first report of a newly discovered paleoindian quarry site on the

FIRST REPORT OF A NEWLY DISCOVERED PALEOINDIAN QUARRY
SITE ON THE ISTHMUS OF PANAMA
Georges A. Pearson
An archaeological survey on the Azuero Peninsula in Panama has recently discovered a Paleoindian quarry/workshopat
the base of a quartz outcrop. The Nieto site contains seldom-seen preforms and flake blanks that provide new information
on early-stage reductionstrategies used by Clovis-likepoint makers in the Neotropics. Finished tools recovered at the site
include gravers, side scrapers, and large scraper planes. Theproduction offlake blanksfollowed a core reductionand rejuvenation strategy already observed at other Paleoindian sites in Costa Rica and Florida. Although the quartz outcrop is
located only a few kilometersawayfrom better-qualitysources of jasper and chert, Paleoindians appear to have preferred
this translucent stone for their weaponry. This new information,when combined with late-stage production strategies previously recordedfrom other Panamanian sites, brings us closer to tracing a complete manufacturingtrajectoryfor Clovislikepoints on the Isthmus.It is hoped thatdatafrom the Nieto quarry/workshopwill eventuallyhelp archaeologists determine
if the presence of the fluting technique in Central and South America is attributable to a migration of Clovis-related people or a technological diffusion among pre-established southerly populations.
Investigacionesarqueol6gicas llevadas a cabo recientementeen la PeninsulaAzuero,Panamd,ha dado como resultadoel descubrimientode una cantera/tallerpertenecienteal HorizontePaleoindio, localizada en la base de un afloramientode cuarzo.
Sitio Nieto contienepreformaspoco comunes,y lascas nodularesque proporcionannuevos datos en relacion a las estrategias
tempranasde reduccidnempleadas en el Neotrdpico. Entre las herramientasrecuperadasen el sitio se incluyenpicos, raspadores laterales, y grandes raspadoresplanos. Las lascas obtenidas como resultado del proceso de reducci6n de talla y
estrategiasde rejuvenecimientoson similaresa las observadaspreviamenteen otros sitios paleoindios de Costa Rica y Florida.
Existenalgunos afloramientosdejaspes y pedernalproximosa la cantera/tallerde cuarzo de Sitio Nieto, por lo que pensamos
que los pobladorespaleoindios parecen haber tenido una clara preferenciapor el cuarzo con el objeto de elaborar su utillaje
de piedra. Los nuevos datos obtenidos sobre tecnicas de manufacturatempranasconectan con las estrategias tardias registradas en otros sitios de Panama, gracias a lo cual hemos podido realizar un trazado aproximadode la trayectoriade producci6nde las puntas Clovis en el Itsmo.Esperamosque los datos de la cantera/tallerde Sitio Nieto tardeo tempranoayuden
a los arqueologos a determinarsi la presencia de la tecnica de acanalado paleoindia, en Ame'ricaCentraly America del Sur;
es atribuiblea una migracionde poblaciones Clovis, o bien si estairelacionadacon una difusiontecnologica entrepoblaciones
pre-establecidasdel sur:
ounting evidence has challenged the
"ClovisFirst"model of the peoplingof
the Americasto the point where it may
no longer be tenable.In NorthAmerica,excavations at the Meadowcroft(Adovasio et al. 1978,
1999;Goldberg1999),CactusHill (Johnson1998;
McAvoy and McAvoy 1997), Topper(Goodyear
1999,2000), Schaefer,andHebior(Overstreetand
Stafford 1997; Overstreetet al. 1995) sites have
providedevidenceof humanoccupationspossibly
antedatingClovis. Similarclaims have also been
madeforSouthAmericansitessuchas MonteVerde
M
(Dillehay 1989, 1997;Meltzeret al. 1997),Taimataima (Ochseniusand Gruhn 1979), Tibit6 (Correal 1981, 1986), Pubenza(Correal1993), El Abra
2 (Correaland van der Hammen 1977; Hurtet al.
et
1977), and LapaVermelha(Laming-Emperaire
al. 1975;Prous1986),to namea few.Althoughthe
existenceof pre-Clovisgroupsis now morewidely
accepted,interpretationof the data from many of
these early occupationshas not been unanimous
and debates persist (Dillehay et al. 1999; Fiedel
1999; Lynch2001).
Over the years, the feasibility of a passage
Georges A. Pearson * Departmentof Anthropology,University of Kansas, 622 FraserHall, 1415 JayhawkBlvd.
Lawrence,KS 66045-7556 ([email protected])
LatinAmericanAntiquity, 14(3), 2003, pp. 311-322
CopyrightO2003 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology
311
LATIN
AM
ERICAN
ANTI
NUMBER 3
VOLUME 14
SEPTEMBER 2003
I
a
b
ci~
d
C
SAX
SOCIETYFORAMERICANARCHAEOLOGY
312
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
Figure 1. Map of Panama showing locations of Nieto quarry/workshop and other early sites.
between the NorthAmericanice sheets and even
the existence of such a corridorhave been questioned.This challengehas given rise to alternative
entrywaysandmigrationroutesto accountfor subLaurentidianpopulations(Andersonand Gillam
2000; Fladmark1979, 1983; Mandryk2001). For
example,to explainthe presenceof pre-Clovissites
in SouthAmericain the absenceof similaroccupationsfurthernorth,a popularscenarioproposesa late
Pleistocene coastal migration along the Pacific
seaboardthatbroughtpeopleto SouthAmericawhile
bypassingtheinteriorregions(CarvalhoGonqalves
et al. 2003; Dixon 1999;Gruhn1988, 1994).
