Journal of the Conductors` Guild

\Winter/Spring 1994
Volume 15 Number I
Journal of the
C o n d u c t o r s 'G u i l d
Table of Contents
COMMENTARY
1
DIMITRI MITROPOULOS: THE FORGOTTEN GIANT
by \ilflilliamTrotter
2
THE ARTS EXPERIENCE: A PRESCRIPTION FOR EDUCATION
by AlexanderBernstein
14
CONDUCTORS AND THE INTERNET: NE\r TOOLS FOR
COMMUNICATION AND INFORMATION EXCHANGE
by Andrew ReedLevin
re
AN INTRODUCTION
3L
TO THE THEORIES OF HEINRICH SCHENKER (PART II)
by PeterGibeau
BOOKS IN REVIE\$T
45
Arthur \fleisberg,PerformingTwentietb-Century
Music
reviewedby Henry Bloch
Norman Del Mar, ConductingBrabms
reviewedby Henry Bloch
christopher FiSf;
rrue Friend,A Biograpbyof HansRicbter
X::,r:;and
Richardffi:T
andanEpitogue
#;::!;f:::'Essavs
Heren','iIT.
:';::r:::'{;:lHis
LireinMusic
GIenda
* Downes: Music'Friendsb ip'criticisnt
?ffi?J ::r' ;K:i^j' ar:,!"?'
Barrv
A Guide
towagner's
LifeandMusic
lil'i::'#;i!,;Y::r':r?mpendium:
saraK'
Kinesthetic
Aspects
ofMusicat
Interpretation
i:ll*'r';:r:*i:Zi'^!:::
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Contributing Authors
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Kenneth Kiesler
Tania Le6n
Harlan D. Parker
Madeline Schatz
Kirk E. Smith
Leslie Stewart
JacquesVoois
Burton Zipser
Advisory Council
CharlesAnsbacher
SergiuComissiona
Lukas Foss
Daniel Lewis
DonaldPortnoy
Evan Vhallon
Michael Charry
Harold Farberman
SamuelJones
Maurice Peress
Gunther Schuller
Theodore Thomas Award Vinners
Maurice Abravanel
Leonard Bernstein
Margaret Hillis
Robert Shaw
Leon Barzin
Frederick Fennell
Max Rudolf
Sir Georg Solti
Alexander Bernstein
Kathryn Chilcote
Baird Hastings
Andrew Reed Levin
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Production
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Linco PrintingCo., Inc.
Tbe publication date of tbe present issue of the
JounNer oF THECoNouctons'Gurro is Summer, 1995;
consequentlythe publication date and the issuedate do
not coincide.
Effectiae Volurne 13, theJounNer oF THECoNoucToRS' Gurro has beenpublished semi-annually, tbe two
issuesbeing numbered 1 and 2; the seasonalreferences
rernain unchanged, as is the journal's lengtb.
The JCG's editors and staff, in eoaluating material
acceptedfor publication, aill determine appropriate
credit for such contributions.
Library of CongressNo. 82-644733
Copyright @1995 by the Conductors' Guild, Inc.
All rights reseraed. ISSN# 0734-1032
Commentary
In the summerof 1995 a survey was mailed to the
Conductors' Guild membership. One purpose of the
survey was to gatherstatisticalinformation on the members' perceptionsof the quality and usefulnessof existing publicationsand services;a secondgoal was to ascertain what new servicesmight be addedin the future.
While the Guild's Board of Directors is alreadyevaluating the results and incorporating members' suggestions into the organization'slong-rangeplans, it seems
appropriateto report and analyzethe resultsof that segment of the survey that dealt specifically with the JCG.
It is gratifying to learn that 86 % of the almost 500
"very" satisfied
were either "moderately" or
respondents
with the JCG as a Guild publication; likewise, 86%
"moderately" or "very" professionally
found the JCG
useful. The messagethat thesestatisticssendsto this editorial, researchand production staff is that by-and-large
we are producing a semi-annualscholarlyjournal which
is strongly appreciatedand valued by its readership.
The responseto potential new services related to
the JCG was equally impressive. 65% of the survey
respondentswere either moderately or very interested
in obtaining reprints of back issuescurrently not available for distribution. 65% expressedinterestin obtaining reprintsof all of the "Scores& Parts" columnscollectedfrom back issues. There was also significantinterestin making back issuesavailablein CD/ROM or
computerdiskettemedia. Beyond the items listed in the
survey, the staff hasdevelopedits own setof long-range
goals,which include:publishingextra issuesof the JCG
over the next two years so that by 1997, thepublication
datewill coincidewith the issuedate; doubling the number of library subscribersto the JCG by the turn of the
century;publishingtranslationsof germanearticlesfrom
leading internationalmusic journals; and expandingthe
variety of articles to addressall specializationsacross
the broad spectrumof professionalactivities of the JCG
readership.
Are thesegoals ambitious? Perhaps. Attainable?
"but" qualiWe believeso, but (one of thoseinfamous
fiers) only with the dedicationof a diligent editorial and
production staff and the ongoing cooperation of volunteer contributors who are prepared to assistwith the
solicitation, writing and editing of JCG articles and reviews. To this end a "Call for Area Editors and Contributors" was publishedin the last issue(Vol. 14, No.
2, p. 131). Up to that point in time, i.e., over the
fifteen years that this volunteer has served as editor of
the JCG,,there had never beena similar appealto which
"but," we
not a single reply or inquiry was received;
are astonishedto report, that is exactly what happened
to this appeal! To statethe matter simply: in order for
this journal to maintain and improve its current standards of quality, a consistentLevelof input from a significant number of readers/Guildmembersis required.
"Call for
Therefore,eachreaderis urged to re-visit the
Area Editors and Contributors" (p. 63 in this issue)to
determinein what area(s)you might be able to help, or
to contact the Guild office directly and offer your ser"area of expertise." As a
vices in your own special
member of a volunteer-basedorganization, it is incumbent - indeedcrucial - for you, the reader,to respond
to this call. For our part, we standready to give assistance and advice to help all JCG volunteers.
* { < * { < * r f t F { <
The current issue containsthree articles basedon
lecture sessionsfrom the 1995 Annual Conferencefor
Conductors,held in New York City in January. The
article by William Trotter, presented as part of the
Mitropoulos retrospective,offers a bittersweetportrait
of Dimitri Mitropoulos, a conductor who frequently,
"second
yet unfairly, has been relegatedto a
tier" status in late-twentieth-centuryAmerica. Alexander
Bernsteineloquentlycaptureshis uniqueperspectiveas
an educator, arts advocateand scion of the Leonard
Bernsteinlegacy in America in an article that provides
ample food for thought about our roles as leadersin the
artistic communities in which we live. Finally, Andrew Levin's introductionto the Internetpresentsjust a
glimpse of the extraordinary potential that this new
medium holds for professional communication and information-sharing access into the next century. The
final article is the secondinstallmentof Peter Gibeau's
"Introduction to the Theories of Heinrich Schenker."
As with the initial segment,the present installmentwill
need study if benefit and insights are to be gained. For
those who embracemusical analysis,availablephotocopies of the exampleswould eliminate page turning
and make the evaluation process more immediate and
reader-friendly.
The issueconcludeswith eight book reviews. Kudos to Henry Bloch, Kathryn Chilcote, Baird Hastings
and John Jay Hilfiger for their efforts in producing
insightful reviews of new books having varied subject matter that should be of interest to all
conductors. Ed.
JCG Vol. 15.No. l
Dimitri Mitropoulos:
The Forgotten Giant
bv Villiam R. Trotter
When Dimitri Mitropoulos died, on November 2. 1960. there were more than one hundred
Mitropoulos-ledperformancesin the American
record catalogues;a decadelater, only a dozen
remained.
o his death, Mitropoulos was
At the time of
n America and Europe, as one
regarded,both in
of the most important and influential interpretive musiciansever to work in the United States.
Yet sevenyears later, when critic Harold C.
Schonbergpublishedhis book entitled The Great
Conductors,Mitropoulos rated two lukewarm
paragraphs,no more.
And when the New York Philharmonic Orchestracelebratedits 150th birthday in 1992, and
every newspaperand magazinein New York devotedlots of ink to describingthat orchestra'slong
a n d d i s t i n g u i s h e dl i n e o f m u s i c d i r e c t o r s ,
Mitropoulos was mentioned - if indeed he was
"Leonard Bernstein's
mentionedat all - only as
rnentor""
None of the many articlesI read in 1992mentioned that in the early 1950's Mitropoulos was
regardedasthe saviorof the Philharmonic.the perfect choiceto modernizeits repertoryand energize
it from the doldrums into which the orchestrahad
sunk during the years following Toscanini'sdeparture"
Yet in L957,tormentedby chronicmisbehavior
on thepart of manyPhilharmonicmusicians,excoriated by an endlessbarrageof attacksby the critics, he resigned,almostin a stateof disgrace,and
wasreplacedby LeonardBernstein.Bernsteinhad
idolizedMitropoulosin his youth. yet for several
JCG Vol 15,No. I
yearsworked behindthe scenesto get Mitropoulos
fired and himself instated as head of the Philharmonic. With his heart broken, his health ruined,
Mitropoulos shiftedthe main focus of his activities
to Europe, where he died three years later while
rehearsingMahler's Third in Milan.
Thus it has come about, on the eve of the centennial of Dimitri Mitropoulos's birth, that he has
been almost totally forgotten, relegatedto the status of a footnote in the very land where he scored
his greatesttriumphs, and whose musical life he
enrichedbeyondmeasure.
That is certainly not the casein Europe, where
he is rememberedwith the sameawe as Toscanini
and Furtwdngler,and where his memory has been
honoredby the releaseof manv splendidlive perfbrmanceson compactdisc"
To measurethis fall from grace - a process
that has causednot only the man's reputationbut
to becomeonly
the very recordof his achievements
the dimmest wisp of cultural memory - and to
"next
understandhow a man once spokenof as the
Toscanini" could suffer such a fate, it might be
best to brief-lyoutline his American career.
He becamemusic director of the Minneapolis
guest
Symphonyin 1937,following two sensational
appearanceswith the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and remainedin that post until 1949. He transformed a decent provincial orchestrainto an ensemblethat rankedjust below the first tier of American symphonic organizations;and in the process
- often to the bewildermentof his good-natured
but basically conservativemid-westernaudiences
- he made Minneapolis an internationallyrecog-
nized center for contemporary music . John
Sherman,the Twin Cities best music critic and
author of a very fine history of the Minneapolis
Symphony, surnmarizedthe Mitropoulos era in
thesewords:
More than any other conductorbefore
him, he regardeda concertperformanceas
an act of faith and a spiritual necessity,a
high and holy rite whereby the public was
not so much entertainedas led to the mountain top.
And while someof the public. as time
went on, did not always want to climb the
peak, being of shorter wind than
Mitropoulos and much less eager for the
heights he had charted, they were acutely
aware of musical experiencesthe like of
which they had never undergone. There
wasa compulsionin this conductor'smusic
that could be acceptedor resisted,as the
casemight be, but never, ever, ignored.l
From his very first seasonin Minneapolis,Mitropoulossupported,not only morally but in many
cases,financially,dozensof musicianswho have
since becomemajor figures in their prof-ession"
They includedcomposerDavid Diamond and conductor LeonardBernstein,whose subsequentprofessionalefforts profoundly changedand immeasurablyenrichedAmerican musicalculture.
For a decade,beginningin 1949,he was either
music director or principal conductorof the New
York Philharmonic,and was also, for severalseasons, the most important conductor to appearat
the MetropolitanOpera. He gaveeither the world
or the United Statespremieresof more than one
hundred works, some of them now regardedas
amongthe most significantof the century:Mahler's
Sixth, Shostakovich'sTenth, SamuelBarber's
Vanessa,the symphonyof Anton Webern; the list
is both lone and distinsuished.
Against monolithic inertia and occasionaloutright hostility, he modernizedthe repertory of the
New York Philharmonicand made it, for the first
time in decades,an institution of immediateand
powerful relevance.And when he guestconducted
in Bostonand Philadelphia,he not only electrified
audiencesbut also won the passionatedevotion of
the hard-to-impressmusiciansin both orchestras.
Indeed.for a time the personnelof both the Philadelphiaand BostonorchestraswantedMitropoulos
for their next music director, but maneuversby
Ormandy in Philadelphiaand Koussevitzskyand
othersin Bostonpreventedany such appointment.
And so it was his fate to finish his American
careerin New York. where the very qualitiesthat
made him such a unique and radiant spirit - his
stubbornrefusal to play the publicity gamesboth
managementand the public seemedto want the
Philharmonic'sconductorto play, his naivebelief
in his "mission" to championdifficult andneglected
music, no matterwhat the box office consequences
might be, his inability to securedisciplinedbehavior and eventually even disciplined playing from
the long-suffering, truculent. unruly membersof
his orchestra- were the very qualitiesthat finally
causedhis downfall. Yet thosewho plottedagainst
him, when interviewedaboutthe mattermany years
later. often admitted that, in the words of lsaac
Stern, "there was an immensescope to him that
evenhis enemiesrecogntzed."2
Very well, then: what sort of a conductorwas
Dimitri Mitropoulos'l
An intenselykinetic and physicalone, to begin
with. Music historianRolandGellattdescribedhim
this way: ". . he conductswith his entire body.
When the music soars,he is a bird in flight; when
it droops,he huddlesas thoughbrokenin spirit""3
This mirroring of the music scoreand its changes
by meansof constantlyshifting physicalanalogies
was, for Mitropolous, spontaneous
and nafural, an
irrepressiblefunction of the tremendousinternal
dynamismthat possessed
him when he conducted.
On a strictly analyticallevel, though, Mitropoulos
JC-G Vol" 15, No. I
3
"odd," "highly
dium style as being
" "disturbingly indiunorthodox,
"strange."6 What
vidual" or simply
made it so was the involvement of
Mitropoulos'sentirebody. Whereas
the conductormost like him in style,
Leopold Stokowski, made it a rule
never to move from the waist down,
focusing all his powers through his
hands,arms, and face, MitroPoulos
usedhis head,eyes,shoulders,fists,
legs, waist, every Part of himself,
to contribute somethingto the visual
analogy he was creating. For listeners unused to such an athletic
style, their first sight of Mitropoulos
in action was an occasionfor amazement. Many of the verbal descriPtions tend toward the comic ("like a
Greek bartender frantically shaking
"
cocktails, wrote Winthrop Sargent
in The New Yorkefl), or laPse into
caricature,as though a Mitropoulos
performancewere somesort of Sran
mal setzure.
Nevertheless.when one was sitting in the orchestra,or eventodaY,
watching Mitropoulos on archival
video footage, one could see the
music passingthrough his bodY as
if by someprocessof superconductivity;you could
seehis conceptionof the music come into being,
dynamic, organic, recreative,flowing powerfully
f'rom his intellect and forming an intensely personalphysicalresponseto the informationcontained
"Watch me closely," he said to the
in the score.
BostonSymphonyplayers,when he first rehearsed
"and I will give yo\ everything."8
them in 1936,
After observing Mitropoulos during that rehearsal,Boston Globe critic Rudolph Elie wrote:
Dimitri Mitropoulos rehearsingKrenek's Third Piano Concerto
in Minneapolis, c. 1943
(photofrom the collection of Oliver Daniel)
"I wouldn't recomcandidly admittedthat while
mend that a conductordeliberatelymake his gestures with an audiencein mind, neverthelessit is
easierfor the audienceto understandthe meaning
of the music if the conductoris a bit of an actor."4
Until his doctor urged him to start using a baton, after his first heart attackin 1954, as a means
of conservingenergy, Mitropoulos always con"The baton can achieveenductedbare-handed.
semble," he would say when interviewers ques"but it cannot be as
tioned him about the matter,
expressiveas the handsand body."5
Reviewerafter reviewercommentedon his po4
JcG vol 15,No.l
He will live every part, personallydirect
the entranceof every voice, shapeand fo-
cus every phrase, build up every climax,
underscoreevery rhythm and blend all elementsof music togetherin unanimity and
concord, using every part of his body from
his headto his feet, and everybodywho sees
him knows preciselywhat he means.9
On the night of his debut with the Minneapolis
Symphony,January 29, 1937, the usually phlegmatic Twin Cities audienceturned into what one
eyewitnessdescribedas "an excitedmob."
Here's what critic John Shermanwrote in his
morning-afterreview:
Mitropoulos appearedto be a fanatic
who had sold his soul to music and conductedthe orchestralike a man possessed.
Bald, lithe, andrawboned,he explodedfrom
the wings, walked to the rostrum with the
loose-limbedlope of a professionalhiker,
spreadhis long arms and tapering fingers
in a mesmericgesture.
With the first downbeat he started
punching the air barehanded,unleashinga
weird repertoire of frenzied gesturesand
scowls and grimacesthat registeredevery
emotion from terror to ecstasy. His quivering frame and flailing fists gave the picture of a man quaking with a peculiarly vital and rhythmic form of palsy. It was as if
the music were an electric current that
passedthroughhis body to make it jerk and
vibrate.
This wasmusic so full of blood, muscle,
and nerves as to seem alive and sentient,
and bearingunmistakableovertonesof great
thought and abiding spirit.lo
Needlessto say, this vibratory, sometimeswild
style took some getting used to, even by the most
willing of orchestralmusicians. In a Minneapolis
rehearsalof one especiallytricky and rhythmically
complex modern score, one of the players raised
his hand and said: "Maestro, tell me, at this point
do we come in on the fourth beat - is that an upbeat sign you're giving us or is it a sidewaysmo"
tion of your head? I i
Mitropouloshonestlycouldn't answerthe question. He scratchedhis head fbr a moment, then
responded:"Look, never mind how my beat is. If
you don't comein, it's my fault, and you shouldn't
worry about it. The conductor has to do it by
telepathy,and if that telepathydoesn'twork, then
it's the sender'sfault, not the receiver's"" 12 Sometimes, he would move beyondan especiallytroublesomepassageby saying: "Never mind - we'll understandeachother when this time comesduring the
performance,"13 and more often than not, they did.
It must be admittedthat for all the excitement
of his best concerts, there were times when Mitropoulosover-conducted. Seldomwas a piece of
music,howevermodestits scopeor uncomplicated
its historical style, simply allowed to speakfor itself. Everything was focusedthrough the lens of
the conductor's personality
in Mitropoulos's
case, through his very soul
and that could at
times result in performancesthat were so violently
personalas to prevent the original intentionof the
music from coming throughon its own terms. This
was what madehim a superbconductorof modern
and late-Romanticmusic, a quirky, eccentricand
often inadequateconductorof Mozart and Brahms.
But then, the musicalworld is and alwayshasbeen
full of sporadicallyinterestingBrahmsconductors,
but Mitropoulos virtues were much, much rarer
and more precious.
There was one additional attribute that distinguished Mitropoulos from other conductors:he
memorizedevery score, not only before he led the
performance, but before the first rehearsal whetherit was the 200,000 notesin a Mozart symphony or the more than one million notes of a
Mahler symphony. This self-imposeddiscipline
required enormous extra effort and time, and the
JCG Vol 15. No l
cumulative strain of forcing himself to do this undoubtedly contributed to his declining health during his New York tenure.
To casualinterviewers,Mitropoulos had a glib
"You don't expectan
answeras to why he did this:
actor to come on stageto play Hamlet while still
carryingthe script.'|4 Maybe so, but no onewould
have thought twice about it when it cameto works
of the lengthand complexity of Woueck or Elektra.
The reasonfor this compulsionto memorizeeven
the most difficult scorescame from someplace deep
in the conductor'spsyche:when he led a successful
performance,he never spokeof the accomplishment
"Yes, that was a good perforby saying simply,
"a greatmoral victory,"
mance." Instead,it was
"a spiritualtriumph," or even "a gift from God."
Consideringthe staggeringamountof time and
mental energy required to memorrze a score such
as Wozzeck,oneencountersin Mitropoulos a deep
current of self-abnegation,perhapseven of masochism. It was notfun to memorizethosescores.
But for him, the act of performing music was not
just a symbolic mountain climb, a simple act of
achievement.It could also be an act of expiation.
It seemedto those who knew him well that the
more difficult and demandingthe score, the more
sleeplesshours of study demandedof him to master it, the greaterthe sacrifice required to do justice to the music, the more satisfactionDimitri derived from the purging rite of actual performance.
After observingMitropoulosfor twelve years,both
personallyandprofessionally,critic John Sherman
concludedthat this entire memorization ritual con"a
stituteda kind of willing self-immolation, duty
the gifted must assume,aspaymentfor being gifted,
"
and as an exampleto the world around them. 15
Dimitri did not, as was sometimessaid, have
"a photographicmemory" - it was simply a matter of training his mind, over decadesof struggle,
the way an athletewould train his body. Over and
over again,the composersinterviewedfor my book
remarkedon the fact that, by the time Mitropoulos
beganthe first rehearsalof one of their composi6
J CG v ot 15 .N o . l
tions, the conductorknew the scorebetterthan they
did. To understandhow Mitropoulos viewed the
conductingprofessionand his role as a successful
conductor,it is necessaryto refer to a spiritualcrisis that occurredduring his adolescence.The Mitropoulosfamily was intenselyreligious - two of
his uncles were respectedprelates in the Greek
Orthodox hierarchy - and the young Dimitri was
the most devoutpilgrim of the lot. As a youth, he
spentmuch time in retreat among the monasticcommunities on Mt. Athos, he sought out hermits and
"pastor" of a group
mystics, he even becamethe
of neighborhoodchildren, to whom he would give
impromptu sermons. He slept on stonefloors, ate
coarseblack bread with the monks and hermits,
and talked incessantlyabout spiritual matters.
Part of what made a monk's life so appealing
to him was, in fact, thesedenialsof creaturecomforts. Mitropoulos was intensely- mystically drawn toward an early Christian ideal of self-sacrifice that tendedto embraceeven the extremesof
self-denialand discomfort, a medievalproposition
that one's spirirualstrengthgrows greaterin direct
proportionto one's denial of the flesh. There is no
questionbut that this sameimpulse, when it manifesteditself in later decades,sometimesvergedon
outright masochism. But for the adolescentpilgrim seekinga purer existenceand feeling himself
inexorablydrawn toward a very personalvision of
God, the ideal of monasticlife was quite romantic
in its appeal- especiallyin the setting of Athos,
so isolated from the outside world that it might as
well have been in an alternativeuniverse.
So the young Mitropoulos was at a crossroads.
In one direction lay music, which fulfilled him as
no other human activity could; in the other direction lay either the priesthoodor the life of a monk.
So before wholly committing himself once more to
the Athens Conservatory, he attemptedto find out
if there were not some way to combine the two
callings.
At the climax of this internalcrisis, Mitropoulos
had what must have been a truly Dostoyevskian
dialogue with a member of the Greek Orthodox
hierarchy. This personwas not one of his uncles,
or at leastwas never identified by Mitropoulos as
such,but he may well havebeena trustedspiritual
advisor to whom the uncles directed this young
pilgrim. Mitropoulos gave identical accountsof
the event in dozensof interviews:
He openedthe dialogue by describing
his love for music and his belief in its spiritual power; yet he also confessedthat he
was drawn, with equal force, toward the
ideal of monasticlife. He soughtsomeassurancethat this might not be an either/or
choice, that the Church might steer him to
a religious careerthat could accommodate
both of his passions.
No, said his advisor. Although the
Greek Orthodox Church has a heritage of
vocal music that is vastand glorious, it permits no musicalinstrumentsin its services.
Surely the Church would not mind if he
pursuedmusic on his own, in his free time,
Mitropoulos countered"
That, too, would not be possible,replied the priest. The Church allows no
musical instrumentson sacredground.
Mitropoulos respondedthat he would be
content if he could just have a little
harmoniumin his cell"
Not even a harmonium,said the priest.
"I knew
then," the conductor later recalled in numerousinterviews, "that I just
could not do rt."l6
But he did find a way to combine these seemingly contradictorychoices. He broughtto the po-
dium a senseof religious dedication,a fierce and
uncompromisingzeal on behalf of music he deemed
unjustly neglectedor that othersdeemedtoo difficult; and over the years, as he strove to fulfill this
mission, he pared down his lifestyle to the severe and essential,seldompartakingof the comforts and perquisiteshis statusand salary entitled
him to.
