Meaning of Maya Myths

The Meaning of Maya Myths
Author(s): Aleksandar Bošković
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Anthropos, Bd. 84, H. 1./3. (1989), pp. 203-212
Published by: Anthropos Institute
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/40461682 .
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84.1989:20S-212
Anthropos
The MeaningofMayaMyths
AleksandarBoskovic
- The articledeals withthe hypotheses
and apAbstract.
on
in thestudyofMesoamerican
focusing
religions,
proaches
andcompared
to
areexamined
theMayatradition.
Mayamyths
of thispartof theworld,withtheparticular
othertraditions
on thecosmological
stress
aspectsoftheHunahpu'sandXbaTheauthoralsoexamines
in
the
Underworld.
descent
lanque's
someoftheevidenceon theMayamoongoddess,as wellas
in itself
offantastic
creature(s)
uniting
mythological
concepts
- Itis suggested
thattheareaofinthefundamental
opposites.
of Mayamoongoddessis muchwiderthangenerally
fluence
it also seemsthattheconceptsof deitieslikeItconsidered;
zamnáand Kukulcánarosefromthebiologically
impossible
inthe"Izapan"or"proto-Mathatwererepresented
creatures
myths]
Maya tradition,
religions,
[Mesoamerican
ya" culture.
ofBelB. A. (inphilosophy,
Aleksandar
Boskovic,
University
- Publications:
in Mesoamerican
religions.
grad);specializing
Majanskareligija(Beograd1988); Aztec GreatGoddesses.
and
on thestudyofreligion
Indiana[Berlin]12. 1988);articles
myth.
Each thingwas madesilent,
Each thingwas madecalm,
Was madeinvisible,
Was madeto restin heaven.
(Edmonson1971:9-10; lines125-128)
Maya mythsis of supremeimporUnderstanding
theirreligion- morepretanceforcomprehending
of
a
rituals,and beliefsthat
cults1,
cisely, variety
formtheir"part" in Mesoamericanreligions.This
complexis veryspecificbecause of the greatnumberofcommonbeliefsand similarrituals,as wellas
numerousdeitiesthathave commontraitsin differentcivilizations:fromthe Olmec and Teotihuacán
to theZapotec, Toltec, Mixtec,and Aztec. In this
culturestheMaya have a
universeofextraordinary
veryimportantplace.
However, each study of their religion is
renderedmuch more difficultby the lack of the
sources; on the other hand, the little we know
comes mostlyfrom the Postclassic period (ca.
10th-16th
centuryCE), and thequestionabout the
oftheClassic and Postclassicis
extentofcontinuity
for
still open (cf.,
example, Edmonson 1979:
157-166). Whatsurvivedare stelae, lintels,reliefs,
bas-reliefs,and figurinesand sculptureson one
side - and ceramicsand oral traditionon theother,
withfewmanuscriptswrittendown duringthe colonial period, of which"Popol Vuh" is the most
importantforthe subject of thispaper. The trails
of ancient beliefs could be found even in very
"Christian"ceremoniesof the present-dayMaya,
as notedbyThomas Gann (1918: 40): "Nominally,
theyare Christians,butthelongerone livesamong
them,and the betterone gets to know them,the
is to a greatexmore he realizes thatChristianity
tentmerelya thinveneer,and thatfundamentally
their religiousconceptionsand even their ritual
and ceremoniesare survivals- degenerate,much
changed,and withmostof theirsignificancelostbut still survivalsof those of their ancestors of
pre-Columbiandays."
Having in mind all these obstacles, it is no
wonderthatthereare onlya fewusefulstudiesof
Maya religion.But it is in the last 15 yearsthatwe
are witnessingthe gradualaccumulationof knowlaspectsoftheirculture,including
edge on different
to mythology,
a veryimportant
If
we
turn
religion.
of most
breakhas been made bythedecipherment
of
ceramics
found
in the
study
Mayan hieroglyphs,
D.
tombs2
started
Michael
Coe,
by
dignitaries'
in
of
art
and
made
the
study
iconoggreatprogress
raphy,and worksthatpointto thelegacyofancient
communities(and among
beliefsin thepresent-day
the people who greatlycontributedin thispart is
Dennis Tedlock with his new edition of "Popol
Vuh"). There has been a lot of disputeabout the
ofcultwhichis in myopinionespecially
1 Forthedefinition
ofthispartoftheworld,I
validforthereligious
complexes
that"Failurein
toBrundage
refer
(1985:4 ff.).He stresses
ofthegroupand
it[cult-A.B.] leadstothedisorientation
ofitsvaluesystems."
theunpinning
thisis nota verypreciseterm,since"dignitaries"
2 Although
fivegroupslistedbyHamcouldhavebeenfromthefirst
mond(1982:197)inhisgeneralaccounton thesocialstructureofMayasociety.
