many cactus species from seed is to keep the growing
area very humid. For this, many growers use something
called a “humidity tent” which is essentially some form
of clear material that covers the tray or pot that the plants
are sown in. The tent provides light penetration but keeps
in the humidity. When using humidity tents, one must be Seedlings: Lophophora williamsii grown from seed.
mindful of air flow and soil contamination as mold and
algae are at home in humid conditions. If starting the seeds indoors, T8 fluorescent bulbs are ideal for the job. Place
the pots, or trays, no more than 15 cm away from the fluorescent lights. With stronger lighting, peyote plants may be
placed further away. If sowing outside, place them under 60-80% shade cloth.
Lophophora williamsii seeds tend to germinate relatively quickly provided they are kept slightly moist, humid
and given light. Surface sowing tends to help germination speeds, while burying the seeds slows them. If peyote seeds
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are buried too deep they may die as they are unable to grow up through the sand in time to reach light. On average,
expect to see the earliest sprouts in about one week, though germination time varies from 1-8 weeks.
When the seed crack open and the root starts growing out into the dirt, it can look fuzzy and almost mold like,
do not treat these as contamination. The roots, at first, will be fuzzy and white until they reach down into the medium
and the plant pops its stem up the right way.
Depending on climate and the health of the plants, they will reach 1cm diameter in 6-12 months. It is at this
time they should no longer be kept in humid conditions and the acclimation process begins. Lophophora williamsii are
slow to acclimatize to new conditions. Acclimating a peyote plant to what it will remain in for the rest of its life should
be spread out over 1-2 months as to avoid any sudden shock. Begin by raising the humidity tent or cutting small holes
in it to allow more humidity to escape. Do this a couple times two weeks apart. As one sees the soil drying out faster,
and if the plants are still looking like they are in good health, the humidity tent can eventually be removed after about 4
or 5 weeks while keeping the plants in shaded conditions and well watered.
Once the humidity tent is removed, in 1-2 week intervals, slowly move the plants to slightly brighter conditions
until they are finally placed into their final growing positions. If plants show signs of severe stress, such as pigment
change or dehydration, place them back into shadier conditions. Lophophora williamsii that have been acclimated to
drier conditions tend not to be able to revert back to the conditions of moist and humid due to root rot issues. Once
they are out and fending for themselves, they will remain there forever.
In order to create an abundant amount of seeds, cross pollinating plants that are genetically unique, i.e. not
clones, is recommended as they tend to produce far greater quantities of seeds. The process is rather easy to accomplish. The pollen, found on the yellow anthers inside the flower, is wiped onto a small brush and rubbed onto the
stigma of another flower. The time from fertilization to fruit set can take anywhere from two weeks to over one year
depending on conditions. Lophophora williamsii prefer to flower and fruit when the light is not too dim and the
photoperiod is above 13 hours per day. However, they may flower at any time. Average seed count per fruit is 5-15 with
0-35 being possible. Large peyote plants, as well as cross pollinating different plants, usually produces larger quantities
of seed per fruit.
Lophophora williamsii from Cuttings
Unlike many leafy plants which like to be placed in moist and humid conditions when they are rootless,
Lophophora williamsii and most other xerophytic cacti prefer to be kept dry. Peyote is very succulent in nature and can
therefore survive very long periods of time without water. Larger plants of 10cm+ can often easily exceed two years out
of soil depending on the conditions.
When taking a cutting, it is very important to remember that Lophophora williamsii will only put out new
stems from the areoles. When cutting a parent plant, be sure to leave ample healthy tissue from the stem for the parent
plant to regrow from. The way you cut the plant will strongly influence its future growth as well, but as this is to do
with the parent plants health and not the cutting. This topic will be discussed later on in the harvesting portion of this
article.
Begin by selecting a healthy plant that is actively growing and has access to further suitable growing conditions
to avoid greater chances of stress and infection. Decide whether a cutting of the main stem or a side shoot is preferable
to the growers needs. Lophophora williamsii that are cut through the middle of their stem, exposing a large open cortex surface area, tend to take far longer to set roots. Although Lophophora williamsii will certainly send out roots from
the callous cut area, they tend to grow more from the side portion of the stem right at the base where the cut surface
area meets the epidermis. At this time, current experimentation has not found how, why and how consistent rooting in
various areas of the plant may be, but it seems like it could simply be due to very hard thick callous tissue preventing
root penetration or rerouting the roots outwards. It is worthy of future study. With plants that are cut in half horizontally, there is a large surface area that is left open. When side shoots are cut off the parent plant, there is a bottleneck
effect between the two stems. At the base of the shoot will grow inward making the potential cuttings’ cut surface area
far smaller than that of a single stemmed plant being cut in half. Smaller surface area cuts have proven to root consis-
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17
tently faster. It is the author’s opinion that the main stem in the center of the plant is better suited for harvest, while
side shoots are more suited for propagation.
To begin the cutting process of the main central stem, take a clean blade that is preferably not too thick and
cut into the cactus on a slight angle. The angle at which you cut is simply to allow the dried stock plant to slope on top
and allow excess water to drain away faster. For side shoot cuttings, look to the base of the side shoot; if this is below
ground it may be better to uproot the plant and treat the stock plant as a repotting job later on. At the base of the side
shoot, it will go inwards and restrict in size until it meets the surface of the parent plant. At the narrowest point, slide
in the blade and with little pressure slide the blade in. Be careful to follow the curve of the parent plant while lightly
pulling at the cutting with the other hand.
When the cuttings are cut, the parent plant can be placed back in its growing position and have its next watering skipped to allow the cut to heal fully. The cuts should be placed on a counter, table, or shelf out of direct sun. The
cut surface needs 4-10 days to dry fully and heal over before being potted. At this point, the plants have no roots and
although cacti are good with water management through their stomata, they will still dehydrate over time without any
roots sucking up water. For this reason, they must not be placed in direct sun nor should they be placed in dark conditions to avoid pathogen infection. A table near a big window in a well lit room is perfectly acceptable; 80% shade cloth
outdoors is also acceptable.
The choice is up to the grower to use rooting hormone. This is generally not needed for cuttings with small cut
surface areas; for cuts with big cut surface areas, it might be beneficial. In extremely wet areas or during times of wet,
preferably cuts should be done in the dry season and a sulfur powder might be required to avoid fungal rot.
After the cut area of the peyote is fully healed it can be potted up. This can be identified by the color and drier,
harder texture. Simply placing the cuts on top of a coarse medium like sand and waiting for roots is also commonly
done. Air flow is needed. Some soils are too fine and can actually collect moisture in the air and become damp which
can lead to infections or animal visitors. Dry fibrous coco coir, pumice, gravel, sand etc. can all be used. Dryness and
darkness underneath, good airflow all around, and no direct sun on the stem until its well rooted are essential.
