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Swindells, R. (2004). Klasik, kawih, kreasi : musical transformation and the gamelan degung of
Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London)
City Research Online
Original citation: Swindells, R. (2004). Klasik, kawih, kreasi : musical transformation and the
gamelan degung of Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University
London)
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Klasik, Kawih, Kreash Musical Transformation and the
Gamelan Degung of Bandung, West Java, Indonesia
by
Rachel Swindells
Thesis Submitted for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy
City University, London
Department of Music
February 2004
Abstract
The degung is a small gamelan that is unique to the Sundanesepeople of West Java.
Originating as a prestigious ensemblefor the local nobility and formerly confined to the
has
been
Bandung
the
the
of
provincial capital city
region's administrative courts,
20'h
decades
focus
for
degung
first
the
the
tradition
the
century.
of
since
geographic
Following sixteen months of fieldwork in Bandung, the dissertationexaminesthe
evolution of the gamelan degung in the musical melting pot of this bustling urban centre.
Situating the ensemblewithin the heterogeneouslandscapeof Bandung's regional arts
scene,it considersthe way in which degunghas come to be positioned as a musical
'common ground' for performers hailing from a variety of socio-cultural and musical
backgrounds,as well as a site for the negotiation and assimilation of repertoiresand
performancepractices drawn from acrossthe wider Sundanesemusic complex. Central
to this investigation is the theme of musical transformation, a topic that is explored from
severalinterrelatedperspectives.
Piecing together a history of the ensemble,the study correlatesmusical
innovations to socio-cultural, politico-economic and technological developments, as
is
in
broader
Sundanese
Specific
to
well as
shifts
music as a whole.
attention paid to the
ongoing popularisation of degung by the local cassette industry and the role that
'invented' ceremonials have played in the ensemble's postcolonial renaissance.
Interweaved into this chronological survey are more focused analyses of the core and
specialist skills of the musicians and the intrinsic malleability of the music systems that
lie at the heart of such musical change. Transformation is identified as a primary domain
of Sundanese musical competence, with processes of transfer and adaptation shown to
diachronic
degung
These
the
and
creation
and
realisation
of
repertoires.
permeate
synchronic accounts of musical transformation are considered to complement rather than
to contrast with one another; it is argued that the manner in which the degung has
least
in
determined,
has
been
its
'external'
time
to
at
altering
environment over
adapted
in
larger
dynamics
'internal'
by
the
musical
culture
the
of
essential constitution and
part,
which the ensemble is rooted.
I grant powers of discretion to the University Librarian
to allow this thesis to be copied in whole or in part
without further reference to me. This permission
covers only single copies made for study purposes,
subject to normal conditions of acknowledgement.
ii
Contents
Contents
iii
List offigures
A
Compact disc track list
ix
Technical notes
xi
Map
xvii
Acknowledgments
xviii
I
Introduction
Chapter 1
From kabupaten to kaset: piecing together a history of gamelan degung
1.1
Early history
1.1.1 Cianjur
1.1.2 Cirebon
1.1.3 Pajajaran
1.1.4 Central Java and the goong renteng
1.1.5 Early instrumentation
1.1.6 Gamelandegung at the kabypaten
1.1.7 Degung in Bandung
1.2
IndonesianIndependence
1.2.1 RRI Bandung (Radio Republik Indonesia Bandung)
1.2.2 Amateur, student and female players
1.2.3 Degung kawih
1.2.4 Koko Koswara
1.2.5 Multimedia performances
1.2.6 Upacara khusus (special ceremonials)
1.2.7 The cassetteindustry
9
9
10
11
13
14
16
20
22
27
29
30
34
36
38
41
42
Chapter 2
Musical competence and processesof transmission
2.1
Modelling musical competence
2.1.1 Transformation
2.1.2 Sundanesemusical competence:who plays what?
2.1.3 Musical specialisationin degungperformance
2.2. The learning process
2.2.1 Osmosis:non-formal approachesto learning
2.2.2 Learning on stage
2.2.3 The role of teachersand mentors
2.2.4 Native and non-native approachesto learning gamelan
2.2.5 Native and non-native approachesto learning degung
2.2.6 The social dimension to learning
Gamelandegung in formal educationprogrammes
2.3
2.3.1 UPI and gamelan degung in primary and secondaryschools
46
46
47
48
51
53
54
56
60
64
68
70
73
77
iii
Chapter 3
Gamelan degung repertoire: degung klasik and degung kawih
3.1
Points of departure
3.2
Degung klasik
3.2.1 Idiosyncratic forms, irregular metresand syncopation
3.2.2 The fixity of the sekar ageungform
3.2.3 Sharedmelodic phrases
3.2.4 An examinationof common melodic patterns
3.3
Degung kawih
3.3.1 Patokan structure
3.3.2 Patokan classification
3.3.3 The flexibility of thepatokan structure
3.3.4 Wilet: structural expansionand contraction
3.3.5 The explicit melodic model
3.3.6 Melody and accompaniment:song titles and terminology
3.3.7 Lagon: the implicit melodic model
81
81
84
86
90
92
93
103
104
105
107
109
110
112
113
Chapter 4
Melodic realisation in degung kawih
4.1
Melodic embellishment,variation and improvisation
4.2
Melodic realisation on the cempres
4.2.1 Memorisation as a basis for variation and improvisation
4.2.2 Variation
4.2.3 Linking patterns
4.2.4 Strategiesof melodic expansionand contraction
4.2.5 From memorisationto improvisation
4.2.6 Conjunct motion
4.2.7 Stereotypicalmelodic contours
4.2.8 The arch contour
4.2.9 Gravity: motion and stasis
4.2.10 The zigzag contour
4.3
Vocal performancepractice
4.3.1 The kawih-tembangdivide
4.3.2 Socio-cultural perceptionsof the tembangsinger & the pasinden
4.3.3 Stylistic modification and crossover
4.3.4 Negotiating kaw1hand tembangstyles in degungperformance
118
118
121
122
126
129
132
135
136
137
138
140
142
145
146
151
153
157
Chapter 5
Cross-genre adaptation
5.1
Repertoireborrowing and adaptation
5.2
Repertoiretaxonomy
5.3
Cross-genreadaptationin the style of degungkawih
Cross-genreadaptationin the style of degungHas&
5.4
5.5
Tunings and transposition
5.5.1 Pelog degungandpelogjawa r
5.5.2 Pelog degungand salendro
5.5.3 The theoretical tuning model and gamelan degungscales
165
165
167
171
176
179
180
182
185
iv
5.6
5.6.1
5.6.2
5.6.3
5.6.4
5.6.5
Transposition
Transposingrepertoire for gamelan degung
Transposition:peloglsalendro andpelog degungT= 1
Transposition:salendro andpelog degungT=2
Melodies that are realisable in multiple tunings
Piecesless suitable for degung adaptation
186
187
187
188
189
194
Chapter 6
Negotiating the local and the global: degung on cassette
6.1
The rise of the regional cassetteindustry
6.2
Seminalpost-Lokanantacassettereleasesof the 1970sand 1980s
6.2.1 Degung instrumental
6.2.2 Ujang Suryana
6.2.3 Degung kaw1hon cassette
6.2.4 Nano S.
6.3
Composition and transmission
6.3.1 The businessof composing for cassette
6.3.2 The 'art' of composing for cassette
6.3.3 Kabungbulengan:the transmissionof a new composition
6.4
A new generationof degung composers
6.4.1 Globalisation and world music
6.4.2 Ismet Ruchimat
6.4.3 Sambasunda:a new direction for gamelan degung9
6.4.4 World music and pop Sunda
198
198
200
200
202
205
205
209
210
214
216
221
223
226
228
232
Chapter 7
King for a day: performing tradition at the Bandung wedding
7.1
The role of gamelan degung in wedding celebrations
7.2
The wedding reception
7.3
Invented tradition
7.4
The upacara mapagpanganten
7.5
SasakaDomas' version of the upacara mapagpanganten
7.5.1 The action sequence
7.5.2 The music sequence:overturesand dramatic gestures
7.5.3 Music to accompanymovement
7.5.4 Choral songsand tembangSundarepertoire
7.6
Recenttrends
235
235
237
239
242
243
244
248
251
253
254
Wider summary and conclusions
259
AppendicesI-IV
265
Glossary
284
Bibliography and references
294
Selecteddiscography
308
V
List of figures
1:1
Lodewijeckszoon'sdepiction of a gamelan in Banten 1598
12
1:2
Gamelan degung in Banten c. 1900
17
1:3
Gamelan degung at the Kasepuhancourt in Cirebon (dated 1426)
19
3:1
Standard degung klasik pangkat (bonang & jengglong)
85
3:2
Opening section of SelerDegung (bonang)
86
3:3
Comparisonof phrase found in Sang Bango & Sangkuratu(bonang)
87
3:4
Degung klasik cadential pattern (kendang)
88
3:5
Degung klasik cadential pattern Uengglong)
88
3:6
Syncopationin the bonang part leading to a cadence point
89
3:7
Syncopationin the bonang part of Lambang Parahyangan
89
3:8
Syncopationin the bonang part of Lutung,Bingung,
89
3:9
Comparisonof a phrase found in Palwa and Lambang,(bonang)
91
3:10
Rugrug phrase (bonang)
94
3:11
Kedet motif on each tone of the scale (bonang)
94
3:12
Kedet motif within the rugrug phrase (bonang)
94
3: 13
Sequences used to signal the approach of the final goong (bonang)
95
3:14
Alternative versions of the selerputti phrase (bonang)
96
3:15
Selerputri phrase cadencing on tones 2 and 3
96
3:16
Three versions of the layarputri cadence
97
3: 17
Balik layar phrase
97
3:18
Layarputri in expanded and contracted forms
98
3: 19
Variant forms of the opening 2-5-4-3 motif
98
3:20
2-5-4-3 motif on the bonang
99
3:21
1-4-3-2 motif on the bonang
100
3:22
4-2-1-5 motif on the bonang
100
3:23
Two versions of the randegan motif
101
3:24
Opening bonang motifs based on the '2-5 position'
101
vi
3:25
Randegansinggul and randegan loloran
102
3:26
Patokan structure
104
3:27
Sekar alit in the Gendu position
106
3:28
Graphic representationof Catrik
107
3:29
Nine possible versions of the jengglong part for Catrik
108
4: 1
Cempres part for Catrik
123
4:2
Metallophoneparts for Catrik
124
4:3
Panerus style motif (Catrik)
125
4:4
Arch motif (Catrik)
125
4:5
Caruk style pattern (Catiik)
126
4:6
Metallophoneparts for Cattik and Lalayaran
127
4:7
Metallophonepatterns to goong tone 5
128
4:8
Catiik performed on cempres (Lili Suparli & Ade Komaram)
130
4:9
Parallel versions of Catrik (from the kenong to the goong) performed on 131
cempres in dua wilet and peking,in sa wilet (Ade Komaran)
4: 10
Cempres realisation of Cattik dua wilet (Ade Komaran)
4: 11
Sawilet and dua wilet versions of Catrik played on cempres (Lili Suparli) 133
4: 12
Caruk pattern to pancer 1 in sawflet and dua wilet
134
4: 13
Arch patterns to kenong 2 and goong 5
135
4: 14
Sawflet and dua wilet versions of the arch contour
139
4: 15
Caruk figuration between two metallophones
141
4: 16
Catiik dua wilet on cempres (Lili Suparli)
141
4: 17
A zigzagging axial pattern (Ade Komaran)
142
4: 18
Axial motif (Entis Sutisna)
143
4: 19
Comparison of kawih and tembang repertoires
147
4:20
Comparison of senggol used in Jeruk Manis
(Mamah Dasimah & Nunung Nurmalasari)
161
4:21
Opening of the 2ndcycle of Jenik Manis (Nunung Nurmalasad)
162
4:22
Modulatingkawih senggol in Es Lilin (Mamah Dasimah)
163
vii
132
5: 1
(i)
Angin Peuting (kacapi indung)
173
(ii)
Angin Peuting (gamelan degung)
174
5:2
Comparisonof the gelenyu for Angin Peuting
(gamelan degung & kacapi indung)
175
5:3
Final phrases of Gunung Saii performed on bonang degung
178
5:4
Layout of the pelog degung and pelogjawar scales on 11 key saron
181
5:5
Lili Suparli's scale chart
184
5:6
Relationshipbetweenpelog degung & madenda on gamelan degung,
185
5:7
Relationshipbetween salendro and pelog T=2 scales
189
5:8
Tonal outline of Tonggeret
189
5:9
Comparisonof salendro,pelog T=3 and madenda 4=T tunings
190
5:10
Comparisonof the first goong phrase of Tonggeret
(salendro, madenda4=T& pelog,T= 3)
191
5: 11
Comparisonof the first goongphrase of Tonggeret(gamelan degung)
(pelog degung & madenda)
192
5: 12
First phrase of Sekar Manis (madenda & pelog degung)
193
5:13
Comparisonof madenda modes used in Renggong Gancang
196
6: 1
Skeletal score for Kabungbulengan
217
6:2
Introductionto Kabungbulengan
218
6:3
Kabungbulengan:two versions of the cadence at the end
of the introduction
219
6:4
Kabungbulengan:bars 3&4 of the introduction(cempres & peking)
220
7: 1
Performanceflow chart for Sasaka Domas'wedding greeting ceremony 245
7:2
Entrance of the umbul-umbuldancers
246
7:3
Pagar ayu dance formation
247
7:4
Assembled dancers bow before the bridal party
248
7: 5
Opening of Sasaka Domas' upacara mapag panganten
249
7:6
Second 'overture' in Sasaka Domas' upacaramapag panganten
250
viii
0
Compact disc track list
Seler Degung (fig. 3:2, p.86)
Degung Klasik Vol. 5. LS Kancana Sari, directed by Endang Sukandar
Endang Sukandar, Entis Sutisna, Achmad Suandi, Anda Lugina
Jakarta: GNP, 2001
1:51
2.
RenggongBuyut-RampakSekar
(p.157)
RRI Bandung group, directed by Marnat Rahmat
Eros Rosita, MarnahSuryamah,Ai Sarikartika,Yeti Sumiati
Bandung: 1976
2: 18
3.
9 cycles of Catrik played on cempres by Ado Kornaran
(Appendix 11,A1-9, p.269)
Bandung: July 2001
3:31
4.
9 cycles of Catrik played on cempres by Lill Suparil
(Appendix 11,BI-9, p.270)
Bandung: July 2001
4: 11
5.
9 cycles of Catrik played on poking by Ade Kornaran
(Appendix 11,C1-9, pp.271-272)
Bandung: July 2001
4: 19
6.
9 cycles of Catrik played on poking by Lill Suparli
(Appendix 11,D1-9, pp.273-274)
Bandung: July 2001
4:27
7.
Jeruk Manis - Belenderan (fig. 4:20, p. 161)
Marnah Dasimah,juru kawih; Dodi Hamidi, kacapi
Bandung: June 2001
3:48
8.
Jeruk Manis - Belenderan (figs. 4:20 & 4:21, pp.161-162)
Nunung Nurmalasari,juru kawih; Ade Suparman, kacapi
Bandung:August 2001
3:26
9.
Es Lifin - Senggot (fig. 4:22, p.163)
Marnah Dasimah,jurv kawih; Dodi Hamidi, kacapi
Bandung: June 2001
1:17
10.
Angin Peuting (fig. 5: 11, tembang version, p. 173)
Hendrawati,juru tembang, Endang Sukandar, suling
Yusdiana, kacapi indung; Galih, kacapi fincik
Bandung:August 2001
3:00
11.
Angin Peuting (figure 5:1:ii, degung version, p.174)
Tilam Sono. Gapura, directed by Koestyara. Ida Widawati,juru kawih
Jakarta: Dian, c. 1978
2:54
12.
Gunung Sari (fig. 5:3, p. 178 & Appendix III, pp.275-278)
Ade Kornaran,bonang degung
Bandung: July 2001
2:02
ix
13.
Gunung Sari (fig. 5:3, p.178 & Appendix I11,pp.275-278)
Entis Sutisna, bonang degung
Bandung:August 2001
2: 10
14.
Gunung Sari (fig. 5:3, p.178 &Appendix 111,
pp.275-278)
Lili Suparli, bonang degung
Bandung:July 2001
2:07
15.
Tonggeret (fig. 5:10, p. 191)
lyan Arliani,juru kawih
STSI Bandunggroup, directed by Lili Suparli
Bandung: July 2001
4:55
16.
Tonggeret (pelog degung) (fig. 5: 11, p.192)
Teti Yanijuru kawih
STSI Bandung group, directed by Lili Suparli
Bandung: July 2001
2:09
17.
Tonggeret (madenda) (fig. 5:11, p.192)
Teti Yani,juru kawih
STSI Bandung group, directed by Lili Suparli
Bandung:July 2001
2:09
18.
Sekar Manis (madenda) (fig. 5:12, p.193)
Hendrawati,juru kawih
Ade Komaran,Yusdiana, Matt Ashworth etal
Bandung:January 2002
0:30
19.
SekarManis (pelog degung) (fig. 5:12, p.193)
Hendrawati,juru kawih
Ade Komaran,Yusdiana, Matt Ashworth eta/
Bandung: January 2002
0:30
20.
Kabungbulengan (fig. 6: 1, p.217)
Kabungbulengan.Non Blok, directed by Nano S.
Nining Meida,juru kawih; Tatang RS,juni suling
Bandung:Whisnu, 2000
2:42
21.
Sasaka Domas' wedding greeting ceremony: opening sequence
(figs. 7:1,1-6, p.245,7: 5. p.249 & 7:6, p.250)
Didin Bajurijuru tembang;A'im Salim, narration
Sasaka Domas, directed by Mamah Dasimah& Didin Bajuri
Bandung:August 2001
3:39
22.
Jeruk Manis - Belenderan (see 3.3.5, p.110)
Degung Klasik VoL 5. LS Kancana Sari. Endang Sukandar, suling
Jakarta: GNP, Keraton, 2001
4:20
23.
Karatagan Pahlawan (Koko Koswara)
Mangle (see Introduction,p.2). Sasaka Domas
Bandung: Hidayat (S-1044), 198?
2:41
x
Technical notes
Language
The spellingof Sundanese
andIndonesianwordscitedin this dissertationfollows the
orthographicconventionsintroducedby the Indonesiangovernmentin 1972.Exceptions
to this includethe occasionalpropernameandquotationsfrom booksor articles
publishedbeforethis date.FollowingmostIndonesianwritten publicationsI do not use
diacriticalmarkings.
My researchin Bandungwasmainly conductedin the Indonesiannational
language(bahasaIndonesia)though,naturally,mostof the terminologythat specifically
(basaSunda).In ordernot to
relatesto the regionalmusicsystemis Sundanese
unnecessarily
complicatethe text I only distinguishbetweenIndonesianandSundanese
termsin the glossary.
Adheringto the conventionsof academicwriting I havealsochosento omit the
honorifics'Pa' (from bapa,literally, father)and'Ibu' (literally, mother)(respectfultitles
thatareroutinelyusedin Indonesiawhenaddressing
or referringto a manor woman
olderthanoneself)whennamingspecificindividualsin this study.
Musical transcriptions and notation
In the following chaptersI use two forms of music notation: Sundanesecipher notation
and Western staff notation. The latter is mainly reservedfor transcriptions of vocal
is
Western
the
melodies;
stave better able to representthe intricacies of the singer's
vocal embellishmentsthan is the Sundanesecipher system.I also use Western staff
notation and note nameswhen comparing the absolutepitches of different tuning
in
Sundanese
For
the
those
unfamiliar
readers
with
systems.
way
notation, a summary of
in
is
below.
West
Java
the
works
cipher
system
provided
which
xi
Sundanesecipher notation
from
high
In contrastto Westernnotation,Sundanese
their
to
scales
musiciansnumber
low. Thepentatonicpelog degungtuningof thegamelandegungis thusrepresented
lowest
5
highest
being
1,2,3,4
5,
I
the
tone
tone.
the
the
and
and with
using ciphers
Similarly,a dot belowa cipherindicatesthat it is to beplayedin thehighe octave,while
dot
a
abovea cipherdenotesthe lower octave.
5= higher octave
lower octave
Each pitch of thepelog degung scalealso has its own name:
12345
lugu
or barang*
loloran
panelu
singgul
or bem*
orkenong*
galimer
or singgul*
* alternative namecommonly used by tembangSundamusicians
The tones of thepelog degungscaleon the gamelan degung 'Sekar Enggal' currently
housedat City University, London, correspondto the following Westernpitches:
tugu
lotoran
panelu
singgul
galimer
345
12
DcB
It is important to note that while gamelan degung setsare not tuned to any externallydetermined 'absolute' pitch, I have notated all of my Western staff transcriptions at this
facilitate
in
to
comparison.
pitch-level order
xii
Daminatila
Sundanesemusicians,particular those operatingwithin formal music education
networks, also label tones with the syllables 'da-m-na-ti-la'. The daminatila system
functions rather like the Westerntonic sol-fa in that the syllables are transposableand
denotethe modal position of tones in a particular scalerather than indicate fixed pitches
(or keys, pots, strings and gongs). This systemis deemedto be particularly useful when,
as often happensin gamelan salendro, two different tunings are used simultaneouslyand
additional modal transpositionstake place in the middle of a piece. Nevertheless,in the
pelog degung scaleof the gamelan degung the da-mi-na-ti-la syllables more
straightforwardly correspondto the ciphers 1,2,3,4 and 5.
tugu
loloran
1
234
G
F#
Dc
Mi
na
da
panelu
singgul
galimer
5
B
ti
la
Madenda (sorog)
Most gamelan degung setsare now also built with additional exchangekeys, pots and
gongs so that the instrumentscan be retunedto play songsin the madenda(also known
as sorog) tuning. In order to switch from the pelog degungto the madendatuning,
degungmusicians swap tone 31panelu(pelog degung)with a substitutetone 3 (panelu
sorog) approximately 200 centshigher in pitch. 'Accidental' tones occurring in between
the fixed pitches of a scale are denotedusing + and - signs. 5+, for instance,indicates a
flattened tone 5, and 4- a sharpenedtone 4. The sharpenedpanelu tone,panelu Sorog, is
thus notatedas 3-.
xiii
The madendatuning of the gamelan degung'Sekar Enggal' at City University can be
representedas follows:
tugu
loloran
3-
12
G
panelu sorog
singgut
galimer
45
cB
F#
Notating the madendascaleis complicated by the fact that, unlike in pelog degung,the
da.
Instead,the madenda
does
to
the
tugu
absolutepitch
modal position
not correspond
scaleis consideredto begin on the pitch singgul.
singgut
galimer
tugu
loloran
3-
4512
F#
cBG
da
panelu sorog
mi
na
ti
E
la
As a result, two contrastingsystemsof cipher notation have developedto representthe
madendascale.In the first, as in the above example,the fixed ciphers 1,2,3-, 4 and 5
indicate the 'absolute' pitches tugu, 1616ran,panelu sorog, singgul and galimer,
is
first
below,
in
In
tuning
the
the
the
madenda
respectively.
example
second,as
specified and then the cipher numbers 1,2,3,4 and 5 (without accidentals)usedto
correspondto the transposablesyllables da-mi-na-fi-la.
(madenda
tuning)
madenda
surupan
singgul
galimer
tugu
lotoran
panelu sorog
12345
.cBG
da
F#
Mi
na
xiv
ti
E
la
Though I mainly encounteredthe first systemin my practical lessonsin Bandung,the
transposablecipher systemwas the one that was usedto explain aspectsof Sundanese
in
is
I
the
that
to
theory
system
principally employ this text. However, for
me and
music
the benefit of readersmore familiar with the absolute-systemI will also include the fixed
in
madendaciphers brackets[ 1,2,3 -, 4,5].
Rhythm and metre
Rhythmically, a single cipher representsone beat or time unit. A single horizontal line
placed over two un-spacedciphers indicatesthat eachtone receiveshalf a beat,whilst
two horizontal lines over four ciphers meansthat the beat is divided into four. Reflecting
the influence of Westernnotation on the developmentof the Sundanesesystem,the
strong-beatcorrespondsto the first note in eachgrouping. In fact, this is at odds with the
overriding weak-to-strongbeat metrical structure of most gamelan music and, aswill be
seenbelow, createsdifficulties when bar-lines are introduced into the notation.
5= one beat
55=
two half-beats
5555=
four quarter-beats
11+I.
Syncopatedrhythms are denotedusing a combination of horizontal lines and dots, while
a single line over three ciphers specifies something akin to a triplet pattern.
'dotted' patterns
5.5
5.5
=syncopated
or
or
.
555=
triplet pattern
Strictly speaking,a dot is usedto indicatethattheprevioustoneshouldbe left ringing or
dot
is
0,
damped
In
to
than
silenced.
often
replace
a
or
practice, a
used
sustained,rather
the symbol that signals a rest or an 'empty' (kosong) beat.
xv
Bar-lines
Sundaneseciphers are usually groupedtogether into 'bars' to make the notation easierto
read. In what is a cyclical musical structure,however, there is some dispute as to where
precisely the bar-line should be positioned. Musicians are in accord that as important
structural tones are conceptualisedas destinationtones rather than departuretones,
points of metric stressshould be located at the end (not the beginning) of the bar.
Disagreementsarise in deciding upon which side of the bar-line to place the weak-beat
directly following the destinationtone. Somemusiciansbelieve that to representthe
weak-to-strongbeat structureof the music the bar-line should come immediately after
the metrically accentedtone; in this schemethe subsequentweak-beat is perceived to be
already leading towards the next point of destinationand is thus deemedto be more
logically groupedtogetherwith that next destinationtone in the following bar.
t.
5 55555555
4+ 1+ 2+
-r
etc
3+ 4+
Others arguethat the notation is easierto read if the bar-line is shifted so that the entire
4'hbeat (weak-beatincluded) is enclosedin the samebar.
1
55
5155
55
55
etc
.
4+ 1+ 2+ 3+ 4+
As this secondmethodis usedin formal educationalinstitutionsin Bandungandthe one
that I personallyfind the easiestto follow, this is the (albeitimperfect)systemthatwill
be usedin this text (seeFryer 1989:147-160for a moredetaileddiscussionof Sundanese
notation).
xvi
Map of West Java
Map taken from van Zanten (I 989:xiii)
(towns/cities mentioned in the text have been underlined)
xvii
Acknowledgments
Although it is not possible to mention everyonewho has supportedme in the production
institutions.
individuals
following
like
dissertation,
I
to
the
thank
this
and
of
would
First, I offer my gratitude to my teachersAde Komaran, Lili Suparli,
Hendrawati, Mamah Dasimah,Didin Bajuri and Iyan Arliani for their infinite patience
Other
knowledge
Sundanese
to
their
with
me.
performers
music
and willingness share
of
who graciously offered their time and expertiseinclude Euis Komariah, Nunung
Nurmalasari, Otong Rasta,Entis Sutisna,Samin, Ade Suandi, Dede Suparman,
Yusdiana, Dodi Hamidi, Ade Suparman,Asep Setiadi and Cucup Cahripin. I am also
indebtedto the suling maestroEndang Sukandar,a trusted friend and inspiring teacher.
During fieldwork for this project I received generoussupport and assistancefrom
severalof Bandung'smostcelebratedmusicalinnovators.Nano Suratnospentseveral
afternoonsdiscussingall mattersdegungwith me and,apartfrom contributinghis own
invaluableguidanceandpersonalinsights,introducedme to four eminentartists/
scholarswho furtherassistedmy research;EnochAtmadibrata,WahyuWibisana,
HidayatSuryalagaandRachmatSukmasaputra
gaveup hoursof their time
subsequently
Koestyara,Ujang
to answermy questions.I alsowish to acknowledge
the composers
Suryana,Iik SetiawanandIsmetRuchimatfor warmly welcominginto their homesand
sharingtheir memories,observations
with me.
andexperiences
A specialmentionshouldalsobe madeof the singers,musiciansanddancersin
the SasakaDomas group. The lively camaraderiethat I enjoyed when crammedinto a
mini-bus or performing on stagewith this troupe has left me with some of my most
treasuredmemories of my time in Bandung. Similarly, I would also like to thank all the
membersof Sambasunda,particularly Didi Wiardi, Gungun Permana,Efendi Jaenudin
and Dadang SamsudinSutarno,for their friendship and fieldwork assistance.
Whilst living in Bandung I received extensivesupport and expert advice from
Matt AshworthandHendrawati.Matt andHendrahelpedme to establishcontactswith
otherteachersandinformants,offeredme valuablerehearsalopportunitiesand,along
home
family,
hospitable
their
with
a
comfortable
me
andglutenprovided
extended
with
free food for the majority of my stayin Bandung.My heartfeltthanksalsogoesto
Christophede Bezenacfor untoldhoursof absorbingdiscussionaboutissuesat the
xviii
centre of this research,as well as for being an unfailing sourceof encouragement,
wisdom and solaceduring my fieldwork and subsequentwriting-up.
I also received considerablehelp from friends, family and colleaguesin the LTK
by
is
Cook
(whose
influence
Simon
US.
the
this
text
evidenced
also
wider
on
and
kindly
North
he
is
it),
Fryer
Richard
Ruth
times
that
and
numberof
referencedwithin
improvement.
for
its
insightful
this
readpartsof
suggestions
manuscriptandoffered
Likewise,BarleyNortonproof-readseveralchapters,aswell asrecommended,
searched
out andpostednumerousarticlesto me duringits preparation.I am,however,most
indebtedto my motherandstepfather,Ann andGeorgeSmith;withouttheir generous
backingthis dissertationwould neverhavebeenfinished.Also to my brother,Matthew
Swindells,whoseown musichaslifted my spiritsandcarriedme throughmanya long
dayof writing.
The researchfor this dissertationwas madepossible by a three-yearpostgraduate
studentshipand an additional one-yearfieldwork grant awardedby the Arts and
Humanities ResearchBoard (AHRB). I would also like to acknowledgethe Indonesian
Institute of Science(LembagaIlmu PengetahuanIndonesia, LIPI), which approvedmy
researchtopic andfacilitatedmy visa,andAsepSolihinat STSIBandungfor agreeingto
act asmy official sponsorin Indonesia.My supervisorat City University,SteveStanton,
alsodeservesspecialcreditfor provokingmy interestin the Indonesianperformingarts
in thevery first place,aswell asfor his help in honingmy ideasandrefiningthis text.
Finally, I must mention four individuals who were, in very different ways,
intimately involved with this project, but who sadly passedaway before its completion.
Firstly, I would like to acknowledgeSulaemanSutisna-a highly respectedSundanese
gamelan musician and former member of RRI's influential Parahyangandegunggroup with whom I was fortunate enoughto be able to study on severalprevious trips to
Bandung. Secondly,my thanks goesto Gerry Farrell, a gifted musician and a spirited
ethnomusicologistwhose path in life I was privileged to cross during the courseof my
studiesat City University. Lastly, I wish to expressmy profound and everlasting
for
Wakely
Alan
Bradley,
Lilian
Edna
thirty years of
to
and
gratitude my grandparents,
in
Indonesia
love
to
their
me
calls
weekly
phone
support;
and rock-solid
unconditional
home.
lifeline
were my
xix
Beber La y ar - 'Hoisting the Sail' (a degungsong)
Matak waas tifingalan
Plungplong taya aling-aling
Nyawang sakuriling bungking
Sagara ombak-ombakan
Katojo ku cahya bulan
Ombaknaumpal-umpalan
Katingal ti kaanggangan
OmbakUr ngadeukeutan
Kamudi keur tatan-tatan
Dek nurunkeunparahuna
It will make us melancholy.
To look freely aroundus, without any obstructions,
To look at everything around us.
The oceanis rolling,
Illuminated by moonlight.
Its waves are swelling.
From afar we can see
The waves, that seemto be coming toward us.
The sailors are ready
To push the boat off.
Beber layar tarikjangkar
Leong daratan ditilar
Matak waas matak kelar
Agambah lautan Cidamar
Nya hate bet samar-samar
Ras emut di Sindangbarang
Parahuna ting suruwuk
Beuki tengah beukijauh
Ngambangnganclang di sagara
Ngerab-ngerab,banderana
Thesail is hoistedandthe anchorheaved.
It startssailingandleavesthe mainland.
This evokesnostalgicfeelings.
Sailingalongthe CidamarOcean,
Theheartbecomesuncertain,
It startsthinkingof Sindangbarang.
Theboatsailsfast,
Furtherout, furtheroff.
It is sailingoverthe ocean.
Its flag is waving.
Hawar-hawar kakupingna
Sora degungjeung sulingna
Faintly can
The soundof the degung
be
flute
heard
bamboo
and
Accompaniedby soft singing.
They blend very beautifully.
Well, this is the song.
It is called 'Hoisting the sail'.
The soundof the bamboo flute is melancholy,
It makessadpeople even sadder.
The soundof the degung is deep,
And comforts thosewho are upset.
Dipirig ku hadringna
Ninggangpisan wirahmana
Nya ieupisan laguna
.
'BeberLayar'katelahna
Lengas-lengissora suling
Lir meupeurihnuprihatin
Sora degungngelewung
Ngalilipur nu keur bingung
Reprintedwith kind permissionfrom Wirn vanZanten(1987:237-238).
xx
Introduction
The degung is a small gamelan ensemblenative to the Sundanesepeople of West Java,
Indonesia.' Originating as an elite music for the local nobility and formerly housedin
focal
became
Bandung
the
the
the
main
aristocratic residencesacross province,
city of
point for the developmentof gamelan degung during the first decadesof the 20'h
century. As the administrative and cultural capital of the region, Bandung is now home
to an eclectic assortmentof music genres,its urban institutions supportinga range of
distinct types of local performing artist. This ethnomusicologicalstudy considersthe
evolution of gamelan degung in the musical melting pot of this bustling SoutheastAsian
city. It exploresthe way in which the ensemblehas come to be positioned as a subsidiary
field of specialisationfor performers drawn from a variety of musical backgroundsand,
at the sametime, as a site for the negotiation and assimilation of repertoiresand
performancepracticesdrawn from acrossthe wider Sundanesemusic complex. Profiling
the different kinds of musiciansthat make up contemporarygamelan degung groups, as
well as examining the inherent transformability of the repertoiresthat they play, musical
changewill also be correlatedto the ensemble'sshifting socio-musical function and
broader trends in the regional arts sceneas a whole.
Though primarily basedon fieldwork carried out in Bandung betweenJune2000
2001,the rootsof this studyextendbackto the summerof 1991when,as
andSeptember
an undergraduate
musicstudentat City University,London,I waspreparingto takeup a
last-minuteplaceon an Indonesiangovernmentscholarshipprogrammeto learnmusic
anddancein Solo(Surakarta),CentralJava.Tboughunawareof the existenceof
Sundanese
musicat thattime, two unrelatedincidentsoccurredin the daysprior to my
departurethatwereto directthe courseof my studiesthroughoutthatyearand,asit
turnedout,muchof the following decade.
Firstly, a British specialistin Sundanese
music,SimonCook,decidedto house
instrumentsat City Universityand,on hearingabout
his collectionof CentralJavanese
invited
him
inaugural
forthcoming
to
the
trip
casually
me
visit
at
party,
gamelýn's
my
1 Seeappendix I for an illustration of the individual instrumentsthat make up a standardgamelan degung
set and for details of each instrument's function in the ensemble.
and his family in Bandung where he was soon to be returning to live. Secondly,knowing
that I played the Westernclassical flute, my then London-basedBalinese danceteacher,
Nana Naratomo, presentedme with a cassetteof what she describedas "West Javanese
flute music" as a parting gift. The cassette,handedto me without a cover or sleevenotes,
turned out to be an instrumentalgamelan degungrecording called Mangle (pronounced
Mangle) that was releasedin the 1980sby the Bandung group SasakaDomas. This
recording made such an immediate impressionon me that, in blissful ignoranceof the
huge schism separatingCentral Javaneseand Sundanesecultures and musics, I arrived in
Solo (arguably the cultural heartland of Central Java) enthusiasticallyrequestingto learn
gamelan degung.Fortuitously this proved possible in the form of private lessonsfrom
Cucup Cahripin, an ethnically displacedSundanesemusician teaching at one of the
performing arts academiesin the city.
It could be arguedthat the motivation for this dissertationwas first kindled in
theseclasseswith Cucup Cahripin. My compulsion to pin down the music of the
gamelan degungwas initially provoked by the confusion I felt as I becameawarethat
the piecesthat I was being taught to play bore little resemblanceto the instrumental
arrangementson the Mangle recording. My disorientation was further compounded
when, on hearing degungplayed live at a wedding reception on my first trip to Bandung,
I realisedthat many of the piecesperformed were neither of the type that I had
memorised in lessonsin Solo nor as featuredon the Mangle cassette.To begin with I
attributed this senseof bewilderment to the fact that I was a gamelan degungnovice
with little commandof either the Indonesianor Sundaneselanguageand, therefore,
unable to properly questionanyone about such discrepancies.Even so, having completed
a couple of more substantialfieldwork trips to Bandung and once able to conversemore
fluently with local musicians,I continued to have the impressionthat the more
ensconcedI becamein the world of Sundanesemusic, the more elusive the gamelan
degung seemedto become.
Not only did locating the preciseboundariesof degungrepertoire prove
problematic but there also seemedto be some degreeof ambiguity as to the exact
constitution of the ensemble'sinstrumentationand the definition of its musical
during
latter
became
The
conspicuous
a return study trip to
particularly
personnel.
Bandung in 2000.1 realised that although my explicit reasonfor being in Indonesiawas
2
to learn gamelan degung,I was actually taking practical lessonsfrom a selection of
lay
in
fields
domains
the
of
of expertise
singersand musicianswhose professedprimary
(the
(Sundanese
Sunda
tembang
sung
or
gamelan
poetry) gamelanpelog-salendro
either
intangibility
further
dance
This
in
Sundanese
theatre).
was
puppet
sense
of
and
used
by
fact
the
that most professionalgamelan musiciansare employed on a
exacerbated
freelancebasis and, consequently,rarely assembledto perform degungoutside of the
context of paid engagementssuch as wedding performancesor commercial recordings.
Working degunggroups in the city tend not to rehearseon any regular basis and ad hoc
practice sessionsare generally only convenedin preparationfor specific events.Aside
from my original questions,then, I also beganto ponder how Sundanesemusiciansever
learn to play gamelan degung in the first place, as well as how the new songsand
instrumental arrangements which are packagedas highly polished finished-productson
cassette- are actually composed,transmitted, rehearsedand recorded.
Turning to the available literature on Sundanesemusic only provided a partial
clarification of someof theseissues.Certainly, the repertoire classifications commonly
presentedin texts did not fully account for the diversity of the material that I variously
encounteredat performances,in lessonsor on recordings.It remains a fact that the
plethora of performing art genresfound in West Javahave been largely overlooked by
ethnomusicologistswhose work on Indonesiato date hasprimarily concentratedon the
musics of Central Javaand Bali. While the scopeof literature, in English and
Indonesian,pertaining to the most well known Sundaneseensemblesis steadily growing,
the gamelan degung itself has spurred relatively little scholarly researchsince Max
Harrell's dissertationon the subject in 1974. Harrell's work, predating as it does many
of the massmedia driven innovations that have subsequentlycome to define the
contemporarydegungtradition and, instead,focusing on an etic analysis of the courtderived 'classical' repertoire, is of limited use in terms of sheddinglight on the
repertoire and function of the gamelan as it survives in Bandung today.
Nevertheless,more up-to-date information is provided by SeanWilliams (1989)
in
degung
kawih
(light
discusses
the
song-based
repertoire)
vocal
end
of
popular
who
her article on 'pop Sunda', while Simon Cook (1992) also includes a more
degung
introduction
hands-on
types
to
the
two
of
gamelan
principal
comprehensive
In
Guide
Sundanese
Music.
indispensable
in
his
to
addition, the substantial
piece
3
instruments
between
discrete
Sundanese
techniques
and
crossoverof repertoire,playing
art forms meansthat severaldissertationsexploring other music genresdo include select
information about the ensemble.Ernst Heins (1977), for instance,devotesa substantial
chapterof his dissertationon the antiquatedgoong renteng to the degungensemblethat
he hypothesisesevolved out of this archaicgamelan. Ruth Fryer (1989), on the other
hand, surveysthe history, instrumentationand function of the degungwithin her wider
examination of Sundanesegamelan in Bandung. Similarly, Wirn van Zanten (1987,
1989) and SeanWilliams (1990,2001) make referenceto the areasof overlap between
tembangSundaandgamelan degung in their separatepiecesof work on the former,
while Andrew Weintraub (1997) draws attention to the recent use of degung songsin
Sundanesepuppet theatrein his study of wayanggolek. Even Henry Spiller's (2001)
exploration of Sundaneseimprovisational danceincludes a chapterthat considersthe
place of degung in the Sundanesewedding celebrations.Readersrequiring a more
generalintroduction to gamelan degung can now also consult Williams' and Cook's
entries on Sundanesemusic in The Garland Encyclopedia of World Music (Williams
1998), and TheNew Grove Dictionary ofMusic and Musicians (Cook 2001)
respectively, as well as refer to the overview of degunggenresprovided in TheRough
Guide To World Music: Volume2 (Latin and North America, Caribbean,India, Asia
and Pacific) (2000).
Indonesianlanguagepublications relating to gamelan degung mainly consist of
introductory-level teachingmanualsand notation compilations, though Abun
SomawiJaya(1986) and Deni Hermawan (1994), both instructors at Bandung's foremost
performing arts academy,have undertakenprojects to look at the distribution of shared
melodic phrasesin the classicaldegungrepertoire. Likewise, Herlia Tisana (1997), a
graduateof the sameinstitution, presentsa more analytical study of the role of the
gamelan degung in the Sundanesewedding ceremonyin her undergraduatethesis
devotedto this subject. SeveralSundanesemusicians have also written brief histories of
degung,
in
gamelan
producing short articles Indonesianperiodicals that outline the
pertinent junctures in the ensemble'schronological evolution (seeNanda SA. 1977,
SukandaArt 1991, Abun SomawiJaya1997 & Didi Wiardi 2001). Moreover, in July
1999, TamanBudaya Bandung, a government-runarts centre in the city, hosteda oneday symposium to take stock of the developmentof gamelan degung in the city. Aside
4
from performancesby leading groups,paperswere given by severalof Bandung's most
including
Suratno
Ismet
Ruchimat.
degung
Nano
and
composers
prominent
In terms of other texts that have beenparticularly influential in the theoretical
framing and shapingof this research,I must first acknowledgeBenjamin Brinner's
Knowing Music, Making Music: JavaneseGamelanand the Theory ofMusical
Competenceand Interaction (1995). The idea of using 'transformation' as a lens through
initially
degung
function
the
to
was
music and changing
of gamelan
which explore
inspired by the model of musical competence(of which transformation is one domain)
developedby Brinner in this ground breaking book. My approachto this topic is also
informed by the burgeoningbody of literature dedicatedto the issueof musical
variation, improvisation and cognition. Of specialnote are two seminal volumes - Bruno
Nettl's In the Course of Performance: Studiesin the World of Musical Improvisation
(1998), and Paul F. Berliner's Thinking in Ja=: TheInfinite, 4rt ofImprovisation (1994).
Finally, I must also make specific mention of R. Anderson Sutton's comprehensive
study of variation in Central Javanesegamelan (1993). Though I am awarethat drawing
direct parallels betweenCentral Javaneseand Sundanesemusics is an inherently
hazardousendeavour,Sutton's generaliseddescription of a "steady state" tradition that
eschewsmore sweepingchangein favour of internal dynamism and variation (Sutton
1993:4) has resonancewith my own interpretation of musical innovation in West Java.
Though Bandung musicians may bejustified in their claims that they are more
artistically daring and less conformist to 'tradition' than their Central Javanese
counterparts,the reality remains that composition in Sundanesemusic often (though not
always) has as much to do with the creative transferral, recombination and adaptationof
extant musical elementsas with a more radical pursuit of originality or entirely novel
invention.
The notion of Bandung's artists efficiently maximising the musical materials at
their disposal first took root in my own imagination on a tour of a West Javanese
boast
the
The
that
tour-guide's
of
part
a
single
not
ago.
years
several
coconut plantation
building
being
husk
is
the
as
a
versatile
thrown
considered
away coconut wastedor
food
in
flesh
the
stuffs,
the
of
of
a
wide
range
the
production
milk used
and
material and
beauty products and oil - immediately struck a chord with my appreciation of the role
that processesof recycling and transformation play in the construction, arrangementand
5
intuitive
dismissed
I
Though
this
Sundanese
musicalrepertoires.
performanceof
Bandung-based
liner
fanciful
the
being
the
time,
the
of
group
notes
at
reflectionas
rather
link
between
the
Salse
Salsa
Sambasunda's
metaphorical
a
make
also
and
recording
ingenuity
its
the
of
and
the
region'snaturalresources
multiple utility of oneof
live,
"we
features
the
While
we eat,we play
this
motto
the
album
coverof
musicians.
two
the
the
bamboos",
the
of
musicians
on
the
of
versatility
compare
sleeve
notes
with
is
be
"there
bamboo
that
them
about
to
that
can
not
nothing
of a
plant,adding
recording
is
in
This
GNP
2001).
[sic]"
(Salsa
also
manifest
sameresourcefulness
use
andSalse,
theway in which musicalunitsof all sizes,rangingfrom micro-motifsandidiomatic
tonal frameworksandentirepieces,areconstantlyreused
playingpatternsto larger-scale
andreworkedacrossthewider musicsystemasa whole.
This studyof gamelandegungconsidersmusicaltransformationfrom two
On onelevel, it historically
distinctbut ultimatelyinterrelatedperspectives.
the differenttypesof repertoirethat areplayedby contemporarygroupsin
contextualises
Bandung,chartingthe waysin which musicianshavecreativelyrespondedto, aswell as
level,
On
time.
their
another
cutting
moreactivelyshaped
alteringenvironmentover
acrossthis diachronicexamination,is a synchronicanalysisof the multiple competences
implicated
inherent
the
the
the
transformability
structures
musical
of
of
performersand
in suchmusicalchange.Inevitably,the formeris informedby the latter:the mannerin
which gamelandegunghasnegotiated'external' socio-cultural,economic,technological
in
by
least
determined,
having
been
the coreskills of the
part,
at
andpolitical upheavals
constitutionof themusicsystemsat their
ensemble'smusiciansandthe associated
disposal.As Merriamobserves,
degreeto which internal changeis possible in a culture
the
...
dependsto a major extent upon the conceptsabout music held in
the culture. That is, ideasabout the sourcesof music,
forth,
learning,
provide the cultural
and so
composition,
framework within which changeis encouraged,discouraged,or
(1964:
307).
allowed
Different researchmethodswere employed to tackle thesedifferent lines of enquiry. The
broader ethnographicand historical data that I present,for example,was mainly
in
by
interviews,
fieldwork
and observing
participating
obtained through extensive
6
by
sessions
and
recording
rehearsals,
as
well
as
searchingout and
celebrations,
wedding
combing through relevant written sources,photographsand recordings.In contrast,the
direct
is
learning,
I
that
a
cognition, and analysis
place on musical
emphasis
in
filled
life
by
legitimated
day-to-day
'field'
fact
I
the
the
that
and
my
consequenceof
in
degung
Given
the city rarely
that
the
trainee
groups
of
most
assuming role a
musician.
instrumental
and vocal lessonsenabledme to sustainregular contactwith
rehearse,
Bandung musicians.What is more, performanceitself proved to be an invaluable
researchtechniqueand the most fruitful way of gaining insights into the often unnamed
processesat the heart of this dissertation.
During my time in Bandung I studied with a variety of Sundaneseartists. In
addition to my principal gamelan teachers,Ade Komaran and Lili Suparli, I received
ongoing vocal tuition from the tembang-trainedsingersMamah Dasimah and
Hendrawati, and the gamelan singer Iyan Arliani. Apart from one-to-onesessionswith
individual Bandung-basedperformers, I also tried to observeas many different types of
degung group as was possible.At the sametime, in order to gain more in-depth
information, I attachedmyself more regularly to the group SasakaDomas, a
distinguishedurban troupe headedby my singing teacherMamah Dasimah and her
husbandDidin Bajuri (and, coincidentally, the group on the Mangle recording).
Clearly, confined as my fieldwork was to particular socio-musical networks in
Bandung,it is beyondthe scopeof this dissertationto detail localvariationsin repertoire
andstyleor to surveythe distributionof degunggroupsacrossthe wider region.While it
doesappearthat musicalfashionsoriginatingin the city persistentlyripple out and
impacton the practicesof singersandinstrumentalists
operatingin outlying districts,the
way in whichgamelandegungis or is not usedin otherareasof WestJavaremainsa
potentiallyinterestingtopic for futureresearch.For now, the spotlightwill remainon the
mainstreamdegungtraditionaspropagatedin the Sundanese
culturalcapital.
Chapter1 piecestogethera history of gamelandegung,beginningwith the
in
courtsthroughto its reinventionand
ensemble'searlyorigins the WestJavanese
focus
in
Bandung.
In
2,
the
shiftsto the multiple
chapter
renaissance postcolonial
competences
of the musiciansinvolvedin anyperformanceof gamelandegung,aswell
is
in
formal
the
attained.Chapters3,
such
competence
andnon-formalcontexts which
as
4 and5, in contrast,presentmoredetailedmusicalanalysesto illustratesomeof the
7
in
that
transformative
are operative the construction, adaptationand
practices
specific
performanceof degungrepertoires.Chapter3 evaluatesthe relative malleability of the
k4zvih
Has&
the
the
and
repertoires,while chapter 4 looks
musical models underpinning
at the realisation of the model within two studiesof improvisation in degungkawih. The
first of thesereflects on someof the techniquesthat cempresmetallophoneplayers use
to generateand vary independentmelodic lines; the secondexplores melodic
embellishmentas a socio-culturally, contextually, as well as musically informed process
by meansof an examinationof Sundanesevocal styles. Chapter5 then turns to the
subject of cross-genretransformationand assessesthe ways in which form and tuning
facilitate or prohibit the transfer and adaptationof repertoire from other Sundanese
genresto gamelan degung. Finally, the penultimate and concluding chapters,chapters6
and 7, continue from where chapterone left off. Charting the developmentof gamelan
degung on cassette,and then exploring the contemporaryfunction of the ensemblein the
Sundanesewedding, the dissertationclosesby contemplatingthe future of the ensemble
in the face of the world music phenomenonand 'globalisation'.
8
Chapter 1
From kabupaten to kaset.- piecing together a history of gamelan degung
1.1
Early history
The early developmentof the gamelan degungremains conjectural; reliable historical
evidenceis scarceand existing secondarysourcesare often contradictory. Archive-based
researchmay yet unearth further clues as to the precise location and date of the
degung
initial
In
the
the
ensemble's
emergence.
meantime,
evolution of gamelan
continuesto arousemuch lively speculation.
What is known is that the gamelan degungwas cultivated in the West Javanese
courts (kabupaten)under the patronageof local regents(bupau). Kunst, who was
undertaking fieldwork in Java in the 1930s,observedthat the gamelan degungwas
"fairly rare" but "found in the kratons of Cheribon, and in practically all West Javanese
kabupaten" (Kunst 1973:68 & 387). Indeed, it is suggestedthat the term 'degung' is
derived from Tatu Agung' (His or Her Royal Highness) or 'Tumenggung' (a name for a
newly installed regent), titles of the ensemble'searly aristocratic benefactors
(Somawijaya 1997:56).
Although the exact age of the degung remains uncertain, sourcesindicate that the
ensemblewas well establishedby the secondhalf of the 19'hcentury. Heins, for instance,
alludes to a manuscript dating from around 1872 which details the various ensembles
housedat the former Sundanesekabupatenof Galuh (near presentday Ciamis). This
court is said to have possessed"as many as six different types of gamelan", including
degung (Heins 1977:55,118-119). In addition, Somawijayarefers to a 'degung' entry in
a Sundanese-Dutchdictionary of 1879 (1997:54), while Van Zanten quotesCoolsma
(1884) who, presumablyreferring to the vertical suspensionof thejengglong gongs,
defined degung as a "hanging gamelan" (1987:105).
Most writers supposethat the degung ensemble,at least in the form that it is
in
in
18th
19th
this
time
the
today,
was
a
centuries;
period
some
or
emerged
recognised
levels
Sundanese
the
unprecedented
of wealth and status
nobility
experienced
which
did
in
"Regents
Dutch
Williams
the
Dutch
well
under
much
explains
colonial rule.
under
9
large
from
because
West
Java
their
the
profits
controlprovided
areasunder
of
had
Sundanese
Consequently,
"these
the time and
noblemen...
agriculturalproduction".
(1990:
forms"
38).
Supporting
traditional
to
art
a systemof
money patronizevarious
if
Javanese
in
design
the
to,
a
scale
as
on
as
grand
not
courts,
musicalpatronagesimilar
distinctive
forms
develop
began
their
thus
to
the Sundanese
own
of aristocratic
regents
musicalexpression(ibid.). VanZantenconcludes,
For almosttwo centuriesfrom around1750till the Second
World War,theycouldpresumablypay moreattentionto the arts
thaneverbefore.Today'stwo importantSundanese
music
genres,gamelandegungandtembangSunda,developedin this
in
in
late
18thcentury
from
the
the
or
origins
period,probably
beginningof the 19thcentury(1987:20).
1.1.1 Cianjur
Thekabypatenof Cianjur,homeof tembangSunda,appearsto hold an important,if
uncertainpositionin the historyof thegamelandegung.Tarya,a sulingplayerin the
gamelandegungensembleat the kabypatenof Bandungrecalledperformingin Cianjur in the 1920sandthe leaderof the Bandunggroupwarning,"Kids, you shouldplay very.
careftillyandbe on guard,becausethisplace is theplaceofdegung"(Taryain Harrell
1974:226,emphasismy own).
historianNina H. Lubis,theregentof Cianjur
Accordingto the Sundanese
(1834-1863), R. Adipati Kusumaningrat(also known as Dalem Pancaniti) deserves
specific credit for his role in the developmentof the degungensemble(1998:243). As a
keen sponsorof the arts, Dalem Pancaniti is more commonly associatedwith his
patronageof tembangSunda,a genrethat reached"the peak of its development" during
the reign of this regent in the mid-19d' century (Williams 1990:44). Pointing to the
degung
Sunda
between
the
tembang
and
repertoires,some
gamelan
musical similarities
in
developed
it
is
likely
two
the
that
genres
close proximity to one
musicians argue
degung
flute,
from
Aside
the
tuning
the
the
and
use
of
suling
shared
pelog
one
another.
is
dedegungan
(in
Sunda
the style of degung).
the
tembang
called
repertoire
subsetof
Simon Cook speculatesthat there are also unacknowledgedlinks betweendegung
10
repertoire and someof thepapantunan songs(p.c., 2000a);thesepiecesare widely
believed by practitionersto be the oldest type of tembangSundarepertoire.
Other writers contendthat the gamelan degungdevelopedsometime after
tembangSunda.Suwarakusumah,for instance,proposesthat degungemergedtowards
the end of the 19thcentury under the auspicesof Dalem Pancaniti's successor,R.A. A.
Prawiradireja (1863-1910) (Durban Ardjo 1998:38). R. Ace HasanSu'eb, on the other
hand,placesthe gamelan degung in Cianjur at the beginning of the 18'hcentury, further
implying that the ensemblehad existed elsewhereprior to its arrival in Cianjur (1997:18
& 22).
1.1.2 Cirebon
There are severaltheories in circulation that suggestthat the gamelan degungpredates
the 18'hcentury. One hypothesisis that the gamelan degungwas brought to Cianjur from
the court of Cirebon, Java's oldest continuous royal city situatedon the island's north
coast(Enoch Atmadibrata,p. c., 2001). Thesetwo courts sharean important historical
connectionin that Cianjur becamea regency in 1691"when the Cirebon court itself sent
a memberof its householdto found an establishmentthere" (Heins 1977:14). The
'Cirebon theory' is partly basedon the existenceof a gamelan degung set which is
housedin the museumat the Kasepuhancourt in Cirebon and which, according to
1
dates
from
Interestingly, the
from
1426
Banten.
museumrecords,
and originally came
experiencesof the first Dutch trading voyage to Banten (1595-1597) are recountedin
Historle van Indien (Lodewijckszoon, Amsterdam 1598). Illustrations from this book,
2
British
Library exhibition, include a
many of which were reproducedas part of a
drawing of a small musical ensemblewhich, whether Sundaneseor Javanesein origin,
featuresa seriesof four hanging gongs and two single row gong-chimesthat are similar
in basic design to thejengglong and bonang; thesetwo instrumentsare often said to
defme the gamelan degung.
1Notably, Banten, situatedat the far west of Java's north coast,was the former seaportof the Sundanese
kingdom of Pajajaran(1333-1579, see 1.1.3below).
2 'Trading Places:The East India Company and Asia', an exhibition held at the British Library, 24thMay15'hSeptember2002.1 have Sheila Cude to thank for drawing my attention to this exhibition.
11
Fig. 1: 1 Lodowijckszoon's
depiction of a gamelan in Banton 1598
(Reproducedin Farrington 2002:38)
The Cirebon connection is also supportedby Richard North's account of the gamelan
Venggung' that he encounteredduring visits to Cirebon in 1978 and 1982.3 In a
fascinatingpaper that describeshis "search for the ancientgamelan of Sunda", Richard
North writes that each of the three palacesin Cirebon housesits own gamelan denggung,
instrumentsthat "are said to have beenbrought to Cirebon from the Hindu-Sundanese
Kingdom of Galuh" (near presentday Ciamis), when this kingdom was defeatedby
Islamic-JavaneseCirebon in the 15thcentury (2002). North points out that this makes
the denggung"the oldest gamelanpossessedby the three Keraton in Cirebon", noting
the irony that "the most ancient musical heirlooms of theseJavanesecourts" are "not
Javaneseat all, but Sundanese"(ibid. ).
S
3Degung is called denggungin the Cirebon dialect of Javanese(North 2002). Interestingly, there is also a
small repertoire of Javanesepieces known in Solo (Central Java) as denggungan,which, according to
Harrell, show "some basic motifs closely related to the Sundanese"(1974:48-49).