204
AleksandarBoSkovic
common
tothemamethodological
approachinthestudyoficonogra- encesthereisa corpusofmyths
thestudyofreligion jorityof Maya groups,as wellas fortheirMesowhich
influences
directly
phy,
on theone hand,thereis so-called"di- americanneighbors.
andmyths;
Of course,we shalldeal only
on
the
with
based
characteristic
theoneson creation,
recthistorical
dicomparamyths:
approach,"
and moongoddess.
tive studyof otherMesoamericancivilizations vinehero-twins,
(mostofall,theAztec),as wellas on moderneth- thisapproachwasacceptedby
nologicalresearch
inMayastudiesto- 1. Ages oftheWorld
of
the
many
leadingauthorities
D.
R.
M.
Coe, etc.), and I
day (Gordon Willey,
anddefenseagainst [The day] 4 Ahau will be creation.
thinkthatitsbestpresentation
[The day] 4 Ahau will be darkness.
was thatofHenryB. Nicholson(1976: Then
thecritics
were born the heartof creation,
configura- the heartof darkness.(Roys 1965: 6)
157-175).On theothersideis intrinsic
tionaliconographie
analysisproposedby George
oftheperiodical
cosmicdestruction
and
Kubier(cf. 1972)- acceptedby manyEuropean The myth
theso-called"ages oftheworld"(or
and recently
scholarsand students,
developedby renovation,
forallMesoiscommon
inhisbrilliant
NicholasM. Hellmuth
studyofEar- sunsinNáhuatltradition),
wherehe proposesthe americancultures,and has also parallelsamong
ly Classic iconography,
oftheUSA. Acso-called"Mayanmodel"forthestudyofancient theIndiansfromtheSouthwest
to
the
version
was
that
cording
givenby Tozzer
Mayaculturein itsvariousforms.
and
based
on
the informants
of
Butthesubjectofthisarticleisthemeaning (1907: 153-154)
from
of
world
the
Valladolid
the
beand
customs
vicinity
present
regarding
Mayamyths,
especially
in
its
At
it
is
fourth
was
inhabited
fact
and
the
liefsofotherMesoamerican
first,
"age."
by
peoples,
thatabout some of themwe knowmuchmore zayamuincob
("thedisjointed
men"),dwarfs
capatheValleyofMexicointhefirst
large stoneson theirhunched
place). ble of carrying
(thosefrom
and
this
their
miraculous
which
tocallthisa comparative
I prefer
backs;
abilityto bring
approach,
to thehearthbywhistling,
enabledthem
doesnotmeanthatI takedatafromothercultures firewood
to
build
ancient
cities
and
in
interest
is
to interpret
hugepavedroads.There
Maya myths myonly
also
existed
a
road
or
certain
because
them,
great
suspendedin the sky,
"types"
comparing
fromTulúmand Coba to ChichénItzá
in different
traditions stretching
"models"are encountered
(whichdoesn'tmeanthattheywere"carried"by andUxmál.A greatlivingropewasalsoconnected
the withthisroad(bloodflowedin theinterior
ofit),
someonefromcultureto culture),suggesting
ofthesacred. anditservedas a meanbywhichgodsweresending
similar
modelsofthemanifestations
It willbecomeobviousthatinsomecaseswe deal foodto theancientcities'rulers.In thecourseof
withpatternscharacteristic
forthispart of the timemenhad becomewicked,so godsdecidedto
world,whileinothersMayatradition
keepsa sort destroythe world usingthe flood hayiokocab
I mustnotethatI usetheword ("wateroverthe earth").The rope was cut,all
of"exclusiveness."
todenotea traditional
forever.
Until
tale,theone aimingat bloodflowedout,anditdisappeared
myth
of theworldaroundus and thenall wasstillindarkness,
butsuddenly
thesun
symbolic
explanation
theparadoxical
ofhumanexistence,
as roseforthefirst
time,anditsraysturnedindustriambiguity
wellas at thejustification
ofthepresenthierarchy ous dwarfs
intostones.In thenextcreation,
there
andsocialorder(amonggodsor men).We do not livedpeoplecalleddz'olob(Thompsonproposed
deal withsome sortof "pre-scientific"
or "pro- thetranslation
butit'sfarfromclear
"offenders,"
to-scientific"
how
did
the
is
that
he
to
but
with
thinking point
get it), theyweredestroyed
everything
and
another
was
to
be
flood.
In
the
third
the
world
was
important fascinating
explained
period,
the
as
the
inhabited
macehualli
word
for
"ordithrough
mythicthinking
by
(Náhuatl
adequate
It excludesbivalent narypeople"), ancestorsof thepresent-day
Masphereofsymbolic
expression.
familiar
to us (be- yas,and weredestroyed
logicand manyotherrelations
byhunyecil
("hurricane
thepresent
fore-after;
cause-effect;
etc.). Mythas symbolof- andearthquake")or bulcabal.Finally,
fersgroundfordevelopment
and extension
of all worldisinhabited
ofallancient
bythedescendants
humanintellectual
andcreativeactivity;
especially races,and it is goingto disappearaftertheflood
inclination
forthegathering
andclassifying
ofno- (according
to "Relaciónde Merida,"fire- butwe
tionsand concepts verysoon enablingmythical mustremember
that,fortheancientMesoameriheroestobecomesubject(s)ofreligious
cults.The cans,waterand firewerenotopposites!).
