At first sight: unexpected antiquities from the collections of Frits Lugt

At first sight: unexpected antiquities from the collections of Frits
Lugt and Helene Kröller-Müller
Frits Lugt (1884-1970) and Helene Kröller-Müller (1869-1939) were the most important
Dutch art collectors of the first half of the twentieth century. Lugt became famous for his
seventeenth-century Dutch and Flemish drawings and prints. His academic writings are
still consulted to this day. Helene Kröller-Müller was chiefly interested in the
development of modern art: from ‘realism’ to ‘idealism’. Alongside old masters and
modern art, both Lugt and Kröller-Müller collected objects from the Orient, Ancient
Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
Helene Kröller-Müller was a generation older than Frits Lugt, and they probably never
met. Even so, there are many areas of common ground, most notably in the fact that
both wanted to share their collections with the general public. Another similarity is that
they initially chose not to separate the various artistic disciplines, but to display them as a
cohesive whole.
This exhibition shows that both these art lovers had a keen eye for antiquities. Lugt
collected Egyptian objects, Greek pottery, and Roman glass. Helene Kröller-Müller took
an interest in the development from Egyptian abstraction to Graeco-Roman realism. In
both cases, these parts of their collections have remained relatively unknown, and are
shown in relation to one another for the first time here.
Frits Lugt
Timeline Frits Lugt
1884 Birth of Frits Lugt in Amsterdam
1892 ‘Museum Lugtius’
1901 Employed by Frederik Muller
1910 Married Jacoba Klever (1888-1969)
1921 Les marques de collections de dessins & d'estampes
1932 Lugt moved his collection to Lange Vijverberg, The Hague
1947 Fondation Custodia, Hôtel Turgot, Rue de Lille, Paris
1956 Institut Néerlandais, Paris
1964 Répertoire des Catalogues de Ventes Publiques
1970 Death of Frits Lugt on 15 July
Frits Lugt: a life lived for art
Frederik Johannes Lugt was born in 1884, into an Amsterdam family with a keen
interest in travelling and the arts. As a young boy, he developed a passion for collecting.
At just eight years of age, he set up the ‘Museum Lugtius’ in his own bedroom, hanging
up a sign: ‘Open when the director is at home’.
At the Rijksmuseum, he became fascinated with seventeenth-century art. At the age of
twelve, he started compiling an inventory catalogue at the Rijksprentenkabinet, which
would grow to over 950 drawings. After a visit to the Rembrandt exhibition of 1898, the
young Lugt wrote a biography of the painter. Rembrandt became Lugt’s passion.
In 1914, after a successful period of employment at the Frederik Muller auction-house,
Frits Lugt left to devote all his time to collecting and producing publications on art. The
Lugt family emigrated immediately before the outbreak of the Second World War, first
to Switzerland and later to the United States. After the war, Lugt settled in Paris, where
he played an active role in the cultural life of the city. Frits Lugt died in 1970, a year after
losing his wife.
Publishing and collecting: ‘my own passion’
Frits Lugt had a particular fondness for seventeenth-century drawings and prints. He
became famous for his publications on Rembrandt and his 1921 ‘book of marks’. This
is an inventory of the stamps and inscriptions with which owners marked their works of
art. He later produced another major reference book, a repertory or index of all art sales
catalogues dating from the period 1600 to 1925.
Together with his wife, Jacoba Klever, Lugt expanded his own collections. Aside from
prints, they also collected old books, furniture, Chinese porcelain, carpets and tapestries
and sculptures. After the Second World War, Frits Lugt transferred his collection to the
Fondation Custodia, which is based in Paris. The collection serves as the basis for
exhibitions held all around the world.
Frits Lugt was an art dealer as well as a collector. In a condolence letter, he wrote, ‘If
there is anything in the realm of Old Dutch art and literature from your father’s
collection that you are interested in selling, I would be glad to hear about it. You know
of my passion in this area.’ By such means, Lugt exploited his network of collectors to
acquire remarkable works of art.
Hôtel Turgot: la vie en rose
France was Frits Lugt’s second home. In the Netherlands he was critical of the university
degree courses in art history and of the museum world. He valued the love of art, good
taste, and a feeling for practicalities more highly than theoretical studies and scholarship.
This attitude alienated him from the academic and museum circles of his day.
He felt more appreciated in Paris. In 1922 the French government commissioned him
to produce an inventory catalogue of all Dutch and Flemish drawings in the principal
public institutions in Paris. In 1956, Frits Lugt founded the Institut Néerlandais in Paris,
in a joint venture with the Dutch government. The collection was transferred to the
complex’s eighteenth-century Hôtel Turgot: by then it consisted of over 6,000 drawings,
30,000 prints, 40,000 artists’ letters, and more than 200 paintings. The front section of
the house, which dates from the nineteenth century, housed the new cultural institute,
with facilities for scholars and a large academic library.
Frits Lugt: the eye of the connoisseur
Lugt’s experience with drawings and prints gave him a fine eye for art. He also
appreciated the products of other cultures, such as art from the Far East and antiquities
from the Mediterranean region. Lugt was always motivated in part by a thirst for
knowledge, besides which he was drawn to objects that exuded refinement and that
possessed a strong aesthetic appeal.
His travels around Egypt and Italy brought him face to face with the remains of the
ancient Western civilizations. In the 1920s he started to buy Egyptian, Greek and
Roman antiquities with some regularity at auction-houses such as Sotheby’s in London
and from antiquarian dealers in capital cities around Europe. He also made purchases at
the public auctions of the estates of specialist collectors such as Jacob Hirsch and
Philipp Lederer. These ‘unknown’ parts of Frits Lugt’s collection were assigned to an
area in the front room of Hôtel Turgot. The antiquities are framed by paintings by the
Dutch ‘Italianate’ artists.
Frits Lugt and J.H. Insinger: ‘silly stories’
In the course of his Egyptian trip, Lugt visited a number of Dutch ‘expats’. One of the
best-known Dutchmen in Egypt was Jan Herman Insinger, who lived in a beautiful
house in Luxor. All Egyptologists are familiar with the Papyrus Insinger in the National
Museum of Antiquities in Leiden, which was named after him. Insinger was on terms of
friendship with most of the leading scholars of his day. His letters provide an interesting
picture of the world of archaeology around 1900. Insinger’s collections substantially
enriched the Leiden museum, and in some cases his photographs provided the first
documentary evidence of recent discoveries by the Egyptian antiquities service. Lugt
wrote to his parents that he had thoroughly enjoyed Insinger’s ‘silly stories’. Many years
later, Jan Herman Odo Insinger (1918-2008), a grandson of the Egyptologist, made Lugt
a gift of several objects for his collection.