Rooting time varies considerably from two weeks to two years. The smaller surface area method of cuttings
tend to root within the first two months, while one of the author’s Lophophora koehresii, which was cut in half with a
10cm wide cut, rooted after 29 months. Most aspects of Lophophora williamsii cultivation require a degree of patience.
Lophophora williamsii by Grafting
With cuttings sometimes being slow to root and their further growth certainly being slow; people wonder if
there is a faster way of growing peyote. For this there is grafting. Grafting peyote is no different than any other plant
graft in essence, only slightly different in methodology. Grafting is done for many reasons depending on the plants.
Fruit growers want the entire field to be of the same quality, requirements, yields and harvest times. Others would like
to have one tree producing three different varieties. With cactus, grafting is most often done for speeding up growth,
and to a lesser extent, such as with dragon fruit (Hylocereus undatus), to create uniformity amongst a crop. It can also
be a useful tool in attempting last ditch efforts to save a dying plant.
Lophophora williamsii grafting methods are the same for all cacti and most cactus species can be grafted
together. With a graft, regardless of plant species, the idea is to line up the vascular tissues that connect to the roots
with the vascular tissues of the scion. With cactus, these are often a circular pattern of tubes in the center of the cortex
when looking at a cross section of the stem. When the scion is taken, it must simply be lined up with the same tissues
on the rootstock plants’ cut surface. Root stocks should be actively growing at the time of grafting and scions should be
grafted onto the current growing season’s new growth. There is not enough room in this article to go into great detail
on all the different methods of grafting. Readers are directed to the end of this article for more information on other
grafting techniques.
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Select a root stock and scion that
are actively growing and of similar
diameter.
Cut the top of the root stock flat and
bevel the ribs at about a 65 degree
angle.
Every rib should be beveled to avoid
the stock from pushing off the scion
when healing.
Cutting a thin slice off the top of the
root stock is useful in preventing the
surface from drying while you cut the
scion.
Cut the scion peyote, leaving enough
green tissue on the roots for it to
regrow later.
Remove the thin slice from the rootstock, which reveals a fresh moist cut
area, and place the scion on top of the
root stock.
With the scion and root stock’s vascular bundles lined up, carefully take
some vinyl tape with some tissue in
the middle and evenly press the tape
over the scion with gentle pressure.
When the scion is evenly affixed to
the root stock, adhere the tape to the
sides of the root stock.
The tape is easy to come off, so one
more piece of tape is wrapped around
the stock and tape holding the scion
to avoid it form coming loose. After
1 week in medium humidity the tape
can be removed.
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Repotting and Root Pruning Peyote Plants
When a peyote plant is taken out of its pot, and put into another, there is unavoidable root breakage. When
roots are broken, cut, or eaten they leave open wounds that are vulnerable to infection. When they are buried in soil,
they are at an even higher risk due to higher humidity and it is very dark, providing perfect conditions for pathogens
to flourish. For this reason, it is important to take repotting fairly seriously to ensure not only a safe transition but a
speedier recovery and future growth rate.
Each time a peyote plant is removed from the pot, it should be cleaned of all soil around the roots. For ease of
removing dirt, and safety of the plant, it is recommended to do this when the soil media is fully dry. Using ones hands,
gently rub the majority of the soil media off the roots. This should be easy if using a well-drained coarse mineral mix.
When most of the soil is removed and you can seed all the roots relatively easily, it is time to prune the roots.
Root pruning is an effective way of greatly improving the rate of growth in Lophophora williamsii plants. With
smaller tap root type species of cactus, the roots that do most of the feeding for the plants are the fine roots. In order
to increase the quantity of these roots, root pruning is employed at the time of repotting. The process of root pruning
involves the cutting of the main tap root at varying lengths, letting it heal, and repotting to allow many more new roots
to emerge and thus effectively doubling or tripling the amount of roots able to absorb water and nutrients within the
first 6-12 months.
To begin, take a clean blade and remove most of the finer roots that are on the lower reaches of the root system. Then take the blade to the main tap root, cutting approximately 2 or 3cm below the very top of the tap root. Make
sure to leave a good succulent portion of the tap root intact for speedier root regrowth. Some Lophophora williamsii
tend to have a solitary taproot while others are branched. If there is more than one, cutting all of them just past where
they fork is ideal.
When the roots are cut and all the soil is completely removed from the plant, it should look quite naked. At
this time, treat the plant like a cutting and place on a table to heal as discussed in the “Lophophora williamsii from
Cuttings” section of this article.
Roots are not only pruned for far faster growth rates, but also to prevent future dead tissues breaking into the
soil when being repotted. The majority of the fine roots should be removed every time the plant is repotted to avoid
possible rot.
Once the roots are fully healed, the plant can be potted up into its new
pot. Peyote is best repotted no more than every 2 years, despite their
size, to revitalize the soil. A repotting schedule the author uses is as
follows:
Seedlings 1cm/6-12 months old: 2”x2” square pot.
3cm/2-3 years old: 3”x3” pot.
4-5cm/ 4 years old: 4”x4” pot.
We repot at these times or sizes based on whichever comes
first. The plants remain in 4”x4” pots forever and have their long tap
roots cut every two years in order to keep them from growing too long Large tap roots are pruned when repotting peyote plants
to increase the quantity of fine roots which are more
for the pot.
capable of taking in water and dissolved nutrients.
Peyote Conservation Through Cultivation
It is important to understand that in the wild there are many variables, some quite harsh, that prove difficult
for some plants to withstand. Add to that the entire supply of harvested buttons in the USA is legally only allowed to be
collected from the wild within the United States. Lophophora williamsii is not very common in the United States anymore, being restricted to the southernmost areas of Texas. It is easy to see that if this trend is not corrected, it will ulti
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Dragibus Magazine
mately be the demise of a species thought so sacred by the people originally from the area. Fortunately, there has been
much research done on Lophophora williamsii and people who have spent time looking into the situation can see it is
an easily fixed problem. We know this at present and are fully capable of preventing yet another species from reaching
the brink of extinction. Although clearly they are far from that point now, with current trends of human development,
harvesting, animal attacks, more severe weather and general slow growth, it is likely this species will not be able to hold
on for too long. With a plan in place, costs relatively low, and people willing to do it, there needs only a government
willing to stop prosecuting people for protecting and using one of the nations’ most interesting of plants and cultures.
Without such a system, this article presses on anyway, intending to help those in lands of less oppressive nature.
Peyote Demand
It is incredibly difficult to assess the quantity of peyote being consumed as many are collected from the Mexican side of the border due to not only diminishing quantities in Texas but also smaller size per button, greatly reducing
the weight of each peyote crown and thus requiring more buttons per ceremony. According to the Texas Department of
Public Safety, in 2011 there were 1,413,846 peyote buttons reported being sold for $466,590.50 (average $0.33 per button). In 2010, 1,483,697 buttons were reported sold at $459,699.00 (average $0.31 per button). The problem with such
numbers is that many buttons that are harvested and sold go unreported and thus the true number of peyote buttons
harvested is without doubt much higher. Another key point is the sizes of the buttons collected are getting smaller and
smaller. This means the price per button does not rise much, the price per kilogram has risen greatly due to smaller
buttons weighing far less and thus requiring more to obtain the desired effects from the medicine.