evidence
wehavejustifies
theterm"Mayamyths":
Accordingto "Popol Vuh", thefirstpeople
differ- werejust"dollsmadeofwood"- theywatched. . .
despitetheregional,
language,andcultural
Anthropos84.1989
The Meaningof Maya Myths
205
... buthadno heartorsoul, creation was 4 Jaguar (naui ocelotl)3, and the
talked. . . multiplied
- so they worldwas inhabitedby giants.After13
theywerenotevenawareoftheircreators
periodsof
hadto be destroyed:
52 yearstheywere devouredby jaguars. TezcatliThen theirflood was inventedby the heartof
Heaven
A greatfloodwas made, and descended on the heads
Of thosewho were dolls
Who were carved of wood.
(Edmonson 1971: 25-26)
Besides thisheavyresin,theirutensilsand domesticanimalsalso had prominentpartin theirannihilation.From the few survivorsdescend the
monkeys.... In the second creation,it seemed
thattheworkof the gods was well executed,since
the people were reallybrilliant:
They came to see;
They came to know
underheaven
Everything
If theycould see it.
(Edmonson 1971: 150)
But thegodswerefarfrombeingsatisfiedwith
theirbrilliancy:
"It is not good
What theysaid,
Our forming
Our shaping:
We knoweverything
great
And small," theysaid.
And so theytook back again
Their knowledge,
Did Bearer
And Engenderer.
(Edmonson 1971: 151-152)
The firstpair of divinehero-twins,1 Hunter
(Hun Hunahpu) and 7 Hunter( Vuqub Hunahpu),
weredefeatedbytheLords oftheUnderworld(Xrbalba, "place of dread"). This worldwas also inhabitedby giants,led by 7 Parrot( Vuqub Kaqix,
but I findcompletelyplausible Hellmuth'sexplanationthatthisis actuallyHarpy Eagle God) and
his sons Alligator(Cipacna) and 2 Leg (Kaab r
Aqan). Theywere all killedbythe nextpair of hero-twins
who, afterwards,
proceeded to defeatthe
LordsoftheUnderworld.Of special interestof all
these giantsis the storyof Alligator,whose only
"sin" seems to have been some sortof hybris,and
whoslayed400 youngmen- an episode resembling
similaradventureof the greatMexico-Aztec warriorgod Huitzilopochtli.
In the thirdcreationdramaticshowdownbeand the Lords of the Undertweenthe hero-twins
and
worldtook place;
finally,in the fourthcreof yellow and white
made
were
ation, people
maize.
Accordingto the Mexican tradition,the first
Anthropos84.1989
poca was the sun of this age. The second was
named4 Wind (naui eecatl), and Quetzalcóatlwas
its sun. After7 periodsof 52 yearsthisworldwas
destroyedwhenterriblewindssweptaway houses,
trees,and people, and survivorswere turnedinto
monkeys. The next creation was 4 Rain (naui
quiauitl),and Tlaloc was itssun. After6 timesof52
years it was ended by firerainingdown fromthe
skyand volcaniceruptions.This worldwas inhabited by children,who were afterwardsturnedinto
birds.The fourthcreationwas 4 Water (naui atl),
its sun being goddess Chalchiuhtlicue.After 13
times of 52 years the world was destroyedwith
floods and people were turnedinto fish.Finally,
we live in the timeof the fifthcreation,4 Movement(naui ollin), whose sun is Tonatiuh. People
were made of bones broughtfromtheUnderworld
by Quetzalcóatl, and the worldwill be destroyed
duringa series of earthquakes.
This symbolismis farmore complexwhenwe
have in mindthat,forexample, jaguars were believedto represent"des forcesobscuresde la terre,
de tout le mystèrequi rôde 'au coeur des montagnes'" (Soustelle 1967: 8). The felinecultis the
mostprominentformof Olmec religion,where it
can be tracedas faras in the 12thcenturyBCE; but
fortheSouth Americanculitis also characteristic
tures(ca. 850 BCE in Chavin,Peru). It seems that
many differentculturesregardedjaguar as their
of thisbeliefwas preancestor,and the continuity
servedin thetimeof the Conquest, since "the jaguar was an importantemblem of their [Aztec]
all-powerfulSmokingMirrorGod [Tezcatlipoca]"
(Davies 1982: 48).
These mythshave numerousvariations,4but
they all reflectbasic concepts of these cultures:
thattheworldis periodicallybeingcreatedand deshouldnotbe takenas a
stroyed.Here, destroying
meredestruction;essentially,itrepresentsrenova3 In thisbriefaccount I followthe mostwidelyaccepted order, but León-Portilla(1961: 14-17) givesthese ages in differentorder:4 Atl, 4 Ocelotl, 4 Quiauitl,4 Eecatl, 4 Ollin based on theXVI centurymanuscriptknownas "Anales de
Cuauhtitlán."