Dates and birds
Mould-blown date bottles are filled with date oil. They were popular gifts for the
beginning of the New Year. ‘Bird bottles’ were used to store powder for cosmetics: white
powder (plaster or chalk) as foundation, and red powder (henna or madder) as eyeshadow or lipstick. Roman women had to shatter the bird’s tail to use its contents.
1. Date bottles of mould-blown glass, Syria, AD 0-100.
2. Bird-bottles, Northern Italy, AD 0-100.
3. Small amphora of dark blue glass, Syria/Palestine, AD 0-100.
4. Small amphora with white handles, Syria/Palestine, AD 0-100.
5. Small bottle with melted white glass threads, Eastern Mediterranean, AD 100-175.
6. Small bottle with melted yellowish-white glass threads, Syria, AD 100-175.
Means of transport
This black-figure amphora displays a scene of young horsemen. In one of the panels,
the vase painter has spilt a little of the clay paint, which has accidentally been fired in the
kiln. The wine jug with the chariot drawn by four horses is a masterpiece. A heavily
armed warrior is steering his horses round a bend. The small jug depicts a well-known
scene from Greek mythology: Odysseus is escaping from the cave of Polyphemos, riding
beneath the belly of a huge ram. The ladle depicts a Scythian from Southern Russia:
these ‘barbarians’ served as a police force in ancient Athens.
1. Belly amphora with horsemen, Athens, c. 525 BC
2. Wine jug (oinochoe) with chariot drawn by four horses, Athens, c. 530 BC
3. Wine jug (oinochoe) with Odysseus and Polyphemos, Athens, c. 490 BC
4. Ladle (kyathos) with roosters, eyes, and a Scythian archer, Athens, c. 520 BC
Going right to the core
The Lugt collection contains three glass bottles made of ‘core-glass’, a technique dating
from ancient Egypt. Coloured glass threads were placed over an organic core made of
clay, straw, and manure, and modelled into the shape of a bottle. The artist would use a
little comb to draw patterns in the hot glass. After the glass had cooled down, the core
would be removed. This oldest glass imitates expensive types of stone.
1. Krateriskos (‘small crater’) of core-glass, Egypt, 1400-1335 BC
2. Amphoriskos (‘small amphora’) of core-glass, Rhodes (?), c. 500 BC
3. Alabastron of core-glass, Syria, 100-0 BC
4. Pointed amphora made of green glass, Syria, AD 250-350
5. Mercury bottle of light-green glass, Gaul or Rhineland, AD 100-200
6. Small bottle with irisation, Syria/Palestine, AD 0-100.
An ideal world
The Ancient Egyptians believed the whole Creation was perfect and eternal. Images
were a means of re-creating that perfect life again and again and preserving it for eternity.
People therefore chose to depict idealized versions of their domestic surroundings and
the events in their lives. This included a preference for showing the most attractive phase
of life, youth, and for figures in poses – either seated or standing – that exuded serenity.
1. Sculptor’s model or trial piece for a Hathor Capital, limestone, Late Period (712-332
BC)
2. Sculptor’s model or trial piece for two kings’ heads, limestone, Late Period (712-332
BC)
3. Fragment of a stele with five women, a man, and a boy, limestone, New Kingdom
(1550-1070 BC)
Forged goods, good forgery
Terracotta figurines were excavated in large numbers in the nineteenth century. Their
popularity among collectors created a market for forgeries. Almost every collection
contains one or more of these imitations. Sometimes, only chemical analysis of the clay
can determine whether the piece concerned is authentic or a copy. In certain cases,
stylistic features may provide the conclusive evidence.
1. Leda and the Swan, probably France, nineteenth century
2. Seated woman with mirror, probably France, nineteenth century
3. Fruit-seller (caricature), probably France, nineteenth century
4. Ephedrismos group (caricature), probably France, nineteenth century
Venus or Muse
This marble head from the Imperial Age of Rome was sculpted in the style of late
Hellenism. It probably represents Venus, the goddess of love, or one of the nine Muses.
Her hair is parted in the middle and falls back in loose strands. The double diadem in
her hair comes together at the back of her head. The slightly parted lips give this portrait
a sensual expression.
1. Marble head, Roman, AD 100-150.
Sacrificial animal
The scene on the front of this black-figure vase depicts preparations for a sacrifice. A
dead ram lies on an offering table. Two men are holding its legs, and the man on the left
wields a large knife. The ram’s blood is being collected in a basin under the table. After
the animal was slaughtered, it would be carved up, and some parts would be ritually
burned on the altar. Those taking part in the ceremony and the priests would be given
pieces of the meat to take home. The back of the vase shows a more cheerful picture:
two revellers are dancing to the music of a large lyre. Sacrificial offerings, a banquet, and
festivities were standard elements of Greek rituals.
1. Black-figure amphora (pelike type) with offering and music scene, Athens, c. 500 BC
Help in the afterlife
Around 2000 BC it became customary to place shabtis, tiny mummy-shaped figurines,
in the deceased’s grave. These figurines had a dual function: they were effigies of the
person who had died, and served to replace him when he was called to perform
obligatory duties in the afterlife. All people were required to do their share of the
arduous work on the estates in the kingdom of the god Osiris. The figurines were
animated by a magical formula or shabti inscription.
1. Shabti of Nespaherentahat, faience, Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC)
2. Shabti of Horemakhbit, faience, Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC)
3. Three strings with two shabtis, faience, Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC)
Casting moulds
Terracotta or stone moulds were used to make thousands of identical figurines of gods.
They were produced using the cire perdue or ‘lost wax’ method. The finishing touches
were added to each figurine after casting, by chiselling, gilding, or with the use of other
materials.
1. Figurine of the goddess Neith, bronze, Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC) or
later
2. Figurine of a cat, bronze, Third Intermediate Period (1070-712 BC)
Forged goods
The figurine depicting a couple displays several similarities to images on private graves
from the end of the Old Kingdom. But several factors call its authenticity into question.
