A Short History of Indonesia

13. A Short History of Indonesia Monument makers of Central Java WC 3627 Bas-­relief of a Sailendra king and queen, Borobudur Some historians suggest that in the dying days of Funan some of its ruling élite left the mainland and established themselves on the great plain of Central Java. Theirs was not the first kingdom in the region, another dynasty called the Sanjayas preceeding them by several generations. The two great houses ruled their districts in peaceful co-­‐
existence as good neighbours for a long time but in the 9th Century they fell out and went to war with each other. The outcome was that the winners, the Sanjayas thereafter dominated the Kedu plain while the prince of the losers, Balaputradeva, as we have already seen, fled to Srivijaya where he eventually became the ruler of that great maritime empire. The aristocrats who came to Java from Funan brought with them two titles. They were the first rulers in Java to use the title Maharaja which, in Sanskrit means literally “great king” but implies “king of kings” or a king who rules over other, lesser kings. The second title ⎯ and on this rests much of the argument that they came from Funan where the title had been used for generations ⎯ was “king of the mountains” or Sailendra1, the name by which their dynasty was known in Java and even in Srivijaya where, even before Balapurtradeva’s accession, was a name held in great respect and to which the rulers allied themselves through marriage and other strategic pacts. 1
Actually Sailendravamsa meaning Kings or Lords of the Mountains. The origin and significance of the term is
disputed by scholars. Coedès, for example, quoted an inscription from Kuk Preah Kot (period 610-635 AD) in
which the king was called Sailaraja (Coedès, G: “On the origin of the Sailendra dynasty of Indonesia”, Journal of
the Greater India Society I: 61–70 1934 (pp 61-70). See Briggs, LP: The Origin of the Sailendra Dynasty: Present
Status of the Question, http://www.scribd.com/doc/10868202/Origins-of-Sailendra-Dynasty-Malay-SumatraSriwijaya.
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Old Mataram and the Sanjayas When the Sailendras came to Java they intruded upon an existing kingdom called Mataram2. Although it might have had an earlier beginning, the first epigraphic record was dated 732 AD and recorded …the erection of a linga by a king Sanjaya of Mataram in Kunjarakunja in the island of Java ‘rich in grain and gold mines’. As Java produced no gold, attempts have been made to identify the name Kunjarakunja with some place in the Malay peninsula but Stutterheim has proved that it is in fact the name of the district in which Sanjaya erected his sanctuary3. Very little is known about these early rulers. It is clear they were Saivite Hindus ⎯ hence the linga and commemorative inscription ⎯ and that they later overthrew the Sailendras and left a monumental heritage as great as their former overlords. Why they accepted this subordinate position in the first place is not known although one theory suggests that the Sailendras arrived in Java already backed by the power and reputation of Srivijaya Although later writers attributed great victories to King Sanjaya in Bali, Sumatra and even as far away as Cambodia and the borders of China, his only established claim to power was this candi dedicated in 732. In Java at that time there were many rakryans, a rakryan being more or less a “petty king”. The mandala of power among these rakryans was an ever shifting pattern but when one succeeded in establishing greater power than the others over a wider area, he proclaimed this by building a candi, a monumental tomb dedicated ⎯ as Hall said ⎯ to the deity with whom he chose to be identified in life and united in death. The chandi bearing the Saivite symbol of the linga, which he erected in 732, was the outward sign and manifestation of his claims to overlordship4. There has been great confusion over the kings of the Sanjaya dynasty, confusion caused by a king list compiled by Balitung, the 4th in his line in which some Sailendras also seem to have been included. These days it is believed that Balitung’s list is one of the rulers of Central Java in general, not only of the Sanjaya dynasty so, by excluding the Sailendras, a succession of 10 2
It is important to distinguish this earlier Hinduised kingdom from the Sultanate of Mataram which existed into
Dutch colonial times.
3
Hall, DG: A History of South-East Asia, Macmillan Student Editions, 3rd Ed. 1968, p.46.
4
Ibid, p. 47.