12
In September2000,1 visited Cirebon in an attemptto track down thesemysterious
dusty,
Kecirebonan
denggung.
At
I
the
shown
a
cobwebsmaller
court
was
gamelan
in
back
instruments
that
on
shelves
a
were
stacked
up
of
cracked
covered set partially
instruments
had,
informed
The
these
that
as
now
used
guide
rarely
me
palace
room.
describedin North's account,originally functioned as part of a potent magic ritual
during
North,
long
dry
bring
to
who was
an
overly
rain.
season
about
performed
fortunate enoughto witness a gamelan denggungperformanceat this court in 1982,
details the ritual precautionsthat were taken to prevent any untoward consequences,
including on this particular occasion,the onset of rain. Despite such safety measures
North recalls, "In the spanof a quarter hour a clear, cloudlessnight sky becamequickly
filled with menacingthunderheads".As a result, the denggungsessionwas brought to a
timely close. To his surprise-theclouds then "withdrew again and everyoneseemedto
breathea sigh of relief' (ibid. ).
1.1.3 Pajajaran
Many Sundanesemusicians are convinced that, whatever its more recent evolution, the
roots of the gamelan degung trace back to the SundaneseHindu kingdom of Pajajaran.
Crucially, like the Cirebon theory outlined above,this hypothesispresupposesthat the
gamelan degungpredatesthe importation of gamelan from Central Java (see 1.1.4) and,
thereby, endorsesthe widely held supposition that the ensembleis uniquely Sundanese.
For the Sundanese,the Pajajarankingdom representsthe pinnacle of self-rule
(Weintraub 1990:10), evoking "an entire constellation of ideas surrounding identity,
nostalgia, lost glory, ancestry,spirituality, and pastoral imagery" (Williams 2001:197).
Many Sundanesesongscelebrate"Pajajaran's independenceand relative power"
(Williams 1990:269) and, indeed, claims linking the degung ensemblewith this former
kingdom are primarily supportedwith accountsof Pajajaranas portrayed in a type of
Sundanesesung epic narrative known aspantun.4 Van Zanten, however, arguesthat it is
4 Harrell also considersthe link betweenpantun and degung from anotherperspective."The degung scale
is one of the scalesused by the pantun singer, a tradition which is associatedwith the kingdom of
Pajajaran... It is possible that someof the songsof the pantun singer were borrowed by the degung
ensemble" (1974:11). For more information aboutpantun seeWeintraub (1990).
13
th
th
kingdom
(14
in
Pajajaran
degung
"existed
the
too rash to concludethat gamelan
-16
in
is
degung
fact
from
the
that
the
mentioned the pantun stories
name
century)...
mere
about this kingdom" (1987: 105).
Although it may not be possible to substantiateclaims that the degung originated
during the Pajajaranera, such imagined connectionsare as significant as historical
Greality'in terms of the ensemble'smore recent evolution and current position in
Sundanesesociety. The fact that gamelan degung is now usually consideredas the
ensembleof choice in theatrical productions and ceremoniesthat evoke the Pajajaran
detail
in
further
below.
be
discussed
Dutch
and
colonial eraswill
Williams observesthat the reasonwhy tembangSundaperformers emphasisethe
mythical aspectsof Pajajaranover historical facts has as much to do with the "lack of
importance ascribedto historical accuracy" as with the "apparent lack of common
factual knowledge" about the kingdom (2001:198). This view is supportedby my
repeatedexperienceslistening to certain musicians expoundupon the prestigious and
sacred(sakrao statusof gamelan degung.When I pressedthesesameperformers for
information,
historical
I would almost always be told that musicians are
more precise
artists, not historians.
1.1.4 Central Java and the goong renteng
In contrastto many Sundanesemusicians,Heins concludesthat all the existing evidence
seemsto indicate that gamelan is an invention of the Muslim, rather than the Hindu era
(1977: 31 & 138). Remaining scepticalabout any link betweengamelan degung and
Pajajaran,Heins basestheseopinions on his evaluation of the descriptionsof the smaller
instrumental ensemblesthat historical accountsindicate characterisedHindu Javanese
life.
Sundanese
He argues,
musical
and
14
Almost all the componentinstrumentsof the gamelanwere
in
before
Islam
in
Java
the
the
advent
of
ancient
present
already
sixteenthcentury. But so far no philological or archaeological
found
has
been
which shows a slow stylistic evolution
evidence
leading from the unspecified,noisy tatabuhan-groupsand the
female
humming
that
trios
and
shadow-play
accompanied
softly
solo dancein Pajajaranand Ma apahit times all the way up to the
impressiveorchestraswhich adornedthe first Moslem courts of
Central and perhapsNorth Java (ibid., 3 1).
Van Zanten agrees,suggestingthat it is significant that a key Sundanesehistorical
source,the 16thcentury manuscript Sanghyangsiksa kandang karesian, alludesto many
types of art but makesno mention of gamelan or gamelan degung (1987:44-45).
Although not popular in Sundanesecircles, the most frequently cited hypothesisfor the
emergenceof the gamelan degungtracesthe ensembleback to a type of archaicgamelan
ensemblethat, Heins proposes,was brought to West Javaby the Central Javanese.
A critical moment in Sundanesehistory occurred in 1579 when Pajajaranfell to
Islamic Javaneseforces from the port city of Banten. As the expansionistIslamic
kingdom of Mataram.(founded in 1575) approachedfrom the north and the east,most of
West Javawas forced to surrenderto this dominant Central Javaneseadministration
(Heins 1977:11-15). In 1656, Sultan Amangkurat I divided West Java into twelve
districts which were then governedby Javaneseregents(ibid., 14 & Williams 1990:27).
It was around this period that "Javanesebecamethe official language,which it would
remain for about 200 years", and "Javanesepoetical forms, theatre and music penetrated
the Priangan(notably the gamelan)" (van Zanten 1987:18). The influx of Central
Javanesevalues, customsand art forms continued throughout the secondhalf of the 17th
last
but
treaties
the
to
of which was
a
series
of
abrupt
end
when,
after
an
century
came
signed in 1705,the increasingly powerful Dutch colonial administration replacedthe
Javaneseregentswith hereditary Sundanesenoblemen(Heins 1977:15). It seemsthat the
Javanesegamelan, however, were left behind (ibid. ).
Heins speculatesthat the ceremonialgamelan goong renteng and goong ajeng,
the subject of his PhD research,do not only representan older stagein the development
by
Javanese
Matararn
left
behind
but
the
Sundanese
the
are
very gamelan
gamelan,
of
hypothesiscs
(ibid.,
further
140).
Heins
that the gamelan
three
ago
centuries
rulers over
15
degung may have gradually evolved out of thesearchaic ensemblesas the new
Sundaneseregentsbeganto replace any residual symbols of Javanesedomination with
their own culturally distinctive art forms (ibid., 142-143).
While Harrell, who characterisesthe goong renteng as a "strong (keras) outdoor
ensemble"and degung as a "refined (alus) ensemble", arguesthat thesegamelan
"belong to two different worlds", he does acknowledgethat the instrumental
composition of both is similar (1974:31-32). Instrumentation aside,Heins also points to
the fact that the two ensemblesmay have sharedrepertoire. Contrasting transcriptions of
the goong renteng piece Galatik Nunut with the gamelan degung piece Galatik Mangut,
Heins demonstratesthat, despitethe use of different tunings, the two piecesemploy an
analogousmelodic contour (1977:92-94). All the same,Didi Wiardi noted that repertoire
borrowing betweendiscrete Sundanesemusic genresis common practice and that this
doesnot automatically imply any evolutionary connection (p.c., 2001b).
Another point of difference betweenthe two types of ensembleis that while both
incorporate an extended-rangesingle-row bonang, the instrument is played by two
musicians in goong renteng and by only one in gamelan degung (Heins 1977:75).
According to North, however, the gamelan denggungperformancethat he observedin
Cirebon also used "a secondplayer on the long single row bonang". Commenting that
the resultant music sounded"somewherebetweenthe vigorous and earthy goong
renteng and the smooth and refined modem degung", he conjecturesthat the denggung
ensemblesfound in the Cirebon courts may represent"a missing link betweenthesetwo
musics" (2002).
1.1.5 Early instrumentation
The archaic gamelan degunghousedin court museumsin Cirebon and Sumedangreveal
that the early degung ensemblewas smaller and its instrumentation not as standardised
as it is today. It may well be that the early history of this gamelan is obscuredby the
diversity of archaic ensembletypes that can be consideredto be precursorsto, or early
versions of gamelan degung.
16
The first gamelan degung in Bandungis said to have comprisedonlyjengglong, bonang,
saron and goong (Soepandi1974:8). A similar instrumentationconstitutesthe degung
exhibited at the Museum in Sumedang(dated 1791), although this set is augmentedwith
a time-keeping ketuk pot (North 2002). Harrell also writes that a three-kettle instrument
called a keprak is included with the gamelan degunghousedin Cirebon and Sumedang
(1974:20-22). While the suling and kendangappearto have been later additions to the
ensemble,Snellemanlists the rebab bowed lute as a gamelan degunginstrument
(1918:820 in van Zanten 1987:105). Rather intriguingly, a photographof a degung
ensembletaken in Banten around 1900 includes both a rebab and gambang(xylophone),
instrumentsnow typically associatedwith Sundanesegamelanpelog-salendro and
commonly believed to have only been incorporatedinto gamelan degungperformance
since the 1960s.
Fig. 1:2 Gamelan degung in Banton c. 1900
17
Whether or not theseadditional instrumentsactually belongedto the degung group,
however, is opento question.It is notable that this photographof gamelan degung,5
sharesan almost identical backdrop to that of a Sundanesegamelan salendro group
6
(c.
1890). Moreover, the last threejengglong of the
allegedly taken ten years earlier
degung
gamelan
can be madeout in the far right-hand comer of the gamelan salendro
picture, suggestingthat both photographswere probably taken at the samelocation on
the sameday. It is possiblethen that the gambang and rebab were borrowed from
anotherensemblein order to createa more elaborateportrait. Whatever the case,it
seemsthat thejengglong was formerly the only prerequisite instrument in the ensemble
(Kunst 1949:387 in Harrell 1974:26). Indeed, 'degung' is said to be a synonym for the
7
hanging
found
in
vertically
style ofjengglong
older gamelan sets.
In addition to the lack of a standardisedinstrumentation, it appearsthat
constituentinstrumentsthemselveswere (and, to a certain extent, continue to be) also
built to idiosyncratic specifications.Most contemporarybonang degung, for example,
comprise fourteen pots suspendedon aV or U shapedframe. However, someaccounts
suggestthat the bonang degungoriginally consistedof nine pots suspendedon a single
straight rack (Tjarmedi 1974:13). Entis Sutisnapointed out that in many older 'classical'
degung (degungklasik)8piecesonly nine pots are actually required as the bonang
melody rarely goesbelow the middle-octave tone 5 (p.c., 2001). Conversely, Harrell
notes that the bonang degungobservedby Kunst were made up of betweeneleven and
sixteenpots (1974:23). As illustrated in the photographbelow, the gamelan degung on
display at Cirebon's Kasepuhancourt museum includes a sixteen-pot bonang.
5Indexed as image code 3670 on the Royal NetherlandsInstitute of SoutheastAsian and Caribbean
studies online image database(http://www. iias.nl/institutes/kitlv/hisdoc.html), accessed17'hAugust 2002.
6 The photograph of the gamelan salendro ensembleis indexed as image code 3687.
7North pointed out that 'de-gung' might have been an early onomatopoeticword to describethe soundof
the gong. As such, the term degung may have been usedto refer to both the individual gong-based
instruments and the entire gamelan ensemble.The term gong (goong) is also used in place of 'gamelah' in
the caseof the Sundanesegoong renteng and the Balinesegong kebyar (North, p. c., 2003).
8Degung klasik is the name now given to the instrumental repertoire developedby degung musiciansin
the Sundanesecourts (see 3.2).
18
\V
Fig. 1:3 Gamelan degung housed at the Kasepuhan court in Cirebon (dated 1426)
In September2000,1 was invited to a commemorativemultimedia performance
sponsoredby the descendantsof R.A. A. WiranatakusumahV, former Regentof Cianjur
and Bandung and keen patron of the Sundanesearts. The event organisershad
commissioneda special degung set for the occasionthat had an eighteen-potbonang
insteadof the now standardfourteen. One family member, Rd. Lalam Wiranatakusumah,
authoritatively explained that the additional pots servedto expandthe highest and lowest
rangesof the instrument in line with the 'original' design of the instrument. He then
demonstratedhow certain classical style piecesemploy melodies that have to awkwardly
bend back on themselvesin the higher octave on today's fourteen-pot bonang; adding
two extra pots or pitches to the instrument's top end rectifies this problem (p.c., 2000).
While no musical explanation was given for the two extra pots at the bonang's
lower end, another individual involved in the developmentof this Project told me that
bonang
The
the
were said to correlate to
eighteen
pots
of
number.
eighteenwas a magic
the eighteenstrings of the kacapi indung in tembangSunda,the eighteenletters of the
in
body.
These
Sundanese
the
claims were
alphabetand eighteenenergy centres
original
in
I
that
the
hard
however,
note
simply
will
and
any
evidence
with
substantiated
not,
lost
linked
to
the
Sunda
city of
the
region was also
same,albeit riveting conversation,
Atlantis.
19
Unfortunately, there are now not many older degung setsleft in West Java for a
comprehensivearchaeologicalassessmentof early instrumentation.According to Heins,
"almost all ancientgamelan degungfell victim to the war-needsof the Japanese
occupationarmy during the years 1942-1945,when bronze objects were confiscated"
(1977:65). The end of World War 11then saw the beginning of the war for
independence9
in which Bandungalso played a prominent role. Again, most of the
remaining degungsetswere "destroyedoutright" or "simply disappeared"(Harrell
1974:13).
1.1.6 Gamelan degung at the kabupaten
Accounts of degungat the kabupatentend to describethe various types of staging
associatedwith the ensembleas well as the sorts of function at which the ensemblewas
employed.Aside from "state receptions,dinners and public appearances"of the regent
(Heins 1977:62), it is suggestedthat the degungwas played to welcome important
guests,to accompanymarriages(Harrell 1974:13), as well as to add an elementof
grandeurto stateinaugurationsand other official ceremonialoccasions(HasanSu'eb
1997:22). Harrell notes that at the kabupatenof Cianjur "there still exists a sort of
bandstand,or gazebo,in the middle of a small pond said to have beenused for the
degung" (1974:13.). R. Ace HasanSu'eb refers to this pavilion structureas bale
kambang(1997:34).lo
The gamelan degungis often associatedwith water and sailing, with the
"
have
been
is
fishing
to
It
ensemblealleged
played at aristocratic
said that on
parties.
such occasions"the degungwas played on a platform placed over two boats" (Harrell
1974:12).Nano Suratnoadditionally mentionedthat the degung was sometimesusedto
accompanya particular type of fishing practice (called ngabedakeunmarak) which
involved draining a pool or river of water and picking out the fish from the dry bed (p.c.,
9 IndonesianIndependencewas declared 17'hAugust 1945, but
on
not achieveduntil late 1949.
10Bale Ngambangis also the
name of a gamelan degungpiece.
11According to Lubis, fishing and hunting
were the favoured recreationalactivities of the Sundanese
aristocracy(1998:248-249).
20
2000a). 12Other musicians also draw attention to the fact that several gamelan degung
have
names that allude to the sea or sailing. Enoch Atmadibrata, for instance, has
pieces
questioned whether titles such as Ujung Laut ('End of the Ocean'), Lalayaran
('Sailing'), Beber Layar ('Hoisting the Sail') and Padayungan ('Rowing a Boat') could
be a sign that certain parts of the degung repertoire developed in a coastal seaport such
13
Cirebon
(Wiardi
2001
10).
Similarly, van Zanten cites apantun story which tells
as
a:
that "Mundinglaya [the son of PaJaJaran'sfamed King Prabu Siliwangi] sails away, and
'Sailing' is a degung song" (Pleyte 1907b: 115 in van Zanten 1989: 103). Connections
betweens boats and PaJaJaranare also found in tembang Sunda. One of the names for the
large kacapi indung is kacapiprahu or 'boat kacapi'. Williams notes "Several musicians
(not just players of kacapi) described the instrument as the 'boat that carries us to
Pajajaran"' (2001: 212-213).
Aside from this link with fishing and sailing, descriptionsof colonial era degung
performancesalso frequently refer to the ensembleas being played outdoorson elevated
platforms that could be up to severalmetreshigh. Kunst notes that in the 1930s,the
regent of Bandung still observedan old custom and had his gamelan degungplaced on a
specially designedbalcony over the entrancegate on the alun alun (town square)side of
the wall surrounding his residence(1973:391). The degung ensembleis also said to have
beenplaced "on top of a small tower and played during hunting expeditions" (Harrell
1974:13). Entjar Tjarmedi, a degungmusician at the kabupatenof Bandung, described
how he had taken part in an annual carnival event known as thepesta raja (the king's
fete) while still a teenagerin the late 1930s.On one such occasionthe degung group
played on a stagethat was suspendedon top of a large wheeled construction and pulled
through the streetsof Bandung. Another year, the degunggroup processedthrough the
streetson foot, the instrumentscarried by non-performersso that the musicians could
simultaneouslyplay and walk (Upandi 1997:11). Rachmat Sukmasaputrasimilarly
12Benjamin Zimmer elaboratesthat ngabedakeun
meansto distinguish or differentiate, while marak
meansto dam up a streamin order to remove fish. Marak is a verb from the rootparak. Interestingly,
many Sundanesevillages are called Parakan, which might indicate that such fishing practiceswere also
common in village life. Another term possibly linking Sundanesearts and fishing is nayubkeun,meaning
to drain a pond or lake for fish. The term nayubkeunis presentedas one possible etymological explanation
for the classical danceform tayuban (p.c., 2001).
13Or perhapsBanten?
21
recalled that the gamelan degungwas performed at Bandung'spasar malam (night
market) on a ranggon (wooden stage)that was five metreshigh (p.c., 2000). Suratno
madethe commentthat goong rentengwas also housedin a saung ranggon (a type of
wooden hut erectedon stilts in a field) when performed aspart of rice harvestrituals
(p.c., 2000a). Although the gamelan degunghasno associationwith rural agricultural
festivities, the use of a similar type of elevatedstaging is possibly fin-therindication of
some link betweenthe two ensembles.
1.1.7 Degung in Bandung
In 1864 Bandung becamethe administrative capital of West Java.This resulted in the
decline of the regenciesof Cianjur and Surnedangbut saw the city develop as a focal
(1846-1874),
Bandung
(van
The
for
Sundanese
Zanten
1987:
19).
of
regent
culture
point
R. Adipati WiranatakusurnahIV (otherwise known as Dalern Bintang) was a keen patron
(Kunto
Sunda
dance
tembang
forms
including
Sundanese
and
art
classical
of various
Bandung
Martanagara,
A.
of
R.
A.
38).
Similarly,
regent
in
Ardjo
1998:
Durban
1992
Sundanese
for
his
and
is
the
arts
(1893-1918), also renowned
performing
support of
kabupaten
Bandung
the
his
During
239).
of
(Lubis
1998:
literature
administration, a part
According
(ibid.,
244).
to
for
became
the
region
entire
a cultural centre
complex
Atmadibrata, R.A. A. Martanagarawas also known for sendinghis Bandung musiciansto
(p.
knowledge
broaden
in
Cirebon
their
repertoire
c., 2001).
of
gamelan
to
the courts
All reportsseemto concur,however,thatthe kabypatenof Bandungdid not
its
Kunst
1919/1920.
in
degung
the
records
presence
until
around
acquire a gamelan
kabupaten in 1921, and Harrell assumesthat it was probably establisheda year or two
,
before that (1974:15). It is significant that R.AA. WiranatakusumahV (more familiarly
known as Dalem Haji) was inauguratedas regent of Bandung in 1920 because,prior to
this, he had servedas regent of Cianjur. It is widely believed that the gamelan degung
by
kabupaten
Cianjur
Bandung
from
brought
to
the
this influential nobleman. It
of
was
is also claimed that the musical director of Bandung's first gamelan degung group, Idi,
was previously employed as a musician at the Cianjur court (Ad 1991:89).
Thenameof Bandung'sfirst degunggroupwasParnagerSari.Idi andhis coplayers in PamagerSari are often credited with having composedmany of the long
22
instrumentalpiecesthat are at the core of what is now consideredto be the classical
degung repertoire.Tarya, for example,listed Sangkuratu,Bima Mobos, Karang Mantri
(also known asKarang Kabendon),Mangari, Palwa and Galatik Mangut as pieces
in
(Tarya
in
he
Idi's
between
1926
1929
group
and
when was a suling player
composed
Harrell 1974:232). Other sourcesindicate that piecessuch asPalwa and Mangari are
older, anonymouscompositions.Sundanesepiecesare often erroneouslyaccreditedto a
particular musician or musicians,perhapsbecausein the past composerswere not
credited at all. If, indeed,Idi originally played with the gamelan degung group in
Cianjur, it is likely that he brought older Cianjuran style degungrepertoire with him to
Bandung. Harrell notesthat Idi also "had contactsat Sumedang",and speculatesthat the
Bandung tradition probably "began with the collection and assimilation of degungmusic
from the surrounding centres" (1974:16).
In fact, little is really known about the music of the gamelan degungpre-1920 or
asfoundoutsideof Bandung.It doesappearthateachkabupatenformerlyhad its own
distinctiverepertoireandplayingstyle.Tjarmediclaimedthat eachregentwas
associated
with a specificgamelandegungpiecethat servedasa type of aristocratic
signaturetune(1991).Unfortunately,theseregionaldegungtraditionsnow appearto be
largelydefunctwith mostregionalgroupsmorelikely to play Bandungstylepieces.
Harrell notesthat Cianjur"lost its degungin the 1930s"when it wassubstitutedwith a
"string ensemble[composedof violin, cello,bass,guitars,kacapirincik andsuling
degung]which playedthe degungrepertoire"(1974:12).
The predominanceand relative homogeneityof the Bandung degung style is, at
least in part, attributable to the advent of the massmedia. Recordedon 78rpm
gramophonerecords in the 1920s/30s,Idi's ensemblewas also disseminatedon local
radio (Harrell 1974:16). A schedulefor the Dutch radio station NIROM (Nederlands
Indische Radio OmroepMawschappy, 'Radio Broadcasting Society of the Netherlands
Indies') dated27h October 1936, reveals that the degung group performed a range of
14
(Fukuoka
1).
broadcast
kabypaten
200
live from the Bandung
klasik piecesthat were
"' Repertoireperformedon this occasionincluded:Lalajaran,Poelogand,Mantri Kabendon,Lengser
(Palwa),Ladrak,BeberLajar andDjipangLontab.
23
Harrell suggeststhat the uniformity of the Bandungtradition is also a result of the fact
that players felt that "they owed their loyalty to their teacher,Pa Idi" and, therefore, did
not attemptto establish"contact with the degungmusicians in other centres" (1974:3).
The profile of Idi's Bandunggroup was also raisedby the ensemble's
involvementin prominentmultimediaproductions.Themostwell documented
theatrical
performanceto incorporategamelandegungprior to IndonesianIndependence
wasthe
15
(musical
operetta) LutungKasarung. Fundedby the colonialgovenunent
sandiwara
andreceivingadditionalsupportfrom the regentof Bandung,R-A.A.Wiranatakusumah
V, LutungKasarungwasperformedin the opentheatreat thekabupatenof Bandungto
mark the opening of the JavaInstitute's Cultural Conference(Dutch: Cultuurcongres) on
the 18thJune 1921 (Durban Ardjo 1998:50). Reportsdescribethis event as a colossal
involved
kolosao
(pertunjukan
took
to
over one
and
which
a year prepare
performance
hundred and fifty participants (ibid. ). According to an article in Java magazine,the
by
kacapi.
The
that
accompanied
was
performanceopenedwith a ruatan exorcism ritual
kaCap!
including
Suling,
main performanceemployed a whole range of ensembles
Ardjo
in
Durban
253
1921:
(Java
interestingly,
degung
goong renteng
and,
gamelan
functioned
to
degung
fh3
Presumably,
only
1).
the
1998:50,
ensemble
this
stage,
at
dialogue;
to
interludes
than
sung
instrumental
accompany
rather
overturesand
perform
degung
1950s.
the
to
until
all accountsconcur that singing was not added gamelan
According to Art, Idi introduced the suling and kendangto the degung ensemble
16
however,
is
kendang
It
89).
(1991:
that
the
possible,
this
performance
at the time of
kabupaten
"independent
Pa
Idi's
influence"
the
of
other
of
at
some
and suling were used
(Harrell 1974:28). Notably, the photographof the gamelan degungtaken in Banten
kendang,
includes
(fig.
1:
2)
does
1900
this
although
a
as
explained
above,
not
around
instrument
feature
in
Van Zanten
the
that
the ensemble.
was
a
standard
necessarilyprove
degung
least
four-hole
"is
the
that
at
suling
such a prominent instrument in
speculates
the presentensemblethat it seemssafeto supposethat this flute has beenpart of the
least
degung
sinceat
a centuryago" (1989:103).
gamelan
15Also knownastonil andlaterasgendingkaresmetL
"sSoepandigoesasfar asto claimthatIdi himselfdeveloped
gamelandegungout of thegoongrentengby
(1974:8).
addingthesulingandkendangto theensembleshortlyafterthe 1921performance
24
Around 1927, a silent film version of the SundaneselegendLutung Kasarung was made.
The first screeningof the film was accompaniedby piano but the regent of Bandung,
R.A. A. WiranatakusumahV, suggestedthat the gamelan degungwould be more
appropriatefor subsequentshows (Andut in Harrell 1974:225). As a result, Idi's degung
group beganto tour all over West Javawith this film, playing in "every city which had a
theatre" (Tarya in Harrell 1974:223). Despite its incorporation into such popular
theatrical productions it is alleged that prior to 1923the gamelan degungwas forbidden
from being performed outside of the court environment (Art 1991:89).17At the end of
that year, the regent of Bandung was approachedand askedif the degunggroup was
available to be hired for a private wedding party. Permissionwas grantedand the
kabupatensubsequentlybeganto receive many similar requestsfor this type of outside
performance.In order that the increasing demandcould be met without interfering with
official court performances,Idi was instructed to form a seconddegung group. A simple
iron degung set was constructedand a new ensembleformed under the leadershipof
Oyo, a member of ParnagerSari. This group was namedPurbasaka(ibid., 89-90).11
The creation of Purbasakaresulted in the further expansionof the degung
repertoire. According to Tisana, piecessuch as Palwa andLayar Putri were considered
to embody the identity of the regent and the kabypaten and, as a result, were prohibited
from being played in public performanceselsewhere(1997:29). Musicians respondedby
composing imitations of thesepieces.Lambang, for instance,is said to be derived from
Palwa, Beber Layang (Beber Layar) from Layar Putri, Genyefrom Genre, and
Wabangofrom Sangbango(Atmadibrata,p. c., 2001). At the sametime, once beyond the
protective walls of the kabypatenenvironment the gamelan degung becamevulnerable
to outside commercial pressures.As soon as the Purbasakagroup was engagedto play at
private functions its musiciansbecameobliged to play the more popular types of piece
requestedby their fee-paying sponsors.According to Tjarmedi, adaptationsof folk tunes
such as RenggongBuyut and gamelan pieces including, 4ha Ehe thus also beganto be
into
(199
degung
1).
this
time
the
the
repertoire of
assimilated
around
gamelan
17Althoughshedoesnot supplydates,Lubis statesthatthedistrictattorneyof Bandungalsopossessed
a
fi amelandegungthatwasplayedat his residenceeverySunday(1998:249).
Harrell claims that Purbasakasplit from PamagerSari sometimein the late 1930s(1974:16-17).
25
Fig. 1:4 Gamelan degung timeline: early history to Indonesian Independence
1333
Pajajarankingdomfounded
1426
Date given for the gamelan
degung,housed at the
KasepuhanCourt Cirebon
1579
Fall of Pajajaran
15951597
First Dutch trading voyage to
the port city of Banten
West Java divided into
1656
twelve districts & governed
by Javanese regents
Cianjur regencyfounded by
1691
a representativefrom the
Cirebon court
The Dutch colonial
administrationsigned a
treaty with the Javanesethat
1705
resulted in the occupying
Javanese regents being
replaced with Sundanese
noblemen
1700s/ Sundaneseregents
1800s prosperedunder Dutch rule
Bandung becamethe
1864
administrativecapital of
West Java
1893- R.A.A. Martanagaraserved
1918
as regent of Bandung
1920s R.A.A. WiranatakusurnahV
(Dalem Haji) inauguratedas
regent of Bandung (1920)
The kabupatendegung
group, ParnagerSad,
formed under the musical
direction of Id!
V
1930s
19421945
Many musiciansremain convincedthat the roots of gamelan
dequnqtrace back to this Hindu-Sundanesekingdom
Museumrecords indicatethat this set originallycame from
Banten (the former seaport of Pajajaran).An alternative
account proposesthat the gamelanwas brought to Cirebon
from the Sundanesekingdom of Galuh (Ciamis)
The Sundanesekingdomfell to an Islamic Central Javanese
administration
An illustrationof a gamelanobserved during this expedition
depicts an instrumentalensemblethat whether Sundanese
or Javanesein origin, appearsto be an archaic precursorof
degung
Duringthis period Javaneseart forms (includinggamelan)
were imported into Sunda. One theory is that the degung,
evolvedout of one of these antiquatedJavanese ensembles
The court of Cianjur - home of tembang,Sunda - is widely
believedto hold a central position in the history of gamelan
degung
This curtailedthe 'Javanisation'of the Sundaneseruling
classes
Many writers speculatethat gamelan degung - at least in the
form that it is known today - emergedduring this period
The city began to develop as a focal point for Sundanese
culture
A part of the Bandungkabupatencomplexwas developedas
a cultural centre for the region
Dalem Haji was the former regent of Cianjur. It is widely
introduced
this
that
gamelan degungto
noblemen
assumed
Banduno
Most of the degung klasik repertoireas it Is known today is
said to have been composed(or compiled)at this time
Lutung Kasarung,(1921)
This high-profileoperetta opened the Java Institute's cultural
conference.The PamagerSad degung group is recorded as
having been involved in this production
Bandung's second degung
group, Purbasaka,created
to meet the demand for
performancesoutsidethe
court ( 923)
Harrell (1974) contendsthat the Purbasakagroup was
founded sometimein the late 1930s
Film version of Lutung,
Kasarung, (c. 1927)
Degung began to be
recorded & disseminatedby
the mass media
World War 11:Japanese
occupation of West Java
Indonesian Independence
This silent film version of Lutung Kasarungwas screened at
venues across West Java. The musical accompanimentwas
providedby the PamagerSari degung group
The kabupatendegung group regularlytook part in local
radio broadcasts& was recordedon 78rpm gramophone
discs
Bronze objects were confiscated& many gamelan degung
fell victim to the war-needsof the Japanese
IndonesianIndependencewas declared on 17 August 1945
but not achieved until 1949
26
1.2
Indonesian Independence
Despite "the gradual erosion of the degung's exclusivity", older musicians agreethat
gamelan degungwas not widely known outside of the upper echelonsof Sundanese
incorporation
identified
1950s
(Spiller
2001:
257).
Tjarmedi
the
the
of
society until
important
degung
in
1949
Kasarung
Lutung
theatrical
as
an
a
gamelan
production of
turning point in terms of the ensemble'spopularisation amongstthe generalpublic
(1991). It was not, however, until the mid-to-late 1950sthat the ensemblebegan its
musical and socio-cultural transformation to becomethe favourite regional music genre
of Bandung's urban middle-classes.
While some aspectsof the degung's developmentmerely reflect wider shifts in
Sundanesemusic as a whole, the ensemble'sunique responseto its altered environment
deservesspecific consideration.As Williams points out, while tembangSundahas
survived the transition from the court to the urban environment intact and continuesto
thrive as an elitist art form with strict codesof performancepractice, the degung
ensemblehas undergonea more radical metamorphosiswhich has seenthe classical
repertoire "almost abandonedby the new urban performers" (1990:9).
After IndonesianIndependencethe hereditary rule of the regentswas transferred
to the new central government.With the subsequentdecline in power and wealth of the
kabypaten,it becamenecessaryfor court-basedmusiciansto find new forms of
patronageelsewhere.In Bandung, government-ownedestablishmentssuch as the
Bandung branch of the national radio station RRI (Radio Republik Indonesia) and stateowned performing arts schools gradually beganto provide gamelan musicians with
alternative forms of employment.In addition to governmentsupport, new work
in
in
began
Writing
1977Heins comments,
to
the
emerge
private sector.
opportunities
"Today's owners of new gamelan degung are either successfulbusinessmenor military,
or both" (1977:7 1). In fact, privately-owned and community-basedgamelan degung
clubs beganto flourish from the late 1950s,providing musicianswith opportunities to
perform as well as to lead groups and to tutor amateurplayers. The emergenceof the
Indonesiancassetteindustry in the late 1960salso presentedexperiencedmusicians and
income.
Hugh-Jones
ffirther
their
writes,
with
a
means
of
supplementing
composers
27
It is now possible for large numbersof people to make
for
instance,
by
living
somesort of
out of music combining
teaching,with performanceat functions, and by making
recordings for the extraordinarily vigorous local cassette
industry (1982:21).
As media producersand businessmenbecameincreasingly implicated in the
developmentof gamelan degung,so musicianswere forced to becomemore
began
The
to carve out their own
performers
most entrepreneurial
commercially minded.
broadcasting
industry
following
the
advice
of
and
recording
employment niches and,
in
hope
types
began
the
to
of
new
repertoire
with
experiment
of
professionals,often
hitting upon somethingwith a more readily marketableand massappeal.
Visitors to Sundawho are under the impressionthat gamelan is an ancient,
indifferent
be
to
by
concerns,
form
material
may
musicians
played sage
esotericart
in
Most
the
business
city.
artists
by
performing
mentality of many
surprised the overt
in
Bandung
degung
today are run as commercial enterprises
groups
working gamelan
for
fee
performancesand
to
and even amateuror studentplayers often expect receive a
Likewise,
anyoneexpectingto seeonly sombre,elderly musiciansrigidly
rehearsals.
find
instead,
that
many
to
adhering age old performancepracticesand repertoire will,
degung groups comprisevisibly enthusiasticyounger players who evidently enjoy the
lively camaraderiethat usually characterisesSundanesegamelan performance.
The most successfuldegungcomposersare accustomedto facing a certain
amount of criticism about their role in the popularisation and commodification of this
formerly elite musical genre.During interviews, the majority pragmatically justified
their artistic innovations in terms of both their needto make a living and their overriding
obligation to satisfy public tastes.Furthermore, it was routinely pointed out to me that
is
what often consideredcontroversial by one generationis already perceived as
19
by
traditional
the next. Older musicians repeatedlytold of how now well-established
disapproval
bodies
when
of repertoire provoked an uproar of
performancepractices or
they were initially introduced twenty or thirty years ago.
19Indeed,manyof the 'traditional' piecesthatI wastaughtwhile in Bandungdatebackto the 1960s1990S.
28
A number of more practical reasonsare also given for the overt commerciality of
Sundanesegenressuch asgamelan degung.One musician suggestedthat Bandung's
close proximity to the city of Jakartais one factor that has contributed to the capitalist
mindset of many urban performers.Certainly Bandung's relatively high living costsare
financial
its
links
Indonesia's
to
capital, as
commonly attributed
close
with
political and
well as to the fact that it is home to some of the country's most prestigioushigher
in
institutions.
Others
Sundanese
those
that
other
education
contended
ensembles,unlike
Indonesianprovinces, have been forced to becomefinancially self-sufficient to survive. I
frequently heard it said that Central Javanesegamelan continuesto receive patronage
from the Javanesecourts and has, in the recent past, beenunfairly privileged by a Javacentric government administration. In Bali, on the other hand, the vital role of gamelan
in
musics everydayreligious ceremoniesis seento have servedas someform of artistic
protection, even in the face of massinternational tourism. Without the support of the
kabupaten,gamelan degungwas left without any equivalent function in urban Bandung.
Since Independence,degungmusicianshave had to find their own audiencesand invent
new performancecontexts in this rapidly modernising city.
1.2.1 RRI Bandung (Radio Republik Indonesia Bandung)
After Independence,RRI Bandungbecamethe most important focal point for several
types of Sundanesemusic. Many of the musicianspreviously employed at the kabypaten
were offered salariedpositions within in-houseradio station ensembles,while other
popular artists were invited to take part in regular broadcastson a freelancebasis.
Severalsingersand musicianseventually beganto enjoy a degreeof celebrity as radio
starsand, with four-yearly auditions for both new and existing staff, musicians agreethat
RRI performancescameto be consideredas the benchmarkagainstwhich 'outside'
artists and ensembleswerejudged.
In the mid-1950s, the head of broadcastingat RRI Bandung, R.A Darya
Mandalakusuma,decidedto try and actively regeneratethe gamelan degungtradition;
from
1956.
Under
broadcasts
degung
the artistic
were
consequently
scheduled
regular
leadershipof Entjar Tjan-nedi,RRI's Parahyangandegung group was formed from
29
kabupatentraineddegungmusicianssuchasTaryaandOnoSukarna,aswell asnew
playersdrawnfrom the radio station'sgamelanandtembangSundadepartments.
As partof this degungrevival,membersof thegroupwereencouraged
to write
new materialfor the ensemble,albeitin the idiomaticstyleof the repertoiredevelopedat
the courts.Many of thepiecescomposedat this time, includingPajajaran(by Entjar
(by SulaemanSutisna),arenow acceptedaspart of the
Tjarmedi)and Walangsungsang
coreWasik' repertoire.Imik Suwarsih,a formerradiostationgamelansingerand
widow of Tjarmedi,laughinglydescribedhow her latehusbandwould become
in
the compositionprocess,singingor humminga melodyto
absorbed
completely
himselfwhereverhe was,whetherit be in bedor out in a becak(anIndonesiantrishaw).
Sherecollectedwakingup in bedonenight to find herhusbandsatbolt upright,playing
an imaginarybonangashe formulatedwhat is now oneof themostpopularof the
degungklasikpieces,Pajajaran(p.c., 2001).
Around 1958,Darya(headof broadcasting)
organiseda staff meetingat which
he encouragedthe degunggroup to try and incorporatesinging into their performances.
Under the direction of Tjarmedi, choral singing (rampak sekar) was subsequently
instrumental
the
parts were
existing
appendedto severaldegungklasik pieces. Although
innovation
still causedsome
this
to
not subject any significant readjustment,
degung
known
became
as
rampak sekar,
controversy.After the first broadcastof what
RRI received many letters protesting that this inclusion of singing would destroythe
degung klasik genre.Over time, however, the station beganto receive more letters of
by
from
individuals
requests
wishing
approval than complaint, with many accompanied
functions
Umik
Suwarsih,
for
hire
other
and
the group
to
p. c., 2001).
private weddings
1.2.2 Amateur, student and female players
At the sametime asthegamelandegungstartedto reachwider audiences
via regular
began
broadcasts,
to attractnewtypesof player.Fromthe late 1950s
the
ensemble
radio
degunggroupsbeganto emerge
onwards,variousamateurandsemi-professional
throughoutthe city asdegunginstrumentswereacquiredby communitybased
groups,schools,collegesandafter-workclubssetup by the staff of
neighbourhood
departments.In 1958,the governmentalso
privatebusinesses
andlocal-government
30
(Konservatori
Karawitan,
first
KOKAR
Bandung's
school,
specialistmusic
created
'Conservatory of Traditional Music'), which offered formal training in Sundanese
traditional music for secondaryschool agepupils. Juju Sain Martadinata,the first
teacherof gamelan degungat KOKAP, allegedly undertook three months of intensive
(Ade
Suandi,
for
from
in
Entjar
Tjarmedi
this
tuition
p. c.,
role
preparation
one-to-one
2000). ASTI (AkademiSeni Tari Indonesia, 'Indonesian DanceAcademy') then opened
its karawitan (traditional music) departmentin 1972, establishingthe first higher
educationdiploma coursesin Sundanesemusic.
The aristocratic heritage of the gamelan degung invests it with a prestigenot
sharedby other forms of Sundanesegamelan. Significantly, this has meant that even
outside of the bounds of mixed-sex formal educationcourses,playing gamelan degung
has beendeemedas a sufficiently respectablepursuit for both male and female players.
One of Bandung's first all-female gamelan degung groups was set up as an extracurricula studentsociety at Bandung's prestigious higher educationinstitute, ITB
(Institut Teknologi Bandung, 'Bandung Institute of Technology'). According to
Atmadibrata, an iron gamelan degungwas purchasedfrom Oyo (former leaderof the
kabypaten's breakawaydegung group, Purbasaka)in the early 1950sby the student
associationDAMAS (Daya Mahasiswa Sunda, 'Organisation of SundaneseStudents').
An all-male studentgroup was initially establishedbut soon fizzled out. Two or three
years later, however, the DAMAS organisationwas looking for a leisure activity that
its
female
for
be
members.Again, the gamelan degung was chosen.
would
appropriate
Under the tutelage of Oyo's son-in-law, SukandaArt, this group, which mainly
comprised female civil engineeringstudents,proved to be more successful
(Atmadibrata,p. c., 2001).
SukandaArt also trained another influential all-female group belonging to
Rachmat Sukmasaputra,an esteemedmale temhangSunda singer who worked as a
Suratno,
in
According
Bandung.
this
to
coordinator
regional
arts
government-appointed
in
(p.
1956
feature
female
first
Cahaya
Medal,
the
to
c.,
players
was
group, called
2000a).20 Sukmasaputra'sgroup comprised almost entirely teenagegirls or young
degung
known
in
their
twenties
therefore,
as
mojang
commonly
early
and
was,
women
20Other informants, however, suggestedthat this group was not formed until the early 1960s.
31
('young girl' degung). This ensembleproved phenomenallypopular at wedding parties
and other formal functions, and someweekendswould be booked to play at up to four
different venuesin one day. Sukmasaputradescribedhow, in the early 1960s,his
performers had to adhereto unconventionally rigid schedulesin order that they had time
to get from one booking to another(p.c., 2000).
The main reasonfor the successof this group seemsto have beenthe novelty
value of its female players. Suratnopointed out that gamelan was previously associated
be
interested
in
to
their
who
would
usually
appear
much
with older male musicians
more
cigarettesthan in the entertainmentof the audienceat hand. The adventof a traditional
dressed
be
by
that
young women thus
elaborately
music genre
could performed
immediately capturedthe public's imagination (p.c., 2000a).Apparently, one of the
leader,
Soekarno.
President
fans
Indonesian
the
then
was
group's most prestigious
Renowned for his 'appreciation' of attractive young women, Soekarnois said to have
degung
this
group when undertaking statevisits to
all-female
specifically requested
Bandung.21Any complaints about breaking with tradition or commercialising the
degung genrewere assuagedby the approval of the President,and soon local
instruments
to
their
establish
to
of
sets
new
commission
government officials started
2000).
(Sukmasaputra,
degung
c.,
p.
own
ensembles
As gamelan degunggrew to becomethe most popular form of traditional musical
formal
Bandung
types
and
other
of
celebration,
weddings
entertainmentat middle-class
from
Tjarmedi
1960s
that
the
observed
the
proliferated.
groups
so
number of active
in
for
degung
the
the
up
all
over
city
spring
preparation
would
groups
onwards, new
IndependenceDay celebrationson 17'hAugust (1991). Suchwas the popularity of the
down
that
sets
were
melted
and re-forged asgamelan degung
salendro
many
ensemble
just to keep up with the demand(Suratno,p. c., 2000).
21It is noteworthythat the(maledominated)government
administrationdoesnot appearto havebeen
by the enormouspopularityof 'pretty' teenagegirls playinggamelandegungin the
threatened
domesticated
settingof a weddingin thesameway asit wasby theincreasedpowerandmoreovert
sexualityof femalegamelansingersperformingat wayang(see4.3 & Weintraub2002).
32
Providing an overview of the different types of all-female degunggroup (degungibuihu) that were active in Bandung in the late 1960sand early 1970s,Heins notesthat
memberswere often drawn togetherbecauseof their "proximity of residence" or the
dokter
husbands
(for
(1977:
include
68).
Examples
ibu-Ibu
their
of
occupation
a gamelan
the wives of doctors) and a gamelan ibu-ibu finggi (for the wives of high-ranking army
officers) (ibid., 69). Apparently, during the height of what becamea degung ihu-ibu
craze,theseamateurfemale groups could expecta higher fee for a two hour set than a
wayang troupe could commandfor an entire all-night perforTnance(ibid. ). One of the
most highly regardedof the ibu-ibu ensembles,Dewi Pramanik,went on to record
severalsuccessfulgamelan degungcassettesin the 1970s. Founded in 1968,this group
featuredthe well-known tembangsingersEuis Komariah and Mamah Dasimah,both of
whom were also member of Sukrnasaputra'soriginal CahayaMedal ensemble.RRI also
had its own in-housefemale degung group madeup of radio station singers.
While the growth in women-only and amateurgroups saw the decline in
popularity of the traditional all-male ensemble,experiencedmale musicians were still in
demandto act as group leadersas well as to play the kendangand suling, instruments
that are rarely taken up by female performers. The scarcity of female instrumental
specialistsis explained in various ways. In the caseof the kendang,Spiller observesthat
there is an "essential maleness"to drumming that is at odds with Sundaneseperceptions
is
femininity
(2001:
205-208).
This
view supportedby my own experiencesof trying
of
to learn the instrument and being repeatedlytold that women are not physically strong
enoughto strike the kendangwith sufficient force. The suling is judged to be more
suitable for female players although, notable exceptionssuch as the celebratedSuling
and kacapi player HaJiS iti Rokayah notwithstanding, women still tend to eschewthis
instrument in favour of becoming singersor dancers.Heins speculatesthat it might be
consideredunferninine for a Sundanesewoman to be skilled on a technically challenging
instrumentbecause"being publicly proficient in music could causeembarrassmentto
less skilful men" (1977:67).
Whatever the reasons,this "social ban on female instrumentalproficiency" (ibid.,
69) had far reaching implications in terms of the repertoire performed by the women's
degunggroups.The classical style pieces associatedwith the courts were deemedtoo
long and complicated for most amateurplayers and, instead,degunggroups beganto
33
less
time-consumingmemorisation and
that
require
perform simple short-form pieces
that are generally regardedas easierto play. Thesepieces,mainly borrowed from other
types of Sundanesegamelan, are basedon standardisedtonal progressionsthat can
function as accompanimentsfor a limitless number of overlying song melodies and
help
improvisations.
Cook
that
the
of a couple of professionalplayers,
with
notes
suling
"an amateurgroup with a repertoire of only four or five pieceswould already have
enoughmaterial" for "a wedding reception lasting severalhours" (1992:8). Gamelan
degung therebyprovided female players with the opportunity to "couple respectability
(Heins
but
too
with
maximum
result"
effbM
much
with acquiredartistry without
1977:70-71).
1.2.3 Degung kawih
In gamelan degung,theseshorterpieces are most commonly usedas accompanimentsto
light vocal songs(kawih). The increasedpopularity of the degungensemblewas thus not
only due to the presenceof female players but also to the introduction of female singers
performing a new style of repertoire called degungkawih. While the kawih repertoire
kendang
for
a
platform
singers,
and
players to show off their skills, the
provides
suling
loses
its
formerly
is
degung
the
melodic
role
of
ensemble
and
reducedto performing
rest
blander accompanyingfiguration (seeappendix I). Inevitably, such a dramatic alteration
led
further
function
degung's
to
the
song-drivenensemblemodifications.
musical
of
Before long, for instance,groups beganto receive requeststo play popular kawih
degung.
keys,
in
As
tunings
than
a
other
pelog
result,
additional
pots and gongs
songs
had
in
that
the necessarysubstitutepitches to retune
musicians
order
commissioned
were
the degung instrumentsfrom the pelog degung to the madendascaleduring
from
Borrowing
techniques
associated
other
repertoire
and
playing
performances.
Sundanesegamelan also led to the further expansionof the degung's instrumentation;
6standard' setswere soon augmentedwith both the smaller kempul gong of gamelan
pelog-salendro and an extra multi-octave metallophone.
34
There is somedispute asto which deg-unggroup was the first to introduce singing into
the ensemble.Most accountsidentify RRI's appendageof choral singing to the degung
klasik repertoire in 1958 asthe earliestoccasionthat vocalists featuredin degung
Cahaya
Medal
Sukmasaputra's
Rachmat
Suratno
However,
that
suggests
performance.
into
incorporate
kaw1h
began
their
to
group's repertoire
simple
style
songs
ensemble
individuals
it
is
likely
(1999).
Whatever
1956
that
the
were toying
various
case,
around
into
introduction
the
time
the
the
gamelan
of
singing
same
samepossibility at
as
with
degungwas part of a wider trend that saw vocal music becomeincreasingly privileged
"several
instrumental
in
Sundanese
Cook
of the
notes
genres
over
music as a whole.
between
heard
feature
most often
genreswhich now
singing so prominently, were until
approximately thirty and sixty years ago almost purely instrumental" (2000b:67).
Citing Suanda'scomment that a Cirebonesegamelan performance"in which the
is
do
singers not sing considereda 'dead' performance" (Suanda1985:93), van Zanten
ponderswhether the incorporation of vocalists into gamelan degung reflects a deeprooted tendencyto "equate music-making first of all with singing?" (1987:45).
Weintraub also connectsthe rise of vocal music to the advent of new technologies.The
introduction of amplification into Sundanesepuppet theatre certainly contributed to the
in
elevation statusof the gamelan singer, with radio broadcastsand commercial
further
'star'
(1997:
175).
the
popularity
of
performers
enhancing
recordings
The improved standing of the Sundanesesinger was additionally fuelled by the
itself,
in
kawih
tied
that
the
was,
a
partly
up the
repertoire, phenomenon
expansionof
emergenceof the local massmedia. Fukuoka notesthat from the 1930s,radio
broadcastingbeganto stimulate the composition of new songsas programmeproducers
in
to
turn
order to generateand
new
material
constantly
out
encouragedmusicians
kawih
interest
(2001).
The
the
repertoire was also a
of
proliferation
maintain audience
direct result of government-sponsoredmusic educationinitiatives designedto generate
(Kunst
394in
1973:
for
Sundanese
schools
children and promote singing
new songs
395).
35
1.2.4 Koko Koswara
One prominent kawih composer - active in both pedagogic and broadcasting spheres impact
have
have
innovations
tremendous
to
on the
a
on
gone
whose musical
development of degung is the late Koko Koswara (1917-1985) (more commonly known
22
Mang Koko Uncle Koko). A hugely influential figure in the
as
modemisation of
or
Sundanesemusic, Koswara was driven by the conviction that local musics should be
modified and updatedto suit the changing tastesof the generalpopulace.In addition to a
four
hundred
(Cahripin
1991:2 1),
totals
that
nearly
songs
prolific compositional output
Koswara was also responsiblefor the developmentof novel performancetechniques,
including the flashy kawih style of kacapi playing that is still popular amongststudents
at Bandung's formal music schools.As a pioneering music educator,Koswara also
foundations
dedicated
to the promotion and coordination of
private
establishedseveral
Sundanesemusic training for children, and was later appointedas director of Bandung's
specialist staterun music schools,KOKAR (later renamedSMKI, Sekolahkfenengah
Karawitan Indonesia, 'SecondarySchool of IndonesianTraditional Music') 1966-1973,
and ASTI (later renamedSTSI, Sekolah Tinggi Seni Indonesia, 'Academy of Indonesian
Arts') 1977-1981(Jurridns2001:131-132).
Self taughton a numberof Europeanaswell asSundanese
musicalinstruments,
Koswara compositionsare clearly influenced by Westernpopular song forms. Although
typically basedon extant Sundanesetonal structures,Koswara's compositionsoften
employ a 'verse-chorus' format and incorporateelaboratepiece-specific instrumental
introductions, interludesand codas.Koswara was also inspired by Westernmusic
harmony, incorporating two- and three-partvocal harmony and instrumental chords into
his arrangements(Ruswandi2000:55-59). Another way in which Koswara tried to give
his songsa contemporaryfeel was by giving them commonplacetitles such as
Badminton and BeusKota (City Buses).This senseof modernity also carries over into
Koswara's lyrics. Ratherthan always employing abstract,poetic imagery, his songs
humorous
texts or texts that addresstopical eventsof the time, sometimes
use
often
"including mild social criticism as well as normal lyrics about sentimentallove"
22For moredetailedinformationaboutthelife andwork of Koko KoswaraseeRuswandi(2000).
36
(Williams 1989:108). Koswara also looked to specific Westernpopular songsfor
inspiration. According to Ruswandi,Koswara usesSundanesetranslationsof entire
(To
Ka
Me)
in
his
Abdi
language
To
Me
from
English
song
own
song entitled
an
phrases
(2000:19 & 85-87).
Aside from composingoriginal material, Koswara is also recognizedfor his
developmentof a new style (wanda anyar) of instrumental arrangement(aransemen).In
thesewanda anyar arrangements,individual instrumentsare emancipatedfrom their
function
instead,
idiomatic
figuration
perform sectionsof
musical
and
conventional
and,
through-composedmelody that Koswara calls gending macakal (ibid., 90). In his
(rampak
in
'composed'
these
gamelan arrangements,
melodies are often played unison
waditra), although the use of sequentialquestion-and-answertype phrasesbetweentwo
or more instrumentsor groups of instruments(gending berdialog) is also common.
While sectionsof gending makacal typically function as introductions, codasand
interludes, standardplaying patternsare usually resumedduring the main body of the
song. However, even suchpassagesof more conventional figuration (gendingpenuh) are
degrees
to
sometimessubject varying
of arrangement;themespresentedin the vocal part
may be repeated,varied or answeredby instrumental motifs, and pausesin the song
melody are invariably filled with elaborateruns or short melodic fragments.
Notably, Koswara himself chosenot to composefor gamelan degung, believing
that the ensembledid not have the samepotential for developmentas the gamelanpeloginstrumentation,
its
fact
because
the
that the tuning of the
smaller
and
of
salendro
degung (at least before setswere built with madendaexchangekeys/pots/gongs)was
(ibid.,
32).
Nonetheless,
Ruswandi
to
arguesthat the melodic
scale
confined a single
finds
in
his
Koswara
that
compositions
a
uses
wanda
anyar
gamelan
style of playing
precedentin the 'fixed' melodies of the classical degungrepertoire (1997:65). Another
is
for
degung
Koswara
that there was some
to
that
chosenot write
possible reason
degung
himself
director
RRI's
between
the
group,
gamelan
of
and
professionalrivalry
Entjar Tjarmedi. According to Tjarmedi's widow, Imik Suwarsih,both of thesestrongwilled musicians enjoyed competing againstone anotherto seewhose musical
innovations (Tjarmedi's gamelan degung compositions or Koswara's new style of
kacapi kawih piece) would becomemost popular amongstthe generalpublic first (p.c.,
2001).
37
Despitehis dismissalof thedegungensembleasa suitablemediumfor composition,
for
degung
tuning
the
Koswara's
the
and
are
easily
adapted
pelog
employ
songs
manyof
distinctive
Koswara's
Even
styleof songwriting
moresignificantly,
smallergamelan.
development
impact
had
has
the
subsequent
of the
on
a profound
andarrangement
in the musicof Koswara'sstudent
degungkawihgenre.This hasbeenmostconspicuous
direct
between
his
).
S.
Acknowledging
(Nano
Suratno
Nano
a
connection
own
protdgd
innovations
introduced
by
degung
his
the
and
musical
arrangement
of
characteristicstyle
teacher,Suratnoreadilyadmittedthathe choseto write for degungpreciselybecause
Koswarahadnot alreadydoneso (p.c., 2000a).Suratno'scompositionsplayeda
fundamentalrole in thewider popularisationof degungkawih in the 1970sand 1980s
it
be
Indeed,
be
leading
he
today.
the
to
the
genre
could
of
exponent
and continues
degung
kawih
is
Koswara's
legacy
influence
indirect
this
that
on
most
enduring
argued
to Sundanese
music.
1.2.5 Multimedia performances
The growth of the degungkawih repertoire was also a direct result of the ensemble's
involvement in severalprominent multimedia productions. Musicians and scholars
concur that a crucial juncture in the history of the gamelan degung was the 1962
DAMAS production of the gending karesmen(operetta)MundingleVa Sabalangit.
Written and directed by the Sundanesedramatist Wahyu Wibisana, this theatrepiece
involved the collaboration of many of Bandung's most eminent performing artists.
EntJarTjarmedi, for example,was responsiblefor overseeingthe music and, in fact,
most of the musicians and musical instrumentsfeatured in the production were borrowed
from RRI Bandung. Likewise, RachmatSukmasaputra,leader of the all-female degung
leading
Medal,
Cahaya
took
a
performing role and was additionally responsible
group
for the vocal training of the entire cast.
38
Basedon a well-known pantun story of the samename,Mundinglaya Sabalangit is a
tale of PajaJaran.According to Wibisana, this made the gamelan degungand kacapi
is
for
degung
tuning
this
theatre
the
said to
piece;
pelog
suling ensemblesnatural choices
(P.
Sundanese
for
lost
kingdom
in
feelings
the
the
c.,
minds of many
of nostalgia
evoke
2000). Nevertheless,at the outset of the project, many people complainedthat the
dramatic
degung
to
too
major
was
small an ensemble accompanysuch a
gamelan
(head
Darya
in
After
to
these
criticisms,
and
observing rehearsals
response
production.
be
fin-ther
RRI)
broadcasting
that
the
should
suggested
ensemble
at
eventually
of
(saron)
Accordingly,
two
single-octavemetallophones
a gambang, rebab and
expanded.
degung
degung
for
This
type
to
the
this
of
extended
performance.
gamelan
were added
instrumentation,referred to by Tj armedi as degungkomplit (complete degung) (1991),
below).