For any kind of conservation effort to remain successful, small scale localized cultivation might be a viable
option as it can more accurately predict and cater to the local demand. Individuals would benefit from supplying their
own as well. Below we will discuss the numbers involved with supplying both individuals and larger quantities to larger
areas.
It is impossible to accurately estimate the number of buttons used per person, per ceremony and how many
ceremonies a person will have any given year. For purposes of simplicity, we use the following numbers to draw a starting point.
Lophophora williamsii button size is 4cm in diameter. We will use an average of 10 buttons per session and
an average of two sessions per month. This equates to 240 buttons per year needed per person. This number is not
accurate and will need to be changed from grower to grower depending on the actual demand. Because Lophophora
williamsii take time to regrow, we use a four year succession style growing method. The cultivation area is divided
into four areas; each area containing 240 plants which can be harvested every four years. Each section is harvested in
sequence year after year. After the 4th group of plants is harvested on the 4th year, the following year’s harvest from the
first group should be ready once more for another harvest. With 240 plants per year, times four years, we end up with
960 plants in total to sustain a person throughout time given the frequency and quantity consumed above.
Small Scale Lophophora williamsii Cultivation
Regardless of the scale of the cultivation of Lophophora williamsii, the method in which it is grown remains
the same. As discussed earlier in this article, the most efficient use of space is with square pots, or if your climate allows, raised beds where density can be raised slightly.
For efficiency, ease of care for the person doing the labor, and for pest and weed control, greenhouse style
benches are preferable, but Lophophora williamsii can certainly be grown on the ground in pots as well. The idea is
to setup the pots in rows, placed snuggly together to avoid spaces and fitting in more plants per square meter. The
space between rows where people need to walk in order to weed, fertilize, water and harvest the Lophophora williamsii plants should be planned according to the persons comfort and ability to work. Rows for walking of 30cm (12
inches) wide are about as small as one will want to go as it becomes tedious working in such small spots. For purposes
of attempting to grow as many as possible as cheaply as possible, this article assumes a 30cm path between each row of
plants. For this article we use 120cm wide rows (4 feet) because this is a comfortable distance for most people to stretch
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21
and maintain the plants. Lophophora williamsii grown on benches of 90-120cm (3-4 feet) are far better on the back
than those grown on the ground which requires constant leaning and bending.
Young plants are started out in smaller pots and trays. Although eventually, 3-4 years to be exact, all the plants
will end up being placed into their final pot size of 12x12cm (4x4 inches). With row widths of 120cm, this means ten
plants wide by however many plants needed long. In this example, this means ten plants wide and 96 plants long. With
pot size calculated, this space equals 1.2 meters wide (4 feet) by 11.52 meters (38 feet) long. The length can be brought
down by making more rows, but more space is wasted in making walking paths.
To summarize, a person requiring ten 4cm buttons two times a month needs 960 plants which takes up a total
of 13.82 square meters or about 150 square feet and can supply year after year once the initial 3-5 year growing up stage
is complete.
From left to right, young to old Lophophora williamsii and their respective size and age. These are all seed grown plants grown in the same
greenhouse.
Large Scale Lophophora williamsii Cultivation
Small scale cultivation can greatly improve wild populations locally where overharvesting and/or poor harvesting methods are common practice. Should there ever be the legal freedom for people to grow their own medicine in
the United States, large scale greenhouse production is likely the best bet at ending wild harvesting all together. The
main benefit to cultivated medicinal herbs is the wild populations are able to bounce back strongly. Eventually, with
cultures that put great effort and devotion into pilgrimage or similar activities, they are then able to do so without the
added worry of their children not being able to have the same luxury when they grow older. The disappearance of
peyote in its natural habitat would not only be the extinction of a species of life, but of a way of life for some members
of our own species. Great importance should be placed on protecting these ways of life some hold so dear.
This article will use a standard 50 by 20 foot greenhouse size due to its commonality. This article discusses
greenhouses here because it is so convenient and easy to control the environment and it also greatly improves survivorship of Lophophora williamsii in comparison to outdoor grown plants which have more extremes on all fronts. If one
wishes to grow peyote outdoors, special attention should be paid to adjust water levels when in times of rain.
It is important to make sure that the growing area is raised above any sort of natural depression that may flood;
if benches are not to be used and they are grown on the ground. It is also advisable, whether benches are used or not,
to place down good quality agricultural fabric that withstands UV to prevent weeds at ground level. Fewer weeds mean
fewer problems with both pests and diseases.
22
Greenhouses of 20 feet wide are divided into four rows that run the entire length of the greenhouse, except
Dragibus Magazine
the middle two rows which are cut short of 50cm on each end to allow walking around the ends. The outside walls each have a row of 120cm, or four feet
wide. One of the middle rows is also 120cm (4 feet) wide and the fourth row
is 150cm (5 feet) wide because there is extra space. Between each row is a foot
path of 30cm (1 foot), a person may decide to make all rows of equal size and
use the extra 30cm for extra width in the walking paths.
Each outer row, 120cm x 1,500cm (4x50 feet) will fit ten 12x12cm pots wide
by 125 pots long for a total of 1,250 plants per row on each side of the greenhouse. The middle rows are shortened 50cm at either end to allow walking
access will have slightly fewer plants. The 120cm (4 foot) row will contain 10 x
116 pots for a total of 1,160 pots. The final row of 150cm (5 feet) by 1,1400cm
(46.6 feet) will contain 12 pots wide by 116 pots for a total of 1,392 plants. In
total per 50x20 foot greenhouse, there can be a maximum of 5,052 12x12cm
(4x4 inches) pots, each containing 1 mature Lophophora williamsii plant. This
number should, however, be divided by four as it will take four years for the
harvested peyote crown to regenerate to a harvestable 3-6cm diameter again.
This is assuming there is a 12 month growing season, where the size of each
crown over 4 years is likely to be closer to 5cm. After three years, the size is
often around 3-4cm in diameter and able to be harvested if need be. An averBenches of Lophophora williamsii are grown in
age annual harvest of 1,263 peyote buttons of average 4-5 cm in diameter can
a greenhouse in the author’s collection, along
be expected per greenhouse or 50x20 foot surface area.
with other cactus species.
When and where one wishes to harvest is up to the person doing the work. One could simply harvest one row
per year or even setup multiple greenhouses and harvest one greenhouse per year. There are unlimited variations of
this basic plan that can be better suited to each individual or group.
Costs Associated with Setting up One Greenhouse
Price is incredibly variable and here we list prices that are relevant now and what the author purchased all his supplies
in Taiwan in 2011. All prices are retail and converted to USD.