2
rulers remains in this, the Hindu-­‐Javanese manifestation of Mataram5. Not all of these ruled in Central Java or indeed, under the dynastic name of Sanjaya: the 8th of the kings listed, called Mpu Sindok (929-­‐947) is thought to have married the daughter6 of the king Wawa (924-­‐929) and though this alliance, ascended the throne. For some unknown reason Mpu Sindok moved the Sanjayan kraton to East Java where he established a new capital on the Brantas River. The name of the kingdom was also changed, from Mataram to Medang and that of the dynasty to the Isyana Dynasty. Despite these changes of name, the old ones are often still used. One reason advanced as to why Mataram moved to East Java is that there was a cataclysmic eruption of Gunung Merapi, the very active volcano near Jogja. Another reason also given is that the people actually left the region and emigrated to the east because they were tired of the heavy demands on their labour by the kings for the building of the monuments we see in the region today. It is important to realise that the common people were not feudal serfs as in Europe of that time but independent of the ruler although they owed him a duty of labour when called upon. This theory contends that Mpu Sindok and his kraton simply followed his subjects! It is noticeable that no monuments on the scale of Central Java were ever built in the east of the island after this exodus. The Sailendras DGE Hall in his 1968 revision of his A History of South-­East Asia makes the point that up until that date very little was known of the Sailendras in Java: Until recently nothing was known for certain as to the identity of the Sailendras. Of the dynasty of “kings of the mountain”, responsible for the erection of the glorious Buddhist monuments of the late eighth and early ninth centuries in Central Java, the questing historian could find a vast amount of theory and disappointingly little fact.”7 A Bodhisattva Avalokiteś-­vara in the Sailendra style8 The earliest mention of the Sailendras in Java is an inscription found at Kalasan in Central Java dated 778 AD 5
http://indahnesia.com/indonesia/HIFKIN/kingdom_of_mataram.php
Sri Parameswari Dyah Kbi. Mpu Sindok had two wives. Sri Parameswari was the daughter of Dyah Wawa, the
last king of Mataram while it remained in Central Java.
7
Op. cit. p.47
8
Photo from BB Utomo article, see below.
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which commemorates the dedication of a shrine to the Buddhist saint Tara. The name appears again in inscriptions found ⎯ among others ⎯ at Kelurak (dated 782) and Karentengah (792). There is also an earlier mention on a double sided prasasti found on the Malay peninsula at Ligor and dated to 775 AD9. This last has been the subject of a long-­‐running debate by historians, the issue being whether or not the two sides referred to the same king or different rulers. The debate over the identification of the Ligor stele was summarised in an address to a conference in Malysia by Bambang Budi Utomo of the Indonesian National Centre for Archaeological Research in 1974 and although he acknowledges much is still speculative, I shall here add some of his findings. Briefly, he traces the descent of the Sailendras, identifying persons mentioned in the inscriptions by matching the often many and varied honorifics and styles attributed to them. From this analysis he concludes that the earliest rulers of Sailendra in Mataram were (in chronological order): Dapunta Selendra (? – 674 AD),
Queen Simo (674-703 AD),
Mandiminak (703-710 AD),
Sanna (710-717 AD)
Sanjaya (717-746 AD),
Panamkaran (746-784 AD).
He was also able to confirm that Balaputradeva, whose accession to the throne of Srivijaya remained a puzzle, was able to do so when he fled Java for Palembang because he was the grandson of a ruler of Srivijaya, Dhamasetu, through his mother Tara and, given the operation of cognatic kinship, therefore qualified for the role. This analysis also throws more detailed light on the reason Balaputradeva left Mataram. His Javanese grandfather, Rakay Panamkaran ruled in Mataram for 38 years, quite a long reign in those days. His son, Samaratunga had two wives, each of which had a child. The first wife, had a daughter who was the crown princess, Pramoddawarddhani; the second wife Tara, the daughter of Dharmaseta of Srivijaya, had a son, Balaputradeva. This made Bala the second in line of succession ⎯ indeed, his name means “younger son of god”, given that the “god” in this case was his father, the king. Samaratunga married his daughter, Bala’s elder sister, to Pikatan who was the son of Rakarayan Patapan Pu Palar of the Sanjaya dynasty. When Bala’s father Samaratunga died, his son-­‐in-­‐law Pikatan became ruler of the Sailendra kingdom in Central Java. Bala found this unacceptable so he rebelled against 9
Among others: see the opening paragraph of an address by Bambang Budi Utomo: The Homeland of the Sailandra
Family, Paper for the “Trans Border Seminar on Kuala Lumpur”, Malaysia, 4-10 Sept. 2004. Full text online at
www.budpar.go.id/filedata/2929_1044-iiTheSailendras.pdf