And if commentatorsor colleagueschoseto refer
to him as "monkish." he did not mind in the least.
During a trip to Rome in the summerof 1912,
Dimitri discoveredhis ideal and lifelong inspiration: St. Francisof Assissi- perhapsthe one man
in the history of Christianity who cameclose,for a
time, to turning the Christian ideal into a reality.
In the storiesaboutthe young Francis,who was
a minstrel, a party-goer and a rake before he got
religion, Dimitri recognizedthe sametensionbetween flesh and spirit that tormented himself.
Both men had a strong streak of carnality, which
both suppressed.This tensionbecamethe dynamo
that fueled Dimitri's accomplishments:for most of
his adult life, he channeledeverything into his
music-making,even as Francis learnedto subordinate everythingto faith. Already, by mid-adolesc e n c e ,M i t r o p o u l o s h a d a c q u i r e d a b e d r o c k
Franciscanbelief in the value of sacrificeand the
comparativeworthlessness
of worldly goods, the
sameideal of a dedicatedand thereforenecessarily
austerelifestyle. Dimitri gave himself to music,
allowedhimself to becomepossessedbyit, in much
the same way as Francis gave himself to Christ.
And there would be many occasions,when he was
fired with zeal to communicate the essenceof
some new and difficult composition,that the conductor must have envied St. Francis preachingto
the birds.
This conductor's manner of working with an
orchestraalsoderivedfrom his studyof St. Francis,
particularlythe eighthFranciscanpreceptsetdown
in 1215 in a "letter to the faithful," and entitled:
"How Those
Who CommandShouldbe Humble^"
It reads,in part:
.lCC Vol. 15.No. I
Anyone who has the right to give orders
"the greater should
should remember that
be as the lesser;" he shouldbe a servantto
his brothersand deal with them mercifully,
as he would wish to be treatedif he were in
their place. Nor should he rage againsta
brother who sins, but patiently and kindly
counselhim and helPhim.17
In a 1956 interview, the conductorexpounded
on his Franciscancreed:
I havealwaysfound peaceof mind and soul
- to whateverextent we can achievethis
state- by likewise striving at all times as I
would have others strive. by acting as I
would have others act. Francis taught me
that to cajole or threatenis never as effective as to set an exampleyourself.l8
Neither Mitropoulos nor Francis was an especiallypracticalman, but Francisat leastlived in
an age when such impracticality could be valued
on its own medieval terms. Dimitri, however,
reachedmaturity in an era in which true humility
and open spiritual commitment made some orchestralpersonneluneasyanddrew from them scorn
and ridicule, especiallyfrom the hard-bittenand
frequentlyill-used men of the New York Philharmonic, who tendedto take grossadvantageof any
conductor who drd not tyrannically threatenand
cajole them. It was easier to be God's fool in
twelfth-century Umbria than in twentieth-century
Manhattan.
When young musiciansaskedMitropoulos for
advice about how to becomea conductor.his answer was often not to their liking: by all means
study conducting,he would say, but only because
it witl makeyou a more completemusician. If you
areconsumedby ambition to becomea famousconductor, you are embarkedon a quest for power,
ratherthana questfor musicalexcellence,andthat'
"a devastatingthing."
he said, could be
8
J CG v ol 1 5 , N o . I
"Not many conductorsare needed,really,"
"but good
he admonishedone young supplicant,
musicians, on the other hand, are always
.'19
needed
The philosophical foundation from which the
Greek conductoroperated,his very deepestprinciples, precludedtreating any orchestra,even the
Philharmonicat its surliestand most intractable,in
a tyrannicalmanner. For Mitropoulos, sucha posture would be patentlyhypocritical. unsustainable,
and eventuallywould be recognizedas suchby his
musicians. For better or worse, he was trapped
within his own philosophicalprinciplesno lessthan
within the innate gentlenessof his character" That
his beliefsand personalitycould leavehim terribly
vulnerablewas somethinghe understoodearly in
his careerand acceptedwithout reservation.
Indeed, throughout his professionallife, Mitropouloscarriedtwo quotationsin his wallet. One
"God grant that I
of coursewas from St. Francis:
may seek rather to comfort than to be comforted,
to understandrather than to be understood,and to
"
love rather than be loved. The other was from
"If
Socrates: I must choosebetweendoing an Injustice and being unjustly treated,I will choosethe
"
latter.
How this philosophy related to the daily routine of conductinga major orchestrawas addressed
by Mitropoulos in an interview given soonafter he
movedto New York in 1949:
A conductor does not stand alone on the
podium - he can move his listenersonly if
he has previously comprehendedeachmusicianas an individual human being, at the
sametime he leads the orchestra as an entity. I believe he can do this only if he
stepsdown from the podium and communicatesto his musiciansthe feeling that he is
not a dictatorbut an apostle. A great interpretationrepresentsa communaleffort, and
in no casedoesit move from the conductor's
batonto a pack of subjugatedslaves. Onty
when the conductormakesan obeisance full of love to every musician, only when he showsan openheartedinterestin eachmusician's
psychologicaland personal situation. can he make the orchestrathe
true medium for the composer's
message.Only in this mannercan
he hope to carry the audiencealong
with him and establish communication. In the history of music,
there are only two types of conductor: the tyrant and the colleague.
For myself, I chooseto be the second type.20
jiliililttiii,
:i:i1::it):itt::t:l:l
When Mitropoulos spoke of "an
obeisancefull of love to every musician," he was venturing into metaphor
as well as metaphysics. In numerous
interviews, Dimitri revealed the repressedsensualside of his nature in
his often startlingly explicit references
to the sublimated sexuality of a
conductor's relationship with an orchestra- that the leader and the muDimitri Mitropoulos backstageprior to a New York Philharmonic
sicians engaged in a form of interconcert, c. 1956 (photo by Aram Avakian)
course, which in effect produced a
"child," in
the form of the musical
apolis, they did. In New York, even among the
performance itself. Each musr give to the other,
many Philharmonic players who understoodfull
he would say; like a skillful lover, the conductor
well what Mitropouloswas trying to do and why,
attemptsto draw forth the innermost responsesof
the responsewas often grudging and tainted with
the ensemble,and the players respondwith musictough-guycontempt.
making that surpassestheir ordinary level of comMitropouloswas never, ever, a hypocrite. In
mitment. From the procreative heat of this exa professionnoted for the inflated egosof its pracchangesprings a great interpretation.
titioners,Mitropoulos was capableof writing these
By working with his orchestrafrom thesemoral
words to composerLeon Kirchner:
and philosophicalbases,Dimitri believedhe was
not only being true to his own nature but also that
I wish you good luck in your new conducting
he was furnishing an exampleof total commitment,
assignmentsand that you also get the detotal devotion. He took it as a given that intellilight of that unusual and cowardly profesgent, sensitivemusicianswould understandthis
sion - to lead other peopleto play for you
and respondin kind. For the most part in MinneJCG Vol. 15,No. l
and perform compositionsthat are written
by others. That is why most peopleprefer
to be conductorsrather than composersor
instrumentalists.In spiteof everythingthat
you may musteras an argument,there will
always remain this one thing: that with a
it is the
little personalityand salesmanship,
easierway out to be a conductor. I always
realizedthis fact. That is why I never deat being promoted
nied my embarrassment
by the fatesor destinyto follow this profession. One cannotbe humbleenoughbefore
such a privilege of getting glory and acclaim, not only from using someoneelse's
emotions,but alsofrom having someoneelse
to expressthem for you.21
Interestinglyenough,however,therewere times
when Mitropoulos spoke of his professionin the
most down-to-earth manner. In one interview,
"Well,
given during the late 1940s,he remarked:
the conductor'sjob is not really that much different from a prostitute's" It consistsof performing
to make other people happy, ro matter how you
feel yourself . . . and then passingrhe hat."22
Given the conductor'sphilosophicalstance.it
follows that many Mitropoulos concertswere some"A concert is
times challengingfor his listeners.
"a
not a placeto relax," he often said; good audiencelistenshard."23
In Minneapolis,the intenserelationshipbetween
the community and the conductor was so strong
that Mitropoulos was able to program numerous
challengingworks in spiteof oppositionfrom some
membersof the board and management. Except
for the truly calcifiedreactionaries,the Minneapolis audiencelearnedto acceptthe experienceof hearing new andchallengingmusic. They took pride in
their city's internationalreputationfor being culturally progressive,even if the price for that stimulation was occasionalbafflementor irritation. The
audiencegenerally cameto terms with the fact that
their conductorwas a missionary,not an entertainer,
10
JCG vol 15.No.I
and most were agreeableto the situation because
of the high drama Mitropoulos brought to whatever he conducted. But friction occurred on different nights for different people. Mitropoulos was
"on," but there were nights when eventhe
always
most tolerant of listenerssimply did not feel like
following him to the mountaintop, when even listeners with broad taste and high intelligencejust
wanted to sit there and be diverted, taken out of
themselvesfor two hours.
In New York, the friction between the conductor's compulsionto be a missionaryon behalf
of neglectedmusic ran head-oninto the realitiesof
attitude
the box office and the impossible-to-please
of an audiencemore spoiled and fickle than any on
earth. By the mid-1950s matters reachedsuch a
point that patronswould approachthe CarnegieHall
box office and inquire about the length of the new
or novel compositionon the program that evening.
If the piecewere more than ten minuteslong, most
of them turned away.
To assessjust how fickle and hard-to-please
the CarnegieHall audiencetruly was, or how recalcitrantthe Philharmoniccould be, considerthe
tale of Mitropoulos's performanceof Webern's
Symphony,Op. 2L, in Januaryof 1950.
When word got out in the music community
that Mitropoulos was going to have the Philharmonic learn the Webern piece, a large number of
eomposersand academics,John Cage included,
attendedthe open rehearsalsas well as the performance. According to Milton Babbitt, nearly half
the orchestrasection of Carnegie Hall was full
of listenersat the start of the first rehearsal. Everything went well until Mitropoulos startedworking on the Webern piece. When askedto begtn,
many of the players made facesand rude noises,
and someminutesinto the score,the Philharmonic's
cantankerousharpist picked up his part, walked
forward to the podium, flung the music angrily
at the conductor'sfeet, then stalkedoff the stage.
In the icy silence that followed, Mitropoulos
turned to the dark auditorium, his shouldersslumped
and an expressionof bewilderedpain on his face.
He spreadhis handsimploringly and said: "What
can I do?"
The harpist was persuaded,for the good of the
orchestra,to put up with the Webern piece - all
ten minutes of it - and the performancewent on
as scheduled. In a monumentalexercisein bad
psychology, however, the author of the Philharmonic program notes warned the audiencethat it
"probably hasnever
beenaskedto listen to a more
exactingcomposition,in the whole 180-yearhistory of the Society."24 Not surprisingly, there
was much fidgeting and grumbling in the audience
during the performance- one man yelled "No!"
so loudly that hundredsof headsturned in his direction. At the end there were hissesand boos
aplenty, which only causedthe more progressive
pocketsof listenersto applaudmore vigorously.
W h e n t h i s d e m o n s t r a t i o nc a l m e d d o w n ,
Mitropouloscameout and tried to cleareveryone's
palate with the lush melodies and billowing climaxesof the RachmaninoffSymphonicDances.
After the final tam-tamcrashthat endsthe work,
composerMilton Babbitt rushedbackstageto congratulatethe conductoron his Webernperformance.
Babbitt was startledto reahzethat the applausefor
the Rachmaninoffwas scarcely fuller or more enthusiasticthan that which had greetedthe Webern
- exactly, and perversely,the oppositeof the effect he would havepredicted. Backstage,he found
Mitropoulos in a state of icy rage. drawing tightlipped on his cigarette and gesturing furiously in
the direction of the audience.
"You
see?"he cried to Babbitt, "They don't
even llke that s-!"25
There can be no doubt that, from time to time
and increasingly in New York as the years of burdensomeroutine took their toll, the conductor's
internal compasslost its bearings, and he offered
programs that amountedto ill-judged pot-pourris
ratherthan coherentconcepts.A casein point was
a concert on October 29, 1953. The program's
secondhalf began with Schonberg'slong, tumes-
cent tone poem Pelleas und Melisande - a work
that needsall the help a conductor can give it. Then,
for someunfathomablereason,Mitropoulos chose
to segue into some tacked-on excerpts from de
Falla's La Vida Brevet. The effect was to dilute
utterly the impact of the Schonbergby "throwing
in" what thoughtful listeners might have regarded
as a quick, cheapsop to the hoi polloi. The entire
program, which would have been perfectly proportionateif Mitropoulos had just stoppedwith the
Schonbergcomposition, was renderedunbalanced
and compromised.
On anotheroccasion,he choseto prefacea performanceof Mahler's Sixth with Morton Gould's
flashy and colorful Showpiecefor Orchestra, and
the critics blastedhim for it. Not only did Gould's
frothy diversion get perceptually crushed by the
Mahler juggernaut, but by juxtaposing it against
the Austriancomposer'sapocalypticseriousness
and
lofty metaphysical content, Mitropoulos unfairly
made a well-craftedpiece of light music seemincredibly tacky.
Part of the problem was that Mitropoulos
seemedto regard each composition as a discrete
entity to be performed and digested by the audience as a "thing-unto-itself," not necessarilyrelated to what came before or after it, either on the
sameevening or within the context of a whole season" He did not sit down and methodicallyplan a
whole seasonarounda singletheme,a singleschool,
a single composer. His programscould be didactic, lopsided, even hectoring in their weight and
juxtaposition. If three obscureor neglectedworks
happenedto take his fancy on a given week, then
the audiencewould hear all three, bim-bam-boom.
If the majority of his listeners happenedto be on
the same wavelength as the conductor, so much
the better. If not, too bad.
But there was a missionary's purpose in this
scattergunapproach, one which perhapstoday we
can appreciatemore than his contemporaries. Mitropoulos was fighting against the "ghettoization"
of the new and the unfamiliar. He instinctively
JC G V ol . 15.No. I
11
saw where it could lead - where in fact it HAS led
in today's boring, abysmal,self-defeatingemphasis on the tried and true - and he felt morally
obligatedto opposethe phenomenon.
For all their eccentricity, his programs were
driven by a coherentpurpose: to presenta crosssectionof all the different musicalstylesof his time.
Lacking precognition as to which styles and individual works would make the historical cut, and
lackingthe arrogancethat presumesone's personal
aesthetictaste will coincide with the verdicts of
history and consensus,Mitropoulos knew that inevitably someof the music he conductedwould be
marginalor ephemeral. But at leastit would have
a hearing. Too many conductorsand orchestra
managershad already adoptedthe circular, selfdefeatingattitudethat the public wants to hear only
the proven canon of masterpiecesor the relatively
small number of contemporary works that had,
through dint of repetition, gained acceptance. An
"MasterpiecesOnly" syndrome
outgrowth of the
of Toscanini, this attitudeholds that if a piece of
music is not already listed in the circumscribed
canon, it must not, ipso facto, be any good, so
therefore why waste time and energy performing
it? By the mid-1980s, the argumentsagainst
Mitropoulos' erraticbut enthusiasticallyopen-armed
programming philosophy had triumphed, and the
"MasterpiecesOnly" syndromewere
effectsof the
clear for all to see:aging, dwindling concertaudiences,and a possibleterminal decline, not only in
the cultural importance of the overplayed masterpieces,but in the level of inspiration and vitality
that char acterrzedtheir interpretation.
Ironically, today's music lovers can only feel
greatenvy for the listenersin Minneapolisand New
York. What a contrast Mitropoulos provides to
the bland, predictableprograms that are today's
norm! What a contrasthis zeal and advocacypose
to the music directors who, whether through intellectual laziness or capitulation to the knownothingismof their local boards, seemto have infinitely lessknowledgeof accessibletwentieth-cen12
JCG vol 15,l,{o.I
tury repertoire than does any moderately experiencedrecord collector.
What's more, if Dimitri Mitropoulos gave his
audiencesheavydosesof Krenek, Schonberg,Sessions and Boris Blacher, he also gave them new
and unfamiliar works by Vaughan-Williams,
Mahler, Gould, Diamond, Malipiero, Respighi,
Prokofiev, Shostakovich,Milhaud and a host of
other eminently listenablecomposers,music which
requires,when you come right down to it, no more
from an audiencethan the willingness to stretch
one's tastebuds, the samespirit of adventurethat
makesChineserestaurantsso popular.
Can anyone today seriously maintain that
Dimitri's programmingphilosophy,for all its fretful asymmetryand restlessness'was not better for
the institution of music as a whole than today's
suffocating emphasis on the same One Hundred
Masterpieces,with its gradual effect of debasing
both the masterpiecesand the very act of concertgoing itselfl
In the time allotted in this forum, I cannotcover
more than a few aspectsof this fascinating man's
tragic career. A fulI discussionof Mitropoulos
would have to expoundon his incrediblegenerosity to others, his numberlessand always private
acts of charity and support, his soaring post-war
reputationin Europe(ironically somewhatconcomitant with the deterioration of his situation in New
York), the venom and spite of many of the critics,
his strangely skewed and disappointing legacy of
studiorecordings,and the torment and wlnerability
he enduredbecauseof his sexualorientation. For
a fuIl discussionof thosematters,as well as a season by seasonchronicle of his triumphs and failures, I refer you to my book, Priest of Music: The
Ltfe of Dimitri Mitropottlos, which will be published in Octoberby AmadeusPress.
Let me close, instead,by offering three snapshotstaken from the hundredsof hours of tapedinterviews that formed the foundation for the research.
To illustrate his missionary role at its finest,
here is violist Harry Zaratzian'sdescriptionof how
he compelledthe Philharmonic to understanda work
that virtually every player hated on first acquaintance. The occasionwas his triumphant 1951concert performanceof Wozzeck.
He astonishedeveryoneby showingup fbr
the first rehearsal with the whole thing
memorized. At that first rehearsal,I hated
it. What sort of piece was this? What was
so greataboutit? How canyou tell if you're
playing the right notes? I thoughrthe score
was crazy and I thought I was going to go
crazy trying to play it. My God, why do
we have to learn this stuffl And then, it
graduallybeganto happen. Dimitri began
to explainhow it was all put together,what
eachdetailmeant,just patientlyuntying the
knots in the score. By the third rehearsal,I
was really starting to understandit - and I
could tell the other players were going
through the sarneprocess. And by the time
we actuallyperformedit, I thoughtWoueck
was one of the greatestpieces ever composed. Dimitri's ability to explicateand
de-mystify these complex modern scores
wasjust unbelievable"26
Here is what sopranoFrancesGreer recalledabout
one concertshe sangunder his leadership:
elderly woman came backstageand graspedMitropoulosin a familiar hug as he was on his way to
his dressingroom. After a moment's hesitation,
the conductorreturnedher embracewith a smile of
recognition. It transpiredthat this woman was from
Greece and had been a lonstime friend of the
Mitropoulosfamily.
"Dimitri,"
she said happily, "you recognized
me!" Turning to the room-at-large,she gestured
expansivelyand announced:"I haven't seenhim
sincethe days of the priests! You know that as a
young man he went and lived on Mount Athos!"
Turning back to the conductor, she wagged her
finger remonstrativelyat him. "Look at you now!
And you were supposedto becomea priest! What
"
happened?
Mitropoulos smiled broadly and pointedto the
podium: "Well, here I am. and there is
my pulp1t""28
G
rF r|< ,k *
rl€ ,F ,k ,k
William R. Trotter is a writer, editor and music critic whose recent books include A FnozBn
HBr,r: TuE Srony oF THERusso-FrNNrsH
Wln or,
1939-1940 (Algonquin Books, 1991)and Wnrnn
FrnE (8. P. Dutton, 1993),a novel based on the
life of Jean Sibulius. His latest book, PRrnsr or,
Muslc: THs Lmr op DnrarrnlMmRopouI.os,was
published in October, 1995by AmadeusPress.
rF rf *( >F {€ *€ rk rl€
The first time I actually looked at Mitropoulos during a performance,during a
passagein which I was not active, it was as
thoughhe hadbeentransformed.He wasn't
the sameman I knew sociallyor in rehearsals or backstage. His demeanor,his aspect, all of him, was transcendental. It
seemedto me that he was exposinghis spirit,
his very soul, and it was so compellingand
so personalthat I could not continueto look
at him. It was like starins at the sun.27
4 Gelart,p. 31.
And finally, after a concertin Minneapolis,an
5 Trotter, William R., Priest of Music: The Lift of Dimitri
Mitropoulos (Portland:AmadeusPress, 1995),p. 70.
ExnNorBs
1 Sh..-an,
John, Music and Maestros: The Story of the
Minneapolis SymphonyOrchestra (Minneapolis: University
of MinnesotaPress.1953),p. 277.
2 lruu"Stern, tape-recordedinterview
by Oliver Daniel. August25, 1985"
3 G.lutt, Roland,Music Makers (New York: Alfred
A. Knopf,
1 9 5 3 )p
, . 37.
JCG Vol. 15, No. I
13
6 Trotter, p. 7 L euotes excerptedfrom numerousreviews.
7 Srg.nt, Winthrop,Review,TheNewYorker,Oct. 15, 1953'
19 Mitropoulos, Dimitri, "The Making of a Conductor,"
Etude, January, 1954
8 Trotter, p. 78.
20 Mitropolous, Dimitri, quoted by Apostolios Kostios in
"Der Dirigent Dimitri Mitropoulos," Ph.D. thesis, Univer-
9 Elie, Rudolph, Review, Boston Globe, July 7, 1944"
sity of Vienna, 1983.
10 Sherman, John, Review, Minneapolis Journal, January
g, 1938.
21 Di*itri Mitropoulosto Leon Kirchner, October31, 1955'
11 Sherman,John, Music and Maestros,p. 237.
22 Sargent,Winthrop, "Dimitri Mitropoulos," Lift Magazine, February 2, 1946"
12 Sherman,John, Music and Maestros, p. 237^
23 Sherman,John, Music and Maestros,p.281.
13 Trotter, p. 108.
24 Trotter,p.293.
1 4 T r ot t . r , p. ll2.
25 Milton Babbitt, interview by Oliver Daniel, March 18,
r985.
15 Sherman,John, Music and Maestros, p. 277^
16 T.ott. r , p. 29.
26 Harry Zaratzian interview by Oliver Daniel, December
12, 1984.
l 7 T r o t t e r ,p . 3 2 .
27 Francis Greer, interview by Oliver Daniel, October 15,
1983"
18 Mitropoulos, Dimitri, "What I Believe," Hi-Fi Music at
Home, May-June, 1956.
28 Trotter, p. 171.
The Arts E*perience:
A Prescription for Education
by Alexander Bernstein
Thefollowing article is derivedfrom an editedtranscription of a lecturegiven on January 6, 1995at
the Conductor'sGuild Annual Conference'held at
Columbia (Jniversityin I'{ewYork City'
,<?kt<isrk?kJ
Over the past couple of years,as I have come
out of the practiceof arts educationand into that of
arts advocacy,I have been both gladdenedand
puzzledby the generalagreementamong people I
talk to that the arts are, in fact, a good thing in education. No one from any political, economicor vo14
JCG vol 15,No.I
eational quarter argues otherwise. So what's our
problem? The argumentstend toward constraints
of budget priorities, time for teachersto plan and
train, and the problems inherent in assessingarts
curricula. Usually one receivesa condescending,
".We'd love to, but.
However,I wonderif that
is truly the whole story. I am starting to think that
maybe there exists in all of us a profound knowledge of the unique power the arts have in learning
- the power of the arts,period, and to many it is an
unnerving,dauntingpower. A child working in the
arts is creatinga deeply personaland unpredictable
world view. An engagedimaginationis capableof
(yikes!)independentthought. A teacherworking in
the arts is often not an expert - authority seems
diminished. A musician working in a school can
seemto posea threatto establishedmusic specialists. And I won't evengo into the questionof quantifiable assessment.You're welcome. My point is
that all of us heretoday are working within a structure which often seesart and its processesas not
only frivolous,but perhapssubversiveas well.
Allow me to get at this tangentially,if I may.