(see
1.2.7
time
the
was also used on various commercial recordings of
In addition to augmentingthe ensemblewith supplementaryinstruments,this
theatrepiece demandedfurther modifications to degungperformancepractice. For
for
it
Enoch
Atmadibrata,
the
that
the
production,
mentioned
choreographer
example,
into
dance
drumming
incorporate
the musical arrangementsthat
to
was necessary
Sundanese
dance
Unlike
dancers,
the
most
sequences.
operetta's
accompanied
Atmadibrata.was already accustomedto working with degung,having previously
Cendrawasih
in
his
dance
1956
the
choreography
piece
ensemble
experimentedwith
-a
inspired and accompaniedby the degung klasik piece Palwa (p.c., 2001).
Although agreeingto the physical expansionof the ensemble,Wibisana
instrumentation
degung
he
the
to
the
that
of
really
considered
smaller
never
contended
be a problem. Instead,Wibisana's main concernwas to find fitting repertoire for the
from
karesmen
In
scratch.
are
not
written
performance. practice, most gending
Sometimesnew tunes are composedto fit existing texts (ngalaguan rumpaka) while,
instance,
lyrics
in
this
particular
are sung to established
new
more commonly and
dramatist,
lagu).
Wibisana
Significantly,
(ngarumpakaan
and
as
a
writer,
poet
melodies
interested
in
finding
melodic material that createdthe appropriate
was primarily
in
involved
dramatic
for
the
the
scenes;unlike many of
musicians
atmosphere specific
project, he was not particularly concernedabout adhering to the conventions of any
particular music tradition.
39
Wibisanadescribedthe searchfor suitablerepertoireasa rathercasualprocess,
-.he
Haji
Sid
Rokayah
he
had
that
quietly singing
overheard
on oneoccasion
recalled
KunangKunangto herselfandhadimmediatelyknownthata degungversionof this
lengser
(the
king's
dance
be
ideal
the
the
to
ambassador).
of
accompany
songwould
Overtime,piecesweredrawnfrom a rangeof disparatesourcesandmusicgenres,
includingtembangSunda,gamelansalendro,the folk genreketukUlu,kaeopijenaka
by kacapi)andchildren'splaygroundsongs.Many of
Sunda(comicsongsaccompanied
day.
degung
to
this
the resultingadaptations
as
pieces
still
played
are
Apart from borrowingsongmelodiesin their entirety,traditionalpieceswere
alsoreworkedor choppedandchangedfor theatricaleffect.Wibisanaexplainedthat
instrumental
demanded
a
solo
motif - suchasthe repeatedsounding
certainscenesonly
improvisationSimilarly,
the
or
an
evocative
wash
or
a
of
sound.
suling
of
goong
particularfragmentsof text only requireda singlemusicalphraseratherthana whole
song.Themelodyfor onepiecewasapparentlytakenfrom thegelenyu(sin trumental
interlude)of a tembangSundasong.Reflectingthe dramatictensionin the plot,
however,an extranotewasaddedto alter the final cadenceof this melodyandthusto
createan elementof auralsurprise.Wibisanalaughinglytold of theheatedproteststhat
sucha breakwith traditionprovokedamongsttembangSundamusiciansbehindthe
scenes(p.c., 2000).Atmadibrataassertedthat the cuttingup of songsin this way even
in
in
local
(P.
the
ongoing
polemic
an
newspaper
resulted
c., 2000).
New pieceswerealsocomposedspecificallyfor this performance,severalof
which went on to outlivetheproductionandbecomeassimilatedinto the standard
degungrepertoire.Tjarmedi,for example,is allegedto haveput togetherhis dynamic
LengserMidang sequence
whilst working on Mundinglaya.Wibisanaalsowrotea few
find
he
himself
could
not
a suitabletunefor a particulartext. He remarked
when
songs
that the popularsongCingcangkeling,
which is usuallyascribedasanonymouson
(p.
his
is
karesmen
of
own
one
gending
compositions c., 2000).
cassettesleeves,
40
1.2.6 Upacara khusus (special ceremonials)
The influence of gending karesmenon the developmentof gamelan degungis not only
limited to the expansionof the ensemble'srepertoire and instrumentationbut also to the
function of the ensemblein contemporaryBandung. The dramatic atmospheresconjured
in Wibisana's operettashave continuedto be employed within the various types of
formal celebrationwhich mark the passingof significant events in West Java.
Aside from writing and directing theatrical productions, Wahyu Wibisana was,
andcontinuesto be employedto produceone-offceremonials(upacarakhusus)
designedfor a varietyof public andprivateoccasions.Theserangefrom society
to the receptionof
weddingsor the openingof prestigiousbuildingsor enterprises,
importantstateguests.Acknowledgingthe directinfluenceof his experiences
working
on thegendingkaresmenproductions,Wibisanawasableto identify specificscenesand
musicalcompositionsthathe hadliberatedfrom their originaldramaticcontextsand
subsequently
usedto adda senseof solemnityand'tradition' to theseinventedritualised
events(p.c., 2000).
Of particularrelevanceto gamelanmusicianswasthe developmentand
(weddinggreetingceremony).This is
popularisationof the upacaramapagpanganten
an elaborateprocessionalin which the bridegroomandhis family areformally greeted
by dancerswho act asrepresentatives
of the bride's family. Althoughnow widely
consideredan indispensable
part of anytraditionalSundanese
wedding,Spillernotes
thatthis ceremonyoriginally seemsto havebeenonly a "minor Sundanese
wedding
custom"which doesnot evenget a mentionin Soeganda's1955publicationUpacara
Adat di Pasundan('TraditionalCeremoniesin the Pasundan')(2001:255 & 258).In fact,
highly choreographed
the sophisticated,
that characterise
musicanddancesequences
mostcontemporaryupacaramapagpanganten
owe muchto the theatricalperformances
thatweredevisedby Wibisanain the 1960s.Thebridegroom
andstatelyceremonies
for
is
'king
day'
is,
in
Sabalangit,
bequeathed
Mundinglaya
the
title
a
as
who
surroundedby theregallydressedcharactersandstatelypompandparaphernalia
degung
is
kingdom
Once
Pajajaran
the
the
again,
and
colonial
courts.
with
associated
it
is
for
this
type
the
choice
ceremony
as
consideredto add
of
of
usually ensemble
appropriategrandeurto theproceedings.
41
Initially confmed to marriagesof the Sundaneseelite, the dalang Otong Rasta
conjecturesthat "middle-class Bandungresidentssaw such spectaclestelevised in the
1960sand beganto requestthe groups they hired to produce similar affairs for their own
in
Bandung
began
1970s,
(Spiller
During
2001:
259).
the
groups
many
early
weddings"
to createtheir own versionsof this wedding ritual, and today, no two groups will present
exactly the same'show'. Many musicians and choreographerssay that the ongoing
important
is
this
creative outlet as well as vital source of
an
of
ceremony
reinterpretation
employment for Bandung artists. In 2001, there was even talk of organising a
demonstrate
to
their most
to
which
competition provide groupswith a platform on
imaginative productions to a wider audience(Permana,p. c., 2001). The role of the
in
be
in
7.
degung
Sundanese
the
explored
chapter
wedding
will
gamelan
1.2.7 The cassetteindustry
Finally, any history of gamelan degung cannot fail to considerthe role of the Indonesian
cassetteindustry in the ensemble'smusical evolution and wider dissemination.The
advent of the government-ownednational recording company,Lokananta, and the
houses
of
privately-owned
regional
recording
provided
subsequentemergence
Sundanesemusicianswith fresh artistic challengesas well as new financial incentives to
innovate the degungtradition. As Williams notes,the recording industry encouraged
least
"at
to
one new song" on every cassette(1989:113).
composers come up with
Lokananta,the first Indonesiancompanyto producerecordings of gamelan
degung,hadcloselinks with RRI andmainlyusedradiostationmusiciansfor its
Not
degung
(Cook
1991:
3).
Lokananta's
then,
surprisingly
all
of
gamelan
recordings
feature
Parahyangan
RRIs
group.
recordings
ThoughLokananta'sfirst gramophone
recordingsof degungdatefrom the early
1960s,gramophonediscs, let alone players, were beyond the meansof most of the
broadcasts.
heard
From the
Sundanese
thus
only widely
aspartof radio
populationand
for
degung
became
dominant
format
however,
1970s,
the
commercial
cassette
early
from
41,508
discs
in
Yampolsky,
Lokananta's
According
to
grew
output
recordings.
(1987:
2).
in
discs
1975
290
1970,to 898,459cassettes
andonly
42
In total, Lokananta released six cassettes of gamelan degung (ibid, 281-283). 23These
feature
instrumental
degung klasik style pieces, although a couple of
cassettesprimarily
albums also include RRI's distinctive rampak sekar unison vocals. More unusually, one
of the recordings consists of gamelan degung adaptations of Sundanese dance pieces
(ibid., 283). This cassette may have been prompted by certain high profile dance-drama
24
degung
that
utilised gamelan
performances
around this time. The recordings also
incorporate adaptations of gamelan pelog-salendro pieces such as Paksi Tuwung 2*5(on
Beber Layar ACD-042) and novel medleys such as Kidang Mas (on Kidang Mas ACD0 17), which strings together arrangements of shorter tembang Sunda interludes and
gamelan pieces. According to Ade Komaran, these degung arrangements were
concocted in the studio as players struggled to find sufficiently inventive repertoire to
record (p. c., 2000b).
Cook points out that the Lokananta cassetteswere recordedand produced in Solo
(Surakarta),Central Java,and never actually marketed in Sunda(1991:3). It appearsthat
it was not until the establishmentof privately owned cassettecompaniesin Bandung and
Jakartaduring the late 1960sand early 1970sthat the Sundanesemusical community
beganto feel the fiill impact of this new technology. As Stahl writes "almost everything
that was being done musically at this time was in somewayaffected" (1987:3). In fact,
the late 1970ssaw the releaseof severalbest-selling degung albums that signalled the
birth of two new degung sub-genres;Nano Suratno's distinctive style of degungkaw1h
and Ujang Suryana'sunique brand of degung instrumental have monopolised
commercial degungrecordings ever since. Chapter 6 will examine the rise of gamelan
degung on cassettein further detail, considering the impact of 'globalisation' and the
world music phenomenonon gamelan degung recordings.
23One of thesecassettes,A lam Priangan, featurestembangSunda side A and degung
on
on side B.
24Gamelandegungwas usedto accompanya production of the Ramayanadance-dramaat a national
arts
festival in Yogyakarta in 1971 and at an international festival in Pandaan,East Java, in 1972(Suandi,p. c.,
2000).
25Imik Suwarsih said that Koko Koswara.was "anti-Paksi Tuwung", complaining to Tjarmedi that he
thought this piece soundedtoo Javanese(p.c., 200 1).
43
Fig. 1:5 Gamelan degung,tirneline: Indonesian Independence to the 1970s
Date
Event
1949
Lutung Kasarung
1950S RRI Bandung's
Parahyangandegung group
formed under the musical
direction of Entiar Tjjarmedi
Cahaya Medal group
founded by Rachmat
Sukmasaputra(c. 1956)
Cendrawasih (c. 1956)
Establishmentof
community-baseddegung
clubs & student groups
(I 95OS/1
960s)
Singing introducedinto
degung performance
(1950s/1960s)
Degung kawih
Degung rampak sekar
(c.1958)
KOKAR (Konservatod
V
Karawitan)opened (1958)
1960s First Indonesian-produced
gramophonerecordingsof
degung released by
Lokananta (1960,1964)
MundinglayaSabalangit
(1962)
V
1970s
Upacarakhusus
Ramayanadance-drama
(1971,1972)
Explanatory notes
A multimediaproductionthat played a role In familiarisingthe
wider populacewith garrielandegung
Regulardegung broadcastswere scheduledfrom 1956.
Severalwell-knowndegung klasik-stylepieces were
composedaround this time
According to Nano S, this was the first degung group to
feature female players
A choreographyby Enoch Atmadibratathat was inspired and
accompaniedby the degung klasik piece Pahva
The aristocraticheritageof the former court gamelan meant
that degung was deemed to be a respectableartistic pursuit
for middle-classmen. women & children. Female-only
groups became particularlypopular
The degung klasik pieces were deemed too difficult for
amateue players. Instead,degung groups began to play
shorter pieces that could function to accompanylight vocal
songs (kawih).The introductionof singing Into degung
performancewas also part of a wider trend that saw female
vocalists become increasinglyprominentIn Sunclanese
music as a whole
The emergenceof the degung kawih genre led to degung
sets being built with exchange keys/pots/gongsthat enabled
groups to perform songs in both the pelog degung &
madendatunings.The instrumentationof the ensemblewas
also expandedto Include an extra metallophone& the
smaller kemputgong of gamelanpelog-salendro
Choral singing was appendedto several degung klasik
pieces. Many musiciansare adamant that this was the first
time that degung performanceincorporatedsinging
_
Bandung'sfirst govemment-runspecialistmusic school
beganto offer studentsformal coursesin gamelan degung
AJIof Lokananta'sgamelan degung recordingsfeature RRI's
Parahyangangroup. Most of the pieces on these recordings
were drawn from the standard degung klasik repertoire
An influentialoperetta that featured gamelan degung. The
repertoireutilised In this productionwas drawn from across
the Sunclaneseperformingarts complex. The
instrumentationof the ensemblewas also further expanded
with a qambang,two single-octavesaron &a rebab
Dramatisedceremonials,usually employingdegung,
became increasinglypopular during the 1960s & 1970s.
Degungwas used to accompanya productionof the
Ramayanadance-dramaat a national arts festival In
Yogyakarta(1971) and an intemationalfestival In Pandlaan,
East Java (1972)
Lokanantareleasedthe first
cassette recordingsof
gamelan degung (1972,
1973,1974)
Uke Lokananta'sgramophonerecordings,these cassettes
feature RRI' s Parahyangandegung group & primarily
comprisedegung kJasikrepertoire
Rise of private cassette
companies & regional
recording industry
Private cassette companiesencouragedmusical
experimentation.The 1970s saw the release of several
popular cassettes that signalledthe birth of two new degung
sub-genres.Degung composerssuch as Nano S. and Ujang
chieve local celebrity status
44
Summary
The aim of this chapterhas beento piece together a history of gamelan degung from its
aristocratic beginnings in the Sundanesecourts to its massdisseminationon commercial
cassettes.Exploring divergent accountsof the degung's earliest evolution, as well as the
development
in the city of Bandung, it has charteredthe
ensemble'ssubsequent
gamelan's changingmusical function, repertoire, personneland sdcio-cultural position.
Consideringthe specific urban institutions and organisationsthat have come to replace
the courts as the ensemble'sprimary patrons since IndonesiaIndependence,this chapter
has drawn attention to the ongoing popularisation of gamelan degung and the way in
which degung musicianshave been compelled to develop a more entrepreneurialattitude
to their artistic wares in order to develop new audiencesand performancecontexts in the
postcolonial city. Chaptertwo will now look at thesemusicians in greaterdetail,
surveying the types of instrumentalist and singer that perform gamelan degung in
Bandung, as well as reflecting on the different ways in which Sundanesemusicians learn
their craft.
45
Chapter 2
Musical competence and processesof transmission
In the precedingchapterI presenta history of gamelan degung.Identifying the
institutions and the types of musical associationthat have come to patronisethe
ensemblein Bandung,musical changeis correlatedto socio-cultural and politicoeconomic shifts and technological innovations. The study now turns to the urban
performerswho, in creatively respondingto and more actively shapingtheir altering
environment,have effected this musical change.More specifically, this chapter
considersthe multiple competencesof the instrumentalistsand singersengagedin any
performanceof gamelan degung, and exploresthe informal and formal contextswithin
which such competencesare attained.As the approachthat I have taken to theseissuesis
informed by the model of musical competencedevelopedby Benjamin Brinner (1995), 1
will outline the key conceptsand terminology that I borrow from Brinner's theory before
proceedingwith the investigation at hand.
2.1
Modelling musical competence
It is inevitable that as ethnomusicologistshave increasingly come to value performance
as a central researchmethod, the subject of performancepractice has begun to replace
earlier academicpreoccupationswith ...hard musical fýcts' such as tuning, scaleand
mode" (Brinner 1995:34). Nevertheless,musical competence,inextricably bound up as
this issueis any considerationof performance,continuesto be a marginalized topic in
most scholarly accountsof practical music making (ibid., 2).
Describing musical competenceas "an integratedcomplex of skills and
knowledge upon which a musician relies within a particular cultural context" (ibid., I),
Brinner proposesa non-hierarchical multidimensional approachto modelling what
musiciansknow (the domains of knowledge) and the mannerin which such knowledge
listed
different
knowing
known.
The
as contrastingpairs.
ways of
are
and skills are
Knowledge may be explicit or intuitive, active or passive,consciousor automatic,
declaratively
('knowing
knowing
that') and
aspects
of
a
music
system
also
musicians
46
procedurally ('knowing how') (ibid., 34-39). Thesepairs are intendedto be applied to
domainsof competence
dynamic,
"continuouslyvariableattributes,mtherthanstrict
as
oppositions" (ibid., 39).
The model also takes into accountthe way in which knowledge and skills are
distributedor, in otherwords,the "who knowswhat?" (ibid., 78).Certaintypesof
aremorespecialisedandonly acquiredby particulartypesof
musicalcompetence
arecommonto all musiciansoperating
musician,for example,while corecompetences
field.
Similarly,
"encompasses
or
genre
a globalcompetence
within a particular
all the
has
performancepossibilitieswithin a musicalcommunity"while a discretecompetence
little "overlapor commongroundwith othercompetences"
(ibid., 77).
Brinner provisionally proposesa set of twelve interrelated"component clusters
that embody
of knowledgeandskills" to constitutethe domainsof musicalcompetence
the substance
of whatmusiciansknow.Theseencompass
not only aspectsof the actsof
individual and group performance,but also extendto knowledge of allied performance
contexts, systemsof symbolic representation,repertoiresand associatedart forms (ibid.,
40-43). As statedin the introduction, one of thesedomains- transformation has
particular importance for this study.
2.1.1 Transformation
The domain of transformation dealswith a musician's ability to transfer and apply
knowledge and skills from one context to another! Transformative processespermeate
Sundanesemusic making at all levels, the ability to translateand adaptmusical entities
beingsimultaneouslydemanded
by andacquiredfrom the earlieststagesof the learning
process.Brinner,morespecifically,delineatestransformationasproceduralknowledge
of techniquessuch as "transposition, augmentation,diminution, and variation" which
1In theseutilitarian times, the relatedphenomenonof transfer has generated
much media interest because
of claims that studying music has the indirect effect of improving learning in non-musical subject areas
(see Staines 1999). VAiile extra-musicaltransfer is well beyond the scopeof this presentstudy, it is worth
noting that a kacapi player once told me that Sundanesemusiciansare sometimesoffered employment in
non-musical administrative posts becauseproficiency on an instrument demonstratesinnate talent,
application, as well as a high level of generalintelligence.
47
may be applied to "sound patternsof all sizes including stock phrases,specific pieces,
and generalmelodic or rhythmic parts" (1995:4 1). Although the focus of Brinner's
enquiry is Central Javanesemusic, many of the transformative processesoutlined in his
study have distinctive equivalentsin Sundanesemusic. Sundaneserepertoire is often
similarly subject to types of modal transposition or transferral from one tuning systemto
another,as well as to structural shifts from one level of rhythmic density to another.The
domain of transformation also encompassesperformancespracticessuch as idiomatic
melodic embellishmentand improvisation as well as wider processesof arrangement,
adaptationand composition. Brinner elaborates,
Sometransformationsare actually translations in the literal sense
of carrying over musical material from one framework to another,
from one composition to another,or from one performance
context to another(adapting a shadowplay piece to dance
performancepractice, for example). Players are constantly
translating from other instrumental and vocal idioms to their own
instrument as they interact with other musicians (1995:58).
2.1.2 Sundanesemusical competence: who plays what?
One crucial distinction between Sundaneseand Central Javaneseregional musics is that
the former is not as dominatedby a single ensembletype. Gamelan, and more
specifically gamelan degung, is only one of the many traditional genresthat compose
the heterogeneousmusical landscapeof Bandung. The domain of transformation thus
has particular relevancefor any considerationof Sundanesemusical competence
becauseSundanesemusicians- most of whom are actively involved in more than one of
thesegenres- are frequently expectedto transfer the knowledge and skills acquired
singing or playing in one ensemblewhen performing in another.This is especially true
for any discussionof degungplayers.
Nano Suratnorefers to gamelan degung as a "terminar(as in a bus terminus)
becauseof the way in which the ensembleservesas a musical 'junction' or point of
intersection for performers and repertoires drawn from different socio-cultural
backgroundsand sources(1999). Certainly, amongstprofessional musicians,gamelan
48
degung is almost always an auxiliary, rather than an isolated field of specialisation.Any
considerationof musical competenceand gamelan degungplayers, therefore,must take
into accountthe multiple roles of instrumentalistsand vocalists acrossthe wider
Sundanesemusic complex.
At the beginning of my fieldwork I conducteda survey amongstthe singersand
instrumentaliststhat I encounteredat degungrehearsals,performancesand during
lessons.This was in the form of a tick-the-box style questionnairedesignedto assessthe
range of core competencesand more specialist skills that had beenacquired or were in
the processof being acquiredby individual performers. The exercisewas intendedto
assistmy orientation in 'the field' rather than as a meansto gather any comprehensiveor
impartial
data.
Furthermore,the twenty-five replies that I received
scientifically
more
were limited to those musiciansoperating within the particular musical networks in
which I found myself socially positioned. Nevertheless,the results supportthe broader
conclusionsthat I reachedon the basisof more informal observationsof musicians'
activities in Bandung. While the considerableamount of variety and overlap of
musician-typesboth within and acrossseparategenresmeansthat no two players share
an identical skill profile, sketching out the loose categorieswithin which respondents
classify themselvesand eachother servesas a useful starting point for discussion.
The musicianswho completedthe questionnaireroughly divide into three broad
camps:tembangSundamusicians,gamelanpelog-salendro (often wayang performers)
musicians, and non-specialistplayers. In fact, the gamelan degung can be consideredto
be positioned somewherein betweenthe distinct 'worlds' of tembangSundaand
gamelanpelog-salendro. While as Cook observes,"There is somethingof a social and
artistic divide betweenthesetwo groups" (2000b:80), degungoften acts as a secondary
field of competencefor musicians from both spheres.It seemsthat the shared
aristocratic origins of tembangSundaand gamelan degungenablessome tembang
musicians to perform gamelan degung without any significant loss of status;indeed,
many of Bandung's most highly respectedtembangsingersand suling players have
featured on commercial gamelan degung recordings.At the sametime, gamelan degung
degung's
have
the
sharedplayers since
and gamelanpelog-salendro
earliest days in
Bandung. Idi, founder of Bandung's first gamelan degunggroup, is alleged to have
"played all (slendro) gamelaninstrumentsincluding the rebab" (Tarya in Harrell
49
2
1974:222-223). Similarly, Entjar Tjarmedi, leaderof the influential RRI degung group,
in
kendang
talented
player the radio station's gamelanpelogwas also celebratedas a
salendro ensemble.
The third group of questionnairerespondentsthat I identified compriseddegung
bang
Sunda
directly
to
tem
or gamelanpelogeither
affiliated
players who were not
Notably,
instrumental
had
specialism.
no specific vocal or
salendro groups and who
insteadof developing their skills on a particular instrument or by deepeningtheir
knowledge of a given genre, severalof the players in this category have branchedout
into other types of music. A couple of respondents,for example,are membersof a
itself
has
begun
for
that
to
on the world music stage.
group
make
a
name
percussion
Significantly most of the musicians in this group are graduatesor studentsof academybasedmusic diploma and degreecourses.It seemsthat as the recipients of a broader
but
demonstrate
the
they
the
competence
musical education
most global and widespread
least specialisation(see2.3).
Before concluding this section it is also worth pointing out that, while gamelan
degung functions as a musical common ground for disparatetypes of performer,
different groups occasionally treat the ensemblein such radically distinctive ways as to
blur the boundariesthat distinguish 'degung' as a discrete musical form. For instance,a
few of the gamelanpelog-salendro players who replied to my questionnairebelong to a
is
degung
kawih.
is
So
to
troupe
that
upon
play
unique the
sometimescalled
wayang
by
it
important
degung
brand
this
that
group
of
presented
raises
wayang-influenced
it
is
I
definition.
One
to
that
that
the classical
spoke
asserted
musician
of
questions
degung repertoire, rather than the unique instrumentationof the ensemblethat embodies
the essenceof degung.Making this distinction betweendegung as a repertoire and the
degung ensembleas a medium for the performanceof repertoire borrowed from other
form
functions
in
latter
he
the
the
a
generic
that
as
case
ensemblemerely
genres, argued
degung
However,
be
truly
Sundanese
that
all.
at
as
considered
cannot
accompaniment
of
in practice most of the piecesplayed by degung groups in Bandung today are basedon
from
been
have
frameworks
that
techniques
adapted
and utilise playing
structural
2slendro= salendro
50
has
in
1,
Moreover,
the
chapter
ensemble
also come
as
outlined
gamelanpelog-salendro.
to serve as a vehicle for repertoire derived from an evenwider variety of genresranging
from the art form of tembangSundato folk and children's playground songs.Gamelan
degungrepertoireswill be examinedin more detail in chapters3,4 and 5.
2.1.3 Musical specialisation in degung performance
Preparinga budget for fieldwork recordings of gamelan degung entailedpinning down
the types of core and specialist competencestypically required as well as the perceived
least
in
levels
terms
the
these
of
at
of
competences,
of payment that individual
rankings
musicians expect to receive. As a concreteexample of this I will now list the varieties of
performer that the SasakaDomas group employed on my behalf for a recording of the
Sundanesewedding ceremony(see chapter7). Due to the fact that at the time of my
fieldwork economic instability meant that ratesof pay were in a stateof fluctuation, I
have decidednot to include precise details of musicians' fees as such information would
soon be out-of-date.
SasakaDomas is headedby a couple of tembangSundasingers:Didin Bajuri and
MamahDasimah.As both theprincipalvocalistsandgroupleaders,this husband-andhighest
fees.
finances
If
team
the
command
wife
permit,oneor two secondaryfemale
singersmaybe hired in at slightly lower ratesof pay to helpto boostthe singingand
This will almostalwaysincludea femalegamelan
generallyenliventhe atmosphere.
include
been
booked
if
have
to
the
group
ajalpongan (a modem danceform) set
singer
aspart of thepackageof weddingentertaimnent.
The highest paid instrumentalist in the SasakaDomas group is the kendang
drumming
degung
is
Although
classical
relativelystraightforwardandeasyto
player.
learn,mostcontemporarydegungrepertoireutilisesthemorecomplexform of kendang
Furthermore,duringpartsof
with gamelanpelog-salendro.
playingtypically associated
the weddingceremonythegamelandegungaccompanies
varioustypesof
the employmentof a versatilekendang
movement.This necessitates
choreographed
in
drumming.
is
dance
kendang
It
the
also
primarily
skilled
specialistadditionally
forward
bind
job
to
to
and
propel
a
performance
musiciansand
rhythmically
player's
51
dancerstogether.The larger fee thus reflects the higher level of responsibility that comes
with this role.
Next down in the paymenthierarchy are the kacapi and suling players.Although
the zither is a more recent and optional addition to the degung ensemble,the use of
tembangsongsin the SasakaDomas wedding ceremonydemandsthe deploymentof
kacapi
knowledge
degung
both
Sunda
tembang
and
specialists
with
of
and
suling
repertoiresand performancetechniques.
Finally, at the lower end of the pay scaleare the players of the 'bronze'
instrumentswho often only receive around a quarter (or less) of the fee awardedto the
singers. All musicians are simply expectedto have a basic working knowledge of these
non-specialistparts and, in degung kawih at least,players at this level are easily
interchangeableand replaceable.3 While the termsjuru (skilled worker, artisan) and ahli
(specialist) are often usedto describesuling, kendang,kacapi players and singers,I
never heard musicians speakoffurujengglong or ahli goong. In fact, on the day of my
recording, the very lowest paid positions - those of thejengglong and goong player were filled by allegedly 'non-musician' membersof the host singer's family who just
happenedto be presentat the time. According to Ade Komaran, however, specialisation
is not the only criterion for determining a musician's fee. He said that when apportioning
paymentsamongsthis own group he also takes into account a player's seniority,
experienceand commitment to the group (p.c., 2000b).
3 When a perfomance includes a set of degung Has& pieces,however, the bonang player may receive a
in
kacapi
fee
the
to
that
and
suling
players
reflection of the more prominent role of the
of
similar
instrument within this genre(see3.2).
52
2.2
The learning process
Apart from genre affiliation and instrumentalor vocal specialisation,musiciansalso
categoriseeachother accordingto the type of musical training that they received.
Broadly speaking,two types of musician coexist in Bandung: those who have graduated
from formal institutions such as STSI and SMKI, and senimanalam ('riatural artists') or
those who have acquired musical competenceby more 'traditional' means.In reality, the
dividing line betweenthe two is increasingly blurred as the former are encouragedto
by
their
experiences
performing with working groups outside of the
musical
augment
school environment, while those classifiable assenimanalam are increasingly
legitimise
their competenceand enhancetheir generalemployment
to
compelled
formal
degree.
by
Still, for the purposesof this investigation it
a
music
prospects gaining
is helpful to separatethe two.
Although individual accountsof competenceacquisition are often intriguingly
vague, identifying and examining the contextsin which fledgling musicianslearn their
craft provides instructive insights into the construction of musicianship.As Brinner
acknowledges,"the mannerof acquisition favours the developmentof certain types of
knowing",
and
competence
ways of
although it is not always clear "whether the manner
of acquisition gave rise to a certain competenceor vice versa" (1995:134).As I will
explore below, native and foreign studentsoften find quite different aspectsof
Sundanesemusic more challenging than othersprecisely becauseof the divergent ways
in which both approachits study. My own experiencesof Sundanesemusic lessonsand
have
been
illuminating
in this regard. To quote Marcus and
particularly
rehearsals
Fischer, I thus focus on "the person,the self, and the emotions" as "a way of getting to
the level at which cultural differencesare most deeply rooted" (1986:46). 1 will begin,
however, by examining the learning strategiesof natural or non-formally trained
Sundanesemusicians.
53
2.2.1 Osmosis: non-formal approaches to learning
For Sundanesemusicians,enculturation in one or more traditional soundworlds usually
begins in early childhood (if not before). Severalof the musicianswho completedmy
from
family
have
been
by
come
a
of
musicians
and
surrounded
questionnaire
wayang
instruments,
birth.
interviewees,
Other
music
and
musicians
since
who are not
gamelan
from musical families, also recalled the impact of watching a local wayang troupe as
children as well as listening to friends and neighbours;singing and playing various styles
of Sundanesemusic at home.
According to the questionnairesthat I received back, the averageage at which
respondentsbegantheir musical 'training' was thirteen, although the age range spans
from six to nineteenyears.The complex and multifaceted nature of the learning process
meansthat, in practice, it is usually futile to try and pinpoint any precise starting point.
In Sunda,the youngest children are welcome at rehearsalsand performances,and handson musical play is seldom met with disapproval. Cook explains "During a danceor
puppetry performanceit is common to seechildren on stage,playing around or falling
asleep". He elaborates,
Sometimesa goong or saron player may take a child onto his
lap, and guide his hands on the instrument. Even when children
do not appearto be paying much attention to the proceedings,
they are still learning by osmosis.In general,Indonesiansare
extremely indulgent towards children, especially those of other
people... Sundanesechildren are usually quite uninhibited about
sitting down and trying out instrumentswhich are not being
used.Even if a child picks up a beaterand decidesto join in
during a rehearsalor a performance,the adult musicians'
reaction tends to be very tolerant, and even encouraging...
If a gamelangroupis short-handed,
a child or inexperienced
into
be
kempul...
to
service
playerwill
pressed
play goongand
Few childrenwho havegrownup aroundgamelanwill needto
be told how to play goongthe first time they haveto do it: they
will alreadyhavelearnedwithout everthinking aboutit much
(1998:5, emphasismy own).
54
Ade Komaran supportedthis view, remarking that while his now adult children have
never shown any interest in becominggamelan musicians,they have developeda basic,
albeit passivecompetencemerely by having beenbrought up surroundedby the music.
Thus, although they do not play themselves,they can always tell, for example,when the
goong player goeswrong (p.c., 2000a).
The notion of acquiring "an initial baseof musical knowledge" (Berliner
1994:22) by osmosisis put forward by researchersin a variety of musical domains (see,
for example, Hall 1992, Berliner 1994,Brinner 1995& Green2001). Hall differentiates
betweenacquired and learnedculture, writing that the former, which occurs most
dramatically in the first six years of life, "is literally absorbedwithout the intervention of
others or even consciousawarenessthat anything particular has occurred" (1992:23023 1). Interestingly, Green's critical usageof the term 'natural' to designatethis type of
intuitive or unconsciousapproachto competenceacquisition in Westernpopular music,
finds an obvious equivalent in the employment of the Indonesiansecara alam or alami
(natural way) to describenon-formal methodsof music learning in West Java.She
writes,
learningpracticesof themusiciansareindeedmore
the
...
naturalthanmanyof thoseassociated
with formaleducation,
moreakin to thewaysin which very youngchildrenpick up
language,anddrawmoreheavilyon enculturationexperiences
(2001:100).
Anecdotalevidencesuggests
thatSundanese
gamelanmusiciansgleanmuchof their
knowledgeof musicalstructureandrepertoire,aswell asof proceduralperformance
immersion
from
in a musicalidiom ratherthanvia explicit tuition or
a
prolonged
skills,
dalang(puppeteers)
"learn
analyticalexplanation.Weintraub'scommentthat Sundanese
by doing(helajarsambiljalan, literally 'learnwhile walking') andwatching,ratherthan
by direct instruction"(1997:36), is equallypertinentto thegamelanmusicianswho
instrumentalists
initially acquirethis knowledgeby seizing
Budding
them.
accompany
uponopportunitiesto attendperformances
andto 'tag alongwith' (ikut-ikutan)musician
friendswheneverpossible.Fryernotesthat in this way "Most gamelanplayersknow the
55
have
long
before
'hands
how
idea
have
they
to
on'
play
a good
music well and
(1989:
242).
experience"
In fact, a holistic "learning by doing" approachgovernsgamelan playing at all
levels. From the outset,Sundanesemusiciansstart by learning from the standard
individual
knowledge
their
styles,
pieces,aswell as of
active
of
musical
repertoire,
instrument-specific
developing
Books
treatments
of technical
concurrently.
appropriate
be
do
in
formal
institutions
but
to
these
not appear
educational
exercisesare employed
used outside of particular classesor deemedof much practical use by working players.
In addition, though certain instrumentalparts may be simplified for 'beginners, it is rare
for piecesto be rehearsedat learner-friendly tempos or in easily digestible chunks.It
is
that
once a piece up-and-running Sundanesegamelan musicians find it difficult
seems
to come to an abrupt halt before reaching the end of a cycle or other significant point of
cadence,and even more tricky to start up again mid-piece. If, for somereason,the piece
does 'collapse', players generally go right back to the opening introduction. In this
regard, Bakan's commentsabout learning Balinesegamelan are equally relevant to the
Sundaneserehearsalprocess.
Since... it is the whole rather than its parts that must be
emphasized,any method that privileges the smaller picture over
the bigger one is undesirable.Musical holism and flow are of the
highest priority, and are stressedat a variety of levels throughout
the entire music transmissionprocess(1999:289).
2.2.2 Learning on stage
As the son of a Sundanesepuppeteer,Ade Komaran assertedthat he has never taken an
instrumental lessonin his life. Now a talented drummer, gambang player, degungHas&
learning
his
he
began
child
as
a
musical career
specialist, as well asgamelan all-rounder,
beginners,
like
Komaran
his
father's
that,
troupe.
most
explained
wayang
on stagewith
he beganhis training on the goong and kempul. Playing the technically straightforward
Sundanese
deeper
is
of
a
understanding
way
of
gaining
goong part often cited as a useful
Sitting
knowledge
the
at
of
repertoire.
as
of
widening
ones
musical structures,as well
the goong is also said to be a useful vantagepoint from which to observeand to start
56
mentally working out what the other instrumentsare doing. Komaran noted that having
memoriseda specific instrumentalpattern he would wait for an opportunemoment, such
have
instniment
in question.In
break,
then
the
a
go
quietly
playing
and
as a rehearsal
this unobtrusive mannerhe gradually progressedto the bonang and saron and,
instruments
to
such as the gambang and kendang (P.C.,
challenging
eventually, more
2000a).
The idea of quietly studying one instr=ent whilst playing anotheris also put
forward by Sumarsainwith specific referenceto learning to play the Javanesegender.
Sumarsainnotes that the studentwould first "have to spendmuch time listening to and
observing genderplaying".
He would observehow the mallets are handledand how the keys
are damped.He would usually already know how to play other
instruments... Therefore,his observationof genderplaying
would be done mostly while he was simultaneouslyplaying
another instrument... Eventually, when this future genderplayer
felt ready to try and play genderfor a gendhing [Javanese
gamelan composition], he would try to play as much as he could,
or as much as he could remember,in order to approximatewhat
he had heard and observed(1999:5).
While, then, the notion of 'learning by osmosis' and, to a lesserextent, 'learning by
doing' may suggestthat knowledge and skills are acquired in a relatively unfocusedand
sometimesunconsciousway, the autodidacticprocessAde Komaran and Sumarsarn
outline also involves a more deliberateand proactive form of observationand
memorisation. Green employs the term "purposive listening" to describethe highly
listening
has
type
that
the aim "of learning something in order to put it
of
concentrated
to use in some way after the listening experienceis ovee, (2001:23-24). Perhaps
dpurposiveobservation' would be a more appropriateterm to use in this instanceas
learning to play most gamelan instrumentsis often as much a visual as it is an aural
experience.
57
Purposive observationis part and parcel of what Merriam calls the "universal leaming
technique of imitation" (1964:158). Identiýring the different ways in which this
technique may be applied, Brinner distinguishesbetweenthe type of "delayed imitation"
describedin Ade Komaran's and Sumarsam'saccounts,from the "simultaneous" or
"consecutive" forms of imitation that are more typically employed in formal teacherinstruction,
interactions
(1995:
136-137).
In
the
absenceof systematicone-to-one
student
knowledge
frequently
Sundanese
to
their
of
musicians
are
compelled construct
young
instrument techniquesand repertoire by replicating, as best they can, performance
models that were committed to memory minutes, hours, and perhapseven days or weeks
earlier. Inevitably, this delay betweenhearing and imitating a model affects the accuracy
of its reproduction (ibid., 135). Indeed, Brinner contendsthat one of the reasonsthat
Javanesegamelan players are so tolerant of individual variability is becauseof the
independentway in which many musicians acquire competence,and the resulting "lack
of extensiveand specific feedbackfrom a teacheror other more knowledgeable
musician" (ibid. ). Over time, as players becomeincreasingly discerning about what is
musically appositefrom one context to another,what may have startedout as a
discrepancyin imitation begins to mature into a distinctive personal style. As Sutton
elaborates,
One builds a personal style by incorporating elementsfrom all
the musicians one hears and likes and by discerning the methods
by which melodic formulas can be varied. One gains a senseof
is
what appropriateand what is not through one's particular
experienceand personality; this senseof appropriatenesswe may
call grammatical though it may differ in significant ways from
individual to individual and from region to region (1993:19).
This processensuresthe dynamism of the music system; the subtly distinctive playing
techniquesdevelopedby individual performers eventually feed back into the wider
tradition to be imitated by new generationsof novice musicians.
58
The ability to transfer and adapt musical knowledge from one context to another is
fundamental to the practice of learning on stage. Early on in their musical education,
Sundanese musicians learn to construct their own parts by drawing upon their past
by
following
and
simultaneously
analogous
repertoire
of
and
experiences
playing
idiomatically translating the real-time realisations of more experienced members of the
group. Clearly, some types of music are more conducive to this mode of learning than
incorporation
"rhe
Brinner
of novice musicians is greatly
others.
acknowledges
facilitated by the spectrum of levels of difficulty within the idioms and the repertoire of
4
(1995:134). Aside from the technically
but
the
simple
gamelan"
structurally
indispensablegoong part, the embellishing instrumentsalso offer inexperienced
learn
to
through performance"becausethe parts played on these
musicians opportunities
instruments derive from other parts" (ibid. ). Moreover, unlike the goong part, mistakes
made on theseoften higher pitched and softer instrumentsare not usually conspicuous,
especially during live performanceswhen the use of selectiveamplification may render
inaudible.
such parts practically
Tearning by doing' is also facilitated in Sundanesegamelan because
instrumentalistshave some scopeto vary the density of their parts. For example,video
footage that I recorded of a relatively inexperienceddegungmusician working out the
jengglong part to an unfamiliar song revealsthat the player gradually fleshed out his part
Initially
joining
in with the basic pitches of the
his
knowledge
the
of
piece
grew.
only
as
framework,
thejengglong player beganto patchily fill-in this
structural
accompanying
sparsetonal outline by inserting additional pitches that were drawn from, or
complemented,the overlying melodic model. The cyclic structureof the music provided
build
hone
to
the
the
opportunity
up
with
and
a satisfactorypart without the
musician
from
instruction
for
the other players.
any external
need
4 Nevertheless,as statedearlier, it is not clear whether the structure of Sundanesegamelan music gave rise
to this particular approachto competenceacquisition or vice versa (see Brinner 1995:134).
59
2.2.3 The role of teachers and mentors
A musician's progressionfrom the goong to the more technically demanding
instrumentsis also greatly assistedby the sporadicsnippetsof informal instruction and
the ongoing correction that are proffered by other membersof the group. Cook writes
that experiencedplayers will sometimes"demonstratehow something is done, before
handing the instrument to the learnerto take over (often in the middle of the piece)"
(1998:5). While outside of formal education institutions and associatedmusical circles
instancesof didactic teaching appearto be relatively rare, some amateurgroup leaders
do borrow classroomstyle methodsand notation compilations. Hugh-Jonesnotes "One
sometimesseesa hired gamelan with musicians so unskilled that they have numbers
chalked on the keys to guide them" (1982:21). Similarly, discussingBandung's all
female degunggroups Heins observes,"The ladies carry neatly written notebooksin
which the compositions of the degungrepertoire are notated in Sundanesecipher script,
and which are frequently consulted during rehearsalsand sometimeseven during
performances"(1977:68-69). More typically, however, hand gesturesand vocalisations
direct players in rehearsal.More able musicians continually prompt novices by airbeating the goong and kempul strokes,mimicking the motions of the kendangplayer,
clapping the basic pulse, or raising their fingers, one to five, to signal which cadential
tone is coming next. When a complete beginner is struggling with a part, a more
experiencedplayer may sit on the opposite side of the instrument in question and
physically point out the keys or pots to be struck. Singing and humming also permeate
rehearsalsat all levels. Nonetheless,some specialistperformance skills are consideredto
require more explicit instruction than others.
The exacting art of tembangSunda singing, for example, is usually studied
directly from a professionalvocalist,with establishedtembangsingersoftenrunning
(rehearsals)
for
"the
latihan
At
such
events
smallgroupsof studentperformers.
regular
main singeractsasan instructor,listeningwith greatcareto thevocalornamentsof the
details"
kacapi
(Williams
230).
Promising
1990:
the
and
studentsandcorrecting smallest
to "requestspecific
sulingplayersmay alsotakeadvantageof theserehearsals
from
techniques
moreexperienced
players"(ibid., 235).Off-the-cuff
ornamentsor
teachingadditionallytakesplaceduringthe impromptudiscussionsanddemonstrations
60
that arise during the more unstructuredtime before a rehearsalformally starts or during
hoc
breaks.
While
tuition meansthat its
this
the
of
ad
casual
nature
coffee and prayer
Williams
is
"a
impact
to
overlook,
notes
single technical question from
easy
pedagogical
is
a young player enoughto establisha teacher-studentrelationship with an older
musician" (ibid. ). Ade Komaran commentedthat as a novice gamelan musician he
would often make use of such free time to play around on the more challenging
instruments.This sometimesprompted more experiencedmusiciansto come over to him
instrument
helpful
him
to
take
the
or
even
over
pointers,
and demonstratehow
and give
it should be done. Being bold enough 'to have a go' - even when it is likely that
is
important
be
charactertrait in young Sundanesemusicians;
made- an
mistakeswill
the criticism and correction that is provoked by "getting it wrong" imparts traineeswith
information that they might not necessarilybe able to glean via observationand
imitation alone (seeZiporyn 1992:35).
Ade Komaran and other establishedSundanesegamelan musicians,however, all
concurredthat at the earlieststagesof their trainingthey did not dareto bothersenior
playersby askingfor adviceor tuition. Outsideof formaleducationcourses,the onusis
decipher,andsynthesise
on the traineemusicianto disentangle,
aspectsof the music
beginnersarerarely 'spoon-fed'informationand
systemfor his or herself.Sundanese
be
must extremelypatientandresourcefullearnersto earnthe respectof potential
mentors.Ade Suandi,now a celebratedsulingplayerandtembangspecialist,recalled
how asa youngteenagerandaspiringmusicianhe would regularlyturn up to observe
gamelanrehearsalsandbroadcastsat RRI Bandung.He describeda long periodof
duringwhich he initially functionedasan errandboy who was
informal apprenticeship
for musiciansin the group.Suandiexplained
sentout to buy cigarettesandrefreshments
that asmembersof the in-housegamelangroupgrew fond of him, he slowly beganto be
fragmentary
instruction
offered
piecesof
andcorrection.Outlininga similar instrument
progressionto thatput forwardby Ade Komaran,Ade Suandistatedthathis musical
educationwas 'indirect' ("secaratidak langsung")and'non-formal' ("fidakformar)
(p.c., 2000).
61
Occasionally one hearsof Sundanesegamelan rehearsalsthat have been specifically set
by
designated
instructor.
for
benefit
the
players
and
which
are
run
a
of
novice
up
Experiencedmusicians,for example,are often brought in to provide school, community
degung
direction.
tuition
groups
with
more
explicit
and
gamelan
workplace-based
or
Professionalensemblesmay also appoint a performer with specialist expertiseto coach
players through less familiar bodies of repertoire.Indeed, while I was in Bandung, the
'superstar' SundanesepuppeteerAsep SunandaraskedNano Suratnoto come and teach
his wayang musicians a few popular degung arrangements.
Even so, someteachersand group leadersassumea more directive and didactic
McPhee's
depiction
than
others.
role
of the Balinesegamelan teacheras a silent figure
generally "gazing off into space" (McPhee 1938 quoted in Merriam 1964:152) is
reminiscent of severalSundanesegamelan teachersthat I observed.Bakan provides a
detailed description of the non-analytical demonstration-and-imitationmode of
transmissionknown in Bali as "magurupanggur' or "teaching with the mallef'
(1999:281-291). Referring to this particular pedagogic method, McPhee arguesthat,
from a Westernperspective,"The teacherdoesnot seemto teach... He is merely the
transmitter; he simply makes concretethe musical idea which is to be handedon, sets
the examplebefore the pupils and leavesthe rest to them" (McPhee 1954 in Bakan
1999:282). The notion of the teacheras a 'transmitter' of the tradition is also echoedby
the Sundanesesinger and tembangSunda scholar Apung Wiratmadja.
Penembang 'memindahkan'lagu kepada calonpenembang.
Penembangsenior mengajarpenembangyunior. Begitu
seterusnya.Mengajarkan lagu-lagu dengan cara tradisional
alami, dari mulut ke mulut (oral), baris demi baris, kata demi
kata (Wiratmadja 2001).
[Tembangsingers'transfer' songsto trainee tembangsingers.
The senior singersteach thejunior singers.And so it continues.
Teaching songsin the natural, traditional way, from one mouth
to another(oral), line-by-line, word-by-word. ]
62
In fact, practical demonstrationis often the only useful way of expressinga particular
from
Many
idea
to
transmitting
one
player
another.
repertoire
musical
as well as of
lie
beyond
Sundanese
the scopeof existing terminology
musical performance
aspectsof
fi-ameworks.
theoretical
the
reach
of
established
explanatory
and systemsof notation, or
Musicians tend to ascribetheir implicit procedural understandingof such unnamed
feel.
his
Ziporyn
that
to
observes
of
or
sense
rasa
musical processes a cultivated
Balinesegamelan teacherwould talk of "feeling" the music when describing a "nonlinguistic way of knowing" a particular conceptor when thinking musically, "without
the intermediary of abstractterminology, or... any immediate,conscious,linguistic
thought" (1992:36). Coming full circle, Hall connectsthis absenceof analytical
initial
learning
is
dealing
fact
the
to
the
the
that
of
process
quality
and
one
vocabulary
(1992:
226).
branch
"acquired
culture"
of
a
with
It cannot automatically be assumed,however, thatjust becausemusiciansdo not
have the vocabulary to label particular processesthat suchprocessesare entirely
unconsciousor instinctive (Brinner 1995:37). On the contrary, it appearsthat music is
knowable in multiple, often non-verbalisableways. Berliner, for instance,proposesthat
jazz improvisers mentally shift betweenaural, theoretical and visual representationsof
during
ideas
(1994:
175-176).Likewise, Pressingcommentsthat
performance
a
musical
have
"subjective
impression"
the
that "potentially separate
certainly
performers
musical
yet often interconnectedmotor, symbolic, and aural forms of memory" exist (1988:142).
Brinner even arguesthat a musician's ability to executecertain musical processes-such
as to simplify complex playing patterns- demonstrates"an awarenessof the workings
is
that
as explicit as notation or verbal explanation" (1995:37).
of such patterns
Linguistic limitations aside,some aspectsof any music systemare also simply
in
Significantly,
than
that
teachable
others.
researchsuggests competence musical
more
improvisationis moresuccessfullyacquiredthroughan extendedexposureto a specific
"While
direct
Hall
tuition.
tradition
than
all of us 'learn'
acknowledges
rather
via
music
thingsthoughtheprocessof instruction,improvisationappearsto bemorecloselyallied
to acquisitionthanto learning,which is onereasonwhy it hassuchan 'individual'
flavoue',(1992:227).With referenceto learningIndianmusicDerekBailey writes,"a
Gurudoesn't,or your teacherdoesn't,really tell you how to improvise.That is purelyup
to the studentto gainby experienceandto intuit the variousmethodsof playingthe
63
discussion
"the
Nooshin
(1992:
8).
Laudan
absence
of
of
remarks
on
similarly
music"
improvisational techniquesduring training" in Iranian music (1998:75). Proposing that
the act of memorising the radif (the central body of Iranian classicalrepertoire and its
implicitly
"serves to teach musiciansthe rules of musical variation"
concepts)
associated
(ibid. ), Nooshin contendsthat the structureof the music itself constitutes"a form of
formal
(ibid.,
Ziporyn
100).
that
theory"
argues
also
cognitive, non-verbalised
Such
in
is
34).
Balinese
by-product
"a
music
of
memorisation7'(1992:
understanding
commentsresonatewith my own experiencesof Sundanesemusic; one of my gamelan
teachersexplained to me that the act of learning the traditional repertoire by heart would
automatically enhancemy ability to vary and improvise individual instrumentalparts
(see4.2).
2.2.4 Native and non-native approaches to learning gamelan
Lacking the musical enculturation and accompanyingpassivecompetencesgained from
having grown up with Sundanesemusic, and generally without the opportunity to serve
a long-term apprenticeshipwith a particular ensemble,foreign studentstend to embark
on a very different type of musical training than that undertakenby their Sundanese
further
by
Often
restricted
externally imposed time constraintsand
counterparts.
differ
long-term
from
that
those of practising Sundanese
substantially
goals
possessing
musicians,non-Sundanesestudentshave to find ways of fast-tracking the learning
by
is
This
usually accomplished setting up relatively intensive one-to-one
process.
lessonswith a specialistperformer, a method that results in the visiting student
different
from
Sundanese
than
the
the
a
very
angle
novice.
encountering music
The holistic nature of the conventional rehearsalprocessensuresthat Sundanese
developing
begin
by
the
tend
to
a macrocosmic
wider
picture
and
grasping
musicians
from
from
broad
foundations,
Starting
what
such
of a particulargenre.
understanding
Suttondescribesas"a hazyconceptionof thewhole" (1993:90),musiciansgradually
delvedeeper,gainingincreasinglysophisticated
andspecialistknowledgeof particular
instrumentalidiomsandthe definingquirksof individualpieces.In contrast,the private
by
lessonformatoftenencourages
to
students startout tacklingthe more
non-Sundanese
technicallychallenginginstruments,focusingon what couldbe consideredassurface
64
detail without any of the backgroundknowledge necessaryfor the contextualisation of
this detail. Brinner writes "Foreign studentsoften learn elaboratingparts to piecesthat
they have never heard before rather than building on previous experienceof the piece (or
similar pieces) as a Javanesemusician would" (1995:148). This was my own experience
when learning to play the Sundanesesuling in 1996.While I quickly acquired an
acceptabletechnique on the instnunent, my ability to develop and vary the embellished
versions of the piecesthat I had beentaught was limited becauseI did not know the
vocal melodies or tonal progressionson which theseelaborationswere based.My suling
teacher eventually suggestedthat the best way to improve my playing was to take
lessons
learn
to
the songs.
and
singing
While the individual lessonformat may not be a particularly Sundaneseway of
learning, the private tuition provided by most Bandungperformers is generally unlike
any pay-per-hour Westernmusic lessonthat I have experiencedeither. Bakan writes at
length about the way in which he and his BalineseteacherSukaratanegotiatedthe
unorthodox pedagogicalframework within which he cameto learn beleganjur
drumming (1999:292-333). Describing his own feelings of being overwhelmedwhen,
at
his first lesson,the teachersat down and performed a "lengthy variation at full speed"
and then expectedhim to imitate it, Bakan confesses"At first I was not even aware I
was being taught" (ibid., 30 1).
Trained in Westernclassicalmusic and accustomedto learning from notation, I
was similarly initially dauntedby the feats of memorisation I was expectedto
in
accomplish private lessons.In contrastto the relatively brief consultation and review
type sessionsthat typified my instrumentaltuition in the UK, my lessonsin Bandung
usually lasted for severalhours. Moreover, rather than being encouragedto practise in
my own time, I would often be expectedto grapple clumsily with a particularly tricky
technique or to memorise a long melodic model under the ever presentgazeof the
teacherand anyone elsepresent.When learning a particular musical passageor
technique by rote, teacherswould often ask "sudah masuk?". While this loosely
translatesas "have you got that yet?", masuk literally meansto 'enter' or 'go into'
something ('has that got in yet? ). This verb always felt appropriateto describethe
physical way that I imagined the 'music' painstakingly making its way into both my
finger muscles (on the suling) and those parts of my straining brain dealing with
65
inconsistent
My
I
often
proved
erratic
and
and
memory
memory.
and
coordination
identify with Bakan when he writes, "Where a memory lapsemight occur during any
(including
(1999:
308). 1 would
guess
mine)"
given performancewas anyone's
frequently reach a point of saturationand experiencehitherto unfamiliar feelings of
frustration
judge
teacher,
to
a
and
unable
when
my limited
acutemental resistance
faculty for memorisation,would patiently continue to inundateme with new material.
At the sametime, I also beganto re-evaluatemy prior experiencesof instrumental
tuition in the UK, wondering, for example,why I had never made audio recordings of
my Westernclassicalteachersplaying in lessonsin the sameway I did Sundanese
began
I
to feel slightly disappointedat the realisation that despite(or,
performers. also
indeed,perhapsbecauseoo years of formal music educationI could still play very little
without the now seemingly superficial interface of notation (which I had erroneously
come to call 'the music'). Moreover, this educationonly seemedto leave me feeling
anxious at the prospectof being askedto be 'creative' and to embellish or improvise an
instrumentalpart.
In his article on improvisation (1992), the anthropologist Edward T. Hall offers
an interesting interpretation of my experience.Introducing the concept of high context
communication, in which "most of the information is already known to the recipient"
(1992:229), and low context communication, where the "goal is to make the messageas
complete and as explicit as possible" (ibid., 230), Hall proposesthat improvisation (a
skill rooted in experienceand acquired after years of "programming" and "contexting")
is a higher context form of musical communication than is composition (in which
be
tends
to
material
more explicitly coded and prescribed) (ibid., 23 1).
musical
Questioning the reasonwhy, unlike language,"music in Northern Europeancultures is
acquired only by a few" (ibid., 232), Hall suggeststhat by consistently opting for low
context solutions, including the privileging of a form of music that is written out using a
highly explicit (low context) form of notation, Northern Europeanculture has increased
"compartmentalization and specialization, but not necessarilyunderstanding" (ibid.,
23 1). Concluding his article he asks,
66
Has our culture, by a processof lowering the context or
imposed,
outside-in phenomenon,
an
approachingmusic as
deprived us of the senseof the sourceof our natural and innate
(ibid.,
233).
gift of music?
Althoughexistingnotationsystemsarenot evencapableof accuratelyrepresenting
the
melodyandrhythm,my own relianceon 'reading'the music
subtletiesof Sundanese
into
instrumental
lessons
in
Bandungbecauseof my deepto
over
my
continued spill
Using
hybrid
form
Sundanese
distrust
and
ears.
a
of
of
my
memory
andWestern
rooted
notationto approximatethe materialthat I hadcoveredin a classenabledme to keep
track of the repertoirethatI hadto keepassuringmy teachersthatI wasalso
describes
Bakan
"performance
the
similarly
memorising.
score"thathe gradually
compiledby transcribingthe drummingpatternspresentedby his teacher(1999:301306).Employingthe samelearningprocessthathe had"usedeffectivelyfor manyyears
in
as a percussionist the Western 'art' music tradition". Bakan plannedto ':fIrst learn the
notes, then worry aboutplaying them musically" (ibid., 306, emphasismy own). This
be
to
a common trend amongstWestern-trainedmusicians.Comparing Sundanese
seems
and non-Sundaneseplayers Cook remarks,
With Westernlearners... knowledge of the notes (often derived
from notation) frequently seemsto precedea feel for the piece as
a whole, and how the parts might fit together. It is common to
hear Westernpeople play the right notes in the right order, but at
the wrong time. With Sundaneselearners,it is common to hear
the wrong notes in the wrong order, but at the right time (1998:
5).