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his brother-­‐in-­‐law, only to be defeated at a place now known as Bukit Ratu Baka in the southern part of the Prambanan complex and related in the Sivagrha prasasti dated Novermber 12, 856 AD. The pedigree of Balaputradeva and the Sailendra and Srivijayan rulers according to Bambang Budi Utomo [NB: Rakai Panamkaran’s regnal dates should read 746 – 782]10. Much of this most recent suggestion as to what happened to make the Sailendra prince Balaputradeva king of Srivijaya remains in contention. Other, earlier writers indicate that in their reckoning, Bala would have been too young to have challenged Pikatan for the throne of Mataram and was probably taken to Palembang where he grew to maturity before returning to try and take back what he considered his rightful heritage. Evidence from many more prasasti will be needed before the mysteries of these shadowy kings are unravelled to everyone’s content. The Monuments of Central Java While the rulers of Mataram maybe shadowy figures in the history of Central Java, the monuments they left behind are very real evidence of their wealth and power. Although there are many monuments scattered over the landscape there, they can be roughly classified into two groups corresponding to the two dynasties, the Sailendras and the Sanjayas. These are respectively Borobudur and Prambanam. Borobudur, Mendut and Pawon Borobudur11 The gigantic stupa, Borobudur, is rightly world-­‐famous but when built by the Sailendras in the years 778 to 842 AD, two other buildings were conceived as part of a huge processional way connecting to the stupa at its end. These are Candi Mendut and Candi Pawon, of which 10
11
Ibid, p.8.
Photo: Jill Gocher - National Geographic
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Mendut is the oldest of the three. This makes these magnificent monuments 300 years older than Angkor Wat in Cambodia and four centuries older than the great Gothic cathedrals of Europe. Borobudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual relationship12 In the 70 or so years it took to build Borobudur alone, more than 55 cubic meters of stone were quarried, moved and assembled over the top of a small hill. The entire stupa is 123m square and 42m high. DGE Hall describes Borobudur as …the highest expression of the artistic genius of the Sailendra period [and] is utterly unlike any other Javanese monument. It is not a temple with an interior, but an immense stupa in the form of stone terraces covering the upper part of a natural hill, on the top of which stands the central stupa… To traverse the whole distance through the galleries up to the summit involves a walk of over three miles. The walls of the galleries on both sides are adorned with bas-­relief sculptures illustrating Mahayanist texts. They run to thousands. In addition there are 400 statues of the Buddha. The base has a series of reliefs depicting the effects of good and evil deeds in daily life producing karma. But these are now covered by a broad casement of stonework…..13 Over 13,000 cubic meters of stone were used to cover up this lower section of the monument. It seems puzzling to us that the huge amount of labour and artistic genius which went into creating this part of Borobudur should be deliberately obscured but apparently this had a symbolic intent, hiding the worldly level to focus attention on the lessons of the upper gallery. Parts of this basement were uncovered by the Japanese during their occupation in 1942 and these have been left for visitors to see. Buddhist monks praying at Borobudur during the annual Vesak ceremony Borobudur was in use for only about 200 12 The map is a coloured version after Moens, JL: Barabudur, Mendut and Pawon and their mutual relationship; 1950 (Mark Long, translator); www.borobudur.tv/Barabudur_Mendut_Pawon.pdf 13
Op.cit. p. 47
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years and then left to be covered over by jungle and volcanic ash. In 1815 Sir Stamford Raffles (of Singapore fame)14 had Dutch archaeologist HC Cornelius clear and then excavate the site. After the defeat of the French, Java was restored to Dutch control in 1816. In 1907 to 1911, the Dutch undertook a restoration of Borobudur and most recently, UNESCO carried out an even more massive restoration 1973 to 1983. It is now on the UNESCO World Heritage list. Borobudur in elevation and bird’s eye view showing design of the stupa It is commonly said that Borobudur was built by Samaratungga, the father of Balaputradeva and the last of the Sailendras in Mataram but it seems probable, given the more recent king list and their regnal years, that the complex was begun by Rakay Panamkaran, Bala’s grandfather and completed by Samaratungga. Although the language is slightly quaint (probably a translation15), the most succinct description I could find of the layout of the stupa and its intention as a Buddhist teaching “manual in stone” was from a Blog by “g9”16 extolling the benefits of a visit to Jogjakarta: Borobudur is constructed as a ten-­terraces building… The first six terraces are in square form, two upper terraces are in circular form, and on top of them is the terrace where Buddha statue is located facing westward. Each terrace symbolizes the stage of human life. In line with of Buddha Mahayana, anyone who intends to reach the level of Buddha's must go through each of those life stages. The base of Borobudur, called Kamadhatu, symbolizes human being 14
After the British annexation of Java in 1811 Lord Minto, then Governor-General of India, appointed Raffles Lt.