First, the man’s pose is highly unusual. In virtually all images on private tombs dating
from the Old Kingdom, the man stands with his left foot forwards, while here his legs
are together. Another odd feature is the complete absence of any inscription. Most
images of this kind bear inscriptions of the name and position of the owner (and often
that of his wife) on the rear face or on the base.
1. Figurine of a couple. Limestone, recent
First Egyptian acquisitions
When Frits Lugt went on a trip to Egypt in the early twentieth century, he purchased his
first Egyptian antiquities. One was a figurine of a baboon, symbolizing the moon god
Thoth, as well as magic, the calendar, writing, and wisdom. The other was a delightful
figurine of the falcon god Horus, the god of the heavens who spreads his wings over the
earth. Horus is the protector of royalty.
1. Thoth, faience, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
2. Horus, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
Egyptian antiquities: ‘not a single monkey as good as
ours!’
At twenty-five years of age, Frits Lugt embarked on a journey around Egypt. Travelling
with Cook’s Nile Service, he visited all the best-known destinations on the banks of the
Nile. This was when he first became interested in Egyptian antiquities. Later on, he
purchased objects in the art trade and at auctions. Occasionally people would donate
objects to his collection.
Lugt occasionally corresponded with prominent Egyptologists of his day, such as Cyril
Aldred, Henri Frankfort, and M.S.H.G. Heerma van Voss. Besides creating separate
index cards for each object, he also wrote diverse more general notes on his Egyptian
collection. These would sometimes refer, for instance, to articles that had recently been
published, and that might be relevant to his Egyptian collection. He also visited other
Egyptian collections. In 1921, after visiting an exhibition at the Burlington Fine Arts
Club in London, Lugt wrote that it contained ‘not a single monkey or a single cat as
good as ours!’
Egyptian antiquities
Gods, humans, and animals
In the Greco-Roman period, Isis developed into a universal mother goddess, revered far
beyond Egypt’s borders. Many votive figurines have been found that represent her as a
nursing mother. These wooden figures served as spare bodies in which the soul could
reside if the mummified body was destroyed. They were made specifically to be placed
in tombs.
Some animals were said to have the power to protect the dead from destructive forces.
Figurines of animals were also made to keep humans company in the afterlife as pets, or
to supply them with food – the same roles that animals played on earth.
1. Figurine of Isis and Horus, faience, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
2. Fragment of the feet of a statue over a representation of four prisoners of war, faience,
New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) or later
3. Two figures of a standing man, wood, Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC)
4. Figure of a lion, limestone, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
5. Figure of a monkey, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
6. Figure of a hippopotamus, faience, Middle Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
7. Figure of a crocodile, limestone, Middle Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
God figurines
The Egyptians worshipped countless gods. Their myths and religious writings mention
hundreds of gods and supernatural beings, grouped into a number of families. Small
figurines of gods with protective powers were very popular. These faience figurines were
glazed with a greenish-blue colour that symbolized life.
8. Two amulets of Shu, god of the air, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC)
9. Figurine of Horus, god of the sky, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC).
10. Amulet of the goddess Taweret, protector of women and children, faience, Late
Period (712-332 BC)
11. Amulet of Thoth, god of the moon, writing, and wisdom, in the form of a standing
man, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC)
12. Amulet of the god Thoth in the form of a seated ibis and Maat, goddess of justice
and cosmic order, in the form of a squatting woman, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC)
13. Amulet of the creator and sun god Amon-Re, faience, Late/Ptolemaic Period
(712-30 BC)
14. Amulet of the creator Pataikos, manifestation of the creator god Ptah, faience,
Late/Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
15. Amulet of Bes, protector of new life, faience, Late/Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
16. Group of figurines representing a kneeling pharaoh and the vulture goddess
Nekhbet, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC)
17. Amulets of a baboon symbolizing Thoth, god of writing and wisdom, faience, Late
Period (712-332 BC)
18. Amulet of a baboon symbolizing Thoth, ivory, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
19. Scarab amulets symbolizing rebirth, faience and lapis lazuli, New Kingdom / Late
Period (1550-332 BC) or later
20. Fish figurine, probably a votive object, faience, Late Period (712-332 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Moulds for wax birds
The four moulds in the Frits Lugt collection were used to make wax birds. Wax was a
material with a special status in ancient Egypt. In the mummification process, it was used
to plug bodily orifices. It was also used to make independent objects. Its special physical
characteristics, such as the tendency to ‘come to life’ by melting, were probably what led
the Egyptians to credit it with divine or magical properties.
21. Four moulds of a Benu bird or phoenix, symbolizing resurrection, limestone,
Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Sculptors' models or trial pieces in limestone
In Egypt, artistic creation was an artisanal process. The general term for art was hemut
(craft), and the word for artist was the same as the word for craftsman (hemu). There is
convincing evidence that the Egyptians understood the rules of perspective, but they did
not use them. As they saw it, perspective distorted reality. They depicted figures as they
really were, and not as they appeared to be from one specific standpoint.
22. Head of the goddess Hathor, Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)
23. Torso of a king, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period, (712-30 BC)
24. Bust of a king, 30th Dynasty / Ptolemaic Period (380-343 BC)
25. Bust of a king, 30th Dynasty / Ptolemaic Period (380-343 BC)
26. Recumbent sphinx, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
27. Falcon, Late Period (712-332 BC)
28. Recumbent lion, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (332-30 BC)
29. Horse’s head, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Votive figurines
In Egypt, there was a great demand for objects that could be offered to the gods in
gratitude for assistance or healing. The vast majority of the surviving figurines represent
Osiris, supreme god of the afterlife. These figurines were offered in temples or worn as
amulets on cords around the neck.
30. Figure of Osiris, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
31. Figure of Horus, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
32. Figure of Sakhmet, goddess of war and magic, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
33. Figure of the war goddess Neith, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
34. Two figures of the deified Imhotep, architect of the funerary complex of King
Djoser (c. 2630 BC), bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
35. Figure of an ibis symbolizing Thoth, god of the moon, writing, and wisdom, bronze,
Late Period (712-332 BC)
36. Head of an ibis symbolizing Thoth, god of the moon, writing, and wisdom, bronze,
Late Period (712-332 BC)
37. Figure of a cat, a manifestation of Bastet, goddess of fertility, dance, and music,
bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
38. Serpent sarcophagus, a votive offering for the goddess Temet, who is considered a
female form of the creator god Atum, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Sculptors’ models or trial pieces
Figures were represented according to strict rules of proportion. Sculptors worked in
bas-relief, with images projecting from the background, or in sunken relief, with figures
carved into a higher background. Almost no individual artists are known by name. As in
Greece, art was considered equivalent to craftsmanship (hemut in Egyptian and technè
in Greek). The pharaoh was often personally involved in evaluating the results.