4 It is veryinterestingto compare these traditionswiththe
ones fromAmerican Southwest.Hopis believe that they
have come to earth,the Fourthworld, afterpassingfrom
threeother worlds,and each world is placed in the layer
above the formerone. A verycomplex Navaho mythexplains how their ancestors reached the Fifthworld, the
worldwe live in, usingextremelyintriguing
symbolism(for
the Hopi traditioncf. Harold Courlander1982; and theNavaho mythis reprintedin FrederickW. Turner1974).
206
tion,the new worldis always betterthan the formerone.
in numWhatseems unusualis the difference
ber of the "ages of the world" in two Mesoamerican traditions:(usually) four for the Maya; and
(usually) five for the people fromthe Valley of
Mexico. But both numbersmark the same basic
concept: Maya traditionmentions four cosmic
trees(yaxche)placed at thefourworlddirectionswhich denote their color: red at east, white at
north,blackat west,and yellowat south.This idea
unitestheimageof the "tree of life" (withtreetop
belongingto the heaven, trunkto the earth,and
roots to the underworld)as axis mundi withthe
idea of numinous"bearers" (which,like Hellenic
Atlantes,hold the sky on theirshoulders). Such
"fusion"of two cosmologicalconceptshavç in the
course of timecaused the change fromthe belief
thattheworldis "supported"byfourtreesintothe
one more anthropomorphic;i.e., that it is "supported"by fourgods. The Náhuatl mythexplains
that,whenTezcatlipoca and Quetzalcóatlhave destroyedtheworldwitha flood,fourmensurvived
themintothetreesand place
so thegodstransform
themat the fourcornersof the world. The Maya
"bearers" were knownas Bacabs, and theiroldest
representationwas found at the Temple 22 at
Copán, datingfromthe8thcenturyCE (Baudez et
Becquelin 1984: 384). In his "Relación de las cosas
de Yucatan" Landa (Tozzer 1941: 135-136) wrote
about them:"Among the multitudeof gods which
thisnationworshippedtheyworshippedfour,each
of themcalled Bacab. They said that theywere
fourbrotherswhomGod placed, whenhe created
the world,at the fourpointsof it, holdingup the
skyso thatitshouldnotfall.Theyalso said ofthese
Bacabs thattheyescaped when the worldwas defourbasic
stroyedbythe deluge." By determining
also
determine
the
pointsthey
dispositionof particularyearstowardspeople (Landa witnessedthe
New Year ceremonieswhereBacabs were of great
importance)- and thatis wherethe role of priests
as "mediators"became veryimportant.
But whynumber4? - In Mesoamerican iconography,thatnumberis connectedwiththe sun
(Beyer 1928: 32 ff.) - representingits creative
poweras "life-giver"and "firein the sky." When
the sun appeared for the firsttime (13.0.0.0.0. 4
Ahau 8 Cumku), the Maya startedtheir "Long
Count" (Spanish Cuenta larga). It is quite predictable thatthesun,whose dailyand nightly
journey5
5 Aftersunsetitis to become a "Jaguar-Sun,"whichis led by
the youngmoon goddess towardsthe place whereit willbe
rituallydecapitated;butthefemalecounterpartof thegreat
AleksandarBoSkovic
dominate the great part of Maya religion,6and
whichwitnessesand participatesall the important
eventsin the skyand in the realmof Xibalba, determinestheages oftheworld.And itis quitenatural that these ages were called "suns" in the
Náhuatl tradition.
The fifthage is a sortof "appendix" derived
fromtheneed to "unite" foursidesoftheworld;so
- green
beside foursacredtrees(yaxche),thefifth
one will be placed in the center. On the other
hand, greatimportanceof rainand relateddivinities throughoutMesoamerica mustnot be forgotten, since 5 is also a cipherthat"symbolizes"rain
(Beyer 1928: 36). And thisalso remindsus of the
cosmologicalconceptsofNorthAmericanIndians,
wherebeside fourpointsforthe worlddirections,
thefifth
{pou sto) is added in theverycenter,signithe
fying observer(Alexander 1920: 52).
Sun symbolismin Maya mythsis connected
withmanyscenes,mostlyon ceramicvessels,butit
when we followthe advenis also veryintriguing
turesof the divinehero-twins.
The mythof the divinehero-twinsis characteristicfor all the American Indian traditions.
Theyare presentin mythsand talesbothas legendary ancestorsand heroes that are about to overcome varioustrials.The mostinteresting
detailregarding 1 Hunter (Hunahpu) and Jaguar-Sun
(Xbalanquë) is theirrole in the creation of the
world. Edmonson's "Second Creation" obviously
places themin the same worldas the giants.Their
ancestors,theMaize Twins(1 Hunterand 7 Hunter), were defeatedin the sacred ball game by the
Lords of Xibalba and rituallydecapitated.Therefore,Hunahpu and Xbalanque wentto "avenge"
themand to (on the cosmic level) defeatDeath.
Their descent metaphoricallyrepresentsthe
descent of the sun, and, on a broader scale, it
serves as an example of what trialsthe deceased
underworldjaguar - analogous to the Aztec Tepeyollotl
("Heart oftheMountain")- willjustbeforedawngivebirth
to a new sun,now led by theold moon goddesstowardsthe
place where it is supposed to startanotherday.