Anothertopic of contentionhas focused on the
origin and dispersionof the fluting techniquein
South America (Ardila 1991; Ardila and Politis
1989;Bell 1965;Bird 1938;Gnecco 1994;MayerOakes 1986a; Jackson 1995; Jaimes 1999).
Attemptsto explainthisphenomenonhavecentered
aroundthreehypotheses.The firstsuggeststhatthe
fluting techniquewas carriedsouth by migrating
humanswho were bioculturallyrelatedto North
AmericanClovisgroups(Lynch1983;Morrowand
Morrow 1999; Ranereand Cooke 1991; Snarskis
1979). The second arguesthatthis manufacturing
traitwas diffusedandadoptedsouthby pre-established populations who came into contact with
expanding Clovis bands (Bryan 1973, 1983).
Lastly,Mayer-Oakes(1986b) proposedthatfluting
was independentlyinventedin SouthAmericaand
may or may not have diffusednorth.
One strategythatcan help untanglethese ideas
is to carryout technologicalcomparisonsbetween
flutedpoint assemblagesfromNorth,Central,and
South America. The degree of affinity between
northernandsouthernflutedpointindustrieswould
help archaeologists determine if Clovis groups
encountered and influenced, replaced or were
assimilated,or simply lived alongside pre-established groupspossiblyrelatedto MonteVerdeans.
Coupled with a solid chronological framework,
technological differences and similaritieswould
allow us to distinguishbetween a migrationor a
passing of ideas throughpre-Clovispopulations.
To help shed light on this problem,an ongoing
surveyhas attemptedto locate additionalPaleoin-
REPORTS
313
Figure 2. Quartz outcrop and north side of the Nieto quarry/workshop.
dianoccupationsin Panama(Pearson1999, 2000;
Pearsonand Cooke 2002). This area was chosen
becauseof its key geographiclocationand its role
as a narrow land bridge that has concentrated
human movements between the continents.
Regardlessof the route(s)takenby early migrants
during the colonization process, the Isthmus of
Panamawouldhavebeen an unavoidablestopping
placewhilemovingto orfromSouthAmerica.This
reportpresentspreliminarydatafroma newly discovered Paleoindianquarry/workshopsite on the
Pacific side of Panama.
The Nieto Paleoindian
Quarry and Workshop
Althoughthe majorityof artifactsfoundatNieto
consistof unidirectional
andmulti-directional
blocky
core
cores,
fragments,flakes,andshatter,somebrokentool preforms,flakeblanks,andfinishedimplementswerealso encountered.Withtheexceptionof
a few bladeletsand small bladecores, none of the
recoveredmaterialcouldbe ascribedto possiblelater
preceramicor ceramiccultures.Bifacialreduction
of cryptocrystalline
stone has not been observedin
Panamanian
lithicassemblagepost-dating7000 '4C
yr B.P.(RanereandCooke 1995, 1996,2002). This
peculiarityof the Isthmianarchaeologicalrecord
has, in fact, helped researchersidentifyearly sites
by the simplepresenceof bifacialthinningflakesof
fine-grainedlithicmaterial.
Site Location and Description
Deposits and Stratigraphy
TheNieto site(124 m a.s.l.)is locatedon theAzuero
Peninsulaapproximately10 km northwestof the
consists of an
town of Pese (Figure 1). The qularry
of
vein
translucent
exposed
gray-white,
cryptocrystallinequartzthatjuts fromthe summitof a
small hill (Figure2). This outcropforms a pillarlike wall (1 m by 10 m) thatis flankedon bothsides
by steepcolluvialslopescontaininga largeamount
of culturalandnaturallithicdebris(Figure3). Test
excavationswere carriedout on the northernsection of the quarrywhere a Clovis-like projectile
pointpreformwas discoveredon the surface(Figure 4a).
Lithic artifactswere discoveredlying above and
withincolluvialdepositsaroundtheoutcrop.Flakes
and other manufacturingdetrituswere strewnon
the surface of the north-facing slope, which
droppedat an angle of approximately40 degrees.
Althoughtheriseis vegetatedwithtreesandshrubs
(Curatella americana), evidence of ongoing ero-
sion and denudationdue to heavy rain is visible
today.The thicknessof the depositsvariedfrom a
few centimetersclosest to theexposedveinto more
than40 cm at the base of the hill. Sedimentswere
homogeneous,and did not show any evidence of
weatheringhorizons.
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
314
MN
,'22?
01234
? SiteN
Meters
E1C
E11C
N65
N70
N75
N80
N85
N90
N95
N100
N105
N110
Figure 3. Nieto site map with location of main excavation block and test pits.
LithicAssemblage
The first diagnostic artifacts discovered at the
quarrywere bifacialthinningflakes and a Clovislike pointpreformfragmentthatalertedus to a possible late Pleistocene exploitationof the outcrop.
Thus far, cores, large flake blanks, bifacial preforms,variousscrapingandgravingtools, andover
50 bifacialthinningflakeshavebeen discoveredat
Nieto (Figure 4). Technological analysis of the
materialis still ongoing,andonly preliminarydata
(Table1) and descriptionsare presentedbelow.