Lili Suparli, a music lecturer at STSI, concurredthat from a Sundanesegamelan
musician's perspective 'the notes' are not the most important elementto concentrateon
first. Rather inexperiencedplayers should start by gaining a feel for temporal
frameworks, rhythmic flow and phraseplacementwithin the goong cycle (p.c., 2001c).
67
2.2.5 Native and non-native approaches to learning degung
This disparityin learningpracticesandprogressions
andnonmeansthat Sundanese
difficulty
different
have
the
Sundanese
of a
about
relative
perceptions
rather
musicians
Sundanese
it
is
As
to
body
evaluate
not alwayspossible
of repertoire. a result,
particular
benchmarks.
My
by
foreign
the
own proficiencyplayinga numberof
same
players
and
for
degung
example,gainedme a reputationthatwasat oddswith
pieces,
classicalstyle
in
inexperience
of performingsupposedlysimplershort-formpieces a group
my
for
learn
found
degung
klasik
fact,
I
In
thevery reasons
the
to
pieceseasiest
situation.
that mostSundanese
musiciansdeemthemto be the mostchallenging.
This discretebody of repertoireparticularlylendsitself to the privatelesson
format favoured by most non-Sundanesestudentsfor severalreasons.Firstly, when
learning the degung klasik pieces,basedas they are on relatively long, idiosyncratic
bonang melodies (see3.2), it actually makes sensefor players to concentrateon a single
instrumental part. Secondly,the fixity of this part provides the teacherwith a clear-cut
model to demonstrate,as well as concreteseriesof tones for the studentto grasp.
Finally, as the degungklasik piecesdo not significantly changefrom performanceto
in
internal
to
the
transformations
that
structural
operate
performanceand are not subject
other types of repertoire, the studentcan successfullyperform such pieceswithout
having much experienceof group playing and interaction. As a classically-trained,
felt
I
fixated
much more comfortable memorising this
musician
getting-the-notes-right
type of presetmelody, rather than having to generatemy own part as other Sundanese
bonang
lessons,
I
demand.
In
idioms
could
repeat
a
given
melody until
private
gamelan
fitrther
it
to
me
equipment
enabling
my
recording
secure,
of
was
my memorisation
documentpieces for future reference.
Conversely,many Sundanesemusicians seemto consider the degungkawih
based
because
it
on musical
are
such
pieces
repertoire much easier,mainly, appears,
in
other genres.
types
employed
extensively
of playing pattern
models and utilise
Drawing upon core competences,and transforming knowledge and skills that have
that
from
training,
their
when
a
been
the
means
of
stages
earliest
acquired
usually
is
kawih
degung
there
song
Sundanesegamelan musician encountersan unfamiliar
frameworks
learn.
Moreover,
little
the
to
standardisedstructural
novel material
generally
68
underpinning this repertoire make it possible for Sundanesemusiciansto formulaically
fudge their way through unknown pieceswhen necessaryand to 'leam by doing'.
Learning degung kawih on a one-to-onebasis,however, is problematic because,
althoughtechnicallysimpler,individualinstrumentalpartsdo not makemuchmusical
in
sensewhen studied isolation. Rather, eachpart slots in with and functions as a frame
of referencefor the others.In addition, this type of repertoire is subject to various types
be
that
transfonnation
can
only
satisfactorily encounteredand practised
of structural
interactive
learning
The
situation.
group
on-stage
within an
envirorunentdescribed
above ensuresthat Sundanesegamelan musicians develop such flexibility from the
Conversely,
having
their
training.
only studied Sundanesemusic privately, I
outset of
found my first experiencesplaying degungkawih in a group situation a rather testing
and disorientating experience.
It seemedthat every time I was on the verge of getting to grips with a particular
drummer
the
pattern,
melodic
would signal a changeof tempo or wilet (level of
structural expansionor contraction) that demandedthat I either condenseor elaborate
that pattern. Without even a passiveknowledge of Sundanesedrumming, following
rhythmic cueswas difficult enough.After a structural transition I would frequently find
having
'at
myself
sea',
even lost my senseof the basic pulse. Uneasily busking along as
best I could, I would desperatelylisten out for the goong, the central landmark in this
fluid musical landscape.On other occasionsI would havejust worked out a suitable
saron (metallophone)or honang part when anothermusician would start to Play an
interlocking motif (caruk) that I would then be obliged to join in with. It often felt as
though as soon as I startedto enjoy playing a given part with relative confidencethere
would be a changeof piece or I would be prompted to move to a different instrument.
Although only a degungkawih 'beginner, I felt under a certain amount of pressureto
appearcompetenton such occasionsbecausemy knowledge of the degungHas&
repertoire suggestedto the other players that I was a much more accomplisheddegung
musician than was the case.
In stark contrast, Sundanesemusicians generally consider repertoiresthat are
basedon denser,melodicallyffixedmodels- suchasthedegungklasikpieces- asthe
for
Sunda,
difficult
learn.
In
to
tembang
example,the mamaossongsare deemed
most
69
dynamic
because
the
hardest
ornaments
to
smallest
of
vocal
and
even
the
songs master
kacapi
Conversely,
be
the
the
most
rincik,
replicated.
accurately
must
nuances
'improvised' instrumentalpart in tembangSunda,is consideredas the most suitable
lowest
level
financial
beginners;
for
the
the
of
rincik player also receives
starting point
in
in
Javanese
Sutton
that
the
concurs
gamelan playing
group.
remuneration
improvisation is often used as "faking" and "recovery" and that "the inexperienced
(1998a:
86).
improvising
is
likely
do
than
the
to
experiencedone"
more
performer
2.2.6 The social dimension to learning
The perceiveddifficulty of the degung klasik and mamaosrepertoiresmay be, at least in
increased
to
the
attributable
piece-specific memorisation required and the
part,
feasibility of suchmemorisation within conventional leaming environments.In an oral
musical culture, particularly prior to the advent of notation and recording technology,
the opportunity to learn long, melodically fixed pieceswas the preserveof those
have
to
sufficient accessto a teacher-figure and, if relevant, a set of
privileged enough
instrumentson which to practice. It is a fact that the early history of degung in Bandung
is often outlined by tracing a lineage of esteemedteacher-playersthat begins with Idi in
the original kabypaten group. Idi, for example, is said to have taught Atma and Oyo who
both went on to teach Entjar Tjarmedi, former director of the influential RRI gamelan
degung group. Familial associationsplay an important role in determining many of these
teacher-studentrelationships,with younger players "inheriting knowledge" and status
from their fathers and uncles (seeSukandain Harrell 1974:226-227). During my time in
Bandung, I often heard it lamentedthat while tembangSunda and wayang continue to
degung
left
be
tradition.
to
the
there
thrive,
pass
on
gamelan
one
soon
no
will
evolve and
Such commentsrefer to the passing away of most of the older generationof veteran
kabypaten and RRI trained musicians qualified to act as specialist transmitters of the
degung klasik genre, as well as the general decline of RRI as a govemment-funded
teaching institution and centre of musical excellence.
70
Outside of formal educationestablishments,today's Sundanesegamelan musicians
is
Has&
This
degung
have
the
to
primarily
repertoire.
the
opportunity work on
seldom
becausedegung groupstend to be run as commercial enterprisesand most Sundanese
Komaran
Ade
to
of
styles
repertoire.
modem
audiencesare considered prefer
join
for
in
financial,
his
the
that
own
group
youngsters
gamelan
many of
complained
for
for
to
than
get
paid
any performancesthat they
expecting
artistic reasons,
rather
Accordingly,
in
from
their
training.
they are only preparedto
the
of
outset
participate
invest time learning and rehearsingrepertoire that will sell (P-c.,2000b). Cook also
become
Has&
"have
have
large
they
the
that
pieces
unfamiliar",
rather
as
observes
"gained an undeservedreputation for being extremely difficult to play" (1992:8). One of
foreign
that
the
teachers
now only
studentswill voluntarily spendthe
comment
made
my
time learning this older style repertoire; while one day the degung Has& 'tradition' may
be forgotten in Sunda,he continued, at least it might live on in Europe or America.
The reality of the situation is, of course,that foreign studentsare rarely subject to
the samesocio-culturalconventionsandfinancialconstraintsthat inhibit the conductand
hospitalityis suchthat even
limit the choicesof youngSundanese
musicians.Sundanese
female,
honorary
foreigners,
treated
or
are
as
guestsandwarmly
male
unknown
Foreignstudents
at mostrehearsals
andperformances.
welcomedandaccommodated
degree
have
"an
of accessto mastermusicians"(Brinner 1995:149).
unusual
also
Williams writes thatexperienced
musicians"willingly accepta foreignerasa private
but...
for
foreign
just
for
having
brings
the
the
that
student
money,
prestige
a
studentnot
beginners,on the otherhand,gaininginitial
to the teacher"(1990:234).For Sundanese
depends
having
form
into
community
some
socio-musical
often
on
a
particular
entrance
least
being
family
or
at
on
a memberof a particular
or
social
connection,
of
happens
to rehearseor perform.
neighbourhoodwherea group
The adventof affordablerecordingtechnologyandcommerciallyproduced
Nearly
democratised
has
to
some
extent.
all
of
competence
aspects
acquisition
cassettes
learning
listed
cassettes
resourcethat
as
a
primary
of my questionnairerespondents
latest
date
keep
to
the
the
to
to
well
them
as
as
emulate
repertoire,
with
up
enables
instrumental and vocal techniquesof their favourite artists in more studied detail.
Nevertheless,the majority of Sundanesemusicians do not own their own recording
71
Not
have
limited
tools.
educational
a
use
as
recordings
equipmentand mass-produced
in
interested
types
that
they
the
consider
of
repertoire
only
recording
are
producers
only
instruments
in
final
but,
be
the
are always audibly
certain
studio mix,
to marketable
from
learn
for
is
to
It
thus,
a
suling
much
easier
example,
privileged over others.
is
it
than
gambang.
commercial cassette
In any event, Sundanesemusic is first and foremost a social music, and gaining
andrecognitionwithin a specialisedmusicalcommunityor networkof
acceptance
Sundanese
becoming
Moreover,
the
a working artist.
communitiesan essentialpart of
is
for
becoming
the
that
mainreasons
a musician thatyou will always
oneof
oftensay
havelots of friends(Foley 1979).Depictingthe tembangSundarehearsalasa social
is
latihan
Williams
"Many
that
more
as
a
music
practice
a
as
well
writes,
say
gathering
fun if therearemorepeoplepresent,andclaim thatthey attendto give semangator
(1990:
full
225).
Sundanese
the
to
proceedings"
of
often
enthusiasm
rehearsalsare
laughterandSundanese
musiciansknown for their senseof humourandlove of comedy.
Thereis, however,a darkersideto suchlaughterasridicule is alsoa commonmethodof
"social andmusicalcontrol" (ibid.). As Williams notes,"One of the quickestandmost
learn
is
his
him
by
to
to
to
student
cause
a
ways
quickly
make
so embarrassed
effective
he
(ibid.
).
them"
that
never
repeats
mistakes
Certainly,deep-rooted
socialandfamilial affiliations serveto regulatea music
tradition as it is transferredfrom one generationto the next. Apprentice tembang
in
for
because
their
they
musical
choices
are
often
example,
restricted
musicians,
becomebeholdento the teachersfrom whom they inherited their vocal or instrumental
technique.Tensions arisewhen a trainee decidesthat it is time to branch out and
from
borrow
techniques
to
rival singers or
or
perform with other musicians
instrumentalists.Furthermore, if a period of apprenticeshipendsbefore the teacher is
inevitable.
be
feelings
hard
to
appear
and strainedrelationships
ready,
Nano Suratnosuggestedthat in the post-court urban environment, it is the
discipline, loyalty and obligation engenderedin such personalteacher-student
interactionsthat has enabledtembangSundato continue to thrive as an elitist art form
least
Without
(p.
2000b).
or
at
equivalent,
with strict codesof performancepractice c.,
been
have
degung
much
musicians
sufficiently prohibitive social sanctions,gamelan
freer to drive more radical changes.As degungplayers continue to experimentwith
72
instrumentation,
techniques,
and
an
novel
arrangements
expanded
a
unorthodox playing
few musiciansmay quietly grumble that no one plays the classical repertoire anymore.
However, even the most radical degung innovations no longer arousethe passionate
public outcries and debatethat still result when tembangmusiciansalter the smallest
details of performancepractice.
2.3
Gamelan degung in formal education programmes
The first all-student gamelan degung groups were establishedin the 1950s.Since then,
severalBandung educationalinstitutions, including ITB and the University of Pajajaran,
have continued to run degungclubs as part of extra-curricula arts societies.More formal
coursesin gamelan degungare also found on the syllabusesof SMKI and STST.As the
Indonesiangovernment's establishmentof such institutions has beencritiqued elsewhere
(see,for example,Sutton 1991), 1will now restrict my remarks to the position of
in
degung
Bandung's stateeducationsector.
gamelan
In contrastto the relatively specialist apprenticeshipsundertakenby musicians
formal
of
educationsettings,high school diploma and degreecoursesdemand
outside
that music studentsacquire a more broad-based'global' competence.As a result, one of
the continuing criticisms of institutions such as STSI and SMKI is that the graduates
they produce rarely excel "in any single genre or dancestyle" (Williams 1990:240).
Williams outlines a perpetuatingcycle of non-specialisationwhereby such graduates
then go on to becomethe new generationof teachersat theseinstitutions (ibid., 236240). One STSI instructor confided to me that the tuition offered by the school is only
intended to supply studentswith a basic foundation in performance skills. Consequently,
the teacherin question encourageshis current traineesto gain additional experienceby
attaching themselvesto working gamelan groups in and around Bandung. Farrell
describesa comparablesituation in India.
is still a widespreadculturalassumptionthattheguruthere
...
is
(master-disciple
tradition)
still considered
shishyaperampera
the only trueway to producegoodplayers,andit is oftenthe
has
been
throughthe collegesystemwill
that
who
someone
case
if
have
intensive
for
they
training
to
afterwards
any
go a guru
(2001:
59).
be
to
performer
a
professional
ambitions
73
Formally unqualified 'master' musicianshave sometimesbeenbrought into Bandung
Entjar
instruction
to
as
students.
staff
as
well
to
practical
schools offer more specialist
Tjarmedi, for example,was contractedto teachgamelan degungto the staff at SMKI,
former
Similarly,
RRI
(Upandi
36).
1997:
in
1970s
STSI
the
another
to
and studentsat
from
degung
STSI
1988
to
Sutisna,
Sulaeman
taught
at
gamelan
gamelan musician,
1999.Despite their higher levels of practical expertise,such 'natural' artists are not
be
fully-fledged
become
teaching
the
only
can
to
staff
and
membersof
permitted
bone
luar
biasa
instructor').
dosen
('extra-ordinary
It
of
a
remains
employed as
instructors
degree,
these
that
receive
without a recognised
extra-ordinary
contention
lower rates of pay and none of the associatedbenefits of their 'qualified' counterparts.
On the degreeprogramme at STSI, gamelan degung has to competefor timetable
host
Karawitan
Sundanese
other
genres.
of
and
non-Sundanese
a
whole
spacewith
(Indonesiantraditional music) studentshave to take group lessonsin every principal
instrument and vocal style and to follow coursesin all of the main Sundanesegamelan
from
Aside
Sundanesetraditional music, studentsalso take
based
kacapi
genres.
and
in
Baaese,
Javaneseand Sumatranmusics, and additional classroom
tuition
practical
basedsubjectssuch as notation, composition, ethnomusicology, arts appreciation and
karawitan
The
courseconvenor explained that one of the reasons
studies.
multimedia
that the programme is so broad is that all Indonesianhigher education institutions are
dictated
the
to
a
government
national curriculum. This
requirements
of
obliged meet
demandsthat the scopeof the syllabus be cast even wider to incorporate subjectssuch as
English language,religious studiesand Indonesianhistory.
The way in which gamelan is taught at STSI and SMKI is also Prescribedby a
detailed curriculum. I observedstaff at SMKI teaching gamelan degung from semesterindividual
learning
for
dictate
job
the
that
objectives
sessions
specific
sheets
specific
(including, for example,whether the pedagogicemphasisshould be on instrumental
formal
be
taught
the
to
the
methods of
and
pieces
technique or group playing) as well as
is
Sundanese
be
to
notation
also widely used as a primary
cipher
employed.
assessment
institutions.
lesson
SMKI
both
in
plans even specify
transmission
at
classes
meansof
in
it
first
'read',
turns to play the piece under study.
then
take
and
that studentswill
Studentsare, however, expectedto memorisethe repertoire for the ongoing tests and end
finally
by
they
graded.
are
of semesterexaminations which
74
I was told on severaloccasionsthat while degung occupiesa central place on the
karawitan syllabus at SMKI, the ensembleholds a much more peripheral and ambiguous
for
in
fact,
2000-2001,
In
the
STSI.
only
offered
as
a
module
ensemble
was
position at
degree
STSI
four)
(semester
in
total
the
on
a
of
nine
semesters
of
out
study one
Javanese
Balinese
Sunda
the
Tembang
on
other
and
gamelan,
and
even
programme.
hand, could be studied for up to two semesters.Another point of difference between the
degung coursesoffered at both institutions is that while the SMKI curriculum covers a
learn
degung
Has&
STSI
style pieces.
only
wider range of repertoire-types,studentsat
Somemembersof the STSI staff are openly dismissive about what they consider to be
the technical simplicity and commercial ephemeralityof the largely derivative degung
kawih repertoire, arguing that the businessmentality driving its creation has no place in
institution
At
formal
the
time,
teachers
the
same
work or
several
at
music curriculum.
a
have worked as freelancedegungcomposers,supplementingtheir low incomesby
in
for
Bandung
companies
and Jakarta.
writing songs record
The gamelan degung is ffirther marginalized at STSI becauseit is not considered
for
in
final
demanding
the
vehicle
specialisation
year performance
sufficiently
as a
held
in
based
in
Bandung
1999,
STSI
At
'degung
the
composer
conference'
a
recital.
Ismet Ruchimat was critical of tile fact that gamelan degung instrumentsare only ever
if
being
for
in
final
they
used
as
a
vehicle
an avant-garde
are
year
examination
seen a
in
(1999).
Nevertheless,
by
kreasi
Ccreation')
a
student
composition
majoring
style
more recent changesto the examination systemmeanthat a suling specialist can now
include a selection of degungklasik pieces as a part of their final degreepresentation.
Paradoxically, despitehaving such a low profile on the STSI timetable, many of
Bandung's most well-known and respectedgroups, including SasakaDomas, mainly
draw their rank-and-file degungplayers from STSI circles. Indeed, playing degung at
Bandung functions continuesto be one of the ways in which many music studentshelp
to fund their way through college. The influence of STSI/SMKI Playing styles,
into
has
the wider musical community as
terminology
also
spilled
over
pedagogyand
have
gainedpart-time employment working as
students
and
many membersof staff
75
gamelan degunginstructors,composers,and arrangerswith privately owned groups and
local government-sponsoredarts organisationsin and around the Bandung area.5
That the relative absenceof gamelan degung instruction at STSI appearsto have
little bearing on the professionalactivities of the institution's studentand graduate
populations is primarily due to the fact that the basic knowledge and skills required to
play the more popular degungrepertoiresare largely acquirable in the context of the
school's gamelanpelog-salendro classes.Young players also have additional
improve
to
their knowledge of contemporarydegung idioms by attaching
opportunities
themselvesto working groups in the city, as well as by keeping up-to-datewith the latest
cassettesreleases.STSI and SMKI studentseven have a distinct advantageover nonformally trained musicianswhen it comesto being recruited to play on new degung
recordings becausethey are more familiar with Sundanesecipher notation. The most
degung
composers,such asNano S. and lik Setiawan,routinely transcribe
prominent
their gamelan degungarrangementsand expect their players to learn selectedparts from
(see
6.3).
In
fact,
score
actual
written
a
as outlined in chapter 1, the through-composed
style of instrumental arrangementthat dominatesthe commercial degung kawih genre
tracesback to the musical innovations of the influential pedagogue,Koko Koswara, a
fonner director of both educationalinstitutions.
5 For example,the influential Jugalagroup has consistently looked to STSI trained musiciansto act as the
in-house
directors
their
ensembles.STSI's Isinet Ruchimat led Jugala's degung ensemble
of
own
artistic
in 2000-2001, during which time the group was made up almost entirely of STSI studentsor recent
instructor
The
at Jugalawas another STSI alumnus, lik Setiawan,leader of
previous
gamelan
graduates.
the popular degung group Sulanjana.Similarly, the prolific degungkawih composerand erstwhile SMKI
instructor (and former Jugalaemployee),Nano Suratno,continuesto employ studentand graduateplayers
on his own commercial recordings.
76
2.3.1 UPI and gamelan degung in primary and secondary schools
Aside from SMKI and STSI, gamelan degung is also taught at UPI (Universitas
Pendidikan Indonesia, 'Indonesian University of Education'), Bandung's foremost
teachertraining establishment.Many SMKI graduatesopt to continue their studies at
UPI, rather than at STSI, in the belief that a university education"offers greater
in
field"
(Williams
in
1990:
degree
239).
A
a
non-musical
music
employment potential
from
UPI also automatically qualifies graduatesto work as schoolteachers.
education
Reflecting music teaching in Indonesianstateschools-which mainly consists of
singing diatonic Indonesian-languagesongsand memorising abstractelementsof basic
Western music theory - the degreein music educationat UPI concentrateson Western
classical and popular musics. Studentstake coursesin theoretical subjectssuch as
Western music history, analysis,composition, harmony and counterpoint, as well as
instruments
including
tuition
the piano and guitar. However, as
on
receive practical
Bandung school children are sometimesgiven the opportunity to engagein practical
Sundanesemusic making aspart of a compulsory 'local curriculum' (muatan lokao,
student teachersare given the opportunity to learn gamelan degungand other Sundanese
and Indonesiangenresaspart of a single module entitled MusikNusantara ('Music of
the Indonesianarchipelago').
In reality, only a small minority of schools in Bandung are in the privileged
housing
their owngamelansets;evenso,the majority of thesearegamelan
positionof
6
degung(Koizumi et al 1977:26). Upandimentionsa governmentprogrammeto
distributeiron degungsetsto schoolsin the 1980s(Upandi1997:81 fh42),while a local
in
initiative
1997
department
sawthe allocationof a varietyof traditional
education
instrumentsto a groupof selectprimary schoolswhich havebeenawardedspecialistarts
known
SD
(Sekolah
IPK
Dasar
Induk
Pengembangan
These
as
schools,
status.
Kesenian,'SpecialistPrimarySchoolfor the Developmentof the Arts'), received
kacapi,
iron
degung
bamboo
(tuned
suling,
as
well
as
gamelan
sets.
rattles),
angklung
61heardseveralexplanations
for why gamelandegungtendsto bechosenovergamelansalendo in
mainstreamschoolsettings.Theserangedfrom the relativesimplicityof degungrepertoireandthe
inherentrespectabilityof this urbanensemble,
to the fact thatBandungchildrenaremorefamiliarwith the
degung
hear
degung
because
they
tuning
songsat weddingsandon pop Sundarecordings.
regularly
pelog
77
Apart from such specialistprogrammes,select secondaryschool groups also receive
gamelan degungtuition in after-schoolclasseson the STSI campus.
Degung classesat primary and secondaryschool level usually culminate in
7
competitive gamelan degungcontestsrather than tests or exams. In September2000,
for instance,the local educationdepartmentin Bandung sponsoredan inter-school
degung competition for those specialistprimary schools(SD IPK) in receipt of gamelan
degung sets.The alleged aims of the competition were to motivate the studentgroups
involved as well as to evaluatethe extent to which the instrumentswere being used. One
educationofficial explained that the feedbackgained from the event would partly
determinewhether or not to widen the instrument-distribution programme to other
Bandung schools.Education departmentofficials, STSI teachersand other prominent
musicianswere brought in to judge the event, the victor of which received a large cash
for
the school and the ubiquitous over-sizedtrophy commonly
prize
awardedon such
occasions.
Thewinning primaryschooldegunggroupcomprisedfive femalepupils aged
between sevenand ten years, and a ten-year-old male student.The male studenthad
been studying kendang for three years outside of the school with a family member
and
so was naturally selectedto play this instrument. Gender stereotyping was further
reinforced as the suling was also played by the sole male teacher involved in the project.
The group, which rehearsesover break-times, is run by membersof the general teaching
staff who, while extremely enthusiastic,have never received any specific training in
Sundanesemusic. On the day that I attendeda rehearsalat the school, all of the parts to
the degung Has& piece AyunAmbing (the competition set piece) were written out in
Sundanesecipher notation on a white board in the centre of the music room. The rest of
the walls were covered in the Western staff notation that is used by the school's
from
Learning
and
group
choir.
a basic beginner's manual, one of the degung
angk1ung
group leaders,a full-time teacherat the school, confessedto only ever remaining one
sessionaheadof the pupils.
7 SeeWilliams(2003)for finther informationaboutSundanese
musiccompetitions.
78
In fact, compiling books of songsand simple notations for this type of amateurgroup is
STSI
Ismet
Ruchimat
lik
for
graduates.
and
entrepreneurial
anothersideline activity
Setiawan,for example,published a set of three gradedpractice books to support
in
local
curriculum courses Sundanesemusic (see Setiawanand
secondary-school-level
Ruchimat 1996).Aside from introducing studentsto broaderhistorical and theoretical
issues,thesebooks contain hands-onsuling exercises,traditional songsand basic
STSI
Suparman,
degung
Another
Ade
graduate,
also put
arrangements.
gamelan
together two books of suling degungand gamelan degung"etudes" (seeSuparman2000
& 200 1a). Published locally, the first run of copiesof the gamelan degung book sold out
increased
demand
for
Suparman
suggested,
a
current
reflecting,
such
within weeks
leaders
(p.
2001b).
schoolteachers
and
amongst
group
resources
c.,
curriculum
This type of classroom-focusedinitiative is not a new phenomenon;as noted in
WestJavanese
to encourage
schoolchildrento sing
chapter1, local governmentschemes
far
date
back
least
at
as
asthe 1930s(Kunst 1973:394-395).In the early
regionalsongs
his intentionto widenparticipationin Sundanese
1950s,Koko Koswaraalsoexpressed
by
for
their
young
school
children
with
providing
repertoire
appropriate
education
music
agegroup(Ruswandi1995:17-18).Cangkurileung(1), a bookof illustratedkawih songs
for primary schoolchildren,wassubsequently
publishedin 1955(ibid., 69).The songs,
degung
in
tunings,covera rangeof topicsincluding
the
and
salendro
pelog
which are
typesof children'sgames(OrcV-OrayanandMaenBao andthejoy of singing
Sundanese
songs(HayuKawih andNgawih).The earliestbooksintendedto facilitatethe
teachingof degungdo not appearto havebeenavailableuntil the 1970swhenTjarmedi
et al (1974)andJuju SainMartadinata(1973,1976)bothproducedcollectionsof simple
for
formal
the
to
serve
as
material
notations
gamelancoursesbeingsetup aroundthis
time. Thesepublicationscontinueto be usedto teachdegungtodayand,assuch,will be
discussedagainwith referenceto cempres(metallophone)
in
playing chapter4.
79
Summary
This chapterhas situatedthe gamelan degungwithin the wider landscapeof the
Sundaneseperforming arts complex and reflected on the way in which the ensemblehas
field
function
for
to
as
an
auxiliary
of
specialisation
come
musicians originating from
disparateartistic spheres.It has arguedthat 'transformation' (as delineatedby Brinner
1995) is a domain of musical competencethat has particular relevancefor any
considerationof Sundanesemusicianship becauseSundanesesingersand
instrumentalistsare frequently called upon to transfer and adaptthe knowledge and
in
skills acquired one genrewhen performing in another; this, it was proposed,is
for
discussion
true
any
particularly
of musical competenceand gamelan degung.
Contrasting informal and formal, native and non-native approachesto musical
learning, this chapterhas also explored Brinner's contention that the manner in which
skills and knowledge are acquired favours the developmentof different types of
competenceor 'ways of knowing' (or, from the opposite perspective,that the knowledge
demanded
by
different
types of music systemprivilege distinctive approaches
and skills
to learning) (1995:134). It was shown that Sundaneseand foreign studentstend to find
different aspectsof Sundanesemusic more challenging than others precisely becauseof
the divergent ways in which both initially encountersuch materials.
The chapterconcludedby investigating the place of gamelan degung on the
curricula of primary, secondaryand tertiary-level education institutions in Bandung. It
was noted that many of Bandung's leading degung groups are made up of student or
graduateplayers and that the degung kaw1hgenre is historically rooted in and continues
to interlink the 'worlds' of formal music education and music commerce.Although the
study now moves to a more analytical investigation of degung repertoires,the issue of
learning and competenceacquisition will continue to resurfacein subsequentchapters.
80
Chapter 3
Gamelan degung repertoire: degung klaslk and degung kaw1h
This study now turns more specifically to the music of the gamelan degung.
Collectively, the following three chaptersconsiderprocessesof transformation that are
in
degung
the
creation
and
realisation
of
repertoires.In order to pave the way
operative
for a more detailed investigation of melodic embellishmentand improvisation (chapter
4) and cross-genreadaptation(chapter 5), this chapterwill first examinethe two main
in
forms
degungperformance.Exploring the malleability of the
employed
musical
models structurally underpinning the klasik and kawih repertoires, it also considersthe
different
types of piece offer musicians for variation and improvisation. It
that
scope
begins,however, by outlining the key theoretical conceptsthat inform this discussion.
3.1
Points of departure
Music scholarshave previously noted the enormousvariety of models that function as
66pointsof departure" for improvised performance (Nettl 1998:12-13) and composition
(Nettl 1974:11). Someof thesemodels - be they melodic, harmonic, structural or
demand
degree
invention
templates
a
greater
of
rhythmic
novel
on the part of the
performer or composerthan others and, even within a specific repertoire, the "density"
of obligatory "points of reference" may vary from one piece to another Qbid, 13).
Berliner, for example,notesthat certainjazz compositions have only "partial melodies",
for
player
improvise
"space
the
to
passagesfor either a couple of measuresor
providing
harmonic
during
the
the melody's presentation" (1994:70).
segment
of
piece
a major
Other piecesmay only "consist of chord progressionsalone" and require "the
invention
in
(ibid.
).
Accordingly,
the
the
performance"
of
entire
melody
extemporaneous
blueprint underlying any performancemay be more or lessperceptible to any attending
listeners
have
"Unlegs
Berliner
exceptional abilities to grasp and
remarks
audience.
initially
be
ideas,
they
oblivious to the role of such models... It
may
retain musical
(ibid.,
bring
light"
238).
In
to
to
transcription
them
practice, models may
requires
often
by
less
Sumarsam,
for
be
themselves.
conceptualised
performers
or
explicitly
more
also
balungan)
instrumental
(the
line
that
the
privileging of a single
as the
example,proposes
81
discourse
is
didactic
a
principalmelodicmodelin Javanese
oversimplification.
gamelan
Instead,he suggeststhatmelodicmotionis guidedby a moreelusivemelody"which is
in
hearts"
(1975:7).
by
"musicians
their
unconsciouslysung"
As discussedin chapter2, the explicitnessof a musician'sknowledgedependsto
initial
learning
large
the
the
experience.That a musical model is
nature of
a
extent on
intuitively or unconsciously known often signals that a performer has been compelled to
distil instinctively its defining featureswithout recourseto any external explanatory
instruction. In addition, someaspectsof a music tradition are simply more complex,
ambiguousor implicit than others.Berliner observesthat in the face of disparate
form,
jazz
improvisers
or
renditions of a melody
must infer "the core of featuresthat
develop
its
"flexible
and
essence"
conceptualmaps of pieces" (1994:88).
comprise
Similarly, Pressingnotes that it is by encountering"multiple versions of important
musical entities" that trainee improvisers develop "an appreciationof the intrinsic
'fuzziness' of the musical concepf'(1988: 143). Such multiplicity is not only apparent in
the form of alternative versionsof specific models, but also in the instanceof discrete
models operating concurrently. Jazzmusicians,for example, integrateknowledge of a
piece's melody and accompanyingchord changesin their improvisations, with
performers transforming "the harmonic structuresof a piece as routinely as they do their
(Berliner
1994:82). Playersmay also know a single model from hierarchically
melodies"
shifting perspectives.Sutton remarksthat there are "different degreesof focus" within
the stratified layers of Javanesegamelan (1993:103); as musicians move vertically
through the multilevel texture, "Filling in becomes... the outline for more filling in"
(ibid., 89). Though gamelan players are expectedto have at least a passiveknowledge of
all of the ensemble'sconstitutive instrumental lines, the fact remainsthat musicians with
different specialist competencesmay conceive of a sharedmodel from divergent
standpoints.
For the purposesof organising this study, I differentiate betweenthose 'points of
from thevoice or
departure'that definea discretepieceof musicor composition-type
instrument-specific
proceduralor "operationalmodels"that "play a dynamicrole in the
the formercontrolof performance"(Brinner 1995:115-116).This chapteremphasises
the melodicandstructuralmodelsat the heartof the degungHas& anddegungkawih
idiomatically
in
these
than
the
which
models
are
multiple ways
repertoires- rather
82
treatableor actively realisable(seechapter4). Nevertheless,a considerationof the one
inevitably draws upon aspectsof the other. As Sutton notes with regard to Javanese
becomes
increasingly
difficult
between
line
dividing
"The
to
and
act
system
gamelan,
draw as one focuseson particular details of Javanesemusical construction" (1993:6).
Thus one cannot entirely separatewhat Sutton refers to as "systemic variation", the
instruments
heard
between
those
types
gamelan
of variation occurring
obligatory
from
"individual
of
structural
and
contraction,
or
as
a
result
expansion
simultaneously
is
that
which
more conditional upon the personal style and momentary
variation", or
(ibid.,
is
fact
166).
It
that the obligatory
of
a
particular
performer
also
a
creative whims
(points of reference' defting a given composition or musical form may be subject to
someof the sametransformative proceduresof expansion,contraction, transposition,
embellishmentand variation that are operative at higher levels of performance.Indeed,
Berliner proposesthat the transformation of the model is a central meansof generating
jazz
in
(1994:
70).
new repertoire
Virtually every feature of the music models that players bring to
a performance- comprising, at its outset, composed,prefigured,
fixed, or known elements- can serve during the performance as
a springboardfor the conception of an altered version of the
model or a new one that meetsthe samerequirements.In either
invention
the
may instantly join the artist's general
case,
storehouseof knowledge, where in relatively fixed form, it
awaits further use and transformation during the performance or
later
some
opportunity (ibid., 495).
Most gamelan degungpiecesare classifiable as either sekar ageung, large melodydriven pieces, or sekar alit, small piecesbasedon more flexible tonal frameworks. The
degung
the
the
that
the
transformability of
constitute
sekar ageung of
melodic models
klasik repertoire will be the starting point for this particular discussion.
83
3.2
Degung klasik
Theterm degungklasik('classicaldegung')is usedto referto the typeof instrumental
for
Sundancse
the
degung
the
that
at
nobility
performed
was
repertoire
gamelan
kabupaten.Thoughstill consideredasthe ensemble'slagu khas(specificrepertoire),
andarenow
thesepieceshavedeclinedin popularitysinceIndonesianIndependence
in
Rather
Bandung.
formal
thanreferring
courses
education
of
seldomperformedoutside
it
degung,
development
in
former
'classical'
the
seemsthat the
of
gamelan
to any
period
klasik labelprimarily describesthemusicalfeaturesthatdelineatethis discretebody of
in
1,
the
the
the
As
whatever
of
ensemble,
earliest
origins
chapter
outlined
repertoire.
klasik repertoireasit is knowntodayonly reliablytracesbackasfar asthe 1920s.
Moreover,severalof the klasikpiecesmostcommonlyheardtodaywerenot composed
is
1960s.
Indeed,
Ade
Komaran
late
1950s
that
there
the
early
suggested
and
until
if
from
in
idiomatic
they
this
to
composing
style
new
pieces
musicians
nothing prevent
sowish (p.c., 2000a).
At the coreof the degungHas&piecesarerelativelylong,cyclic melodiesthat
from
All
derived
the
this central melody
the'bonang.
of
other
parts
are
are played on
function,
(peking
heterophonically
depending
their
and
musical
embellish
upon
and,
(cempres
andjengglong) or rhythmically or colotomically punctuate
paraphrase
suling),
(kendang and goong) the bonang line (seeCook 1992:72-87). While the melodic basis
Tjarmedi
length
these
them
pieces
renders
classifiable
as
ageung,
sekar
of
and relative
differentiated betweenweightier degungHas& piecessuch asLadrak and Palwa, and
latter
described
like
Galatik
he
Mangut
Lalayaran;
klasik
the
as
and
style
pieces
shorter
Has& ringan (light classical) (1991).
Another distinguishing featureof the degung Has& pieces is that, like the oldest
begin
degung
Most
Sunda
the
tuning.
they
with a
tembang
all employ
pelog
songs,
leading
its
final
(pangkat
biasa)
introduction
bonang
to
cadence
which, with
standard
3,
2
5
tones
tone
and
embodiesthe modal characterof
on
secondary
emphasis
and
goong
in
the
older melodies this repertoire.
many of
84
Fig. 3:1 Standard degung klasik pangkat (bonang & jengglong)
.5
55 55 4323
2255
25
1.232
3334
3232
ý3.454 @
34-52
(bonang)
(I'glong)
Harrell observesthattwo of thejengglongdescribedin detailby Kunst(1923)only
had
2,3
5,
"while
the
these
three
the
now
one,
now
with
others
and
pitches
possessed
(1974:
49-50).
He
two
the
additionallypointsout that the
pitches"
remaining
otherof
in
denggungan
repertoire Solo,CentralJava,sharesan equivalentmodeto thatwhich
dominatesthe degungHas& pieces(ibid., 48-49).The musicalrelationshiplinking this
body of Javanese
gamelanrepertoireandthegamelandegung(or, in Cirebon,
Idenggung')may yield additionalcluesasto the history andevolutionof both
Sundanese
ensembles
andcertainlywarrantsftuther consideration
andJavanese
elsewhere.
Thedistinctivestyleof bonangplayingat the heartof the degungklasikgenreis
beaters,
The
fluidly distributing the melody between
two
uses
player
called gumekan.
both hands,performing occasionalpassagesin octaves,as well damping one kettle pot
is
integral
is
is
Damping
the
technique
the
part
of
an
sounded.
gumekan
and
next
as
bonang's
for
the
the
clean
execution
of
elaboratemelodic and rhythmic motifs.
essential
Cook suggeststhat in degung Has& damping is not only necessaryto "stop the different
be
is
just
but
"because
into
there
should
a
click
other"
also
which
each
notes running
bonang
is
damped"
(1992:
"In
73).
good
playing, the clicks and
audible when a note
intrinsic
(Cook
92000b:
damping
beaters
by
the
ornaments"
are
with
clucks produced
10). On the one hand then, gumekan is consideredas a performance technique, a way of
hand,
instrument;
the
the
bonang
the
on
other
on
the
melodically
and of moving
striking
bonang phrasesand motifs which constitute this technique are also regardedas an
intrinsic part of the melodic models on which the degung klasik pieces are constructed.
in
Repertoire and technique, systemand act, are not always practicably separated
Sundanesemusic.
85
3.2.1 Idiosyncratic forms, irregular metres and syncopation
Eachof the melodicallydefineddegungklasikpiecesis structurallyunique;manyhave
irregular
Consequently,
feature
forms
metrically
passages.
aside
asymmetric
andsome
from the §trOkeof the largegoongto markthe moststructurallysignificantpointsof
in
is
this typeof repertoire.As
there
colotomic
punctuation
standardised
no
cadence,
kempul
degung
in
1,
to
the
the
gong
was
only
added
smaller
gamelan
chapter
outlined
derivedpiecessometime
whenthe ensemblebeganto performgamelanpelog-salendro
illustrates
Figure
3:
2
lengths
Independence.
Indonesian
the
variable
of thegoong
after
klasik
in
bonang
found
Seler
Degung.
the
the
of
melody
piece
phrases
0CDtrackl
Fig. 3:2 Opening section of SelerDegung(bonang)
pangkat . 334
--1ý
55 43 25 1.232
ýýý
3334
4 beats
332
332
1512
332
3451
715414
MW
5215
17
S. 555
3451
5414
"oM
YET
5.121
2151
"l
37-454
4 beats
11232
3.2
5215
-i3.454
3-. 2 3.454
goong
12.1
51
.5
.
4 beats
7323 FOOM @72
5.121
1751-4 ý
5215
514 512 12.1
22
4 beats
4514 512 12.10.51
5215
6 beats
ýI;
ý
ý70ý
5. 555 5154 5551
%=
512
4 beats
4 beats
1'. 7ý"ý
5.555
2 beats
4514
-7 1M
5.2 223
4 beats
ITM32
51ý1111727771F(F21
4 beats
1512
@72
2 beats
M7
4514
5 beats
-77,
3452
4 beats
4 beats
332
3232
377M
3.454
ý45 3-3ý34
i M5 3.454
4
3232
2ý
rhythmic syncopation
86
@I
(bar-linesappearasnotatedin
Tjarmediel at, 1997:180-181)
Similarly, SangBango beginswith an irregular seven-beatmotif This samepattern,
however, is extendedto form a more standardeight-beatmotif in the secondgoong
phraseof Sangkuratu.
Fig. 3:3 Comparison of phrase found In Sang Bango and Sangkuratu (bonang)
SangBango (opening)
bar I
o25
1
o5
43 23
7 beats
25
01
43
.5
123215
43
2133
etc
o5
7 beats
7 beats
Sangkuratu (secondgoong phrase)
bar 9
25
.51
43 222
31.2
5
.5
8 beats
43 222
M4
31 etc
8 beats
(taken from Tjarmedi et al, 1997:141-147& 75-79)
Somemusicians claim that this repertoire usedto be much more metrically irregular
and
was originally performed at erratically fluctuating tempi. Tjarmedi suggestedthat
becausethe kabupatenof Bandunggamelan degung group was able to retain a relatively
fixed personnel,its membershad the opportunity to develop and rehearsemore
idiosyncratic material. The luxury of such specialisationis no longer an option for most
freelancegamelan musicians in Bandung today and, according to Tjarmedi, there has
thus been a tendencyto standardisecertain rhythmically lopsided motifs, adding or
beats
to make up more uniform, evenphraselengths that render the material
subtracting
(199
1). Certainly, the klasik piecesnow tend to be
to
to
teach
and
notate
easier
performed at a more homogeneoustempo, without any suddenloss of pace orjolting
acceleration.However, it should be noted that this type of supposition is also consistent
with a more generalisedglorification of the past in which the skills of former
favourably
to those of contemporary
musicians
are
always
compared
generationsof
(see
Williams 1990:56).
performers
87
Apart from irregular phraselengths,many degungklasik melodies are also characterised
by melodic and rhythmic syncopation.One exampleof rhythmic syncopationis found at
the end of the first, second,fourth and fifth lines of Seler Degung (bracketedin fig. 3:2
in
instrumental
fact,
In
various
parts, is particularly prevalent
above).
syncopation,
towards or at the end of phrases.Harrel], for example,observesthat the degung klasik
drummer signals the approachof a cadencepoint using a syncopatedrhythmic pattern
'
beat"
"on
(1974:
begins
153).
third
that
every
with a tung stroke
Fig. 3:4 Degung klasik cadential pattem (kendang)
335
t..
y
1232
1525
1.232
A-t.
t. A.
YýýYyy
t.
33
3334
3232
3452
At
ptd
3.454
(bonang)
tt
(kendang)
3222
Kendang symbols: t= tung, p= pak. d= dung
Similarly, thejengglong also commonly anticipatesthe imminent arrival of a cadential
goong 5 (also seefig. 3: 1 above)by sounding a syncopatedrepeatedtone 5 that cuts
binary
the
overriding
across
metrical structureof the phrase.
Fig. 3:5 Degung klasik cadential pattem Uengglong)
335
1232
-
-: L--
1525
1.232
ýýq..
3334
Emwý
3232
3452
3.454
31355
I-Y--j
L-Y-j
(bonang)
(I'glong)
33
1Spillernotesthatin Sundanese
of the groupingof threewith the
gamelanthe"noncongruence
towardthegoongstrokewhile maintaininga
unrelentingduplemeter"createsa "senseof acceleration
steadypulse"(2001:86-87).
88
Someof the gumekanmotifs played on the bonang in degung klasik are also internally
into
that
specific
are
configured
structured
so
pitches
groups of three.
melodically
Although using homogeneousrhythmic patterning, the repeatedsounding of tone 2
by a disjunct2-5-2 leap)in the first half of this samecadentialphraseon
(emphasised
the bonang createsa similar senseof metrical displacement.
Fig. 3:6 Syncopation In the bonang part leading to a cadence point
112-32 15-25 M232 =3341-3232 ý3452
35
3.454
.
2332
Somedegungklasikmelodiesareactuallydefinedby suchsyncopated3+3+2
groupings.Tjarmedi'scompositionLambangParahyangan,for example,openswith a
is
that
constructedaroundthis type of melodicpatterning.
repeatedmotif
Fig. 3:7 Syncopation In the bonang part of Lambang Parahyangan
02431=342
LY-j LYJ
M
43 2 524312342
YY
3323
43 25
etc
etc
This samemotif, transposeddown one tone, is also usedto add a senseof confusion in
the degung klasik piece Lutung Bingung (Confiised Monkey).
Fig. 3:8 Syncopation In the bonang part of Lutung Bingung
-1
415-1 3
035413453
L-,j L-ri
y
3323
135413453
-M
Y
etc
89
ý--1
4354 31 letc
Both of thesepieceswere allegedly composedfor theatrical performancesin the early
1960s.Tjarmedi statedthat around this time degungplayers beganto experiment with
developing new bonang techniquesand that this included borrowing melodic elements
from Balinese music (1991). Such melodic syncopationis indeeda feature of the
interlocking figuration played on the reyong (gong-chime instrument similar to the
bonang) in various types of Balinesegamelan. With referenceto gamelan beleganjur
"three-note
kebyar,
Bakan
that
the
these
effect
of
rhythmic groupings...
writes
and gong
in
heard
be
likened
the
three-against-four
to
syncopation
ragtime piano music"
might
(1999:55).
3.2.2 Thefixity of the sekar ageung form
The melodic and rhythmic idiosyncrasiesthat define individual degungklasik pieces
mean that transformative processesof structural expansion,contraction and transposition
density
body
In
this
the
of the prescribed
of
repertoire.
addition,
within
are not operative
for
individual
little
leaves
embellishment or
players
with
relatively
room
model
melodic
baku)
(sudah
both
'standardised'
described
Lili
Suparli
this
and
as
repertoire
variation.
&melodicallyprescribed' (sudahdipola) (p.c., 2001a). During lessons,however, it
becameapparentthat certain sectionsof melody are more rigidly fixed than others.
While somephrasesoffer players limited opportunities for variation, musicianscan be
quite pedantic about the melodic and rhythmic execution of others.
The opening sectionsof the piecesPalwa and Lambang, for example,are almost
identical;2 the only difference betweenthe two is that in the rising sequencetranscribed
in figure 3:9 below, the lowest tone in the four-note pattern (which is highlighted in
bold) remains on a static tone I in Lambang, but ascendsup to tone 4 in Palwa. I was
incorporated
inadvertently
I
immediately
find
I
the
to
that
correctedwhen
was
surprised
Lambang variant into my realisation of Palwa. Confused as to why such a small,
Sutisna
Entis
that
this
detail
to
trivial
explained
so
much,
matter
seemed
seemingly
know
let
the
two
the
difference
to
the
of
which
group
of
rest
signal
as
a
acts
subtle
(p.
2001).
is
being
c.,
played
pieces
2 As statedin chapter 1, Lambang is said to have been composedin imitation of Palwa when the degung
ensemblewas first permitted to perform outside of the court environment.
90
Fig. 3:9 Comparison of a phrase found in Palwa and Lambang (bonang)
Palwa
bar3
12223
13.343
222
22 5.515
2.242
2.242
5.515
3.343
4.454
-M.
-3-.
ýMUI
4-54
3.343
2.242
2.242
4.414
4.414
3.3131
=334letc
Lambang
bar 3
12223
13.313
222
22 5.51515.515
2.212
2.212
3-. 3115-13.313 2.212
2.212733-41
etc
Crakenfrom Tjarmediet al, 1997:116-121& 127-131)
All the same,while the adventof commercialrecordingsandnotationcompilationshas
led to the increasingstandardisation
of this repertoire,playersstill know divergent
versionsof piecesandtheir constituentmotifs. Harrell evensuggeststhat at onetime
"eachleaderof a gamelanmight makehis own versionof a piece"(1974:124).
Musiciansexplainedthatthesedisparaterenditionsusuallyarosewhenmemorylapses
becamefixed astraditionalpractice.Entis Sutisna
led to mistakesthat subsequently
book
degung
Has&
Entjar
Tjarmedi
that
of
working
on
a
when
alongside
recalled
in
(Tjarmedi,
it
difficult
1990s
Suparman,
Sutisna,
1997)
Resmana
the
proved
notations
for the assembled
musiciansto decidewhich particularversionsof piecesto transcribe
(p.c., 2001).Learninggamelandegungfrom differentteachers,manualsandrecordings,
become
discrepancies
apparentat motivic, aswell aswider melodicandstructural
such
levels.This is especiallytrue of thosedegungklasikmelodiesthat arenow rarely
in
(partially
fig.
Seler
Degung
Some
sections
notated
of
playersomit entire
performed.
3:2 above),aswell asvary the piece'smelodicandrhythmicdetails,occasionallyadding
irregular
beats
from
phrases.
or subtracting
91
3.2.3 Shared melodic phrases
While eachpieceis definedby its own uniquemelodiccontourandresultingstructural
framework,the degungklasikrepertoireis unitedby a corpusof sharedmelodicphrases.
Someof thesephrasesservespecificfunctions,suchasfilling in tonally staticsections
formulae.
Tjarmedi,
According
this
to
stock
the
cadential
acting
as
or
contour
melodic
of
(199
in
important
1).
the
process
composition
original
role
an
of recurringphrasesplayed
As the improvisingmusiciandrawsuponan existingvocabularyof conventionalphrases
have
degung
in
these
to
the
utilised
said
so
players
are
act
of
performance,
andgestures
blocks'
flesh
'building
the
to
novel
contextualise
out
and
as
melodic
motifs
extant
Has&
degung
As
Sutton
defining
their
observeswith
compositions.
own
material
"Composition
Javanese
to
music,
of newpieces"oftenconsistsof
gamelan
reference
"reworkingtraditionalmaterialsandis, thus,essentiallythe samequality of activity as is
degung
despite
inflexibility
(1993:
45).
Thus
the
the
of
relative
musicalperformance"
klasikmelodiesasperformancemodels,transformativeprocesses
canbe seento operate
individual
from
In
the
words,
a
wider
perspective,
a
whole.
other
as
repertoire
across
be
be
to
their
component
motifs
can
considered
expanded,contracted,
and
pieces
transposed
andvariantversionsof eachother.
Aside from their role in the compositionalprocesstheserecurringphrasesalso
bring
important
they
that
the
mnemonicutility;
elementof melodicredundancy
servean
to a pieceof musicsignificantlyreducesthe amountof novelmaterialrequiring
identifies
'gumekan
Somawijaya
playingpatterns'
and
names
seventeen
memorisation.
(pola tabuhangumekan)in a textbookspecificallydesignedto systematise
and
(1986).
Only
degung
klasik
STSI
Bandung
teaching
the
the
repertoireat
of
accelerate
in
be
in
book
to
this
the
usageamongst
two
presented
appear
names
of
pattern
one or
(albeit
in
list
fourteen
them
a
today's working musicians,although
of
also appear
S
in
(1974).
illustrations)
Tj
omawij aya concededthat when
armedi
without notated
developing this pedagogicsystemmuch was left to his own imagination, even though at
the outset of t4e project he did researchthe use of suchphrasenaming amongstolder
in
indicated
he
that
there
In
(p.
2001).
are other precedents
addition,
musicians c.,
Sundanesemusic for naming isolated melodic and rhythmic patterns.Certain gambang
komprang
(brother
like
have
for
sister) or calana
titles
akang aceuk
motifs,
example,
92
(flared trousers),and occasionallyeven accompanyinglyrics. Lili Suparli explained that
in the absenceof notation, having an evocative label with which to mentally tag a
beginners
to
text
to
provides
with something
sing
along
particular motif or a simple
tangible with which to memorisea given playing pattern (p.c., 2001a).
Nevertheless,abstractingeven the most commonly reoccurring degung klasik
is
Evidently,
by
from
their
process.
no
means
a
clear-cut
wider
melodic
contexts
motifs
the construction of the klasik pieces did not simply entail the patch-working together of
discretemelodic units of standardisedlength. In actual fact, smaller melodic fragments
form extendedphrases,which themselvesact as constituent elementswithin even larger
musical sequencesand sectionsof pieces.Furthermore,many of the most common
phrasesand their componentmotifs are also subject to various types of melodic and
from
transformation
one piece or performanceto another. Piecesare thus
rhythmic
hierarchically-interrelated
by
tangle
a
of
morphing motifs, rendering singleconnected
dimensional cataloguingproblematic.
3.2.4 An examination of common melodic patterns
One recurring melodic sequencethat is commonly 'named' by practising musicians is
functions
(to
that
to end a piece or major
subside),
or
a
cadential
collapse
pattern
rugrug
3
figuration
The
tonally-static
a
octave-wide
on pitch 5 at the beginning
section of piece.
imminent
'collapse'
by
the
the
this
signals
of
melody
way of a formulaic
phrase
of
descentto a stroke of the large goong on tone 5 an octave below. According to
Tjarmedi, this octave motif was originally one beat shorter but was extendedat some
point as part of the wider metrical standardisationof this repertoire mentioned above
(1991).
3 In STSI circles this phraseis also called cindek (to abbreviateor shorten) (Sornawijaya 1986:62).
93
Fig. 3: 10 Rugrug, phrase (bonang)
-57M55
5
--5-7.555 5.555
5.555
551
12
TM
2ý5 1.232
335
..............
4-ý
ýýI
1232
1525
3334
1.232
%ý
ý
3232
3452
. RMEPý
@1
3.454
The rugrug sequenceitself is constructedfrom a number of commonly reoccurring
is
listed
in
One
Somawijaya's
kedet
these
of
catalogue
of
as
motifs.
phrases
component
(wink of the eye or chase)(1986:53). The kedet motif is a six-tone end-of-phrasegesture
that pervadesdegung Has& honangmelodies. Occurring in every piece (Tjarmedi et al,
1974:17) and, indeed, usedthree times in the rugrug phraseabove,this motif is used to
cadenceon every tone of thepelog degung scale.
Fig. 3: 11 Kedet motif on each tone of the scale (bonang)
.51
232 3
71 2.343
4
51 .34.515
.23.454
.45.121
Fig. 3:12 Kedet motif within the rugrug phrase (bonang)
kedet pwcm
r
ýl
kedet pattem
kedet pauem
-ý
r
1232 1ý2ý
+
..
1.232
72-2-5 11-6.12-32
33ý
I-,
3334
3232 3452 3.454
phrase
asusedin theintroductory
94
As illustrated in figure 3: 12 above,in addition to the kedet motif, the rugmg pattern also
incorporatesthe samefinal cadential.sequencethat is employed in the standarddegung
klasikpangkat or introductory phrase(see fig. 3: 1). This cadential formula, however,
bonang
below
the
transcribed
be
the
when
of
variant
phrases
with
one
may substituted
is
final
to
the
that
to
a
close.
coming
piece
player wishes signal
Fig. 3: 13 Sequences used to signal the approach of the final goong (bonang)
-9--
--ý
33511232
1525 1.232
-1--v
333415551
2151 3.454
@1
2151
@
or
3
13334
5141
5454
333415551
3.454
While the rugrug pattern is relatively standardisedfrom one performance to another,
other motifs are subjectto a greater degreeof melodic and rhythmic variation. When
learning to play a degung klasik version of Lalayaran, for example, my teacher
SulaemanSutisnademonstrateda number of alternative ways of varying the approachto
tone 3 at the end of the first phraseof the piece. This phrase,which is also found in more
klasik
degung
pieces including Layung Sari (seeTjarmedi et al, 1997:46-48)
substantial
is
by
(ibid.,
157-163),
SomawiJaya(1986:54). Assigning
Mangari
called
selerputri
and
in
final
letter
the
this phrase
to
the
cadential
component
units
of
approach
a
demonstratesthat the variant versions that I was taught can be consideredto have been
4
five
micro-motifs.
generatedvia the rearrangementof
4 Thesemotifs are arbitrarily isolated and labelled purely for the purposesof my own etic analysis. I am
Sundanese
in
is
this
the
players perceive such variation.
that
which
way
not suggesting
95
Fig. 3: 14 Alternative versions of the selerputri phrase (bonang)
bc
ar
r
1.2 72
=3
Z ý23
2241 3
2 111715
75 143 ý25 M25
M325
@T51M325
M323
aýrdI
13232
r- c-T
152;
2224
Z-32-3
2225
3
3
c'
rcVer
@751ý4325 4325
1172M32
r -)r e -,
1232
5432
rd -)r
@751-47M5 ý4325 ý4323 =2321=525
3
1232
ý5432
.1
1.232
3
is transformedis by usingit to
Anotherway in which this particularmelodicsequence
leadto a differentdestinationtone.The secondsectionof the pieceManintinSerang,for
kedet
basic
but
the
transposed
same
cadence
melodic
sequence
with
a
example, employs
that jumps up a tone to land on tone 2 rather than tone 3.
Fig. 3: 15 Seler putri phrase cadencing on tones 2 and 3
kedelpattem
F514325
4325 4323 22413232
1111 ý. 121 2-1(manintinSerang)
kedetpaftem
(T5
1ý4
M2
54
ý32
54
ý32
322413232
1115
1.2 3231
(sekrputri pattem)
Within Somawijaya'sscheme,theselerputri motif makesup the first half of the larger
layar putri phrase(1996-63) wliich, itself, constitutesthe first goongcycleof the piece
Lalayaran(seeTjarmediet al, 1997:35-38).The secondhalf of the layarputri sequence
beginsasthe first but this time leadsto a cadenceon tone5. Again,I wastaughtto play
in
this
the
the cadentialsequence
phrase
severalalternativeways.
second
endof
at
96
Fig. 3: 16 Three versions of the layarpub! cadence
a)
ý1ý
3 25 4325
4325
4323
2232
I
3452
3452
3.454
325 4325 4325 4323 2232 1232 3452 3.454
1
ol
1i-.