6 For the astronomicaldetails and data in Mayan inscripto notethattheontions,cf.Dütting(1984). It is interesting
lytombon whosewallsthecardinalpointsweremarkedin a
rightway has been recentlyexcavated at Rio Azul, Guatemala (cf. Adams 1986). The meaningof number4 can also
be verysignificant
regardingtheAztec ritualsacrificeof the
ixiptiaof goddessXilonen: "it was said 'she entersthesand'
because in thiswayshe made knownherdeath- thaton the
morrowshe woulddie - . . ." (Dibble 1980: 199). The Maya
Great Goddess (whichI considerto be themoongoddessin
her various manifestations)could be mentionedhere, for
one of her names was, literally,"The One that Emerges
fromthe Sand."
Anthropos84.1989
The Meaningof Maya Myths
207
onhisjourney.Butthey 2. The Great Goddess and the Mystery
rulerisabouttoencounter
willbe muchwiserandmoreskilledthantheirfaof Creation
theranduncle(although
the
Hunahpuwill,during
nightin thehouseof KillerBat, also be decapi- Who is yourtree? Who is yourbush?
willforsometimereplacehis What was yourtrunkwhen you were born?
tated,buthisbrother
defeatthe"Lords (Roys 1965: 4)
headwitha squash),andfinally
twolords,anddisperseoth- The above incantation
oftheNight,"sacrifice
reflects
an ancientbelief
ers.Afterall theirexploits,
thatcan be foundeven todayamongthe Maya:
thata certainanimalorplant"watches"thefateof
. . . theywalked back up
eachindividual.
"RitualoftheBacabs" showsthe
Here amid the light,
And at once
shaman'sand medicineman'sefforts
to "reveal"
They walked into the sky.
whichplant"guards"thesickone; thisknowledge
And one is the sun,
wouldenablehimtocuretheplant,too,andtofind
And the otherof themis the moon.
theexactplacewheresicknessis located.Thisbe(Edmonson 1971: 144)
liefprobablyresultsfromtheancientfascination
is established
aftertheir withthe
A newritualpattern
oflife,imposing
veneration
ofanmystery
Untiltheirdescent,theLordsoftheUn- cestors
victory.7
cult
the
had
enor(ancestor among Maya
Deathwasthe mous
merciless:
wereabsolutely
derworld
for
all
of
evidence
significance
aspects life;
was confirmedforthisareburialsofthedescended
supremeruler,and itssuperiority
underthefloor
above.
alreadymentioned
bythesunsacrifice
ofthehouse,and keepingtheirskullson thespeHunahpuand Xbalanquedid notabolishthe cial place,wheretheywouldreceiveritualofferto
sacrifice:
Hunahpu(Quichedaycorresponding
itresultedin theconings,etc.). Moregenerally,
Yucatec1 Ahau,daythat"belongs"tothesungod nectingof thehumanbirthand plants'germina1950:87-88]- butamongtheQuiche tion,which
[Thompson
putsman'sfatein the handsof the
player Great Goddess. Furthermore,
Mayatodaythewordjunajpualso signifies
everyonehas its
- buthewillget
willbe decapitated
- Náhuatlnahual.(On
parexcellence)
"animalspiritcompanion"
hisheadbackin a miraculous
way.(The defeated itsunderworld
journey,thedeceasedis led bythe
ball
sacred
in
the
gamewerealso decapi- horrible
players
dog knownamongtheYucatecMaya as
withthe Xul - Náhuatl Xolotl, Aztec
are suggested
tated.)Death and rebirth
Xulotl) Or, as
of
men-fish
form
in
the
of
hero-twins
appearing
summedby Vogt (1969:372): "Each personand
itseems hisanimal
(cf.Tedlock1985:289-290);furthermore,
spiritcompanion(vay-j-elor wayhelin
thatmanyMesoamericanIndiansbelievedthat mostTzotzilcommunities,
but chanulin Zinahumanembryos
gods"catch"fish- representing
cantán)sharethe same soul (ch'ulelin Tzotzil).
thatfloatin the mythicallake whose Náhuatl Thus,whentheancestral
godsinstalla soulinthe
equivalentis Tamoanchán(Dütting1976: 42- embryoofa Zinacanteco,theysimultaneously
inontheBoneMT-51:A stallthesamesoulinthe
43 ff.) . Thisisalsosuggested
of
an
animal.
Simembryo
ofTikalTemple1,Burial116,inthesceneshowing ilarly,
a Zinacanteco
themoment
babyisborna suthreelongnosedgods (identifiedas Chac Xib pernatural
jaguar,coyote,ocelot,or otheranimal
thatlong- isborn.