39. Head of a king, quartzite, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period (712-30 BC)
40. Head of a king, limestone, Late Period (712-332 BC)
41. Head of a king, limestone, Third Intermediate Period / Late Period (1070-332 BC)
42. Fragment of a relief depicting a man’s head, limestone, Ptolemaic Period
(332-30 BC)
43. Falcon, limestone, Late Period (712-332 BC)
44. Ram, Late Period / Ptolemaic Period, (712-30 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Help in the hereafter
In Egypt, images of foreigners were often found on sandals, footrests, chair legs, and
staffs. This ancient tradition of depicting the enemy was intended to protect the dead
from evil forces that might threaten them in the afterlife. The mummy's foot would grind
all such threats into the dust.
Ushabtis, or funerary figurines, usually take the form of a mummy, or of a dead person
in everyday clothing. Many such figurines hold agricultural tools, and they are often
inscribed with chapter 6 of the Book of the Dead, a spell to ensure that the ushabti
would work on its owner's behalf in the afterlife.
45. Piece of linen decorated with a painting of two sandal soles, Roman Empire
(30 BC – AD 395)
46. Ushabti of Tjaay, head of the security service, wood, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
47. Ushabti of Tchanehebu, superintendent of the royal barges, son of Nefert-ith,
faience, 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC)
48. Ushabti of Psamtek, son of Sebarechit, faience, 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Mirror, mirror . . .
During the reigns of the pharaohs of the 18th and 19th Dynasties, wealthy families led
lives of extravagance and luxury. Egyptian women’s boudoirs were often full of jewellery,
mirrors, and containers for cosmetics. Many hand mirrors were round in shape,
symbolizing the sun. Small boxes in the form of ducks were also popular. Because
ducks and fish were associated with life-giving water, they symbolized sex and eroticism.
49. Two mirrors with handles in the shape of a standing nude girl, bronze, New
Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
50. Duck-shaped box, ivory, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
51. Scribe’s knife with a slightly curved blade, bronze, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Vessels
The Egyptians were highly skilled at making stone vessels. They pounded and drilled
blocks of basalt, granite, and alabaster to create magnificent vases. The earliest stone
vases have their origins in the Naqada culture (c. 4000-3100 BC) and are found
throughout the Nile Valley. During the 18th Dynasty new types of vessels were
developed, partly as a result of increasing exposure to foreign peoples. In the Late
Period, especially during the 26th Dynasty (or Saite Period), flasks for scented oils were
especially popular. Many vessels bear the inscription renpet nefert, meaning 'good New
Year'. These are often known as New Year Vessels.
52. Vase, basalt, Naqada I-II (c. 4000-3100 BC)
53. Two elongated heset vases, faience, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
54. Lotus cup, faience, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
55. Vase, faience, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC) or later
56. Two vases, alabaster, Middle Kingdom (2040-1640 BC) or later
57. New Year Vessel, faience, 26th Dynasty (664-525 BC)
Miscellaneous: ‘bycatches’ and fine forgeries
Besides Egyptian antiquities, Greek pottery, and antique glass, Frits Lugt collected
diverse other objects: Etruscan bronzes, Greek terracottas, and a handful of Roman
archaeological items. The Etruscan and Roman material is only a small part of Lugt’s
collection. Most of these objects can be assumed to have been acquired as ‘bycatches’ at
auctions, or as gifts from antiquarians. This does not apply to the Greek terracottas.
Large numbers of these terra-cotta figurines (known as tanagras) appeared on the art
market in the second half of the nineteenth century. The elegant female figures became
popular collectors’ items. With this growing popularity came a rapid proliferation of
forgeries. Dealers and collectors alike initially had trouble distinguishing real tanagras
from copies. The Lugt collection contains a few ‘fine forgeries’.
Miscellaneous
Miscellaneous objects
In addition to Greek vases and Roman glass, Frits Lugt also had a small collection of
antiquities in other materials: terracotta, bronze, marble, and precious metals. The
aesthetic of the terracotta figures must have particularly appealed to him. Most of the
terracottas in his collection came from Tanagra (northern Greece) and Myrina (Asia
Minor), where figurines of exceptional quality were made in the Hellenistic period. In
some cases, the coat of paint is still well-preserved today.
1. Woman with fan and sun hat, Myrina, 200-100 BC
2. Seated woman, Tanagra, 300-200 BC
3. Seated boy with bag of knucklebones, Tanagra, 330-300 BC
4. Seated girl, Myrina, 300-275 BC
5. Bronze mirror with scene of the Judgment of Paris, Etruria, 300-200 BC
6. Bronze wine jug, Etruria, 530-500 BC
7. Oil lamp in the shape of an African head, Roman, AD 0-100
8. Emerald and gold necklace, Roman, AD 100-300
Antique glass: playing with colour
The interaction between form and colour plays an important role in the history of art.
Lugt recognizes this duality instantly in antique glass. His collection consists of 64 pieces,
dating from Egyptian antiquity to the late Middle Ages.
Glass, a mixture of sand, sodium carbonate, and limestone, naturally takes on a greenish
colour. By adding metal oxides, ancient glassworkers were able to impart fantastic
colours to their products. The invention of the blowpipe in the first century BC made it
possible to ‘mass-produce’ imaginative shapes.
Frits Lugt did not want to build up a comprehensive collection representing all periods
and glass-making techniques. He went in search of fine objects from diverse cultures.
When he came across glass objects with a remarkable shape, he liked to collect them in
pairs, as in the case of the elegant Roman bird-shaped bottles, the dates, and the ribbed
bowls.
Antique glass
Glassblowing
This orange-yellow glass flask is one of the 'first generation’ of glass objects, made with a
blowpipe. This technique was discovered in the 1st century BC in the coastal areas of
Syria and Lebanon, and soon came into use by glass-makers throughout the Roman
Empire. It opened the way to mass production of glass objects.