•
1 Greenhouse (hoop, plastic) & installation $3,500
(Likely around $5,000 in USA)
•
12x12cm plastic pots $0.40each ($2020.80 in total)
•
1 ton of coarse sand $25
•
1 ton of fine sand $40
•
20L bag of coco powder $10 (x15 equals $150)
•
20kg bag of organic pellet fertilizer $15 (x3 equals $45)
•
5kg bag of pumice $11 (x20 equals $220)
•
25 lb. Bag of Scott’s 20-20-20 fertilizer $45
•
6x100 foot roll of Agricultural fabric $75 (x2 equals $150, optional)
Total setup cost of one greenhouse (using prices the author paid
retail in Taiwan in 2011) is $6,045.80 USD per greenhouse producing an- Construction of the author’s greenhouse where the
majority of the Lophophora williamsii experiments
nual harvests of 1,263 3-6cm diameter peyote buttons. This setup cost is a took place.
one-time affair and only new fertilizers will need to be factored in for long
term costs along with things such as replacing damaged items, water and labor if one is to hire someone to help. After
four years and having 5,052 buttons ready to harvest, this equates to an average cost of $0.84 per button, with the cost
per button drastically decreasing with time as more buttons are harvested.
One should also count on replacing the plastic on the greenhouse every 5-10 years depending on what was put
on the frame and the local intensity of the sun. For the author, it costs about $1,500 for the greenhouse to be re-sheeted.
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23
After eight years, which is the time the author deems necessary to replace the plastic on the greenhouse, there
will have been approximately 10,104 buttons produced, probably more due to regeneration often producing more than
one new button per plant. With the initial cost of setup and an estimate of $500 in general maintenance and upkeep,
we arrive at $0.64 per button. About double that of wild collected specimens, although on average of larger size and
weight. If the local climate allows, not growing in a greenhouse and using the same pots and method as described
above the cost of setup would be $2,545.80. This makes an average per button cost over 8 years $0.25, which is actually
cheaper than wild harvested buttons and also larger in size.
One other thing to consider is seeds. It is assumed in this article that they can be found on the peyote buttons currently at market or in the wild. Purchasing seeds is expensive with wholesale prices about 400 Euro per 10,000
seeds (German cactus supplier). Once one greenhouse has reached maturity after 3-4 years, it can quite easily supply
500,000+ seeds per year. Far more if grafted plants are also grown.
Workload Associated with Maintaining One Greenhouse
Lophophora williamsii really is an easy species to maintain and requires infrequent care to allow them to flourish. Watering should be done every 1-3 weeks and should take about 30-60 minutes to accomplish per greenhouse if
watering with a hand held wand connected to a pump or water faucet. If watering by hand, expect 3 hours or more per
greenhouse. When fertilizing, add another 30-60 minutes per greenhouse to mix a liquid fertilizer in with the water.
The harvesting of one full greenhouse will depend on the care the person doing the work puts into it, but will probably
take a full 10+ hour day. Drying the peyote can be done as has always been done or taken to market fresh.
Proper Peyote Harvest Technique
The ultimate goal is to get as much button as one can from each plant while leaving enough of the right areas
for it to regenerate as fast as possible. As discussed earlier in this article, Lophophora williamsii requires intact areoles
in order to be able to grow new shoots. There are few exceptions where the plant, when cut, will grow a new stem from
the cut vascular tissue. This is more than likely because the harvested button was cut thin and a portion of the apical
meristem is still intact on the root portion of the plant.
Any number of tools can be used to harvest peyote buttons. Sharp and thin blades, as to cut through the stem
without ripping or crushing the tissue, are ideal.
The best method of harvesting peyote is by cutting the stem on a slight angle downward from just above the
soil line. At least on one half of the crown there should be at least 5-10mm of green epidermis visible above the cut in
order to allow very fast regeneration of new buttons. Cutting the plant bellow the stem, where all areoles are located,
will kill the plant and the root will dry up, thus causing the grower to wait four more years before having a
healthy root system and continual harvest.
The reason for cutting on an angle, as opposed to
cutting flat is that the cortex of the plant is filled with
air pockets and water storage cells will be dissected and
evaporate causing the cut surface to shrink in size when
dry. The outer epidermis tends to stay more rigid and
doesn’t shrink as much. When cut flat, all the outer edges
remain raised, while the inner portions sink inwards due
to dehydration and form a cup. This type of cup- like
form, especially in more humid areas, can collect water
and sit there for extended periods of time creating far
Cutting the peyote button on an angle, slightly above the soil line allows
greater risk of rot. Crowns cut on an angle will dry on an
far greater survivorship of the remaining root and stem. This will increase angle and the collected water will mostly run off immethe speed at which subsequent harvests may be made by allowing new
diately when watered.
stems to quickly regrow.
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Dragibus Magazine
Lophophora williamsii Pests, Infections and General Poor Health
Rot
Perhaps the biggest issue with growing Lophophora williamsii, especially in moist, cold and dark areas, is rot. Rot is
more often caused by various fungal pathogens, but bacterial ones are also possible. Furthermore, rot can be easily
identified by its brownish color and the tissue can become soft and watery. When Lophophora williamsii’s roots get
infected, often caused by too much moisture in the soil media, they should be immediately removed from the pot and
cleaned of dirt without using water. Unfortunately if the area is brown, it is dead and also the fungus that is attacking is
no longer attacking that region. The tissue directly around the brown area is where the war between plant and fungus
has been fought. This healthy appearing tissue directly around the brown spots should be removed. This will be ugly
and scar the plant. After the tissues have been removed and thrown away, the plant should be placed out in the open in
a medium lit area to dry out; much like a cutting is treated after being cut. Leave the plant out for at least one week. If
the spread has ceased, it can be potted and watered after one month of being in the dry soil.
Larger Animals
Snails, slugs, caterpillars, rodents, cockroaches and basically any other plant eating nuisance around the garden can eat
Lophophora williamsii. Although they are often left alone when other things are around to eat, they are around. Often,
plants that are grown on or near the ground are more at risk of coming into contact with pests.
Rodents: Bite marks can be identified by two scratch marks in the eaten area as they use their front teeth to scrape out
the flesh. These may be deep, but tend to be wide and deep or shallow and small. They cannot dig in very deep through
a narrow opening as their heads are large.
Caterpillars: They tend to eat the outer portions and rarely go more than 1cm deep. Large surface areas may be missing and the perimeter of the area eaten is usually finely uneven, almost cloudy shaped.
Cockroaches: They are not a massive pest, but they will eat flowers and fruits readily. Ordinarily a cockroach attack
on peyote is short lived and the infected area remains small as they tend to be skittish and not stick around to gorge
themselves for as long as other pests.