Governor of the island where he remained until recalled in 1816. His many reforms included land tenure and a
revision of the legal system. He also inaugurated the Botanical Gardens at Bogor and is responsible for the
Indonesians driving on the left.
15
I am not sure if the author is Indonesian or Japanese.
16
See g9vacation.blogspot.com/2007/06/borobudur.html
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that are still bound by lust. The upper four stories are called Rupadhatu symbolizing human beings that have set themselves free from lust but are still bound to appearance and shape. On this terrace, Buddha effigies are placed in open space; while the other upper three terraces where Buddha effigies are confined in domes with wholes are called Arupadhatu, symbolizing human beings that have been free from lust, appearance and shape. The top part that is called Arupa symbolizes nirvana, where Buddha is residing17. Candi Mendut Candi Mendut, the oldest of the three in the Borobudur-­‐Pawon-­‐Mendut complex, is situated about 3 km east of Borobudur. Like Borobudur, Mendut was built principally by Samaratungga. It is 26.4 metres tall and faces west ⎯ ie, towards Candi Pawon and Borobudur ⎯ and originally had a small ante-­‐
chamber in front but that and parts of the roof are now missing. The main chamber contains three large, beautifully carved statues, one of which is a 3-­‐
metre high Dhyani Buddha Vairocana which was meant to liberate devotees from bodily khama. On either side of the Buddha are Boddhisatvas, the one on the left serving to liberate one from speech, the other, from thought. The entire temple is richly adorned with carvings, one of a Buddhist teaching about animals. 17
http://g9vacation.blogspot.com/2007/06/borobudur.html
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Candi Mendut and (r) interior showing Buddha with 2 Boddhisatvas Candi Pawon Candi Pawon Pawon was built mid-­‐way between Mendut and Borobudor along what seems to have been a processional way. Commonly called the “jewel of Javanese temple architecture”, Pawon is richly decorated on its outer walls with bas-­‐
reliefs of boddihisattvas and taras and a beautiful relief of a “tree of life” or kalpataru. The kalpataru relief at Candi Pawon. Inside, Pawon is very different. The chamber is empty and plain with small rectangular windows piercing the walls. In the centre is a square basin, the reason for which is unknown. However, there is some evidence that Pawon was intended as a tomb, the name in Javanese meaning nowadays a kitchen, but suggesting something to do with ashes in the past. Prambanan, the crowning glory of the Sanjayas. Prambanan was the last great religious monument built in Central Java. The king Rakai Pikatan is said to have built Prambanan to celebrate his victory over Balaputradeva but the date given for the completion of the monumental 9
complex is 856 AD which places it in the reign of Pikatan’s son, Kayuwani (850-­‐898 AD). Now it is important to know that Pikatan did not die but rather resigned his throne in favour of Kayuwani in 850 and, taking the name Jatiningrat, retired to a hermitage to lead a spiritual life of contemplation. Entrance to the Prambanan complex This is important because it established a tradition so powerful that another great king, Airlangga of East Java, did the same thing in 1045 AD, even adopting the same name. Both kings passed through four stages in their lives, starting with one of asceticism; next, of warfare; then of victory and rule; and finally, of retreat and contemplation18. Prambanan was deserted only a few years after its completion when the people and the court moved to East Java. Some historians suggest that an eruption of Gunung Merapi covered the fields with volcanic ash and the ensuing famine forced the people to move away. Personally I prefer the suggestion that the heavy burden placed on the ordinary people to build these huge monuments caused them to go elsewhere and the court had no alternative but to follow. Nandi, the steed of Siva19 There are 8 main buildings in the Prambanan complex. The three main ones face east and are aligned north-­‐south. The middle and tallest candi, the Candi Siva Mahadeva, is 47m (155ft) high; on either side are the Candi Vishnu and Candi Brahma. Among the smaller temples are those for the so-­‐called celestial vehicles, nandi, the bull for Siva; hamsa, the goose for Brahma; and garuda, the bird, for Vishnu. The Dutch began reconstruction of the temple complex in 1918. It was completed, as far as possible because much of the stone had been stolen over 18
For a discussion of this tradition and the events leading up to Pikatan’s “retirement”, read DGE Hall, op. cit. pp
49-51.