1. Coloured flask, Syria/Palestine, 50 BC – AD 25
2. Brownish-gold iridescent flask, Syria, AD 200-300
3. Colourless glass flask, eastern Mediterranean region, AD 250-350
4. Long-necked flask, southern Italy, AD 0-100
5. Flask with thin glass threads, Syria/Palestine, AD 500-625
Antique glass
Trade secret
This display case contains two ribbed bowls. There are several theories about how they
were produced. Perhaps they were pressed in a ribbed mould, or perhaps pincers of
some kind were used to pinch the hot glass into a ribbed form. It has also been
theorized that the dishes were moulded upside down on a potter’s wheel and the ribs
were struck into them one by one.
6. Ribbed bowl with 23 ribs, Syria/Palestine, AD 0-50
7. Ribbed bowl with 28 ribs, Syria (?), AD 0-50
8. Purplish-green iridescent dish, Italy (?), AD 50-125
9. Vessel embedded in mortar, holy-water basin from the catacombs of Rome, Italy, AD
300-350
10. ‘Beehive cup’, Syria, AD 300-350
11. Frankish cup with white glass thread, Belgium/northern France, AD 400-500
Antique glass
A sprinkling of perfume
Some glass perfume flasks have narrow necks with a single small hole in them. When
the flask is turned on its side, the perfumed oil comes out one drop at a time. Flasks of
this type are known as sprinklers.
12. Iridescent glass sprinkler, Syria, AD 300-400
13. Sprinkler with diamond pattern, Syria, AD 300-400
14. Three-legged vessel, southern Italy, AD 0-50
15. Vessel with two handles, Syria/Palestine, AD 300-450
16. Vessel with nine handles, Syria, AD 300-500
17. Double kohl bottle with glass threads, Syria/Palestine, AD 300-400
18. Cup with glass rings, Syria, AD 700-900
Antique glass
Ridges
By blowing glass in a ribbed mould, it is possible to create ribbing on the surface. After it
is removed from the mould, this glass can then be shaped further. The ribbing in the hot
mould-blown glass can be stretched, or twisted diagonally. The result of this technique is
called optically blown glass, because the glass blower can see what he is doing to the glass
after he removes it from the mould.
19. Jug with mould-blown ribbing, Syria, AD 300-350
20. Jug with optically blown decoration, southern Russia, AD 300-450
21. Vessel with ring of blue glass, Syria, AD 300-400
22. Optically blown glass flask, eastern Mediterranean region, AD 200-400
23. Double-handled jug, eastern Mediterranean region, AD 300-400
Greek pottery: form and content
Collecting Greek vases grew into a passion among the European élite in the eighteenth
century. The writings of Joachim Winckelmann and Sir William Hamilton established
the Greek style as the exalted ideal. In the nineteenth century, Europe’s leading
museums of art built up impressive collections of Greek pottery. With his 58-piece
collection, Lugt placed himself in this European tradition.
The collection was developed with a keen aesthetic eye. Lugt did not purchase
fragments or vases that had undergone drastic restoration, but objects in excellent
condition with interesting motifs and beautiful contours. He did not seek to produce a
complete overview of vase painting, but contented himself with a number of fine
examples. Attic pottery, with its black and red figures, shows scenes from everyday life
or from classical mythology. The tightly-knit, classical design of these black-varnished
pieces was for many, including Wedgwood, a source of inspiration.
Greek pottery
Hare oil
Four of the five objects in this display case are oil flasks. Olive oil was (and is) a major
product of the Mediterranean region. In the ancient world, it was mixed with a wide
variety of fragrances (such as iris, rose, and myrrh) and used as perfume. These flasks, in
which the oil was kept, are beautifully decorated. One of them is especially noteworthy:
it takes the form of a trussed hare, no doubt caught by a hunter, its head lolling back
limply. The flask can be closed with a stopper.
1. Oil flask in the shape of a hare, eastern Greece, 600-575 BC
2. Oil flasks with fish-scale decoration, Etruria, 630-600 BC
3. Oil flask decorated with two roosters, Corinth, 620-600 BC
4. Amphora decorated with three swans, Etruria, c. 500 BC (Micali Painter)
Greek pottery
Warriors in black
Three of the four black-figure vases in this display case depict warriors: horsemen with
lances, hoplites (foot soldiers with large, decorated shields), and combatants fighting for
their lives. The small amphora shows the fall of Troy: Hector’s son Astyanax is thrown
at King Priam, as the Greek Neoptolemos says, ‘We want no more kings of Troy!’
5. Neck amphora with horsemen and hoplites, Athens, 530-520 BC
6. Neck amphora with battles between warriors, Athens, c. 520 BC.
7. Belly amphora with the death of Astyanax and Priam, Athens, 530-520 BC
8. Perfume container (plemochoe), Athens, c. 500 BC
Greek pottery
In black and white
These oil flasks were coated with a white slip (a clay-based, paint-like substance) and
then decorated with a black slip by a vase painter. Two of them show chariots drawn by
teams of four horses. Chariot racing was one of the spectacles featured at sporting
events. Chariots also play a role in myths about Troy. The other scenes are Heracles
fighting the Erymanthian Boar and a visit to a grave. This last vessel was decorated with
pigments, which have now disappeared almost entirely.
9. Oil flask (lekythos) with horse race, Athens, 490-470 BC (Haimon Painter)
10. Oil flask (lekythos) with three warriors and a team of four horses, Athens,
490-480 BC (Diosphos Painter)
11. Oil flask (lekythos) with Heracles and the Erymanthian Boar, Athens, 500-475 BC
(Class of Athens 581 ii)
12. Oil flask (lekythos): woman with vase and boy with lyre visit a grave, Athens,
c. 450 BC
Greek pottery
Big drinkers
In ancient Greece, wine was mixed with water in a vessel known as a krater and then
poured by a servant into drinking bowls. The two shallow vessels are vividly decorated
with scenes of galloping horsemen and warriors. The inside of one vessel shows a
dancing satyr, the companion of the wine god Dionysus. The two oil flasks show battles,
including one in which Heracles and Athena fight the cruel Cycnos and his father Ares.