ý25 143-254 3-2
72-2
3
54 3-23
2
1
3332 3.454
Versionc of this sequence,
asnotatedin figure 3:16above,is alsosubjectto a specific
transformationwhereinthe secondhalf of thephraseleapsup into the octaveabovethe
first. This variant,namedbalik layar by Somawijaya(1986:64), doesnot serveasa
but
functions
pattern
asan openingphrasein BeberLayar (seeTjarmediet al,
cadential
1997:84-87)andthe secondgoongphraseof Pajajaran (ibid., 108-112).
Fig. 3: 17 Balik layar phrase
@751ý4325 ý4325 ý4323 222
.
2514-325
ý4325 =323
222
2.2
3332
3.454
2.2
3332
3.454
1
5
(ballk layar)
(version c: fig. 3: 16)
10
Another way in which the selerputri, layarputri and associatedoffshoot phrasesare
in
form.
by
beat
layarputri
is
The
them
sixteen
contracted
sequence,for
utilising
varied
beat
beginning
Genye
(ibid.,
113
the
as
an
eight
phrase
at
of
appears
example,
-115) and
in the secondgoong phraseof Ujung Laut (ibid., 88-91). Again, assigninga letter to
componentunitshelpsto illustratethe relationshipbetweenthe expandedandcontracted
in
be
Processes
of
expansion
and
contraction
will
considered
again
sections
phrases.
3.3.4 and 4.2.4.
97
Fig. 3: 18 Layar putri In expanded and contracted forms
b
ra
@T51-4323
c --)
(-
ý2225
4325
325
1.232
1Z323
2232
bc
a repeated
5
9
d
r aIrb
4325
432
a repeated ----% rb
T'3M
15-1 T'3
2-5 4 3-2 5
3.454
(contracted form)
5
elaborated
2225
-1
72'
1232
5432
1.232
3
d repeated
3-4
3-2
5-2
IJtaý
xpandedform)
i4523.454
Finally, the cyclical four-note figure at the beginning of the seler putri, layar putri, and
halik layar phrasesis, itself, sometimessubject to variation.
Fig. 3: 19 Variant forms of the opening 12-54-3 motif
@75 M25
M25
I
@75 =25
55
7-M5
7323
2 (originalversion)
4323 2 (vafiantl)
4345 2543 4543 2 (variant2)
2543232
LI
(playedattheverybeginning
of apiece)
The 25 43 motif functionsasa type of melodic'filler" andis, therefore,usuallyfound at
the beginningof a phrasewheremelodicmovementtendsto be moretonally static(see
4.2.9). SometimesAde Komaran would simply instruct me to play "gumek on 2" when
98
he meant for me to play this particular sequence.In fact, this four-tone figure is not
be
but
different
transplanted
to
can
onto
seriesof
confined a specific seriesof pitches
below,
2-5-4-3
beginning
in
figure
20
illustrated
3:
As
the
the
pitches
at
of the seler
pots.
bonang
both
located
the
two and three-rack
the
centre
of
on
at
putri phraseare
instruments.
Fig. 3: 20 12-5-4-3 motif on the bonang
25 4325
.
4325
4323
2etc
This samemelodic sequenceis found transposedup one tone or pot (1-4-3-2) without
in
(see
fig.
3:
2
1)
Maya
Selas
(Tj
to
the
player's
movement
patterns
armedi
alteration
any
(ibid.,
Galatik
Mangut
39-40),
Ayun
Ambing
(also
known
41-42),
1997:
and
as
et al,
DengkIeung,ibid., 105-107).
99
Fig. 3: 21 11-4-3-2motif on the bonang
=2
11ý4=1
3 43
14
Te-'t
2 12
c
006009
player
Similarly, in the secondpart of Ayun Ambing and at the beginning of Kadewan (ibid.,
54-57), the samefigure is transplanteddown onto pots 4-2-1-5.3
Fig. 3: 22 14-2-1-5 motif on the bonang
@72 1542
Tetc
1542 1545
000000
0
T
*-,_player
(D
(D
(D
5 In Kadewan, this samephraseis also played in the octave above.
100
.
This is important when it comesto consideringthe ways in which players may
intuitively classify phrasesbecausebonang motifs appearto be graspedas visual shapes
latter
is
The
in
disorientation
the
and
sound.
of
movement
apparent
as
patterns
well
as
that novice players exhibit when forced to switch from a more familiar two-rack bonang
to a less familiar three-rack bonang (or vice versa), despitean identical ordering of pots
Certainly,
layouts.
both
my own subjective experienceof learning the degung Has&
on
I
that
memorisedand mentally pigeonholed bonang phrasesaccording to
was
repertoire
their physical placementon the instrument, in addition to the movement sequencesused
to executethem and their melodic result.
During the courseof my lessonsI cameto realise that many of the degungklasik
piecesopen with commandingphrasesthat are basedon the core pitches 2-5,
in
the centre of the bonang (see fig. 3:20). Palwa (Tjarmedi et
positioned
symmetrically
(ibid.,
Ladrak
116-121),
1997:
122-126),Kintel Bueuk (ibid., 62-65) and Lambang
al,
(ibid., 127-131), for example,all open with a simple motif that Somawijaya calls
(stopping
halting)
(1986:
52).
or
randegan
Fig. 3: 23 Two versions of the randegan motif
5 2-22 2-2 51-.
5 222
5
22 51 2223
2-22 2-2 5
222
22 5
Other degungHas& piecesbegin with variant versions of this phrasethat, using the
hence,
basic
distinguished
by discreterhythmic
and
central
position,
are
samepitches
patteming.
Fig. 3:24 Opening bonang motifs based on the '2-5 position'
(Tjarmedi
1997:
80-83).
Kulawu
et
al,
a)
g----I---1.5
222
22
.5
.5
222
-I22
.5
101
.5 etc
b) Karang Mantri (ibid., 152-153).
22 55 22 55
bid.,
(!
137-140).
Bale
Ngambang
c)
-I----I----1
55 222
.
333
d) Mangu Mangu
L.
L.
i..
222
555
222
333
222
555
(ibid., 206-208).
5..
1 L.
222 333 234 555
1
LH - left hand
5..
RH-righthand
222 333 234 555
ý..
L.
Even so, rhythm appearsto be the only defining feature of Somawijaya's randegan
(halting, stopping) pattern (3:23). This is evidencedby the fact that aside from the
randegan motif above, Somawijayaalso includes what he calls randegan Moran
(randegan to tone 2) within the sameclassificatory category (1986:52).
Fig. 3:25 Randegan singgul and randegan loloran
a) Randegan singgul (Randeganto tone 5)
222 22 5
.5
222
22
5
.5
b) Randegan loloran (Randeganto tone 2)
1.2
111
13 21
.2
111
13 2
Notably,thesetwo phrasesarenot transpositionsof eachother;they areperformedusing
quite distinctmotorpatterns,andtheytendto be foundat differentstructuralpoint in a
melody.That the 'halting' rhythmicpatternappearsto be the only featurecommonto
both motifs underscores
the fact thatthedegungHas& melodiesandtheir constituent
motifs canbe consideredto interrelatein multifariousways.This doesnot mean,
however,thatmusiciansarenecessarilycognisantof all of theseinterconnections
in
102
learning
degung
klasik
fact,
In
teaching
the
the
of
and
practice
piecesusing
performance.
has
inside
inventory
taken
stock
never
patterns
really
root
either
of abstracted
or
an
formal
institutions.
In
Bandung's
all the time I spentwith musicians
education
outside of
in the city, I only ever heardthe rugrug (cindek) and layarputri sequencesactually
independent
by
Thus
their
to
while the melodic and motivic
pattern
names.
referred
implicitly
facilitates
it,
into
built
the
the
this
repertoire
memorisation
of
redundancy
idiosyncratic nature of each individual degungklasik model meansthat most musicians
bonang
these
to
pieces
as
whole
melodies rather than as sequencesof
approach
continue
sharedphrases.
3.3
Degung kawih
In degung kawih, the bronze ensembleloses its central melodic role and, instead
('small
function
that
to accompanyvarious types of song or
pieces')
performs sekar alit
6 Basedon standardisedtonal fi-ameworksknown
7
improvisation.
suling
aspatokan or
kenongan,the sekar alit can be likened to blues progressions:a single framework able to
for
limitless
accompaniment
a
as
an
number of overlying melodies. Nano Suratno
serve
Sundanese
this
type
of
repertoire to jazz, pointing out that the structure of
also compared
the sekar alit permits a greaterdegreeof improvisation than is found in most other types
Balinese
(p.
Javanese
or
gamelan
music
c., 2000b). The simplicity of thepatokan
of
frameworks not only provides musicians with scopeto generateand vary their own
individual parts, but also offers wider opportunities for arrangement,composition and
fact,
In
this repertoire now structurally underpins most of the
adaptation.
crossgenre
traditional music heard in Bandung today. Consequently,previous studiesof Sundanese
from
have
the
examined
sekar
alit
a variety of often genre-specificperspectives
music
(seeHarrell 1974:52-70, van Zanten 1987:149-161,Fryer 1989:165-190& Cook 1992 &
2000b). Nevertheless,as an understandingof theseframeworks is necessaryfor any
further discussionof degung repertoire, I will briefly outline the structure of the patokan
here.
model again
' Sekar alit are also known as lagu leutik, lagu alit, tagujalan, rancagan, and renggongan (Fryer
1989:182 and Cook 1992:17 0).
7 Cook writes thatpatok meansa stake for marking out land, and thatpatokan can refer to something
"fixed, a rule, norm or standard" (1992:18 fh3).
103
3.3.1 Patokan structure
Patok-an,or k-enongan,are hierarchically arrangedframeworks of destination or target
tones.The most important of these structural tones- the goong tone - coincides with the
beginning
large
the
the
and the end of the goong cycle or goongan.
sounding of
goong at
A sek-aralit may have up to three different goong tones,although most degung kawih
is
kenong
in
hierarchy
Next
the
tone
the
two.
one
or
repertoire usespatokan with only
degung,
kenong
is
In
is
located
the
the
the
cycle.
of
goong
gamelan
mid-point
at
which
a
in
in
it
is
located
(or
tones)
tone
a
specific
structural
some
position;
not,
as
specified
instrument.
is
basic
This
the
tonal
types
of
an
name
outline usually
of gamelan,
other
(Cook
1992:
18); theseare toneswhich are
notes
pivot
or
with
pancer
completed
kenong
in
between
the
and
goong
pitches. Secondarypivot tones, sometimes
sandwiched
be
inserted
to
may
also
as
pangagetg
on either side of thepancer tone (ibid.,
referred
19).
Fig. 3:26 Patokan structure
G
goongcycle
G= goong, N= kenong, c= pancer (pivot tone), k= pangaget (secondary pivot tone)
Sundanesemusic theory statesthat thepancer andpangaget tones are determinedby the
kenong
the
and
tones. Cook notes that in practice, however, the
goong
position
modal
of
flexible
is
more
and "may vary, even during the courseof a
choice ofpancer much
Suparli
described
).
(!
bid.
similarly
performance"
what he calls apancer rasa, or a
8Pangaget stemsfrom kaget which meansstartled or taken back (Cook 1992:19 fnl 9).
104
by
'feel'
tone
chosen
rather than theory. He concurred that the specific pitch
pancer
instrumental
overlying
melody
of
an
or
particular
sequence
arrangement,as well as the
influence
the
the choice ofpancer as much as
and
mood
of
player,
preferences
personal
any theoretical modal constraints(p.c., 2001a). In fact then, it is only the goong and
kenongtones that are absolutely fixed as the structural and tonal "points of reference"
that define the piece (Cook 1992:19). This is reflected in the way players commonly
for
Catrik,
this
example,a sekar alit underlying many degung kawih
repertoire.
notate
kenong
is
has
5
2;
tone
tone
this
and
piece usually simply notated as 2 (5).
goong
songs,
3.3.2 Patokan classification
While individualsekaralit canbe consideredastransformations
of eachother,the
by
individual
these
together
are
which
pieces
grouped
amongst
varies
criteria
musicians
for
Sunda
Van
Zanten's
the
tembang
analysis
repertoire,
of
panambih
scholars.
and
instance,illustratesthat certainpiecescanbe consideredto be inversionsof eachother
(1987:160-161).Oneexampleof this is thatthegoongandkenongtonesin Catrik 2 (5)
in
in
Kulu
(2).
Conversely,
Kulu
5
order
reverse
otherpiecesare
arepresented
"combinations"of smallerframeworks(ibid., 160).Senggot4 (1) 4 (2), for example,
of Kulu-KuluBarang4 (1) andCangkurileung4
couldbe regardedasan amalgamation
(2).
Textbooks at STSI and SMKI Bandung, in contrast,tend to present individual
piecesas modal transpositionsof common structural positions (posisi). Thus according
to Sundanesemusic theory, Catrik 2 (5) belongs to the Gendu family of pieces,all of
which employ the underlying tonal structure I (IV). As outlined in figure 3:27 below, the
Genduposition translatesinto five distinct pieceswhen transplantedonto every degree
in
into
five
the
the
or,
other
words,
each
of
scale
modes or patet (nem or barang,
of
Moran, manyura, sanga, and singguo? Theoretically speaking, Catrik can thus be
consideredas the realisation of the Genduposition in patet loloran or the Moran mode.
9 For finther information about Sundanesemodal theory seeWeintraub (1993).
105
Fig. 3:27 Sekar alit In the Gendu position
(mode) nem
Ge du position'l (IV)
1 (4)
Name of piece
Macan Ucul Gendu
loldran
2
(5)
Catfik
manyura
3
(1)
Sorong Dayung
sanga
4
(2)
Cangkurileung
singgul
5
(3)
Mitra
(from Upandi 1979:32)
Despite what the textbooks say, Weintraub observesthat modal theory "has not
into
developed
a systemof musical thought amongpractising musicians" in
generally
West Java (1993:33). Although gamelan players are often explicitly aware of a modal
Gendu
linking
Catrik
(see
Sundanese
5.5.2),
such
as
pieces
and
music
relationship
terminologyarelittle knownoutsideof formal education
theoryandits associated
institutionsin Bandung.Indeed,the conventionof labellingindividualsekaralit with
independenttitles is symptomaticof the fact that eachmodal realisation of a structural
is
is
Patet
conceptualised
as
an
autonomous
piece.
classification generally not
position
have
in
fact,
for
Sundanese
to
any
practical
and,
relevance
considered
music making
of suchmodaltheoriesasthe inappropriate
manyscholarsview the development
imposition of an 'alien' Javaneseconcepton Sundanesemusic (seevan Zanten 1987:135
& Fryer 1989:191).
Exploringthe divergencebetween"theoryin institutionalpedagogyandtheory
in practice", Weintraub notes that his teacher,Otong Rasta,"prefers a classification
identity".
Organising
therepertoire
over
piece
structure
modal
emphasizes
which
kenong
disregarding
(but
to
the
their
tones
of
and
number
goong
present
according
modal position), Otong Rastausesgraphic illustrations to representmusical forms as
distinctshapes(Weintraub1993:34-35,alsoseeFryer 1989:185-190).Within this
scheme,Catrik 2 (5) is loosely groupedtogether with other piecesthat are constructed
from a single kenong and a single goong tone.10
10For furtherinformationaboutsekaralit classificationseeFryer(1989:181-190),Cook(1992:20-21)and
Weintraub(1993:34-36).
106
3.3.3 The flexibility of the patokan structure
In gamelan degung,the patokan is realised in its most simple form on thejengglong.
However, even at this lowest structural level the player has some freedom to vary his
including
be
fleshed
by
basic
The
tonal
outline
may
out
pancer andpangaget tones
part.
kenong
have
(Cook
1992:
53).
Players
by
tones
the
goong
and
also
some
repeating
and/or
leeway to determinethe density of their own parts, a factor which, as noted in chapter2,
facilitates a 'learning by doing' approachto competenceacquisition. Cook writes "The
jengglong is free to play four, or eight, or sixteentimes in a goong phrase.The choice
dependson the tempo and the mood of the piece, aswell as the whim of the playee,
(ibid., 52). Thus when playing Catrik 2 (5), thejengglong player is obliged to sound
has
freedom
but
kenong
5
2
to
the
and
some
at
goong
positions
respectively,
pitches and
3).
(in
3
1,
I
tones
this
tones
case,
and
or
and
and
omit
pancer
pangaget
employ or
Fig. 3:28 Graphic representation of Catrik
G
5k
k
Catrik
C3
3C
k2
N
G= goong, N= kenong, c= pancer, k= pangaget
Figure 3:29 illustrates nine of the many possiblejengglong parts for Catrik. Four-,
by
inserting
versions
are
constructed
or omitting the
eight- and sixteen-tone
by
I
3,
tones
or
and
reiterating or not-reiterating the goong and
pancer
exchangeable
kenongpitches. All parts convergeat the kenong and goong positions.
107
Fig. 3: 29 Nine possible versions of the jengglong part for Catrik
k
k
3
1
c
1
3
k
3
1
N
2
2
k
3
1
c
1
3
k
3
1
n
2
2
k
3
1
G
5
5
k
3
1
N
2
2
k
3
1
c
1
3
G
5
5
c
3
N
2
2
c
3
n
2
2
G
5
5
N
2
2
c
3
1
G
5
5
N
2
N
2
n
2
G
5
G
(5)
G= goong tone
c= pancer tone
g= repeatedgoong
N kenong tone
k pangaget tone
n repeated kenong
Following Fryer (1989), 1 have consciouslychosento position the lower density
bottom,
in
diagram.
While
the
the
than
the
top
the
rather
at
piece
of
of
realisations
degung Has& thejengglong player abstractshis part from the overlying melodic model,
thejengglong part in degungk=ih is often generatedfrom the bottom up. Fryer notes
that her gamelan teacherOtong Rastadepicted the hierarchical structure of the sekar alit
in the form of a tree diagram explaining, "The goong is the very base,the roof, which
"branches out", the branchesbecoming "twigs, with leavesand blossomsat the far ends"
(1989:207). In fact, the term sekar ('flower') is used to meanpiece (as in sekar alit) or
flowering
blossoming
being
kawih
out of a
melodic
one
possible
only
song
melody, any
in
both
Sundanese
flower
That
tree
widely
analogies
occur
tonal
and
position.
common
108
idea
discourse
Javanese
the
that these musics are consideredto
also
affirms
gamelan
and
bloom anew with eachperformance(seevan Zanten 1987:29 & Sutton 1993:139).
Moreover, the organic, self-perpetuatingquality implicit in such comparisonsreinforces
Fryer's pertinent observationthat gamelan musiciansperceive musical structure in terms
is
from
the
which
a
piece
generatedor recreatedin the act of
units
component
of
in
be
the
this
than
way
structure
can
analytically broken down "on
rather
performance,
1989:
173-174)
(Fryer
paper"
It is significant that the descriptionsgiven by the Sundaneseof
goongan, kenonganand so on, use the words 'made of and
4consistof (terdiri dari). This contrastssharply with most
western descriptionsof gamelan musical structure,which talk in
terms of 'divisions' and 'subdivisions'. This seemsto me to
indicate a fundamentaldifference in the way that people from
thesedifferent cultural backgroundsperceive the world (ibid.,
173).
3.3.4
Wilet: structural expansion and contraction
Aside from the tempo of a piece and mood of the player, the number of tonesplayed by
thejengglong is also dependentupon the amount of spacethat requires filling-in. The
in
is
in
beats
framework
the
that
the goong cycle
structurally pliable
number of
patokan
is
in
described
be
that
terms of wilet. The
contracted,
a phenomenon
can expandedor
three basic structural levels are referred to assawilet (one wilet), dua wilet (two wilet),
(four
larger,
although
phrases
of
musicians
recognise
even
wilet),
goong
and opat wilet
" If
lengths.
is
'in-between'
transcribed as eight-beats
a
or
sawilet
phrase
goong
smaller
long, the samegoong phrasewould be doubled to sixteen-beatsin dua wilet, and
expandedagain to thirty-two beats in opat wilet. Most degung kawih repertoire is in
dua
(see
5.3). In performance,a sekar alit in dua wilet will often
wilet
either sawilet or
into
(go
up)
a sawilet version of the samepiece. Transitions the other way
segueor naek
but
happen
less
frequently
(Cook 1992:22).
possible
around are also
" Upandi also lists gurudugan and kering III (or setengahwilet, 'half wilet'), as well as
satu setengah
lalamba
half
(or
delapan wilet, 'eight wilet') (Upandi 1984:7).
('one
a
and
wilet')
and
wilet
109
Wilet indicatesthe relative rate of tonal changeor the amount of room for melodic
basic
Van
Zanten
in
the
the
than
pulse.
actual
speed
of
manoeuvre a goong cycle, rather
is
that
wilet "a conceptof musical structure,and not... a time unit", pointing
emphasises
but
for
is
'lasts'
two
that
two
"musicians
that
a
song
that
song
wilet,
a
say
never
out
have
fast
Cook
"You
Similarly,
in
(1987:
150).
writes
can
a
slow,
medium
or
pace
wilet"
any of the expansions.A brisk 2 wilet may feel faster than a leisurely I wilet"
(1992:22).12 However, Weintraub observesthat musiciansdo sometimesconflate tempo
and structure "becausewiletan also refers to the way a piece 'feels"'. He adds that while
there is no absoluterelationship binding the two "the tempo oftentimes does increase
when musiciansmake a transition from dua wilet to sawilet' (1997:149).
Generally speaking,musicianshave more spaceto teaseout and vary melodic
dua
in
longer
in
the
than
the shorter
of
a
phrases
wilet
realization
of
a
piece
material
phrasesof sawilet. The suling player Endang Sukandarremarkedthat he f*mds
improvising in dua wilet more creatively satisfying becausethe greaterdistancebetween
level
this
of expansionenableshim to develop more intricate
cadencepoints at
embellishments(Swindells 1996:63). While one may assumethat players have even
more freedom in opat wilet or larger pieces,this is not generally the case.Sukandar
statedthat most of the piecesat this higher level of expansionhave developedas specific
defmed
by
that
songs
are
a melodic model to which players must adhere(ibid., see 5.2).
3.3.5 The explicit melodic model
This brings us to the most important constraint on variation and improvisation in degung
kawih: the melodic model. In the absenceof a singer, the sekar alit often function as
developing
their own parts basedupon the tones of
stand-alonepieces,with musicians
the patokan framework rather than following the contour of any precomposedmelodic
line. However, when a particular song or lagujadi (pre-established melody') is
is
defining
(at
least)
to
to
the
the
obliged
adhere
closely
enough
suling player
specified,
be
identifiable.
The
for
that
to
song
cempres,peking,
model
melodic and rhythmic
12In fact,if thetempois sufficientlyslow,certaininst=ents mayalsobeplayeddirangkep,
musicians
is
denser
This
texture.
'doubling-up'
to
onewayof
a
musical
produce
playingpattern
a particular
dynamic.
tempo
the
either
overall
or
altering
withoutnecessarily
enlivening
a performance
110
bonangandjengglongplayersmay,or maynot, chooseto follow the contourand
in
have
become
the
though
the
certain
songs
more
standardised
vocalmelody,
registerof
details
of their realisationthanothers.
precise
Playersthus tend to have more freedom in live performance situations such as at
functions
the
titles
music merely
are not announcedand
wedding receptions,where song
13
is
Conversely,
for
the
backdrop
the
title
song
of
on a recording,
other activities.
as a
listed
on the cassettesleeve,thereby compelling players to contain their
usually
If
bounds
the
the
the
the
of
sekar alit
only
name
specified
melody.
of
within
realisation
is presented,the suling player can choosewhether to perform an establishedmelody that
fits over that framework, to improvise phrasesleading to the principal tones of that
framework, or to combine both approaches.Sometimes,novel ideasspontaneously
into
become
improvisation
the
to
during
assimilated
eventually
go
on
an
created
Stahl
the
the
piece
of
example
cites
and
models.
of
stock-materials
store
musician's
Gendu on the kacapi suling cassetteLandangan as an example of a 'one-off suling
improvisation basedon Catrik that has since come to be recognisedas an independent
(1987:
13-14).
song melody
The degreeto which a pre-existing melody may itself be transformed in
While
from
too
to
are
some
pieces
song.
song
significantly
performancevaries quite
from
deviation
the
dense
to
significant
any
permit
rhythmically
and
melodically
for
melodic
opportunities
more
extensive
prescribedmodel, others offer performers
know
Singers
multiple versions of
often
players
and
suling
embellishmentand variation.
individual
to
phrasesand
or
songs,and can choose alter particular sectionsof melody
Some
from
by
melodies are
a range of substitutionablealternatives.
selecting
motifs
lower
forms
that
transformation
structural
the
operate
at
to
of
more radical
even subject
levels. While most songsperformed with gamelan degung are fixed in either sawilet or
dua wilet, some can be stretchedor contractedto fit over both levels of expansion,as
into
different
tunings.
transposed
as
well
In Sunda,thereis alsoa powerfulsocio-culturaldimensionto melodicrealisation
from
that,
contextual considerationssuch as whether a performance
apart
which means
" EndangSukandarsaidthat afterplayingfor a few hoursat a wedding,his sulingimprovisationgets
increasinglyinnovativeashe incorporates
moredaringmodulationsandunconventional
embellishments
to preventboredomandraisea smilefrom theotherplayers(Swindells1996:63).
III
is live or being recorded,a given kawih melody may be treatedmore freely in some
musical genresthan others.It is a fact that a greaterdegreeof melodic permutation is
tolerated,andevenencouraged,
whena melodyis realisedin gamelansalendroand,
albeitto a lesserextentgamelandegung,thanis whenthe samemelodyis performedas
apanambihsongin tembangSunda.Socialprohibitionalsopreventsmusiciansfrom
by
a well-known artist. While performers happily
composed
altering any song melody
be
to
are
considered
what
collectively-owned 'traditional' musical
with
play around
it
be
disrespectful
for
told
that
musicians
of
me
would
a
couple
materials,
anyone to
late
Koko Koswara's oeuvre,at least not without first gaining
the
rework any of
,-
from
his
family.
The issueof ownership and copyright
existing
members
of
permission
will be explored in chapter 6.
3.3.6 Melody and accompaniment: song titles and terminology
Degung kawih songsoften have two separatetitles: one to identify the underlying tonal
structure or sekar alit and the other to specify the melodic model. The kawih song
'Kukupu', for example,is accompaniedby the degungpiece 'Catrik'. In practice,
musicianswill typically only refer to one of thesetitles when compiling set lists or
discussingrepertoire. Playersare simply expectedto know that Kukupu is one of the
many tunes that fit over Catrik. This Particular example is further complicated by the
fact that in gamelan salendro, for reasonsof tuning that are explained in chapter 5,
Kukupu is accompaniedby the piece Gendu, and Gendu is sometimesreferred to as
Macan
U Uj! 14 As
C
the samemusicianstend to play in both gamelan salendro and
degung groups it is fairly common for thesespecific namesto be used interchangeably.
While suchcomplexlabellingmaybewilderthoseuninitiatedin the tradition,the theway in which melodyand
very existenceof individualtitles underscores
accompaniment
areperceivedasseparate
phenomena
within this bodyof repertoire.The
function
both
(Pirigan)to
as
autonomous
sekaralit
piecesaswell as'accompaniments'
kawihmelodiesthatmay themselvesgo on to havediscernible'lives of their own' via
their associationwith a particularsinger,composeror seminalrecording,or by being
14Cook explains that Macan Ucul actually refers to a more specific salendro melody that is associated
with the Gendu structure (p.c., 2003b).
112
Sundanese
Even
fin-ther
to
transformation.
so,
music terminology remains
subject
identifying
discrete
it
to
the
comes
melodic
model
as
a
musical
relativelyvaguewhen
entity.
Lagu,theword mostcommonlyemployedto referto the melodicline, is also
usedto differentiate sectionsof vocal melody (lagu) from instrumental interludes
(gelenyu) and through-composedintroductions (intro). More commonly, the term lagu
denotesa piece (from whatever genre) in its entirety. Similarly, the more refined term
(see
3.3.3) can mean melody, song, piece or form. Another word that pervades
sekar
discussionsof Sundanesemelodic realisation is senggol. However, while senggol may
be usedto describea single ornament,an idiomatic motif, as well as a longer phraseor
entire melody, the term is mainly used to refer to the instrument or voice-specific
'building blocks' that singers,suling and rebab players draw upon in the act of
performance.As such,this term will be explored in further detail within a study of vocal
performancepractice in section 4.3.
In their searchfor more universally understoodterms with which to label aspects
of Sundanesemelodic structure,native scholarssuch asNatapradja (1971) and
Somawijaya (1986) have also introduced foreign words and theoretical concepts(such as
melodi, cantusfirmus and balunganing gending) into Sundanesemusic discourse.This
appropriation of Western and Javaneseterminology is problematic as, in the words of
Bohlman, "seeking equivalent identities usually impedesthe discovery of deeper
meanings" (2002:7). In fact, lagu connotessomething more elastic and multifaceted than
is conveyedby the Westernnotion of 'melody', while the Javanesebalungan model is
describe
flexibility
less
inherent in many types of
to
the
appropriate
perhapseven
Sundanesemelodic structure.Cook notes that although some fast passagesin Sundanese
gamelan might sound as though they have a fixed balungan style melody, thesesaron
melodies are not standardisedand are only "one of many possible realisations"
(1992:18).
3.3.7 Lagon: the implicit melodic model
Sundanesemetallophoneplayers have much more freedom than their Javanese
lines
(see
is
4.2).
This
their
to
and
embellish
own
melodic
counterparts generate
113
particularly true in repertoiressuch as degung kawih when, in the absenceof a fted
melodic model, the cadentialtones of the underlying patokan structureare said to be the
only obligatory points of referenceconstrainingmelodic realisation. In actual fact, it is
perhapsmore accurateto say that the goong and kenongtones are the only obligatory
points of referencethat are made explicit within existing declarativetheoretical
frameworks as, according to Lili Suparli, melodic motion in Sundanesemusic is also
by
intuitively
guided somethingwhich he calls lagon.
more
Acknowledging that the conceptof lagon is difficult to pin down, Suparli used
the term to describea type of implicit melodic grammarthat is unconsciouslyacquired
by musicians as they memorisethe traditional repertoire. He explained that Sundanese
melodic structure is so formulaic that, in the past, compositionsthat terbau tradisi
(literally, 'have the smell of tradition') would be referred to as sanggian (a term that
Suparli says is more suggestiveof processesof arrangementand compilation), rather
than ciptaan ('compositions') or kreasi ('creations'). Traditionally then, the composer
draws from his knowledge of lagon or, in other words, his intuitively assimilatedstore
of conventional melodic templates,stereotypicalcontour schemas,gestures,cadences
forth,
to create'new' vocal melodies.As a result, there is a certain predictability
and so
to Sundanesemelodic structurethat enablesexperiencedmusiciansto anticipate where a
particular phraseis heading,how a given cadencewill resolve, and at which points in a
melody there will be changeof register, even when encounteringa song for the first time
(p.c., 2001b).ls Suparli also comparedlagon to a type of elastic mould or cast (cetakan
is
by
instrumentalists
that
to generateindependentmelodic lines in
utilised
elastis)
improvised performance.This is most clearly demonstratedwhen, in the absenceof a
specified precomposedmelodic model, instrumentalists(and singersin gamelan
salendro) synthesisetheir awarenessof the macro-melodic conventionsthat govern,
phrasing, register changes,contour patterning and such like, with their procedural
knowledge of micro idiom-specific figuration to formulatepatokan-basedmelodic
realisations. While no other musician that I worked with in Bandung mentioned this
term,Fryer observesthatthe Sundanese
theoristKusurnadinata
alsorefersto lagonas
but
that neither term is adequatelyexplained (1989:199). Interestingly, however,
modus,
15Lili Suparli provided a
improvising
by
demonstration
this
of
question and answerphraseswith
practical
someof his studentsat STSI.
114
Lili Suparli'sdescriptionof lagondoeshavecertainelementsin commonwith
Sumarsam'sfrequentlyreferencedtheoryof 'inner melody' in Javanese
gamelan.
hasquestioned
Sincethe 1970s,Sumarsarn
the privilegingof the limited-range
metallophoneline (thebalungan)asthe fundamentalmelodicmodelin Javanese
gamelanmusic,proposinginsteadthat a lesseasilynotated,but implicitly knownmultioctavemelodyultimatelyguidesmelodicflow in CentralJavanese
gamelanperformance
(1975:7). Moreover,critiquingcurrenttheoriesof gendhing(Javanese
gamelan
that by solelyconcentrating
composition)construction,Sumarsam
suggests
on the
single-linebalunganandthe balungan'sconstituentfour-notebuilding blocks(gatra),
Javanese
musicologistshaveneglectedto considerthe waysin which "gamelan
compositionis rootedin vocal melody" (1995:161-206).
The disparitybetweenCentralJavanese
andSundanese
musicsand,more
specifically, the fact that Sundanesemelodic models usually tend to be more tangibly
correlatedto particular instrumental or vocal parts, meansthat Suparli's notion of lagon
differs somewhatfrom Sumarsam'sconception of 'inner melody'. Sundanesemusicians,
for example, are emphaticthat whatever the historical evolution of the degung klasik
repertoire,the melodic sourceof thesepieces lays in the bonang part. In addition, it is
clear that the vocal melodies that were appendedto some of thesepieces in the late
1950swere unequivocally derived from the bonang line, rather than the other way
round. In degungkawih, on the other hand, vocal melody and instrumental
accompanimentcontinue to coexist as separable,if sometimesoverlapping phenomena.
Though individual kawih songsare often subjectto multiple interpretation, the vocal
identifiable
melody remains explicitly
and has not, as Sumarsamsuggestshas happened
in certain types of Javanesegamelan repertoire, been heterophonically instrumentalised
beyond recognition down through the horizontal strata of the gamelan ensemble.16
16As a brief aside, it is worth noting Fryer's comment that if, as
certain scholarssuggest,gamelan was
brought to West Java from Central Java in the seventeenthcentury, it is plausible "that West Javanese
practice is a developmentfrom older Central Javaneseforms" (1989:285-286). Given Sumarsam's
assumptionthat vocal melody is the melodic sourceof many Javanesegendhing, is it possible that older
Central Javaneserepertoiresseparatedmelody and accompanimentin a similar way to extant Sundanese
musical structures?In fact, Sumarsam.alludes to a mid-ninctcenth century referencewhich identifies the
oldest form of Javaneserepertoire asgendhing kemanak,"a type of performanceconsisting of a unison
mixed chorus" accompaniedby a small instrumental ensemblecomprising kemanak(a pair of archaic,
bronze instruments shapedlike a hollow banana),kendhang,gong and kenong (large gong kettles,
horizontally suspendedon a wooden rack) (1995:165).
115
Anotherpoint of divergencebetweenSumarsam's
andSuparli'stheoriesis thatwhile
'inner melody' seemsto describethe unsounded
melodicmodelsguidingthe realisation
compositions,the conceptof lagonappearsto encompass
of specificCentralJavanese
the intuitively understoodconventionsgoverningSundanese
melodicstructuremore
generally.
What doesunite 'inner melody' and lagon, however, is that both types of implicit
be
to
audibly manifest in the hummed or quietly sung melodic
said
melodic model are
lines that players use to guide themselvesthrough a particular piece or section of a piece.
Suparli echoedSumarsam'sobservationthat this vocalised melody is not imitative of
instrumental
figuration
that is being played and nor is it identical to the song
any specific
melody (if there is one) as it is performed by the designatedsinger. The hummed melody
does,though, flow "in the mannerof all vocal music" (Surnarsam1975:7).
In fact, humming and singing (either out loud or in one's 'heart') while playing
more generally helps instrumentaliststo keep track of where they are in a performance
and plays an important role in the memorisation of melodic models. Sumarsarnobserves
thatwhenhis bonangteacherwashavingdifficulty recallinga piece,he would actually
leavethe room to try to recallit by humminga versionof the melodyto himself(ibid).
Similarly, I repeatedlyobservedSundanese
musiciansput downtheir beaters,andlook
awayfrom their instrumentandup into the air asthey sang;"ne-ning-nang-nung",
a
forgottensectionof a melodicmodelbackinto their consciousmemory.17Considering
thatthe stratifiedstructureof mostgamelanmusicrequiresmusiciansto know multiple
interpretationsof a singlemelodicpathit is perhapsnot surprisingthatgamelan
Moreover,
musiciansintemalisean abstracted
modelto guidethemin performance.
vocalisingmelodiesin this manneris alsooneof the mainwaysin which repertoireis
transmittedfrom playerto playerin the first place.Accordingto Suparli,for example,a
new kacapisuling compositionwould normallybe impartedto a sulingplayerin the
form of a sungor hummedmelody;it is thentheperformer'sjob to idiomatically
interpretthis melody(p.c., 2001b).
17Hughessuggeststhat the
choice of such sung syllables is not arbitrary and that there is a natural
correlation betweenvowel colour or vowel acoustic and relative pitch that facilitates memorization and
recall. Simply singing "la la la7',he suggests,is much less effective (2000:115).
116
Before concluding this chapterit is worth noting that a glance at the wider
in
instrumental
literature
the
that
of
singing
use
reveals
ethnomusicological
is
by
transmission
no meansspecific to
performance,composition and repertoire
have
human
Moreover,
the
that
voice
may
played a
suggest
studies
gamelan musics.
design
in
implicit
the
of many types of melody worldwide.
evolutionary
actual
role
more
Claiming that there are patternsof melodic motion that transcendmusical styles and
forward
Cuddy
Russo
and
a "motor theory of melodic expectancy"that
put
cultures,
facets
"all
(i.
of
melodic
processing
e., composition, production, and
suggests
human
be
innately
influenced
by
the
voice
may
constraints
of
physical
perception)",
(1999). Although now digressing somewhatfrom the particular conception of 'inner
in
melody' Javanesegamelan, it appearsas though some of Sumarsam'sobservations
have
a more universal relevance.
may
Summary
This chapterhas examinedthe musical models at the heart of the degung klasik and
degung kawih repertoires.Beginning by looking at the role of stock phrasesin the
structurally idiosyncratic and melodically fixed degung klasik pieces, it identified the
ways in which processesof expansion,contraction, transposition, and melodic and
be
can
consideredto operateacrossthis repertoire when it is analysed
rhythmic variation
inherent
The
by
the
the
chapter
second
a
part
of
as whole.
continued considering
flexibility of thepatokan frameworks underpinning the degung kawih repertoire, and the
wider possibilities for transformation that suchpieces offer individual performers and
discrete
Noting
that
melody and accompanimentare conceptualisedas
composers.
models in the sekar alit-based repertoire, it was suggestedthat Sundanesemusicians
by
intuitively
be
implicitly
type
graspedmelodic grammar,
guided a
of
might also
four
lagon.
Chapter
the
by
Suparli
Lili
the
transformation
to
of
explores
as
now
referred
in
degung
in
two
the
studiesof melodic realisation
act of performancewithin
model
kawih.
117
Chapter 4
Melodic realisation in degung kawih
While the preceding chapterexaminesthe musical forms underpinning the degung klasik
kawih
degung
repertoires,chapter4 now presentstwo casestudiesof melodic
and
realisation in degungkawih. Building upon conceptsintroduced in chapter3, the first
focuseson an improvisatory style of playing on the cempresmetallophone(seeappendix
I). Throughout this, the more analytical of the two studies,detailed musical examples
serveto identify the types of procedural model that beginnersand more experienced
instrumentalistsdraw upon to generatepatokan-basedmelodies in performance.In
contrastthe secondstudy considersmelodic realisation as a socio-culturally and
contextually informed processby meansof an examination of the degung kawih singer.
As outlined in chapter2, gamelan degung has becomea musical 'common ground' for
distinct types of artist, with post-1950sBandung degung groups borrowing specialist
from
disparatefields such as tembang Sunda and gamelanpelog-salendro.
singers
Lacking an indigenousvocal style of its own, degung kawih has consequentlydeveloped
as a highly derivative art form, appropriating both repertoire and aspectsof the vocal
technique associatedwith theseolder 'parent' genres.This secondstudy thus provides a
broader survey of tembangand gamelan singing and contemplatesthe way in which
distinctive performancepractices- notably divergent styles of vocal embellishmenthave beennegotiatedin this relatively new urban genre.' As any discussionof melodic
embellishment,variation and improvisation can quickly becomemired in problematic
questionsof definition, I will begin this chapterby briefly reviewing explanationsof
theseprocessesas expoundedin the wider literature.
4.1
Melodic embellishment, variation and improvisation
That the precise meaning of 'improvisation' is particularly tricky to pin down is a well-
in
discourse,
has
issue
Nettl
though,
the
concludes,
ethnomusicological
as
problem
wom
oftenbeen"more a matterof lexicographicniceties"ratherthanoneof
1For moretechnicalinformationaboutSundanese,
vocalandsulingornamentsseevanZanten(1989:160190),Williams (2001:176-191),Rosliani(1998)andSwindells(1996:27-77).Research
still remainsto be
pasinden(gamelanpelog-salendrosingers).
conductedinto thevocalpracticesof Sundanese
118
(1998:11). While most authorsconcur that some degreeof
44conceptualisation
level
(Sutton
1998a:
72)
"real-time
"a
originality"
or
or
spontaneouscreation, significant
justify
it
is
22
1)
1994:
to
term,
(Berliner
the
use
of
occur
generally
must
composing"
"are
that
almost never respondingto challengesthat were
musicians
acknowledged
improvised
Surveys
27).
(Blum
1998:
of
musics acrossthe globe
entirely unforeseen7'
both
from
is
by
that
performance
springs
and
constrained
most
extemporised
suggest
someform of precomposed(though not necessarilynotated) 'point of departure' or
have
1970s,
(see
Consequently,
3.1).
the
tendedto agreethat
scholars
since
model
improvisation and composition cannot bejuxtaposed as entirely separateprocessesand
that the relationship betweenthe two is more accuratelyrepresentedas the extreme
points of a continuum. What, essentially, is consideredto distinguish the one from the
other is the time lag betweenthe conceptionof a musical idea and its realisation.
However, while composition may initially appearto be the more protracted creative
process,Hall arguesthat improvisation can bejudged to be the more time consuming
activity becauseof the years of programming and contexting that lie behind most
improvised performance(1992:230).
One of the main difficulties in developing a concisedefinition of improvisation
is thatthe termholdsdifferentconnotationsdependinguponwhetherit is usedasa noun
or a verb (Berliner 1994:221).Accordingto Berliner,while the formeris primarily
reservedto specifyan "altogethernew" improvisedproduct,the latterpositions
improvisationasan all-embracingdynamicprocess.Fromthis secondperspectiveany
"uniquefeaturesof interpretation,embellishment,
andvariation,whenconceivedin
be
regardedtheoreticallyasimprovised"(ibid., 221-222).This
can
also
performance,
discrepancyexplainsSutton'sseeminglycontradictoryconclusionthat"Javanese
but
Javanese
improvise,
is
improvisatory"
(1998a:87).In
that
music
not
musicians
between
describing
the
to
relationship
processes
of compositionand
addition
is
'improvisatory
to
the
then,
an
apposite
continuum
model
represent
performance
interpretation,
from
embellishment
andvariation,throughto
practices'ranging
improvisation'proper' (seeLeeKonitz in Berliner 1994:67).Theboundariesdividing
thesedistinctpracticesareoftenblurredin performance;musiciansfluidly shift from
is
degrees
to
the
transformed
to
this
as
a
melody
varying
other
of
spectrum
oneendof
intensity.
119
Researchershave also pointed out that performers may never be called upon to abstract
from
idiomatic
defming
template
the
melodic
realisation of that template
explicitly a
differentiate
have
between
to
therefore,
conceptually
ornamental
no
practical
need
and,
As
Rice
pitches,
embellished
and
non-embellished
phrases.
melodic
and non-ornamental
fact
(bagpipe)
Bulgarian
the
that musicians
to
players,
gaida
with
reference
comments
conceiveof melodic embellishmentsas physical motions meansthat melody and
into
from
be
"unified
tone to
a single concept asways of moving
ornamentationcan
tone" (1994:84). Notably, the Sundaneseterm senggol doesnot differentiate between
individual ornaments,instrument-specificplaying patterns and entire chunks of melody
discrete
musical entities.
as
While Bandung musicians may claim that certain West Javanesegenresoffer
is
in
for
invention
the repertoires of their
than
permitted
players greater scope melodic
Central Javaneseand Balinese counterparts,the subject of improvisation in Sundanese
little
In
has
contrast,the mechanicsof variation and
scholarly
attention.
music
received
improvisation in Central Javanesegamelan has been a chief concern for severalof the
inherent
flexibility
field.
in
Discussing
the
this
particular
performer-researchersworking
basic
Sorrell
Javanese
the
conundrum that writers
summarises
gamelan performance,
of
face as follows:
To statethat gamelanmusic is improvised is likely to convey the
impressionof a freedom, even looseness,which it doesnot have;
but to try and close the matter there would do the greater
disserviceof denying it that elementof choice and interpretative
is
that
crucial to any great musical tradition
spontaneity
(1990:75-76).
This "elementof choiceandinterpretativespontaneity"hasbeenexplainedin several
in
is
discussed
in
3,
Javanese
As
termsof a
music
often
gamelan
noted chapter
ways.
in
(see,
flexible
filling
for
Hood
fixed
and
more
example,
outline
skeletal
relatively
1975:26 & Sutton1993:103).Within this hierarchicalscheme,eachinstrumentalpart or
functionandassociated
horizontalstratais recognisedto havea predetermined
textural
density,while still offeringplayerssomescopefor individual interpretation.Other
in
in
idiomatic
filling
that
the
the
stock
of this
patterns
role
play
emphasise
accounts
building
Usually
Albert
Lord's
referencing
of
verbal
structure.
study
seminal
multi-level
120
blocks in Serbo-Croatianepic sung poetry (1965), cthnomusicologistsfrequently
describevariation and improvisation in terms of the manipulation of an extant
for
Becker
1980
&
Sutton
(see,
1993,1998a).
formulae
example,
of
melodic
vocabulary
Finally, a third approachto exploring melodic flexibility in Javanesegamelan has been
to extrapolatethe conventions,constraints,or the musical grammar that can be seento
be operative in a particular genre (seeBecker and Becker 1979 & Hughes 1988) or
instrumental idiom (Sutton 1978). This usually demandsa more etic analytical approach
because,as my own researchdemonstrates,theseconventionsare often tacitly
for
known,
by
example,as appropriateways of moving on an
assimilated performersinstrument- rather than theorisedas 'rules'.
While thesecontrastingaccountsoffer differentperspectives
on the workingsof
improvisation,
theseexplanationscomplementrather
and
melodic realisation, variation
than competewith one another.As the first study will now illustrate, Sundanese
instrument-specific
filling
in
a melody or
patterns
as
a
means
of
musicians use
framework while, at the sametime, the memorisation of thesepatternsimplicitly serves
to teach players the 'grammar' governing the melodic idiom in question.
4.2
Melodic realisation on the cempres
The cempresandpeking players in gamelan degunghave much more freedom to
in
lines
independent
than
their
counterparts
most other types of
melodic
generate
balungan
Javanese
is,
for
There
the
no
equivalent
of
example,
unison melody
gamelan.
in Sundanesemusic, with individual metallophoneplayers in gamelan degunghaving
density
figuration
determine
leeway
their
they
the
type
the
to
of
of
part
as well as
some
instruments
from
In
are
not
standardised
one ensembleto
use. addition, although
have
half
least
two
the
a
octavesand
each
a
range
of
at
and
cempresandpeking
another,
in
Generally
have
they
to
the
octave
speaking,the
which
play.
as
some choice
musicians
higher pitched peking is played in the octave above the cempres,although there is
2
in
inevitably some overlap the middle ranges. Similarly, thepeking usually plays motifs
factors
dense
the
those
although
such as
cemPres,
that are twice as
performed on
as
individual
tempo
changes
often
prompt
structural expansionand contraction, and
2 This sharedregisteris deliberatelyexploitedwhenthe instruments
play interlockingcarukpatternswith
oneanother.
121
in
half
that
they
tones
double
the
a given cycle.
are
playing
of
to
number
up or
musicians
Nevertheless,the cemprespart tendsto be the more 'singable' in that it is closestto the
density.
Furthermore,
both
in
while cempres
terms
register and melodic
of
vocal part
is
freer
in
to
the
typically
rhythm,
uniform
peking
a
continuous,
move
patterns
incorporatemore whimsical syncopatedelaborations.
As an examination of all the performancetechniquesopen to cempresandpeking
degung
is
beyond
investigation,
in
the study will
the
this
confines
of
players gamelan
focus on a melodic style of playing referred to as ngamelodi. This techniquerequires
that players construct melodic phrasesthat either idiomatically follow the contour of a
given melodic model or more generically fill in and cadenceon the important tones of
the underlying patokan framework. Using my own experiencesof the learning process,
as well as observationsof amateurgroup rehearsalsand notations taken from instruction
in
I
the
consider
ways
which Sundanesecempresplayers learn to vary and
manuals,
'improvise' melodic material. In addition, comparing professional players' cempres
in
dua
both
identify
Catrik
I
of
and
sawilet
some of the conventions
wilet,
realisations
instrument
improvisation
this
at more advancedlevels of performance.
on
governing
The transcriptions on which most of this analysis is basedare of fieldwork recordings of
Suparli.
Lili
These
Ade
Komaran
transcriptions, which are
teachers
and
my gamelan
Catrik
[CD
3
in
full
in
II
tracks
played
of
appendix
presented
-6], comprise nine cycles
(A
1,
B
is
1,
A2,
both
Each
by
to
allow
etc)
cycle
coded
players.
and
peking
on cempres
the readerto crossreferencethe musical examplespresentedin this chapterwith the
transcriptions found in the appendix. I decidedto make theserecordings without a singer
in
does
the
which a
ways
not consider
or suling player presentand so my analysis
follow
ignore
the specific pitch contour and register of a
to
or
musician may choose
focus
I
is
As
to
indeed,
(if,
kawih
there
more
one).
a result, am able
melody
prescribed
learn
transform
to
in
and
generate
the
players
and
which
cempres
peking
way
clearly on
framework.
is
based
tones
the
the
of
patokan
core
only on
melodic material which
4.2.1 Memorisation as a basis for variation and improvisation
In chapter2,1 suggestthat processesof improvisation and variation are rarely explicitly
taught. As a native speakerprimarily learnshis or her own languageby being
122
surroundedby that languagefrom birth, so performersacquirethesetransformative
by
lists
idiom
Most
in
by
being
immersed
than
studying
of
rules.
rather
musical
a
skills
imitation,
that
approximationandmemorisationare
writersagree practicesof
fundamentalto the developmentof improvisationalskill, with fledglingmusicians
intuitively graspingthe conventionsof a musicalstyle from their increasingknowledge
instrument-specific
(see,
for
body
example,
and
patterning
of repertoire
of a particular
Hood 1975,Ziporyn 1992,Kippen 1992,Silkstone1993& Nooshin1998).
My own experiencelearning to play Sundanesegamelan and my observation of
beginners
in
When
the ngamelodi style on the
this
view.
play
other novices confirms
initially
tend to stick to a small number of stereotypicalplaying patterns
they
cempres,
These,
larger
templates.
albeit non-standardised,non-codified and
melodic
scale
or
(pattern
to
are
sometimes
models
or model).
performance
referred
as
unnamed
pola
Observing a Bandung primary school degungensemblein rehearsal,it quickly became
apparentthat the young cempresandpeking players in the group were performing fixed
from
memory. In other words, unlike experiencedplayers, they did
versions of pieces
from
their
parts
one goong cycle to another.When performing Catrik, for
not vary
example,the eight-year-old cempresplayer in the school group reusedthe following
realisation with each repetition of the piece.
Fig. 4: 1 Cempres part for Catrik
-E-31-.
-.
5 5-4 31 .2 12 51 2
.5
12
-@I
2 12 34
cNcG
G= goong, N= kenong, c= pancer
In fact, this cemprespart is thatwhich is notatedin Juju SainMartadinata'sbook of
degung notations, Sekar Gending Degung I ('Degung songsand accompanimentsI')
(Martadinata 1976:18)3and, attesting to the widespreadinfluence of such notation
3 Although in the book this melodic sequenceis notated as a peking rather than a cemprespart.
123
compilations, also happensto be the first cemprespart that I was taught in lessonswith a
formally trained STSI teacher.Another widely used manual, Tjarmedi's Penuntun
Pengajaran Degung ('Manual for teaching degung'), presentsa longer version of this
samemodel which, spanningthree cycles of the piece, moves from a lower into a higher
octave and back again (1974:30-3 1).
Fig. 4: 2 Metallophone parts for Catdk
(Martadinata): 1.
(Tjarmedi) 1: 1.
2: I.
3:
1.1
.5
.5
.5
54 3
54 3
1.2
1.2
54 31
51 54
.
..
fl
C
.2
12 51
25
12 31-.
2 1-2 3-4
12 51
22
15 12 31-.
2 1-2 3-4
12 51
1.1
2
43 51
.5. ...
2
1.2
51 54 ýj
12 14
.2
15 12 31 .2 12 34
Nc
Cempresparts are not standardisedand thesetextbook examplesby no meansrepresent
the only ngamelodi patternsthat a novice studentmight initially encounter.They are,
however, fairly representativeof the type of melodic sequencea fledgling player may
illustrate
the primary constraintsgoverning this type of
to
perform and, moreover, serve
melodic realisation. In all four examplesthe cempreslands on the specified tones (in the
kenong
Catrik
2
5)
the
and goong positions. In my own
caseof
pitches and at
is
is
'rule'
the
that
this
commonly made explicit verbally. In
only cast-iron
experience,
the above examples,the cempresalso performs linear phrasesleading to thepancer tone
(in this case,tone 3). In fact, convergenceat the pancer position is not an obligatory
but
does
the
music
system
of
provide players with an additional structural
requirement
hook on which to hang their melodic realisations.
In section 3.3.3,1 outline some of the possible ways in which thejengglong
player constructshis part. Following Cook (1992), 1 note that insteadof, or as well as,
insertingpancer and/or secondarypancer tones,players may also repeatthe goong and
124
kenongtones.Thesesamestructuraldevicesmayalsobe employedin the construction
his
Guide
includes
In
Sundanese
Cook
Music,
to
a
of cempresandpekingparts.
beginners,
and
aimed
at
standardised
cempres
peking
patterns
which,
selectionof more
aresolelybasedon thegoongandkenongtones(1992:68-69). In the fast of these
examples,theplayerperformssimpleoffbeatrunsthatboth beginandendon these
principaldestinationtones.This is a styleof playingborrowedfrom thepanerus(lowFigure4:3 illustratesthe way in
pitchedmetallophone)in gamelanpelog-salendro.
be
in
Catrik.
this
type
applied
might
which
of patterning
Fig. 4: 3 Panerus style motif (Catrik)
cempres:
0-
-51-43
.3
-1
45
.2
15
.5
..
-1
12
.2
15
.5
..
GcNcG
-1
12
.5
---o
43
.3
45
This pattern may also be shifted to the on-beat,the motif reaching up an extra tone to
form a symmetrical arch shape,the peak of which links the ascendingand descending
sequencestogether.
Fig. 4:4 Arch motif (Catr1k)
@154 32 34 5
cempres:
121
54
51 2121 54 51 2154 32 34
GcNc
Another way of formulating a cempresline is for the player to perform caruk
(interlocking) figuration as a single instrumental line. In the following example,the
cemprespart is an amalgamationof the bonang and cempresmotifs that, together,
in
is
dua
form
typically
that
utilised
slower
sawilet
and
of caruk
constitute a specific
(see
Cook
1992:
66-67).
kawih
degung
pieces
style
wilet realisations of
125
Fig. 4: 5 Caruk style pattern (Catfik)
-
cempres:
-.
@5 113
-
-.
45 15
-I---
.2
-1
35 12 32
.2
-
----M.
35 12 32
.5
-.
13 45 15
0
GcNcG
The type of performancemodel a novice musician is first presentedwith and, indeed,the
is
depends
large
it
in
to
a
extent on whether they are operating
presented,
way which
in
2,
formal
As
inside
Bandung's
chapter
of
music educationscene. outlined
outside or
'leaming on-stage' usually requires beginnersto extricate playing patterns from active
instrument
knowledge
for
thus
technique
themselves;
their
of
of
pieces
rcalisations
formal
In
in
hand
knowledge
hand
the
their
contrast,
music
of
repertoire.
with
evolves
instrumental
STSI
developed
have
to
tuition.
approaches
systematic
more
courses
Bandung teacherstend to use in-house textbooks that presentsimplified versions of
instrument-specificplaying patterns as abstractmelodic formulae that can be practiced,
like technical exercises,on every degreeof the scale.Only then do studentslearn to
defend
STSI
the efficiency
the
these
pieces.
staff
actual
context
of
patternswithin
apply
learn
beginners
that
this
can
new piecesmore quickly
explaining
of
pedagogicmethod,
if they have a kund (key) or explicit formula that enablesthem to idiomatically translate
instrument.
Formally
untrained alam musicians, on the
a particular model on a specific
in
formulaic
hand,
the
way
standardised
and
which
resulting
of
are often critical
other
fact
the
that this systematicapproach
STSI
to
and
considered
play,
are
graduates
some
tendsto preclude the study of more irregular repertoire.