19
Photo: http://whattaworld.wordpress.com/2009/08/23/prambanan-and-sunset-at-parangtritis-beach/
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the centuries for other buildings elsewhere, in 1953. However, an earthquake in 2006 has once more damaged much of the complex20. The Candi Siva temple Mahadeva The Candi Siva , is also popularly known as the Loro Jonggrang, which means "slender maiden". This derives from a local legend which has been imposed, not only on the Siva temple but often on the whole complex21. A travel guide re-­‐tells the legend: In the legend, a maiden, who happened to be a Javanese princess, was wooed by a suitor that she isn't interested [in]. To win her hand, she gave him the Herculean task to build a thousand temples within one night. The man used magical powers to call on genies to help him with the task. So the genies started putting up temples in the night. However, she has no reason for him to succeed. When it appeared certain that a thousand temples would be completed, she sabotaged him by pounding the rice mortar, confusing the genies into thinking that dawn is arriving, and causing them to flee. By then 999 temples had been built. Enraged by her action, the man built the final temple. And then he issued a curse on the maiden, which turned her into stone. Local belief identify her as the statue in the northern chamber of the temple. What is interesting is that the statue identified as Loro Jonggrang is actually that of Durga, Siva's consort. Hence, the local people, who have long discarded Hinduism, have lost their understanding of it, and have reproduced their own tale to explain the figures within the Prambanan temple.22 Other temples of the Region Briefly, there are many, many temples and other ruins of religious complexes in Central Java. Part of the Sewu complex For example ⎯ just to mention three ⎯ not far from Prambanan is Candi Sewu which is actually the second oldest Buddhist temple after Borobudur in Central Java. 20
See http://breakingnews.iol.ie/news/?c=ireland&jp=cwgbauidkfsn
This avoids confusing the temple complex with the local town also called Prambanan.
22
http://www.asiaexplorers.com/indonesia/prambanan_loro_jonggrang.htm
21
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Although only the remains of 257 temples exist, the Javanese name translates to “a thousand temples” which gave rise to the story of the Loro Jonggrang. Nearby also is Candi Plaosan, also 9th Century and Buddhist ⎯ therefore Sailendra in origin ⎯ while south of Prambanan is Ratu Boko, a hill-­‐top complex of bathing pools enclosed by stone walls and fortified gates. Candi Arjuna on the Dieng Plateau Further away on the Dieng Plateau are candi older than Borobudur and the Sailendras. Here there are 8 (out of the original 400) small Hindu temples, the first known standing stone structures in Java. Dating from the 7th and 8th Centuries, they are small and relatively plain compared to the later ones at Prambanan. The area, the name of which means abode of the gods23, is the marshy floor of an ancient caldera near Wonosobo. It is almost 2000m above sea level and home to mists, poisonous effusions and sulphur-­coloured lakes24. The end of the Sanjayas The Sanjaya dynasty came to an end when Mpu Sindok succeeded to the throne after his father-­‐in-­‐law died in 929. As outlined earlier, he moved his kraton from Central Java to East Java where the name was also changed from Mataram to Medang. This must have been sometime in the early 10th Century because his son succeeded him in 947. The new dynasty took its name Isyana from this son, Sri Isyanatunggawijaya. In turn, the last king of the Isyana and hence, of the Sanjayas was Dharmawangsa who became ruler in 985 but was killed in 1006 AD when Srivijaya invaded and sacked his kraton in retaliation for Dharmawangsa’s attacks on its territories. Airlangga, a 16-­‐year-­‐old Balinese prince who was staying with his maternal uncle Dharmawangsa in the Watugaluh kraton when it was sacked, escaped into the mountains of East Java where he lived as a hermit with his guard, Narotama. In 1009 he emerged to avenge his uncle’s death and in doing so, founded the kingdom of Kahuripan which, although it did not outlive Airlangga, was one of the most resplendent of all the Javanese empires. ________________________________________________ 23
24
from Di Hyang
Wikipedia at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieng_Plateau
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