The point preform(Figure 4a) has a sinuous
edge due to uncorrecteddeep concavities left by
the initiallateralthinningremovals.This preform
is differentboth stylistically and technologically
fromstemmedfishtailandArchaicprojectilepoints
foundon the Isthmus.It was manufacturedfroma
large flake, which was progressivelyreducedon
both sides, giving it a distinctivebi-convexcrosssection.Initialthinningandshapinghascompletely
removedall tracesof the originalflakeblank'ssurface.Significantly,severalisolatedandgroundplatformlobes are still visible on the blade'sedge. On
one side, the distal end of whatcould be a fluteor
large end-thinningscar is visible just above the
break(Figure5). Althoughthe edge of the fracture
is squareand was not the result of a "languette"
scar (Roche and Tixier 1982)-which could be
mistakenfora flute-the distinctionbetweenintentionalremovals,secondaryfractures,andexfoliated
breakshas been made difficultdue to the unpredictabilityof this raw material.Nevertheless,fluting of early stage preformswould not be out of
REPORTS
a <-ZZ>
315
b
j
0
dlii
c
5 cm
d
5 cm
e
.1.,
f
C
m
5 cm
n
5 cm
X_g
9
h
0
p
q
Figure 4. Lithic artifacts from Nieto quarry/workshop: (a-g) bifacial preforms; (h) channel flake fragment; (i) possible
large flake blank; (j-n) snubbed-nosed scrapers and large scraper planes; (o) large retouched flake; (p-q) blade-like
flakes; (r-u) graving tools; (v-w) spokeshaves; (x-y) core bottom rejuvenation segments.
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
316
?;~
r?-Y
kB
r
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
S
x
5 cm
t
U
5 cm
.tl
:::
-----'
I
y
W
V
Figure 4. (continued)
Table 1. Metric Informationfor Lithic ArtifactsIllustratedin Figure4.
Artifact
(a) Point Preform
(b) Point Base
(c) Biface (Preform?)
(d) Biface Fragment
(e) Biface Fragment
(f) Biface Preform
(g) Biface Preform
(h) ChannelFlake
(i) Large Flake (Blank)
(j) Keeled End Scraper
(k) ScraperPlane
(1) Keeled End Scraper
(m) Side Scraper
(n) ScraperPlane
(o) Large Retouched Flake
(p) Blade-like Flake
(q) Blade-like Flake
(r) Graver
(s) Graver
(t) Graver
(u) Graver
(v) Spokeshave
(w) Spokeshave
(x) Core Base Segment
(y) Core Base Segment
Length (mm)
87.86
28.40
92.65
39.45
27.95
55.90
63.55
20.16
68.21
63.40
83.20
86.74
84.30
89.45
71.77
64.70
95.55
26.60
46.50
47.00
31.21
66.10
86.10
100.60
49.16
Width (mm)
50.50
37.90
42.27
29.02
25.95
66.95
58.30
23.77
90.65
40.20
61.10
51.55
48.64
60.00
70.00
37.60
48.30
31.55
37.25
25.35
26.35
38.30
41.55
75.91
30.04
Thickness (mm)
17.20
11.75
14.63
11.40
5.72
21.95
29.20
4.24
23.06
25.35
28.42
34.16
15.10
32.95
26.80
17.20
20.50
8.90
10.20
11.55
9.52
21.00
37.95
38.82
19.15
REPORTS
317
Figure 5. Clovis-like point preform from Nieto showing distal end of possible flute scar.
place here since it has alreadybeen observed at
other lower CentralAmerican sites such as La
Mula-Westin Panama(Ranere2000; Ranereand
Cooke 1995, 1996) and Guardiriain Costa Rica
(Pearson1998, 2004; Snarskis1979).
The Nieto preformcouldbe describedas a stage
4 biface following Callahan(1979), or more precisely a stage 4.1 accordingto Morrow's(1996)
reductionscheme. Overshootingthinningflakes,
commonly encountered in other Clovis-related
workshops(Pearson2002), have not yet been discoveredamongthe manufacturingdebrisat Nieto.
A possible explanationfor this could be the low
qualityof the lithic rawmaterialthatcausedmany
thinningflakesto terminateprematurelyor break.
The flaking patternindicates that flintknappers
attemptedto drive long flakes past the preform's
midline but were rarelysuccessful.Althoughthe
crystallinequalities of the lithic raw materialat
Nieto areaestheticallypleasingto theeye, its structuremakes it highly unpredictableand an inferior
stonefor flintknapping
purposes.Manyof the shatter pieces and discarded tool preforms display
breaks along linear impuritiesand largerquartz
inclusions.Most intriguingis thatthe areaaround
Nieto containsmanysourcesof high-qualitycherts
and jaspers where bifacial materialis absent. It
appearsthatthe beautyof translucentcrystalsover
less-attractivestones may have overriddenmore
practicalfactors in the decision-makingprocess
leading to the manufactureof some points. Similar observationswere made at the La Mula-West
workshop,wherePaleoindiansmanufactured
many
Clovis-like points from brittle, translucentagate
cobbles (Ranere2000) found among better-quality cryptocrystallinejaspers. This pattern goes
againstpopularnotions of a focused exploitation
of high-qualitystones by NorthAmericanClovis
groups(Goodyear1979) and may be indicativeof
ideologicalaspectsof Paleoindianlife.