Chacs,butit shouldnot be forgotten
life,whatever
happensofnote
Throughout
nosedheadswerealso aspectsofItzamná)captur- to the Zinacantecohappensto the animalspirit
aspectas resurrection,companion,and vice versa . . ." These "animal
ingfish.Andthatis another
markofthevictorious
the
most
important
perhaps
arekeptinsomesortofcorral
spiritcompanions"
of a new
divinetwins.Exceptthisestablishment
ancestral
deities.
the
by
in the
was eternalized
thisvictory
ritualpattern,
This "installment
of thesoul" was probably
sun's"takingover"of theball game;and in that donebytheGreatGoddess,andintheMayapansuf- theonwe meetherin at leasttwo
ambiencethesun'sunderworld
extraordinary
asimportant
forever.
will
be
experienced
fering
pects:as youngmoongoddess(YucatecIxchel),
andas anoldgoddesswithjaguarclawsandspouse
ofthecreator
god,Ix ChebelYax. Bothcanbe recognizedamongthe fourgoddessesthatLanda
as theonesvenerated
(Tozzer1941:10) mentions
at theislandCozumel- Ix Chel,Ix ChebelYax, Ix
7 In his editionof the "Popol Vuh," Dennis Tedlock stresses
Ix Hunieta.Thereis some evidencethat
of theirexploits;theyare mostlikely Hunie,
the ritualsignificance
thelattertwoarethesamedeity,andthe
296Tedlock
1985:
and
suggests
sun
Venus
the
(cf.
representing
betweenIx297).
questionabouttheactualrelationship
Anthropos84.1989
208
cheland Ix Chebel Yax is veryinteresting
(cf. Tozzer 1941:notes46, 47); Thompson(1939) regarded
themas the same deity,but later (1970) changed
his mind.It seems thatLanda consideredthemto
be mother and daughter, as did Knorozov
(1964: 3). However, if we accept the general notionthatMaya deities(and Mesoamericanas well;
forthedetailedtreatmentof the attributesof merchant gods see Thompson 1966) revealed themselvesin variousaspects,thesetwo could be treated as one deity.Ixchelis also beingmentionedas a
goddess of childbirthand medicine in Landa's
whileScholes and Roys give more inmanuscript,
formation
intheirexcellentmonograph(1948: 57):
"Ix Chel was evidentlya verypopulardeityamong
the Chontalgenerally.Her shrineon Cozumel Islandoffthenortheastern
coast of Yucatan was visitedbypilgrimsfromTabasco, and the site of Tixchel,whichwas twiceoccupied byAcalan, was apparentlynamed forher. As Seler pointedout, the
names of Ciuatecpan ('palace of the woman') on
the Usumacintaand of Ciuatan ('the place of the
woman') in centralTabasco mustreferto herworship. Landa notes thatIsla de Mujeres ('island of
thewomen') northof Cozumel was named forthe
idols of goddesses which were found there. He
names Ix Chel and threeothers,but Tozzer suggeststhatat leasttwoof themwerethesame deity.
In Tabasco on theRio Chico, a branchof theUsumacinta,is a sitenamedCuyo de las Damas, which
maywell referto Ix Chel also. She was probably
the goddess to whom, according to Cortês, the
people of Teutiercas in Acalan dedicated their
principaltemple.In her 'theyhad muchfaithand
hope.' In her honor 'theysacrificedonly maidens
who were virginsand verybeautiful;and if they
werenotsuch,she became veryangrywiththem.'
For thisreasontheytookespecial painsto findgirls
with whom she would be satisfiedand brought
themup fromchildhoodforthispurpose."
Whilethereliability
of Cortes' accountcan be
this
sort
of
sacrifice
is similarto the one
doubted,
thatAztecs had in themonthOchpaniztli,particularlyto the sacrificeof the ixiptlaof the goddess
Chicomecóatl("Seven Snake") (Brundage 1985:
51-54) - but theymade sacrificesto the fouraspects of theirGreat Goddesses. Of these aspects
veryinterestingis Toci ("Grandmother"), since
herequivalentamongthe Yucatec Maya would be
Ix Chebel Yax. OriginallytheGreat Goddess (and
the moon goddess, too) of the Huaxtecs, she was
"via Culhuacán" absorbed into the Aztec pantheon (Brundage1985: 51). As an old goddess,she remindsus of theimage of the Ix Chebel Yax on the
page 74 of"Codex Dresdensis"; butitis also worth
AleksandarBoSkovié
Fig. 1: Ixchel as a goddess of fateas depictedin the "Codex
Dresdensis," 19 c. [All drawingsby Lidija Taranovié]
notingthatweavingand embroidering,whichare
attributedto wanton Ixchel,8 are supervisedby
(and actuallyare emblemsof) Ix Chebel Yax. Her
role as the goddess of fateis in the "Codex Dresdensis" stressedwith the prefixzac. This prefix
- and all thisis
meanswhite,chastity,and virginity
also connectedwiththe name of the youngmoon
goddess as White Ix Chel (Roys 1965: 154). Besidespage 19 ofthiscodex, whichshowsIxchelcarryingman's fateon herback, thisis also suggested
by the analogy between kin (meaning sun, day,
time), and k'in (to weave, to weave cottonon the
loom, cloth) (Dütting 1974: 13).