4.2.2 Variation
Whichever pedagogicroute the musician follows, the music systemitself ensuresthat
fledgling performers soon learn to both apply and transform melodic formulae from one
degung
kawih
Working
their
though
the
repertoire,
way
context to analogousothers.
in
learn
'cut-and-paste,
to
transpose
to
as well as
and vary playing patterns
musicians
different
the
combinations of goong, kenong andpancer tones that
accordancewith
defme individual patokan basedpieces.In the very early stagesof training, this may be a
from
transplanting
one piece to
an
of
entire
phrase
or
simple matter
a constituent motif
126
different
kinetic
of pitches.
onto
a
sequence
pattern
anotheror shiftinga particular
Musiciansalsolearnto remouldthepatternsthattheyalreadyknow in orderto cadence
ffixed
initially
be
different
Again,
tones.
with
ways
musicians
may
presented
novice
on
for
Martadinata
doing
6
Figure
4:
the
that
this.
notates
compares
metallophone
parts
of
Catrik andLalayaran,andillustratesthe way in which bothmelodictemplatessharea
but divergentmicro-patterning.
similar macro-contour
Fig. 4: 6 Metallophone parts for Catrik and Lalayaran (Martadinata 1976:34-35)
on 5
cadence
Lalayaran:
54322
15 12 35432
.1
21 34
y
disjunctpattern
mending seque=
G
Nc
C
--%
e
ca&nce on 5
Catrik-
-.
Tl
5 5-4 31-. 2 1-2
Lri
2
disjunct pattm
-.
5 1-2 3
10
12
34
.2
descaWing sequence
G
CNC
It is notable that while Lalayaran and Catrik end on the samegoong tone, Martadinata
lead
in
his
book
it
different
5
is
Scouting
to
tone
to
through
pattern
eachpiece.
notatesa
Cirebonan
Belenderan,
that
and
piecesthat also have a goong tonc 5,
also apparent
similarly feature alternative cadencesto this samegoong tone.
127
Fig. 4: 7 Metallophone patterns to goong tone 5 (as notated in Martadinata 1976)
Lalayaran:
2
21
34
.1
C conjunct
G
(page 34: bars 3-4)
Cirebonan:
1
32
34
.2
C conjunct
G
(page24: bars 7-8)
Catrik:
3
(page 18: bars 3-4)
Belenderan:
3
12
34
.2
conjunct
G
(page 3 1: bars 3-4)
45
34
.5
disjunct
C
One explanation for this variation is that as thepancer tone preceding the cadential
pattern to tone 5 is different in the first three pieces,Martadinata.has adaptedthe
in
fmal
the
phrase eachcasein order to maintain a conjunct melodic line (see
opening of
4.2.6). Nevertheless,this is not the casein Belenderan (seefigure 4:7) in which there is
a disjunct leap from pancer tone 3 down to tone 5. Whether or not this alternative
version was consciously introduced for pedagogicpurposes,it remains a fact that as
players work their way through the repertoire they not only learn to reuseplaying
patterns acrosscomparablemusical contextsbut also to assimilate substitutionable
versions of thesepatternsthat are then, themselves,subject to further transformation.
Sometimesthe introduction of variant patternsis deliberate;the teacherpresentsa
novice with a substituteor more complex version of a particular motif in accordance
with his increasingtechnical skill and capacity for memorisation. Lili Suparli said that
once he seesthat a studenthas got to grips with a dasar (basic) motif, he presentsthem
with kembangan(flowerings, developments)or more elaborateways of embellishing or
varying that motif (p.c., 2001b). More commonly, however, musicians inadvertently
feed studentsmodified patterns simply becausethey cannot rememberthe precise details
of what they played from one lesson,piece, or even cycle of a piece, to the next. The
more patterns a musician memorisesthe greaterthe chancethat the 'original' version, be
it didactically taught or deductively grasped,will be forgotten and that new hybrid
128
patternsor combinationsof patternswill be automaticallygenerated.In addition,young
inadvertently
come up with their own variations because,as outlined in
players may also
chapter2, learning on stagedoesnot offer many opportunities for verbatim repetition.
Sundanese
musiciansareultimatelYresponsiblefor developingtheir own
instrumental technique and for enriching their vocabulary of idiomatic playing patterns
by 'searching' for new performancemodels.4Although, as will be discussedbelow,
teachersrarely discussthe aestheticsqualities necessaryfor successfulvariation or
improvisation, my suling teacherEndang Sukandarequatesan over-relianceon a limited
formulae
to musical poverty (Swindells 1996:65). Similarly, Ade
of
melodic
number
Komaran said that he encourageshis own studentsto assimilatepola from as wide a
(p.
as
variety of sources possible c., 2000a). While cultivating an individually distinctive
technique is not a prerequisiteof, and may even be consideredas detrimental to
competentcempresplaying, someperformers have becomeknown for the particular way
in which they play such non-specialist instruments.This becameapparentto me when I
played an old RRI gamelan degungrecording to a couple of elderly musicians who were
immediately able to identify thepeking player on the cassetteby the type of
idiosyncratic melodic patterning that he was using.
4.2.3 Linking patterns
As well as expanding their store of performancemodels, budding cempresplayers learn
to integrate different types of pattern and to link thesepatternstogether to createlonger,
seamlesslyinterconnectedphrases.Figure 4: 8 presentsactual cempresrealisationsof
Catrik as played by Lili Suparli and Ade Komaran. Lili Suparli createdhis part by
alternating the caruk pattern (fig. 4:5) (which he employedto lead to thepancer tones)
he
(fig.
(which
4:
4)
the
usedto cadenceon the kenong and goong tones).
arch motif
with
Ade Komaran, on the other hand, constructedhis part using an extendedversion of the
introducing
disjunct
a
variant of this pattern at the goong cadence.While
arch motif,
4In his studyof variationin CentralJavanese
gamelanmusicSuttonargucs,"Ile ideaof searchingis
the prior existenceof theobjectsoughf'
ratherdifferentfrom that of innovativecreation,for it assumes
(1993:199).
129
Suparli used single-tonerepetition as a linking device, Komaran.inserteda lower
neighbournoteto connectonemotif with another.
Fig. 4:8 Catrik performed on cernpres (1-11i
Suparli & Ade Komaran)
Lili Suparli
reneatedtone
(B2):
5113
G
45 15
caruk pattern
Ade Komaran
(A4):
repeatedtone
repeatedtone
135
*12121 5-4 51 22 -- 12 i2
C
arch pattern
N
caruk pattern
C
32 34
arch pattern
G
linking lower neighbour note +
1
i74 I i72 f5
15 43 45 13 21 54 51
10
arch pattern
i5154
C
arch pattern
N
f27 i 72
arch pattern
C
Y4r
.1
15 2.
disjunct pattern
Thoughtheresultingcontinuousmelodicline is a definingcharacteristicof the cempres
idiom, Pressingidentifiesthe "stringingtogether"of an "existing movementvocabulary"
to formulate"larger actionunits" asa moregeneralfeatureof the intermediatestagesof
skill developmentamongstimprovisingmusicians(1988:139).In Sunda,the music
systemitself insuresthatmusicianslearnto stringtogetherandto elongateand
with changesin tempoandwilet. Depending
abbreviatemelodicformulaein accordance
uponthe spaceto be filled, cempresandpekingplayersmustbe ableto transformfour-,
into sixteen-,32-, 64- and 128-tonesequences
eight-andsixteen-tonesequences
and
5
of expansionandcontractionbe
vice versa. Whatis more,not only canprocesses
consideredto operatein the horizontalunfoldingof a singlepart but also,acrossthe
in
the vertical relationshipsbetweenthe stratifiedmelodiclayers
as
a
whole,
ensemble
5 In his
studyof Thai classicalmusic,Silkstonearguesthe samemusicalgrammargovernsbothprocesses:
operatingin the 'outward'modeto elaboratea givencontourandin the 'inward' modeto simplify it
(1993:247).
130
Thevery fact that musicianslearnto play all of the
that aresoundedsimultaneously.
bronzeinstrumentsof thegamelandegungmeansthattheir ability to conceptualise
a
from
is
densities
developed
the outsetof their
right
singlemelodicpathat multiple
musicaltraining.As Suttonobserves(in relationto Javanese
gamelan),"simultaneous
(or
"aspects
realmswithin) a singlephenomenon...
andsequentialvariation7'are
found
in
(1993:
196).
in
the
are
other
processes
operating onerealm
Comparing 32-tone sequencesplayed on the cempresin dua wilet with 32-tone
in
in
despite
differences
that
the
sawilet
reveals
on
peking
register,
performed
sequences
instruments
identical
density,
delivery
the
two
mayemployvirtually
and
rhythmic
half
kenong
4:
9
Catrik
(from
Figure
the
the
to
contrasts
second
of
melodicpatterning.
thegoong)asrealisedon the cempresin duawilet andthepekinginsawilet by Ade
Komaran.The striking similaritybetweenthesetwo exampleshighlightsthe fact that
learning to playpeking implicitly teachesmusicianspatternswhich they can also use in
their expandedcempresrealisations,and vice versa.
Fig. 4: 9 Parallel versions of Catrik (from the kenong to the goong)
performed on cempres In dua wilet and peking In sawilet (Ade Komaran)
(dua
wilet)
cempres
(A: 8) 24 32 15 12 15 25 12
32 32 15 21 54 32 32
32 34
NcG
(sawilet)
peking
ýý
(C: 2) 24 32
wor
15 12 15 15 112
32 32
NcG
131
15 21 54 32
.
2.272
i
It is also worth noting that the transfer of idiomatic playing patterns also occurs between
instrumentsthat are not as closely related as the cempresandpeking. Embellishing
instrumentsare particularly eclectic in their assimilation of melodic formulae. When
learning to play gambang, for example,Ade Komaran demonstratedhow kacapi
tembangand bonang degungklasik patterns could be transplantedonto the instrument.
As illustrated in figure 4: 10 below, Komaran also incorporatedtypes of stereotypical
degungklasik-style bonang figuration into his cempresandpeking improvisations.
4.2.4 Strategies of melodic expansion and contraction
Musiciansusedifferenttechniquesto expandandcontractmelodies.Melodic expansion
instrumentalists
fleshing
for
be
from
bottom-up,
the
out
approached
with
can, example,
the underlyingframeworkon which their realisationsarebasedby conceptuallyinserting
additionalstructuraltones.In otherwords,musicianscontinueto play sawiletlength
following
dua
destination
In
but
tones.
the
to
the
twice
wilet
numberof
patterns
realisationof Catrik,Ade Komaranplayedmelodicphrasesthat coincidewith secondary
kenong
(pangaget
[k])
tones.
tones,
as
and
as
well
goong
and
pancer
pancer
Fig. 4: 10 Cempres realisation of Catrik dua wilet (Ade Komaran)
archpattern
expanded
(A7):
45 13 21 21 24 32 13 21 54 34 51 23 43
2115
43
.
Go
bý
kto pancer 3
to secondarypawer I
10C
b. -
k
1-
to repeatedpancer 3
10N
to kenong 2
cadentialpattern usually played on the bonang in degung kJasik
15 12 32 15 25 12 32 32 15 15 45 15 45 34 51
k
119-
to secondarypancer I
01C
k
00-
to secondary pancer I
to pancer 3
132
to goong 5
Players can also approachmelodic expansionfrom the top-down, expanding a melodic
sequenceby doubling the length of the micro playing patternsthemselves.In fact, an
alternative way of reading the musical example above(fig. 4: 10) is to consider the
expandedarch motif leading from the pancer to the kenong,and the degung Has& style
following
immediately
the kenong,as longer dua wilet patterns. Lili
cadential sequence
Suparli systematically usedthis secondapproachon the day of my fieldwork recording,
by
his
dua
elaborations
elongating the caruk and arch patterns that
wilet
constructing
form the basis of his sawilet realisations.Figure 4: 11 comparessmvilet and dua wilet
illustrates
Catrik
the way in which Suparli expandedthe eight-tone
and
versions of
form
former
to
the
equivalent sixteen-tonepatternsin the latter.
patterns of
Fig. 4: 11 Sawilet and dua wilet versions of Catrik played on compres (Lill Suparli)
sawilet
(B2):
05 113 Z5 15 12 1il
>
G
carukpattem
c
94 ýl i2 1i5
...
>
archpattern
N
12 i2
ca'uk Pan=
i5 194 i2
i4 @jete
bl
>
C
G
ambpattern
duawilet
(B6):
0-5113
45 13 4-511 3 45 15 12
c
expandedcamk pattern
2-- 35
li3
i3
il
ifli4
51 21 2
expandedarch pattern
-1-. -- -I- -- -I- - -9;
12 35
12 35
c"k
expanded
pattern
12 32 35 54 34 54 34 32 32 34
c
133
expanded
amhpamem
One of the simplest ways of lengthening a given pattern is to reiterate it in its entirety or
to repeatconstituentmotifs within it (see also fig. 3: 18). A closer look at the caruk
figure
dua
in
4:
11
is
that
the
transcribed
reveals
wilet
pattern
version constructedby
first
four
tones of the sawilet version.
the
repeating
Fig. 4: 12 Caruk pattern to pancer I in sawilet and dua wilet
repetition
dua wilet:
sawilet:
.5
13 45 13 45
13 45
15 1
51345151
The expansionof the arch motif from an eight-tonesawilet pattern to a sixteen-tonedua
illustrates
in
internal
Figure
4:
13
the
way which
variation.
wilet pattern employs more
Lili Suparli insertedupper and lower neighbour notes as well as repeatedtwo-tone
in
leading
kenong
5
2
to
to
the
and
goong
as
presented
arch
contour
groupings expand
figure 4: 11. It is interestingthat musicians sometimesuse the term lilitan (coil, twist) to
describethe melodic role of thepeking in the degung ensemble.The repeated
interweaving of upper and lower neighbour notes in peking and larger scale cempres
realisationssupportsthis impressionof embellishmentwinding or coiling around the
basic melodic contour.
134
Fig. 4: 13 Arch patterns to kenong 2 and goong, 5
to kenong 2
repaition / krwcr
neighbour note
L--',
dua wilet:
sawilet:
ý
mPeti6on
Iowa neighbour we
CI-D
cl-a
-
.2
23 23 21 54 54 51 21 2.
22154512.
N
to goong 5
repetition / upper
neighbournote
dua wilet:
sawilet:
lower neighbour we
repetition
54
34
32
34
5.
54
34
32
.5
5543234S.
G
4.2.5 From memorisationto improvisation
The act of memorising a stock of formulaic playing patternsnot only provides cempres
building
blocks
melodic
of
vocabulary
with which to construct their parts,
with
a
players
but also implicitly imparts an aestheticawarenessof the conventionsand constraints
instrument.
is
This
the
on
manifest
awareness
realisation
melodic
governing
in
in
to
their
the
types
that
use
of melodic sequence
players choose
procedurally
improvisations, rather than as part of any declaratively known theory of melody.
In fact, musiciansverbal commentsoften convey the impressionthat, aside from
is
just
"improV'
kenong,
the
the
and almost
part
cempres
coincidencewith
goong and
be
back
in
2,
free.
discussed
traced
to the quality of
As
this
can
attitude
chapter
entirely
135
the initial learning processand the fact that the student of Sundanesemusic is typically
left "to infer completely on his or her own the ways in which improvisation or variation
may occur by an appreciationof the intrinsic 'fuzziness' of the musical concept"
(Pressing1988:143).
Acquiringknowledgein this highly intuitive mannermeansthat Sundanese
do
have
any sharedanalytical vocabulary with which to label many
performers not
instead,
their awarenessof stereotypicalmelodic and
structure;
aspectsof musical
is
and
contour
schemas
usually attributed to their cultivated senseof
patterning
rhythmic
'feel'. This is of no practical consequenceto most Sundanesemusicians.Moreover, as
Blum argues,"It is fortunate for all concernedthat performers can never tell us every
last detail about their modesof performance; if they could, the performanceswould be
lifeless"
(1998:
Nevertheless,
28).
musicologists are often obliged
well
as
as
superfluous
to go beyond emic explanation and to spell out the "rules", "exceptions" or"tendencies"
and "norms" (Hughes 1988:30) informing this feel. Although I am not going to attempt
to follow the approachtaken by writers such as Sutton (1978), Becker and Becker
(1979), Hughes (1988), or Kippen (1992) and produce a comprehensivegrammar to
idiomatic
I
for
the
the
will make explicit
on
cempres,
of
elaboration
process
account
instrument.
influencing
basic
this
the
on
melodic realisation
conventions
someof
4.2.6 Conjunct motion
Many aspectsof melodic motion on the cempresreflect wider trends in Sundanese
be
least
in
to
unseen
at
as
or
a
result,
so
elemental
general
and
are,
as
melodic structure
is
discussing
by
One
be
that
to
characteristic
musicians.
such
worth
not considered
based
As
are
on
pentatonic
stepwise
motion.
part of a collaborative
cempresrealisations
project to construct a computerprogramme designedto generatecempresparts,
Christophe de Bezenac(2003) undertook a statistical analysis of my own fieldwork
in
(transcribed
appendix 11).This analysis confirmed that 83% of all single
recordings
by
Ade
Komaran
performed
and Lili Suparli on theserecordings are
step movements
keeping
intervallic
from
leaps
Aside
to a minimum, experiencedplayers also
conjunct.
tend to avoid successiverepeatedtones. When pressedfor a verbal comment on this
136
is
kept
best
direct
Lili
Suparli
to a minimum
tone
that
the
of
repetition
matter,
explained
device
linking
in
fig.
4:
8),
(illustrated
it
functions,
in
his
at
as
a
unless
as
own playing
thevery beginningof thephrase.Suparliaddedthata commonmistakeamongst
beginnersis to arriveon a destinationtonetoo soon,andthatrepeatinga note
immediatelyprior to thekenongor goongtonesimply soundswrong(p.c., 2001b).
intervallicskips- includingoctaveleaps- areoftena defining
Nonetheless,
feature of playing patterns and may be deliberately introducedto break-up long
have
Snyder
that
a more
also
suggests
skips
melodic
sequencesof conjunct movement.
by
leap
in
the
function
the
the
created
gap
pitch
range
of
a
melody:
stabilising
archetypal
4expecting'to be filled in with stepwisemotion moving in the opposite direction to the
leap (2000:147-148). Indeed, de Bezenacobservesthat 94% of melodic skips in Ade
Komaran's and Lili Suparli's cempresrealisationscoincide with a changein direction
back
for
line
linear
towards a
track
to
conjunct
on
motion
that serves place a melodic
destination tone (2003).
4.2.7 Stereotypical melodic contours
Whendescribingthe experienceof playingcempres,RasitaSatriana,a Sundanese
is
he
feels
he
flowing
Central
Java,
based
STSI
Solo,
that
that
said
at
musician
(mengallr)in onedirection(arah)andthenanotherdirection,no longerthinking of
but
in
longer
terms
or
micro-figuration,
musicalsentences
of
patterns
specificplaying
(p.
Pressing's
2003).
This
broader
with
c.,
shapes
account
melodic
resonates
and
by
is
improvisation
that
characterised a
conclusion at advancedstagesof performance,
"feeling of mindful 'letting go"', all motorfunctions"can be handledautomatically
(without consciousattention)"andmusicianscanattend"almostexclusivelyto a higher
level of emergentexpressivecontrolparameters"(1988:139). Theway in which
depict
thatplaying
the melodicrealisationof thepatokanmodelsuggests
musicians
is
different
shapes
onesuch"expressivecontrol
stereotypicalmelodic
aroundwith
cempresplayers.
parameter"for Sundanese
137
Over the courseof my fieldwork severalmusicians comparedmelodic realisation to a
journey in which the musician must arrive at certain preordained destinationpoints but
illustrated
details
These
taken.
the
the
of
route
explanations
were
often
may alter
different
be
finger
the
that
types
of
melodic
contour
may
outlining
spatially, a pointed
between
fill
in
This
Snyder's
the
these
to
points
of
arrival.
gaps
supports
used
suppositionthat melodic schemasor archetypal melodic contours, "are related to spatial
image schemas...to the very basic ideasabout our human relationship to physical
implicit
Sunda,
In
(2000:
136).
an
proceduralunderstandingof thesecontour
space"
idiomatically
be
in
they
the
can
elaboratedundoubtedly
which
ways
schemasand
lagon
(see
3.3.7).
Lili
Suparli
to
of
what
refers
as
and
parcel
part
constitutes
4.2.8 The arch contour
One type of contour prevalent in cempresrealisationsand, again, in Sundanesemelody
in general, is the melodic arch;6a rising contour peaking somewheretowards the middle
leading
by
descending
is
followed
frequently
to the
the
the
a
contour
phrase
end of
or
destinationtone. The predominanceof linear descendingpatterns at cadencepoints
Yatuh
ke)
falling
Sundanese
the
cadential
of
on
speak
why
musicians
perhapsexplains
7
tone. The arch contour, of which one particular manifestation is the arch motif
illustrated in figure 4:4, can be idiomatically embellished,expanded,contracted,as well
Sundanese
figure
4:
14
1
inverted.
In
cipher notation and accompanyinggraphsto
use
as
illustrate examplesof this melodic shapeas employed to lead frompancer tones 3/1 to
kenongtone 2 in sawdet and dua wilet cempresrealisationsof Catrik by Lili Suparli and
Ade Komaran.
61 borrow this term from Snyder (2000: 154).
7 However, Cook cautionsthat there is an ambiguity as to which way is considered'up' and which way is
considered'down' in Sundanesemusic that meansone has to be careful about making any assumptions
about rising and falling patterns.He notesthat Sundanesescalesare numberedfrom 'high' to 'low', the
lower-numberedtone I being 'higher' in pitch than higher-numberedtone 2. Notably, when a rebab
he
is
in
'high'
the
context
often referring to those tones that are produced using
a
musical
word
uses
player
low
in
but
high
hand
that
pitch. Low, conversely,may refer to a lower hand position and a
are
position
a
higher pitch (1992:34).
138
Fig. 4: 14 Sawilet and dua wilet versions of the arch contour (1-11i
Suparli & Ado Komaran)
Lili Suparli - sawflet
4
__
(Bi):
_______
________
_______
_______
c
__
_
_
__
__
__
322154512.
Ade Komaran- sawilet
I
C _
_
_
_
_
fA
kri-Al
Lili Suparli - dua wilet
(B6): 12232321545451212
139
_
_
_______
N
Ade Komaran - dua wilet
N
(A8):
5454
The structuring of the arch shapeis highly predictable. The peak of the pattern is
typically two or three tones above (or, less commonly, below) the destinationpitch. In
addition, players usually move to the pitch two tones abovethe destinationpitch, or less
commonly the destinationpitch itself, half way through the phrase.Again, these
conventionsare not systematisedby Sundanesemusicians within any declarativetheory
further
and
analysiswould be neededto develop a more
of mode or melody
comprehensiveset of rules or melodic grammar.
4.2.9 Gravity: motion and stasis
Writing about melodic structure in Balinesegamelan Tenzer notes,"gong punctuations"
and other points of metric stress"exert 'pull' or 'gravity' on melodic motion7',causing
the music that leadsup to them to becomemore dynamic in character(2000:4.2). This
gravity operateshierarchically: the "more important the arrival in relation to the overall
meter, the more powerful the force exerted". Conversely, "just after such arrivals the
pull is weakest" and the "melody may then transform and becomestatic, as if unable to
budge from a single tone" (ibid. ). Motion and stasiscan also be seento operate
hierarchically in Sundanesemusic, functioning at micro and macro levels of melodic
realisation. One exampleof this gravitational pull on the cempresline is the predominant
use of linear ascendingand descendingpatterns at kenong and goong points. Another
manifestation of this fluctuating dynamic is found in the interlocking caruk figuration
that is played by the two metallophonesto lead to goong, kenong andpancer tones.
140
Fig. 4: 15 Caruk figuration between two metallophones (mphones I& 2)
motion
stasis
4
c/N/G
mphone 1: 4444242
5555353
mphone 2:
Principlesof motionandstasisalsogovernlargerscalerealisations;this is evidencedby
Lili Suparli'sconsistentuseof the cyclic, tonally staticcarukpatternto leadto pancer
tones,andthe directionalarchmotif to cadenceon kenongandgoongtones.
Fig. 4: 16 Catrik dua wilet on compres (Lill Suparli)
cyclical caruk pattern leading to pancer tone
13
1
'4
'I
L I
H
GI
(B 6):
'I
I'
II i
III
II
Ic
directional melodic arch leading to kenong,
7
223
232
154
1111.
5451
141
212.
4.2.10 The zigzag contour
Tonally static playing patternsare more commonly found in larger scalemelodic
fill
in.
is
in
Ade Komaran incorporatesa
to
there
space
more
expansions which
interesting
form
figuration
to elongatephrasesand postpone
zigzagging
of
particularly
the cadentialpoint in his dua wilet realisations.This type of axial pattern' is
by
characterised a snaking contour that twists and turns around one or more repeated
incorporates
Though
this
tones.
mainly
employing
conjunct
motion,
pattern
also
axis
melodic skips that serveto configure theseaxis tones into syncopatedgroups of two and
9
three. Figure 4: 17 illustrates a tonally static axial pattern that Ade Komaran used to
lead from kenongtone 2 to pancer tone 3 in one of his dua wilet cempresrealisationsof
Catrik. The contour graph highlights the shifting internal symmetry that is a common
feature of suchpatterning.
Fig. 4: 17 A zigzagging axial paftern (Ado Kornaran)
3+
2+
3+
(A9):
3+
24321525125215123
Althoughon the occasionof my fieldwork recording,Lili Suparlidid not employthis
particulartype of melodiccontour,Entis Sutisna,anotherprominentBandunggamelan
identified
late
Entjar
Tjarmedi,
this type of axis
the
of
specifically
musicianandprotdgd
tone insertionasan meansof drawingout a melodicphrase.Figure4:18presentsa
his
devised
from
Entis
Sutisna
to
that
teach
taken
studentsmelodic
an
exercise
sequence
81 borrow this term from Snyder (2000:154).
9 As discussedin 3.2.1, Us type of melodic syncopation is a feature of severaldegung Has& bonang
melodies.
142
demonstrated
Sutisna
Entis
this patternto me on
the
expansionon
cempresandpeking.
beginning
5
illustrate
I
tone
degree
the
on
version
the
only
scale,although
every
of
below.
Fig. 4: 18 Axial motif (Entis Sutisna)
3+
2+
3+
3+
2
3+
5414
5
(basic contour)
Interestingly, this type of zigzagging melodic patterning was also brought to my
fieldwork
for
during
MA
(Swindells
1996).
thesis
my
on
suling
ornamentation
attention
My teacherEndangSukandarmentioneda specifictype of melodicturn - which he
in
fi-amework
lelol
the
the
which
primary
pitch
or
pitches
of
underlying
skeletal
called
10
function
aspivot pointsaroundwhich theplayercreativelymeanders.
or melody
Sukandarexplainedthat,on thesuling,this typeof disjunctmotionwasaesthetically
importantasit preventedthemelodicline from beingtoo "lurus" or straight
('unembellished')(ibid., 55-56).Furthermore,Sukandarcitedthe ability to perform
imaginativeandvariedlelol asan indicationof proficiencyon the instrument,
incorporate
technique
to
that
suchelaborate
never
evolved
some
musicians'
commenting
(ibid.,
57).
embellishments
10TheKamusIsfilah KarawitanSunda('Dictionaryof Sundanese
MusicTerminology)(Socpandi1988)
defineslelol in termsof thephysicalmovementrequiredto performtheornamenton therebab(bowed
lute),the instrumentwith which this ornamentappearsto beprimarily associated.
143
While suling improvisation is sometimesevaluatedin terms of being particularly
creative, or converselypedestrian,cempresandpeking playing rarely triggers any
feedback.
Although
have
I
specific verbal
overheardplayers laughing or yelling at each
kenong
for
hitting
the
wrong
or goong tone, I have never heard degung musicians
other
admire a cempresplayer for coming out with a particularly imaginative musical phrase.
The cempresis a non-specialist instrument which all Sundanesegamelan
musiciansare simply expectedto be able to play adequatelyenough. On all such corecompetenceinstrumentsit seemsthat, rather than the instrument being consideredas a
vehicle for the musician's creativity, the musician is first and foremost consideredas a
6cog in the wheel', subservientto the overriding idiomatic function of the instrument
within the ensemble.Thus as Sutton tentatively suggestsin relation to Central Javanese
metallophoneperformancepractice, unimaginative playing that conforms to all the
be
if
idiomatic
tends
to
constraints
consideredpreferable, not particularly
obligatory
desirable,to more exuberantimprovisation which doesnot consistently observe
framework
(1998a:
87).
the
convergence
points
of
with
underlying
structural
compulsory
In addition, as far as non-specialist instrumentsare concerned,breadth of knowledge
important
depth
knowledge.
be
Novice gamelan musicians
than
to
of
more
appears
initially focus on developing a broad knowledge of the repertoire on as wide a range of
instrumentsas is possible, rather than perfecting their technique on any one. As
Weintraub observes"it doesnot matter how many ways a player can realise a certain
be
but
how
many pieces can played with a correct and tasteful
passage, rather,
realization" (1985:33).
There is, however,*also a powerful socio-cultural dimension to melodic
in
Sundanesemusic. The playing patterns a
competence
evaluation
realisation and
information
'insiders'
to
often
conveys
other
uses
musical
about the age and
musician
educationaland/or geographicalbackground of that musician and, particularly in the
caseof specialistssuch as singersand suling players, the teachersor role-models that
have been influential in the developmentof the musician's technique. Indeed, a
fundamental,though again often implicit, part of any Sundanesemusician's training is to
learn to adaptthe content of their realisations in accordancewith the 'sikon' (situasi dan
kondisi, 'situations and conditions') or circumstancesin which they play. As Brinner
writes "Knowledge of context frames the performance and thus defines appropriate
144
instruments
Certain
Sundanese
(1995:
311).
explicitly
conduct and musical choicee'
in
the
technique
their
genreor
with
to
accordance
playing
alter
requiremusicians
instance,
draw
for
from
Kendang
is
being
andsulingplayers,
performed.
repertoirethat
klasik
degung
discrete
the
pieces,while
vocabularyof playingpatternswhenrealising
a
kacapiplayersusea completelydifferenttechniquewhenplayingin kmvihandtembang
impact
fluidly
As
on othergenres,creative
evolveand
styles. performancepractices
tensionsariseasplayersnegotiatewhat is to be consideredmusicallyacceptableor
preferablefrom one socio-cultural.or musical context to another.
As discussedin chapter2, the gamelan degung is socio-culturally and musically
in betweenthe distinct'worlds' of gamelanandtembangSunda,
positionedsomewhere
andsincethe late 1950sandearly 1960shasbecomea point of interfacefor perfortners,
andrepertoireoriginatingfrom bothgenres.Consequently,
gamelandegungis onearena
in which suchmusicalcontestandnegotiationhavetakenplace.This hasbeen
in the differenttypesof vocalperformancepracticethat are
particularlyconspicuous
utilisedin degungkawih.Thesecondstudyin this chapterthusfocuseson melodic
realisationasa contextuallyandsocio-culturallyinformedprocessvia an examinationof
thegamelandegungsinger.
4.3
Vocal performance practice
A variety of differenttypesof singerperformdegungkawihat live performances
and on
functions
degung
Indeed,
and
other
singingwith
groupsat weddingreceptions
cassette.
providesan importantsourceof additionalincomefor studentandprofessionalvocalists
domain
degung
Many
tembang
of
as
a
subsidiary
andgamelansingersconsider
alike.
featured
have
distinct
from
both
these
on
worlds
of
specialism,andstarperformers
seminaldegungkawihrecordings.
This mix of vocalistcanbe tracedbackto the momentwhenthegamelandegung
first beganto incorporate singing; RRI's influential Parahyangan group drew its rampak
departments.
Since
the
both
tembang
from
the
and
gamelan
station's
radio
sekar singers
local
in
declined
has
the
however,
1970s,
popularity, with
this style of choral singing
female
Popular
the
instead
industry
singer.
solo
promoting and professionalising
cassette
Elis
Wizakmsi
Meida
types
Nining
other
whatever
are,
and
as
contemporaryartists such
145
known
for their prolific output of
they
with,
now
may
perform
principally
of ensemble
degungkawih cassettes.In addition, while prior to the late 1950sthere was no such thing
as a 'degung singer', the relative technical simplicity of degung kawih meansthat it now
in
functions
Sundanese
for
to
traditional
way
as
a
music
many aspiring
commonly
is
from
This
type
of
song
more
easily
studied
cassette,enabling those without
vocalists.
in
basic
to
tembang
or
circles
acquire
either
gamelan
a
vocal technique and
connections
knowledge of the repertoire without direct accessto a teacher.One young Bandung
basedvocalist that I spoketo confided that after singing along to degung kawih cassettes
in her bedroom for a couple of years,word eventually got out that shewas a competent
inundated
subsequently
with offers of paid work.
and
she
was
singer
Nevertheless,degung kawih is still very much consideredas market-driven light
entertainment,lacking the deep-rootedtradition and artistic weight of either tembang
Sunda or wayang. Consequently,any singer seriousabout Sundanesemusic seemsto be
expectedto apprenticethemselvesto a professional operating within one of thesetwo
&parent'genreswith the view to becoming either a tembangspecialist Uuru tembang) or
in
(gamelan
Sundanese
puppet theatre).
singer
pasinden wayang
4.3.1 The kawih-lembang divide
discoursemaintainsa "sharpdivide" between"tembang"
Spillernotesthat Sundanese
Komarudin,
Indonesian
(2001:
65).
According
"kawih"
to
although
styles
and
musicologistshavefailed to agreeasto the precisemeaningof theseterms,most
definitionsdichotomiseaspectsof vocalperformancepracticeaswell asthe repertoire
it
is
for
(2001).
Thus,
both
generallysaidthat
example,
associated
styles
are
with which
fixed
frameworks
based
kawih
tonal
that offer singers
on
metrically
are
songs
while
but
fixed
for
transformation,
tembang
are
melodically
songs
melodic
someopportunity
"
kawih
difference,
free.
Texts
with
areoftenpresentedasanotherpoint of
metrically
lyrics not necessarilyboundto anyparticularstructuralform andtembanglyrics more
likely to be castin specificpoeticmetres(Spiller 2001:65). Van Zanten,who providesa
" Komarudinpointsout that in practicetherearekawihsongswith metricallyfreesolosectionsandthat
certaintembangsongs(includingmostpanambihsongs)or sectionsof tembangsongsaremetricallyfixed
(2001:51-53).
146
Sundanese
'lembang'
'kawih',
historical
terms used
detailed
and
other
of
overview
more
to denotesinging (1987:27-34), also notes that the languagelevel of lembang Sunda
kawih
intermediate
level
(sedeng)",
is
(lemes),
"refined
the
songs
while
of
or
poetry
have many kasar (lower level or coarse)words (ibid, 81).12 This, he argues"is another
indicationof the fact tembangSundais an art form of the upperandmiddleclasses"
(ibid.). Severalwritersalsocontendthat thepitch levelof an instrument,ensembleor
bodyof repertoireis alsoinverselycorrelatedto its perceivedsocio-culturalstatus
1969:18-19in Williams 2001:44 & vanZanten1987:118-120).It is true
(Kusurnadinata.
that tembangsongs,which do tend to be performed at a lower pitch level than kawih
songs,are usually consideredas the most artistically weighty Sundanesevocal
(kasar),
kmvih
Zanten
Nevertheless,
"is
the
that
simpler
while van
contends
repertoire.
lessrefinedform of vocalmusic... ascomparedto the morerefined(lemes)and
ideologicallyhighervaluedgenres"(1987:29), Spillerpointsto Andrew Weintraub's
kawih
of
asmore"popular","W,
characterisation
alternative
"direct" and
"improvised" (2001:65 fh24).
Fig. 4: 19 Comparison of kawih and tembang repertoires
Popular entertainment
Tembang
gerious art
Higher pitched
Lower pitched
Metricallyfixed
Metricallyfree
Improvisationpermitted
Embellishmentfixed
Text: usually in a standard poetic metre
Text: may/may not use standard metres
" Cook arguesthat, in practice, many tembangtexts (especially older ones) do feature coarsewords,
although he acknowledgesthat there is a generaltrend, particularly amongstthe younger generation,
towards using more refined language(p.c., 2003a).
147
When Sundanesemusicianstalk of tembangsongsthey almost always mean the non13
Sunda
heart
of the tembang
genre. Demarcating the
metrical mamaossongsat the
however,
is
kawih
boundaries
repertoire,
more problematic. Somemusicians
of
precise
body
kawih
denote
to
the
term
specific
of songscomposedby Koko Koswara
a
use
by
flamboyant
kacap!
kacap!
style
of
called
a
siter
playing
which are accompanied
kawih.14 Others use kawih more loosely to describeany body of metrically fixed
Sundanesevocal repertoire. Thus thepanambih songsof tembangSunda- many of
be
kawih
to
referred
as
even when
of
gamelan
pieces
may
adaptations
are
which
performed in a tembangstyle.
This brings us straight to the even thornier issue of defining tembangand kawih
While
singersand musiciansregularly speakof senggol
practices.
vocal performance
tembangor senggol kawih (tembangor kawih embellishments),my ongoing questioning
demonstration
listing
this
of
or
practical
a
comprehensive
subject never yielded
around
from
distinguish
features
the
that
the
types
one
the specific musical
or
of ornament
in
inherent
in
lies
for
the term
the
this
It
the
that
ambiguity
reason
part of
other. seems
itself.
senggol
While senggol may be usedto refer to a single ornament,the term more
incorporating
describes
the
constituent microand
melodies,
motifs
gestures,
commonly
interpret,
idiomatically
fill
ornamentation,with which singers,suling and rebab players
's
Sundanese
framework.
Significantly,
line
in or flesh out a melodic
tonal
musicians
or
tend to learn piecesas sequencesof senggol from the outset of the learning process,
thereby making it difficult for them to distinguish "a single ornamentfrom a musical
line"
(van
Zanten
1987-165).
The
from
"decoration
the
melodic
phrase" and melodic
kawih
thus
tembang
and/or
senggol
voice
with
senggol
programming of a singer's
begins the moment that the fledgling vocalist learnsto perform their first song, the
developing
knowledge
techniques
the
of
repertoire and of specific vocal
vocalist's
idiomatically
Singers
of
moving
as
ways
consequentlygrasp ornaments
simultaneously.
13Komarudin notesthat tembang simply means'song' when used in the title of national TV programs
such as Sepuluh TembangTerbaik Mancanagara ('Top Ten Foreign Songs') or TembangKenangan, a
show which nostalgically recalls popular songsfrom the past (2001:46).
"' This type of kawih song is sometimesreferred to as kawih wanda anyar.
15Sundanesemusicians sometimesinterchangethe term senggol for cengkok,the flexible melodic
formulae used on the embellishing instruments in Javanesegamelan. Unlike cengkok,however, senggol
have not been systernatisedor codified within any modal theory equivalent to that ofpatet in Central Java.
148
decorations
be
between
to
than
tones
as
optional
superimposed
onto
on or
rather
certain
musiciansandsingers
somepreviouslymemorisedskeletalmelody.Indeed,Sundanesc
whenquietlyhumminga
evenseemto retainsomedegreeof idiomaticembellishment
melodyto themselves.
Whenvocaliststalk of senggoltembangor senggolkawih it thusseemsthat they
broader
to
aspectsof the techniquecharacteristicof each style of
are often referring
is
intimately
Moreover,
than
to
this
technique
specific
ornaments.
singing rather
connectedto body of repertoire with which eachtype of singer is primarily associated.
One musician explained that it is not so much a questionof singerschoosing between
discrete setsof tembangand kawih ornaments,but that the repertoire eachperforms
demandsfundamentally different approachesto melodic embellishment.
Learning the mamaos(metrically free) songsof tembangSunda endows the
tembangsinger with a detailedknowledge of, and skill in executing,an array of intricate
vocal ornaments.The ornamentationof specific pitches using types of trill, mordent,
turn, slide, vocal break and vibrato is at the heart of tembangvocal practice, a fact that is
emphasisedin every accountof the subject.Van Zanten describestembangsinging as "a
flow
continuous
of embellishments",noting that thesedecorationsare not consideredas
optional extras but "are very much obligatory, and not to be usedat will" (1987:162163). Similarly, Williams writes that the "deepestsecretsof tembangSundalie in the
proper performance of vocal ornaments"(2001:187); during rehearsalsthe instructor
listens "with great care to the vocal ornamentsof the students... correcting the smallest
details" (ibid., 126). That tembangornamentationis inseparablefrom tembangrepertoire
is also reflected in the fact that certain types of embellishmentare said to be the 'ciri
khas' (distinctive feature or trademark)of specific subcategoriesof mamaosrepertoire.
For examplesof specific vocal ornamentsused in tembangSunda seevan Zanten
(1989:160-180), Williams (2001:186-191)and Rosliani (1998).
In contrast,kaw1hsinging is much freer and usually thought to be much less
demandingthantembangsinging;this perhapsexplainswhy so little hasbeenwritten on
the subject.Williams writes,"Kawih songsgenerallycontainmuchlessornamentation
thanmamaos(freerhythm)songs...andareconsideredmucheasierto singthan
kawih
does
it
is
(2001:
46).
Tbough
true
that
not typically employthe
singing
mamaos"
samedegreeof detailedembellishmentastembangsinging-pasinden arenot generally
149
known for debatingthe exact number of peaksand troughs in a particular trill as
tembangsingerssometimesdo - this commonly perpetuatedassumptionleft me
first
for
encounterwith the virtuosic vocal gymnastics of
completely unprepared my
West Java's leadinggamelan singers.
In fact, the strength of the pasinden doesnot lie in the ornamentationof
individual pitches but in the embellishmentand improvisation of larger scalemelodic
have
In
the
to
to
player,
way
cempres
gamelan
singers
sometimes
a
similar
phrases.
draw upon their vocabulary of senggol to constructtheir own melodic lines basedon the
kenong andgoong tones of the underlying patokan framework. According to the STSI
basedpasinden, Iyan Arliani, gamelan singersalso have much more freedom to play
involves
fitting
Sometimes
doubling
two
texts.
this
a
up
phrase
and
song
with
around
lines into the spaceof one to createthe effect of rapid-fire recitative, or extending a
li
fillers
'la
la
li
la'.
'aduh',
'dunungan',
line
by
textual
or
such
as
even
adding
melodic
Pasinden are also known for their use of long melismatic slides (leotan). Cook
his
"don't
"tembang
teacher
that
a
comment
such
upbraid
pupil"
with
as
might
a
writes
16
(1992:
Williams
23).
like
that's
that:
also commentsthat slides
asenggolsinden"
slide
is
because
Sunda"
"this
in
'6used
tembang
ornament
used quite
sparingly modem
are
if
Sunda
in
kawih-style
tend
to
tembang
vocalists
avoid
sounding
as
singing, and
often
they bear any influence from kawih" (2001:190-191). The pasinden's long melismatic
into
into
highest
the
tumble
the
the
of
voice
or
elaborately
very
ranges
soar
often
phrases
lowest register, with the most talented singersfrequently incorporating more daring line
bends,
that
the
transpositions
modulations
contort
melodic
wilder
and
modal
pitch
through a completely different tuning system
The pasinden's vocal style is also characterisedby untranscribeablemicrotonal
inflectionsandsubtlechangesof timbreassingersdirecttheir voice into the noseby
deliberately
distinct
head
the
the
the
or
exploit
of
and
resonances
closing softpalate,
immediately
between
difference
fact,
In
the
tembangsingers
striking
most
chestvoice.
is
(vocal
distinctive
is
the
timbre)
warna
suara
colour,
with
which
each
andpasinden
keras
(loud,
I
told
that
the
strident),nasaltimbre
was
repeatedly
associated.
is
judged
too unrefinedfor temhang,while tembang
the
pasinden
characteristicof
16Sinden=pasinden(gamelansinger)
150
singersare not consideredfeisty enoughor their voices powerful enough for wayang.
The wayang singerNunung Nurmalasari usedthe term ngetqeumbeu(slowly flowing
water) to describethe vocal style of tembangSundA contendingthat this sound is not
sufficiently vigorous or dynamic for a singer who has to project herself above an entire
gamelan ensemble(p.c., 2000).
4.3.2 Socio-cultu ral perceptions of the tembang singer and the pasinden
While I never heard vocal style explicitly correlatedto imagined moral characteror
be
in
in
to
there
tembang
a
modesty
seems
singing
manifest
a sweeter,
social conduct,
subduedtimbre, highly controlled use or ornamentationand more constrainedtonality that confirms the respectability of the tembangsinger.Though, as Spiller observes,"In
West Java,respectablewomen simply do not perform music... in public" (2001:3 1),
tembang singing provides the most cultivated and refined way for them to do so. That
tembangSunda is consideredreputable,if not virtuous, is reflected in the fact that
Hidayat Suryalaga,an instructor at a Bandung university, chosethis genre as the
for
his
the
performance
of
own Sundanesetranslationsof selectedversesfrom
medium
the Qur'an. Zimmer notes that during the month of Ramadhanin December 1999, the
Bandung state-runtelevision station, TVRI, beganbroadcastinga regular musical
program in which a group of professionalsingers(wearing Islamic dressrather than
low-cut
tight-fitting,
performing outfits) sangthesereligious texts to
more conventional
establishedtembangmelodies.He concludes"Perhapsthe most surprising aspectof
Suryalaga's work is that it has thus far attractedvirtually no controversy" (2000: 12-13).
In contrastto suchsanitisedurbanperformance,
the rootsof thegamelansinger
trace directly back to the ronggeng,the female singer-dancersand often suspected
prostitutes who in legendsand myths are linked to the rice goddess(Dewi Sri) of the
17
harvest
fertility
(see
Spiller
2001:27). Somepasinden
and rural
agricultural
rituals
also
have deliberately tried to shakeoff the negative sexualconnotationsthat are still
associatedwith the profession by taking up teaching posts at governmentrun institutions
17Accordingto Wessing"Humansexualbehaviouris oftentakenasthemodelan which natureoperates,
Asia,sexualpracticesandtaboosarepartof theprocessof growingrice" (1998:49).
andin Southeast
151
or by making repeatedpilgrimages to Mecca (seeFoley 1979:92). Nevertheless,
being
continuously surroundedby male musicians means
performing mainly at night and
that wayang singersstill occupy an ambiguousposition within Sundanesesociety.
In addition, and again in contrastto the seemingly demure behaviour of the
tembangsinger,gamelan singersexhibit a brazen, creative boldnessthat is sometimes
visibly manifest in dancing movementsof the headand upper body, as well as audibly in
the untamedmodulations and freer improvisation that characterisethepasinden's art.
The retired RRI gamelan singer Imik Suwarsih acknowledgedthat this profession has
never been one for the timid, adding that she has always preferred singing in the
because
finds
tuning
the pelog and madendatunings too 'weak' (p.c.,
she
salendro
2001). A younger, widely admiredpasinden also told me that she sometimesliked to
improvise like an insane(gila) person,testing out her vocal dexterity and fooling around
with new vocal soundsto amuseherself during a wayang performance.This particular
is
from
be
Subang,
is
West
Java
to
that
a
region
of
said
renowned for
singer originally
the audacity of its gamelan singers,many of whom are reputedto use magic to improve
their vocal techniqueand to make themselvesappearmore physically alluring on stage.
The use of a certain type of charm insertedunder the skin (susuk),for example, is said to
less
older,
attractive singersto appearyouthful and to mesmeriseyounger
enableeven
is
belief
female
Williams
in
that
there
the
a
among
performers
audience.
comments
men
that "supernaturaland sexualpowers are deeply linked, and both inform the characterof
their musical expressiori" (2001:86).
Such is the potency of the pasinden's power that it has even been consideredto
threatenthe stability of the naturalsocialorder.Indeed,at onepoint in time this threat
intervention.
Outlining
has
deemed
to
serious
provoke
government
sufficiently
what
was
beendubbedasthe krisis sinden(pasindencrisis),Weintraubnotesthatduringthe late
1950sandearly 1960sthe femalesingerbeganto eclipsethe puppeteerastheprincipal
focalpoint of audienceinterestat wayang(1997:176-177).Accountsfrom this time
causallylink thepasinden'ssinging,dancingandgeneralwaywardstagebehaviourto
the "dangerouscommotion"and"wild scenes"of the audiencemembersrunningamok
(ibid., 177).Certainsingersfrom aroundthis periodarestill remembered
aspowerful
icons.
his
In
late
Titim,Fatimah,IsmetRuchimatdescribed
the
study
of
recent
sexual
152
West
(p.
in
Java7
[as
US
"Madonna
the
of
the
star]
pop
c.,
thispasindenas erstwhile
2001).Notably,while thepasindencrisiswasa symptomof wider political instability
incite
it
is
"still
Weintraub
to
that
passionagainstwomenwhose
used
notes
andchaos,
voicesthreatento bring downthe nation"(2002).
4.3.3 Stylistic modification and crossover
immediately
ThoughSundanese
tell whethera professionalsinger
usually
musicianscan
is gamelanor tembangtrainedfrom their techniquealone,the subtletiesof vocal
large.
Williams
lost
the
at
points
of
wider
population
on
most
practice
are
performance
eitherthe smalleror greater
simplydo not understand
out that"manyurbanSundanese
between
Western
differencesbetweenvariousSundanese
the
andtraditional
ensembles,
Sundanese
tuningsystems,or betweenthe WesternandSundanese
ensembles"
it is oftenonly Sundanese
(2001:59).As the following anecdotesuggests,
musicinsiders
that canappreciatethe fmernuancesof bothtembangandkawlh styles.
The tembangsingerHendrawatirelatedthat shewas invitedto makea guest
have
in
Indonesian
to
television
contestants
show
which
quiz
on a popular
appearance
is
from
line-up
three
two
the
are
genuine,
who
alleged
experts,
of
only
whom
a
of
guess
but
lines
be
drawn
from
The
on this
of work,
anynumberof
charlatan. specialistsmay
had
listen
Sundancse
to
to
three
the
singersperforma
competitor
show
particular
false
judge
kawih
the
to
then
tembang
was
who
and
song
extractsand
selectionof
impostor,
laughingly
Hendrawati
the
that
tembang
was
she
recalled
as
a
singer
pasinden.
but that anyonewho did not havefirst handknowledgeof Sundancse
musicwould have
hadsomedifficulty in workingthis out.In fact,the contestantwasfrom Sumatrawith
is
What
intricacies
Sundanese
little understanding
the
more,the
performingarts.
of
of
(a
Hendrawati
had
bonafidepasinden
tembang,
while
previouslystudiedsome
two
formerstudentof SMKI andSTSI)hadalsoundertakena rudimentarytrainingin
having
fooled
The
the
and,
wrong
contestant
guessing
storyendswith
gamelansinging.
him, Hendrawatiwinning a largecolourtelevisionset(p.c., 2000).
153
This anecdoteservesto highlight two important points. One the one hand, almost all
in
Sundanese
singers
specialise
one vocal style over the other. Spiller notes that
serious
famous
Idj
Hadidj
West
Java's
most
pasinden,
ah
ah, explained that she had to
one of
her
kawih
"to
tembang
avoid
ruining
voice" (2001:65 E625).Although a few
give up
in
both
have
some
achieved
success
styles, I overhearda couple of older
vocalists
known
'bi-musical' singer asgadungan (fake or
criticising
one
well
musicians
wayang
bogus),unable to perform either with any real conviction. On the other hand, many
have
those
who
received a formal music education,have dabbled in
singers,especially
both tembangand kawih genres.The tembangsinger Euis Komariah, for instance,
"started her careersinging kawih" (ibid. ), while Nunung Nurmalasari claimed that most
have
leading
Bandung's
pasinden
assimilatedcertain tembangornamentsinto their
of
vocal technique.It seemedto me that, in the musical melting pot of Bandung, it was
find
bang
difficult
'pure'
tem
to
a
or kawih singer who had not been contaminated
more
by somedegreeof exposureto both styles,
In fact, the most versatile singersalso modify their vocal technique in accordance
with the specific musical and social circumstancesin which they find themselves
performing. Brinner acknowledgesthat socio-cultural milieu is an important factor in
shapingevaluationsof competence-a "generalized ideal competence"being manifest in
"localized or particularized competences"(1995:89-90). Rather as a Sundanesespeaker
negotiatesthe hierarchical levels of the Sundaneselanguage,choosing his or her words
in accordancewith the statusof the personwith whom he or she is engagedin dialogue
linguistic
bounds
their
the
of
own
ability, competentmelodic realisation in
and
Sundanesemusic usually has much more to do with a performer's appropriate
interpretation of, and ability to adapt to, specific texts and contexts rather than with
Only
technical
or
virtuosity.
spontaneity
occasionally is the latter a demandof
creative
the former.
One contextual factor which musicians identify as having a bearing on the way in
is
is
live
the
they
whether
performance
or
sing
or being recorded.Casual
play
which
loose',
'let
to
musicians
as well as often compel them to
situations
enable
performance
Gmakedo', in a way that would not withstand the closer scrutiny of the recording studio
formal
concert situation.
or more
154
I onceattendeda Bandungweddingat which thepasindenfor thegamelansalendro set
did not turn up andthe tembangsingerwho hadsungthroughoutthe main ceremonywas
in
later
The
her
tembang
confidedto me that she
singer
question
to take place.
persuaded
hadfelt terribly uncomfortableto beput into this positionbecauseshecouldnot sing
kawihvery well. Despitetheseclaims,the singerwasconsideredsufficientlycompetent
to bluff her way throughtheperformanceandtheweddingguests,at least,did not seem
to noticethatanythingwasamiss.
However,what is passablefor suchlargelyuninformedaudiencesandwhat can
be consideredas acceptablefor other musiciansand music connoisseursare usually two
As
Brinner
things
suggests,musiciansmay underplay their abilities
entirely.
separate
intimidating
higher
less
in
become
technically
the
competent
presenceof an
and even
it
became
(1995:
312-313).
During
fieldwork
the
recordings
processof making
authority
I
during
that
the
singers
was
working
cautious
with
were
musically
apparent
much more
one of the specific recording sessionsthat I had convenedthan, for instance,at a rowdier
wedding performance.Presumablyone reasonfor this was that the artists in question
were not certain who would eventually get to hear theserecordings.
My plans to conduct experimentally controlled recording sessionsin order that I
in
the
way
which singersfrom differentbackgrounds
renderspecific
could explore
degungkawih songswerealsodashedasit becameclearthatthe repertoireI chose,as
instruments
instrumentalists
I broughtin to providethe accompaniment
the
and
well as
hada direct influenceon thevocalstylethatresulted.The difficulties beganat the very
beginningof this projectwhenI decidedthat it would be morepracticalto recordsingers
This decision
with a kacapi,ratherthana completegamelandegungaccompaniment.
wasnot merelya matterof economics;takinga kacap!playcrto eachsinger'shomeor
feasible
more
thanwasarranginglargerscalerecording was
much
work
placeof
I
knew,
not everyonewould attend.I soondiscovered,however,that
which,
at
sessions
the type of kacap!used(a factorwhich wasoftentakenout of my control),be it a kacapi
indung(zither usedin tembangSunda)or kacapikawih(kawihzither),hada direct
bearingon the singer'svocalpractice.Partof thereasonfor this is thatkacapiindung
tendto be tunedto a lowerpitch levelthankacapikawih,andsingingin a lowervocal
influences
inevitably
a singer'stimbreand,in turn, otheraspectsof their vocal
register
technique.Iyan Arliani, apasindenwho hasstudiedsometembangalsocommentedthat
155
heard
distinctive
the
soon
as
she
as
playing patterns of the kacapi indung she could not
stop herself from moderatingher vocal timbre and singing in a tembangstyle (P.c.,
2001). Finally, the tuning of the kacap! also has an impact on vocal performance
practice. The songKukupu, for example,is apelog degung song that can be sung with a
pelog degung(as happensin gamelan degung) or salendro accompaniment(see5.6.3).
My accompanistsometimesdecidedto retune the kacapi for this song, a modification
inadvertently,
which, albeit
proved that only a salendro accompanimentprovides the
tonal spacefor apasinden to freely flaunt her vocal technique.
Aside from wider contextual considerations,a degreeof stylistic crossoveris
also demandedby certain bodies of repertoire. There are, for example, a body of kawih
songsthat are sometimesdescribedby singersas lagu kaleran ('northern songs'). The
term 'kaleran' refers to the musical style associatedwith northern Sundanesecities such
as Cirebon and Indramayu and the north coastregion bordering Central Java where
Sundaneseand Javanesecultures converge.This type of song is melodically
characterisedby the use of what are sometimescalled senggol kaleran; theseare kawih
style phraseswhich Cook describesas "a large number of syllables crammed into rather
few beats,followed by melismaswhich modulate wildly" (1992:23). While such phrases
degung
in
by
'improvised'
the
tembang
and
singers
pasinden
gamelan
are
salendro,
learn relatively fixed versions of such motifs. Euis Komariah explained that when
adapting kaleran-style gamelan pieces- such as the enormously popular Senggot
Kaleran - as tembang(and to a lesserextent degung) songsit is important to retain the
stylistic flavour of the repertoire, but to idiomatically reinterpret the melody using
tembangornamentationin order that it be containedwithin the bounds of conventional
future
interesting
(p.
be
2001).
An
to compare
practice
c.,
project
would
performance
derivative
their
tembangpanambih, analysing this processof
songs
and
gamelan
melodic translation in fin-therdetail.
156
4.3.4 Negotiating kawih and lembang styles in degung performance
Without any indigenousvocal practice of its own, degungkaw1hhas been one musical
has
been
divide
Tliough
kawih-tembang
in
the
explicitly
negotiated.
more
arena which
the degung singer is usually referred to as ajuru kawih (a title that also servesas a
is
frequently
forpasinden),
I
told
that
lembang
vocal
practice
more
was
euphemism
fitting for gamelan degungperformancethan gamelan singing. The former RRI
musician Koestyaramadethe commentthat the halimpu (soft, sweet) timbre of the
tembangsinger suits gamelan degungbetter than the keras (loud, strong) tone of the
Ida
it
for
he
Apparently,
this
that
the
tembang
singer
reason
used
was
pasinden.