Thebase of a secondunfinishedprojectilepoint
was discoveredless thana meterfromthe preform
(Figure4b). This ungroundsegmentdisplays several longitudinalthinningscars or possible guiding flakes,anda slight nippleindicatingthatit was
possibly being preparedfor fluting.Evidence for
the manufactureof a thirdpoint was providedby
the discoveryof a differentlycoloredbrokenchannel flake(Figure2h). The fragmentis straight(i.e.,
no curvature),parallel-sided,has a slight bi-convex cross-section,andbrokejust below its platform
or nipple (Figure6). Its dorsal surfaceis charac-
318
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
Figure 6. Collapsed proximal fragment of channel flake.
scarssugterizedby a seriesof small,unidirectional
that
it
several
was
removed
basal
following
gesting
of
the
and/or
some
removals
thinningattempts
may
have servedas guidingchannels.Especiallyinteresting was a tool with a broken,bifaciallyworked
distal end made on a blue-greenchertflake (Figure 4c). No debitageof this materialwas found at
the siteandit mayhavebeenleftbehindafterretooling (cf., Gramly1980).
Also found amongthe debriswere early stage
preformsand large flake blanksused for the productionof bifacial tools or projectilepoints (Figure4f, g, i). Finishedtools includedgravers,keeled
(snubbed-nosed)end scrapers,side scrapers,and
scraperplanes (Figure 2j-n, r-u). Several large
blade-like flakes (Figure 2p, q) and ridge spalls
werealso recovered.Theseelongatedpieces do not
display small, preparedplatformsor pronounced
curvaturecharacteristicof many Clovis blades
(Collins 1999). Otherimportantfindsconsistedof
large flake cores and platformrejuvenationsegments(Figure2x, y) displayingidenticalreduction
steps as those from the GuardiriaPaleoindian
quarry/workshopin Costa Rica (Pearson 1998,
2004), and the Fossil Hole quarrysite in Florida
(Hemmings1999).Largescraperplaneswerefashioned on blade-likeflakes and sometimes shaped
by a trihedralflakingtechnique.Greateffortswere
made to flattenthe ventralsurfacesof these large
scrapingtools. Irregularities,such as the bulb of
force, and excessive curvaturewere correctedby
strikingtheblank'sedges "headon"to detachlarge
flakes that would terminatein hinge or step fractures.This tacticensuredthatthe retouchitself did
not plunge or compoundthe initialproblemandis
removals.
comparableto coreplatformrejuvenation
this
same
Significantly,
manufacturingtechnique
was also observedon theplanesfromGuardiriaand
lakes La Yeguada and Alajuela (Pearson 1998,
2002).
Overall,the Nieto assemblagemirrorsmanyof
the artifactstyles, manufacturingtechniques,and
even lithicrawmaterialschoices observedat other
Paleoindiansites. Most importantly,it links with
the late-stagerejectsandbrokenpreformsdiscovered at La Mula-Westto trace a more complete
manufacturing trajectory for fluted lanceolate
pointsin Panama.
Discussion
Severalavenuesof research,such as detailedtechnologicalanalysesandcomparisonsof lithicassemblages, can offer significantclues to the originsof
the flutingtechniquein SouthAmerica.However,
similarities and differences between North and
SouthAmericanPaleoindianlithictools aremean-
REPORTS
ingless withoutfactoringin contextualdata.That
is to say,withouta clearpictureof theculture-adaptive milieu, resemblanceamong artifactswill not
necessarilysupporta migrationscenarionor will
discrepanciesimply a diffusion of ideas. Lithic
assemblagesmust be comparedin relationto the
economicsystemsandenvironmentsin whichthey
wereused.Moreover,analysesmustexamineentire
tool kits and not concentratesolely on projectile
points. Otherclues, such as those relatedto group
ideologies, although difficult to interpret,would
also be useful,since theseabstractelementsareless
likely to havebeen borrowed(Storck1991). Even
then,analyticalresultsmightstillbe subjectiveand
open to numerous personal interpretations.For
example, when trying to understandthe cause(s)
forthe similaritiesanddifferencesbetweena North
AmericanClovis pointanda SouthAmericanfishtail projectilepoint, how can archaeologistsdistinguish between factors such as: (1) changing
adaptivestrategies,when groups face new environmentalselective pressures;(2) culturaldistortionandselectiveborrowing,whenanideais passed
from one groupto another;or (3) simple stochastic and historical events that may have affected
styles, when groupsbecome isolatedand the flow
of information is cut off (O'Brien and Lyman
2000)?
Whenfacedwith questionsof bioculturalaffinity, there is no escaping the fact that although
humanscanmodify andborrowtechnologies,they
cannotchangetheirgenes. Consequently,the most
robustanalysesandperhapsthe finalarbiterof the
debatesmay come fromfutureancientDNA tests.
But until more late Pleistocene skeletonsare discovered,archaeologistsmustrelyon variablessuch
as tool formandmanufacturing
techniquesto make
sense of the variability.Unfortunately,the majority of Paleoindiansites discoveredso far in CentralAmericacontainfinishedpointsor preformsin
late stages of production(Garcia-Barcena1979;
GruhnandBryan1977;Santamaria1981;Snarskis
1979). In most cases, early stage reductionstrategies areobscuredif not completelyinvisiblewhen
analyzingfinished or resharpenedtools. The key
difference,and thus the importance,of the Nieto
site residesin the fact thatthe firsthalf of the manufacturing techniques, including raw material
extraction,arerepresentedhere.Coupledwithdata
319
fromotherPanamanian
sites(BirdandCooke 1978;
Pearson 2000, 2002; Ranere 2000; Ranere and
Cooke 1991, 2001), this latest informationbrings
us closer to tracinga complete chalne operatoire
for Clovis-likepoints on the Isthmus.