13. Drinking bowl (skyphos) with floral decorations, Athens, c. 530 BC
14. Drinking bowl (kylix) with horsemen, Athens, c. 530 BC
15. Drinking bowl (kylix) with horsemen, hoplites, and satyr, Athens, c. 480 BC
(Caylus Painter)
16. Oil flask (lekythos) with two warriors in combat, Athens, 470-460 BC
17. Oil flask (lekythos) with Heracles fighting Cycnos in the presence of gods, Athens, c.
530 BC
Greek pottery
The language of form
The red-figure vases in this display case show a multitude of forms. The hydria (1) has
one vertical handle and two horizontal ones. This vessel was used for fetching water
from a fountain. The shallow drinking bowl with two handles (2) is called a kylix. The
deep cup is known as a skyphos (3). The owl skyphos (4) is decorated with the symbols
of the city of Athens: the owl of wisdom and the olive branch of prosperity. The
kantharos (5) is a drinking cup with two vertical handles. The two pouring vessels (6-7)
show animals: sphinxes and a running stag.
18. Water jug (hydria) with boy and girl, Athens, 470-460 BC (Icarus Painter)
19. Drinking bowl (kylix) with two boys in conversation, Athens, 450-440 BC
(Curtius Painter)
20. Drinking cup (skyphos) with running boy pursued by a ram, Athens, c. 450 BC
(Painter of Louvre CA 1849)
21. Owl skyphos (glaux) with owlets and olive branches, Athens, c. 450 BC
22. Drinking cup (skyphos) with maenead and boy with plate, Athens, 430-420 BC
(Hasselmann Painter)
23. Pouring vessel (askos) with sphinx and running stag, Athens, 430-420 BC
24. Oil flask (lekythos) with crouching sphinx, Athens, 430-400 BC
Greek pottery
The Greeks go overseas
In the 8th century BC, emigrants from Greek cities founded colonies in Italy. Greek
culture made such a mark there that the Romans called southern Italy Magna Graecia
(‘Greater Greece’). Among the large, influential cities in the region were Neapolis
(Naples), Syrakousai (Syracuse), and Taras (Taranto). In Taras, in particular, the art of
vase painting reached great heights; one excellent example is the rhyton in this display
case. A rhyton is a drinking horn in the shape of an animal head. There were metal
rhytons for everyday use and ceramic ones for use as grave goods. The drinking cup and
the wine jug are also Greek products from the heel of Italy.
25. Drinking horn (rhyton) with griffin head and picture of Eros, Taranto, 340-320 BC
26. Drinking cup (kantharos) showing a satyr, a ram, and woman with a triangular harp,
Taranto, 325-300 BC
27. Wine vessel (olpe) decorated with grapevines, Gnathia, 340-320 BC
Greek pottery
Children’s party
The pottery in this display case is decorated in the red-figure style, which began to
develop around 530 BC. The entire vase is coated with black slip, except for the figures,
which are left unpainted. Details were applied with a fine brush.
The three small wine jugs show young children. The vases are connected to the
Anthesteria, the Athenian spring festival in February, during which new wine is brought
up from the cellars and the entire city celebrates for three days. Children are given toys,
a pet, and their first drink of wine in a miniature jug.
28. Wine jug (chous): little boy with wine jug, Athens, c. 420 BC
29. Wine jug (chous): boy crawling next to a table, Athens, c. 420 BC
30. Wine jug (chous): boy playing with dog, Athens, c. 420 BC
31. Wine jug (oinochoe): eagle in flight, Athens, 430-410 BC
32. Lid: running boar, Athens, 420-410 BC
33. Wine jug (oinochoe): young satyr with wineskin, Athens, 430-420 BC
(manner of Polion)
34. Oil flask (lekythos): the goddess of victory, Nike, flying rightward, Athens, c. 460 BC
35. Amphora, undecorated, Athens, 440-410 BC
Helene Kröller-Müller
Timeline Helene Kröller-Müller
1869 Birth of Helene Laura Juliane Müller in Horst, Germany
1888 Married Anthony George Kröller
1892 Took lessons in art appreciation taught by Henk Bremmer
1893 Moved to Lange Voorhout, The Hague
1908 Bremmer employed by Helene Kröller-Müller
1915 The St Hubert hunting lodge built in the Hoge Veluwe
1929 Plans made for the museum
1938 Opening of the Kröller-Müller Museum
1939 Death of Helene Kröller-Müller on 14 December
Capital and art
Helene Emma Laura Juliane Müller was born in Horst, near the German city of
Essen, in 1869. The Müllers belonged to the affluent middle classes. Her father,
Wilhelm Müller, sold mining and blast furnace products. Helene had a strict
upbringing based on Christian principles, a sense of duty, and a strong
awareness of social class.
In 1888, Helene married Anton Kröller, who worked at the Rotterdam branch of
her father’s company. The couple had four children. Following the death of
Wilhelm Müller in 1889, Anton acquired control of the company, which was an
enormous commercial success. In 1906, Helene started taking lessons in art
appreciation from the influential and charismatic figure Hendricus P. Bremmer.
She wanted to dedicate herself to something meaningful, and with Bremmer’s
lessons all the strands of her ambition came together: her intellectual curiosity,
her interest in religion and spirituality, and her desire for a deeper purpose in
life. She decided to seek fulfilment in art, and set about collecting on a grand
scale. She remained actively involved in her collection and her museum until
her death in 1939.
The collections: from realism to idealism
Under Bremmer’s influence, Helene Kröller-Müller developed into one of the
most important art collectors of the twentieth century. Both realized that they
were living in artistically turbulent times. Besides art from her own day and its
immediate precursors − Impressionists and Post-Impressionists – she also
collected older work, which she saw as furnishing the basis for modern trends.
Bart van der Leck and Piet Mondrian were also among the artists whose work
she collected.
With the aid of her husband’s capital and Bremmer’s advice, she collected over
800 paintings, 275 sculptures, 5,000 drawings and prints, and 500 objects of
decorative art. She saw the paintings of Vincent van Gogh as forming the
nucleus of her collection.
Kröller-Müller believed that art did not have to be beautiful or pleasant.
Modern art could bring about a process of catharsis, of concentration on the
essential: she espoused a kind of asceticism. In the museum in the Hoge
Veluwe national park, her ideas about exhibiting art amid the tranquillity of
nature gradually became a tangible reality: culture and nature were merged.
Location: from The Hague to the Hoge Veluwe
As the Kröller-Müllers’ family expanded and their social status continued to
rise, they felt the need to move house. Their first home overlooked the
Haringvliet estuary in Rotterdam. In 1900 they moved to The Hague. In their
house at Lange Voorhout 1, Helene Kröller and Bremmer turned several rooms
into a private museum, which was open to visitors on request. Meanwhile, her
husband Anton, who was a keen huntsman, purchased some shooting ground
in the Hoge Veluwe.