Widawati on the seminal degungcassetteTilam Sono (61.3), rather than a gamelan
basedpasinden
RRI
his
Yetty Sumiati (p.c., 2000). This
the
wife,
singer such as
by
is
fully
thepasinden I spoketo; Nunung Nurmalasari even
supported
argument
demonstration
her
how
with
an
on-the-spot
softens
sound
me
of
she
provided
radically
when switching from a gamelan salendro to a gamelan degungaccompaniment.One
musician suggestedthat the gentler tone of the lembang singer matchesthat of the suling
(as used in tembangSundaand gamelan degung),while thepasin&n has a strident
timbre more like the rebab (as usedin gamelan salendro). Yet anotherexplanation that I
degung
is
Sunda
that
tembang
and
as
gamelan
sharethe samearistocratic
given
was
heritage and tuning systems,it is appropriatethat they use a similarly refined vocal style.
Even so, a comparisonof recordingsof the RRI degunggroup dating from the
1960sand 1970swith contemporaryreleasesrevealsthat performancepracticeshave
four
decades.
last
The
heard
three
the
or
on older
choral
solo
singing
and
altered over
degung recordings generally soundsmuch shriller and more nasal than that heard on
degung cassettestoday (seeCD track 2). One kacapi player equatedthis mellowing of
fact
has
become
Bandung's
that
traditional
to
the
timbre
so tembang
scene
music
vocal
Sunda dominated that aspectsof tembangvocal practice have come to impact on the
technique of many different types of singer living within the area.Nevertheless,
itself
has
been
Williams,
tembang
to
subject to a similar
singing
according
transformation. Noting that voices on tembangrecordingsdating from the 1920sand
1930sare "more shrill (lengking) than is acceptablein modem Performancepractice",
Williams equatesthis changeof timbre to the fact that the pitch level of early tembang
157
Sundaperformancewas considerablyhigher than it is today (2001:43). Prior to advent
of microphonesand sound systems(which are now an indispensablepart of any
tembang,degung and gamelan performance) Williams posits that "people had to sing at
a high pitch and volume in order to be heard" (ibid., 44). An alternative explanation for
this changeof vocal timbre is that, at some point in the twentieth century, performers
deliberately sought to move away from Javanesesinging - which is very high pitched
and to asserttheir own Sundaneseidentity (ibid., 43).
The issueof timbre notwithstanding, a couple of tembang singers also expressed
the opinion that degung kawih singing soundsmore 'complete' if it incorporates
tembang-styleornamentation.While neither tembangnor gamelan singersget to display
their full techniquewithin the constraintsof a degungperformance,the degung kawih
vocalist doestypically employ a variety of tembangstyle trills, mordents, turns, and
slides. Indeed, at the more commercial end of the market, degung kawih and pop Sunda
been
have
accusedof exaggeratingaspectsof tembangvocal practice to a point
singers
that traditional practitioners find distasteful. Williams observesthat pop singers'
attemptsto sound Sundanesemay result in "an overenthusiasticuse of vocal
if
thesevocal ornamentsare missing altogether "the
though,
that
adding
ornamentation",
be
is
'lacking'
(kurang)
to
or, worse (by Sundanese
either
said
song or performance
it
(bau
'smells
Indonesian'
Indonesia)"
(1989:
133). There is a
that
even
standards),
certain irony in the fact that the vocal technique associatedwith the massmediated genre
of pop Sundaappearsto owe more to the aristocratic art form of tembangSundathan it
doesto the more populist kawih style of the pasinden.
Nonetheless,many areasin West Java and population groups within Bandung are
favourable
Sunda,
towards
tembang
rejecting the aristocratic tastesand feudal
not as
its
Cianjur,
that,
the
since
emergence
of
at
of
a
music
continuesto be
regency
values
's
Outside
Priangan
the
region.
of tembangstrongholdsone is more
with
associated
likely to encounterdegungperformances(if one encountersgamelan degung at all) at
kawih
is
thejuru
a gamelan singer. On a trip to the northern Sundanesecity of
which
Karawang, for instance,I stumbled acrossa wedding at which a local pasinden was
degung
kawih
by
accompanied
a Jakartabased(though STSI Bandung
performing
'8 The Prianganis the region of West Javathat encompassesBandung and the
surrounding cities of Garut,
Tasikmalaya, Ciamis, Sumedangand Cianjur.
158
trained)degunggroup.In Bandungitself, I alsoattendeda weddingat which the music
wassuppliedby a family of weVangmusiciansfrom Cimahion the outskirtsof the city.
This group,Galura,performeda particularlyraucousversionof degungkawih in which
the singer'simprovisationssometimes
modulatedwell out of the tonal boundsof the
degung'spelog andmadendatunings.Theadditionof sporadicsectionsof alok
(interludessungby a malegamelansinger)andconstantyelpingcries,whoops,verbal
feel
hecklingandcymbalcrashesgavetheperformance
distinctive
wa)-ang that was far
a
removedfrom the decorousness
of mostgamelandegungandtembangSunda
in Bandung.
performances
My own experienceof attendingcity weddingssuggests
thatwhile this type of
degungperformanceis particularto this wayangaffiliatedgroup,it is not uncommonfor
degungsingers,especiallyif they aregamelantrained,to improviseat informal live
in
on commercialrecordings.On
performances a way thattheywouldnot contemplate
oneoccasionI wentto a weddingwith an STSIbaseddegunggroupwhosesingerwas a
formerpasindenwayang.Carriedawayby thejoviality of the weddingparty,andat a
be
in
busy
to
the
the
too
where
proceedings
guestswere
point
eatingandchatting
activelylistening,the singerbeganto spiceup a performanceof the degungkmvihsong
Jeruk Manisby incorporatinga few moredaringsenggolkawih.Thesubtlechangein
this performancewas initially broughtto my attentionby the fact thatafter each
innovativeturn of phrase,the maledegungplayersin thegroupshoutedtheir approval
in
the
while
singer
questionquietly laughedwith a slight air of
andencouragement
Withoutwantingto readtoo muchinto what canbe simplyregardedas
embarrassment.
joking
I
did
and
play,
sensethatthe incorporationof thesekawih style
musical
on-stage
'licks' wasat leastnudgingat theboundariesof conventionaldegungvocalpractice.The'
laughter
seemedto havesomethingto do with, if not exactlyunleashing
singer'snervous
the creativepowerof theronggeng,thenconcernaboutbeingseento haveoverstepped
somemark of proprietyor, moresimply,to be immodestlyshowingoff. Certainly,I
could neverget the samesingerto performJerukkfanis in quitethe sameliberatedway
in the recordingstudioalthough,asidefrom not knowingwho would eventuallygain
159
have
been
because
lack
this
to
the
could
also
my
recordings,
of
of authentic onaccess
19
live
interaction
group.
with a
stage
T'houghawareof the limitations of studio-basedrecordings, this event did
prompt me to make multiple recordings of Jeruk Manis in an attempt to comparethe
different
backgrounds
from
in
realise this song. While Jeruk Manis,
singers
ways which
fixed as it is in thepelog degungtuning, is not subject to larger scale cross-genre
transposition or structural adaptation,it is sufficiently flexible for singersto vary the
line.
in
During
the
they
the courseof theserecording
embellish
melodic
which
way
know
background,
became
it
their
that
several
most
singers,
whatever
clear
sessions
different versions of this particular song.
From a researchperspective,the most interesting rendition of Jeruk Manis was
her
from
Apart
by
Nunung
Nurmalasari.
the
use of a more
gamelan singer
performed
Nurmalasari's
difference
between
Nunung
the
timbre,
version of
most notable
strident
the song and the others that I recorded is that, after the first verse and refrain, she
'improvised' a new melodic line with eachrepeatedcycle of the piece. Jeruk Manis is
basedon the sekar alit Belenderan [4 (5) 1 (2)] and Nurmalasari, as a competentwayang
is
framework.
This
fit
is
tonal
to
this
a
over
singer, capableof extemporizing a melody
degung
Tembang
demanded
is
tembang
that
singersmay
or
singers.
of
not normally
skill
know alternative senggolwith which they can vary a particular panambih melody, but
theseare generally pre-rehearsedand memorisedfrom seminal cassetterecordings of the
in
Sunda
is
improvisation
Cook
tembang
that
performance
not acceptable
notes
song.
(kawih)
in
tries
tembang
apanambih
that
a
out
new
senggol
singer
even when a
and
(1992:
23).
hot
"people
the
under
collar"
start getting
song
Nunung Nurmalasari's version of Jeruk Manis also featuresspecific phrases
in
bend
by
the
types
slides
outlined
my
of
and
pitch
melismatic
which, characterised
identified
later
kawih
description
asexamplesof
vocal
Practice
above,
were
of
general
below
The
comparestwo versionsof the phrase
example
pasindenstyleembellishments.
leadingto goongtone 5 in the secondhalf of the song. The first, performedby the
temhanganddegungkawihsingerMamahDasimah,is the moreconventionalin terms
19 Davidson
and Torff have questioned the validity of "laboratory work7to investigate aspects of music
cognition, arguing that the "burgeoning body" of psychology research "casts doubt on whether responses
of subjects under artificial circumstances reflect their work in real-world contexts" (1992: 130).
160
of current degungkawih performancepractice. The secondis the 'pasinden version'
performedby NunungNurmalasari.While MamahDasimahprimarily rendersthe text
syllabically,embellishingthemelodicline at the cadencepoint with a specifictype of
ornamentalturn,NunungNurmalasariperformsa morelanguidmelismaticphrasewhich
slowly slidesits way to thegoongtone.
Fig. 4: 20 Comparison of senggol used In Jeruk Manis
GCD
tracks 7&81"
Mamah Dasimah
5435553
pun la -
434545
was
ke - te - mu
ma
-
5
ning
Nunung Nunnalasari
54334513451345455ý
ke-te-mu
wis la - was
ma
ning
It is at the opening of the secondverse of the song that Nunung's 'pasinden voice' really
fore.
leading
The
kenong
4 and goong 5 at the beginning of this
to
the
to
phrases
comes
in
a much more nasaltone and feature more dramatic tonal
cycle
are
rendered
second
inflections,slides,aswell a shortextractof thetype of rapidly delivered,syllabicallyheard
in
the contextof degungkawihperformance.
commonly
not
recitative
packed
Although I presenta transcriptionof this passage
below,neitherWesternstaff nor
Sundanese
ciphernotationcanaccuratelyrepresentthe subtlenuancesof timbreand
Sundanese
or rhythmicelasticitythat characterise
pitch, complexornamentation
vocal
the fact
practice.Theprocessof transcribingmy fieldwork recordingsonly emphasised
161
that many of the key differencesbetween tembangand gamelan singing that are
immediately perceptibleto the ear are visibly lost when one is left only with that which
down
be
on paper.
written
can
Fig. 4: 21 Opening of the
nd Cycle
2
OCD
of Jeruk Manis
track 8
NunungNurmalasari
2151
Su-ra-ba
%-. 01
-
345454
ya
432111121
Su- m-ba-ya be--ru-pa ru -
pa
44441
be - ru - pa
5+ 123455555
sa- pu - tang-an
3454
ru -
ja-tuh
4
pa
5+ 54345
di lum -
pur
Another feature of the kawih 'licks' that are sometimesincorporated into degung kawih
incorporate
form
is
that
they
some
often
of passingmodulation. Though not
performance
demonstrablein Jeruk Manis, Mamah Dasimah illustrated one such modulating 'senggol
kawih' for me in the context of the popular songEs Lilin. Es Lilin is a madendasong
that, basedon the sek-aralit Senggot[2 (4) 2 (5) transposablemadendaciphers;
5 (2) 5 (3-) fixed ciphers], can be performed in either sawilet or dua wilet. While degung
fixed
Mamah
Dasimah
to
taught me
the
tend
relatively
perform
versions
of
song,
singers
kawih
basic
One
the
to
contour.
motifs
melodic
substitute
with
which
embellish
several
kenong
fixed
begins
[5
2
to
the
these
cadence
used
on
second
cipher],
on
phrases,
of
tone 3 [1 fixed cipher] and then follows a twisting descentthat includes several
6accidental'tonesbefore eventually arriving at the kenong.In true kawih fashion, this
destination
but
does
finishes with a throwaway melodic tag
the
tone
end
on
not
sequence
fixed
[45+
4315
12+
ciphers]. Gamelan singersoften use such modulating
on
fill
in
between
individual
the
to
and
gaps
elongate
melismas
phrases.
162
Fig. 4: 22 Modulating kaw1hsenggol In Es Utin
G)CD
track 9
MamahDasimah
3
ku
4+ 5
sa -da-
5+ 1 5+ 12122
ya -
1- 2+ 1-
5
na
While degung singersmay experimentwith more inventive jenggol in informal
disseminate
to
situations,
continue
and
performance
commercial
cassettes
a
rehearsal
more homogenousbrand of degungkawih. One notable exception to this is an album of
has
Nano
S
marketedas kliningan degung (gamelanpelog-salendro
uratno
what
degung).
Kawaas (Dian Records)is a degung kmvih recording
repertoire performed on
that, featuring one of West Java's most celebratedwcDwngsingers,Ijah Hadijah,
includes severaladaptationsof gamelanpelog-salendro songsnot commonly performed
on the smaller degungensemble.According to Suratno,the project's artistic director,
combining the distinctive vocal style of Ijah Hadijah with a conventional degung kawih
itself
fact
for
ftirther
the
this
this
starting
creative
point
particular recording;
group was
(p.
the
this
unconventional
nature
of
styles
c., 200 1).
emphasises
mix of performance
While it is doubtful that this one-off album signals a wider changein degung kawih
vocal performancepractice, the growing popularity of gamelan selap (see 5.5.1) at
inclusion
the
subsequent
wayang shows, and
of popular degung arrangementsin such
performances,may meanthat Sundanesemusicians and audienceswill become
increasingly accustomedto hearingpasinden interpret the latest degungkavvih'hits'.
What is certain is that Sundanesemusic is extremely dynamic in its evolution and that
degung
in
6,
is
be
discussed
As
chapter
practice
no
exception.
will
vocal performance
kawih is first and foremost consideredas market-driven entertainmentand, in the
have
bid
for
encouragedsingers to
cassettes,
producers
commercially successful
ongoing
Sundanese,
from
Indonesian
of
and non-Indonesian
a
range
replicate stylistic elements
dpop' genresthat are massmediatedin Bandung and beyond. If changesto degung
indication
future
decade
last
trends,prospective
the
are
any
of
so
or
repertoire over
163
less
likely to be puzzling over the subtletiesof tembangand kawih
researchersare
be
dangdut,
keroncong, 'Arab', and diatonis
to
the
picking out
embellishmentas
(diatonic) sounding 'licks' with which a new generationof degung kawih artists have
begunto colour their compositionsand melodic realisations.
Summary
This chapterhas explored two casestudiesof melodic realisation in degung kawih. The
first, focusing on an improvisatory style of playing on the cempresknown as ngamelodi,
initial
leaming
furnishes
the
that
progression
musicians with the skills
outlined
necessaryto generatetheir own parts, as well as identified some of the wider
conventionsgoverning melodic motion on this instrument. The secondlooked at the
different types of singer who perform degung kawih in Bandung, and reflected on the
fact that gamelan degung is one arenain which tembangand kaw1hvocal styles have
been more explicitly negotiated.Vocal performancepractice will be consideredagain
within a broader survey of the cassetteindustry in chapter6.
Chapter5 will now probe the subtletiesof repertoire classification and examine
the ways in which form and tuning facilitate or complicate the adaptationof repertoire
from gamelan salendro and tembangSundato gamelan degung.
164
Chapter 5
Cross-genre adaptation
5.1
Repertoire borrowing and adaptation
One form of transformationthat pervadesSundanesemusic making occurs across
distinct genreswithin the regional performing arts complex. Bandung musicians are
mastersof the art of adaptation- adept at idiomatically reworking material to fit
different combinationsof instrumentsand musical styles. The practice of borrowing and
from
has
in
to
one
genre
another
played
a
significant
pieces
role the
adapting
Sundanese
the
of
music genres,with many
of
several
most
prominent
modernisation
having
into
been
the staple repertoire of recipient
assimilated
resulting arrangements
ensembles.
One body of repertoire that initially evolved in this way is the metrically fixed
Sunda.
Many
derived
from
these
tembang
of
pieces
were
originally
songs
of
panambih
the repertoiresof gamelanpelog-salendro andgamelan degung and, indeed, such
borrowing continuesto be one way of expandingthis particular genre.In August 2001,
the tembangsinger Euis Komariah gatheredtogether a group of tembangandgamelan
bih
to
versions of severalolder gamelanpelog-salendro
musicians work out panam
songs.While the primary purposeof this exercisewas to create 'new' repertoire for a
forthcoming tembangSundacompetition, a subsidiary aim was to stimulate a renewed
interest in the songsthemselves.Euis Komariah statedthat she deliberately chosepieces
that are seldomperformed by contemporarygamelan groups in the hope that a revival
via the medium of tembangSundamight prompt gamelan singersto start learning them
again (p.c., 2001).
Cross-genreadaptationis also often a consequenceof practical or economic
diversity
in
Bandungrequiresthat musiciansbe
The
situations
of
performance
necessity.
if
be
demand
to
they
employable,
while
urban
are
patrons
constantly
resourceful
musical
productsthat canbe promotedas 'special' or 'new'. Playersarefrequentlycalledupon
to produceone-offarrangements
or to undertakeon-the-spotcompositionto meetthe
needsof a particularperformancesituationaswell asto createfunctioningensembles
165
from whatever collection of instrumentsis available to them. One example of this is
found at wedding receptionsin Bandung. The repertoireplayed at such events mainly
consistsof popular kawih songsthat can be accompaniedby a variety of different
gamelan or kacapi basedensembles.The musical genrechosenoften dependsas much
upon the budget of the host as the particular arts group contractedto perform. Most
professional outfits offer clients a rangeof musical packages;a completegamelan
salendro or degung,for example,can be replacedwith a smaller zither-basedensemble
when production costsneedto be kept to a minimum. It is for this reasonthat Spiller
describesthe tembangSundaensembleas a "budget" version of degung when it is
employed as wedding entertainment(2001:63). The widespreademployment of
electronic amplification to emphasizekey vocal and instrumentalparts meansthat there
is often little audible difference for the guests.
While thennot restrictedto gamelandegung,cross-genre
adaptationhasplayed a
particularly significant role in the expansionof degungrepertoire since the ensemble's
revival in the late 1950sand early 1960s.This has not been a one-way process;degung
have
found
their way into the repertoiresof other genres.
concurrently
pieces
Nonetheless,the boundariesof my researchhad to be drawn somewhereand so in this
chapterI will only considerthe way in which the gamelan degung has appropriated,
rather than conferred,repertoire.More specifically, this chapter explores Sundanese
classificatory and tonal systemsand assessessomeof the ways in which form and tuning
facilitate, complicate or prohibit the processof adaptingrepertoire for gamelan degung.
By its very nature, any examinationof cross-genretransformation demandsboth breadth
as well as depth of knowledge.Any conclusionsI reach,therefore, are intendedto
instigate further discussionrather than to provide a comprehensivesurvey of this
hitherto largely overlooked but fundamentalaspectof Sundanesemusic.
166
5.2
Repertoire taxonomy
In an attempt to delimit the types of piece that have been assimilated into the repertoire
found
"can
be
I
degung
teachers
this
asking
the
endlessly
my
myself
ensemble,
of
degung?
("it
".
This
"bisa"
question
was
usually
answered
with
an
emphatic
on
played
however,
be
differentiating
I
between
is
be").
I
that
that
should
which
soon
realised,
can
technically possible from that which is aestheticallydesirableand commonly done. A
for
be
for
told
that
example,
me
a
certain
piece
could
arranged
gamelan musician,
degung (bisa!), while a singer subsequentlydescribedsuch an adaptationas tantamount
to 'musical rape'. Orientating my way though the heterogeneousrepertoire that I
lessons,
during
practical
on recordings and at performances,I also grappled
encountered
with Sundanesesystemsof taxonomy. My conception of individual classificatory
in
be
flux
to
a
continual
state
of
seemed
as I gradually becameaware of the
categories
interrelationshipslinking repertoire both within and acrossspecific genres,as well as the
inherent ambiguousnessof Sundanesetaxonomic schemesthemselves.
Sundanesemusicianscategorizerepertoire in a variety of ways and existing
taxonomiesare not standardisedor employed consistently by either performers or
theorists.Labels such as traditional (tradisionao, folk (rakyat), classical (klasik) and pop
(pop) are also in common usagebut as elsewhere,thesebroad classifications are opento
different
interpretation
across
socio-cultural groups. While the degungklasik
subjective
identified
is
being
both
'klasik'
degung
'tradisional',
unanimously
as
and
repertoire
kawih comprisesa wide range of diverse repertoiresthat arguably encompassall of the
Furthermore,
listed
while certain older musicians may equatedegung
above.
styles
kawih to 'pop', for many Sundanesethe mere presenceof a gamelan signifies that the
1
be
music must traditional.
I Thedifficulty of classifyingrepertoirein this way wasbroughthometo me whenI showeda videoof a
'traditional' Englishbrassbandfrom my homevillageto oneof my Sundancse
singingteachers.Theband
(a
Bangles'
US
1980s
hit
Eternal
Flame,
the
in
of
pop
group)
the
an
arrangement
of
playing
middle
was
English
it
if
teacher
classicalor traditionalmusic.
of
an
example
asked
was
whenmy
167
Another way in which piecesare informally classified is by grouping them according to
their genre-of-origin. Musicians still tend to differentiate betweenlagu gamelan
(gamelanpelog-salendro pieces),lagu tembang(tembangSundapieces),lagu degung
(degungpieces)and so forth, despitethe considerableoverlap of repertoire across these
separategenres.Even so, certain bodies of repertoire seemto be consideredas more
genre-specificthan others.The discretebody of repertoire known as degung klasik, for
example,is so synonymouswith the degung ensemblethat kacapi suling arrangements
dedegungan
('in the style of degung'). Kacapi suling
to
these
as
of
piecesare referred
arrangementsof more commonly heardgamelanpelog-salendro p ieccs,on the other
hand, are not typically accordedany special title.
Musicians also categorizepieces in accordancewith factors such as genrespecific performancecontexts.The wayang musician Otong Rastamentioned a category
of lagu dagelan Ooking or clowning songs)that compriseslively instrumentalgamelan
pieces such asKaIkun and Gudril (p.c., 2000). Piecesof this type are typically employed
in the instrumental opening section (tatalu) of a wayang performance,as well as to
lengser
(King's ambassador)characterfound in many Sundanese
the
accompany
theatrical productions and ceremonials;in the latter, they are usually performed as
degung adaptations(seechapter7). Although thesepiecesalso fall into other
classificatory categories,Otong Rasta'sperceptionof them as a distinct group illustrates
that musiciansmay know a body of repertoire in multifaceted ways. A given piece, then,
hold
different
quite
musical and contextual associationsfor a wayang or dance
may
it
for
than
may
a tembangprofessional.
musician
It appearsthat the most conunon approachto repertoire taxonomy involves
classifying pieces accordingto their underlying structural form. As previously discussed,
most gamelan degungpiecesloosely fall into one of two major categories:sekar ageung
(large pieces) and sekar alit (small pieces). The sekar ageung category encompasses
most of the degungklasik repertoire, as well as a number of larger, melodically based
degung
(see
5.4).
that
are
sometimes
pieces
pelog-salendro
played
on
gamelan
gamelan
The sekar alit category,on the other hand, covers most of the more popular varieties of
Sundanesevocal music, including the majority of degungkaw1hsongs. In actual fact,
defining
idiosyncratic
attributes that
and possessmultiple
many pieces are more
broad
the
parametersof sekar alit - sekar
complicate precise classification within
168
is
bodies
The
the
that
of
situation
certain
reality
of Sundaneserepertoire fall
ageung.
in
'big-small',
between
'melodic
framework'
the
model-structural
somewhere
dichotomiesoutlined in chapter3.
For example,most piecesin opat wilet are consideredto be large expansionsof
duawilet.
in
Musicians
"say things like 'Renggong
and
sekar
alit
sawilet
standard
Bandung?Oh, that's just Angle in 4 wilet "' (Cook 1992:37). In practice, the realisation
just
is
formulaic
larger
these
a
simple
not
matter
of
pieces
expansion:most opat wilet
of
fixed
is
and the underlying accompanimentidiosyncratically
repertoire also melodically
(ibid.,
fit
&
Cook
36
2000b:86-89). While
the
to
song
piece-defining
melody
adjusted
then the opat wilet piecesmay retain aspectsof the melody and accompanimentformat
lengthy
these
typical
are
sufficiently
and melodically
of
alit,
songs
also
sekar
more
prescribedas to be classifiable as sekar ageung.
In contrast,more straightforwardly classifiable sekar ageung, such as the degung
klasik pieces,are basedon lesspliable melodiesthat function as the principal model for
the entire ensemble.Thus while in degungklasik the core melody is renderedby the
bonang, it is also embellishedand abstracted(rather than accompanied)throughout the
despite
fact
Interestingly,
heterophonic
layers
the
the
that
ensemble.
of
such
stratified
like
to
this
type
the opat
pieces
not
subject
changes
of
of
are
wilet,
may,
sekar ageung
happen
fixed
be
Paksi
Tuwung,
to
melodically
piece
at a
pelog-salendro
wilet gamelan
is
level
Size,
therefore,
not necessarilyany indication of melodic
of expansion.
standard
structure and texture, or vice versa.
Fryer cites a third classificatory category- sekar tengahan(middle-size pieces)that the Sundanesetheorist Kusumadinata.appearsto have createdto cover those pieces
"that would not fit either of the other two categories"(1989:179-180). In gamelan
degung,this potentially encompassesmelodically prescribeddua wilet songssuch as
Gaya and RenggongBuyut (both of which originate from the folk genre ketuk Ulu) as
Kunang,
includes
Kunang
the
song
which
an unusual double goong
children's
well as
has
dobeo.
This
(goong
catchall
classification
particularly fuzzy boundaries,
phrase
however, and most musicians are vague as to what exactly should be included in it.
Fryer concludesthat "a sekar ageung in one person's taxonomy is a sekar tengahan in
(ibid.,
180).
another's and vice versa"
169
Brinnerarguesthat in an oral tradition,suchdiscrepancies
andinconsistencies
are less
importantthanthe basicmnemonicvalueof taxonomicschemes
(1995:63). It is a fact
that classificatorysystems,no matterhow personallyformulatedor unconsciously
conceived,enableSundanese
musiciansto keeptrackof a vastbodyof diverse
repertoires.In the musicalmeltingpot of Bandung,musiciansgenerallyperform a
heterogeneous
mix of repertoire,oftenin morethanoneensembletype.Identifying a
pieceof musicwith, for example,a specificgenre-of-origin,providesperformerswith a
transformationsin
simplepoint of referencefrom which to mentallymapout subsequent
secondarygenres.My teacherAde Komaranwould thussometimesexplainthat a certain
piecethat I wasleamingon gamelandegungwasreally a lagugamelan(a gamelan
pelog-salendropiece)but thatit alsofunctionedasapanambihtembangSunda.This
type of basicassociativenetworkcanthenbe filled out with additionalinformation
detailing:alternativeversions,or possibilitiesfor transformingthepiece;other
structurallyand/orcontextuallyinterrelatedrepertoire;theparticularperformer(s)and
composer(s)involvedin the originalconceptionor seminalrecordingsof thepiece;as
well asmusicians'individualautobiographical
encounters
performingor hearingit.
Aside from facilitatingthe memorisationof largebodiesof repertoire,
classificationalsoplaysa vital role in the initial leamingprocess.If a piececanbe
broadlypigeon-holedasa particulartype,musicianscandeterminesuitablemethodsof
realisationbasedon their pastexperiences
of performinganalogousrepertoire.
Sundanese
classificationssuchassekaralit andsekarageungthusnot only indicate
form
but
limited
informationaboutappropriateidiomatic
also
convey
underlying
do not comprehensively
treatment.Nevertheless,
existingdeclarativecategorisations
representthe multifacetedwaysin which Sundanese
musiciansmoreintuitively
discriminatebetweenrepertoiretypesasperformancemodels.As Brinnernotes,
"languagedoesnot necessarilystructurecognitionor fully reflecta person'spowersof
differentiation"(1995:45).In the complexact of performance,
proceduralknowledge
(which maybe consciouslyor unconsciously,explicitly or intuitively known) and
"declarativeknowledgeabouta certainpiece- meshandreinforceoneanother"(ibid.,
63). Therealisationof the taxonomicallyambiguousopatwilet songsis oneinstanceof
Sundanese
'meshing':
gamelanmusiciansmix their proceduralknowledgeof the
such
170
deviations
by
determined
their
of
any
structural
awareness
sekar alit repertoirewith
length
be
to
melodies.
sekar
ageung
what are often considered
5.3
Cross-genre adaptation in the style of degung kawili
The simple sekar alit piecesof gamelanpelog-salendro now constitute the greatestbody
in
3,
As
tonal
these
Sundanese
chapter
malleable
outlined
repertoire.
of shared
frameworks structurally underpin most of the traditional music performed in Bandung
in
kawih
Describing
degung
bulk
the
including
the
way
which
the
repertoire.
of
today,
Cook
"Broadly
Sundanese
forms
both
is
writes,
gamelan
of
this type of piece realisedon
do
degung
they
in
the
on
as
sameway on gamelan
speaking,sekar alit work much
do,
have
65).
Musicians
(1992:
to
though,
playing
adapt
salendrolpelog"
gamelan
different
degung
instrumentation
the
the
and
in
the
of
smaller
patterns accordancewith
both
Thus
instruments
individual
that
ensembles.
the
make
up
technical specificationsof
in degung kawih, the single bonang player often performs figuration that amalgamates
in
larger
bonang)
the
(higher
bonang
as
employed
patterns
both the
pitched
and rincik
in
Similarly,
the
metallophones
multi-octave
gamelanpelog-salendro ensemble.
is
improvisation
for
than
on
degung
possible
melodic
scope
more
provide
gamelan
instruments.
correspondingsalendro
The fact also remainsthat not all types of sekar alit basedrepertoire are as easily
kawih
is
degung.
It
that
the
for
songs
most
of
evident
or satisfactorilyadapted gamelan
dua
faster
tempo
degung
by
wilet accompanying
groupsusesawiletor
played
dua
frameworks.Conversely,performances
slower
wilet songson
and
of opatwilet
for
is
Lili
Suparli
that
this
degung
reason
suggested
one
aremuchmorerare.
gamelan
degung
instrumentation
texture
the
of
sparser
gamelan
resulting
and
that the smaller
longer
have
does
to
the
the
carry
momentum
musical
not
mean that the ensemble
larger
the
dua
as
as
convincingly
gamelanpelog.wilet and opat wilet songs
phrasesof
fulfils
latter
In
the
2001
(p.
the
a particularly
ensemble gambang
a).
salendro c.,
important space-filling role, playing highly repetitive, densefiguration that helps to
'glue' the other parts together.Moreover, the vocalist and rebab players are usually the
in
interest
the
focus
salendro,
elaborating
rhythmically
gamelan
melodic
of
principal
171
fluid and drawn out phrasesof more expansivesongsusing improvisatory techniques
that do not always successfullytranslateas degungkawih songs.A major obstacle is that
thesemelodies may involve a degreeof modulation that simply cannot be
degung
(see
limited
5.6.5).
tunings
the
confmes
of
gamelan
more
within
accommodated
Paradoxically, while the gamelan degungmay be perceivedas too small to
it
types
of
gamelan piece, has the disadvantageof being
satisfactorily perform certain
it
comesto the realisation of more convoluted tembang
when
relatively cumbersome
do
but
fit
Manypanambih
melodies
not
over
standard
songs.
sekar
alit
are
panamhih
insteadaccompaniedby piece-specifictonal fi-ameworks(posisi khusus,'specific tonal
for
lone
kacapi
While
indung specialist of the
this
the
problem
no
poses
positions').
tembangensemble,degung groupshave to spendmuch more time working out and
practising such idiosyncratic material. Consequently,in a musical environment where
degung
'on
stage',
arrangementsof longerpanambih songs are
most rehearsalsoccur
heard
on studio-basedcassetterecordingsthan at live performances.
more commonly
Cook writes,
Gamelan involves a group of people who have to work together
to reach a common realization of a piece. Any individual
in
has
to fit in with what the other
playing
variation gamelan
players expect.In panambih Cianjuran the kacapi indung player
bearssole responsibility for the musical structure, since the other
two instrumentalistssimply follow his lead. Thus there is more
kacapi
for
flexibility
indung than in gamelan
the
on
room
(2000b:79).
Adaptingnon-standardised
tembangSundasongsfor gamelandegungmaythusalso
demandsomedegreeof structuralalteration.An exampleof this is illustratedin figure
5:1,which comparestembangSundaandgamelandegungversionsof thepanambih
basic
kacapi
(tembang
The
Sunda)
Angin
Peuting.
indung
tonal
the
outline
of
part
song
(Yus) usinghis own form of
(i) wassketchedout for me by the kacapiplayerYusdiana,
degung
(ii)
I
thejengglong
the
transcribed
part
of
gamelan
shorthandnotation.
Sono.
Tilam
As
from
the
this
commercial
cassette
a seminalcassette
song
of
adaptation
discussed
in
detail
in
be
6.2.3.
late
1970s
this
the
more
will
recording
of
172
G)
Fig. 5: 11) Angin Peuting (kacapi indung)
CD track 10
pangkat...................
/
interlude
gelenyu
4
ýp
lagu song....
9.
3p
p2
.4
3p
II..
lp
14..
41
p= passing pancer tones rather than goong tones
(principaltones underlinedto facilitate comparisonwith fig. 5: 1 ii overleaf)
2 Becausethere is no actual hanging goong instrument in tembangSunda,kacapi players have come to
destination
'goong'
to
the
tone
the
than
the
to
term
the
at
end
of
each
at
end of
refer
phrase
rather
employ
in
as
gamelan.
cycle
complete
a
173
li) Angin Peuting Uengglonglgamelan degung)
pangkat ...............
OCDtrackil
-*@
moMed gelenyu
lagu / song
I.
1.43
F-
bonangon 2
21.1.
additionalgelenyu
bonangon
5.25.2
The degung adaptationis characterisedby two main structural modifications. Firstly, the
degungversion of the song is two bars longer than the tembangSundaversion. These
function
in
bars
(ii:
I
112)
(interlude)
as
a
second
which new melodic
gelenyu
additional
former
by
improvised
(juru
is
Koestyara,
the
a
singer
male
gamelan
alok).
material
director of Gapura (the group that devisedthis arrangement),explained that these extra
bars were necessaryin order that the main body of the song be extendedfrom 10 to 12
bars, thereby maintaining the standardfour-bar by four-bar metrical structure (goong
degung
kempul
that
sequences
underpin
and
rhythmic
conventionally
patterning)
and
kawih repertoire of this type (p.c., 2000). Secondly,the gelenyu that opensAngin
Peuting is also adaptedto suit the larger gamelan degungensemble.In the original
longer
kacapi
the
pattern that, moving via a pivot
player performs a
tembangversion
degung
bar.
In
4
the
the
does
the
tone
5,
version,
until
end of
second
tone
not cadenceon
4
density:
tone
is
thejengglong
the
at
twice
at
arrives
original
this section performed at
first
(fig.
5:
2).
bar
the
bar
then
the
simply
repeats
the end of
second
one;
174
Fig. 5:2 Comparison of the gelenyu for Angin Peuting
r-
(gamelan degung)
54
4
(kacap! indung)
According to Yusdiana,the densertonal framework of the gamelan degung version
kendang
for
it
the
player to establisha clearer tempo, thereby supporting
easier
makes
the musical cohesionof this larger group of musicians.He comparedthe tempofunction
of this gelenyu to that of a pangfadi, a piece-specific unison
establishing
beginning
larger
is
the
that
of
scalegamelanpelogsometimes
played
at
melody
3
(p.
2001).
help
stabilise the tempo c.,
salendro songsto
Aside from structural alteration, this degungadaptationof Angin Peuting also
defining
in
demonstrate
this
type,
the
that
to
melodic model often
songs
of
serves
bonang,
for
The
the
realisation.
conventions
govemingpatokan
standard
overrules
from
its
free'
'breaks
usual symmetrical anticipating and reiterating patterns
example,
(seeappendix1) on a couple of occasionsin the arrangement.One instanceof this is
found in bar 8 (ii): the bonang moves to anticipate tone 2 as would be expectedbut then,
in
following
bar,
destination
5
disregarding
the
tone
remains on this pitch
completely
for
lies
in
It
the
that
this
the song
the
the
reason
phrase.
seems
of
end
goong
until
features
this
point,
a passingmodulation using 'accidental' tones 5+
melody which, at
bonang
2
4-.
By
tone
the
a
avoids clashing with the
on
relatively
neutral
staying put
and
line.
An
the
tonality
examination of the tembangversion
vocal
and
of
suling
ambiguous
kacapi
lingers
in
2
tone
the
this
the melody (i:
that
the
on
at
point
also
confirms
song
of
bars 9-10). Another exampleof 'structurally-liberated' bonang occurs at the end of bar
12 (ii). In this instancenot only doesthe bonang player changeposition at the end rather
than in the middle of the bar (as is usual), but he also moves to a relatively unexpected
However,this deviceis not normallyusedin eithergamelandegungor tembangSunda.
175
tone 5, rather than to the destinationtone 4 suggestedby thejengglong part in bar 13 (ii).
Again, the reasonfor this only becomesclear when one considersthe bonang line in
fact,
In
the
to
the bonangpattern on tone 5 functions as an
vocal
relation
part.
instrumental cue for the penultimate phraseof the song melody.
While adapting tembangSundapanambih for gamelan degungmay necessitate
form
this typeof cross-genre
transformationdemands
some
of structuralreadjustment,
little in the way of melodic alteration.Not only do both tembangand degung ensembles
sharethe samepelog degungand madendatunings, but the suling player also employs
an identical techniqueto fulfil an equivalentmelodic role in both genres.Similarly the
degung
kawih singersuse a vocal style derived from tembangSunda. Indeed,
of
majority
as previously discussed,it is often the sameartistsperforming in both genres.
5.4
Cross-genre adaptation in the style of degung klasik
Most degungadaptationsare idiomatically treated in the style of degungkawih, with the
bronze ensembleproviding the accompanimentto an overlying vocal or suling melody.
Sometimes,however, borrowed repertoire is reworked in the style of degung klasik and
the melody transferredto the bonang and realisedusing the gumekantechnique
characteristicof this genre.Resulting adaptationscan have quite a different feel to their
original versions; loud, lively gamelan tunes such asKaIkun, for example,have
translatedas rather gentle and subduedbonang and suling melodies in degung klasik
style arrangements.
Lili Suparlicontendedthatit is appropriateto adaptlargermelody-based
in
the style of degungklasik becauseboth of these
pelog-salendro
pieces
gamelan
features.
Firstly, both the degungklasik pieces and
share
certain
compatible
repertoires
gamelan sekar ageung sharea similar stately or grand (ageung) character.Secondly, and
both
types of piece are basedon melodic models that significance,
practical
more
of
confined to a single pentatonic tuning - can be abstractedand embellishedthroughout
the stratified layers of the ensemble.This type of melody is thus more easily distilled
176
degung
klasik
bonang
because
style
as
a
melody
reinterpreted
experiencedgamelan
and
4
instrumental
know
(p.
2001
that
other
versions of
melody c.,
a).
musiciansalready
In gamelan degung lessonswith Ade Komaran, I was introduced to a wide range
idiomatically
in
treated
this way. Piecesranging from the ketuk Ulu
that
was
of repertoire
songRenggongBuyut to more substantialgamelan pieces such as Candirangrang and
Gunung Sari were all taught to me asgumekan-stylebonang melodies. Ade Komaran
usually worked out thesebonang parts during the lessonsthemselves,thereby providing
idiomatic
to
the
transformation of the original salendro
the
observe
opportunity
me with
by
he
humming)
first
hand.
(that
Notably,
less
convey
at
would
at
or pelog melodies
in
Komaran
instruct
defmed
the
contour,
melodic
would
sometimes
simply
points
well
bonang
"gumek"
to
to
tone
to
x,
y
or
z,
expecting
me
choose
a
stereotypical
play
me
degung klasik motif to lead to the designatedpot over the specified number of beats.
This experiencecontrastedwith that of leaming degungklasik 'proper' in which the
bonang part was generally presentedas a fixed melodic model that left little room for
individual embellishment(see3.2). Observingthe gumekan style of playing utilized as a
interesting
because
it
flexible
was
provided a
of
melodic
motifs
vocabulary
more
klasik
degung
have
in
the
the
some
of
repertoire
could
which
originally
way
of
glimpse
for
is
It
this genre,
that
specifically
were
composed
clear
while somepieces
evolved.
life
elsewhere.
others certainly started
Ayun Ambing, for example, is a folk lullaby that has been arrangedas a
it
known
(when
Dengkleung)
degung
Sunda
tembang
as
as
well
as
usually
a
panambih
Has& piece. The degungHas& version of this piece is now well establishedin the
distinctive
SMKI
it.
RRI
Other
I
rather
and
versions
of
repertoire, although encountered
degung Has& style adaptationsare even less standardised,with players altering the tonal
freedom
having
to construct their own
as
considerable
as
well
a
piece
content of
bonang
variations.
gumekan-style
4WhensekarageungsuchasGunungSari areperformedon gamelanpelog-salendro,
for instance,the
gambangusuallyfollowsthe contourof the vocalmelodyusinga styleof playingknownascacagan(see
Cook2000b:76-77).
177
When recording degungversions of the gamelanpelog-salendro piece Gunung Sari, for
became
interesting
apparent.In somearrangements,the
anomaly
example,an
in
in
2,
tone
the original
the
as
while
others,
song
cadences
on
penultimate phraseof
Similarly,
1.
this
tone
some musicians
phrase
ends
on
version,
gamelanpelog-salendro
then move to tone 5, while others land on tone 4, before finally cadencingon goong tone
1. Figure 5:3 comparesthe way in which three musicians(Ade Komaran, Entis Sutisna,
fmal
Suparli)
Lili
the
phrasesof GunungSari on the bonang (see appendix
realised
and
III for the complete transcriptions).
Fig. 6:3 Final phrases of Gunung Sari performed on bonang degung
OCD
tracks 12-14
Komaran:
11 1
Sutisna:
Suparli:
112
32
15
111
112
33-3-4 32-3-1 2222
112
33-3-3 =225 111
H
Komaran:
14
32
3.454
555
5
53 4443
Sutisna:
5555
3333
53
4441
5454
3334
Suparli:
13
333
3 332
444
44
5553
4.515
7
3-45
4.515
5 Lili Suparli also pointed out that in keeping with the degung Has& idiom, the kempul part that is used in
the gamelanpelog-salendro version of Gunung Sari is omitted in the degung adaptation.The only
large
is
the
the
thus
of
goong at the very end of the piece.
striking
colotomic punctuation used
178
Lili Suparli explainedthat, although the phraseleading to tone 2 does not sound
incongruousin thepelog degungversion of the song it is, technically speaking, still
incorrect. He guessedthat tembangmusiciansare to blame for this variation,
for
Sunda
the
that
tembang
songs
are
often
altered
when
adapted
gamelan
commenting
is
by
fact
This
(p.
2001
the
that the only professional recording
corroborated
a).
genre c.,
includes
have
found
is
I
2
Sari
Gunung
the
that
that
to
anomalous
penultimate
phrase
of
the tembangSundacassetteNyawang Bulan (Hidayat). Cook concurs that many
life
have
taken
on
a
of their own. Citing the
tembangadaptationsof gamelan songs
he
hearing
derived
Beber
Layar,
klasik
degung
the
recalled
a
panambih
exampleof
bonang
degung
the
changing
original
piece-defining
actually
melody
musician
gamelan
to accommodatea tembangsinger's mutatedpanambih phrases(p.c., 2000a).
5.5
Tunings and transposition
The term didegungkeun,which meansto have been idiomatically treated in the style of
degung (to have been 'degung-ised), is often usedto refer to the processof adapting
describe
be
degung.
for
It
to
the
specifically
used
more
may also
repertoire gamelan
transpositionof material into thepelog degungtuning. While cross-genreadaptation
doesnot always necessitatea changeof tuning or modal transposition, the way in which
for
degung
demands
further
is
translated
gamelan
gamelanpelog-salendro repertoire
Sundanese
tuning systems.
of
consideration
Attempts to accuratelydescribeand representSundanesetunings have proven
Firstly,
Sundanese
for
both
Indonesian
scholars.
and
non-Indonesian
problematic
instrumentsare tuned to eachother rather than to any externally standardisedor absolute
from
instruments
Secondly,
frequencies
Exact
to
thus
of
one
set
another.
vary
pitch.
disposal,
in
Sundanese
have
their
scales
of
uniquely
at
addition to
a
number
musicians
the more commonly known pelog and salendro tunings (and variants thereoOthat are
in
itself,
in
Bali.
While
Java
found
and
not
a
problem
some of these
elsewhere
also
distinct
in
genre-specificversions. Thirdly, and finally, the
subtly
multiple,
scalesexist
is,
least
in
in
tunings,
scales,
and
are
modes
perceived
at
part, determinedby
way which
the particular instrumental or vocal specialismof a given musician and the music genres
179
for
Kacapi
is
he
example,may
and rebab players,
or she conversant.
with which
in
between
tunings
these
individual
the
tunings
as
relationships
as well
comprehend
1989:
144).
(see
Fryer
different
ways
quite
Existing theories of Sundanesetunings developedby the Sundanesetheorist
havebeencriticisedby severalscholars(seevan Zanten
R.M.A Kusumadinata
1987:113,1989:124-126& Weintraub1997:98) becauseof thedivergencebetween
6
Sundanese
theoryandpractice. It is commonfor academy-based
musiciansto explain
demonstrate
to
theory
the
then
to
what
and
subsequently
a musicalconceptaccording
in
Fryer
(see
Tatang
Benjamin
Koswara's
happens
in
comment
practice
really
1989:134).Kusumadinata's
theoryis fin-thercomplicatedby theuseof terminologythat
by
is not widely understood,clearlydefinedor, consequently,
employed
consistently
is
degung
Nevertheless,
the
not a
on
subject.
a
writers
studyof gamelan
subsequent
(Heins
"jungle
to
the
provide
growth"
an
exegesis
appropriate
place
of
particularly
1977:85fn) of Sundanese
theoriesof scalesandtunings.In addition,Kusumadinata's
disentangled
by
&
has
been
(1989:
123-157
19
1Fryer
and
critiqued
previously
work
206) andWeintraub(1997:97-113).Thetuningsemployedin tembangSundahavealso
beensubjectto rigorousanalysisby van Zanten(1987:113-161).Accordingly,this
during
lessons
the
theory
that
to
aspects
of
presents
me
with
were
only
presented
chapter
Lili Suparliin answerto specificquestionsaboutrepertoireadaptation,transpositionand
is
both
STSI
degung.
Suparli
Lili
a
widely
and
an
respected
musician
gamelan
gamelan
lecturerandthereforeuniquelyplacedto offer possibleverbalexplanationsfor what
be
largely
tacitly understoodaspectsof musicalpractice.
to
appear
5.5.1 Pelog degung and pelogjawar
The gamelan degung is identifiable by its own uniquely Sundanesetuning: pelog
thatthis tuningpredatesand,indeed,defmesthe
degung.OmanSugandasuggested
that
the
this
type
that
scale
was
of
was
after
old
gamelan
named
proposing
ensemble,
by the pantunplayeron his kachapiwhich wascalledpelogdegung"(Oman
64used
Sugandain Harrell 1974:220).Confusingly,althoughoften simplyreferredto as 'pelog',
development
6AIthough
have
"contributed
to
the
Weintraub
theories
that
subsequently
certain
pointsout
(1997:
98).
practice"
of musical
180
degung
is
degung
the
five-tone
of
gamelan
the
not the sameas the sevenscale
pelog
tonepelog tuning of Sundanesegamelanpelog. Several authors have noted that the
diatonicised
degung
than
either the pelog or salendro scales
more
sounds
scale
pelog
Zanten
"Western
the
that
concludes
equalvan
analysis,
and, after much empirical
degung
for
best
is
the
the
and madenda(sorog) tunings used
temperedmodel"
one
pelog
in tembangSundaand gamelan degung(1987:129).
In gamelanpelog three five-notepelog scalesare used:pelogjawar, pelog sorog
does
Cook,
According
6).
(Cook
1992:
liwung
to
pelogjawar
not soundunlike
andpelog
by
(relative
its
4
"is
tone
to
degung
side
side,
compared
the pelog
scale,although when
degung"
(ibid.,
Similarly,
Sukanda
10).
in
lower
that
remarks
pitch
pelog
of
neighbours)
the "original degung songscannotbe played on gamelanpelogjaw&" becausepitch 4 is
"incorrect" (Sukandain Harrell 1974:233).
The intervallic difference betweenthe two scalesis significant enoughto be
in
design
in
type
of gamelan ensemble which
of gamelan selap, a
accommodated the
brought
degung,
together
on
scales
are
other
and
madenda
pelog
salendro,pelog,
7 Describing the lay out of thesemultiple scaleson the
instruments.
specially elongated
Amung
Dede
Sundanese
in
the
key
the
puppeteer
of
gamelan selap
saron
eleven
Sutarya,Ashworth illustrates that both the pelogjawar andpelog degung scalesshare
the samesaron keys apart from thoseused to play tone 4.
Fig. 6:4 Layout of pelog degung and pelogjawar scales on II key saron
pelog degung
1
1 6,
8.17'1'ý
.6
'.
3
5 4
pelogjawar
1
5
9
i(e
4
4ý1ý3, 2,
5
3
(abstractedfrom Ashworth 2000:6)
7 Weintraub(1997)hascoinedthetermmulti-larasgamelanto describethis typeof multi-scaleensemble.
181
Pelog degung is now the dominantpelog scalein the Prianganregion of West Java.
in
is
degung
degung,
tuning
from
the
employed genresranging
Apart
pelog
gamelan
from gamelan selap and gamelan salendro (see5.5.2 below) to kacapi suling and
is
hand,
Gamelan
Sunda.
the
now rarely performed outside of
other
tembang
pelog, on
has
Sundanese
'the
its
in
the
pelog
gamelan'
as
city;
position
academicestablishments
8
degung.
Certainly, many gamelanpelog pieces
long since beenusurpedby the gamelan
are now more commonly heard performed on either gamelan salendro or gamelan
degung.In my following examinationof cross-genretranspositionI will thus mainly
focus on the adaptationof gamelan salendro repertoire for gamelan degung.
5.5.2 Pelog degung and salendro
Given the above, it initially seemsextraordinary that Kusumadinata'stheory classifies
the pelog degung and madendascalesaspart of an all-inclusive salendro, rather than
for
is
in
However,
Sundanese
the
this
that
certain
genrespelog
reason
pelog model.
degung and madendamelodies are performed with salendro accompaniments.With
development
Kusumadinata's
to
the
of
salendro model Weintraub explains,
reference
the degung,mataram, and madendascaleswere perceived to
...
be part of an all-inclusive salendro model because,in practice,
melodies using thesescaleswere played on variable-pitch
instrumentsin conjunction with the fixed-pitch instrumentsof
the gamelan salendro. Thesescalescould be derived from the 5tone salendro by raising or lowering certain tones,resulting in an
overarching model or tuning systemconstitutedby several scales
(1997:110)."
' Although gamelanpelog is rarely performed, it does appearthat its pelog tuning may be beginning to
enjoy a revival via the growing popularity of gamelan selap at wayang golek performances.
9 Kusurnadinata'stheoretical model seemsto overlook the fact that the pelog degung tuning of the
its
bi-tonal
in
(and
degung
the
arrival
of
repertoire)
predate
gamelan
salendro
might possibly
gamelan
West Java.
182
Gamelansalendro is an extremely practical medium, capableof accompanyingsongs in
for
instruments
the
additional
without
need
sets
and
modes
of
or
a range of scales
is
This
undoubtedly one of the reasonswhy the salendro-tuned
versatility
retuning.
its
during
in
became
than
counterpart
pelog
an
era
which the
more
prevalent
gamelan
female singer cameto be consideredas the principal point of musical interest at
fn.
degung
(Spiller
59
19).
Nonetheless,
2001:
not
all
and madenda
pelog
performances
be
be
To
performed
on
satisfactorily
gamelan
salendro.
compatible, both
songscan
kenong
must
converge
accompaniment
at
goong
and
points. In other words,
melody and
thepelog degungand madendascalesused must have two or three pitches in common
with the underlying salendro scale,and the song melody internally structuredso that
thesesharedpitches coincide at points of metric stress.In this type of bi-tonal repertoire
the fixed-pitch salendro instrumentsnever assumea melodic role and are, instead,
less
filling-in
to
the
conspicuous
of the underlying tonal framework. Spiller
consigned
between
dissonance
the "mismatchedpitches" is minimized because
that
any
explains
"they occur primarily aspassingtones in figurations;that Sundaneselistenershear as
(ibid.,
23
1). The now obligatory use of PA systems
tone"
toward
a
cadential
propelling
further obscuresany tonal clashesas the singer, rebab and kendangtend to drown out
the rest of the gamelan. While the audiencemay still be able to identify the conventional
rhythmic motifs that structurally anchorthe amplified melody, the specific tonality of
the accompanyingensemblemay be renderedpractically inaudible.
This is not to suggestthat the tonal friction createdby the superimposition of two
tunings systemshas no aestheticsignificance. I heard a gamelan singer complain that
does
feel
songs
accompaniment
with
a
not
madenda
madenda
right.
performing certain
In fact, the salendro tuning provides a more tonally accommodatingand impartial
backdrop againstwhich gamelan singersare freer to develop more daring improvisations
ftu-ther
In
the
the
tuning
transforms the
addition,
of
accompaniment
and modulations.
degung
in
intervals
because
the
the
of
pelog
and
scales
used
madenda
song melody
in
degung
identical
to
those
employed
gamelan
or tembang
are
not
gamelan salendro
Sunda.Cook explains that this is becausethe interval betweenthe roughly equidistant
tones of the salendro scale is about 240 cents;that is slightly wider than the interval of
between
(or
200
tone)
that
tones 4 and 5 [2 and 3-] in
whole
occurs
cents
one
around
degung
in
in
4
degung
3
tones
as
used
and
pelog
and tembang
gamelan
madendaand
183
Sunda (1992:26). Sundanesemusiciansare extremely tolerant of such intervallic
discrepancies,deemingthe scalessimilar enoughto sharethe samenames,theoretical
models and bodies of repertoire.
Lili Suparli illustrated the relationshipsbetweenvarious scales(salendro,pelog
degung and madenda)that are performed on the rebab in gamelan salendro in table
form (fig. 5:5). In this diagram,the fixed salendro tones are representedas absolute
pitches using both tone namesand correspondingciphers: Tugu (1), Loloran (2), Panelu
(3), Galimer (4) and Singgul (5). The degung and madendascales,on the other hand,
are notatedusing transposedciphersthat denoterelative, rather than absolutetones. The
term surupan refers to the specific modal position of theseflexible scalesin relation to
the fixed salendrotuning.Thusin the first madendascale,madendasurupan4=T, tone
4 in madendacorrespondsto Tugu or pitch I in salendro. Notably, pelog degung T=3
is usually perceived as an independenttuning rather than as a specific modal
transposition ofpelog; as such this scaleis more commonly known as mataram,
kobongan,or, in tembangSunda,mandalungan(sce Williams 2001:105-106).
Fig. 5: 5 Lill Suparli's scale chart
Tuning*
salondro(nameSof tones)
atendm(fixedciphem)
polog degung,sumpanTa1
polog degunT.sumpanTa2
polog dogunjr.surupanTa3
surupan4mT
-madends:surupan4aP
madendr.
madendr. surupan4m0
ReladvePordon o satendm.
degung& madends scales
T
S
G
I L
P
T
S
G
1
1
5
4
3
2
4
15+
11
141
1
135
3
2 11
5+
5 4
-1
.
21 11
Ia1 4
13 1 - 321
1
5+
.
.
.
-5+ 2 1
35+
3
3.
.
.
-L
413
2 1
5
4 3
2
T
7 2 1
5+
6+1
2 1
5+
5
4
Tonenames
T= Tugu
Sc Slnggul
G= Galimer
Pa Panelu
L- Lolomn
(1)
(5)
(4)
(3)
(2)
184
5.5.3 The theoretical tuning model and gamelan degung scales
It was previously noted that degung setsare now usually built with additional exchange
keys, pots and gongs so that the instrumentscan be retuned from pelog degung to
Suparli
Lili
Kusumadinata's
that
theoretical model, both of
explained
within
madenda.
thesescalesare regardedas the 'children of the parentsalendro tuning' (anak laras
degung
As
the
and madendatunings of the gamelan degung are
such,
pelog
salendro).
flexible
solidifications
of
as
metallic
more
vocal or rebab scales:two out of a
considered
ffixed.
in
bronze
(p.c., 2001b). In practical
transposable
salendro-derived
modes
of
range
terms, the switch from pelog degungto madendaon the gamelan degung involves
keys,
the
pots and gongsthat correspondto tone 3 (pelog degung) with
of
exchangingall
3- replacementsthat are approximately two hundred centshigher in pitch. As outlined in
the technical notes at the beginning of this text, tone 3- in pelog degung [fixed ciphers]
in
functions
[transposable
511a
tone
ciphers]
as
madenda.According to Lili
subsequently
Suparli's table (fig. 5:5) thesetwo scalesequateto pelog degungT= 2 and madenda4=
T.
Fig.5:6 Relationship between pelog degung and madenda on gamelan degung
pelog T=2
5
4
madenda 4=T
[transposableciphers]
2
1
3
3-)
2
1
il
4
3
.
.
Clearly, within the microcosmic world of gamelan degung,the pelog degungand
madendascalesoperateas autonomoustunings rather than as part of any absolute
salendro model or pan-Sundanesetonal system.Moreover, the relative position of each
because
is
melody and accompanimentare bound together in a single
scale not relevant
tuning system. Nevertheless,Lili Suparli's table servesas a useful tool to discuss
transposition from gamelan salendro to gamelan degung.
185
5.6
Transposition
A variety of different processescan be glossedas transpositionin Sundanesemusic.