Conclusion
Currentknowledgeon how the firsthumaninhabitantsof Northand SouthAmericarelatedto each
othernotonlyhasbeenimpededby geographicdistance butalso by an informationvoid. To this day,
the Paleoindianarchaeologicalrecords of North
andSouthAmericaremainisolatedfromeachother.
Ongoing archaeologicalresearchon the Azuero
Peninsulain Panamarepresentsan effort to close
this gap. Oneof theprincipalobjectivesof the Isthmiansurveyis to findclues thatwill help us understandthe originsof the flutingtechniquein South
America.
The newly discoveredNieto quarry/workshop
providesnew informationon earlystagereduction
strategiesused by Clovis-like point makers.Preliminaryresultsindicatethatthe lanceolatefluted
points at Nieto were made on large flake blanks.
Secondaryretouchwas invasiveand did not leave
pseudo flutes on the recoveredbifaces. Preforms
appearto havebeenflutedin theearlystagesof production by isolating and strikinga basal nipple.
Large Clovis-like macrobladesand blade cores
were not observed at Nieto. Finally, large flake
cores, top and bottomplatformrejuvenationsegments, and keeled end scrapers,similar to those
found at the Guardiriasite in Costa Rica and Fossil Hole in Florida,attestto a Paleoindiancultural
homogeneity across lower CentralAmerica and
perhapsaroundthe Gulf of Mexico (Faughtand
Dunbar1997;PearsonandBostrom1998). Ongoing fieldworkin CentralAmerica and additional
pan-continentalcomparativeanalysesamongPaleoindian lithic assemblages should help us determine if southernflutedpoint makerswere distant
cousins of Clovis groupsor contemporaryneighbors who imitatedtheirtechnology.
Acknowledgments.Funding for this research was provided
by a short-term and a pre-doctoral fellowship from the
SmithsonianTropicalResearchInstitute(STRI). I especially
wish to thank Robert A. Beckwith for his patience and
invaluable assistance in the field. Additional support was
provided by Jack L. Hofman and John W. Hoopes of the
University of Kansas, as well as by Richard G. Cooke,
320
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
Dolores R. Piperno, and Cristian Samper of STRI. Carlos
Fitzgerald of Patrimonio Historico, Instituto de Cultura,
Panama, was also instrumentalin alleviating some of the
logistical headaches of fieldwork. This project would not
have been possible without the generoushelp and hospitality
of Pedro Nieto Fuente, Cesar A. Serrano C., E. Alfonso
TejadaCaballero,andAlbertoE. Ruiz de Leon. I would also
like to acknowledge the helpful comments by Ruth Gruhn
andAnthonyRanereduringthe productionof this report.My
colleague, Julia C. Mayo, providedthe Spanish abstract.
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
2003 HumanIntestinalParasitesin the Past:New Findings
and a Review. Memorias do InstitutoOswaldo Cruz 98
(Supplement1):103-108.
Collins, MichaelB.
1999 ClovisBlade Technology.Universityof TexasPress,
Austin.
CorrealUrrego,Gonzalo
1981 Evidenciasculturalesy megafaunapleistocenica en
Colombia.Fundaci6nde InvestigacionesArqueol6gicas
Nacionales,Banco de la Republica,Bogota.
1986 Apuntessobre el medio ambientepleistocdnicoy el
hombreprehist6ricoen Colombia.In New Evidencefor
the Pleistocene Peoplingof theAmericas,editedby Alan
References Cited
L. Bryan,pp. 115-131. Centerforthe Studyof EarlyMan,
Adovasio, James M., Joel D. Gunn, John Donahue, Robert
Universityof Maine, Orono.
1993 Nuevas evidencias culturales pleistocenicas y
Stuckenrath,JohnGuilday,and KennethLord
1978 MeadowcroftRockshelter.In EarlyManfrom a Cirmegafauna en Colombia. Boletin de Arqueologia
cum-PacificPerspective, edited by Alan L. Bryan, pp.
8(1):3-12.
140-180. OccasionalPapersNo. 1. Universityof Alberta, CorrealUrrego,Gonzalo, andThomasvan der Hammen
Edmonton.
1977 Investigaciones arqueologicas en los abrigos del
Adovasio,JamesM., David Pedler,JackDonahue,andRobert
Tequendama:12,000 anos de historiadel hombrey de su
Stuckenrath
medio ambienteen la altiplaniciede Bogota. Biblioteca
1999 No Vestige of a Beginningnor Prospectfor an End:
Banco Popular,Bogota.
Two Decades of Debateon MeadowcroftRockshelter.In Dillehay,ThomasD. (editor)
IceAge People of NorthAmerica:Environments,Origins,
1989 MonteVerde:A LatePleistoceneSettlementin Chile:
Paleoenvironmentand Site Context,vol. 1. Smithsonian
andAdaptations,editedby RobsonBonnichsenandKaren
L. Turnmire,pp.416-431. Centerforthe Studyof theFirst
InstitutionPress,Washington,D.C.
1997 MonteVerde:A LatePleistoceneSettlementin Chile:
Americans,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.