Ixchel was also known as "The One that
Emerges fromthe Sand" - and, takinginto accounttheNáhuatlbelief(cf.note 6!), thiscould express her superiorityover Death. This could also
explain her role in bringingthe sun to the underworldaltar. She was also consideredas an ances8 Her connectionwiththe spindleassociatesherwiththespider (Thompson1939: 147-149),butalso withfate(BoSkovic
η. d.).
Anthropos84.1989
The MeaningofMayaMyths
Fig.2: GlyphoftheMayamoongoddess.
inseveralMayacities,
tressoftheruling
dynasties
andherpowerwassymbolically
givento theruler
in theformof a "bundleofpower."
of Maya Deities
3. Résumé:The Character
anditistheunionofthispairwhich
He isbothmaleandfemale,
of thecultivated
aboutthebirth,or sprouting,
plants,
brings
. . . Ihp'en,as thepassive
whicharesaidto be theiroffspring.
ofmaize,issaidtobe a singlebeingandofmalesexonly.
spirit
In thisrolehe is themaleconsortof thefemalespiritof the
beans,ixq'anan.
(Wisdom1940:402; Dütting1981:205)
209
up by ClemencyCoggins(1985: 53-54): "As the
of the universe,Itzamnáenreptilianstructure
and are
compassesphenomenathattranscended
to thesun.It does,however,
antithetical
havedistinctcelestialandUnderworld
likethe
components
sun. . . . Supernatural
often
beings
emergefrom
theopenjawsofthecelestialserpentanditsbody
mayconsistofa SkyBand,a sequenceofcelestial
signs.Thisserpentis also commonly
represented
as the'serpentbar'carriedbymanyMayalordsin
theirofficial
thatthelordand
portraiture,
showing
his lineageworshipand manydescendfromItzamná.Beneaththehumanrealm,Itzamnásymbolizedthestructure
oftheearth,andinthewaters
oftheearthandUnderworld,
wheredeathreigns,
ittakestheskeletalformsofsuchaquaticreptiles
as crocodiles.
Theseareusuallyportrayed
as Long
Nose Heads, eitherskeletalor withno lowerjaw
(whichmeansthesamething)."Butitis notonly
Itzamnáthatis involved
withthedifferent
aspects;
deities
are
foundin pairs (Maize
manyMaya
thePaddlersfromtheUnderTwins,hero-twins,
not
world,HunChuenandHunBatz,etc.),a thing
verycommonfornon-Americantraditions.
Theconceptofa fantastic
beingthatinitmythical
the
self unites
oppositesearth-sky,life-death,
forthevariety
etc.,is characteristic
male-female,
ofreligions,
andthereis no reasonto considerthe
wassometimes Fig.3: BicephallicMonster.AltarD, Copán.
Thisuniting
Mayaas an exception.
ancestor
in
idea
of
a
dual
the
deity(like
expressed
theCentralMexicanOmeteotl),orthepairofcreatorgods(Mixtec1 Flowerand13Flower);andthe
On themoreabstract
level,thereis ch'ab(in
lateconceptarestillkeptin Yucatec: creation)and akab (darkness,night).
trailsofthisrelatively
in contemporaryThefirst
is connected
withskyandmale;theother
thenotionof "mother-fathers"
Quichecommunities
(cf. Tedlock 1982: 52-53). withearthand female.In the"Ritualof theBaThefantastic
withthewordal
mythological
beingis alsoconsidered cabs" theirunionis designated
of the universe,and, in Maya (birth).Atthispointitwouldbe veryinteresting
to
as a "supporter"
as Itzamná.
ofthedayAkbal(in other
studies,is designated
pointat thesymbolism
arenolonger dialectsalso: Akabal,Uotan,Watan)- whoseYusomeofhisstatements
Although
valid(liketheone that"ItzamNa was primarilycatecequivalent
is akab.Itisassociatedwithnight,
1970:
Eric
of
the
of
interior
the
earth,caves (Thompson1950:
210]),
hierarchy"
[Thompson
god
has
of
this
in
his
excellent
and
also
a jaguar (God L accordingto
deity,
study
73-75),
Thompson,
its
different
asat
as LordoftheNight.AcSchellhas'
many
classification)
pointed(1970:209-233)
from
The
famous
to
Tzeltal
representations Copán cording
Mayabelief,thesameday( Uopects.
and
Piedras
the
(Altar D), Palenque (House E),
tan) represents nameof theirancestor,that
as
Terreswere
also
land
came
designated
Negras(Stela25)
probablyfromthe east, distributed
theartof hitrial,Bicephallic,and CelestialMonster,respec- amongthepeople,and introduced
and thesemanifestations
were summed eroglyphic
toItthesamething
attributed
tively9,
writingSezamná.Moreover,
earlierauthorities
(Brinton,
is
to
the
that
a
Uotan
ler)
deity
analogous
supposed
9 Although
BaudezetBecquelin(1984:394-396)takeintoaccountonlythefirsttwo,and treatthemas separatedei- "Heart of the Sky" fromthe "Popol Vuh" (cf.
ties.