Snails and Slugs: Mollusks can do severe damage to Lophophora williamsii plants; sometimes eating whole plants
right to the ground. They prefer newer growth and succulent growth such as grafts and young plants, but can eat anything. They tend to dig in very deep creating a pit. The surface of the eaten areas is generally quite smooth.
One of the big concerns about big animal attacks on plants is not so much of eating the plant. This is bad enough. The
concern is the animal defecating in or near the wound which can lead to problems with rot, especially in high humidity
areas.
Small Animal Pests
There are a number of small pests that can attack Lophophora williamsii.
However, none seem specialized in feeding on this species.
Spider Mites: These are identified by tiny web coverings and create a
sandblasted appearance on the epidermis of the skin. They are very tiny and
sometimes not visible by the naked eye. Spider mites tend not to outright kill
the plant, but make it prone to secondary infection and severe retardation of
photosynthesis and natural shape change from hydration levels. In extreme
cases the epidermis will become hard and crusted and may split when the
plant dehydrates and rehydrates. There are numerous sprays for spider
Lophophora koehresii showing old scared epidermites, though a light spray of plain water twice daily will help them move on. mis from a very serious spider mite infestation.
They are attracted to dry conditions, and plants watered from above are less Notice the new healthy growth at the top.
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25
likely to be affected by spider mites.
Mealy & Scale: These tend not to be of large concern and can be manually picked off. They are sucking bugs and will
likely be in or near the apical meristem or in the crevices between the ribs. Damage is limited unless heavily infested. A
large concern is root mealy, which will inhabit the soil and suck off roots. Although not always a huge problem themselves, they create moist dirty conditions which are inviting to fungus.
Ants: Ants are often thought as indirect pests. They often do not directly harm the plant but farm or transport other
pests amongst plants. Ants are active in transporting mealy, scale, spider mites, bacteria, fungi and many other tiny
organisms. However, certain species of ants are capable of boring into the plant and creating little 1-2mm holes in the
epidermis. These plants are at a higher risk of rotting in the future and would be good candidates for the next harvest.
Ants are also very keen on eating the flowers and fruits of Lophophora williamsii.
Symptom Diagnosis
Skin turning purple: This is usually caused by either dehydration and/or excessive light. Purple hues are more commonly associated with younger plants and dehydration. Older plants may also turn color when thirsty. Cold temperatures have also been known to cause some purple color change as well.
Skin Turning Yellow: Yellow is most likely the reaction the plant has had too much light. This may be quite common
if grown under direct sun. Direct sun is a stress to the plant and should be limited. In severe cases, the plant will start
having cell death and scaring on the epidermis.
Skin turning red: Red is usually also a case of too much light, but most common in seedlings. Larger plants may turn
reddish if slowly put in very strong light. Fast sunburns tend to go from sudden yellow to dying portions without the
red color change.
Squishy feel of stem: Lophophora williamsii is naturally somewhat soft, like that of a barely ripe mango when the
plant is fully hydrated. When a plant gets dehydrated it will become softer, but should never seem wet or mushy. If the
color is getting dark or brown in regions of the plant and it seems to be wet/mushy then it is likely rot. Finally, the plant
needs some water if it gradually gets softer.
Conclusion
Given the legal status in the United States for cultivating this endangered species, and due to increasing demand on wild populations via harvesting and loss of habitat, it is essential for people to actively take action in preventing any further endangerment. Through actual trial runs at the authors farm from 2008-2012, it is very easy and
relatively cheap to cultivate Lophophora williamsii in a large enough quantity to help alleviate the strain on wild populations from at least the human ceremonial use of the plant. If one takes a low estimate of registered NAC members
of 250,000, it would only require one greenhouse of 20x50 feet to be shared with 213 people to completely replace the
reported legal sale of peyote collected within Texas State. This roughly calculates to, without counting the cost of land
and taxes, $28.38 USD up front and probably no more than $5 USD annually to maintain the greenhouse and plants.
The cost of securing a way of life for a lot of different groups of people, and also an entire species of life is incredibly
cheap, and that is if the cost is only shared amongst a low estimated figure of 250,000 registered NAC members. Funds
can easily come from other places and can greatly reduce the costs even further. With people willing to grow their
own medicine, or grow enough for others, there is no reason for this species to ever become endangered, never mind
extinct. The only threat at the time of this writing, at least in the northern limits of Lophophora williasmii’s range, is
government policy that strictly prohibits the protection of this heritage plant and the way of life surrounding it.
26
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Bibliography
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Anderson, E.F. The “Peyote Gardens” of South Texas: A conservtion crisis? Cact. Succ. J. (U.S.) 68:298-305. 1995
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Further Reading
Anderson, E.F. and Stone, M.S. A Pollen Analysis of Lophophora (Cactaceae). American Journal of Botany. Vol. 47, No. 7 (Jul., 1960), pp. 582589
Cactus Conservation Institute: http://www.cactusconservation.org
Croizat, L. A study of the genus Lophophora. Desert Plant Life. 1943-1945.
Lemaire, C. Cactearum Genera Nova et Species Nova en Horto Monville
Obermeyer, W. R. JR., Ph.D. Enhancement of growth and alkaloid production in tissue cultures of peyote, Lophophora williamsii (Lemaire)
Coulter. UMI. 1989.
Kada’s Garden Lophophora Information: http://www.kadasgarden.com/CLophophora.html
Mauseth Research. http://www.sbs.utexas.edu/mauseth/researchoncacti/introduction.htm
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Yarrow Pale Ale (Y.P.A.)
Words by Eli Szabady
Photos by Adrienne Szabady
I really cannot say enough good things
about yarrow. This amazing herb produces a warm,
earthly, spicy flavor in your brews. It is similar
to hops but unique in character and effect. The
antibacterial properties arguably surpass that of
hops. I would venture to say that if one was brewing in a primitive, off-the-grid situation, you would
have a far greater rate of success using yarrow as
opposed to or in addition to hops. Yarrow requires
less space and water than hops and proliferates
quite quickly. Therefore, it is much easier to grow
in wider range of climates. All this and it makes a great tasting ale.
My enthusiasm for brewing with yarrow is not without precedent. Yarrow, Achillea millefolium, has
a very long history of use in brewing. Yarrow has been employed extensively in traditional brewing in many
Scandinavian countries, Europe, and in Africa. The herb has been used historically both in conjunction with
other herbs in beverages such as Gruit. Furthermore, it also has been used as a standalone bittering/aromatic
agent in various malt and honey based beverages. Yarrow is also widely noted for strong inebriating properties when used in brews1.
Yarrow yields over 120 active compounds2.
Antibacterial, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory
qualities give the herb strong medicinal properties
and make it particularly helpful for healing wounds.
It has been used as a digestive aid, as an analgesic
(slightly weaker than aspirin) to treat colds, fevers, and influenza3, and it has been used to treat
malaria4. There is no doubt that yarrow’s inebriating qualities can be attributed to the complex and
interesting chemistry of the plant. Many of the compounds that are responsible for yarrows medicinal
qualities are likely responsible for its highly inebriating qualities when used in a fermented beverages5.