TheArchaeologicalContext,vol. II. SmithsonianInstituAnderson,David G., andJ. ChristopherGillam
2000 PaleoindianColonizationof the Americas:Implication Press,Washington,D.C.
tionsfromanExaminationof Physiography,Demography, Dillehay, Thomas D., Michael B. Collins, Mario Pino, Jack
andArtifactDistribution.AmericanAntiquity65:43-66.
Rossen, James Adovasio, Carlos Ocampo, Ximena
ArdilaCalderon,GerardoI.
Navarro,PilarRivas, David Pollack,A. Gwynn Hender1991 The Peoplingof NorthernSouthAmerica.In Clovis:
son, Jose Saavedra,PatricioSanzana,Pat Shipman,Marvin Kay,GastonMunoz,AnastasiosKarathanasis,
Donald
Originsand Adaptations,edited by Robson Bonnichsen
andKarenL. Turnmire,pp. 261-282. Centerfor the Study
Ugent, MichaelCibull, andRichardGeissler
of the FirstAmericans,OregonState University,Corval1999 On MonteVerde:Fiedel'sConfusionsandMisreprelis.
sentations. http://www.uky.edu/Projects/MonteVerde/
ArdilaCalderon,GerardoI., andGustavoG. Politis
(February10th2000).
1989 Nuevos Datos ParaunViejo Problema:Investigaci6n Dixon, JamesE.
1999 Bones, Boats, and Bison:Archaeologyand the First
y Discusiones en Tornodel Poblamientode Americadel
Sur.BoletinMuseo del Oro23:3-45.
Colonizationof WesternNorthAmerica.Universityof New
Mexico Press,Albuquerque.
Bell, RobertE.
1965 Investigacionesarqueologicasen el Sitio de El Inga. Faught,MichaelK., and JamesS. Dunbar
Casa de la Cultura,Quito.
1997 PaleoindianArchaeologyin Two RegionsExhibiting
WaistedLanceolateProjectilePoints:FloridaandPanama.
Bird, JuniusB.
1938 AntiquityandMigrationsof the EarlyInhabitantsof
Paperpresentedat the 62nd AnnualMeeting of the SociPatagonia.GeographicalReview28(2):250-275.
ety forAmericanArchaeology,Nashville.
Bird, JuniusB., and RichardG. Cooke
Fiedel, StuartJ.
1978 The Occurrencein Panamaof Two Types of Paleo1999 ArtifactProvenienceat MonteVerde:Confusionand
Indian ProjectilePoints. In Early Man from a CircumContradictions.DiscoveringArchaeology.SpecialReport
PacificPerspective,editedbyAlan L. Bryan,pp.263-272.
1(6).
OccasionalPapersNo. 1. Departmentof Anthropology, Fladmark,KnutR.
1979 Routes: AlternativeMigrationCorridorsfor Early
Universityof Alberta,Edmonton.
Manin NorthAmerica.AmericanAntiquity44:55-69.
Bryan,Alan L.
1973 Paleoenvironmentsand CulturalDiversity in Late
1983 Time and Places: EnvironmentalCorrelatesof MidPleistocene South America. Quaternary Research
to-LateWisconsinHumanPopulationExpansionin North
3:237-256.
America.InEarlyManin theNewWorld,editedby Richard
1983 SouthAmerica.InEarlyManin theNew World,edited
Shutler,Jr.,pp.13-41. Sage, BeverlyHills.
by RichardShutler,Jr.,pp. 137-146. Sage, BeverlyHills. Garcia-Barcena,Joaquin
1979 Unapunta acanalada de la CuevaLos Grifos,OcoCallahan,Errett
1979 The Basics of Biface Knappingin the EasternFluted
zocoautla,Chis. Cuadernosde Trabajo,No. 17, DepartaPoint Tradition.A Manualfor Flintknappersand Lithic
mentode Prehistoria,INAH,Mexico.
Gnecco, Crist6bal
Analysts.ArchaeologyofEasternNorthAmerica7:1-180.
CarvalhoGonqalves,MarceloLuiz, AduatoAraujo,and Luiz
1994 Fluting Technology in South America.LithicTechFerando Ferreira
nology 19(1):35-42.
REPORTS
Goldberg,Paul,andTrinaL. Arpin
1999 MicromorphologicalAnalysis of Sediments from
MeadowcroftRockshelter,Pennsylvania:Implicationsfor
Radiocarbon Dating. Journal of Field Archaeology
26:325-342.
Goodyear,AlbertC., III
1979 A Hypothesisfor the Use of CryptocrystallineRaw
MaterialsAmongPaleo-IndianGroupsof NorthAmerica.
ResearchManuscriptSeries,No. 156. Instituteof Archaeology and Anthropology,Universityof South Carolina.
Columbia.
1999 Resultsof the 1999AllendalePaleoindianExpedition.
Legacy 4(1-3):8-13. Newsletter of the South Carolina
Instituteof ArchaeologyandAnthropology,Universityof
SouthCarolina,Columbia.
2000 The TopperSite 2000. Resultsof the 2000 Allendale
PaleoindianExpedition.Legacy 5(2):18-25. Newsletter
of the SouthCarolinaInstituteof ArchaeologyandAnthropology, Universityof SouthCarolina,Columbia.
Gramly,RichardM.
1980 Raw Materials Source Areas and "Curated"Tool
Assemblages.AmericanAntiquity45:823-833.