This will becomerelevantin due time, I promise. I
was speakingto someonerecentlyaboutthe British,
and generalizingshamelessly.We agreedthat it was
in the natureof British societyto view hard work as
a less-than-upper-class
pursuit. The aristocratdoes
not needto work hard,or work atall, for that matter,
and thus a life of leisure,real or perceived,is to be
wished for and admired. What was accomplished
in the American Revolution was the creationof a
societywhich not only respectedhardwork, but revered it. This country was made greatby the sweat
of its collective brow. We have ingrainedin our
imaginationthe staggeringnumber of logs split by
Abe Lincoln andDavy Crockett. The endless,frustrating nightsof ThomasEdison,GeorgeWashington CarverandAlexanderGrahamBell in their laboratories.The vision andstruggleof Andrew Carnegie
and Henry Ford. The toil and torment of Helen
Hayesand Louis Armstrong. The what? The who?
They don't quite fit, do they? Why not?
Is not the very job of artiststo make their work
appeareffortless? Dancersleap about the stagein
ecstasy,only to find their way into the wings and
collapse,out ofbreath. Yo-Yo Ma andRobertDuvall
makeit look easy. I grew up with an artist. I know
now that my fatherworked harderthan anyoneI can
think of, but growing up I sawhim have sucha wonderful time doing what he did that I did not equateit
with work (certainly not the work l was madeto do
in school). His many friendswho were artistsalso
seemedto be having a pretty good time doing their
jobs. I sometimeswonderedif they didn't feel a
little guilty enjoyingtheir work so much. Whereon
earthdid I get the ideathat hard work, by definition,
wasjoyless? Probablyaroundfourth gradewhen it
becameclear that there was no more fun to be had
in school- it was time for seriouswork!
For the pasthundredyears,at least,most schools
have worked pretty well as factoriesfor industrial
workersand managers.A certainamountof information existsto be transferredfrom an all-knowing
teacherto studentsshifting silently in rows. Tests
aregivento seehow much informationstudentshave
absorbed.If a studentdoesnot remembervery much,
she is either not too bright or just not trying hard
enough.I was alwaystold that I was smart. At least
I scoredwell on so-called"intelligencetests". So I
was told over and over againthat I was not putting
enougheffort into my work. "Alexander,if you'd
only try alittle harder.. . ." I canhearat leasttwelve
teacherssaying that. Now, I am not a child psychologist.but that just doesn't seemto be a very
helpful thing to say to a kid. Well, I did end up
trying harder- trying very hardto surmiseexactly
what it wasthat my teacherswantedto hear. For the
most part, what I learnedin schoolwas how to get
awaywith working as little aspossible.Was I just a
lazy,rotten,spoiledkid? Perhaps,but whetherI was
or not, I was in the overwhelmingmajority of children in schoolin this country.
It hasbeenmy experienceasa teacheranda studentthat anywherefrom 20 to 50%percenrof a class
is readyandwilling to learn,no matterwho is teaching, or how. The other 50 to 80% are up for grabs.
My 50-80%. Our 50-80%. And I am not evensure
that it is a matterof "kids thesedays in the 1960s,
70s and 80s." It turns out that today a much larger
percentageof children are literate and mathematically capablethan fifty yearsago, notwithstanding
recentdepressing
statistics.But still, we look around
and realizethat schoolsare not working for today's
world - for most kids. Shouldn'tmost kids get a
crack at the joy of learning? Shouldn't most kids
havethe opportunityto learnfor a lifetime? To learn
how to learn? This is particularly scandalousin a
democracywhich depends,for its very survival,on
JCG Vol. 15, No. I
15
an educatedcitizenry. For the most part, schools
teachanalyticaland mathematicalskills. Students
who tend to think analyticallyand mathematically
do very well. The others don't. The others may
have strengths,talents, and learning strategiesof
which eventhey may neverbecomeaware. Howard
Gardenerof HarvardProjectZerohastheorizedthat
humansemploysevenintelligences.They are:Analytical, Mathematical,Spatial, Musical, Inter-personal,lntra-personaland Kinesthetic. Whetherthis
is absolutelyfact or not. or whetherthereare three
or three hundredintelligencesis besidethe point.
The fact is that mostkids arenot learningup to their
capabilitiesbecausetheir capabilitiesare being ignoredentirely"This is not democratic.
"factory-model" schools,set up
The so-called
as they were during the industrial revolution. are
foundedupon a notion of predictability. Thereare
right and wrong answersto questions,and if a student doesher work. she will know those answers,
the sameasthe restof her class.and all the students
will graduateequally preparedfor adulthood. It is
"answer factory."
an
I hearda storyrecentlyabouta woman who went
"straight A" student,went to
through school as a
Radcliffe,graduatedCum Laude.and promptly had
a nervousbreakdownwhen sherealizedthatshehad
neverhad an original idea in her entire life. Imagine that. Shehad done everythingaskedof her by
the educationalstructure. Shehad answeredevery
questioncorrectly. But never, evidently, was she
encouragedto ask questionswhich might have unpredictableanswers,questionswhich generateideas.
Canwe createin our classrooms.throughart and its
processes,
an idea factory, a questionfactory? If I
might stretchthis metaphora bit, the questionfactory usesanswers(or content,aswe arewont to say)
asits raw material. Thereis simply too much information in the world today for any humanto absorb.
And that couldn't be more obviousto young people
graduatingfrom high schoolor college. Far too often schoolingendswith a sighof relief, andthe happy
prospectof a grown-uplife aheadwithout everhav16
JCG vol 15,No.I
ing to crack a book agarn. But if studentscome out
they're goingto continue
of schoolaskingquestions,,
to requirecontentto supportthem, andwill become
lifelong learners"
As a teacher,I often caught myself framing a
specific answerin my mind and casting aroundthe
room until I got it: Josh? Yes, that's good,but not
quite. Jennifer?Very interesting,but that's not what
I'm looking for. Anyoneelse?OK, Adrienne?Yes,
right, exactly. Adrienne feels fine, as usual. And
Joshand Jenniferwon't speakup for a week. Even
Adrienne suffers,becausesheis satisfiedthat I have
noticedher intelligence. Shehas done herjob, and
hasn't learneda thing from the encounter.This sort
of relationshipbetweenteacherand studentis sterile, fruitless,artificial. If we askclosedquestionsto
which we have the only answer,where is the opportunity for creativethought? When working with art
'right' answershardto comeby. Of course,
onefinds
there arealot offocls we oughtto know, who painted
what and when. stageleft is over here,therearetwo
sharpsin D Major - but such knowledge means
absolutelynothingto anyonenot investedin the subject. If we ask ourselvesand our studentsquestions
with manypossibleanswers,thereexiststhe possibility for making connectionswith other questionsin
otherdisciplines,which leadto ideas(which areacts
of creation),which leadto otherquestions,dialogue,
argument.In otherwords,learningis goingon. And
it's alive.
What happensto the role of the teacherin a question factory? Well, let's look first at what hashappenedto the role of the teacherin the answerfactory. Teachersaregenerallygiven a curriculum(or,
'framework'), must hand in lesson
more gently, a
plans and administer state-sanctionedstandardized
tests. The only power left to the teacheris in expertise and classmanagement.(And in many schools
thesedays,classmanagementis evencontractedout
to largeguardswho areon call.) Whereis the chance
for risk-taking? Teachersare rarely trusted as the
who know their stuprofessionalsthat they
dents and know what and how their studentscan
learn. It is no wonder then, that many teachersare
ambivalentaboutbecoming(sorry aboutthej argon)
facilitators,mentorsand collaborators.There'snot
a lot of room for daring experimentation,is there?
Work in the arts,on the otherhand,enablesteachers
to continually re-examinewhat is learnedand how
it is learnedin their classrooms.Knowledgeemerges
from thepersonalprocessof connectingideasto form
new ones,of addingnew information to alreadyexisting perceptionand changing it. The arts do this
automatically. When we find ways to value learning as a process,to capturethe joy in making connections,creatingideas,then we arewell on our way
to transformingschool from a place where students
graduateas good or bad products,to a place where
studentsgraduatewith a passionto learn more.
What, then, is the role of artists and arts institutionsin the "questionfactory?" Ah, there'sthe
$64,000question. As you are well aware,all over
the countryorchestras,theatercompanies,museums
and dancecompaniesare grappling with the issue.
And, boy, is it a thornyone. It raisesquestionsabout
the role of orchestrasin the community - what exactly is theirjob? And for whom do they exist? FIow
much responsibilityshould they take on in the educationof music for young people? Thereis evena
chickenand egg debateabouthow thesenew pressurescome about. Are they driven by funders demanding educationaloutreach and multicultural
programming?Or by the orchestrasthemselvesengaging in audiencedevelopment? And, finally,
thorniestof all, doesquality suffer in the expansion
of an orchestra'smission?
I apologizefornot havinganswersto thesequestions. My backgroundis education,not orchestra
management.But I'd like to talk about two very
real, very successfuland very different examples.
One is an orchestrain Montana(wheretherearenine,
'em,
count
nine orchestras.) The concertmaster,
when asked why the community was so involved
with and supportiveof the orchestra,replied,"becausewe all arethe music teachersin the schools."
A light bulb of sortswent on over my headwhen I
heardthat. It occurredto me that evenwhen kids do
havemusic classesin their schools,thereis no context for it. They don't see their teacherperform;
she'sjust a teacher,after all. And when they get
takento a concert,they arewoefully under-prepared
and there is little time for follow-up. Now, obviously, Butte, Montana is unique in its size,history
and community. But we must find ways for symphonic music to be part of children's lives inside
and outsidethe classroom. There has to be a personalconnection.
My secondexample,predictablyenough,is the
New York Philharmonicunder the musical direction of my father. He saw educationin everything
he did. Eachprogrammingdecision,eachrehearsal,
eachconcertand, of course,each Young People's
Concert,was an opportunity to teach somethingto
someone. He did not see educationas something
separatefrom music-making. They were one and
the same. I attendeda class last year at the Hartt
Music Schoolin Hartford, Connecticutat which studentswere askedwhy they liked a certainpiece of
musicthey had chosen.At first they were panicked
and frustrated at the prospect of articulating their
musical choices- but gradually cameto surprise
themselvesas they used analogy and metaphorto
connectthe music to their own lives. If we have
playerswho are life-long learners,they can be lifelong teachersas well.
Whenconnectionsaremadebetweendisciplines,
therebycreatingcontext,thereis a sparkof learning
-- an opportunity for a student to find the joy in
discovery. A work of art meansnext to nothingout
of context. Yes, a Monet is pleasingto look at, and
Vivaldi makes excellent backgroundmusic for
brunch. But if that is all we want from art (and it is
definitely more and more what we are getting) we
might aswell pack up and go home. The artsarethe
very soul of a culture, in which everyoneactively
participates. In our society, art has come to be
viewedasentertainment- amusementto be enjoyed
passively.Perhaps,in fact, we are in dangerof losing our soul. Or, if I might switch metaphorshere,
JCG Vol. 15,I,'lo.I
l7
by erosionwe arelosingthe mortarwhich holdsthe
culturetogether.In creatinga work, an arlist is constructingherpersonalworld view andsharingit with
the audience.That audience,becausethereis a point
mustreact,mustattend,mustfeel.
of view presented,
must think. E,achperson'sworld view hasbeenaltered somehow- and eachdifferently" Now, lets
contrastthat dynamic with what happenswhen an
audiencereceivessheerinformation. As a nation.
we canwatcha war on CNN, a moon-walk,the O.J"
but still not have
Simpsontrial, sharethe experience,
a cluewhat to makeof it" We arehungry,famished.
for someoneto help us make meaningof the information. We require expert analysis from Peter
Jenningsand friends. We watch noisy arguments
on Sundaymorning. But does iisteningto these
pundits changeour world view aI all? Do they in
any way help us to make meaning? Speakingfor
myself,the answeris an emphaticNO' At bestthey
may answertechnicalquestions.At worst, they reinforce what opinions we alreadyhold. We cheer
our side. Perforce.we make a dramaout of the inour instinctis to makemeaningthrough
formatio
theater;good guys, bad guys. winners and losers.
triumph and tragedy. But it is cheap.sterile.unthoughtfulmelodrama.Like Muzak,,it soothesbut
doesnot provoke.After the O.J.Simpsontrial' I'll
wager,we'll hearour Sundaymorningpunditstalking about the nation's sharedexperienceand how
we'll neverbe the same.somehow.Don't bet on it.
If anything,peoplewill becomemore entrenchedin
their prefabricatedopinions. Who needsart when
we have docudramasinstead? What we can learn
from an active engagementwith a work of art - or
and
from creatingoneourselves- is immeasurable,
what's more, the processcreatesa new contextfor
the next experiencewith a work of art. I believe
that this is true of all learning. From infancy on' all
that humansare aspiringto do is to make meaning.
How excitingit is, then,to seethe vital work in
artsand educationgoing on more and more all over
the country. Ironically,of course,it is out of a sense
attempt
of crisisin educationandfrom a grass-roots
18
JCG vol 15,No.I
to support arts institutions that these efforts grow.
But so be it - it is a thrilling time. As bleak as
things may seemnow, it is amazingthat eachof us
are parl of this ground swell acrossthe country, a
truly organic, spontaneousand unforced effort to
investigatethe links betweenart and learning. Like
medical research,it is an extremely complex and
exhaustingprocess. Researchin schoolsis going
on all over the country,with the expectedpositive
result: work in the arts does improve test scores.
Attendanceshows remarkable improvement. But
much more researchis needed- and is startingto
get done. Researchon the culture of a school,for
instance. It is my deep belief, and anecdotalevidencesupportsit, that the quality and tone of discourseimproveswith the arts in the picture' Students tend to be more tolerant and open-minded.
Perhapswork in the artsgives studentsmore opportunities to see from someoneelse's vantagepoint
- to understandotherpeople. How aboutresearch
relationship?More andmore
on the teacher-student
studiesare showing the efficacy of the teacheras
mentor,model and guide, as opposedto all-knowing authority. Teachersarepracticingthis approach
everywhere.It is a perfectsituationin which to introducethe arts.
Researchis alsoimportantto the successofbusinesses.Many headsof corporationshave saidthat
what they needfor the twenty-first centuryareworkers who are creativethinkers and problem solvers.
They say that what will count is not what or how
much you know. but how you form informationhow you make senseof it. Imagine! The Fortune
500 practically begging for arts in school. Well,
maybenot begging.
I was talking a while back to someonewho said
how much they looked forward to the day (in the
near future!) when it could be shown,quantifiably
and without question,that educationin the arts improves scoresand makes for better all-around students. Our casewould be made, the end. And I
cameto wonder if eventhen we would seeschools
change- to embracethe arts. I suspectthat thereis
if not particularlyconscious.fear of
a widespread,,
art in educationand in life. There is a fear. and I
speakfrom experience,of being talentless,as well
asthe alarmingprospectthat one is just not a smart,
savvycritic - whateverthat is. Ambiguousby nature and purpose,art begetsuncertainty,which, in
turn, can begeta fear of losing control. Art has an
unpredictable.mysteriouspower. The prospectof
being actuallymoved by a work of art is unsettling
to many,manypeople. It is scaryterritorywherean
actively engagedpersonmeetsa work of art. It is
deeplypersonal.It hasneverhappenedbefore,and
won't ever happenagain in the sameway. Art is
magical that way. But it takes courage,curiosity
and guidanceto enterunfamiliar places,especially
when they are insideyou. Nothing of consequence
happenswithout taking a risk. This is astrue in life
and in schoolas it is in art. So, what we can do for
our young people? Take them by the hand to the
edge of that scary territory, tell them that we have
beenthereandthat thereis really nothingto be afraid
of, and then show them how they can enter
that magic place.
Alexander Bernstein is president of The
BernsteinEducation Through the Arts Fund, Inc.
and^foundingchairman of TheLeonard Bernstein
Center for Education Through the Arts in Ittrashville. Tennessee"
Conductors and the Internet:
New Toolsfor Communication and
Information Exchange
by Andrew Levin
INrnonucrroN
The Internet is coming! The Internet is coming! Acfually,the Internetis alreadyhere, and has
been for twenty-five years. Formerly the domain
of universityresearchers
and the military, it is now
availableto and regularlyusedby - individuals
with a variety of personaland professionalinter"The Key to Progress
ests. It is widely touted as
"
in the Next Millennillm, thoughsomewould have
you believe it is "The Destroyer of Morals and
"
Human Interaction.
Yet with all the publicity it receives,the Internet
remainsa mystery to a great many people. They
want to know what it is, what it's for, and how it
works. Thev also wonder if it is safe,how much it
costs, and if it is complicatedto operate. Does it
representthe next standardin communicationstechnology or a fad that will quickly disappear?
While nobody can predict what will becomeof
the Internet, it is fairly certain that someform of it
will continueindefinitely. As long as societyvalues informationand communication,computerswill
be linked together to facilitate the task. Even today, the Internet can transfer information quickly
over greatdistances.Moreover, it is an idealvenue
for personalcommunicationand interactionthrough
"virtual cofirmunities," electronicmeetinggrounds
populatedby individuals who share a common interest. Such communitiesexist for movie lovers,
vegetarians,sportsfans and, yes, conductors.
The Internet brings together conductors from
JCG Vot.t 5. No.I
19
aroundthe world to discussrepertoire,batontechnique, programming and more. Conductorscan
and university
researchother orchestras'SeaSonS
music programs,American music and music software.
This accessis not free. The user must own or
have accessto a computerand be willing to commit someamountof time and money. However. a
great many conductorshave found this investment
beneficialto their careersandpersonalgrowth. This
article will discusshow conductorscan participate
in this Brave New Online World.
Keep in mind that while many aspectsof the
Internetarediscussed,most conductorswill be quite
satisfiedusing just part of it. They will get the
most benefit from electronic mail and, perhaps,
mailing lists and the Web. Additional topics are
introducedfor thosewho are interestedin exploring the Internetin greaterdepth. Finally, the world
of the Internetis far too rich and varied to be coveredin a singlearticle. Consultthe resourceslisted
in the bibliographyand speakwith friends and colleaguesalreadyonline to broadenyour understanding of this exciting field.
This article is orsanizedas follows:
I. The Internet
[. Before Getting Started- A Guide to
Software
Mail
m. Communication/Electronic
IV. Community
A. Mailing lists
B. The Usenet
V. Information Viewing and Retrieval
A. AnonymousFTP
B. Gopher
C. World-Wide Web
VI. Future of the Internet
VII. Netiquette
VI[. How to Connect
A. Direct Access
B. CommercialOnline Services
20
JCG vol 15,No.I
C. Public AccessProviders
IX. Software Recommendationsand Sources
X. AnnotatedBibliograPhY
I. THB lNrnnNnr
What exactly is the Internet? It is the grand
'network of networks,' the linking togetherof millions of computersworldwide. In a world of Macs,
PCs and Unix mainframes,the Internet is wonder'computer-blind;'it operatesvia a speciallanfully
guagethat enablescomputersof different platforms
to share information. This means that computers
of most brands and operating systemscan communicatewith ease.
The Internet is so broad a subjectthat no single
article can cover all topics relating to it. Many
excellentbooks and magazinearticles discusshow
to connect to the Internet, where to find infoffnation online, and what software is necessaryto retrieve it. Some of these resourcesare listed in
Section X, an annotatedbibliography which concludesthe article. This article, though, is written
for members of the Conductors' Guild and will
speakspecificallyto their needs.
For those new to the Internet, this article will
'cyberspace,'
provide a glimpse of what is out in
suggestionson how to get set up, and recommendationsfor inexpensivesoftware that will make ex'Net' surfersshouldfind
plorationsimple. Veteran
new intormation sourcesto add to their arsenal.
As mentionedearlier, the Internet is vast and,
due to its very interestinghistory, a wild and sprawling mess. Information comesin a variety of forms,
and there are many ways to accessit. To bring
some sort of order to it all, we will considerthe
three areasin which the Internet excels: communication, community and information viewing and
retrieval.
First among the Internet's strengthsis communication. The Internet provides an easy way to
keep in touch with colleaguesand friends.
Second,the Internet can also provide a sense
of community, organizedby areaof interest or
specialty. Individualsbecomemembersof a 'virtual community,' unhindered by geographical
boundaries.
Finally, the Internet is an excellent sourceof
information viewing and retrieval. An unimaginable wealth of information, someuseful and some
worthless, is at your fingertips and usually free for
the taking. You can find information about schools
and music, as well as software, music, pictures
and even video clips.
What you can discover on the Net is limited
only by your imagination and free time. The resourceslisted in this article are just introductory;
they cover only the basics. Besides,new sitesof
information are openeddaily, even hourly!
In the main, this article addressesthe three
aforementionedareasin greaterdetail. It explores
what resourcesare available, how to find them,
and good, inexpensivesoftware for such exploration. Below is a table outlinine the resourcesto be
discussed.
Communication
ElectronicMail
Community
Mailing Lists
The Usenet
Information Viewing
and Retrieval
Anonymous FTP
Gopher
World-Wide Web
II. BrcnonrGnruNc Srlnrrcn - A Gump ro
Sorrwnnn
Unfortunately, for the casualuser, gettingcomputersto communicatewith eachother can be quite
complicated;obscureinformation is often required
to establisha connection. After connectingthe computer requires software to accomplishthe user's
desiredtasks. Softwarecurrently availableranges
from easy-to-useto quite complex. It is recom-
mended,therefore,to seekout softwarethat is both
easyto use and powerful.
The most user-friendly method of interacting
with the Internet is through a commercial online
servicesuchas America Online (seeSectionVIID;
connectionis relatively painlessand 'graphicaluser
interface' (GUI) software is provided. GUI programs contain icons, pull-down menus, windows
and easy accessto commandsvia the keyboard or
mouse, much like the Macintosh or Windows interface.
A direct connectionat work or a public access
provider (see Section VIII), offers a 'commandline interface;' it resemblesDOS in that obscure
words are typed in to issuecommands. Fortunately,
GUI softwarecan be usedwith this type of connection, but only special'TCP' softwareis on board;
contactthe instifution'scomputingservicesdepartment or a local public accessprovider for more
information. Softwarerecommendationsin this article are for a TCP connection.
Many good software packageshave been designedfor 'surfing the Internet.' Thesepackages
allow accessto all three areasof interestpresented
in the table above. All softwarementionedin this
article is either freeware or shareware(freeware,
as its name implies, is free to the user; shareware
requiresa minimal registrationfee, often as little
as $15). While other commercialsoftwareis available, the freeware and sharewareprograms are
usually excellentand cost a fraction of their commercial counterparts.
It may seemodd that eachactivity on the Internet
requiresdifferent software. This is a result of the
history of the Net, where serviceswere addedone
at a time, eachrequiring new software. To combat
this trend, certain commercial applicationsare
availablethat combineall typesof Internetactivity
into one package. Typically, such a program sells
for $150 or more. However, for some users its
greater ease of use may be worth the extra cost
(seeSectionX).
All software describedin this article is availJCG Vol.15.No.t
2l
'anonymousFTP'' This
able on the Internet via
File Transfer Protocol allows one to transfer files
betweencomputersand is discussedin greater de"Information viewing and Retail in Section v,
" ,,software Recommendationsand
trieval.
Sources"(SectionIX) lists where this softwarecan
be located. But before discussingtopics of a more
technicalnature, let us begin with thoseactivities
that should be of the greatest interest and of the
most use for conductors:communicationand community.
UI. Coruurnlca,uoN/ErBcrnoutc Mnrl
One of the Internet's strong points is the ease
with which people can communicate. By linking
can be sentback
togethertwo computers,messages
andforth in a processknown as electronicmail; by
connectingmillions of computersthe possibilities
for communicationare boundless.
Electronic mail is the most ubiquitous of all
Internetactivities. Why use e-mail? Because,it is
'snail mail'
faster than conventionalmail (called
by insiders)and less expensive. E-mail is a good
alternativefor short messagesand those that must
travel quickly. They can be sentat any time, even
if the recipient is not availablewhen the message
arrives. It is especiallyuseful for non-permanent
communication. Though an e-mail messagecan
be printed out after it arrives, more formal communications(like thoserequiring letterhead)are best
transmittedin hard coPY.