Many recipes for yarrow ales and meads can
be found in brewing books6 and online. Most of
these recipes appear to be old traditional recipes
or attempted recreations of traditional yarrow use
in brewing. The recipe presented in this article is
meant to be the “modern American” version on a
yarrow ale. The Y.P.A.–or Yarrow Pale Ale–is a refreshing, aromatic, earthly beverage reminiscent of
both modern American craft brewing and old world
tradition. However, somewhat like an IPA, this beer
has a character all its own.
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Collecting Yarrow
All of the above ground portions of the
plants are safe and effective to use in brewing.
However, the leafy material is not as potent–both
in fragrance and effect–as the flower tops. If you do
not have access to a large number of flower tops,
the leaves and stems can be used in addition to the
flowers or on their own. The rule of thumb seems to
be to double the amount of material when using the
leaf and stem portions of the plant. Stephen Bruhner gives the following advice in choosing which
plants to harvest,
“...herbalists have told me that yarrow whose
leaves are darker in color and with larger, whiter flower heads, possess the greater narcotic activity. Christian Ratsch notes (Plants of Love, Ten Speed Press, 1997) that the greater the intensity of
the light the plant receives the higher the content of aromatic oils and thus the increased aphrodisiac and inebriating activity. Mathew Wood notes that in his experience the plants that grow on
soils that are sandy, gravelly, stony, and light are the more potent medicine. He uses fresh spring
or fall leaves or the summer flower heads.” 7
Yarrow produces many different shades of flowers and I have used several different shades in my
brews. Mostly, I have used white, cream, pinks, and some darker reds. In most cases, several different colors
of flowers were used in the same batch. I have not noticed any distinct difference in the plants aromatic qualities and I have not noticed any qualitative difference in the end product.
Recipes
Ingredients (extract – 5gal)
7 lbs. Extra light spray dried malt extract (DME)
2 oz. 20L Crystal malt
4 oz. Belgian biscuit malt
1 oz. Cascade hops (6.6 % AA)
3 ½ oz. Fresh yarrow flower tops
2 ½ tsp. Gypsum (optional)
¼ tsp. Irish moss (optional)
1 Packet American ale yeast
⅔ C Corn sugar (priming)
Equipment
12-16 quart stainless steel pot
Large metal or plastic spoon (not wood)
Fermenting vessel (preferably 6 gal)
Air Lock
Approximately 52 bottles (12 oz.) and caps
Bottle capper
Siphon tube
Strainer
Sanitizer (no-rinse sanitizer or bleach solution)
Food Thermometer
Grain bag, cheese cloth, muslin, etc.
1. Pour 2 gallons of clean water into a large pot. If you choose to use gypsum to adjust the hardness of your water; add
it now. Place the crushed grains into your grain bag and place it into the pot. If you do not have a grain bag you can
make pouch out of cheese cloth or muslin. Turn the heat to medium-high.
2. Remove the grains when the water is about 165° degrees F. Do not let the grains get hotter than 170° degrees F, as
this may impart unwanted flavors in your finished beer.
3. Once the water has reached a boil, add the dried malt extract, ½ oz. of cascade hops, and 1 ½ oz. fresh yarrow flower
tops. Stir until the sugar has completely dissolved. Once the liquid has returned to a boil set a timer for 45 minutes. Stir
frequently throughout the boil.
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4. Add 1 oz. of yarrow flowers. If you choose to use Irish moss; add it now. Stir thoroughly and set a timer for 10 minutes.
5. Add the remaining ½ oz. of cascade hops and ½ oz. of yarrow flowers. Stir thoroughly and set a timer for 5 minutes.
6. Remove the pot from the heat and cool to approximately 80° degrees F as quickly as possible. Once the liquid has
cooled, gently strain it into a sanitized fermenting vessel and then add clean cool water to bring the total volume of the
wort up to 5 gallons. If you choose to take a gravity reading; do so now.
7. Follow the directions on the yeast packet for preparing the yeast (if any) and then add your yeast to the wort. Seal the
fermenter and put the airlock in place.
8. Once vigorous fermentation has subsided, rack the liquid to a clean fermenter and dry “hop” the beer with the remaining ½ oz. of yarrow flower tops. Seal the fermenter. Put an air lock in place.
9. After a week in a secondary fermenter the brew is to be racked
and bottled. Prime with ⅔ C corn sugar or an equivalent amount
of another priming sugar before bottling.
10. Let bottle condition for 2-4 weeks before enjoying.
Ingredients (All grain – 5 gal)
8 lbs. 2-row pale malt barley
1lb Caramunich malt
¼ lb. 20L Crystal malt
¾ lb. Belgian biscuit malt
1 oz. Cascade hops
3 ½ oz. Fresh yarrow flower tops
2 ½ tsp. Gypsum (optional)
¼ tsp. Irish moss (optional)
1 Packet American Ale yeast
⅔ C Corn sugar (priming)
*Additional equipment is needed for the all grain recipe
Finished Y.P.A.
Use a single infusion mash. Heat your strike water to 168° degrees F and mash for 60 minutes. Make sure to
stir the mash about 30 minutes after doughing-in to make sure all the grains get wet. Heat your sparge water
to approximately 170° degrees and adjust up for any heat loss in your equipment. After finishing your sparge,
put your pot on high heat and bring to a boil. You can now pick up at step #3 of the extract recipe with the
following exceptions: you will not add the DME at step #3 and you should not need to add water to your wort
in step #6 as the total volume should already be five or more gallons.
Things to Consider
Be aware that some people do have a mild negative reaction to yarrow. If you have never used yarrow before, be cautious and drink your first bottles slowly to make sure you do not have a reaction. If you have an
existing allergy to member of the Asteraceae family of plants (ragweed) you should probably not use yarrow
internally.
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Yarrow functions much in the same way hops does in a brew. Experiment with adding at different times of
the boil to create subtle changes in the flavor and character of the brew. However, remember that most of the
aromatic compounds that are responsible for yarrow’s wonderful properties will be lost in the boil. Be sure to
Dragibus Magazine
add at least half of your yarrow in the last 15 minutes of the boil or as a dry “hop.”
The hops in this recipe can be omitted if you prefer more “traditional” style yarrow ales. This significantly
alters the flavor and effects of the beer.
If you prefer something more equivalent to pale ale as opposed to an IPA, consider skipping dry “hopping”
with the yarrow. The brew should still be racked to a secondary fermenter to aid with the clarity of the finished beer.
Remember, if you are using leaf and stem material, substitute 2 ounces for every ounce of flower tops.
Notes
1 Stephen H Bruhner Sacred and Herbal Healing Beers: The Secrets of Ancient Fermentation (Boulder: Siris Books, an Imprint of
Brewers Publication, 1998) 185.