Gruhn,Ruth
1988 LinguisticEvidencein Supportof the CoastalRoute
of EarliestEntryIntothe New World.Man 23:77-100.
1994 ThePacificCoastRouteof InitialEntry:An Overview.
In Methodand Theoryfor Investigatingthe Peopling of
theAmericas,editedby RobsonBonnichsenandD. Gentry Steele, pp. 249-256. Centerfor the Study of the First
Americans,OregonStateUniversity,Corvallis.
Gruhn,Ruth,andAlan L. Bryan
1977 Los Tapiales: A Paleo-Indian Campsite in the
GuatemalaHighlands.Proceedingsof theAmericanPhilosophicalSociety 121(3):235-273. Philadelphia.
Hemmings,C. Andrew
1999 Fossil Hole Site Update.AucillaRiverTimes12:10.
Hurt,Wesley,Thomasvan der Hammen,andGonzaloCorreal
Urrego
1977 TheElAbraRockshelters,SabanadeBogota,Colombia, SouthAmerica Indiana UniversityMuseum,Occasional Papersand Monographs,No. 2, Bloomington.
Jackson,LawrenceJ.
1995 A Clovis Point Form South Coastal Chile. Current
Researchin the Pleistocene 12:21-23.
Jaimes,Arturo
1999 Nuevasevidenciasde cazadores-recolectores
y aproximaci6nal entendimientodel uso espacio geograficoen
el noroccidentedeVenezuela.Sus implicacionesen el contexto saramericano.Arqueologia del Area Intermedia
1:83-120.
Johnson,Michael
1998 The CactusHill Site (44SX202) and its Implication
for the EarlyPeoplingof the Southeast.Paperpresented
at the 63rdAnnualMeeting of the Society for American
Archaeology,Seattle.
Laming-Emperaire,Annette, Andr6 Prous, A. Vilhena de
Moraes,andMariaBeltrio
1975 GrottesetAbrisde la Regionde Lagoa Santa,Minas
Gerais Bresil: Premier Rapport de la Mission
Archeologique Franco-Bresilienne de Lagoa Santa.
Cahiersd'Arch6ologied'Am6riquedu Sud,No. 1. EPHE,
Paris.
Lynch,ThomasF.
edited
1983 ThePaleo-Indians.
InAncientSouthAmericans,
by Jesse D. Jennings,pp. 87-137. W.H. Freeman,San
Francisco.
321
2001 On the RoadAgain ... Reflectionson MonteVerde.
TheReviewofArchaeology.22:3943.
McAvoy,JosephM., andLynnD. McAvoy
1997 ArchaeologicalInvestigationsof Site 44SX202, Cactus Hill, Sussex County,Virginia(VirginiaDepartmentof
HistoricResources,ResearchReportSeries,No. 8, Sandston,Virginia.
Mandryk,CaroleA. S.
2001 The Ice-FreeCorridor(or not?):An InlandRouteby
Any OtherName is not so Sweet norAdequatelyConsidered. In On Being First: CulturalInnovationand EnvironmentalConsequencesof FirstPeopling,editedby Jason
Gillespie, Susan Tupakka, and Christy de Mille, pp.
575-588. ChacmoolSeries.ArchaeologicalAssociation
of
the Universityof Calgary,Calgary.
Mayer-Oakes,WilliamJ.
1986a El Inga:A Paleo-IndianSite in the Sierraof NorthernEcuador.Transactionsof theAmericanPhilosophical
Society,Vol. 76, Part4. Philadelphia.
1986b EarlyMan ProjectilePoints andLithicTechnology
in the EcuadorianSierra.In New Evidencefor the PleistocenePeoplingoftheAmericas,editedbyAlan L. Bryan,
pp. 133-156. Centerfor the Studyof EarlyMan, University of Maine,Orono.
Meltzer,DavidJ., DonaldK. Grayson,GerardoArdila,Alex W.
Barker,Dena F. Dincauze, C. Vance Haynes, Francisco
Mena, LautaroNufiez, andDennis J. Stanford
1997 On the PleistoceneAntiquityof MonteVerde,Southern Chile.AmericanAntiquity62:659-663.
Morrow,JulietE.
1996 The Organizationof EarlyPaleoindianLithic Technology in the ConfluenceRegion of the Mississippi,Illinois,andMissouriRivers.UnpublishedPh.D.dissertation,
Departmentof Anthropology,WashingtonUniversity,St.
Louis.
Morrow,JulietE., andTobyA. Morrow
1999 GeographicVariationin Fluted ProjectilePoints:A
64:215-231.
HemisphericPerspective.AmericanAntiquity
O'Brien,MichaelJ., andR. Lee Lyman
2000 Applying EvolutionaryArchaeology:A Systematic
Approach.Kluwer,Academic/PlenumPublishers,New
York.
OchseniusClaudio,and RuthGruhn
1979 Taima-Taima:
A Late Pleistocene Paleo-IndianKill
SiteinNorthernmost
SouthAmerica.SouthAmericanQuaternaryDocumentationProgram,Germany.
Overstreet,David F., Daniel J. Joyce, andDavidWasion
1995 More on Cultural Contexts of Mammoth and
Mastodonin the SouthwesternLakeMichiganBasin.CurrentResearchin the Pleistocene 12:40-42.
Overstreet,David F, andThomasW. StaffordJr.