The e-mail processoffers severaloptions: the
usercanbegin communicationwith an original message,respondto someoneelse's messageor forward or redirect a messageto one or more third
parties. In the responsemode, many programsallow one to quotea passagefrom the sender'smes'married' to each
sage, so that each responseis
inquiry or topic in the initial message.
E-mail addressescan be grouped, allowing a
singlemessageto be sentto severalpeopleat once.
both sentand received,can alsobe
Mail messages,
22
JCG vol 15,l'{o.I
'electronic mailboxes' for future
stored in special
retrieval.
One word of caution: be careful what you send
via e-mail. The Internet is not totally secure,and a
messagecan often be read by individuals who do
not have proper authorization. Therefore, when
sendingsensitivematerials,use anothercarrier.
For electronic mail I recommendthe software
packageEudora. It is availablefor both Macintosh
and Windows (named PC Eudora) and has both
a commercial and non-cornmercial version. The
non-commercialversion (Eudora Light) is an excellent program in its own right, while the commercial version (Eudora Pro) is enrichedwith extra features.
IV. CotrtruNlrY
The Interner began as a tool of communication
for people of common needs and interests. Shar'viring of information led to the establishmentof
'
tual communities. each community dedicatedto a
specific need or interest. For someyears communities have existedfor classicalmusic lovers and,
more recently. have been organrzedfor conductors. Electronic gatheringsnow exist for the discussion of orchestral and choral music, early music, brass ensembles,the voice, flute, opera, the
music industry and many other related topics. Individualscanparticipatein suchdiscussionsthrough
both mailing lists and the Usenet.
A. Mailing Lists
'listserv" is
A mailing list, sometimescalled a
simply an automatedelectronic mail redistribution
system. A subscriberto a mailing list begins a
discussionby posting a questionor commentto the
group ('posting' is simply sendingan e-mail message to the host computer). This posting (message) is then automatically broadcast to all subscribers. A subscriberwith an appropriateresponse
'list'),
can send a reply to the group (called the
which is again distributedto all subscribers. In
this manner, information can be shared with all
members in any given virtual community" There
are approximately5,000 suchmailing lists operating worldwide, many of which deal with music.
How can a mailing list benefit conductors? It
percanprovide a forum for discussionof sub.jects
tinent to the field. Three mailing lists in particular
are very useful for conductors. One such list is
Orchestralist,setup by the authorat ClemsonUniversity" Currently it includesnearly 400 subscribers from more thana dozencountries;the subscribers consistof conductors,composers.orchestral
musicians,administrators,boardmembersand others in the orchestrabusiness" In the recent past,
subscribershave discussedorchestral repertoire,
the importance of educationalconcerts and ideas
on how to presentthem, concert lecturesand the
problemsfacing conductorsin choosingquality new
music. The latter discussionled to the formation
of a publicly accessibledatabaseof self-published
and other hard-to-find works. It is reviewed below in "World-WideWeb" (SectionV.C.).
Subscriptionsto mailing lists are free. However, check your Internet provider's fee schedule
for electronicmail. A mailing list can generateas
many as ten or twenty messagesper day; if one is
chargedper messagethe cost can quickly escalate.
Participatingin a mailing list is simple: it just
entailsthe use of a regular e-mail packageto send
and receive e-mail. To subscribe(and later, to
'unsubscribe')
send a messageto one e-mail address;to participatein discussions,
however,messagesshouldbe sentto a different address.A confirmation of subscriptionand a 'welcomepage' (an
outline of the purposeand administrativedetailsof
the list) is e-mailedto eachnew subscriber. Save
this page- it containsimportant information.
To subscribeto Orchestralist,send an e-mail
messageto: [email protected]
with
"
'
.
the message
Subscribe Orchestralist
YourFirstName YourlastName" (without quotation marks) in the body of the message. As with
all subscriptionrequests,do not type anything in
the subjectline.
A similar list. but for choral music, is called
C h o r a l i s t . T o s u b s c r i b e ,s e n d e - m a i l t o :
[email protected] the message
:
" Subscribe Choralist YourFirstName
YourlastName" ^
Those participating in community bands and
orchestrascan share their particular concernson
the Community-Musicmailing list. To subscribe,
send e-mail to: [email protected]
with the message:"Subscribecommunity-music"
on one line and "end" on a secondline.
Many other music-relatedmailing lists exist.
An actual"List of Musical Mailing Lists" is available on the Net for the asking. It can be retrieved
via the Usenet,Anonymous FTP. Gopher and the
World Wide Web (seebelow)"
B. The Usenet
A secondsource of community discussionon
the Internet is the Usenet. Short for "IJser's Network, " the Usenetis not really a network at all. It
is more like a world-wide electronicbulletin board.
visited by people having specific common interests. Like a mailing list, the Usenetis organized
by topic, anything from computer operating systems to cycling. Music topics also appearon the
Usenet;subjectsrange from discussionsabout the
Grateful Dead to recordingsof early music.
The difference between mailing lists and the
Usenetis that mailing lists are 'right here,' while
the Usenetis 'out there.' Belonging to a mailing
list is like stayingat home. sendingand receivrng
mail to a private group of colleagues. For a subscriber,messages
may be receiveddaily; the downside is that his/her mailbox may fill up quickly if a
given topic draws considerableinterest.
Participatingin the Usenet is akin to leaving
home and driving to a public discussiongroup. It
is not necessaryto subscribeto a Usenet group
(calleda "news group"); just show up andjoin in.
A decisionto participateis basedon sharedinterJCG Vol. 15.No.I
23
est and availabletime. However, due to its very
natureas a public forum, discussionson the Usenet
are less controlled than on a mailing list and tend
to wander. While fascinatingto follow, such discussionsmay be less useful for a community of
professionals.
For generaldiscussions,though,the Usenetcan
be great fun and a good source of information.
Postingscan be saved on disk or printed at any
time for later reference" Be sure to check Section
VII on Netiquettebefore launchinginto the Usenet;
many rules of Internet conduct relate directly to
participationin news groups.
Conductors can benefit from certain Usenet
news groups. Participantsin rec.music.classical.recordingsdiscussclassicalrecordings:their
collectiveknowledgeis impressiveindeed. When
seekinginformation regarding certain recordings,
post a questionand, on your next visit to the news
group, enjoy the many intelligent repliesthat have
come forth. Participantsare usually amateurshaving a considerableknowledge about and a love for
classicalmusic, individualswho form a large part
of our orchestraaudience. To gain a betterunderstandingof the consumersof classicalmusic, and
for more detaileddiscussionsof performance-related topics including repertoire, techniqueand
performance injury, a visit to rec.music.classical.performing will be most rewarding.
For those with interest in early music,
rec.music.early shouldbe investigated.Members
of this group discussearly-music repertoire, reviews of recordingsandconcertsand live concerts,
both pastand future. The knowledgeexhibitedby
membersof this news group is quite impressive.
Operaloverscan visit rec.music.opera,while
those with a general interest in music and music
history can participatein rec.music.classical.
rec.music.info should be visited periodically;
it is a repositoryof billboard charts,generalinformation, announcementsof new mailing lists and
"FrequentlyAsked
QuesFAQs. A FAQ is a list of
tions" and answerspertainingto a particulartopic.
24
JCG vol 15,No.l
Postinga questionthat has alreadybeen covered
'newbie' and,
in the FAQ will brand you as a
perhaps',garner some unpleasantresponses. A
"read the FAQ!"
common cry on the Internet is
"FAQ: List of Music Mailing Lists
The file
(LoMML)," noted above, is regularly posted to
this news group.
Special software is neededfor participation in
Usenet news groups. Mainframe computersusually have command-linenews readers,but again,
graphical interface software is recommended.
There are many free- or sharewareproducts, including NewsWatcher for Macintosh and WinVN
for Windows (seeSectionIX for addresses).
V. INronvrnrloN VIBwtNc nxo RBTRTEvAL
The third area in which the Internet excels is
information viewing and retrieval. Many sites
acrossthe globe contain files of various sorts that
individuals can download to their own computers.
Such files range from screen saversto pictures of
astronomicalevents that can be viewed on-screen
and even printed. They can be text files (such as
"List of Musical Mailing Lists"), music, softthe
ware programs,picturesandevenshortvideo clips.
All three methodsdescribedbelow will allow files
to be downloaded,but only Gopher and the World
Wide Web allow viewing of certainfiles on-screen
before downloading them"
A. AnonymousFTP
Anonymous FTP (File Transfer Protocol) involves accessinganother computer and transferring public, non-cofirmercialfiles found thereonto
your own computer (all of the software recommendedin this article can be retrieved in this fashion). The accessedcomputer can be acrosstown
or acrossthe Pacific. Whereasno one can access
files from a personalcomputer without having that
'log in' name and password,anyonecan
person's
hook up to a computer that is specifically config-
ured to transferfiles. Personalidentificationis not
necessary;one can remain 'anonymous.'
To 'log on' to such a computer, type its addressand a directory (an exampleis listed below).
When the foreign computerasksfor your personal
'1ogin' name,type in the word 'anonymous;'
when
promptedfor a password,type in your own e-mail
address.
The "List of Musical Mailing Lists," referred
to earlier, can be retrieved via Anonymous FTP
under the title 'lomml' at server.berkeley.eduin
the directory /pub/misc/.
A good MacintoshFTP program is Anarchie.
Anarchie also includes a search function to help
locate files out in cyberspace. A good Windows
programis WS-FTP.
Peopleoften wonder how to download an FTP
program without actually having an FTP program
through which to download. For this operation a
friend or contact in the computing servicesdepartment is needed. Such a specialistcan either give
or lend a copy of an FTP program until you are
able to downloadone on vour own.
-B. Gooher
The term 'gopher' describesboth a computer
program and a site that storesinformation; the user
runs the former to accessthe latter. Upon connectingto a gophersite, the screendisplayslists of
available files. In contrast to Anonymous FTP,
the user can view the file on-screenbefore transferring it to his own computer(if it is a text file).
If the file is located on another computer, the gopher program automaticallyopensa connectionto
it. In this way a gopheruser canjump from computer to computer looking for information, never
having to type in an address.
Gopher is a good source of information found
in text files. Suchfiles include lists of repertoire,
recordings,Internet help and evenconsumerinformation. As with many programs,the information
can be savedor printed.
Conductors can find some useful information
via Gopher. Rice University (riceinfo.rice.edu)
maintains a Gopher site that provides an excellent
'jumping-off point'
for many music resources.
In the directory /Information by Subject Area
/Music/, the Rice site offers a list of "Musical FTP
sites" and the "Society for Music Theory Ar"
chives. Also availableis: the "CompactDisc Connection:Online CD Catalog," a list of over 7,000
titles, searchableby composer, artist, etc.; CD
purchasescan also be made online; a directory entitled "Doing Researchin Music," which includes
"Stepsto Effective
Library Research"and a "Brief
Guideto SearchingCD-ROM Databases;"a "Guide
to Buying ClassicalRecordings," which includes
information on record labels, publicationsand mail
order houses; and "RecommendedCD Recordings," divided into categoriesfor chamber, keyboard and orchestralmusic. Each file herein contains an extra bonus: a comprehensivelist of composersand their birth/death dates, a valuable resourcefor thosehard-to-findcomposers).
Another excellentstartingpoint is the "Arts and
Humanities Gopher." It can be found at cwis
.usc.edu in the directory lOther Gopher and
Information Resources/Gophersby subject /Gopher Jewels/Education, Social Sciences,Arts and
Humanities/Arts and Humanities.
Gopher is a command-line program that runs
on a mainframe computer which provides Internet
access. For graphicalinterfacesoftware,I recommend TurboGopher for Macintosh and WSGopher
for Windows (seeSectionIX for addresses).
C. World Wide Web
The newest information viewing and retrieval
systemis calledthe World Wide Web ("The Web").
It is similar to Gopherbut contains'hypertextlinls.'
A link is a word displayed in a different color andl
or underlined which, when selected,transfers the
user to another location. Web software programs
are called 'browsers,' sincethey allow for browsJCG Vol.15.No.I
25
ing through information before committing to save
it. WhereasGopher is limited to displaying text
files only, Web browsersprovide for the viewing
of pictures, soundand video clips.
Web users, both institutional and individual,
'Web pages' that contain public and perset up
sonal information, as well as other items of interest. Thesebecome,in effect, self-publicationsself-defined,multi-media, encyclopedia-likeentries. They range from the informative to the ridiculous, from the helpful to the grossly self-indulgentand self-promoting. At their best, though,
Web pagescan provide valuable information and
provide easylinks to otherplaceson the Web. With
a Web browser, you can hop from page to page,
traversingthe world, viewing pictures and movies, hearingsoundsand moving from topic to topic
with ease.
Note the flexibility inherent in the World Wide
Web in one example from the New Zealand Symphony Orchestra'sWeb page. Their 'Home page'
presents,among other choices,a link to view the
orchestra'sseasonschedule. Clicking here takes
the viewer to a list of upcoming concerts. By selecting anotherlink, one may chooseto read some
notes on a work to be performed or get more detailed information about the soloist. At anytime
the previous pagescan be recalled with a simple
mouseclick or keystroke. The NZSO Web page
can be reached at http:l latlantis.actrix.gen.nz
/users/dgold/nzso.html(a closelook will reveala
coupleof links to information on Orchestralist).
A Web browser can also act as a Gopher and
FTP software package, eliminating the need for
suchspecializedproducts. To accessgophersites,
type gopher:i/ followed by the gopheraddress;for
FTP sites,precedethe addresswith ftpzll .
Conductorswill find a wealth of varied information on the Web. A number of orchestrashave
Web pages,as do schoolsof music and musiciansin
the business.A few Web pagesact as giant 'jumping-off points for exploration in the field of music.
The World Wide Web has quickly becomethe
26
JCG vot 15.No.l
hottest item on the Internet. The possibilities of
discoveryare endless. However, pictureson Web
pagesplace extraordinary demandson any system.
High-speedmodems(14.4K or 28.8K) are recommendedfor Web browsing.
Connection to Web sites are made via their
URL, the Web form of address. Be careful when
copying down a URL; they are long and complicated and must be spelled correctly, with proper
upper and lower case letters. Also, ignore final
periods in this article's URL addresses;their
presenceis for punctuationonly. ThreeWeb pages
'jumping
make especially good
off' points for
musical information on the Internet, and both
have links to the most important Web, Gopher
and FTP sites around the world. The first is
"Music Resourceson the Internet." It's URL is
http zI I www. music . indiana. edu/misc/music_resources.html. The othersare the "Mammoth Music
Meta-List" at http://www.timeinc.com/vibe
"Classicaland Contempolmmm/music.html and
rary Music" at http://www.rwcp.orjp/peoplelyk
/music.
Other Web sitesof interestto conductorsare the
"
author's own " Conductors Page at httpz I I
www.clemson.eduI - alevin/Conductors.html, the
"American Music Center" at http://wvw.ingress
.com/amc. the Music PublishersAssociationhome
page at http:/ihost.mpa.org/mpa, and a list of
orchestrason the Web at http://www.yahoo.com
/Entertainment/Music/Genres/Classical/Svmphony_Orchestras/.
To find a list of all UsenetFAQS, discussions
of music notation programs and other information,
try http: //www.cis.ohio-state.edu/hypertext/faq
/usenet/music/top.html .
Finally, if help is needed to surf the Net,
or if more information about the history of the
Net is craved, check the "Big Dummy's Guide
to the Internet" at http:/lwww.edv.agrar
.tu-muenchen.de/cip/big-dummy/bdg_toc. html .
Software called a Web browser is neededto
accessthe Web. Mosaic is a popular choice for
both Macintosh and Windows. Netscapeis gaining popularity as an alternativeto Mosaic (seeSection IX for addresses).
VI. Furunn oF THElNrpnnnr
It is impossibleto forecasrthe furure direction
of the Internet. It is likely that it will continue ro
grow exponentiallyand provide evenmore specialized servicesfor its users. As the commercialpresenceon the Net increases,greaterpressurewill be
exertedto passthe expenseson to the end-users.
Conductorswill continueto find more resources
availableon the Internet and createnew onesif the
need is apparent. Mailing lists currently exist for
both orchestralandchoralconductors.aswell asthose
involved with community bandsand orchestras.
As with the entry of other commercialventures
onto the Net, issuessuch as accessand cost are
raised. Evenwith ASOL's presenceon the Internet,
most resourcescurrently available to conductors
will continueto operateas they now do, providing
cost-free communicationand information for all
interestedmusicians.
VII.
fore leaping!). Read others' questionsand note
how they answer, what material they quote, their
'tone
of voice.' Post in like manner. Also, know
your software:do not embarrassyourself with technical errors.
- Keep messagesbrief and to the point (warn
people when the messagemust be long). Agarn,
follow others'examples.
- Keep all Internet signatures brief. Many
programsallow a user to add a 'signafure'toan email or news group posting; this signatureestablishesthe sender'sidentity and allows recognition
for personaloriginality. Nevertheless,aswith long
out-goingphonemessages,long signaturesquickly
becomeirritatrng.
Spell-checkand proofread before sending
messages.Presentyourself to the world with intell igent, well-written sentences
containingcorrectly
spelledwords.
- Checkthat eachmessageis being sentto the
right person (especiallyon replies and forwards).
This is especially important when working with
newsgroupsand e-mail. Don't sendto all the subscribersof a mailing list a messageintendedfor a
single individual"
Netiquette
Although seeminglyanarchistic,the Internetis
guided by a set of rules, etiquettefor the Net, or
'netiquette.'
It is best to becomefamiliar with the
culture, lest you find yourself at the wrong end of
someunkind words.
Followingis a list of commonDOs andDON'Ts
compiledby music Internetgurus David Williams
of Illinois State University and Peter Webster of
NorthwesternUniversity, with additionalcommentary by the author.
DO:
- Read the FAQs before posting to a news
group. Readthe WelcomePagebefore postingto
a mailing list.
- Readnews groupsbefore posting (Lurk be-
DON'T:
- Postpersonalmessagesto newsgroups. If a
messageis intendedfor an individual in a group,
don't waste others' time: take a moment to copy
the individual's address,then e-mail that person
directly.
- Post commercialsor chain letters. Some
commercial activity does take place on the Net,
but only under controlled circumstancesand in certain locations. Be very careful in this area. It is
one of the most sensitive areas among veteran
Internetusers.
- Postthe samemessageto a large number of
groups. Many users read more than one news
group. They quickly becomeannoyedwhen people
post an identical messageto a variety of related
groups.
JCG Vol. 15.No.t
27
- Flame. 'Flaming, is respondingharshlY
to another'swriting, and wastesspaceand time
and accomplisheslittle. Be courteous to colleagues.
- Post someoneelse's e-mail without their
permission. To repeat the postings from news
groups is acceptable,but messagessent through
e-mail are consideredPrivate.
- Postcopyrightedmaterials. Although significant amountsof copyrighted material can be
found on the Net, it remains illegal to post it.
a valuableemployeeperk, oD a par with parking
privilegesor fitnessservices.
To determinewhether a direct connectionis
available,simply call the computing servicesdepartmentat your institution. It will also be useful to find someone in your department with
Internetskills, as there are sure to be many questions when starting out. All of the software described in this article will operatewith a direct
connection.
B. CommercialOnline Services
VIII.
How ro CoNnncr
Connectingto the Internetrequiresa computer,
software and - if working from home - a modem. Unfortunately, the processof connecting
can be complicated. In view of this, it is wise to
of a friend or colleaguewith online
seekassistance
experience.
A variety of connectionoptionsare available,a
completediscussionof which is beyond the scope
of this article. The basics,though. are discussed
in the paragraphsbelow (see SectionX). There
are essentiallythree methods of accessingthe
Internet. One's choiceis usually basedon Internet
availabilityat work or school,personalbudgetand
topics of interest.
A. Direct Access
The best option, if available, is to connectto
the Net at an academicinstitutionor placeof business. If the computersin your departmentor company are connectedto the Net, they have what is
'direct connection.' Such a connection
called a
affordsthe quickesttransferof dataavailable,both
to and from your personalcomputer. If accessto
the Net from home is desired,,many instirutions
allow connectionto their systemvia modem. With
either connectionthere is no cost to the individual
user; the institution bears the expense(exceptfor
the modem, which is usually purchasedby the
employee). A direct Internetconnectionis indeed
28
JCG vol 15,No.l
Another source of Internet accessis through a
commercialonline service, such as CompuServe,
Prodigy, America Online or the new Microsoft Network. These servicescharge a monthly fee, but
provide a host of services,someor which areunique
to the company offering the service. By connecting via modemfrom home, a subscribercan check
readnewsstockprices, make airline reservations.,
papersandmagazines,and conductresearchin referenceworks.
Commercialservicesalsoprovide someamount
of Internet access,but the accessdiffers from that
describedabove in at least three important ways.
First, accessto the Internetis not direct; therefore,
the user is limited to whatever the online service
provides" Though increasingsophistication,these
companieswill likely provide fewer servicesthan
those provided by a direct connection. Second'
the subscribermust use the company's own software. which often has limitations and usually is
less sophisticatedthan existing commercial software or shareware.And finally, commercialonline
serviceshave the slowest connectionof the three
options. Considering that a subscribermay pay
for some servicesby the minute, a faster connection usually meansa lower monthly bill.
However, where Internet needsare modestand
other servicesprovided by thesecompaniesare of
personalinterest,this type of serviceis frequently
quite satisfactory. Commercialonline servicesare
also the easiestof the three to connectto and operate. For those with limited computer experience,
this is by far the best option. To advertise their
offerings, online servicesprovide free trial memberships. Checkadvertisementsin computermagazines for more information. And finally, ask
friends, family and colleaguesfor recommendations.
The chancesare good that someoneyou know is already a subscriberto one of theseservices.
C. Public AccessProviders
The price and accessoptions of the third type
of servicefalls betweenthe previous two. It is a
group of companiesknown as 'public accessproviders.' Connectionis madevia modemfrom home.
Unlike the commercialonline services,a PAP will
not provide stock quotesor other commercialservices. However, subscribersdo eet accessto all
of the Internet, using whatever software suits their
needs.Finding a PAP in every geographicalarea
may be difficult. Begin by asking friends or colleaguesfor recommendations. Then, consult the
PAP lists found in many Internet books (such as
The Internet Starter Kit) for information on providers.
When consideringthe secondor third options,
keep in mind that costscan vary widely. Find out
if a provider chargesa flat rate and/or if it charges
by the minute. Cost may also fluctuate according
to the subscriber'smodem speed. Finally, find out
if accessis via a local phone number. Long-distance charges can end up costing more than the
serviceitself.
If connectingfrom home, it is best to purchase
the fastest affordable modem. The standardnow
rs I4.4 kbps, but this is quickly changingto 28.8
kbps.
IX. Soprwann RncovrrvrENDATroNS
ANDSouncns
Program
Electronic Mail
Eudora (Macintosh)
PC Eudora(Windows)
FTP site
Directory
ftp.tidbits.com
ftp.qualcomm.com
/pub/tidbits/select
/quest/windows/eudora/1.5
The Usenet
NewsWatcher(Macintosh) ftp.tidbits.com
WinVN (Windows)
ftp.cc.monash.edu.au
/pub/tidbits/select
/pub/win3/winsock
FTP
Anarchie (Macintosh)
WS_FTP (Windows)
/pub/tidbits/selecr
/pub/win3/winsock
ftp.tidbits.com
ftp.cc.monash.edu.au
Gopher
TurboGopher(Macintosh) ftp.tidbits.com
WS Gopher (Windows)
boombox.micro.umn.edu
/pub/tidbits/select
/pub/gopher/windows
World Wide Web
Mosaic (Macintosh)
Netscape(Macintosh)
Mosaic (Windows)
/pub/tidbits/select
/pub/tidbitslselect
/pub/Mosaic/Mosaic for PCs
ftp.tidbits.com
ftp.tidbits.com
hubcap.clemson.edu
JCG Vol. 15.No. I
29
X. Annotated BibliograPhY
"Making the InternetConnection,"
Ayre, Rick.
PC Magazine,ll October1994,118-84.A completediscussionof all thingsInternet, includinghow
to connect,who to connectwith, software, et. al.
Written primarily for IBM-compatible computer
users. Contact: PC Magazine, Back IssuesDepartment,Z\ff-DavisPublishingCo., P.O. 53131,
Boulder, CO 80322-3131.