2 Ibid.
3 Clare Hanrahan “Yarrow,” in Gale Encyclopedia of Alternative Medicine. 2005. Encyclopedia.com. (September 5, 2012).
http://www.encyclopedia.com/doc/1G2-3435100833.html
4 Lynn DeVries “yarrow.” 1996-2010. Medicinal Herb Info.org. (September 5, 2012).
http://medicinalherbinfo.org/herbs/Yarrow.html
5 Shown here is a far from complete list of the compounds occurring in Achillea millefolium. Many of the compounds in the list
are considered psychoactive.
“Volatile oil, not less than 0.20% ( Ph. Helv.VII.)
Essential oil contains numerous identified components including borneol, bornyl acetate (trace), camphor, 1.8-cineole, eucalyptol, limonene, sabine, terpin-4-ol, terpineol and α-thujone (monoterpenes), caryophyllene (a sesquiterpene) achillicin, achillin, milefin and millefolide (sesquiterpene lactones), azulene and chamazulene (sesquiterpene lactone derived), and isoartemisia ketone.”
Dr. Zsuzsanna Biró-Sándor “Assessment report on Achillea millefolium L., flos.” European Medicines Agency. 2011.
http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Herbal_-_HMPC_assessment_report/2011/09/WC500115467.pdf
6 Recipes for more traditional yarrow ales can be found in both, Bruhner’s Sacred and Herbal Healing Beers (pg. 184), as well as
Charlie Papazian’s The Complete Joy of Home Brewing, 3rd ed. (pg. 221).
7 Bruhner, Sacred and Herbal Healing beer, 187.
Propagation of Sceletium tortuosum (Kanna)
Words and Photos by Planter
Many plants in the Azioaceae family have been reported to contain
a variety of alkaloids; most commonly those of the mesemberine class. The
Azioaceae family is primarily comprised of succulent flowering plants. Of
these plants, the most commonly used or found is Sceletium tortuosum;
commonly known as kanna. While other plants in the family contain similar
alkaloids, most are in too low quantity to be of much use without purification means. Furthermore, a few others such as Carpobrotus edulis and Sceletium strictum may contain higher levels of alkaloids but are not common.
The preparation of kanna is called ‘kougoed’. This is prepared by
mashing the leaf, stem, and roots of the plants and fermenting the material
in a closed vessel. Kougoed is continued by taking the vessel and leaving it
in the sun or in a warm spot for a number of days and then drying out the
mash in the sun or oven. This fermentation is not only necessary to break
down the high quantity of oxalic acid in the plant material, but also serves to
increase the quantity of alkaloids present in the finished product. Quicker,
hotter fermentations have been accomplished in the oven. However, this still
serves to break down some of the oxalic acid and produces active material.
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Sceletium tortuosum flowering under HPS lights.
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Growing From seed
Kanna seeds should be treated similar to other succulent and cacti seeds. Cactus and succulent potting mix
or high porosity mix should be used; amend common mixes with extra perlite, turface or pumice for extra drainage.
Surface sow the seeds and keep moist. Covering temporarily to increase humidity may help, but do not keep the small
seedlings in high humidity. Finally, remove the cover as the seeds germinate. Seeds will germinate mostly in 7-14 days
but some may take months. The reported germination levels are on the low side, 50% or less may be common depending on age of seed.
Growing From Cuttings
This pot had 5-6 smaller cuttings all from the same plant and
rooted out a few weeks ago. It has been under full light for a week
or two and has some nice new growth on it that will be used for
new cuttings.
Kanna may also be successfully propagated asexually from
stem cuttings. Sceletium tortuosum is rather easy to propagate
from cuttings. The biggest factor I have found affecting the
length of time it takes to root is the freshness of the cuttings.
In order for quick rooting, the cuttings must be fresh. They
can be kept for at least 48 hours in a bag with the end of the
stems wrapped with moist paper towel. They could probably be kept longer, but they will begin to etiolate in the bag;
rot and mold will set in eventually. There is an abundance of
information stating that Kanna is easy to root, but no mention
of how to do it. Here is the simple method used in getting
kanna to root.
1. Find a few nice tips, 3-4 nodes long and 3-5”
in length; cut them off.
2. Carefully pluck off the leaves at the base. Be
careful not to damage the stem itself; just get
the leaves off. You may also need to recut the
base depending on how much stem is before
the first node at the bottom. You want to be
able to get the bottom node into the rooting
mix. If there are shoots, leave them and they
will eventually grow up through the mix. If
they are small and if the shoots have stem, this
will help produce more roots.
4. The rooting mix consists of about 2/3 rice
hull mix, 1/3 turface, and a bit of extra coarse
perlite and bark. Fill up the tray or pots that
you are rotting the cuttings in with moistened
mix and poke holes for the cuttings.
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5. (right) You want to get the bottom node all
the way into the mix. Press the mix in around
the cuttings gently and then water them in
with the IBA solution and mist them down
gently. Finally, these go into the humidity
chamber on a heat mat.
Dragibus Magazine
3. Next, get a rooting hormone treatment and
soak in IBA solution for 5 minutes or so; rooting powders or gels and other products work
as well. Make sure the bottom node where the
leaves were removed is submerged or covered
in hormone.
The trick now is to allow the moist media to dry out before misting them down
again. The wetting and drying process helps to speed up the rate at which they root. In the
humidity chamber, they will be fine if the media dries out, but do not leave it dry for too
long. Unlike with rooting of most herbaceous material, the mix should not remain moist
constantly. In about 3-5 weeks, they should be rooted enough in 1” plugs to be transplanted.
General Growth Notes
Sceletium tortuosum takes on a cascading/running growth habit. If grown in pots, it typically grows up and
out, then the branches bend over and hang over the edge of the pot. Pruning can help to prevent excessive weight and
breaking of the branches over the pots’ edge. In the ground, kanna is able to spread out and readily roots itself along
the ground as it grows out. The media should be a well-drained mix, but kanna can tolerate more frequent waterings the more porous the media. Turface or pumice is an excellent addition. Fertilize occasionally with some standard
N-P-K fertilizers. Common vegetative growth fertilizers work or cactus/succulent fertilzers can be used as well. Kanna
grows fine roots and requires a high porosity soil. Too compact or fine soil particulates will not only hold too much
water but will inhibit good root growth. Watering should be semi-frequent; water once the soil dries. The soil may
remain dry, but watering again once the soil dries encourages the best growth rates. Avoid excessive moisture on the
leaves. This may lead to some damage to the leaves. However, nothing too bad, just some leaf splotching and dimples
may develop. Temperatures in the range of 70-90°F seem ideal, but it will tolerate much higher temperatures, especially
if well watered. Growth will slow in lower temperatures and it will tolerate 35°F, but it is frost tender. Flowers appear to
not be self-fertile. Finally, hand pollination of plants that are all identical clones has never yielded seeds.