Thompsonibid.). Thiscomplexis derivedmostly
84.1989
Anthropos
210
fromthe 16thcenturysourcesand has manyparallelswiththemythsof theQuetzalcóatl. In thisspecificmythichistoryancient gods (obviously belongingto thevarietyof biologicallyimpossiblesupernaturalbeings) are being "transformed"in
what is generallycalled "culture heros," leaving
theirprimaryassociationsobscured in the past.
it
Besides thisdualityand its manifestations,
seems thatwe can talk of the two basic groupsof
the relevantmythologicalmaterial. The "Popol
Vuh" complexformsonlyone partof theso-called
"Ceramic Codex," but there are many episodes
whose ultimatemeaningremainsunknown.One
exampleis suggestedby Fig. 4: Apparentlyclear,
thevase presentsimagesof a deer and a frog.But
thefrogis also knownas Uinal Monster,patronof
the month(uinal). In the new editionof "Chilam
Balam ofChumayel"thereis a beautifulversionof
a mythnamed "The Birthof the Uinal," but on
theconceptualscale, thisalso presentsthebirthof
a mankind(Edmonson 1986: 30-31; 120-126). It is
the woman that comes first,and I propose that
herewe encounterthe Maya goddess of birth,Ixchel. The evidence forthiscomes fromthe same
vessel: the deer (animal almost exclusivelyassociatedwiththe moon goddess) has humaneyes on
its ears, whichsuggesthis supernaturalcharacter
(possibly,inconnectionwithdeathand theUnderworld).On thevessel designatedby Robicsek and
Hales with number 15, there is a curious scene
whichincludesthreepersonswithcharacteristic
elements of glyph Caban and the moon goddess
(lock ofhair); and also twogirlswithdeers (cf. Robicsekand Hales 1981: 110-111). This vessel was
putinthesame "Codex Fragment"as theones that
presenta love affairof wantonDragon Lady with
theold god. Takingintoaccountnotonlyvessel 15,
but also the numerousdouble ceramic figurines
showingthe moon goddess and the old god, I preferto call thislady Ixchel. Furthermore,
on these
vesselsshe is associatedwiththe Bearded Dragon
- and, please, note the beard of our Uinal Monster.
Fig. 4: Vase in private collection; height 14 cm, diameter
12cm. DrawingafterJustinKerr'sphotographpublishedin Robicsekand Hales 1981: vessel 43.
AleksandarBoSkovié
But of themajorityof episodes fromceramics
we knowalmostnothing.The interpretations
that
consideredeverythingas some episode fromthe
"Popol Vuh" did notlead us too far,and thenumber of scholarsattemptingwithotherapproaches
increases. The great progressmade in the deciphermentof Maya hieroglyphs
mightincreaseour
knowledge- but it stilldoes not mean thatwe will
automaticallybe able to understandtheirmyths.
As was already mentioned above, we need
sources.
Even withoutthem,it seems thattheremust
have been anothercorpusofmyths:sincetheMaya
believed thatin some sense everything
was divine
and
had to be
(includingrivers,trees,stones,etc.)
treatedin thewaythatwouldensuremanifestation
of onlythe benevolentside of the object or thing,
therewere probablytales about the encountersof
the youngmen withthe different
"sacred" things,
about the wanderingsof men and/orwomen far
away fromhome, etc. We can onlyhope thatnew
achievementswill bringforththe data about this
othercorpus.
A veryimportantfeatureof the Maya deities
is thatwe cannotspeak of a hierarchyamongthem
(or even of a "pantheon" in the strictsense). Un, therolesofsome wereconsideredto be
doubtfully
of special relevanceforthe specificactivities(besides the examples alreadymentioned,the Jester
God is always associated with the ruler; Xtabai
withhunting,etc.), although,beingessentiallydual, theycould belong bothto the Underworldand
Overwork! (as designated by "mirror"signs on
theirbodies). Some were associated withparticular sites (the Palenque Triad; Water-LilyJaguar
withTikal), wheretheywere representedmoreoften and possiblywere (especiallythose in animal
forms)veneratedas ancestorsof the rulingdynasties. Onlyveryfewwere representedin thehuman
form, and although humans occasionally wore
was
masksof the particulardeities,the difference
made
clear.
always
WhetherMaya deities were actually "organized" as to belong to different
"complexes" (as
seem to be the case with Aztecs) remains unknown;as wellas theextentto whichtheyaccepted
deitiesand cultsof otherMesoamericancultures.
Some, like theTeotihuacánRain God in theClassic periodand theToltec Quetzalcóatl in the Postclassic, theydid - but since theydid not have a
strong,unitedstate,the"takingover" of"foreign"
deitieswas not necessary.
of
These are only some of the characteristics
is
and
there
is
the
choice
arbitrary
Maya deities;
stillmuchmoreto say and explore.And I do hope
Anthropos84.1989
The MeaningofMayaMyths
211
inthis"part"oftheMesoamer- 1984 Venus,theMoon,andtheGodsofthePalenqueTriad.
thatthedifficulties
Zeitschrift
fürEthnologie
109:7-74.
as a challengeand
icanstudieswillbe considered
MunroS.
Edmonson,
(whynot?)as an invitation.
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