"shopping for Internet AcBrisbin, Shelly.
"
cess, Mac(Jser,December1994, 133-34. Help in
finding an Internet public service provider, written
primarily for Macintoshusers.ContactMacUser,,950
Tower Lane, 18thFloor, FosterCity, CA 9MM.
"Plug In to the Internet," MacUser,,
Clark, Joe.
er 1994, 86-95. A condenseddescription
Septemb
of what the Internet offers for Macintosh users.
Engst, Adam C. Internet Starter Kit for
Macintosh; Everything you need to 7et on the
Internet, 3d ed. (Indianapolis,IN : HaydenBooks,
1995). The title says it all. The book includesa
floppy disk containing much of the software reviewed in this article.
Engst, Adam C. Internet Starter Kit for Windows: Everything you need to get on the Internet,
2d ed. (Indianapolis,IN: Hayden Books, 1995).
Sameprinciple and format as Engst's starterkit for
Macintoshusers.
"Magical Musical
Scot.
Gresham-Lancaster,
Tours: A ComprehensiveGuide to Music Resources
"
on the Internet, Electronic Musician, October
1994, 46-62. An excellent discussionof Internet
resourcesfor the commercial musician.
Hahn, Harley and Rick Stout. TheInternet Yellow Pages(Berkeley, CA.: McGraw-Hill , 1994).
sourcebook of AnonymousFTP
A comprehensive
and Gopher sites, news groups and mailing lists,
organizedby subject.
The Internet: A Knowledge Odyssey($49.95,
Windows version). A CD-Rom completewith a
glossary and video instruction from Vinton Cerf,
presidentof the Internet Society. Providesa gentle
30
JCG vol 15,l,{o.I
introduction to the Internet using animated tutorials
to explain simply and clearly common Net activities.
Internet World. A monthly magazine for the
casualInternetuser. The articles succeedin providing an excellent feel of what actually happens
when interactingon the Net. Available at newsstandsand by subscriPtion.
Krol, Ed. The Whole Internet: User's Guide
and Catalog, 2d ed. (Sebastopol,CA.: O'Reilly
and Assoc., 1994). An excellent, comprehensive
guide to navigating the Net via the command-line
interface. Though dealingwith a difficult subject,
it remains very readable. It also contains a full
description of the history and mechanicsof the
Internet. Good for both Macintosh and PC users.
"Making the Internet
MacUser" May 1995.
"
Connection. Though slightly slantedtowardsthe
Mac user, it containsmuch good information and
advice for everyoneon choosingthe most appropriate Internet service. Contact MacUser, 950
Tower Lane, 18th Floor, FosterCity, CA 94404MacWorld. August 1994. Articles on commercial serviceproviders,client software,colrununicationssoftware,how to buy a modemand more.
Designedprimarily for the Macintoshuser" ContactMacWorld Communications,Editorial Department, 5th Floor, 501 SecondStreet,SanFrancisco,
cA 94107.
NetGuide; The Guide to the Internet and Online
Services. Similar to Internet World, but with a
slightly broader scope,including the
commercialonline services.
,|c tk
tf
{<
{<
,f
Dr. Andrew Levin is an Assistant Professor
of Music at Clemson University where he conducts the Clemson University SymphonyOrchestra, teachescourses in Music Appreciation and
MIDI Applications and coaches the Clemson
University Sting Quartet. He is thefounder and
list owner of Orchestralist, the Internet mailing
tist for those in the orchestra businessandcan
be reachedvia e-mail at [email protected].
An Introduction to the Theories
of Fleinrich Schenker(Part II)
by Perer Gibeau
This article continues the presentation of
Schenkerianconcepts introduced in Part I, which
appeared in the previous issue of the JCG Uol.
14, No.2, Summer/Fall1993, pp.77-90), and
which lefi offwith a discussionof backgroundstructures and linear progressions. The secondinstallment will include a discussion of middleground
structures, interrupted (divided) structure, contrapuntal melodies,the "Twinkle2Mg" model, motivic
expansion,and analysesof the slow movementfrom
an early string quartet by Mozart (K. 157) and the
opening themeof Brahms's Fourth Symphony.
,l€ {€ *
rl€ {€ {< {< ,l€
In the background, the fundamental line will
always descendfrom the headtoneto the tonic. At
the next level, what Schenkercalls the "first level"
(the deepestlevel of the middleground), there can
be an interruption in the descent. In an interrupted
(also called "divided") structure,the fundamental
line descendsonly as far ur i supportedby V in the
bass. The line does not completeits descent:instead the headtonereassertsitself and evenrually
descendsto ?. At the phraselevel, the interrupted
structureresemblesthe familiar antecedent/consequent phrase model. But the real power of the
interruption model lies in its potential to control
large-scalestructure. One suchexampleoccursin
sonata-formmovements,where tne ) (of the interrupted descent)supportedby V can representthe
developmentsection: the recapitulationmarks the
return to the headtone.Example11ashowsa simple
interrupted structure. Note that ) is prolonged by
an upper-neighbor note (F) that functions as the
headtoneboth previously and subsequently. The
motion from this neighbor note to the prolonged i
(F to Eb) reflectsthe larger i-l motion delineating
the structureof the first phrase. At the next level
(Example 11b), the neighbor note is itself prolonged by consonantskips (CS). These skips
reflect the consonantskip at the very opening of
1lb, but function differently: the opening skip
prolongs the headtone(a) over a tonic harmony
but the subsequentskips prolong the upper neighbor of i, which is dissonantwith the V harmony.
At the end (not shown) of this moving English
horn solo (inspired by a trip to the New World),
there is an arpeggiationfrom f ' to f ", and the descent;-;-i hkes place an octavehigher than most
of the melody. Other well-known tuneswith inter"
ruptedl-lines includethe openingof "O Susann?h,
"Camptown
"Do
you know the muffin
RaceS,"
"Jingle
man?" and the chorusof
Bells."
Melodiesoften consistof severallines moving
simultaneously. There are many such contrapuntal melodies in the literature; among the best are
found in the suitesfor solo violin or cello by Bach.
In Example 12, from the Prelude of Bach's Suite
for UnaccompaniedCello in G major, three lines
are readily observable:a tonic pedal point in the
bass, a middle voice that ascendsin a 4-prugr"ssion from the fifth to the root, and a top line outlining a neighbor-notemotion. Each note of the
larger neighbor-noteoutline (B-C-B in bars l, 23, and 4) is prolongedby its own lower neighbor
note. Togetherthe three lines establishand prolong the tonic harmony for four measures(ExJCG Vol. 15, No. I
31
a)
Med'
b)
Fed- 3
l
3
r
Df:I
V
I
Example I L' Interrupted structure
ample LZb). A similar procedure is found in the
openingfour measuresof Bach's C-major Prelude
from WC I.
When doing an analysis,it is sometimesdifficult to decidewhether the headtoneis i or 3. The
single most important factor is context. Several
guidelinescan be suggested,however. One importantconsiderationis the emphasisgiven the candidateheadtoneitself. Most melodiescenter around
t
a chord tone (i or 3) U.tote descending to ?.
Further investigationis needed,however, because
almost any melody can be interpreted as supporting a i-titte. One element that is necessaryto the
supportof a 3-hne is the passing4..Its absencewill
consistentlyrule out a 3-titt in favor of a 3-line,
even when 3 se.*s to receive the most emphasis.
Example 13 is an analytic sketch of Foster's
"Camptown Races." Althougtr 3 is prolongedby
its upper neighbor, the headtoneis i becausethere
"silent Night," "swaneeRiver,"
is no passingf.
"Dixie," *The Caissonsgo rolling along," and others share this feature. Schenker calls i a ,ore,
tone (Deckton)when 3 appeatsto be the headtone,
but only covers the true headtonei. Although the
presenceof f is necessaryto support a 3-line, its
32
JCG vol 15,I,{o.I
presencedoesnot automaticallyguarant.. u 3-litt ,
becausei "anfunction as an upper neighbor to 3
"Les
as well, as mentionedabove in Beethoven's
Adieux" sonata(JCG,,Vol. 14, No. 2, p. 82).
"i
Although for a given piece the question ot
i?" often occupies too much time in a Schenker
course,the decisionis really secondaryto the voice
leading. Sometimesi and 3 work almost equally
well, and the interpretation is largely a matter of
"On top of old
emphasis. Seenin Example L4a,
Smokey" can be describedas supportingu 3-litte'
the first order arpeggiation seemsto favor 3 ou.t
i, the 3 receivesprolongation by its upper neighbor, and there is a descentfrom 3 to i (through 4)
at the end. But what about harmony? The dominant seemsto appear fairly early, and 3 descends
quickly to i over the single harmony. While this is
possible, a better interpretation might involve a iline (Example 14b), where the structural i o.",rtt
immediately after the appearanceof the dominant
harmony. The quick descentat the end would be
reinterpreted as a prolongation of ) by ascending
and descendingpassingmotions. This interpretation is less obvious, but I think has greatermerit,
in that it describesthe structure more accurately.
that exhibit this model
of structure, including
Op.7, No. 4 rn Abmajor andOp. 68, No. 4 in
F minor. Example 16
shows the opening
phrase from the minuet
of Haydn's Symphony
No. I04, where both
upper and lower neighbor notes prolong the
headtone3. Suctran upper neighborcanbe motivic: althoughthe B in
b) Voice-leadingreduction:
bar 6 of the example is
an incompleteneighbor
G majon I
note displaced up an
octaveby typical Haydn
Example I2: Compound melody: Bach Cello Suite in G major, prelude
wit (note the brackets),
it is probably a motivic
Fgdreference to the upper
cover rcne
neighbor B. In the following phrase(Example
L7), the motivic upper
neighbor-notemotion
A-B-A is enlarged: afI
ter the tonic statement
renrrns to A (3) rn Uar
Surface
17, B minor is tonicized
by an arpeggiation in
bars 18-20(Vln" I) fol7r v
V
I
lowed by three quick
arpeggiationsin bars
ExampleI3; Covertone in Foster,s,,Camptown
Races"
20-22(Vla., Vc., Fl.,
Ob., Bsn.). The subseEither interpretationis valid, however.
quentE' harmony (V of V in D major, bars ZZ-24)
Example 15 shows what I call the Twinkle2
resolvesto V (A major). While the progressionIIM9 model.2 In this model, the headtone3 i, proV'-I of V is not unusual,the pitch B rs commonto
longed by an upper neighbor note before descendboth the II and V7 chords, descendingto A at the
ing to the tonic. In a completecomposition,for
arrival of the A-major harmony. Thus Haydn exexample a work in ternary form, the upper neighpandsthe motivic 3-N-3 for ten completemeasures.
bor can representthe structure of an entire section
In the dominant preparationfor the return to D
of the work. There are severalChopin Mazurkas
major (bars 26-34, not shown), there are several
JCG Vol. 15.No. I
33
neighbor-note motions that now involve the chromatic upper neighbor
5
Bb0A. While this addswelcomecolor
and heightens the anticipation to the
return of the tonic D major, it also
servesas a link to the largest expansion of the upper neighbor note in the
piece, namely the entire trio section,
which is in the key of Bb major (bVI).'
In conclusion, enlarged repetitions
abound in great music and can be
found in many unexpected places.
The bases for such repetitions are
usually very simple ideas, such as
neighbor notes and passing tones.
b) asa 3-lire
Discovery of such repetitions often
sparksrenewed interest in even toowell-known works.
There are many othe"r melodies
structuredlike the Twinkle'M9 model"
such as "Blowin' in the Wind," the
opening of the second movement of
Dvorak's Cello Concerto, " Good
Christian Men Rejoice," "Michael,
Row the Boat Ashore," "Josephlieber,
Josephmein," the first movementof
Beethoven'sCello Sonatain A major,
op. 69 (note especiallythe brief Aminor melody precedingthe transition
t o t h e s e c o n d t h e m e ), " L o n d o n
Bridges," "Est ist ein Ros'entsprun"On
j-hrr,
Example tl; i-tine or
top of old Smokey,,
gen," "Long, Long Ago," the opening of the second movement of
Brahms'sSextetin G Major, the opening of his Cello Sonatain E minor (an elaborare
example indeed!) and the opening of his Fourth
Symphony (another intricate example that will be
discussed
below), "Nun Danket" ("Now thankwe
all our God"), "Ach, du lieber Augustin," Fanny
Mendelssohn'ssong "'Warum sind denn die Rosen
I
rv v6-5 r
so blaB?" and many othersof varying complexity.
"Happy
Birthday" and "I Got Rhythm" both feaExample I5; Twinkte2Mg model
ture an octave displacementin the final descent.4
a) as a 5line
A
A
4
J
34
JCG vot 15.No.l
Numerous fugue subjectsexhibit this structure,
such asthosefrom Bach'sMusical ffiering, the fugal
sectionof the Overture from his Orchestral Suite
in B minor, and the Fugue in Ebminor from WTC
I; Mozart's Fugue in C minor K. 546, and the
last movementof Haydn's String QuartetOp . 20,
No. 5. Subjectswith an opening fifth expanded
to a diminished sevenththen returning to a fifth
are fairly common, and this kind of neighbornote motion about the root and fifth makes for
easy inversionas well.
The Twinkle2 M9 model often appearsas an
the beginningof this article.) The model still shows
a prolongation of the headton. 3 Uy meansof upper neighbor notes. Example 18 illustrates this
model with the Gavotte II from Bach's Cello Suite
in C minor. Here the neighbor notesand structural
passingtones (such as f; are prolongedby consonant skips. On the surfaceof this piece, the consonantskips themselvesare prolongedby passing tones, again revealing nestedlevels of structure. Incidentally, the opening of the Gavottetr,
to which the Gavotte II serves as a kind of trio
section. reflects the "undivided" Twinkle2 Wg
model. Other tunes with a binary Twinklez Wg
structureare "Kumbayd," the tenderslow movement from Haydn's String Quartet in D major,
Op.76, No. 5 (the movementitself is in F# ma-
(thus,3-N-3-t;; ll 3-rN3l-4'
interrupted
strucrure
; ; i. Perhapsthis variant of the model should be
called a binary star structure. Incidentally, interrupted structure involving i-lines is discussedat
A
4
A
,
3
t
2
I
Example
SymphonyNo. 101 ("London"1, Mvt. III, openingphrase
20
22
ob. I
25
5
,--r-
'f,
Haydn, Symphony I{o. 101, Mvt. III, bars I7-26
JCG Vol. 15.No. I
35
A
A
4 3
a
A
2 i l 5
A
4 3
A
A
2
l
/'+\l
r
\_l-
\
I
V
4
EL
A
5
A
A
A
4 3
A
4 3
A
A
2 l
,l
Example I8:
Bach, Cello Suite in C minor. Gavotte II
jor!), "Durch Zarthcltkeit" from Mozart's Abduction from the Seraglio and Schumann's "Happy
Farmer." Semperidem. .
Part II will concludewith discussionsof two
great works that expand upon the Twinkle2 Wg
model. The first is the C-minor slow movement
from Mozart's String Quartetin C major, K. 157.
The secondis the openingthemeof Brahms'sFourth
Symphony. In both of theseworks, the characteristic upper neighbor of the headtoneis expanded
and developedin marvelousways, both within the
theme itself (Brahms) and later in the movement
(Mozart).
Example 19 is taken from the secondmovementof Mozart's Quartetin C major,K. I57 , completedat the end of 1772or the beginningof 1773,
when the composerwas not yet seventeenyears
old. The structure of the opening.,twelve-bar
phraseclearly displays the Twinkle' M9 model
t3 N 3 i'i i ?1, observedmosr distinctly in the
middleground graph. Later in this movement,
the characteristicupper neighborto 3 is enlarged
to control the motion of the entire development
36
JCG vol 15.No.t
section,brief as it is. It is best to start commentary with the secondline of Example 19a, what
Schenkercalls the UrlinietafeL This is a graph
that resemblesthe surfaceof the piece with added
analytical notation. Details from every level of
structure are included. The only notes missing
from the Urlinietafel in Example L9a are most
of the inner sixteenthsfrom the secondviolin part.
This example, especially if the work is not familiar, should be played on a keyboard. The
line above, labeled " Mgd . " (middleground),
should be played as well. The middleground
should soundvery much like the Urlinietafel, but
the structurally important elements are clearer
becausethe diminutions, i.e., surfacedetails.
have been eliminated.
Severalfeaturesof the piece are worth pointing
out: two neighbor-note motions are heard in the
first four measuresof the work, one above the
headtone3 tC-al-G) and the other in an inner voice
below the tonic (C-BE-C). Though audibleon the
surface,thesemotions are more easily seenin the
middlegroundgraph. A seeminglyinnocuousde-
tail appearsin bars 5-7 in the Urlinietafel, where
the chromaticdouble neighbor noresDb-Bl prolong the tonic C (supportedby the viola's F to Eb
neighbor-notemotions). The doubleneighbor-nore
motionhasconsequences
for severallevelsof structure, especiallyin the development.The F# in bar
8 is a chromaticpassingtone (Chr. P) from the
headtoneG to the Fl in bar 9. Although it is
spelled on the surface as tr#. it is shown in the
middlegroundgraphto be an enharmonicrespelling
of Gb, a true chromatic passingtone Qn F# must
resolveup to G, nor down to Fh). The diminished-
seventhharmony in bar 9 is interestingbecauseit
incorporatesseveralelementsalreadynotedabove,
namely the two neighbor-notemotions C-gh-C in
the bassand G-Ab -G in an inner voice (moreeasily seenin the middlegroundgraph fiom bars 710)" The inner-voiceAh, tbund in the Urlinietafet
in bar 8" is a chromaticallyalteredpassingrone
from G in bar I to Bi in bar 9 (indicatedby arrows). with the Bl displaceddown an octave. In
anothercontexr.the Bh in bar 9 might alsobe considereda passingtone.resultingin the4"-progression
G-Al -B! -C. but in this passagethe neighbor-note
rnl
A
a
)
)
?
I
Q mines I
ivbf;r
rnl
2
3
4
N 5
A
g^
5
,
4
ur%1-
3
I
12
1
\
A
Chr.
P
Urlinietafel
C
1"0
A
5
t
V
11
2
i t
1
\L
t
-
N
Y
i
-
qvui3r
C minon I
(=\D
c)
b)
m.4l
Stnrcruraldescent:
raz
rn 100
5
A
A
N 4
3
,
i
2
A
1)
f i f i f
106
A
3
N
r----C
rn,l) f
I
V
u
u
t
f
i
ry
I
A
( !)
A
^
,
\
A
2(Ns432)1
*
1u61V
Exumplel9: Mozurt,Quut"tctirr C Mujor. K. l 5-, t\l vt. II, ol tatti ttgl tl truse
,/CG Vol" I5, No. I
37
Dcvelopmcnl
OS lf 7](Rcca^e.) A A A
(5 N 5 4 3 2 l )
m . 45
(
w
vt
C minor I
m-45
49
N
ril
52
V
G
64 65A ll A TlA (ReaP-)
A
A
.
A
A
5 ( 5 N 5 4 3 2 1)
56fl
rN
,t
z-i
DN
C minon @
hr
r TFir
v(r
Example 20: Mozart, String Quartet in C Major, K. 157, Mvt. II, development
function of the Bl is too firmly entrenchedto be
affectedby a motion from an inner voice.
The parenthetical G found in bar 9 of the
middleground is the implied root of the dominant
harmony. Schenkerconsidereddiminishedchords
(which are most often built on VII) to be dominant
harmonieswith missing roots. He further maintainedthat both diminished-seventhand ninth chords
do not even exist as independentharmonies,but
are the result of contrapuntalmotion (anotherexample of a linear perspectivetaking precedence
over a vertical conception). This view holds true
in the presentexample,where the diminished-seventh chord in bar 9 is a neighbor-note harmony
functioning as a dominant to C minor (the Bhand
Ab are neighbor notes to C and G, respectively).
Adding the G under this neighbor-note harmony
clarifies the chord's dominant function.
Schenkerdiscussesthe addition of a root rn Free
Composition:
Voice leading may also arrive at roots by
actually addingtonesthat are implicit in the
context,that is, by placing them underneath
38
JCG vot 15.No.l
the lowest voice.
When a chromatic
tone has the effect of a leading tone, the
third below, the root, is often added. The
chromaticpassingtone [in this case,neighbor tone] is thus somewhatconcealed,and
in addition the stronger effect of a descending fifth [i.e. V-I]. (p. 90)
Other occurrencesof the Twinkle2 M9 model at
different structural levels are shown in Example
19b, where the violin II and viola play in unison in
bars 4Iff. to end the exposition.
The structural descentof the fundamentalline
occurs in bars 100-107(Example 19c). Here the
upper neighbor Ah appearsin bar 102 resulting in
parallel octaveswith the bass: Mozart avoids the
parallel octaveson the surfaceby arpeggiatingthe
individual harmonies. Just as the structurat i is
about to resolve to ?, the sixteenth-notemotion in
bars 106-107quickly sumsup the form of the opening phraseand the structural descentof the entire
movement!
The development section reveals the
movement's most extensive prolongation of the
upper neighbor Ab. Observedin the middleground
of Example20. the Ab is prolongedin the top voice
from bars 49-64, supportedby the diatonic harmonies Ab major and F minor for eight measures
apiece. The root movementof the bassresultsin a
large doubleneighbor-notemotion, revealedin the
middlegroundin bars 49-[57]-65. I considerrhis
to be an enlargementof the double neighbor-note
motions in bars 5-7. The F-minor harmony from
bars 57 -64 is necessaryfor the prolongation of
Ab becauseof the context of the developmentsection, whose eventualgoal is the dominant G: the
double-neighbormotion in the bassavoidsthe structural parallel octaves that would result from the
motion Ah-G in both the top and bottom voices.
Thus, Mozart takesa simple model, in this casea
neighbor-notemotion followed by passing rones
from 3 to ?, and expandsand contractsit in various ways to unify a very beautiful and deceptively
intricate movement
An analysisof the richly complex openingtheme
of Brahms'sFourth Symphonyrevealsan underlying structure resembling the Twinkle2 M9 model
(Example 2l). Like Mozart, Brahms employs a
doubleneighbor-notemotion to avoid structuralparallel octaves. In this theme, however, the functions of the bottom and top voices are reversed
from those of the Mozart quartet movement, and
the greatestprolongation of the upper neighbor
occurs in the bass.
A discussionof the openingthemeis beststarted
with an examinationof the relatively simpte deep
middlegroundlevel (Mgd. 1, seenar the top of Example21). In the upper voice, the headtoneB (3)
is prolonged by a double neighbor-notemotion.
The bass shows the large-scaleroot movementIU-GV6)-V-I, with the VI-IV6 .orr.rponding ro rhe
double neighbor motion. As in the opening of the
symphony'ssecondmovement(Examples5 and 6
in Part I, pp. 82-83), the C-major harmony(VI) of
the first movementis also a neighbor-noteharmony
to the dominant. Brahms faced the identical
compositionalproblem that Mozart did, specifically
how to progress from vI to v without creating
parallel octaves (8-8) between the outer voices.
Both composersarrived at the same solution: interposea lower neighbot to 3 or V so that the dominant harmony is reached by contrary motion.
Mozart chose to place the lower neighbor in the
bass, resulting in an 8-10-8 intervallic pattern.
Brahmsplacedthe lower neighborin the top voice,
resulting in an 8-6-8 pattern.
The graphics at this level (Mgd. 1) show the
beamsof the top and bottom lines continuing outward to the right of the example. This servesas a
reminderthat the analysistreatsonly the first theme
of a much larger work, a detailed srudy of which
reachesfar beyondthe scopeof the presentarticle.
In the deep middlegroundof a completeanalysis,
the opening theme would consist of the headtone
over the tonic bassnote, with perhapsa descentin
unstemmednotesto show a small-scaleechoof the
larger fundamentalline. For this article, however,
the theme is treatedas an independententity at the
later levels (thosecloser to the surface).
At the next level (Mgd . 2), severaleventsunfold. The first is the motivic upper neighbor-note
motion B-C-B in the first phrase(bars I-4). The
prolongationof the motivic neighbornote C in bars
8-13 involvesthe expansionof the rangesof both
voices. The top line showsthat the upper neighbor
C is displacedup an ocrave(comparedwith Mgd.