In 1920, Kröller-Müller started work on a new project: the building of a large
museum in the Hoge Veluwe, to be designed by the architect Henry van der
Velde. The project was suspended due to lack of funds. The golden years were
at an end; the money to make new acquisitions had also dried up.
The consequences of the Great Depression made themselves felt. In 1935 the
Kröller-Müller collection was transferred to State ownership. In 1938 a museum
designed as a temporary structure opened its doors, with Helene KröllerMüller as the first director. By this time, the estate had been handed over to
the National Park De Hoge Veluwe Foundation.
Antiquities in waves
The Kröller-Müller collection contains over five hundred ‘objects of decorative
art’. They consist of pottery and sculpture from the Far East and antiquities
from the Mediterranean region.
Kröller-Müller collected handbooks about diverse cultural periods, about
Western and non-Western art. In H.P. Bremmer’s lessons, she was introduced
to the development from ‘two-dimensional’ Egyptian art to ‘three-dimensional’
Greek forms. Bremmer saw the history of art in terms of waves of abstract and
figurative shapes.
At the same time, Kröller-Müller would frequently compare this ancient art
with new art, in her quest for ‘refinement’ and spiritual significance. Another
motive for collecting antiquities was her belief that there was really only one
great global culture, which linked all peoples, cultural expressions, and
religions. This too was a doctrine that H.P. Bremmer taught his students.
Cyprus
Numerous votive gifts have been found in the sanctuaries on the island of
Cyprus. Many of them were made from the local limestone. This figurine
depicts a young man honouring a deity. The man’s splendidly stylized hair is
tied with a ribbon, which is fastened at the front in a ‘Heracles knot’ (reef knot),
which was believed to confer protection. The eyes are almond-shaped. A faint
smile plays around the young man’s mouth.
1. Limestone statue, Cyprus, 500-450 BC
Army and police
Both sides of this black-figure amphora display scenes of a heavily armed
warrior, known as a hoplite. On one side we see people handing weapons to
the warrior; this is a leave-taking scene. On the other side, the warrior is
flanked by two Scythian archers: Scythians from southern Russia served as the
police force in ancient Athens. Slung over their shoulder they wear a belt with a
quiver of arrows. The scene on the wine jug depicts the god Apollo with his
lyre.
1. Amphora with hoplites, Attica, 530-520 BC
2. Wine jug (oinochoe) with Apollo, woman, and satyrs, Attica, c. 500 BC
Libation
One of the most beautiful objects in the Kröller-Müller collection is this redfigure amphora. It displays libation scenes on both sides. On the front we see a
woman and a young man with a stick. The woman is holding up a bowl, from
which she is pouring wine. The wine is falling onto the ground: this may be a
leave-taking scene. The scene on the back shows a solitary boy, who is also
holding a libation bowl in his hand.
1. Neck amphora with libation scenes, Attica, c. 430 BC
Mural
This fragment of a Roman mural shows a woman with a serious expression.
She is dressed in a thin, transparent under-garment and a green robe that is
being lifted by the wind and streams behind her. She has a wreath in her hair.
She stretches out her right arm, in which she holds a twig; in her left hand she
has a bowl. The scene is suggestive of preparations for a sacrifice.
1. Mural, Pompeii (?), 1st century AD
Statues
This sculptor’s model of a king sports a nemes headscarf. The way the eyes,
eyebrows, nose and lips are represented is typical of images dating from the
New Kingdom. The seated figure with a stele is Neferhebef, high priest of the
god Amon. The inscription on the stele is a solar text: a hymn to the god Ra to
mark his appearance on the eastern horizon..
Double figurine of Raheka, overseer of works in the temple of Karnak, and his
wife Tataiu, singer of Amon. Inscribed on the back of the double figurine are
six columns of text with a sacrificial formula. The figurine is dedicated to Amon
and his wife Moet.
1. Sculptor’s model or trial piece of a king’s bust, limestone, New Kingdom
(1550-1070 BC)
2. Neferhebef, limestone, upper section (head) recent, stele original, New
Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
3. Double figurine of Raheka, overseer of works in the temple of Karnak, and
his wife Tataiu, black granite, Ramessid Period (1292-1096 BC)
Animal on view
Images and three-dimensional figures of animals can be found in virtually
every Egyptian collection. The ancient Egyptians had themselves immortalized
in their graves not only with their relatives, but also with their favourite
animals. Thus, some reliefs, for instance, show couples eating a meal, with cats
or monkeys playing under their chairs. These scenes give an impression of how
people saw their domestic surroundings.
Some animals had specific meanings in the Egyptians’ religion and in their
magical world. The falcon, for instance, was one of the manifestations of the
sun god and god of the heavens Horus, who was also identified with the ruling
pharaoh and with the son of Osiris.
1. Fragment of a relief depicting a nursing Negro woman, a small monkey, and
a hedgehog in a small box, sandstone, possibly New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
2. Falcon figure, basalt, Late Period (712-332 BC)
Magical guarantees
A stele is usually a tablet carved from a single piece of stone with a relief
displaying the image, and inscribed with the name and titles of the grave’s
owner. Wooden grave steles came into fashion after the decline of tomb
architecture towards the end of the New Kingdom. When people stopped
building funerary monuments above the ground, grave steles could no longer
be installed in their traditional places. Instead, they were placed underground,
beside the mummy coffin. Since they were no longer in the open air, they did
not have to be made of stone. The image provided magical protection for the
deceased.
1. Stele of the daughter of a priest of Amon-Ra in Karnak, wood, 26th Dynasty
(664-525 BC)
2. Small stele with an image of the scribe Ramessu worshipping the god Ptah,
limestone, New Kingdom (1550-1070 BC)
Egyptian antiquities: ‘What a culture, far wiser
than that of the Renaissance...’
Helene Kröller-Müller searched for the spiritual element in all art forms, from
contemporary paintings to the antiquities with which she surrounded herself in
her home. In a letter to her confidant Sam van Deventer in 1913, she wrote:
‘Sam, after much searching and visiting of antiquarian shops, we ended up in
the cellars of the Louvre, where Egyptian art is kept. A good deal of it is piled
up, and once more I became aware of how it transcended subjective human
emotion, how great must have been the thinking, seen from Eternity, of that
nation’s great minds.
What a culture, much longer, much deeper, much wiser than that of the
Renaissance, lay behind it, a culture that was able to develop peacefully for
thousands of years, isolated in that valley of the Nile, hemmed in by mountains
and desert.’