Common Names: Plants Lost in Translation
By World Seed Supply
After approximately a decade in the ethnobotanical world, I have seen quite a number of instances in which
more than one plant is considered under the same common name. In some cases, this may be due to a vendor intentionally passing off one plant as another. Other times, it boils down to simple misidentification of similar structural
features. But what I intend to focus on here is studied in more of a culturalist lens without bias to one method over another. We find a clash between the modern scientific way and the traditional way of labeling. Although we tend to still
use both systems, their roots and goals exemplify cultural divisions. What I am really talking about is the phenomenon
of how common names play a role in misidentification of plants when they do not integrate properly with Latin (a.k.a.
botanical) names. It is actually a sort of clash of linguistic systems that we might call, “Lost in Translation”.
Scientific methods are intended to be exactly that, scientific. And inherently, they are designed to eliminate the
flaws of traditional labeling. Science’s intention is to precisely classify every plant that exists with complete distinction.
The scientific system, formatted in Latin, is intended to transcend cultural boundaries by assigning plants names in a
commonly used language. But still, it is only a common language for those who agree, seek or know to participate. Just
the way international governmental institutions often tend to defy real participation by “primitive” cultures, so does
this. It is, for all practical purposes, a modern system that seeks to override previously established systems of classification. But the irony is that the scientific system is prone to flaws itself when it seeks to source information from traditional sources. It must gather information and classify
plants entirely according to its own rules or it will inevitably be prone to the same mistakes.
Traditional systems seem to have a much more
modest goal. Their application seems strictly practical.
Plant names are often assigned according to visual cues
that might help one be reminded of what they are dealing
with. You end with names like “Goat’s Horn Cactus” (Astrophytum Capricorne) or “Lion’s Ear” (Leonotis nepetifolia). You also get certain clues as to the types of alkaloid,
medicinal uses or possible toxicity of a plant. Deadly
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Nightshade (Atropa belladonna) is a clear warning to stay away. However, Mormon’s Tea (Ephedra spp.) or Passion
Flower (Passiflora incarnata/caerulea) both indicates possible usage. The Latin system references these types of cues
too. For instance, the “astro” in “astrophytum” refers to the star-shaped appearance while the “capricorne” is a reference
to the goat just as it is when talking about the astrological sign “Capricorn”. But where the goals of traditional systems
seem not to extend beyond practicality, they are less precise. They do not always distinguish between similar species or
plants with similar uses.
I mentioned the concept of “Lost in Translation”. This personifies a clash between two systems of categorization
and it takes place most frequently when people fall under the assumption that the two systems integrate more easily
than they do. On the contrary, the two systems must be treated like two systems of language without literal translations
of one another. If you are still unclear about what I mean, then let me pose these scenarios. If you speak often about
plants, you might hear people asking questions like, “What is the Latin name for….?” If you were asked about “valerian” in this question, the answer would probably be pretty clear to you as “Valeriana officinalis”. We can call this a literal
translation because there are not many other answers that could cause confusion. Now, if you were asked the same
question about “ma huang”, you would probably be pretty confident to say “Ephedra sinica”. However, it would not be
entirely unreasonable to get certain other ephedra species for your answer. On the other hand, if you asked about the
Latin name for “kanna” the common assumption in the U.S. would be to assume you were talking about Sceletium
tortuosum even though other Sceletium species, such as Sceletium emarcidium or joubertii, reportedly have the same
common name indigenously. There are other examples that are even more ambiguous. The problem is that there are
also quite a number of plants where literal translations do work and people become prone to assuming that they work
in all cases.
Misidentification problems such as these occur on individual levels quite often. With the pervasiveness of the
Internet, our ability to learn about plants has grown exponentially. We spread knowledge along from one to another at
a much more rapid pace than when books and lectures were our primary means of learning. The issue, though, is that
we are not always getting our information from experts. Although an expert is still fallible, he or she is likely to have
had experience distinguishing between plants that might be easily mixed up. So when one person mistakes one plant
for another and posts a picture of it, the mistake now becomes the reference
point for which others get their information. It is no longer just a matter of a
plant with the same common name being mistaken for its relative. There are
visual references to back up the idea for the next person who comes along.
Like a virus, the longer the problem is allowed to go untreated, the more this
oblivious disease spreads.
Turnera diffusa (top) and Turnera ulmifolia
(bottom) are both referred to as damiana, depending on what part of the world you are in.
Damiana is perhaps the best example of this. On a global level,
depending on who you talk to, the common name, “damiana” can refer to
Turnera diffusa or Turnera ulmifolia. Whereas the Sceletium species mentioned before have a rather similar appearance, these two turnera species
are unmistakably different plants. Everything from the flower size to the leaf
shape to the scent is drastically different. Without prior knowledge, one
might not even connect that they are in the same genus. Yet, the two plants
have similar medicinal uses and are referred to commonly as “damiana”. In
the U.S., just about all the dried herb that is distributed as “damiana” is Turnera diffusa. That is what buyers would expect. However, we have seen several
foreign suppliers, one of which has told us they distribute several metric
tons per year to wholesale buyers, selling turnera ulmifolia as “damiana”. To
them, that is what damiana is. This does not seem to be an instance of something being passed off as something else. After all, it would be blatantly obvious to anyone who was familiar with both plants. But rather, there appears to
be a legitimate demand for this damiana outside the U.S.
The damiana example clearly shows how two different plants operate under the same common name. But the
“Lost in Translation” concept is demonstrated by the fact that, more often than not, images on the Internet of “Turnera diffusa” actually show the image of Turnera ulmifolia. It is important to realize that we are not talking about an
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instance of plants under a wrong common name. It is a complete infiltration of the scientific system with the shared
common name causing a switch between related botanical names. Not only that, the problem has progressed exactly to
the point where the majority of pictorial references reinforce the translation error. When it comes to damiana, it seems
that we are truly lost with our GPS perpetually recalculating.
It is important to clarify that common names are just one facet of the larger issue surrounding misidentification. Common names are not the only way in which cultural or linguistic aspects clash either. Language barriers also
affect conflicting information about history and plant use. For the most part, the systems function as they need to.
But what we have begun to look at are certain points of contention that have already been set in motion. It is hard to
imagine how those issues will ever be resolved on a public scale. But the best we can do is become weary of this phenomenon and be vigilant in our own practices. And the more we can use modern modes of communication to spread
information to counteract misinformation, the more we can move in the right direction as a whole.
A Closer Look at Hops
Images by Planter
Left: Scanning
Electron Microscope
(SEM) images of
hops pistils.
Top Right: SEM
image of hops bine
climbing hook (a
modified trichome).
Right Bottom: Two
SEM images of
glands on hop cone
bracts.
Back page top: Two
close-ups of hops
flowers and a flowering hops plant.
Back page bottom:
SEM images of hops
resin glands.
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Top: Hops flowers
Bottom: SEM of hops
resin glands
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