1) in bar 8 and is prolonged by u l-progression
down from €' ' ' , with the arrival of the lower c' ' '
in bar 13. However, the most important event at
this level occursin the bass(bars5-15) with what
Schenkercalled a Koppelung, a coupling that prolongs a singlepitch by transferringit from one octave registerto another. This coupling is filled in
by steps,making it equivalentto an 0-progression.6
The stepsC to G of the coupling support the upper-voiceC with its l-progression(bars5-13). The
coupling's G#-A-B (bars 13-14) support the passing tone B, which connectsthe double neighbor
notes C and A. The final C of the coupling supports the lower neighbor A (bar 15). The chroJCG Vol. 15, l,,lo. I
39
m-1
5
I
E min:
(=n.n hrm-)
E min.: I
m-I
10
11
L2
10
11
LZ
A
5
zG.t
-prog.
-
(=8-prog.)
<==-=-,
<J
J- vr
Emin: IJ-
|
surfacB'
2
4
5
r
T:lfi)
Vtr
6
I'
9
l0
8
t2
11
l
{
--- -
t r ?
?u
( with n.n. hrms.)
I
Harmo
,
,
-
,
|
TT
'
m
r*
-r-
|
II
rV
VU
=
ll
JCG vot 15, No.l
)'
a
I
ll
T--T
Example 2l: Brahms, SymphonyNo. 1, openingphrase
40
"h
lu
-\
a - \
.l
?
E min: I
7
iltrt
htr
ll
fl
18
T7
t5
19
A
(=5
A
4
A
3 "Z
1)
(w6)
13
15
14
r6
t7
18
,
19
t
4
A
A
A
3'.2 1
DN (d P)
F
vx-
I
r9
T7
A
A
5
-)
r Fr3J
1'.
I
P
vrf va7
/frl
t4
l3
i
l
T-TTTTw-
i
l
3
2
I
-8
rv?sl d3
v8
15
T7
16
I
18
19
Vln, II
I
€'
uf Y* ^,,w
A
fir
ob.r
-bt
A
4
l--..
-rr
\
7I
5
|
t
_
l
l
Example2I, continued
JCG Vol. 15,No. I
4l
matic passingtone A# in bar 16 links the lower
neighbor A with the headtoneB, ensuring that the
A is not mistakenly heard as the descendingstructural f. Nor-ally, if the structuratf is presented,it
must continue its passingmotion down to i in the
structural descent,and cannot return to 3. However, Brahms avoids this predicamentby ascending chromatically through A#, a passing motion
that is strongly felt on the surfaceas well as in the
middleground. The harmony resulting from the
passingA# tn the middleground is the so-called
Germanaugmented-sixthchord. To avoid the parallel fifths betweenC-G and B-F# resulting from a
direct resolutionfrom the Germanaugmented-sixth
to V, a I chord is interposedresulting in a 5-6-5
progression(correspondingto bars 15-17-18,re1
spectively).'
In the foreground ("Fgd. " in Example 2I), the
basic voice leading is fleshed out from the
middlegroundlevel. Unlike many of Schenker's
foregroundgraphs, which eliminate large amounts
of surface detail, the foreground of Example 2L
preservesall the notesof the theme, mainly for the
purposeof demonstratingtheir context and voiceleading functions. Thus the upper neighbor-note
motion of the first four bars includesthe inner voices
that give rise to the diminished-seventhchord in
bars 2-3, a harmonyunfolded in descendingthirds
on the surface. Each note of the l-progressionED-C (bars5-8) now hasconsonantsupportfor each
pitch, and the passingnote D is actually supported
by two harmonies(G major and D minor). The
diagonallines in bars 6-7 and 8-9 show how the
bass notes support the top line, even though the
bassand top voices are not heard simultaneously.
The correct voice leading is aligned in the
middleground.
The foregroundrevealsseveralhidden repetitions: first, the i-progressionE-D-C (best seenin
bars 5-8 of Mgd. 2) is repeatedon a smaller scale
in bars 10-11and I2-I3 (the latter is chromatically
altered)in the foreground. Another i-progression,
C-B-A (seenin bars 13-15of Mgd. 2), also ap42
JCG vot 15.No.I
pears in the foreground in bars 9 and 11. Viewed
in chronological order in the foreground, the 1progressionE-D-C appearsonce in a larger form
and then is contractedtwice, while the i-progression C-B-A is heard twice in the foreground and is
then expandedin bars I5-I7 . The crossedlines in
bars 13-14 show a voice exchangeinvolving B to
B and G# to G#. Normally, sucha voice exchange
would result in a single vertical harmony at the
next deeperlevel. In this case, however, the resulting skip of a diminished fourth (from G# to C
in the bass,bars 13-15)would havebeenunacceptable, and I gave precedenceto the filling-in steps
of the coupling. Although the F# in the bassin bar
16 has a limited voice-leadingfunction (mainly it
interposesitself betweenthe C and B), it provides
a welcome changein the direction of the bassline
and heightensthe pull toward the dominant in the
next measure. The motivic neighbor-notemotion
B-C-B in bars I7 -I8 servesas a reminder of the
main structural element in the theme. The neighbor note, a minor ninth abovethe bass, intensifies
the dominant harmony on the surface and propels
the phraseforward to the repetition of the theme.
Becauseall the notes of the theme were preserved in the foreground graph, comments about
the surfaceof the theme will be brief. The interpretationof the possibledouble neighbor-notemotion in bars 1-4 presentsdifficulties with the counterpoint, difficulties that don't exist for the same
figure in the middleground. Can the lower neighbor A resolvebackup to B in the foreground?Given
the voice leading in the foreground, there are two
contrapuntalreasonswhy the resolution of the diminished-seventhharmony necessitatesthat the A
resolvedown to G, not up to B. First, the resolution of the diminishedfifth D#-A musr be to E-G.
Second,the A of the diminished-seventh
chord is a
fourth above the E,tonic pedal point and therefore
must resolvedown to G, as it would in a 4-3 suspension. On the surface, however, Brahms does
all he can to convince the listener that A does indeedreturn back up to B. For instance,there is no
4
2
m. I
Ww.
p dolce
(FLI,tr
CLt tr [8vbl
Bsn.t tr [15vb])
Example 22: Brahms,
SymphonylVo. 4, bars
I-1, winds and strings
Vln- tr
G in the melody to which the A can resolveuntil
bar 5, after the B in bar 4 alreadyappearsto have
been reachedfrom the A. In the wind parts (Example 22), the vertical A-F# third in bar 3 seems
to resolveup to G-B at the end of bar 4 (in fact, the
G-B at the end of bar 4 is actually the resolution of
the A-C from the end of bar 2). In addition, the A
that endsthe ascendingviola arpeggioat the end of
bar 3 leads very nicely up to the B in the same
registerin the secondviolin line (shownin the box
in Example 22).
Although Brahms goes ro some length to insinuate a double neighbor-note motion around B
on the surface, the underlying counterpoint demonstratesthat this motion is a surfaceillusion. But
the counterpoint at a much deeper level reveals a
true doubleneighbormotion that spansa much longer
distanceand provides someof the motivic unity to
the openingof one of Brahms'sgreatestworks.8
In summary, a serious hard-core study of
Schenkerbelongs in the realm of advancedtheory
and will probably remainthere. But thereare many
great ideasthat musicianscan make use of, basic
conceptsthat are perhapsnot so difficult to understand. With practiceand observation,one can discover many subtletiesthat usedto passundetected,
many of which can be brought out in performance
(linear progressions,for example). It is mainly a
matter of adjusting one's perspectivefrom a primarily harmonic point of view (as taught in most
theorv curricula) to a view that better takes into
accountthe seeminglyendlesslinear
aspectsof rnusic.
*
:t€ d< rlc {<
*
{<
*c
Dr. Peter Gibeau is AssistantProfessorof Music at the Universityof WisconsinCenter- Washington and Music Director of the Moraine Chorus (VW).
* * € t ( { c * { € * t (
ENnNorns
t
1
Although an 0-tineis theoreticallypossible,such
a model is problematicbecause0 is the tonic, and
there is no further need to descend from it. In
addition, strict counterpointdictatesthat ?, the leading tone, must resolveup to 0. Nonetheless,several melodiesthat seemto prolong 0 include "Ein
festeBurg," "Somewhereover the Rainbow" and
"Puff
the Magic Dragon."
2
A class M star has about one-thousandththe
massand luminosity of our sun. The ninth star in
a seriesis the smallest. In other words, Twinkle2
JCG Vol. 15, No. I
43
M9 is an academicallyelliptical label for a structural model that resemblesa well-known nursery
tune. An astonishingnumber of melodies, when
strippedof their linear progressions,passingtones
and neighboringtones,etc., exhibit this structure.
pressing the essential shape while expanding the
neighbor-notemotion. Note also the deceptivecadence function of the neighbor motion (VI) just
before the descentof the fundamentalline.
Jq
Th. retransitionto the minuet is also interesting
(bars95-104,not shown)becauseof the resolution
of the B down to the dominant A in the violas and
bassoonh Note also the repeatedA-G#-A in the
first violins and first oboe(bars 99-IM, not shown),
usheringthe return of the minuet that featuresboth
upper and lower neighbor notes.
I am compiling an ever-growing list of tunesthat
resembleeither the undivided or divided (interrupted) Twinkle2 Mg model. Readersof this journal are encouragedto sendme any other suchtunes
they may come across,from whatever source! My
addressis: PeterGibeau, UWWC, 400 University
Drive, West Bend,WI 53095. My e-mailaddress
is: [email protected]
4
6
3
Gershwin's "I Got Rhythm" deservesspecia"l
affention:While the A, sectionoutlinesthe Twinkle'
M9 model (bracketedin the example), the bridge
sectionconsistsof two skeletaloutlines of the same
model t3 N 3 D, the seconda step lower than the
first. The final notes of each skeletaloutline correspondto the (neighbornote) 6 and 3, r.rpe.tively
(labeledN!). The bridge thus,,synthesizes
the rwo
primary featuresof the Twinkle' M9 modelby com-
Ar
A similar coupling occurs in Brahms's Cello
Sonata,Op. 38 (also in E minor), where the cello
ascendsfrom c' to c" in bars 9-I7. This coupling
has a more melodic function, unlike the coupling's
bass function in the symphony. Another interesting similarity between the two works is seen in
bars 2-3 of the sonata, where a double neighbornote motion around B occurs in the cello part. In
the first two beatsof bar 3, the A (lower neighbor
B (nrioee)
rzul.g
f,vrg
v
G maj: I
Graphic analysis of
George Gershwin's
Az
"I Got Rhythm"
(footnote 4)
v
(8)-7
v
'\-=
*!'
,
VIlII
(=v7ru)
44
JCG vot 15.No.t
its own double neighbor-notemotion A-B-A-G-A.
Context is once again a deciding factor: the B, the
headtonein this movement, functions as a fleeting
upper neighbor note to the lower neighbor note A.
Two examples of coupling appear in
Schenker'sanalysisof Bach's C-major Preludefrom
WTC 1, found rn Five Graphic Music Annlyses,pp.
36 and37. The first, found in the bassin bars l-Ig,
links c' with c, completelyfilled in by steps. The
secondcoupling @ars24-34 in the top voice) links d'
to d", with only partial filling in.
,7
'
Although the root of the German augmented-sixth
chord is perceivedto be C (VI of E minor), the actual
root is A# (flV). The chord is thus #IV!. On the
surface,Brahmsinterposesan F# in the bassbetween
C and B, creating a VltV harmony that strengthens
the arrival of the structuraldominant in measureL7.
8
Two additional observationscan be made regarding the surfaceof this opening. First, the harmonic rhythm intensifiesas the bassascends:there
is a tonic pedal point in the first four bars, then
two bars per bassnote (bars 5-8), then one bar per
bassnote (bars 9-I2), then two notesper bar (bars
l3-I4). The final C lastsfor two bars (bars 15-16,
including the interposed F#), until the arrival of
the dominant(bar 17), slowing down the harmonic
rhythm in time for the repetition of the first theme.
Second, there is a motivic B-C-B neighbor-note
motion by the oboe in bar 17 is resolved by the
Vln. II in the next measure,launchingthe theme's
repetition. Although the neighbor note and its subsequentresolution may sound like a 9-8 suspension, suchand interpretationwould be in error becausethere is no consonantpreparationof the dissonantninth.
Books in Review
Arthur Weisberg, Performing Twentieth-Century
Music, A Handbookfor Conductors;New Haven:
Yale University Press,1993;ISBN# 0-300-050100; I42 pp.; $20.00
Reviewed by Henry Bloch
Arthur Weisberg's new book is probably the
most valuable work for conductorsthat has come
acrossmy desk in a long time. In fact, it picks up
the thread where Max Rudolf's famous Grammar
of Conducting leaves off; it may be considereda
worthy continuationinto interpretationand conducting technique of the most advancedmusic in the
twentieth century. Mr. Weisberg statesthat the
objective of the performer must be to offer the best
presentationpossible of a twentieth-century
composer'sideas; it is not, however, the
conductor's responsibility to make quality judgments in a historical context.
To achievea competentperformanceof a midor late-twentieth-century
work, Mr. Weisberganalyzes those elementsthat are most likely to create
difficulties in obtaining desiredresults. Theseinclude modernrhythms (which occasionallymay be
rewritten in simplified notation), an approachto
accuratetemposaccordingto precisemodernnotation and metronome indications, adaptationof traditional conductingpatternsto the new challenges,
and suggestionsfor thorough preparation of the
score. The book is well organizedand links technical problems with detailed explanationsof how
to solve them. Exercisesfor systematicpractice
are offered.
The first chapter introduces "irregular versus
regular" groups of notes and proceedsto explain
how the irregular groups of five notes, seven, or
others should be counted. To overcomeany initial
difficulties, exercisesare offered. The next section dealswith cross-rhythms,involving "simultaJCG Vol. 15. No. I
45
neousirregular" groupings,and offers suggestions
on how to executethem accurately.Music examples
are quoted from Copland's El Sal6n Mexico, and
Stravinsky's Octet for winds and L'Histoire du
Soldat.
Chapter2 explainsa logical, yet complex system of rewriting cross-rhythms. The system is
basedon first determininga low commondenominator. Then, accurateexecution of the actual
rhythms can be derived. Rhythmic examplesin
this chapterprogressfrom simpleto complex. They
are basedon excerptsfrom various contemporary
compositions.For example.if the tempoof a piece
is too fast to count the individual notesof a quintuplet or septuplet,the performer should follow his
instinctsbasedon intellectualperceptionof the prescribedrhythm. The author definesthis method as
"EducatedFaking."
To achievegreateraccuracywhen performing
more complicatedcross-rhythms,onecan align their
rewritten form with the beat of the metronome.
Sucha combinationis calleda "CompositeRhythm;"
it is a useful tool to improve precision in the performanceof the cross-rhythms(seeExample 1)"
I
I
A
I
i
ri
B
C.r-s---r
D-3r
-3-
n i . i . r r i i , ' J | i, I, i, , i -) h
I'r
t r lr ' tr ' ' tI l \ lr - lt l | i t- ll ' r Ir i i/ ^[) ' , i,
Example l: Weisberg, PnnFoRMTNG
TwnNuBrH-CnNruny
Mustc, p. 39.
Next, Mr. Weisberg examinesrhythm and
tempo in their many subtle variationsand combinations. His first directive to the performer is to
derive the tempo from the metronome speedindicatedby the composer. Then, in that tempo, derive the actual speedof the basic note values such
as whole, half, quarter,eighth, etc. However, this
seeminglysimpleprocessgraduallybecomesmore
complicatedastriplets, dottednotes,and other complex rhythmic variantsare added.
In a chapterdevotedto "The Basisof Conducting," Weisbergdealswith rhythmic and other in46
JCG vot 15.No.I
novationsof contemporarymusic which require that
a conductor develop additional technical skills in
order to lead an ensembleeffectively through a modern piece. As an aid to composers(or principal
instrumentalists)who are occasionallycalledupon
to conduct, the author introducesfundamentalconducting patterns,basicmeters,the beat, the preparatory beat, irregular meters, and so on. Then he
proceedsto demonstratethe more complicatedproblems of contemporarymusic, such as conducting
two metersat the sametime, subdividingirregular
meters,etc.
"Preparingthe Score" is recommended.It
will
makeperformanceof a difficult passageclearerand
easierfor both orchestraand conductor. Analysis
of the composer'sintention may lead the conductor to rewrite rhythmic patternsin simplified meters
without affecting the actual sound of the passage
(seeExample2). Additional examplesfrom works
by Copland,Stravinsky,Boulez and othersarecited
in which "editing" the written text can make execution less complicated. This practice has been
adopted by many conductors and is acceptable,
provided the intention of the composeris not violated.
Boulez' Le Marteau sans Maitre is considered
one of the most difficult works in the twentiethcentury repertoire. A more detaileddiscussionthat
introducesthe reader to the full complexities of its
inherent problems would have been helpful.
Boulez, in his writings, explainssomeof the structural elementsof this work. In the few music examples found in this book, the numbering of the
measuresdoesnot correspondto the text. Are these
errors that escapedthe proofreader?
As a meansof changing from one tempo to another in precisely calculatedrelationships,"Metric Modulation" was developedby Elliot Carter.
Of course, all music requiresa certain "combination of precision and freedom" defined asflow, the
latter being an interpretive decision by the performer. The task of conducting "Metric Modulation" is illustratedby a passagefrom Elliot Carter's
3
4
IE.
I t!.
ct[.
cL uerry,
otrLn
I
I
fE.
fi.IL
cL!.
CLLtr.
cmN.
G [l
CcI.I
tY.
c.il.lL
CaE-ll
CcaU.lv
Et,
TrL
I
I
nr
[1tr-
OLI.&
ob,I.I
oLE.tv.
oLlt,IY.
et&
CLL tr.
cEr.
o.rL il.
&LL
Cel.L
C*m.rI
kttr.tYtt.
T!I.
Example 2: Excerpt from Stravinsklt's PnlnoucHKA, in Ll/eisberg,pp. 98-99
Double Concertofor Harpsichord, Piano, and Two
ChamberOrchestras. CharlesIves's ThreePlaces
in New England servesas anotherexampleof similar rhythmic complexities.
When working with twentieth-cenfurymusic,
severalproceduresneedto be addedto a conductor's
usual preparation. In addition to the rhythmic,
metric and harmonicinnovations,thereis the everexpandingpercussionsectionwhich sometimesincludesunusualinstrumentsthat are not alwayseasily or accuratelyidentifiable. Sometimes,symbols
which refer to the handlins of electronic instru-
ments or other specialeffects are listed at the beginning of a score. Mr. Weisberg reminds the
readerof the needto determinewhethera scoreis
written in C or containstraditional transpositions,
a fact not always obvious if a composerfails to
provide this pertinentinformation.
Finally, there are useful suggestionsfor marking scoresand parts. In addition to the conventional " scorereminders" of tempo changesand instrumententrances.Weisberg offers an elaborate
systemof metric and rhythmic symbols to clarify
the structureof irregular meters. Indeed,his sysJCG Vol. t5. No. I
47
E l a l i u! A H 1 3A I I l i au ! A
Example3: Weisberg,p. 136
I
a=172
J=60
t
I
p. 137
Example1: I4reisberg,
tem shows conductorsand players the breakdown
of suchmetersas7 18,an irregular9/8, 10/8, IIl8.,
etc., as they occur in a given example (see Example3). In addition,thereare legiblegradedsigns
for accelerando(seeExample4), ritardando, crescendo and diminuendo"
It is remarkablehow much material is covered
in only I42 pagest Nonetheless,it would havebeen
more informative and instructive to have someone
with Weisberg's insights and perceptionssurvey
many more contemporarycompositionswhoseintricaciescould be simplified by informed analysis"
Recommendations
for additionalreading:
PierreBoulez, Stocktakings,Oxford: Clarendon
Press, I99I; esp. pp. 128-29;152-54.
. Orientations,Cambridge:Harvard
University
Press,1986;esp.pp. 330-43.
Kurt Stone,Music Notation in the Twentieth
Century,New York: Norton,1980.
{ < * { < { < * l t { < *
Henry Bloch is artistic director of the Overlook Lyric Theatre,a chamberopera company
in Woodstock.New York.
{ < * { < * { < d < > F *
Norman Del Mar, ConductingBrahms, Oxford/
New York: Oxford UniversityPress,1993; ISBN#
0 - 1 9 - 8 1 6 3 5 6 -283; 6 p p . ; $ 2 9 . 9 5
Reviewed by Henry Bloch
48
JCG vol 15.No.I
The presentvolume follows the sameformat as
Norman Del Mar's earlier book on the orchestral
works of Beethoven. In his quest for authoritative
performances,Del Mar draws from his own conducting experiencesand a lifetime spent in painstaking examinations of autographs and other resources. He was a tine musician and a good conductor whoseunderstandingof the music is in evidencethroughouthis discussionsof Brahms's orchestralworks. Undoubtedly,when comparingDel
Mar's interpretationswith those of other conductors, differences in detail may be found; most interpretationsdependlargely on the tradition in which
eachconductorwas trained. However, Del Mar's
book offers substantialfood for thought and, generally, provides an excellentbasis for srudy. Del
Mar's interpretationis closeto the tradition of many
European conductors of the generation that embracedArthur Nikisch, Bruno Walter, Adrian Boult
and Pierre Monteux, among others. However, it
appears to be at variance with the ideas of
Furtwdngler,Toscanini,Stokowski, or othermore
individualistic interpreters.
For the basic tempo of a composition,most of
Del Mar's suggestedmetronomemarkings are acceptable. However, modifying tempo directives
that appearwithin a given movement or independent piece where Brahms does not indicate a new
tempo,must be subjectedto critical judgment. For
example, the recommendationsfor the introduction of the finale of the First Symphony are generally well taken. But, unlessthe openingAdagio is
taken in a very slow tempo, it may be too much to
double the tempo at the Piu Andante (horn solo),
which in turn could causethe timpanist somegrief.
Suggestionsby Del Mar for unmarked tempo
changesshould be carefully and critically considered before they are adopted! In the secondmovement of the SecondSymphony, changesin tempo,
as suggested,are questionable,althoughthosepassagesmust achieve a change in characterthrough
expressivemeans. Here again, one must consider
Del Mar's sussestionswith caution. In the third
movement,Brahms'sown markingsarequiteclear.
The first movementof the Third Symphony,with
all its intricacies,is discussedin detail. and Del
Mar offers many helpful recommendations.Choice
of the appropriatetempo and solutionsto technical
problemsare recommended,but someof theseare
open to debate,especiallythe return to the recapirulation,which many conductorsprefer to subdivide into six beatsfor firmer control.
The score of the Academic Festival Overture
calls for severaljudgments by the conductor, as
Del Mar points out, but carefulanalysisof the music
leaveslittle doubt as to what the trusting Brahms
had in mind. Nevertheless,the tempo and pulse
relationshipsbetweensectionsare well explained,
the rationale basedon thematic and rhythmic considerations. The chapreron the First piano Concerto offers a most thorough examinationof the
conductor's task in generatingthis work's enormous dramatic impact. One could take exception
with Del Mar's suggestionthar, in the third movement, the conductor need not mark the measures
of the solo passages,provided he give an unmistakably clear sign for eachstring entry. But, if so
performed, where are the rest of the players
who have to count rests until their respectiveentrances- to derive their measurecount?
Occasionally,Del Mar correctsmistakesin the
Breitkopf & Hiirtel scores,but by no meansdoes
he addressall of the errors. Alas. correctionsfor
only oneBrahmswork, the SecondSymphony,have
been publishedin the "scores and parts" column
of the Journal of the Conductors' Guitd (Vol. 4,
No. 2, Spring 1981). In otherchapters,a number
of discrepanciesbetweenthe original editions of
Simrockand the larereditionsby Breitkopf & Hiirtel
are noted.
It is good to have the two Serenadesincluded
in this book. Both are wonderful works which do
not receiveadequateattentionelsewhere.The Serenades, especiallythe one in A major, containmany
characteristicsof Brahms'sstyle adaptedto a more
intimate scale. Both works are eminentlvsuitable
for performanceby smaller orchestraswho would
otherwise have no opportunity to play Brahms.