This quotation reveals that it was the culture of Ancient Egypt that aroused her
strongest spiritual response.
Egyptian antiquities
Amulets
Amulets are small objects that were thought to protect a living or dead person
from danger or supernatural powers. They played a very important role in
ancient Egyptian culture. It is nearly impossible to draw a line between amulets
and jewellery. Amulets could derive their magical powers from various features,
such as their shape, their materials, or the symbolic value of their colours. Their
effectiveness was also said to depend on when they were worn, by whom, and
on what part of the body.
1. Tablet with a miniature stele showing a winged Isis, a winged scarab, a
double signet ring, a djed pillar, a son of Horus, and Sekhmet, Late Period
(712-332 BC)
2. Tablet with head of Pataek, ushabti, Pataek, wooden Bastet, gold ring with
faience stone, son of Horus on a gold chain, and strip of faience with text on
gold chain, Late Period (712-332 BC) jade rings (Chinese)
3. Triad of Horus, Isis, and Nephthys, faience Late Period (712-332 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Bronze
In the Late Period, bronze work flourished. Bronze lent itself very well to the
mass production of amulets and figurines. At that time, magic was central to
life at all levels of society. There was great demand for objects that could be
offered to the gods in gratitude for assistance or healing. These votive objects
were given as gifts according to the principle of quid pro quo, ‘I’ll give you one,
if you give me one.’
4. Sarcophagus for a serpent, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
5. Osiris, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
6. Apis Bull, bronze, Late Period (712-332 BC)
Egyptian antiquities
Forgeries
The enigmatic Oxan Aslanian (b. 1887, Armenia; d. 1968, Germany) was
referred to by the well-known Egyptologist Ludwig Borchardt (b. 1930) as the
‘Berliner Meister’. Aslanian was a notorious forger who, for many years,
supplied the antiquities market with ‘recent Egyptian antiquities’. His work
ended up in many European museums, and two objects in the collection of
Helene Kröller-Müller can be attributed to him.
7. Relief showing a head in the style of the Old Kingdom, attributable to
Aslanian
8. Relief showing a head in the Amarna style, attributable to Aslanian
9. Head of a man, marble, recent
10. Figure of Renpetre (seated), small sculpture, limestone, recent
11. Two identical sculptures of Harpokrates, very probably recent
Greek art: ‘material and tangible’
Helene Kröller-Müller’s classical collection consists primarily of pottery and
terracotta figurines. There is no antique glass. Kröller-Müller is known to have
purchased her antiquities at auctions and in the art trade, for instance at the
Mak van Waay auction-house and the gallery of Douwes Komter on Rokin in
Amsterdam.
In the category of Greek pottery, the geometrical, Orientalist, archaic, and
classical periods are all well represented. This makes it possible to trace the
development from abstract shapes to a more figurative style.
The same applies to the sculpture in Kröller-Müller’s collection: there are
examples of the abstract Cycladic Style, the archaic art of Cyprus, and the
Hellenistic, highly figurative, tanagras. Bremmer contrasted Egyptian with
Greek art: ‘To the Greeks, the material and tangible made up the world, while
to the other group, spiritual elements played an important role’. The ‘other
group’ included Indians and mediaeval Christians.
Greek art
Early Greek art
The stark geometric forms of early Greek art were of conceptual importance to
H.P. Bremmer and Helene Kröller-Müller, who saw the history of art as
involving a continual alternation between abstract and realistic forms.
Geometric pottery from Cyprus and Attica and Cycladic sculpture can serve as
excellent illustrations of this view.
1. Dish with warriors and swastikas, Cyprus, 750-700 BC
2. Wine jug with two swans, Attica, c. 750 BC
3. Beauty case (pyxis) with young billy goat, Attica or Boeotia, 725-700 BC
4. Marble head of a Cycladic idol, Aegean islands, 2200-2000 BC
Greek art
Rounded forms
The realistic tendency in Greek art is clearly visible in the detailed terracotta
figurines from the Hellenistic period. Many terracottas of this type represent
young women dressed in graceful robes. The movements of their arms and
legs create various patterns of folded drapery. A few traces of colour are still
visible.
5. Aphrodite with Eros, Asia Minor (Myrina), 325-300 BC
6. Standing young woman with ‘melon coiffure’, Greece (Tanagra), 3rd century
BC
7. Young woman seated on rock, Greece (Tanagra), 3rd century BC
8. Standing young woman, Greece (Tanagra), 3rd century BC
Greek art
Myths and men
The Kröller-Müller collection includes a number of fine Attic examples of the
black-figure technique. The large amphora shows the Greek hero Heracles
fighting the Amazons, as the queen of the Amazons, Hippolyte, flees from him.
The two drinking bowls show the world of the Greek man; a young lad is
courted with gifts, and dancers engage in drunken revelry.
9. ‘Tyrrhenian’ amphora: Heracles and the Amazons, Attica, c. 550 BC
10. Drinking bowl (skyphos): boy receiving gifts, Attica, 530-520 BC
11. Drinking bowl (kylix): dancers with drinking horns, Attica, 575-565 BC
Greek art
The lotus in Greece
In the Orientalizing Period, Greek artists adopted many themes from cultures
further to the east. For instance, some Corinthian pottery from this period is
decorated with a lotus, a flower of great significance in Hinduism and
Buddhism. Because it seems to emerge directly from of its own rootstock, it
symbolizes divine birth and purity. Gods, buddhas, and bodhisattvas are
usually shown standing or sitting on a lotus throne. In Greek art, the lotus is
simply a decorative element.
12. Unguent flask (aryballos) with lotus, palmettes, and swan, Corinth, 575-550
BC
13. Wine jug (oinochoe), Corinth, 650-640 BC
14. Unguent flask (alabastron) with lotus and palmettes, Corinth, 575-550 BC
Greek art
Natives and newcomers
Greek colonists in southern Italy brought many of their traditions to their new
homeland. In the 4th century BC, they decorated their pottery in the wellknown red-figure style, exemplified by the drinking cup with high handles. At
the same time, the native people of Apulia were still working in their old
geometric tradition, illustrated by the trozzella jug with disks on the handles.
15. Drinking cup (kantharos) with the head of a woman, Apulia, 350-300 BC
16. Trozzella, southern Italy (Apulian geometric style), 400-300 BC