1997 Additionsto a Revised Chronologyfor Culturaland
Non-cultural Mammoth and Mastodon Fossils in the
SouthwesternLakeMichiganBasin. CurrentResearchin
the Pleistocene 14:70-71.
Pearson,GeorgesA.
1998 ReductionStrategyfor SecondarySourceLithicRaw
Materialsat Guardiria(Turrialba),9-FG-T, Costa Rica.
CurrentResearchin the Pleistocene 15:84-86.
1999 Isthmus Be Here Somewhere.AnthropologyNews
40(6):22.
2000 New Evidenceof EarlyBifacialIndustrieson theIsthmus of Panama CurrentResearch in the Pleistocene
17:61-63.
2002 Pan-ContinentalPaleoindianExpansionsand InteractionsAs ViewedFromThe EarliestLithicIndustriesof
322
LATIN AMERICAN ANTIQUITY
Lower CentralAmerica.UnpublishedPh.D. dissertation,
Departmentof Anthropology,Universityof Kansas.Electronic version at http://www.ukans.edu/-oar/phdweb/
pan.htm,accessed 05/08/03.
2004 Pan-AmericanPaleoamericanDispersalsandtheOrigins of FishtailProjectilePointsas SeenThroughtheLithic
Raw MaterialReductionStrategiesandTool Manufacturing Techniques at the GuardiriaSite, TurrialbaValley,
Costa Rica. In Pleistocene Pioneers: TheHumanSettlement of the American Continents,edited by C. Michael
Barton,GeoffreyA. Clark,GeorgesA.Pearson,andDavid
R. Yesner.Universityof ArizonaPress,Tucson,in press.
Pearson,GeorgesA., and PeterA. Bostrom
1998 A New Fluted Stemmed Point from Belize and its
PaleoindianCulture
Implicationfor a Circum-Caribbean
Area. CurrentResearchin the Pleistocene 15:84-86.
Pearson,GeorgesA, and RichardG. Cooke
2002 The Role of the PanamanianLandBridgeDuringthe
Initial Colonization of the Americas. Antiquity
76:931-932.
Prous,Andre
1986 Os Mais Antigos VestigiosArqueol6gicosno Brasil
Central(Estadosde MinasGerais,Goias e Bahia).InNew
Evidencefor the Pleistocene Peopling of the Americas,
edited by Alan L. Bryan,A. L., pp. 173-182. Centerfor
the Studyof EarlyMan, Orono.
Ranere,AnthonyJ.
2000 PaleoindianExpansion into TropicalAmerica:The
View from Panama.In ArchaeologicalPassages: A Volume in Honor of Claude N. Warren,edited by Joan S.
Schneider, Robert Yohe II, and Jill K. Gardner, pp.
110-122. PublicationsinArchaeology,No. 1,WestemCenter for Archaeologyand Paleontology,Hemet.
Ranere,AnthonyJ., and RichardG. Cooke
1991 PaleoindianOccupationin theCentralAmericanTropics. In Clovis:OriginsandAdaptations,editedby Robson
Bonnichsenand KarenL. Turmire, pp. 237-253. Center
for the Study of the FirstAmericans,Oregon State University,Corvallis.
[Vol. 14, No. 3, 2003]
1995 Evidencias de ocupaci6n humana en Panama a
postrimeriasdel Pleistocenoy a comienzosdel Holoceno.
In Ambitoy ocupaciones tempranasde la AmdricaTropical, editedby InesCavalierandSantiagoMora,pp.5-26.
Fundaci6nErigaie,InstitutoColombianodeAntropologia,
Bogota.
1996 Stone Tools and CulturalBoundariesin Prehistoric
Panama:An InitialAssessment.InPathsto CentralAmerican Prehistory,editedby FrederickW.Lange,pp.49-77.
UniversityPress of Colorado,Niwot.
2002 LateGlacialandEarlyHoloceneOccupationsof CentralAmericanTropicalForests.In Underthe Canopy:The
Archaeologyof TropicalRainforests,editedby JulioMercader,pp.219-248. RutgersUniversityPress,New Jersey.
Roche, Helen, andJacquesTixier
1982 Les Accidentsde Taille.In Tailler!Pour QuoiFaire:
Prehistoireet TechnologieLithiqueII, edited by Daniel
Cahen, pp. 65-76. Studia PraehistoricaBelgica Series,
No. 2, Musee Royale de l'AfriqueCentrale,Tervuren.
Santamaria,Diana
1981 PreceramicOccupationsat Los GrifosRock Shelter,
Ocozocoautla,Chiapas,Mexico.InX Congresodel Uni6n
Internacionalde CienciasPrehistoricasy Protohistoricas,
editedby JoaquinGarcia-BarcenaandFerando Sanchez
Martinez,pp. 63-83. Mexico.
Snarskis,MichaelJ.
A Paleo-IndianQuarryandWorkshopSite
1979 Turrialba:
in EasternCostaRica.AmericanAntiquity44:125-138.
Storck,PeterL.
1991 ImperialistsWithouta State:The CulturalDynamics
of PaleoindianColonizationas Seen fromthe GreatLakes
Region. In Clovis: Origins and Adaptations,edited by
RobsonBonnichsenandKarenL. Turnmire,pp. 152-162.
Centerfor the Studyof the FirstAmericans,OregonState
University,Corvallis.
SubmittedNovember11, 2002; AcceptedMay 16, 2003;
Revised May 28, 2003.