Happily, Del Mar gives them the sameattentionhe
devotesto the larger compositions.
A thoughtful chapteron Ein deutschesRequiem
concludesConductingBrahms ina most fiUing manner. As we know, Brahms was deeply involved
with settingpoetic words to music and, of course,
spent a considerable amount of time conducting
choruses. Nevertheless,Del Mar's Requiem discussion is for the conductor who must direct the
actualperformance;few recommendationsare provided for the chorus master who might wish to
broaden his insights into the technical challenges
containedin the choral parts. But as everywhere
else in the book. the discussionsare stimulating
and offer helpful performance suggestionsfor the
great music of JohannesBrahms.
,F nk rlc {c r|( ,F {€ ,F
Christopher Fifield, True Artist and True Friend,
A Biography o.fHans Richter, New York: Oxford
UniversityPress,1993;ISBN# 0-19-816157-3:
519
pp., $35.00
Reviewed by Henry Bloch
In the view of ChrisropherFifield, Hans Richter, champion of the music of Liszt, Wagner,
Bruckner, Brahms, Elgar, and many other composersof his generation,was the first "professional,,
conductor to develop an extensiverepertoire; he
also provided admirableleadershipfor eachof the
organlzationshe was chosento lead at various stages
of his long career. One need not challengethe
author's contention, becausethose who come to
- Hans von Btilow
mind as possiblepredecessors
and Franz Liszt - were establishedpiano virtuosi
who turned to conducting later in life, and never
consideredit as their primary metier. Nor should
composerslike Wagner, Weber, and a few others,
be consideredas suchbecausemost often thev conJCG Vol. 15,No.I
49
ductedtheir own works and only a limited general
repertoire. Richter was a full-time conductorand
built a remarkablecareerwhich eventuallysaw him
work in all the major musical centersof Europe.
He was equally at home in the operahouseand on
the concert stage. During his lifetime, he interacted with most of the era's leading composers,
singers,instrumentalsoloists,and colleaguesof the
podium. SinceRichter was central to the musical
life of his time, the reader is treatedto an exceptional panoramaof the late-Romanticmusical experience.
After early training in his nativeHungary,,Richter went to study at the famous Konservatorium
der Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde in Vienna.
Among his teacherswere the director, Josef
Hellmesberger,and the eminent theorist, Simon
Sechter,who also countedSchubertand Bruckner
among his pupils. Having obtained a score of
Tannhauser,Richter soughta professionalopinion
of the new work. He approachedSechter.who
merely commented,"Well, I'm afraid that's how
they composethesedays" (p. 6). Richter'sprincipal instrumentwas the French Horn, but he cculd
alsoplay violin and piano. Early in his careerhe
managedto play most orchestralinstrumentswell
enough to fill in for ailing members of the
KcirntnerthorTheater orchestrawhere he was employed from 1862to 1866.
Richter's career receiveda decisiveboost in
1866 when KapellmeisterHeinrich Esserrecommendedhim to Wagner as a copyist for the score
of Die Meistersinger. Essersenthim to Tribschen
where Wagner was still occupiedwith the composition of the work. Here, Richter came to know
Wagner well and was introducedto his music and
ideas. He was acceptedinto the householdas a
son. Many ideasabout music and other subjects
were shared. It was also at Wagner's home that
Richter first met Fraru Lrszt and became overwhelmedby his extraordinaryvirtuosity. But Liszt
seemsto havebeenequallyimpressedwith Richter's
50
JCG vot 15.No.I
specialgifts: he recommendedRichter for the post
of regularconductorat the operahousein Budapest.
It is there where Richter officially beganhis professionalconducting career with a performanceof
Lohengrin on October 7, I87I. Emerging from
Budapestwith valuable experienceand equipped
with extraordinary talent, he moved on to someof
the great orchestrasand opera housesof Europe.
Among the most notablewere Vienna, London and
Manchester.
Richard Wagner, too, was quick to recognize
Richter's musical gifts. He transformedRichter
into a genuinedisciple via instructionin his music
and style. and a broadervision of the arts" Wagner
blendedartistic guidancewith a close personalrelationshipand professionalsupport. Teacherand
protegealso played music of Beethovenand other
composerson the piano, undoubtedlythe introduction of Richter to Wagner's interpretationsof their
music. In 1867, Wagner took Richter to Munich
to attend rehearsalsfor the forthcoming production of Lohengrinunder Hans von Brilow. Richter
was deeply impressedwith Btilow's detailed rehearsalpatterns: with the singers, coaching sessions around the piano, Sitzprobewrth orchestra,
and full productionrehearsals;with the instrumentalists,sectionaland full-orchestrarehearsalswithout stageand, ultimately, dressrehearsals. Richter commentson these rehearsals- whose systematic plan has been followed by other conductors ever since - in detailed letters to his mother
and to his friend, Camillo Sitte. Also included
were interestinganecdotes,such as when Richter
met Franz Strauss,principal horn of the Munich
orchestra and father of Richard, who at the time
was three years old.
In the 1860s and 70s Wagner recommended
Richterfor variousconductingpositions,especially
for performancesof his own music dramas. In
L872, Wagner asked Richter to help assemblea
festivalorchestrafor perfornancesat Bayreuth,performancesthat were to include some of the finest
musiciansof Europe. It was at thar time that Richter met the young Anton Seidl, whom he eventually introducedto Wagner. A result of that introduction saw Seidl assumethe positionof Wagner's
copyist and apprentice,as Richter had done earlier. It took three frantic yearsfor Wagnerto prepare the performancesof Der Ring desNibelungen
at Bayreuth. The master supervisedand coordinateddesignsfor the theater,scenery.and printing
of the music. For the recruitmentof the singers
and instrumentalists,he dependedalmost entirely
on Richter.
In the summerof 1876, the Richtersmoved to
Bayreuthto participatein the festivalperformances
of the Ring. Richter conductedall rehearsals.On
stage, assistantconductors guided the singers
through the choreographyas well as the music.
Among them were Anton Seidl and Felix Mottl.
Two of the Rhine maidens were Lilli Lehmann.
who laterbecamea famousFeldmarschallinrnDer
Rosenkavalier,and her sister, Marie. In this setting, Wagner supervisedeverything. He even advised Richter on how he should beat time from
Wotan's entrance, "Wo ist Brilnhilde" tn Die
Walkilre, through the following passages. Many
years later, Richter acknowledgedthat Wagner's
recommendationswere effective and helpful " The
performancesof the Ring beganon August 13, I776
with Das Rheingold. There were three complete
cycles and the impact of the f-estivalwas not limited to music. The festive audiencefor the Ring
included nobility and other distinguishedguesrs.
The composersTchaikovsky,Grieg, Brucknerand
Sir Charles Villiers Stanford were presenr. The
conductors attending included Hermann Levi,
Leopold Damrosch, Franz Wtillner, Felix Mottl.
Fraxu Fischer and Hermann Zumpe.
Aside from his devotion to Wagner and
Bayreuth,Richter, who had becomedirector of the
Vienna Court Opera and the Philharmonic Concertsin 1875,divided his time betweenViennaand
London, with a final period in Manchester. Dur-
ing twenty-five years in Vienna, he presentedan
astonishingnumber of premieres and large-scale
choral works with the Philharmonic.
In six Dirigierbilcher (ConductingBooks)Richter listed every performancehe had ever conducted,
be it in a concerthall or operahouse,and included
referencesabout each location and all notable indigenouscharacteristics. He also commentedon
composersand importantdetailspertainingto certain performances. The Chronology at the beginning of Fifield's book, which lists major eventsin
Richter'slife. includesthe importantpremiereperformances of some major works by Wagner,
Bruckner,Brahms,Elgar and others. One of these,
the world premiereof Bruckner's Fourth Symphony
in 1881. was an enormouspersonalsuccessfor
Richter. But, above all, it helped to establish
Bruckneras one of Austria's greatmasters. Nevertheless,Bruckner did nor permit Richter to give
the premiere of his SeventhSymphony in Vienna
becauseadversereviews of his music by the notorious critic EdouardHanslick had causedhim difficulties in finding a publisher. Therefore,the premiere of Bruckner's SeventhSymphonywas given
in Leipzig in 1884 under Nikisch; it was a sensational success. The first perfbrmancein Austria
took place in Graz on March 14, 1886:the conductor was Karl Muck, then just twenty-sevenyears
old. Richter eventually introducedthe symphony
to Vienna on March 21 . just one week after the
premiere in Graz!
When introducing a new work one often encounters difficulties. The first performance of
Tchaikovsky'sViolin Concerto(1878), dedicated
to the renownedviolinist Leopold Auer, the teacher
of Heifetz, Ztmbalist, Elman, and many other celebratedviolinists, was a famous example. Auer
deemedthe concerto "too radical and technically
impossibleto play" and, therefore,refusedto play
it. Instead,Richter persuadedAdolph Brodsky, a
friend and former fellow-student to take on the
assignment" Brodsky carried it off brilliantly.
JCG Vol. 15, No. I
51
Nevertheless,Hanslick pannedthe concertovehemently.
Mr. Fifield quotesmany expressionsof esteem,
admiration and gratitude for Richter's musical accomplishmentstogetherwith the personalconcerns
of colleaguesand friends. In England, Hubert
Parry, then lI877l a young studentof the English
pianist and writer Edward Damireuther, was typical of Richter's admirers. He reports that from
1879 on, many concertswere organizedfor Richter, a practicethat demonstratedhis popularity in
London. During that time Richter introducedmajor works by Elgar and other English composers.
He also gave the London premieresof works by
Brahms, Bruckner and other Central Europeans.
In addition, he servedas director of the Hall6 Orchestrafrom 1900 to 1911. Eventually,Richter
conductedWagner'soperasat Covent Gardenduring the GermanSeason.But it also was he who, in
1908, presentedthe first Ring cycle in English at
Covent Garden!
As a boy, EugeneGoossensfrequentlyattended
concertsand rehearsalsof the Hall6 Orchestraunder Richter. Admitting that he was too young to
give an adequatelyinformed appraisalof the conductor, he did remember- in his memoirswritten
i n 1 9 5 1stirring versionsof the then new Strausstone
poems and much other fairly provocative
music. It is quite possible that his rigid
beat missedsome of the subtler nuancesin
theseworks reahzedby the more fluid indications of modern conductors,but it certainly suited Die Meistersinger and works
of that categorywell enough. And the tempi
behindthe beat were eood. too.
About Richter's techniquehe recalledthat:
Richter's stick techniquewas simplicity itself. He used a short, thick piece of cane
52
JCG vot 15.No.I
with a padded grip, and indulged in few
superfluousgestures. The elaboratearabesquesof contemporary conducting were
totally unknown and superfluous to him.
The beat was a square one, vehement,
simple, and best suited to classicaland romantic styles. Especiallyin long sustained
rhythmic patterns did he preserve a marvellous continuity of style. (p. a06)
Among many commentators on Richter's art
quoted throughoutthe book is Siegfried Wagner,
who had observedRichter over a long period of
time. He consideredhim to be the last of a German tradition, the conductor who rose from the
ranks of the orchestra, unlike the aristocratic von
Btilow. Perhapsno one was better qualified to
appraiseRichter's work than Adrian Boult. After
all, he was himself a distinguishedconductorwho
could evaluateRichter's batontechnique,rehearsal
methodsand interpretations. Boult was a devoted
discipleof Arthur Nikisch. He remainedobjective
enough to recognize the other master's virtues.
Boult characterued Richter's performancesas solid,
straightforward,without eccentricities,but always
dramatic. He did not think that Richter personally
possessed
the passionrequired to conduct, for example, Tchaikovsky or Wagner's Tristan, but he
consideredhim unsurpassedin the classics,especially Beethoven,and in Die Meistersinger.
Although knowledgeablemusicians provided
many detailedaccountsof Richter's work, no films
of his performancesexist. In L9I4 the Messter
company of Berlin, with Nikisch's endorsement,
approachedRichter with a proposalthat would have
permitted them to make a film of him while conducting. The idea was to film the conductor from
the front conducting a specified work, so that an
orchestramight render the interpretation of a conductor even after his death. By that time
Weingartner and Oscar Fried had already been
filmed in this manner, and Schuch, Lohse and
Reznicekwere also preparing to participate in the
project. Unfortunately, Richter decidednot to join
them. Nor did he make phonographrecordingsdespitethe pioneeringstageof the new medium. Thus,
no real documentsof his performancesare extant.
It is tantahzrng to speculatewhat Richter's
performancesmight have soundedlike. There
are a few interestingclues. For example,Herbert
Thompson noted timings of certain performances
by Richter which canbe comparedto thoseby other
conductorswho did makerecordings. Adrian Boult
also reportedsomeof Richter's timings. Unfortunately, we do not know if the samerepeatsor cuts
were used. Nevertheless,this questiondoes not
arise in certain pieces and makes some limited
speculationpossible.
In addition to vague timings, Adrian Boult (J.
N. Moore, Music and Friends, Letters to Adrian
Boult) describesthree types of conductors. These
characterizationsalso yield some clues as to the
detailsof their performances.
a) men who beat time, like Dr. Richter. They conductwith a steadybeat;maintain an eventempo;andexpression,according to what is marked in the score,is planned
preciselyat rehearsal.
b) men who guide the orchestra,like
Wassili Safonoff. They guidethe orchestra
through their own interpretation; they occasionallyask for details;free interplaybetween conductorand orchestrayields more
lively performancesthanthe disciplinedapproach of Dr. Richter.
c) men who hypnotize the orchestra,
like Arthur Nikisch. His "personalmagnetism" keepsthe orchestrain firm control,
even in flexible passages. He is best in
highly emotional works, Tristan probably
being his supremeachievement.
Boult also listed his favorite conductorsfor specific composers.(Listeningto their recordingsmay
offer an idea how Richter would have comparedto
them.) According to Boult,
1. for Mozartand Haydn: RichardStrauss,
Bruno Walter
2. for Beethoven:HansRichter,W. Safonoff, Wilhelm Furtwdngler, Felix Weingartner
3. for Brahms: Frrtz Steinbach
4. for Wagner's Ring andDie Meistersinger: Hans Richter, Bruno Walter
5. for Wasner's Tristan:Arthur Nikisch
Among his favorites, Weingartner's conducting
stylecomesclosestto Richter's! Someof the "favorite conductors" made recordings during or
shortly after Richter's lifetime, among them
Weingartnerand Nikisch. Perhaps,theseperformances,togetherwith Boult's characterizations
and
Richter's timings, will let us imagine something
close to the music-makine style of the renowned
Hans Richter.
> F { < r | < * { < { < { < r F
Richard Taruskin, Musorgslq, Eight Essays and
an Epiloglte,Princeton: PrincetonUniversity Press,
1993; ISBN# 0-691-09147-1; 415 pp.
Reviewed by Henry Bloch
Richard Taruskin's essaysoffer a penetrating
studyof Musorgsky, a man with significantartistic
powers which struggledto emerge from an individual who had palpablehumanfailings. Taruskin
effectively capturesthe literary and dramatic environment of nineteenth-centuryRussia that served
as the creative background for the uniquely Russianoperasof Musorgskyandhis compatriots.The
introduction to this collection examinesthe motiJCG Vol. 15, No. I
53
vationsas well as artistic and critical qualifications
of Musorgsky'sfriendsand colleagues,professionals who were apologistsfor his creative achievementswhile acknowledginghis occasionaltechnical inadequacies.Indeed,Vladimir Stasov,a journalistandwriter on the arts, defendedMusorgsky's
technicalproblems as "virtues" of an innovative
free style. Stasovdid, however, encouragehim to
revisecertainsectionsof Boris Godunovand other
works becausehe felt it was in the best interestof
the works' musical content. He attemptedto influenceMusorgsky'sartisticgrowth, andlater worked
tirelesslyto createa public acceptance
of his works.
Understandably,Stasov'sjudgment underwent
skepticalscrutiny by later historiansand critics.
Count Arseniy Arkadyevich GolenishchevKutuzov was a poet and art collectorof aristocratic
rootsandconnections.He maintaineda long, close
friendshipwith Musorgsky. His admirationof the
artist was basedon different reactionsthan those
of Stasov. The Count viewed Musorgsky as an
idealist of aristocraticbackgroundwho, despite
someearly deviationsengenderedby the negativeinfluenceof certaincompanions,eventuallyfound his
true calling as a composerlate in his career.
By contract, Alexander Serov was one who
sharply crtttctzed the new group of "nationalist"
composers. Over time, he becamea passionate
adversaryof his erstwhile friend and fellow-student, Stasov,an unfortunate situation that resulted
from the fact that both were activejournalistswriting about music. Stasovpraisedthe work of the
Kuchka,asthe membersof the nationalschoolcame
to be known, while Serov bitterly attackedtheir
innovativestyle. Chief targetsof Serov's polemics were Balakirev, Cui and Stasov. RimskyKorsakov expressedhis distastefor public argumentation,eventhough it was not directedagainst
him, Borodinor Musorgsky. Actually, Musorgsky
appearsto have emulatedsome details of Serov's
musicalstyle as Mr. Taruskin demonstratesin the
pertinent chapter.
54
JCG vol 15.l,'to.l
Taruskin also recognizedthat Musorgsky, as a
member of the new nationalistschool of composers which championed the grandeur and integration of the Russianspirit, compellingly portrayed
the soul of the Russianpeople, especiallyin Boris
Godunov. Pushktn's Boris Godunov was an attempt to counteract the dominating influence of
French neo-classicaldrama, replacing it with native romantic dramas written in the style of postShakespearean
tragedy. Boris held a strong appeal
for the quasi-bourgeoisMusorgsky. The resulting
style of the opera reflects these tendencies. The
chapter " Musorgsky versus Musorgsky," which
dealswith the evolutionof the different versionsof
the opera, offers most interesting reading, especially to anyonecontemplatinga productionof the
work. Mr. Taruskin's argumentsare persuasive
and basedon thoroughresearchinvolving, in addition to Musorgsky's own contrastingversionsof
the score,the writings of those who were closeto
the composerand/or involved with early performances.
In a later chapter, the evolution of
Khovanshchinais traced from its beginnings that
included encouragementfrom Stasov. Unfortunately, like severalother works, it remainedunfinished at Musorgsky's death. Rimsky-Korsakov,
devoteddiscipleand friend, completedand orchestrated this opera, oS he had done with other
Musorgsky works. In addition, he did extensive
editing in order to produce a performing version
which againbecamecontroversial. Throughoutthis
most perceptivestudy, other major works receive
attention in their turn.
Of prime importance and impact is Mr.
Taruskin's ability to place the work of Musorgsky
(as well as that of other important musicians in
nineteenth-centuryRussia) in the context of a cultural background. His perceptionof the literature
andtheaterof the period provides a rich background
for the studyof thesecomposers'stageworks. Similarly, Taruskinusesknowledgeableinsightsto ap-
praisethe essenceof the music of that time. The
excellent documentation,especially of Russian
sources,lendsauthority to this stimulatingbook.
r* {< {< >f {< rl€ {< rl€
Helen Conway, SirJohn Pritchard, HisLtfe In Music, London: Andre Deutsch,Ltd. , I9g3 (Distributed by Trafalgar Square, North Pomfret, VT.
0s0s3). ISBN# 0-233-98845-9;435 pp; $39.95
Reviewed by Henry Bloch
Helen Conwaytells the story of Johnpritchard's
life in an entertainingand informative manner. She
communicatessuccessfullythe enthusiasmof the
conductor for music in general and opera in particular. Throughoutthe book, she dwells on the
pleasantrelationshipsthat John pritchard, wherever he went, maintainedwith superiors,colleagues
and personalassociates.But, with the exception
of a few lectures and some statementsregarding
artistic policy that were directed at the managementsof orchestrasandoperacompanieswith which
he worked, there is little of musical substanceto
give deeper insight into the artistic stature of the
man.
Tenures with the Derby String Orchestra and
the Royal Liverpool PhilharmonicOrchestraearly
in Pritchard's life must be consideredmost informative in the developmentof his repertoire. His
later associationwith the BBC Symphonywas the
culmination of previous accomplishments. But,
aboveall, it was in operathat he madehis greatest
contributions. Along the way, he spenttime working at Glyndebourne,Cologne,CoventGardenand
SanFrancisco.
In May, 1947, he was engagedas a coachat
Glyndebourneby Rudolf Bing. He was impressed
by the Main Housewhere John Christie lived, and
by the beautiful gardens. Above all, he was excited to be working with world-famousartists from
the MetropolitanOpera,La Scala, et al. The chapter on Pritchardat Glyndebournegives insightsinto
operaproductionfrom every angle, at the highest
level. Most noteworthy is the conceptof the art
work as a whole in which every participant singer, conductor,producer, designer,instrumentalist - sharedequally in the responsibilityfor a
performance. The superiorlevel of artistic achievement undoubtedlymust be attributed to the leadership of Frrtz Buschas music director and Carl Ebert
as stagedirector. Pritchardhimself frequentlyexpressedadmirationfor thesetwo great artists and
saidthat Busch'sguidanceexerteda decisiveinfluence on his developmentas a conductor. Everyone in the companywas chosenfor his or her particular gifts, and then molded into a magnificent
unity. There were no star performers, only the
best qualified artists for the particular roles.
Pritchard, as a musician and conductor,cherished
the opportunityto absorbthe world of a particular
production by playing piano for most staging rehearsalsas well as coachingthe singers!
Covent Garden was a mixed blessing for
Pritchard. Although he was not askedto sharein
artistic decisionsto any great extent, he did conduct numerousperformances. In so doing he experiencedboth the advantagesand the drawbacks
of a large internationalcompany. By contrast,his
tenure in Cologne was a high point in his career.
Cooperation with the Intendant, Herr Michael
Hampe, proved to be inspiring. Furthermore,
enlightenedartistic leadershipattractedgood singers from throughoutEurope. Consequently,the
opera house became one of the leading establishments of that period and was devoted to an
extensiveinternationalrepertoire. In addition,
Cologne'sfamous Grirzenich Orchestrawas engaged to play for both the opera and their own
concert series. Thus, Pritchard added concerts
to his other duties.
Perhapsthe most interesting passagesin the
book dealwith Pritchard'sdiscussionsof the musiJCG Vol. 15, No. I
55
cal style of Mozart operasand, aboveall, thoseof
Rossini, accountsinspired by the work of Fritz
Busch and Vittorio Gui, respectively, at
Glyndebourne. As a result of these thoughts,
Pritcharddrew up a Charterfor Opera Conductors
which is presentedhere with apologiesto someof
his colleagues. Among diverse items, Pritchard
insistedthat there be: "absolutely no stageaction
or mime or symbolism during the overture;)) 4a
more positive acceptanceof the validity of the great
concertedensembleas an intrinsic (and mainly
static)ingredientof opera. . . . [with] no accompanying distractingstagemovement;" and, later on,
"more reahzatron
of the fact that it is VOCAL excellencewhich . . . draws people into opera performances;thereforethe availablebudgetmust be
stretchedin the directionof providing fine voices."
(pp. 358-59). Of specialinterestis the correspondence with Intendant Michael Hampe in Cologne
regarding a forthcoming production of Britten's
Peter Grimes; it atteststo Pritchard's deep commitment to the work. Other letters examine the
relationshipbetweenthe music director and the intendantin Germanoperahouses.
Ms. Conway revealsJohn Pritchard as an enthusiasticpersonality,totally devoted to his professionand to thosewith whom he was closely associated. His love for the luxuries in life and the
companionshipof thosewho sharedthem with him
is sympatheticallypresentedto the reader. Unfortunately, there is only modest concern with his
thoughtsabout music which, after all, comprised
the essenceof John Pritchard's life.
rF >f rf
{< rl€ {€ ,F rF
Glenda Dawn Goss, Jean Sibelius and Olin
Downes: Music, Friendship, Criticism (Boston:
NortheasternUniversity Press, 1995), Xi, 274
pp. , ISBN# 1-55553-200-4,$35.00
Reviewed by John Jay Hilfiger
56
JCG vol 15.ttro.l
A cynicalJeanSibeliusreportedlyoncequipped:
"Pay no
attentionto what critics say; no statuehas
ever been put up to a critic. " Ironically, a critic
was to becomethe Finnish composer'smost passionateadvocate. Sibeliuscould not help but pay
attention to American music critic Olin Downes
and ultimately admitted that Downes had "penetratedthe innermostworking of my art." Sibelius
went so far as to call Downes his very best friend
and statedfrankly, "I owe [him] my reputation in
America."
The long and intenseSibelius-Downesrelationship has been sympatheticallyexplored in a thoroughly researchedbook by University of Georgia
professor,Glenda Dawn Goss. Goss attemptsto
demonstratehow human relationships and events
canprofoundlyaffectthe receptionof a composer's
art, at times even more than the music itself. Had
there beenno Olin Downes, it is likely that public
opinion of JeanSibeliuswould havebeenvery different, at least in America where Sibelius' music
faced severalformidable detractors.
In the 1890sSibeliushad his first triumphsas a
composerof nationalistmusic; at the time he was
regardedas a modernistcomposer,even a radical.
In a few years,his works beganto be heardoutside
Finland, especiallyin England and America, where
the tone poems and symphoniesachievedpopularity with the public. By the late 1920s,severalcritical developmentsoccurred: Sibelius had virtually
retired from composing; several important figures
in the music world beganto disparagehis music as
being hopelessly outdated; and New York Times
music critic Olin Downes, who had been writing
words of praise about Sibelius for twenty years,
begana nearly thirty-year correspondence
with the
composerand a more active advocacyof Sibelius
and his music.
Downes served as music critic in Boston for
about seventeenyears (1906-1924). During the
early yearsof this tenure, Karl Muck and the Boston Symphonyperformed Sibelius' music to great
public acclaim. Muck's successors,the Frenchmen Henri Rabaud and Pierre Monteux, ignored
Sibelius; understandably,general interest in his
musicwaned. Upon moving to New York tn 1924,
Downesfound his belovedSibeliusneglectedthere
as well, in favor of Stravinsky. While Downes
had supported the Stravinsky of Firebird and Le
sacre du printemps, he found little to admire in the
composer'slater works. Even worse, the most
vocal Stravinskyiteswere Harvard men, most notably Virgil Thomson. Downes, who had been
forced to end his education at the eighth grade,
was determinednot to allow elite Bostoniansto
defeathim in New York.
Having learnedfrom the Bostonexperiencethat
conductorscan assistor impedea composeras no
one elsecan, Downessoughta conductorto champion Sibelius. He senta personalletter to Sibelius
himself and proposedthat the composercome to
America to conduct some of his own works;
Downes was preparedto use his influence to secure invitations. When Sibeliusdeclinedthe offer,
Downes began to proselytize some of America,s
l e a d i n g c o n d u c t o r s . H e a p p r o a c h e dS e r g e
Koussevitzky, the new conductor of the Boston
Symphony,who confessedto not liking Sibelius.
Downes was able to sway him and would boastof
the conversionof the maestro, who conductedthe
first cycle of all sevenSibeliussymphoniesin the
1932-33 seasons,and who remained a steadfast
advocateof Sibeliusuntil the end of his life. The
secondof America's then three "glamour" conductorsto embrace,perform and record Sibelius'
music was Stokowski,who had discoveredthe composer on his own and consideredthe Finn to be
one of the "Big Four" modern composers. The
other memberof this selectgroup, Toscanini,had
not promotedSibeliusearly on, but by the late 1930s
was also programmingSibelius.
Downes venturedinto radio, having served,at
various times during the 1930sand '40s, as commentatorfor the New York Philharmonic, the Bos-
ton Symphony,the Metropolitan Opera, and a number of specialbroadcasts. Downes usedthis newfound celebrity status to further the cause of
Sibelius. That the composer'sAmerican, indeed
international,popularity grew during this time was
in no small part due to Downes's efforts and influence.
Undoubtedly, the effect of Downes's rhetoric
was not all positive; someof it createdresentment,
againstDownesand Sibeliusaswell. For example,
Downes wrote that Sibelius was " the next
symphonistafter Brahms and Beethoven," and " a
lonely and towering figure in the music of the early
Twentieth Century." Such excessesonly forced
the likes of Virgil Thomson to counter with excessesof their own. As a probable rebuke to
Downes, Thomsonwrote: "I realtze that there are
sincereSibeliuslovers in the world, thoughI must
sayI've nevermet one amongeducatedprofessional
musicians." Similarly, Theodor Adorno likened
the selling of Sibeliusby radio ro the hawking of a
"commodity
marketer." Arnold Schonberg,another of Downes's distinguishedcritics, insinuated that Downes was a musical illiterate. None
of theseattacks,however, deterredDownes from
his mission of bringing the music of Sibelius to
the world.
Goss contendsthat Downes behavedas he did
becausehe neededa hero figure and Sibeliusfulfilled that need. The never-before-published
correspondencewith Sibelius, which fills more than
fifty pagesin the appendix,seemsto bear this out.
Downes's letters to Sibelius usually openedwith
the salutation,"Dear Master;" the letters' contents
often gush over Sibelius' music in terms that are
almost embarrassingto read. Downes sometimes
speaksof the music in quasi-religiousterms, eXplaining that it had been an inspirationand help in
times of trouble! Sibelius,for his part, is far more
reservedand revealslittle abouthimself until fairly
late in the correspondence.Even so, some of his
commentsare very significant and may changesome
JCG Vol. 15, N6. I
57
readers'conceptionsof Sibelius the man. While
Harold E. Johnson'scontroversial1959biography,
Jean Sibelius,portrays the composeras immodest,
ungrateful, and unwilling to help younger composers, Sibelius' letters, here and there, show a very
different man. He gratefully acknowledged
Downes'sefforts on his behalf, for example. He
also warmly recommendedthat Downes familiarize himself with the artistry of Marian Anderson;
this, severalyearsbeforethe shamefulcontroversy
that denied Miss Anderson the right to perform
in Washington'sConstitutionHall. Had Goss
done no more than publish this correspondence,
she would have done a service to musical scholarship.
Jean Sibeliusand Olin Downes is a fascinating
and soberingaccountof the strugglefor acceptance
of one man's music and the fulfillment through that
music of another'sneeds. In telling this tale, the
author has succeededadmirably in what she set out
to do: to demonstratethat the perceivedvalue of
musicdependsheavily on an individual'sneedsand
pointsof view, quite apartfrom the music itself. It
is an importantlessonto learn and retain. Readers
of this journal will likely find a careful srudy of
Goss'sbook to be time well spent.
* { < * > F * { < r k { <
Dr. John Jay Hiffiger is Associate Professor
of Music at the University of Wisconsin Center Fond du Lac and Music Director of the Fond du
Lac ChamberOrchestra.
{ € * { < * r k * :
Barry Millington, editor, The WagnerCompendium:
A Guide to Wagner'sLife and Music (New York:
SchirmerBooks, 1992), 43I pp., photos, indices,
rsBN#0-02-8713591. $3s.00
Reviewed by Baird Hastings
58
JCG vot 15.No.I
The professionalexcellenceof TheMozart Compendium, compiled under the creative leadership
of H.C. RobbinsLandon, should have been a fine
model for The Wagner Compendium. However,
what seemednatural,useful, and logical for Mozart,
has not proven appropriatefor Wagner, and this,
despitethe fact that now virtually thousandsof primary and secondarysourcesare availableto aid us
in understandingboth the man and his music.
Certainly, a reviewer's principal duty is to assessthe work at hand. Suggestingto an authoreditor-compilerwhat kind of book he or shecould
or shouldhave written may appearpresumptuous.
Nevertheless,in the course of this review, an approach is offered that might well have renderedthe
book of greater value to conductorsand others,
had it been followed. The approachis basedon
the belief that Bavreuth was. and is. the soul of
Wagnerism.
Let us begin with a positive observatron The
Wagner Compendiumwill be helpful to students
and. through the selectivebibliography, to some
researchers.Barry Millington, who haspublished
severalvolumes on Wagner, joins seventeencontributors in a broad, popular examination of
Wagner's background,life, times, writings, and
music, including a welcome sectionon non-operatic works (which would have benefited from the
inclusionof incipits). Barry Millington's "Calendar of Wagner's Life, Works and RelatedEvents"
is informative,as is his conciseessayon Wagner's
"Relationswith King Ludwig. "
ThomasGrey's
"A WagnerianGlossary"is
useful;evenbetterare
"Bayreuth
StewartSpencer's
and the Idea of a Fes"
tival, and his perceptivediscussionof "Autobiographicalmaterial and Diaries, Letters and Writings." It is indeedgood to have such a wealth of
availablefacts in a single publication, particularly
at a reasonableprice.
Beyond the facts, however, there are various
lacunae, value judgments, interpretationsand extrapolationswhich this reviewer finds misguided.
Examplesinclude defining Rienzi as a less-thansuccessfulopera, omitting from the book's otherwise informative "Who's Who" a number of figures mentionedby Ernest Newman in his discursive but absolutelyindispensablefour-volume biography of Wagner in English, and the failure to
consider fully the unique legacy of the 1876 and
1882charterBayreuthperformancesunder the personaldirectionof Wagner. (Indeed,an entirechapter on early Bayreuth could have outlined basic
productionprinciples which Wagner was attempting to formulate and establish.) In order to bring
the compendium"up to date," material on recent
Wagnerperformancesis included;however,its very
doubtfulrelevanceto wagner's idealsmustbe called
into question.
From these lines the reader will reahze that
whenever one writes or compiles articles on
Wagner, thereare traps to avoid and side issuesto
consider. Eventoday, informationgapsexist about
significantfacetsof Wagner'smusic and writings,
the man and his times. could we not be led toward
appropriateproductionsof Wagner'smasterpieces
by carefully assessing
extantinformationaboutthe
conductors,singers,and directorswhosework was
centeredat Bayreuth? Sad caveatemptor, semper.
Although we realize that Wagner intended to
"change
operafrom what it was in 1840," and that
at Bayreuth he had made important strides in that
direction before his death in 1883, it is crucial to
recognizethat, passionatelyinterestedin diverse
scenic, dramatic, and musical experimentsas he
was, he was alsoby no meanstotally satisfiedwith
either the 1876Bayreuthproductionof theRing or
the 1882 Parsifal. In this context, then. it is regrettablethat in the Bayreuthproductionsof rannhauser, Lohengrin, Die Meistersinger and Tristan
und Isolde during the next two decades,Cosima
Wagner - and later Siegfried - often ,,froze,' the
productionvaluesand detailsat what they had been
when Wagner initiatedthem. Still, these,,norms,'
(createdby dedicatedprofessionals,many of whom
were inspiredcolleaguesof Wagner, and otherpersonnel who in turn were trained by the original
conductors,producers and singers) were preferable to the so-calledmusical and dramatic values
which became evident following the deaths of
Cosima and Siegfried Wagner. positive achievements during the period between the Great War
and World War II included seriousconductingby
Toscanini, Straussand Busch, innovativeproductions by Roller, Praetoriusand Tietjen (who also
conducted),and singingby Melchior, Flagstadand
Schorr.
With the conclusionof World War II and becauseof Adolf Hitler's unfortunatedecade-long
involvement with Wagnerism, it was indeed ap_
propriateto entera new phase. The Bayreuthproductions of Wagner's grandsons,Wieland and
Wolfgang, made an adventurousbreak with tradition throughattemptsto explorethe universalityof
myth, at times underplayingthe human side of the
music dramasby using abstractlighting and sets
which had alreadybeenfearuresof Adolphe Appia's
Wagnerianproductions. Although a broad reading of the Wagner ethos includes this approach,
we also know of Wagner's specific interestin the
way ancientGreekdramatiststreatedeternalthemes
(well described in The Wagner Compendiumby
ProfessorHugh Lloyd Jones)as well as Wagner,s
will to achievea marriageof theatricalperforming
valueswith elementsof reality"
Although the history of Wagner,s music dra_
mas is complicatedenough from a musical perspective,the fantasticmetamorphosisof stagepresentations- from the JosefHoffman-inspiredRing
of the Bruckner brothers (Gotthold and Max) and
Paul Joukowsky's original Parsifal mise-en-scene
(in use for more than four decades)through the
inspirationsof Appia and othersin Vienna. Berlin,
Paris,London,New York andelsewhere- is worth
mentioninghere. More recently, the solid work of
Roller and Praetoriushasbeenabandonedfor various "visions," decorationsand footnotesof quesJCG Vol 15,No. I
59
tionable Wagnerian content by Harry Kupfer
(Parstfal), Wonder, Dulberg, Barnach, Koltai and
Hockney.
Following the premature death of Wieland
Wagnerin 1966,Wolfgang (the more conservative
of the brothers)beganyet againto rethink Wagner's
music dramas, relying primarily on realistic procedures while welcoming such modernists as
Ch6reauand Boulez, whose Bayrueth experiments
with the Ring, Parstfal and Flying Dutchman did
not prove compatiblewith Richard Wagner's vision. Presently,as Wolfgang's long period of influence approachesits end, it is not clear what
turn the Wagner metaphorswill take. We can
only hope that logical cohesionrather than uncontrolled and unmeasuredseparationwill be the
order of the day. Anyone who has worked at Bayreuth (perhaps anyone who has attended these
uniquely moving productions) knows the magical feeling which has propelled and pervadedso
many of its performances.
Several informative chapters in The Wagner
Compendiumdeservemention. They include: the
excellent summary discussionof Wagner's writings by StewartSpencermentionedabove; David
Breckbill's discussionof Wagner as a conductor;
and Warren Darcy's short discussionof printed
editionsof Wagner's compositions,someby such
eminentWagneriansas Felix Weingartnerand Felix
Mottl. Personally,I believe Wagner's works are
worth all the trouble he causedduring his lifetime.
Now let us glory in the music, performed within
the parametersof his vision. Amen.
t & r F * * r | < r F { < r f
Although David Breckbill in The WagnerCompendium presentsa summary of early Bayreuth recordings and related matters, there follow some
personalthoughtsfor interestedJCG readerswhich
expandon his presentation.
For musicalvaluesas such, adoptingthe "Primacy of Bayreuth" approachcould satisfyWagner's
60
JCG vot t 5. No.t
highest ideals, and thus I am concluding with a
review of musical elements and personnel at
Bayreuth, 1876-L976. For the sakeof brevity and
clarity, the century is divided into six sections,each
sectionlists the leading conductorsand assistants
of that era. A brief introduction covering the background yearsbeginsthe chronology.
The introductoryperiod includesthe yearsHans
von Btilow led performancesin Munich, mostly to
fulfill Wagner's promisesto King Ludwig of Bavaria, a uniquetower of psychologicalstrengthand
financial resources who permitted Wagner to
achieveasmuch of his ideal as he did. Theseyears
of trial and error, working with his favorite acolyte and prophet (who later was mentor to Richard
Strauss,notably in bars 17 and 62 of the Tristan
und Isolde Prelude, for example),were as important to the Wagner ethos as, in a larger sense,
Rheingoldwas necessaryto the entire Ring.
1. In 1876 and 1882: Hans Richter,
Frarz Fischer,Hermann Levi and, briefly,
Richard Wagner himself. The musical assistantswere Anton Seidl, Felix Mottl,
Engelbert Humperdinck, Heinrich Porges
and JosephRubinstein,all membersof the
"inner circle."
2. From 1883to 1899:Richter,Mottl,
Levi, Carl Muck*, RichardStrauss*,Wilhelm Kienzl, Carl Armbruster, JuliusKniese
and Michael Balling (chief editor of the
early Breitkopfeditionof Wagner'sworks).
The assistantsincludedSiegfriedWagner*,
Felix Weingartner* and Max von
Schillings*. (* conductorswho later made
Wagner recordings,some at Bayreuth)
3. From 1901to 1914:Richter,Mortl,
Muck, Siegfried Wagner, von Schillings,
Balling and Franz Beidler.
4. From I924to 1931:Muck,Siegfried
Wagner, Arturo Toscanini*, Franz von
Hoeslin*, Frttz Busch* and Carl Elmendorff*.
5. From 1933to 1939:Strauss,Wilhelm
Furtwdngler*, von Schillings and Heinz
Tietjen*.
6. From 1951 to 1976: Hans Knappertsbusch*,ClemensKrauss*, Herbert von
Karajanx, Rudolph Kempe*, Karl Bohm*,
Josef Krips * , Andrd Cluytens*, Horst
Stein*, Josef Keilberth*, Wolfgang
Sawallisch*, Erich Leinsdorf*, Thomas
Schippers*and Pierre Boulez*.
One may infer from the stylesof the aforementioned conductorsthat the foundation of Wagner's
repertoireis built on a logical bifurcation that createstwo valid procedures,eachof which has as its
purpose the unification of actions between stage
and orchestrapit. The first approach,that of Brilow,
Richter, Mottl, Strauss,Weingartner and others,
shapedthe orchestra'ssupport of the drama with
dynamics and tempo variety; the secondapproach
was that of Levi, Muck, Siegfried Wagner,
Toscanini (conducting Tannhauser and Tristan
II929l and Parstfal tl931l), and, more recently,
Knappertsbusch. This school favored somewhat
slower, steadiertempos and dynamics (probably
inspired by the magical acousticsof the Bayreuth
Theater), the purposeof which was ro produce a
major arc in eachact of the musicdramas. (George
Bernard Shawperceivedand appreciatedthesedifferentapproachesasearly asthe 1890s) Of course,
somefine Wagner conductors- Bruno Walter and
Frrtz Reiner come to mind - never conductedat
Bayreuth.
Every art has its essentialcore which, if diluted or corrupted, results in failure to achieve
its purpose. Wagnerian ideals still depend on
the core of performances and documents of an
inner circle, judiciously expandedand/or adjusted
in the light of history and artistic requirements
which remain true to their definition. Just as the
Constitution of the United Statesneedsonly an
occasionalamendment,so Wagner at Bayreuth
provides a living continuum of evolving master-
works that were created as visions of eternitv.
rf
:|( {< ik {< ,f
,l€ rF
Dr. Baird Hastings is Music Director/Conductor of the Mozart Festival Orchestra in New York
City and a frequent contributor to the JCG.
rl€ ,l€ ,f
*
{< ,l€ r$ rF
Sara K. Schneider, Concert Song as Seen:Kinesthetic Aspectsof Musical Interpretation (Stuyvesant,
NY: PendragonPress, 1994), 90 pp., ISBN# 0945193-49-I;$28.00 (cloth)
Reviewed bv Kathrvn Chilcote
In the Introduction to Concert Song as Seen,
author Sara K. Schneideraddressesthe art song
singer's role in bringing the music of the printed
page alive. Indeed, in today's world the extentto
which a classicalsinger interprets and actualizes
music of previous centuries- not to mention the
contemporaryconcert repertoire- is a vital topic
discussedin all music and educationalinstitutions
where art song is taught. For this reason,I found
Schneider'sbook to be a comfortable evening's
reaCing,a "stageprompt" to examinemy own style
of teaching and interpreting art song, and to contemplatethe stylesof colleaguesand artistsI have
observedin recital. Of particular value to my professionalactivities is a survey of the development
of art song that begins in the eighteenth century
and follows the maturation of the art form into the
nineteenthcentury.
Ms. Schneider'sbook is organrzedinto four
chaptersto which is addedan Introduction and Appendix. Chapter 1, entitled "Baroque Influences
on ContemporaryStyle," focuseson solo performanceof the Baroque Period; specialattentionis
given to eighteenth-centuryacting techniques.
Chapter2. "Modern ConservatoryTraining," discussessolo songand how it is taught in the univerJCG Vol. 15, No. I
6l
sity setting; the subjectis extremely germanesince
this is indeed the arena where most solo recitals
are given today. For purposesof example, the
author reviews the teaching styles of three New
York-basedsonginterpretationspecialists:Antonia
Lavanne(MannesCollegeof Music), Cynthia Hoffman (ManhattanSchoolof Music), and Paul Sperry
(JuilliardSchool). Chapter3, "Deconstructionsof
the Recital," examines the differences and similaritiesof somerelatedgenresto art song,particularly popular song and parody of operatic and con"Closing Words:
cert literanlre. Chapter4, entitled
Gesturein Song," addressesthe meaningsof a
musicallydeterminedgesture. Finally, the Appendix, "Performanceof Popular Song: Elementsof
Contrastwith ClassicalStyle," forms a retrospective of the performance techniquesembraced by
popular singersof previous decadessuch as Judy
Garland, Lena Horne and Edith Piaf. The author
citesexamplesfrom various televisionshowsand
film footage and then contraststhe "blocking"
or gestureswith common practice in art song
performance.
Of particularinterestto me was the description
of the various stylesof the three New York teachers. In the 1970sI had the pleasureof working
with Antonia Lavanne,so I am aware of her style
from a personalperspective. Her approachto determining when to make a logical gestureis much
like the Hausmusikperformance style: a range of
gestures(generally small and intimate when comparedto operaticgestures)with the audiencebeing
fairly closeat hand. Motivation for gesturesmust
be from the text and musical subtext, and must
constitutea dialoguebetweenthe audienceand the
performer. For Ms. Lavanne,the use of the eyes,
face and breathare particularly integral as communicatorsof the art song.
In contrast, the style of Cynthia Hoffman is
more dramatic and derives from a less situationbasedapproach. Sheutilizes improvisatoryacting
techniqueswhich allow the singer to call upon his
or her own life experiencesto find a connection
62
JCG vot 15.No.I
with the material. Not surprisingly, she has students paraphraseso as to draw personal significancefrom the text. In the building stageshe has
"act
out" the scenein a song, to aid
other singers
the performer in deriving dramatic sensefrom the
text and music. The end product is less of a dialogue with the audience than a dramatic performance,as in a theater.
Paul Sperry specializesin twentieth-centuryand
American song; his approachexpandsbeyond the
text to include the interpretation of important musical elements. He is particularly concernedwith
fidelity to the composer's tempo markings and
rhythms, and in finding dramatic motivation from
thoseaspectsof the song. He admonishessingers
to refrain from using literal gestures(or non-specific gestures)that distractfrom the overall goal of
expression.
All threeapproachesare valid, and indeedwhen
presentedtogether make the study of the preparation and performanceof art song varied and exciting. Due to the adventof televisionand film, the
visual aspectof music is highly important for contemporaryaudiences.All the more reasonthat art
song must be thoroughly prepared,in various layers, in order to reachand move today's audiences.
Unfortunately, the section of the book which
focuseson the parody of classicalart songand opera by female impersonatorsis somewhattedious.
Humor in the area of opera or art song must be
groundedin solid techniques,both acting and vocal. It has beenmy experiencethat vocal production usually suffers when subjectedto parody. In
contrast,however,the mentionof suchperformance
starsas Garland and Horne (not to mention Piafl,
and a study of how they executedtheir songs,was
welcomeand significant.
Somedetailsof spellingescapedthe proofreaders. The CollegeMusic Societylists Ms. Lavanne's
"
name with a double n," which is how I have always spelled it. Throughout the book Ms.
"Lavare." One additional
Schneiderusesthe form
error occurson page69, where Mozart's songtitle
is presentedwith a masculinenoun and a feminine
definite article, i.e., "Die Alt,, (,.TheOld One").
Page L7 of the Peters Edition Mozart Lieder
(Friedliinder) correctly lists the song as " Die Alte,sincethe songrefers to an old woman.
These minor details notwithstanding, I would
recommendMs. Schneider'sbook for use in interpretationclassesfor art song and opera. Because
time is always a factor when teachingor studying,
the book can be easily added ro the bibliography
for a semester'scourse. There is no short cut to
finding a consummateinterpretation. The student
must be willing to investigateall layerswhich eventually meld togetherto produce an integratedinterpretation. Hopefully, Concert Songas Seenmight
aid in attainingthat goal.
For readersof this journal who work in opera
or with vocal soloists,familiarity with the vocabulary of gesturesavailable to singerscan serve as
the basis for improved communications between
podium and performer. Since a singer's gestures
spring from an internal interpretation of the vocal
lines' metric orgailzation and flow, an in-depth understandingand accurateinterpretationof thesegestures should assista conductor in the creation
and maintenanceof an efficient ensemble.
{ < r f r f { < { € * { < r F
Dr. Kathryn chitcote is ct soprano recitarist
of concert and operatic literature, And Director
of opera in the schoot of Music, west chester
University (PA).
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