Theserange from changingthe absolutepitch-level at which piecesare performed to
intervallic
internal
individual
the
tunings and completely
structure
of
subtly modifying
in
different
scalesand modes.It seemsthat the most common reason
reworking material
for transpositionwithin a given genre is to accommodatethe vocal range of a particular
kacapi
Singers
that
a
player tunesto a different suling if, for
may request
singer.
example,they feel the instrument is pitched too high or low for comfort. The result of
this type of transpositionmost closely resemblesa changeof 'key' in Westernmusic.
Unlike Westerndiatonic instruments,however, Sundaneseinstrumentsare not designed
to be transposablein this way. To alter the overall Pitch-level of an ensemblewithout
intervallic;
changeusually requires retuning prior to performance(in the case of
affecting
instruments)
or the substitution of one set of gamelan instrumentsfor another.
string
The impracticalityof the latterhascompelledSundanese
musiciansto find other
ways of transposingvocal melodies. Sometimes,the pitch-level of a song is adjusted by
form
some
of modal transposition.In gamelan salendro, for instance,the pelog
using
degung song Kukupu is normally accompaniedby the sekar alit Gendu 1 (4). Lili Suparli
if
that
a singer finds a particular gamelan too high, the salendro
suggested
be
may
modally transposeddown from 1 (4) to 2 (5); the song can then
accompaniment
be performed without significant melodic alteration at this lower pitch-level (p.c.,
2001d)-10Musicians may even changetuning in searchof a more appropriatevocal
Cook
cites the exampleof the lembang song CampakaKembar, a madenda
register.
(sorog) panambih that many singersfind "uncomfortably high" and which, as a result, is
sometimesperformed a fourth lower in thepelog tuning (1993:64).
10Suparlicommented
thatsuchtranspositionwould,however,resultin technicaldifficultiesfor therebab
player.
186
5.6.1 Transposing repertoire for gamelan degung
The absolutepitch-level of the majority of gamelan degung setsis higher than that used
in tembangSunda,but lower than most gamelan salendro. Musicians generally use the
length of a correspondingsix-hole suling to describethe pitch of an ensemble.Most
degungare tuned to a suling of ukuran (size) 56 to 57 cm, although setsmay be as low
high
53
Tembang
Sunda
58
cm.
as
as
or
groups, on the other hand, tend to tune
as cm
kacapi to suling ranging from 60 to 62 cm, while gamelan salendro seemto be fixed
somewherearound ukuran 52 to 53 cm. A wayang singer once remarkedto me that she
did not enjoy singing with gamelan degungbecausethe lower pitch of the ensemble
finds
it
difficult
her
to
that
project
she
voice as powerfully as usual. Tembang
means
frequently
in
more
complain that a particular degung set is too high for
contrast,
singers,
from
from
Apart
transplanting
material
one pitch-level to another, adapting
comfort.
degung
for
repertoire
gamelan
also demandsthe intervallic 'ironinggamelan salendro
out' of the melodic contour, as well as more substantialchangesof tuning and/or mode.
5.6.2 Transposition: peloglsalendro and pelog degung T=1
One form of transpositionoperating betweengamelanpelog-salendro andgamelan
degung is the relatively straightforward substitution of one tuning for another:tone 1 in
in
I
degung.
tone
While the cipher representation
translates
as
pelog
or
salendro
pelog
instruments
(and
the motor patterning usedto play it)
the
certain
on
contour
melodic
of
thus remainsconstant,the sizesof individual intervals are radically transformed.
Although, to the uninitiated ear the resulting transposition may sound unrecognisably
is
instantly
identifiable
'same'
the
the
to any experiencedSundanese
melody
as
mutated,
musician.
This type of adaptationis most appropriatefor gamelanpelog-salendro sekar
in
Gunung
Sari
including
the
the vocal and rebab
which
entire
as
piece,
such
ageung
in
Nonetheless,
to
tuning.
this category exist in
a
single
some
pieces
confined
are
parts,
distinct salendro andpelog versions and players have to decide which version to
transposefor degung.When I cameto learn the piece Candirangrang on gamelan
degung, for example,Ade Komaran bewildered me by asking if I wanted to learn the
187
3.
Some
5
that
tone
the
tone
that
version
ends
on
goong
or
ends
on
goong
version
is
in
Candirangrang
in
later
discovered
I
that
played
pelo&salendro
gamelan
months
fixed
in
3
[5+
5,
tone
tone
ciphers].
with
sorog
goong
and
pelog
salendro with goong
The pelog version appearsto be the one most commonly adaptedfor gamelan degung.
5.6.3 Transposition: salendro and pelog degung T=2
Adapting bi-tonal repertoire (songsin which the melody and accompanimentare in
different tunings) from gamelansalendro to gamelan degung is slightly more
degung
discussed
As
the
above,
complicated.
pelog
and madendascalesused in
identical
in
degung
becausethe former have
to
those
are
not
gamelan
gamelan salendro
to stretch over the wider intervals of the salendro accompaniment.Thus when adapting a
from
degung
or madendasong
gamelan salendro to gamelan degung, singers have
pelog
to adjust to both the alteredpitch-level and the specific intervallic structure of the tuning
latter
the
the
ensemble;
accompanying
necessitatesthe subtle remoulding of the
of
melodic contour. Perhapsmore importantly, the salendro fi-ameworksstructurally
underpinning gamelan salendro songsof this type also have to be transposedinto either
the degung'spelog degungor madendatuning. Notably, in this type of adaptationthe
tuning of the instrumentalaccompanimentis dictated by that of the vocal melody. This
is easierto explain by meansof a concreteexample.
As statedabove,thepelog degungsongKukupu (pelog degung T= 2) is usually
by
accompanied thegamelansalendropieceGendu1 (4). WhenperformingKukupuon
degung,
however,
both
melodyandaccompaniment
mustbe realisedin the
gamelan
into the tuning
bronzeensemble's
pelog degungtuning.ThusGendu1 (4) is transposed
(pelog
degung
become
T=
2)
2 (5), or thesekaralit
to
the
melody
vocal
surupan
of
known asCatrik. Playersoftenclaim that,despitetheir differentnames,Catrik and
Genduarethe 'same'piecebecausetonesI and4 in salendrosharethe samemodal
functionastones2 and5 in pelog degung.
188
Fig. 5:7 Relationship between satendro and pelog T=2 scales
SGPL
salendro
salendro
pelog T=22
15
11
4ý
32
543...
L
5.6.4 Melodies that are realisable in multiple tunings
The songTonggeretis an interestingcasestudyfor transpositionbecausein gamelan
is
in
threeseparate
the
tunings:salendro,madenda4
vocal
melody
realisable
salendro
T, andpelog degungT=3 (or mataram,kobonganor mandalungan).Tonggeretis often
in
different
three
tuning.Naturally,the
verses
and
sung
a
each
verse
with
performed
is
in
fixed
accompaniment
salendrothroughout.Figure5:8 illustrates
salendro
gamelan
the skeletaltonalstructureof Tonggeret,the principalgoongandkenongtones,4,1 and
2, outlinedin box form.
Fig. 5: 8 Tonal outline of Tonggeret
3
2
3
189
Figure 5:9 demonstrateshow the salendro, madenda4=T, andpelog degung T=3
(mataram) scalescorrespondto the principal pitches of this accompanyingtonal
framework.
Fig. 6:9 Comparison of salendro, pelog, T=3 and madenda 4=T tunings
salendro
salendro
pelog T=3
-
ý
madenda 4: T
T
/\
S
j 1
5
3
4 3
I.-,
G
4ýý4
4
2
P1
L
1
3
4=4,
2
1
4
11
2
5
.1 N-of
Figure 5: 10 presentsthe basic melodic contour of the first goong phraseof Tonggeret as
in
in
three
tunings
all
gamelan salendro. In order to facilitate comparison, the
realised
have
been
transcribedat the samepitch-level as the equivalent degung
examples
notated
examplesbelow (fig. 5: 11) and take no accountof rhythmic delivery or embellishment.
Western notation demonstratesthat eachtranspositionsharesthe same"absolute' goong
here
(notated
kenong
tones
aspitches B, F# and E), but is distinguishedby a discrete
and
intervals.
Sundanese
ciphers emphasisethe modal disparity betweenthe
of
sequence
threeversions.
190
Fig. 5: 10 Comparison of the first goong phrase of Tonggeret
(ý)CD
track 15
i) salendro
7
23 33332221344
32 222
34432
Tong- ge- ret, tong- ge- ret, tong- ge - ret di - ge- ret pang- set, di - ge- ret pang- set
ii) madenda(4 - 1)
4)-4--r -r 4:ý -ov ----+
12215
Ton"e
15 555
-#- -4
51 1215
4,
*.
-r
4+
-r
43122
leurn.
leurn
ba-wa
ba-wa
d!
di
tong
tong
pang
pang,
ret,
ge
ret
ge
-ret.
degung
3)
T=
(pelog
mataram
%-0
54 444511544345345121
51154
Tong-ge-mt,tong- ge - ret, tong- ge-ret sa- da ti beu- mng, sa- da ti beu- rang
Tonggeretcan be performed in both pelog degungand madendaon gamelan degung,
though thepelog version is the better known. The madendarealisation of the song in
intervallically
is
ironed-out
degung
is
that
simply
an
version
of
which
gamelan
(compare
figure
in
5: 10ii with 5: 11ii) though, of course,
salendro
performed gamelan
the accompanyingtonal framework also has to be transposedinto madendaaccordingly
(see5.6.3). However, thepelog degung version of Tonggeretthat is used in gamelan
degungand tembangSundadoesnot use the samesequenceof intervals as the pelog
degungT=3 (mataram) transposition employedwith a salendro accompaniment.
Instead,thepelog version on gamelan degungreplicatesthe madendamodel, simply
flattening madendatone 5 [3- fixed ciphers] so that it functions as tone 3 in pelog
191
degung T=2.11 In other words, once the degung set has beenretuned from madenda to
degung,
keys,
the
same
musiciansemploy
pots, and gongsto realise the song in
pelog
both tunings, the absolutepitch of the goong tone remaining unalteredfrom one version
to the next. When transcribedusing Westernnotation it is instantly apparentthat the
pelog degungand madendagamelan degungversions of Tonggeretonly differ by a
single tone. Conversely,transposableSundaneseciphersemphasisethe modal
discrepancybetweenboth versions.In madenda,the song endson goong 2 [5 fixed
ciphers] while the degungversion finishes on goong 5.
Fig. 5: 11 Comparison of the first goong, phrase of Tonggeret (gamelan degung)
OCD
tracks 16 & 17
i) pelog degung
0
45543
43 333
234 543333
23 44 3454 5
Tong-ge-ret tonMe- ret tong-ge-retdi-ge-retpang-set tong-ge-ret di-ge-mt pang-set
ii) madenda
15
15 553
122
4+51
14
554
3- 4 3- 3- 3- 1 2+34
Tong-ge-ret,tong- ge- ret, tong- ge -ret
1215
4+ 4315
121 2
4 54 32+ 214
3-454 5)
di-ge-ret pang-set, di - ge- ret pang
- set
11The pelog degung T=2 version of Tonggeretcannot be played with a gamelan
salendro
accompanimentbecausethis pelog scaledoesnot have any pitch in common with tone 2 (the kenongtone
in this piece) in salendro.
192
This is not, however, the only form of transpositionthat occurs betweenpelog degung
in
degung.
The
Sekar
Manis, for example, is
madenda
song
and madenda gamelan
Lalayaran
3
(5)
[1
(3-)
fixed
by
the
sekar
alit
ciphers]. When transposed
accompanied
into pelog degungthe entire song is shifted down a perfect fourth so that the both the
fixed
[35
in
This
tone
that
on
end
goong
versions
ciphers].
means
and
madenda
pelog
function
individual
Tonggeret
tones remains constant
the
to
modal
of
above,
contrast
from one tuning to the other but musicianshave to changethe actual keys, pots, and
Transposable
they
that
ciphers emphasisethe modal similarity between both
play.
gongs
highlights
intervallic
Western
discrepancies
the
the
while
staff
notation
song,
of
versions
differentiates
from
in
the
that
the other.
one
pitch
and shift absolute
Fig. 5: 12 First phrase of Sekar Manis In madenda and pelog degung tunings
(ý)Cl)
tracks 18 & 19
(i) madenda
2
15 12
543
[5
43- 45
3-
Ku - lu - cu
21
ma - la - ti,
5432
3123
34 1
3- 215
1451
12 3-1
nu a-
ya cfi, ta - man ta - am sa - ri
(ii) pelog degung
2
15 12
Ku - lu - cu
54354323123
ma - la - ti,
34
5
nu a- ya di, ta - mm ta - man sa - ti
193
Degung musicians could not always provide a declarativeexplanation as to why in the
context of a specific piece one type of transposition,tuning or mode is preferable to
is
limited in that it seemsto
Sundanese
To
theory
this
music
another.
end, existing
emphasisemode at the structural rather than melodic level and, moreover,considersthe
pelog degung and madendascalesin relationship to an all-encompassingsalendro model
rather than in direct relationship to eachother. Nevertheless,the practical problems of
implicitly
do
vocal range aside,musicians
expressmodal preferenceswhen they state
that a song doesnot soundright in a certain tuning or that a certain melodic contour
works better in one modal transpositionthan another.My researchon the Sundanese
suling suggeststhat smaller melodic units are also governedby intuitively understood
modal conventions.Whilst leaming to play this instrumentI discoveredan interesting
modal correspondencebetweenthe fingering patternsused on the four-hole suling
(suling degung) in pelog and the six-hole suling in madenda.I found, for example,that
cadential flourishes leading to tone 5 (all holes closed) in pelog on the four-hole
instrument, and to tone 5 [3- fixed ciphers] (all holes closed)12in madendaon the sixhole instrument,often employ analogousfingering patterns.Significantly, thesesame
do
patterns
not successfullytranslateonto the six-hole suling in pelog
movement
becausethe altered modal result is consideredto soundunusual and inappropriate
(Swindells 1996:70-77). A larger scaleanalysisof the ways in which individual motifs,
phrasesand melodies can be 'satisfactorily' (to Sundaneseears)transposedonto
different pitches, as well as into separatetunings, would be one way of gaining fin-ther
insights into the microstructure of mode and melody in Sundanesemusic.
5.6.5 Piecesless suitable for degung adaptation
Many Sundanesemelodies are not pentatonic. Songs,such as Tonggeret,incorporate
tones occurring outside of the fixed scaleof the accompanyingensemble.In gamelan
degung, these 'accidental' pitches also serve as an important meansof melodic
embellishment for the vocalist and suling player. However, the suling doesnot have the
extensivetonal range of the rehab and, along with the degung singer, is restricted to
12In fact,the bottomholeon the six-holesulingis only partiallyclosedto play tone5 [3-] in madenda.
194
do
that
not substantially conflict with the fhxedpelog
modulations
passing
performing
degungand madendatunings of the accompanyingdegung ensemble.As discussed
impartial
tonally
serves
as
a
accompaniment
more
a
salendro
canvasagainst
above,
freer
develop
to
are
players
melodies that stray into other
which singersand rebab
tunings and modal transpositions.Consequently,when adapting certain gamelan
degung,
is
for
tonal
compromise
unavoidable.
gamelan
songs
salendro
As part of a fieldwork recording sessionI askedthe gamelan singer Iyan Arliani
to perform a gamelan degungversion of the opat wilet gamelan salendro songKulu
Kulu Bem. I was specifically prompted to do this after hearing a couple of musicians
discussingthe merits of a degung adaptationof this song that is included on Nano
Suratno's degungkawih cassetteKawaas. Although usually considereda madendasong,
the tuning of the vocal melody in this song is obscuredby the constantborrowing of
tones from pelog and salendro systems.In fact, in Pandi Upandi's book of opat wilet
Gending
dengan
Sekarpada
Lagu-lagu
Opat
Wilet
('The
Hubungan
antara
notations,
RelationshipbetweenInstrumental Accompanimentsand Vocal Melodies in the Opat
Wilet Repertoire'), the melodic outline of Kulu Kulu Bem is notated in "salendro &
degung2=7
(1989:54). Tellingly, Iyan Arliani politely declined my recording request
felt
that the song would
theoretically
that,
she
personally
although
possible,
explaining
have to be forced to fit the madendatuning of the gamelan degung and that in her
be
'violated'
(diperkosa).
the
would
melody
opinion
Somegamelan salendro songsinvolve an even more significant changeof laras
(scale)or surupan (mode) mid-piece. In other words, certain melodies 'modulate' from
from
Describing
transposition
to
to
tuning
or
one
modal
another
of
a
scale
another.
one
the latter, Cook points to the example of the songRenggongGancang [2 (1) 3 (4)]. In
the first half of the song the singer usesthe madendascale(madenda4= T) "which has
12 4 in common with salendro". In the secondhalf, she makesa modal switch to the
in
(madenda
P)
has
4=
"which
13
4
common with salendro" (Cook
scale
madenda
1992:25). On Lili Suparli's diagram, thesetwo madendascalescorrespondto the
follows:
tuning
as
salendro
195
Fig. 5: 13 Comparison of madenda modes used in Renggong Gancang
salendro
salendro
T
1)
S
G
f
5
madenda 4=T43
4)
f
P
L
3ý
2)
21
madenda 4=P
5
4
%ý,
As the gamelan degungis limited to a single version of thepelog degungand madenda
suchradicalinternaltranspositionwithout a
scales,the ensemblecannotaccommodate
majorreworkingor, indeed,'violation' of the originalmelodicline,
Summary
This chapterhas explored the processof cross-genreadaptation,a specific type of
transformation that constitutesan important creative outlet in Sundanesemusic.
Sundanesemusiciansare mastersof arrangementand adaptation,the borrowing and
idiomatic translation of repertoire from one genreto anotherbeing a principal meansby
which Bandung artists have chosento innovate their musical traditions. As outlined in
chapter 1, cross-genreadaptationhas played a particularly significant role in the
developmentof gamelan degungpost-1960,with Bandung groups appropriating pieces
from sourcesas diverse as the folk genreketuk Ulu and the formerly aristocratic art form
is,
however,
from
It
Sunda.
the repertoiresof gamelanpelog-salendro that
tembang
of
the degung has borrowed most freely.
At the beginning of this chapter,an examination of Sundaneseclassificatory
focused
for
discussion
the
way
a
more
schemespaved
aboutthe waysin which different
types of musical form facilitate or complicate the processof adaptingrepertoire for
gamelan degung.That structural modification is often a necessarypart of such
transformation was demonstratedvia the analysis of degungversions of tembangSunda
and gamelanpelog-salendro pieces.The spotlight then shifted to Sundanesetuning
systemsand cross-genretransposition.Using existing theoretical constructspresentedto
in
by
lessons
Lili
Suparli,
the
concluded
relating Sundanesemusic
chapter
me
with
196
theory to degungperformancepractice and identifying the various ways in which
is,
is
into
transposable
the fixed pelog degung and
or
not,
gamelansalendro repertoire
degung.
the
gamelan
madendascalesof
Chapter6 will now chart the developmentof gamelan degung on cassette,
local
industry
in
has
functioned
the
the
recording
way
which
as one of the
exploring
for
main catalysts new types of composition, arrangementand adaptation.
197
Chapter 6
Negotiating the local and the global: degung on cassette
6.1
'The rise of the regional cassetteindustry
l
broadcasts
1920s/30s,
the mass
Sincethe first gramophone
of the
recordingsandradio
for
important
increasingly
functioned
has
sourceof patronage gamelan
asan
media
degungmusicians.As outlinedin chapter1, the establishment
of RRI Bandung'sinhousedegunggroupin the mid 1950sis widely consideredto havebroughtthe ensemble
backfrom the brink of nearextinction.However,while the RRI groupwasactivefor
began
be
by
dynamic
local
decades,
the
to
three
soon
eclipsed
emergence
of
a
radio
over
be
1970s
From
industry.
to
the
early
onwards,
mass-produced
cassettes
came
recording
2
degung
for
the foremostmedia the transmissionof
music. This chapterchartsthe
developmentof gamelandegungon cassetteandidentifiesthe key figuresimplicatedin
the ensemble'srecordingindustrydrivenevolution.
Cassette
technologyhasrevolutionisedthe dissemination,transmissionand
developing
in
in
Manuel
the
that
many
parts
of
world.
musics
writes
of
consumption
has
the
to
of
cassettes
and
cassette
affordability
players
vinyl,
renderedthe
contrast
lower-income
(1993:
At
to
the
range
of
rural
and
a
wider
groups
xiv).
accessible
medium
lower
in
has
the
time,
costs
of
cassette
manufacturing
and
simplicity
also
resulted
same
the proliferation of smaller recording companiesseeking to promote regional genresand
home grown local stars."The net result is a remarkable decentralisation,
democratisation,and dispersalof the music industry at the expenseof multinational and
(ibid.
).
national oligopolies"
In the wake of Indonesia's Lokananta recordings (see 1.2.7) camea new breed of
The
establishmentof privately owned recording
producer.
cassette
entrepreneurial
began
in
late
1970s
1960s
Bandung
to
in
Jakarta
the
and
early
offer a
and
companies
degree
to
Sundanese
the
achieve
some
of media
opportunity
musicians
wider pool of
' The first recordings of gamelan degung were releasedon 78 rpm discs by foreign companiessuch as
Odeon and Ultraphone (a comprehensivereview of the early history of the recording industry in Indonesia
in
began
1925,
in
broadcasting
Indonesia
degung
Legal
be
with
gamelan
to
radio
conducted).
remains
(see
1.1.7).
least
been
broadcast
have
the
known
as
mid-1930s
as
early
to
at
Ferformances
For further information about the impact of the Indonesiancassetteindustry on Sundanesemusic see
Williams (2001:94-107) and Jurridns (2001:77-85).
198
Degung,
success.
particularlyprior to the peakingof the
commercial
recognitionand
jaipongan crazein the late 1970sandearly 1980s,appearsto havebeenthe industry's
Heins,
fieldwork
in
Bandungin 1967Sundanese
choice.
who
undertook
gamelanof
degung
1968andagainin 1973and 1975,contraststhenumberof mass-produced
in
available Bandungshopsat thattime with thevirtual absenceof gamelan
cassettes
(1977:
65).
recordings
pelog-salendro
in the 1950sand 1960s,
Like radiobroadcasting
andmultimediaperformances
the cassetteindustryalsoservedasa creativecatalyst,stimulatingthe ongoingexpansion
andmodernisationof degungrepertoires.Discussingthe marketingof tembangSunda
recordingsWilliams notes,"Eachcassetteis expectedto haveat leastonemusical
it from anyotherpreviouscassette"(1990:193).The
featurewhich separates
competitionfor a commerciallysuccessfuldegungcassettesimilarly prompteddegung
compositionand
musiciansto experimentwith novel formsof arrangement,
instrumentation.
At the sametime,the degungHas& pieces,associated
asthey arewith
the outmodedvaluesof thearistocracyandthecolonial-eracourts,becameincreasingly
3
marginalizedon recordings.
It haspreviouslybeennotedthat the Indonesiancassetteindustrywas
instrumental in the emergenceof the Sundanesegenresjaipongan (Manuel 1988:213219) and kacapi suling (Cook 1991:4-5). In a similar way, cassetteproduction also led to
the creation of more popular forms of degung repertoire.Novel degung compositions
(degung
degung
kreasi
to
creations),although in
and arrangementsare often referred as
denotes
kreasi
the avant-gardestyle of
the
term
more specifically
some circles
is
fact,
institutions.
In
formal
there
now some
at
education
propagated
composition
disparity betweenthe types of degungpiece promoted by the recording industry, the
found
in
Bandung
the
on the curricula
styles of piece
and
working repertoiresof groups
degung
Furthermore,
SMKI.
STSI
institutions
groupsat
while gamelan
and
suchas
of
from
have
leamt
latest
'hit'
do
that
they
the
cassettes,
songs
weddings commonlyplay
industry
have
by
the
types
nevermadethe
recording
of repertoirepromoted
some
transitionfrom tapeto live performance(see6.2.2).
3 Some
imbalance.
GNP
In
2002,
to
the
tying
recordsreleaseda seriesof
redress
actively
are
musicians
direction
Endang
Sukandarý
klasik
degung
the
the
artistic
of
player
under
nding
sevenalbumsof
199
In 2000-2001,music shopsin Bandung were stockedwith a relatively large assortment
from
degung
cassettes
ranging
new releasesto recordings dating back to the
of gamelan
1970s.Thesecassettesare found on a variety of different commercial labels. The most
well known of the Bandung-based(or formerly based)production housesto have *
degung
recordings include Whisnu, SP (Suara.Parahyangan)
commissionedgamelan
Records,Asmara, Jugala and Hidayat. GNP (GemaNada Pertiwi) and Dian Records,
both located in Jakarta,have also produced numerousdegung cassettes.
Despitethe wide selection of degungrecordings available, charting the history of
gamelan degungon cassetteis problematic. Not only are older titles, often on now
defunct labels,difficult to get hold of but also new recordings that have not sold in
laku)
(tidak
are routinely withdrawn from shop shelvesand returned
sufficient numbers
to cassettecompaniesto be reusedas blank tapesfor future releases.As mastercopies
in
have
irretrievably
been
in
the
the
same
way,
many
recordings
erased
are often reused
include
dates
in
In
tend
to
recording
on
cassette
producers
not
sleeves
addition,
process.
the fear that if an album is seento be too old the public will refuse to purchaseit.
Consequently,it is not always possible to ascertainthe precise order in which recordings
identify
in
that
to
therefore,
were
cassettes
someway musically pioneering
and,
emerged
from the subsequentimitations that such releasestypically spawn.Nevertheless,certain
impact
both
having
the musical community
on
of
an
made more
cassettesstandout as
Indeed,
than
others.
severalcommercially successfulcassettesdating
and wider public
from the late 1970snot only came to be treatedas blueprints for subsequentdegung
dominate
have,
but
to
the market ever since.
themselves,
continued
recordings
6.2
Seminal post-Lokananta cassettereleasesof the 1970sand 1980s
6.2.1 Degung instrumental
The oldest cassetteproduction company in Bandung,Asmara, openedin the early 1970s.
As with the Lokanantarecordings, RRI's Parahyanganensemblewas the first degung
label,
this
to
producinga seriesof albumsunderthe artisticdirectionof
group recordon
EntjarTjarmedi.It appearsasthoughtheseearlycommercialrecordingswereprofitable
becauseby the mid-to-late1970sothercassettecompaniesdecidedto try to replicatethe
successof "Tjarmedi'sgroup" (Koestyara,p. c., 2000).
200
Koestyara,a formerRRI gamelanmusiciananderstwhilememberof the Parahyangan
by a producerfrom Dian andpersuadedto
troupe,recalledhow he wasapproached
for
Koestyara's
Gapura
Jakarta-based
degung
this
company.
recording
group
organisea
female
began
by
itself
RRI
the
tembang
with
collaborating
musicians
up
of
made
degung
(Saodah
Hamadi
Natakusumah)
Saodah
on
an
album
of
singerandsongwriter
Sundanese
'Mis
the
to
wedding
ceremony.
of
was swiftly
parts
music accompany
followed by a compilationof degungklasikpieces.Unforturiately,copiesof these
for
longer
available analysisasbothprovedto be commercialflops
recordingsareno
from
sale.Tbird time around,however,Gapuracameup
andwerequickly withdrawn
degung
(c.
Sangkala
1978),
the
cassettes
of all time. According
one
of
most
popular
with
4
'time';
Sangkala
to Koestyara,
means
membersof Gapuraaresaidto havechosenthis
namebecausethey ratheraptly consideredthattheir time hadcometo makea mark on
the Sundanese
artsscene.Sangkalacompriseslively instrumentalversionsof popular
describes
Sundanese
songsandgamelanpelog-salendropiecesin a stylethatKoestyara.
klasik"
(non-classical
instrumentaldegung)(P.C.,
"degung
instrumental
tidak
yang
as
is now usuallyknownasdegunginstrumental.
2000).This type of degungarrangement
A wide rangeof musicalinfluencesarediscernibleon the album.Koestyara's
title track, Sangkala, like Tjarmedi"s Kidang Mas (LokanantaACD-0 17), for example,
degung
by
together
adaptationsof existing pieces.Other
constructed
stringing
was
tracks, such asBaramaen and GoyangKarawang, are more clearly influenced by
Koswara's wanda anyar style of prescribedmelodic arrangement.The piece Sangkala
also standsout becauseit incorporatesa suling solo that is improvised over a gamelan
tremolo in the mannerpopularised in theatrical productions and ceremonialsin the
1960s.Koestyara arguedthat the album owes much of its successto the tembang
musician, Burhan Sukarma,whosesuling playing is less shrill and hectic than that found
lilting
Gently
degung
melodies on the suling are underpinned
recordings.
on many older
by the persistentrhythmic patternsof the kendang,an instrumentthat is audibly
is
by
The
final
in
the
the
mix.
rhythmic
also
accentuated
recording
groove
privileged
then unorthodox use of the kecrek (a gamelan instrument consisting of percussivemetal
beater).
Some
Koestyara's
RRI
together
a
using
of
colleagues
plates which are chinked
degung
him
damaging
initially
tradition for
this
the
accusing
of
of
addition,
critical
were
' Sangkala(= sengkalan)is translatedas"chronogam"in Echols& Shadily(1997).
201
the sakeof financial gain. He laughingly recollected that these samemusicians soon
beganto use the kecrek-in their own groups,the instrument swiftly becoming a standard
featureon subsequentdegungrecordings (p.c., 2000). Despite attemptsto replicate the
including
Sangkala,
the releaseof SangkalaII and Gentra Sangkala,
successof
Gapura's subsequentdegungalbums remain overshadowedby the enduring popularity
of the original recording.
6.2.2 Ujang Suryana
Uj ang Suryana- now the leading exponentof degung imtrumental - also emergedon
the cassettescenein the late 1970s.His group, SuaraParahyangan(later known as
Gentra Pasundanand SuryanaGroup) producedtheir first degung recording shortly after
the releaseof Sangkala.Unlike Koestyara,who was a wayang musician prior to his
interest
lay
in
Ujang
Suryana's
RRI,
Westernpopular
early
at
musical
employment
ballads, Hawaiian style songsand keroncong.In the early 1960s,whilst still only in his
twenties, Suryanabeganto turn his attention to Sundanesemusic. Beginning by leaming
to play someof Koswara's compositions on the kacapi siter, he soon beganto try and
increasingly
interested
his
Suryana
became
in
own.
also
gamelan music
write songsof
began
himself
degung
by
1970s,
in
to
to
teach
the
play
setting up a working
early
and,
functions.
to
other
at
weddings
and
perform
group
Suryana'sdebut recording, an album of kacapi biola (an ensemblecomprising
kacapi siter and violin) arrangements,was releasedin 1975. His first degung recordings
followed in 1978/1979.Although Suryana's first two degungrecordings,Karembong
Kayas and Kabaya Bandung, were both well received, it was his third album,
Sabilulungan (SP Recordsc. 1979) releasedlater that year that was to rival Sangkala in
terms of its ongoing popularity and commercial success.Sabilulungan, the title track of
which is an instrumental arrangementof the popular Koko Koswara song of the same
biggest
like
Sangkala
the
one
of
selling degung cassettesto this day
name,remains
(Suryana,p. c., 2000).
Suryana'sdegung instrumental arrangementsare immediately identifiable by
their uncomplicated,childlike feel, with 'the Suryanasound' encapsulatedby the
composer'sown trademarkstyle of unembellishedsuling playing. According to Ceppy
202
Anungsang Riyana, the chief soundengineerat Bandung's Jugala studios, many fans
be
his
lack
to
Suryana's
the
a
central
part
competence
on
suling
of
specialist
of
consider
be
kept
for
in
Producers
to
the
quirky
mistakes
evcn
ask
will
sometimes
music's charm.
final mix, considering the odd slip up to enhancea recording (p.c., 2000). In more recent
by
his
distinctive
finther
has
Suryana
sound
producing cassettes
suling
exploited
years,
in
homogenous
in
degung
tracks
a
are
sounded
suling
rampak suling which multiple
of
feature
defining
Suryana's
instrumental
Simple
of
are
also
a
melodies
unison.
influenced
by
Koswara's
Again,
wanda atWar style of composition,
arrangements.
tuneful themesare presentedin a clear-cut question and answer format, the cempresand
in
Also
the
conspicuous
with
suling.
peking usually performing alternatephrases
Suryana's recordings is the mechanicalquality of the underlying beat which, following
Sangkala, is emphasisedby the use of the kecrek.In fact, many degung instrumental and
degung kawih recordingsnow routinely use a drum machine.
Operating on the fringes of more formally establishednetworks of musicians
(suchasthosebasedaroundinstitutionslike RRI or STSI),Suryana'smusicis created
is
disengaged
from
it
for
industry;
the
somewhat
as
a
result,
cassette
exclusively
Bandung'swider musicalcommunity.Since,outsideof the studiosituation,attractively
dressedfemalesingersareconsideredan indispensable
part of anydegungperformance,
Suryana'sinstrumentalpiecesarerarelyperformedlive. Cook alsopointsout that this
demandsthe selectiveamplificationof thedegung
type of instrumentalarrangement
is
difficult
to achieveoutsideof the
that
soundmix
ensembleanda carefullyengineered
Nevertheless,
degung
(p.
2003b).
younger
musiciansdo
a
generation
of
studiosetting c.,
Suryana
be
figure
in
degung
'tradition'.
Ujang
Suryana
to
told
the
a
significant
consider
join
his
keen
STSI
to
that
and
graduates
are
group,with a couple
students
now
many
me
his
having
his
to
of
some
also
requested
permission
rework
composers
of younger
better-knowncompositionson their own degungrecordings.Thereis certainlyno doubt
that Ujang Suryana'smusicis hugelypopularwith the generalpublic at large.With a
his
Suryana
that
than
stated
sincethe
contemporaries,
any
of
output
commercial
greater
late 1970s,barringa periodduringthe Indonesianfinancialcrisis in the late 1990s,he
hasreleasedon averageonecassetteeverythreemonths(p.c., 2000).In 2002,Ceppy,
AnungsangRiyana(at Jugala)tellingly madethe commentthatdegungrecordingswere
(p.
2002).
from,
"apart
Suryana
between,
far
few
c.,
of
course,
releases"
and
currently
203
The young degungcomposer,Iik Setiawan,suggestedthat Suryana's commercial
in
immediacy
degung
be
instrumental
terms
the
the
of
of
explained
successcould
feudal
Without
Sunda's
ties
to
tembang
the
appeal.
overt
past
genre's uncontroversial
and lacking the more risqu6 connotationsof other types of more erotic or animistic rural
folk genres,Suryana's catchy arrangementsserveto provide Bandung's Muslim middle
form
background
is
inoffensive
that
suitable
of
regional
music
classeswith a cheerfully
for both private and public consumption(Setiawan,p. c., 2000). Degung cassettesoften
in
functions
Bandung
live
traditional
and are also
at
ensembles
replace or supplement
identity
in
Sundanese
the
to
of
caf6s
and
restaurants
ethnic
reinforce
played audibly
West Java and beyond. On various occasionsI overheardBandung musicians express
Sundanese
Indonesian
fact
in
that,
the
several
regional
musics,
genres
most
unlike
pride
have found new audiencesoutside of the cultural confines of West Java. Interestingly,
in
Bali
have
degung
instrumental
they
where
popular
proved
particularly
of
recordings
in
listening
function
type
many of the shopsand eateries
of exotic easy
as a
commonly
lining the streetsof the island's tourist hotspots.
It is often commentedthat degung is the most accessiblegamelan music to nonIndonesianears.Degung instrumental particularly lends itself to non-Sundanese
find
foreign
listeners
because
to
the
seem
song texts and
generally
uninitiated
audiences
both
Indeed,
Sabilulungan
abstruse.
and
timbres
of unfamiliar vocal styles more
alien
Sangkala continue to be tremendouslypopular with foreign holidaymakers on Bali, the
island's cassetteretailers not appearingto be unduly concernedthat their customersmay
be under the impressionthat this music is local to Bali. As Stokespoints out, the
"disintegration of history and authenticity has beenpromoted by, and is in turn a product
have
industries
to
their
to
product
as many people as
the
all,
sell
after
who,
media
of,
degung
has
been
fact,
In
2
1).
(1
994a:
the
taken a
of
commodification
recently
possible"
in
degung
by
Balinese
further
to
the
cash
on
success
of
producers
eager
record
stage
instrumental. In 2000, severalvolumes of Degung Bali (Bali Records), a computerinimitable
degung
in
Suryana's
Balinese
sound,
on
of
were
sale
pastiche
generated
island.
Although
the
the
gamelan timbre employed on these
across
shops
music
Balinese
has
the
shimmer
of
metallophones,the unison
characteristic
recordings
'chinking'
kecrek
the
and
ubiquitous
of
clearly mimic the
suling
melodies, synthesised
be
In
Balinese
to
Sundanese
to
this
appears
what
a
counter-response
product.
original
204
form,
Sambasunda,
Bandung-based
Sundanese
have
the
group
musical
a
of
appropriation
Balinese
Sundanese
two
music
performed
on
a
retuned
of
goong
released cassettes
kebyar (see6.4.3).
6.2.3 Degung kawih on cassette
Apart from degung instrumental,the late 1970salso saw the releaseof several
influential degungkawih cassettes.For example,around the sametime as they were
involved
in
Gapura
Sangkala,
Koestyara's
were
also
group
a recording
working on
Sono,
Widawati.
The
Plam
Ida
the
tembang
cassette,
resultant
singer
project with
becameanothercommercial successfor the Dian label. Featuring a range of kawih songs
drawn from genresas diverseas ketuk filu and tembangSunda,this recording also -,
brought together musical personnelfrom distinct Sundanesegenres.As noted in chapter
4, Koestyara choseto featurethe vocalist Ida Widawati on this particular album because
he felt that the softer timbre of this tembangsinger was a better match for the degung
than the more strident vocal tone of the Sundanesepasinden.The decision to utilise a
single singer was criticised by someof Koestyara's RRI contemporarieswho believed
that he should have usedthe institution's trademarkrampak sekar choral style.
However, far more controversialat the time was his decision to utilise the male gamelan
female
Having
Dadi
Rosadi
the
tembangsinger performing with a
a
on
recording.
singer
male gamelan singer,particularly on tembangsongssuch asAngin Peuting (see5.3),
provoked much heateddebate.The pairing of Ida Widawati with Dadi Rosadi breached
an important social as well as musical gulf, and many tembangmusicians did not
boundary.
Even so,
this
of
a
culturally
socio-musical
entrenched
contravention
welcome
been
have
heard
they
to
tembang
the
surprised
when
pleasantly
performers are said
most
fmal result (Koestyara,p. c., 2000).
6.2.4 Nano S.
The prolific composerNanoSuratnoalsoreleasedhis first degungrecordingin the late
1970s.Unlike bothKoestyaraandUjang Suryana,NanoSuratnois a formerstudentof
KOKAR (now SMKI) andASTI (now STSI),andassuch,oneof the first generationof
from
formal
have
Bandung's
to
musiceducationscene.
emerged
cassettecomposers
205
Suratnois now mainly identified with degung kawih and pop Sunda in much the same
is
Suryana
Ujang
that
associatedwith degung instrumental. Nevertheless,this was
way
intention;
his
first
degung
Suratno's
original
cassette,Panglayungan (Ria Records
not
c. 1977), combinesoriginal songssung by Lien Herlina with instrumental compositions
is,
indisputably
klasik
It
degung
though,
pieces.
as a songwriter that Nano Suratno
and
has since beenmost prolific. His kawih compositions have not only been disseminated
by his own group Gentra Madya (founded in 1972), but have also been commissionedby
many of Bandung's other leading degung ensembles.The year after Panglayungan, for
instance,the Jugala-basedDewi Pramanik group releasedTepangAsih, a degung kawih
four
Suratno's
features
that
of
songsperformed by the tembang singer Euis
cassette
Komariah. Over the years many of West Java's other leading singers(including Ida
Widawati, Tati Saleh,Mamah Dasimah and Idjah Hadidjah) have also starred on
Suratno's degungrecordings; the composerexplained that he usually embarkson a new
in
singer's
vocal
sound
already
mind (P.c., 2000a).
song with a particular
As outlined in chapter 1, Nano Suratno's compositional style is heavily
influenced by the wanda anyar style of arrangementpioneeredby his teacherKoko
Koswara. This is evident in Suratno's earliest degung recordings which feature songs
introductions
interludes
longer
than those
more
elaborate
piece-specific
and
and
with
generally found on contemporaneouscassettessuch as Tilam Sono. Musicians
body
'lagu
lagu
(intro
intro'
to
this
of
repertoire
as
even
refer
pieces) or
sometimes
'degung wanda anyar'. Koswara's influence is also manifest in Suratno's incorporation
degung
innovative
in
Borrowing
kacapi
the
the
the
ensemble.
siter
style of kacapi
of
kawih playing developedby Koswara in his anggana sekar (solo songsaccompaniedby
kacapi siter), Suratnoemploys the kacapi as a melody instrument in passagesof
through-composedarrangement,though players usually revert back to more formulaic
during
figuration
sectionsof vocal melody. While Suratno,suspectsthat
accompanying
his debut album, Panglayungan,was the first gamelan degung recording to include
kacapi siter, the distinctive timbre of the kacap! has, like the kecrek, come to be a
feature
degung
kawih recordings.
on
subsequent
relatively common
Despite the fact that this novel style of degung arrangementwas immediately
Suratno
Nano
has
the
with
public,
never been complacent about his
successful
for
has
to
search
and
continued
ways in which his music could be further
achievements
206
he
began
During
1980s,
to ponder
the
to
to
modified appeal an evenwider audience.
interest
be
in
how the Sundanese
to
take
their own
moreof an
youthmight encouraged
be
degung
how
heritage,
might mademoreattractiveto
gamelan
aswell as
musical
in
fact,
Suratno's
Priangan
Sundanese
the
songs
and,
region.
of
outside
audiences
little
impact
had
hitherto
in
degung
outsideof this cultural
made
general,
gamelan
heartland(seeWilliams 1989:113).In the processof modemisingdegungkawih,Nano
in comingup with oneof thebest-sellingSundanese
Suratnonot only succeeded
degung.
in
Sunda
but
time
and
pop
also
redefining
pop
of all
cassettes
Suratno'sbiggesthit songto date,Kalangkang,wasreleasedon the Whisnu label
in 1986. Williams suggeststhat Kalangkang standsout from other kawih songsof the
time becauseof its catchy melodic hook which, charactcrisedby a an "unusual
descendingmelodic line", includespitches borrowed from musik (diatonic music) (ibid
30
115). In fact, Suratnodid not actually composethis motif but borrowed it from the stock
kawih
improvisatory
by
Yoyoh
Supriatin,
patternsemployed
a popular
singer from
of
Purwakarta (a town in betweenJakartaand Bandung) (ibid, 113). The popularity of this
song is also due to the fact that it incorporateselementsfrom the Westernpop idiom.
Instead of the more abstractpoetics of traditional song texts, Kalangkang's lyrics more
daringly depict fashionableWesternised"urban teenagebehaviour" such as "kissing,
(ibid,
features
117).
The
song's
also
refrain
embracing, and walking arm-in-ann"
a
handclappedWesternstyle backbeat(ibid. ). Nining Meida, the singer on the original
degung recording, is also widely accreditedwith having given the song its modem feel.
However, the 'sexy' breathytimbre that sheproducesby atTixing an 'h' sound to the end
of certain vowels is an, albeit exaggerated,stylistic featureborrowed from tembang
Sunda vocal practice (seeRosliani's description of the inghak ornament 1998:45).
Suratnois keen to emphasisethat Kalangkang, along with his other popular
(traditional
(Jurrifts
2001:
133).
karawitan
based
Aside
music)
on
compositions, are all
from employing Sundanesevocal ornamentation,Kalangkang usesa traditional tonal ,language
Moreover,
Sundanese
text.
song
not only is
a
as
well
as
and metrical structure,
the song's construction rooted in traditional practicesof recycling and adaptationbut
been
itself
has
the
subsequently
subjectto various types of cross-genre
composition
also
transformation. Kalangkang "has beenperformed regularly in all three of the primary,
Sundanesetuning systems" and by ensemblesas diverse as kacapi-suling, gamelan
207
(an
kendangpencak
ensemblewhich accompaniesthe Sundanesemartial
salendro and
degung
(Williams
1989:
Several
119).
form
instrumental arrangements
silat)
pencak
arts
including
been
by
have
Ujang
Suryana.
Finally, the
the
a
released,
version
also
of
song
host
imitations,
has
the
generated
a
whole
additionally
of
song
many of which
successof
in
in
first
line
Kalangkang
the
title,
the
the
the
chorus
or
of the song (ibid.,
word
use
123-125). Ceppy AnungsangRiyana.commentedthat while in 2002 the recording
industry was going through a quiet spell, it would only take one 'hit' like Kalangkang to
into
flurry
(P.
industry
back
2002).
the
to
a
of
activity
c.,
propel
come along
The pop Sundaadaptationof Kalangkang, performed by a Western-style band
(electric guitar, bass,drum kit and keyboards)with Sundanesekendang,was releasedsix
5
kawih
This
degung
the
version of the song, which
recording.
original
months after
interest
has
been
Nining
Meida,
features
to scholars
the
of
particular
singer
again
becauseof the way in which it is consideredto syncretise"East with West'' (Jurriens
2001:142). Yampolsky draws particular attention to the compatibility between
Sundanesemusic forms and the Westernpop idiom, noting that the former sometimes
into
Sunda
Sundanese
Pop
Pop
"to
turning
the
music played
elements,
overwhelm
seem
Waterman
(1990),
Jurridns
(1989:
Following
instruments"
15).
Western
suggeststhat
on
this type of syncretismis a result of distinct music genres"having been made
fundamental
being
fusions
the
of
more
socio-cultural
result
compatible", musical
forms
(2001:
140).
than
musical
pre-existing
of
combining
a matter
processesrather
In any event, many musicians considerpop Sundato be a type of repertoire
instruments.
This
than
combination
of
genre
using
a
particular
a specific
rather
definition meansthat any recent degung kawih composition by Nano Suratnomay be
been
it
has
Sunda,
performed on
regardlessof whether or not
ever
consideredaspop
Western instruments(Williams 1989:128). Jurridns arguesthat songslike Kalangkang
thus transcendcategorisationsthat are "based on, arbitrary, in a certain senseneoinadequacy
binary
distinctions
(2001:
142).
The
of
simplistic
such
colonial, principles"
(or
'art
'regional
'traditional
versus
pop',
ethnic) versus Western',
modem',
versus
as
and so on, to accuratelyclassify what are culturally complex contemporary Sundanese
in
fin-ther
discussed
detail
below.
be
will
music genres
5 For ftutherinformationaboutpop SundaseeWilliams (1989)
andJurrians(2001:123-160).
208
6.3
Composition and transmission
by the cassetteindustry raises
The promotion of 'star' degung composer-an-angers
interesting questionsabout the creation and ownership of new musical repertoire. As
involves
for
degung
discussed,
usually
processesof
composing gamelan
previously
transformation that are also operative in related practicesof adaptation,arrangement,
degrees,
involve
All,
the assimilation and/or
to
varying
and even performance.
Williams,
According
to
about ninety percent of
reworking of extant musical materials.
Suratno's compositionsare basedon standardtonal frameworks (1989:128);
Kalangkang is a pertinent example.Not only did Suratnoborrow the song's defining
is
but
Supriatin
Yoyoh
from
hook
the
the
also
entire
song
structurally
singer
melodic
basedon the short-form piece Catrik. Although, inevitably, somenew degung pieces are
falls
into
inventive
their
than
what Nettl would
others,
creation almost always
more
(1974:
innovative
11).
"model-bound"
than
composition
rather
radically
categoriseas
The questionof musical ownership is also intriguing because,the recycling of
'traditional' materialsnotwithstanding,
composers
areheavilyreliantuponthe skills of
individualperformersto idiomaticallyfleshout or fiU in given instrumentalor vocal
is
Sundanese
how
Any
composition,no matter
original, rarelyprescribedin full
parts.
he
had
(see6.3.3).Oneup-and-coming
that
told
oncesolda coupleof
me
sulingplayer
his mostimaginativeimprovisatory'licks' to a composerfor useon a degungrecording
in the belief thathis creativecontributionto a songshouldreceivesomeform of
However,this is not commonpractice;the artisticinput of
financialrecompense.
let aloneadditional
improviser-performers
rarelyreceivesany public acknowledgment,
monetaryremuneration.
by sleeveConfrontedwith polishedrecordingsof gamelandegungarrangements
f
I
to
was
ind out to which parts of a piece or song are
curious
note credited composers,
is
how
this
and
composition
representedand transmitted.
actually precomposed
Furthermore, given the complex relationship betweenoriginal and traditional elements
in most new cassette-drivendegungpieces,I was keen to explore how musicians and
issue
the
of musical copyright.
producersnegotiate
209
6.3.1 The business of composing for cassette
It seemsthat while musicians sometimesapproacha cassettelabel with a proposal for a
new recording, the initial impetus for a particular releaseoften comes from the producer.
Recording industry personnel,most of whom are neither musically trained nor ethnically
Sundanese,are influential in determining what types of repertoire make it onto cassette.
Nano Suratno statedthat he often has to barter with producers, agreeing, for example,to
Sunda
on the condition that the company will also commission
an
album
of
pop
work on
a new degung cassetteat the sametime (p.c., 2000a).
Most recording companieshave developedlongstanding relationships with
individual musicians and their groups. Since Sangkala, for instance,Gapura have
led
label.
Dian
The
the
to
this
to its artistic
on
success
continued record
of
album also
director, Koestyara,becoming employed as Dian's Sundanesemusic coordinator, a
position that he held until the late 1980s.Similarly, Suratnoexplained that it was out of
loyalty to Bandung's SP Records,a companythat was particularly supportive of him
during the early stagesof his career,that he beganto use the new nameNon Blok, 6
label
in
he
Gentra
Madya,
Whisnu
the
transferred
to
the mid 1980s.
than
when
rather
The new name also proved commercially fortuitous as the contemporary international
associationsthat it conjured instantly communicatedto the public that this was an
updated style of gamelan degungwhile, at the sametime, the Gentra Madya brand was
fans
Williams
for
(Suratno,
2000a).
also suggests
p.
c.,
conservative
safeguarded more
that name changing is one way that performers skirt contractual obligations that legally
bind to them to a particular record label (1990:190). Indeed, RRI musicians,prohibited
from playing outside of the context of radio station authorisedperformances,requested
for
(Van
be
Zanten
1989:
41). Problems
this
to
sleeves
very
reason
on
cassette
named
not
have arisenwhen musicianshave contravenedthe exclusivity clausethat is often written
into their contracts.Koestyara,for example,remarkedthat after Dian releasedTilam
Sono, it emergedthat Ida Widawati was in breachof her contract with Asmara records.
It is for this reasonthat the tembangsinger Imas Permasappearson Gapura's
degung
kawih
(p.
recordings
c., 2000)
subsequent
6ThenameNon Blok wastakenfrom a cold warterm usedto referto neutral
countries,including
Indonesia,thatwerenot alignedto eitherthe formerEasternor Westernblocks.
210
As a resultof their dealingswith the commercialmedia,manydegungcomposershave
developeda businessmentalitytowardstheir music.Indeed,severalmusiciansthat I
in
English
"product-driven"
between
differentiated
they
to
as
to
referred
what
and
spoke
"market-driven"pieces;the latterarealsosometimesdescribedaslagu komersial
(commercialpieces).Onecriticismoftendirectedat the mostcommerciallysuccessful
(music
for
is
is
is
the
that
their
that
a
charge
counteredin
market),
music pasaran
artists
his
for
defied
how
his
Nano
Suratno,
to
example,
critics
pinpoint
own
variousways.
(p.
by
from
2000a).
'traditional'
differs
lik
that
artists
c.,
used
compositionalprocess
Setiawan,a youngcomposerwho is consideredby manyto be Suratno'snatural
it
is
that
actuallymorechallengingto write a songthat the public
argued
also
successor,
form
listen
to
to
to
may
go
on
a partof the standardrepertoire,than it is
andwhich
want
to composean experimentalpieceof musicsimplyto gratify someartisticurgewithin
oneself(p.c., 2000).
Iik Setiawanadmittedto consultingwith industryofficials andcassette
based
before
his
on
any
choosing
embarking
recording,
often
projects
on
wholesalers
knowledge of the market. He observedthat in 2000, cassettesof wedding music were
Sangkala,
Sabilulungan
albums
such
as
and
and
selling well, along with established
from
Suryana
tracks
taken
concurred that while'
older
of
cassettes.
compilations popular
in the 1970sand 1980sproducerswere clamouring for new material, by the end of the
1990scassettecompanieswere more interestedin rcrecording cover versions of his most
well known compositions(p.c., 2000).
Although changesin cassettecontent may be partly down to evolving public
tastes,Setiawanwas critical that many degung recordings,particularly those releasedby
lesser-knowngroups, are not as commercially successfulas they deserveto be because
launched
in
Cassettes
invest
do
traditional
of
music
are
not
marketing.
companies not
or
how
does
beyond
in
counting
not
extend
many
market
research
and
advertised any way
it
himself
As
have
left
took
the
the
upon
composer
a
result,
young
shelves.
product units
find
in
Bandung
to
try
cassette
shops
order
and
out why
to conduct a small survey of
degung
Visiting
decide
to
separatestores,
cassette
over
another.
purchaseone
customers
Setiawan observedthat while more informed membersof the public might ask for the
latest Nano S. or Ujang Suryanarelease,most consumerssimply ask for any degung
instrumental or degungkawih recording. Another type of common requestthat he
211
identified was for degung cassettesthat would be suitable for use as background music
function.
Setiawan
noted that most shop assistants,who
at a wedding or similar
little
have
understandingof the music they are selling, will then typically hand
generally
In
known
better
to
than
try
promote
new
rather
releases.
complete contrast,
albums
over
amateurand professionalmusicianstend to seekout specific recordings with a view to
keep
learning
to
track of what their rivals are producing.
tools,
them
well
as
as
as
using
This latter group appearto constitute a small but significant market; Setiawan attributed
the poor salesof a degung mandalungan(degung in the mandalungan tuning) cassette
that he producedto the fact that the pieces on the recording could not be replicated by
degung
instruments
(p.
c., 2000).
other musicians on conventional
Another factor influencing the types of degung repertoire that make it onto
in
law
introduced
in
in
Indonesia
1982
law.
Copyright
is
was
order
cassette copyright
that the country be brought into line with " the rules of a global media market" (Jurriens
2001:8 1). Now, legally speaking,royalties are required to be paid if a copyrighted song
is played in a public space(be it as part of a radio broadcast,in a hotel foyer, aeroplane
is
Moreover,
Indonesian
bar)
karaoke
the
government
or rerecordedon cassette.
or
theoretically entitled to receive theseroyalties when, as in the caseof most traditional
it
(ibid.
).
Historically,
is
the
the
seemsas though
song unknown
composerof
music,
Sundanesemusicianshave not taken the conceptof copyright particularly seriously,
little
for
has
invention
it
Western
their own
that
relevance
considering an essentially
7
traditional musics. As Jurriansnotes,many Indonesiansdo not believe that copyright
fits in with their culture because"musical performances,which often function as central
(ibid.,
Other
I
83).
"regarded
that
musicians
as
public
property"
are
parts of ceremonies"
keeping
issue,
track of
the
that
to
pointing
out
about
pragmatic
more
spoke are
is
Kulu
just
Catrik
Kulu
such
as
or
accompanying
pieces
not
of
generic
performances
feasible.Indeed, copyrighting this type of repertoire would be the equivalent of
in
Western
popular music.
sequences
patenting standardchord
Despite such ambivalence,copyright law doesappearto be becoming
increasingly difficult for recording artists to disregardentirely. Ujang Suryana
7NanoSuratno
buskers
Hejokedwith
thatononeoccasion
cameto hisdoorsingingKalangkang.
recalled
theyjokedbackthatheshouldbepayingthemcommission
themthattheyshouldbepayinghimroyalties;
for promoting
thesong(p.c.,2000b).
212
it
in
1980s
1970s
the
that,
and
waspossibleto recorda songwithout
while
commented
havingto considerroyaltypayments,"thesedayscopyrightis increasinglymanaged"
(p.c., 2000).Anotherprominentcomposerconfessed
to havingrewrittenan existing
in
the
song- altering melodiccontour a coupleof placesandchangingthe title and
lyrics - in orderto presentit asa new pieceandcircumventthe issuealtogether.The
foundationandgrowthof organisations
setup to protectthe rightsof artistsalsoattests
to the increasedimportanceof copyrightlaw on a nationallevel.Van Zantennotesthat
musiciansareincreasinglyunitedin the unionPAPPRI(PersatuanArds PenciptaLagu
danPenataMusik, 'Union of Composers
andPerformingArtists') (2001),while Jurrians
discusses
the role of the non-profitorganisationYKCI, (YayasanKarya Cipta Indonesia,
'IndonesianFoundationof CreativeWorks') which, establishedin 1990,now collects
royaltiesfor around1500members(2001:81-82).
Thatmusiciansthemselves
havetendedto be complacentaboutbreachesof
copyright in the past is also largely due to the fact that they are usually only ever paid a
for
fee
any composition or recording. Even when a cassettesells exceptionally
one-off
well or a song is re-released,musiciansrarely receive additional royalties or bonus
is
Presumably
this
payments.
one reasonfor the increasingprevalenceof compilation
albums such as Selek-siDegung: 8 Lagu Top ('Degung Selection: 8 Top Songs')
(Whisnu) and Lagu-LaguAbadi I and 11('Timeless songsvolumes I& 11') (Dian),
which were both put togetherusing tracks from older recordings.Jurriens also equates
the "passive attitude of Indonesianartists toward their own rights" to "the fact that most
of them are afraid to establisha commercially' bad' reputation and lose precious
contractswith their record companies"(2001:83-84). While performing on or
degung
for
cassetteswill never finance a superstarlifestyle, recordings do
composing
important
meansof exposure,confer prestige and provide an
offer musicians an
for
instance,
form
financial
One
teachers,
support.
of
my
of much needed
additional
was
loans
his
in
form
to
the
company,
cash
with
record
usually
of advanced
able negotiate
for
future
recording projects.
payments
Nevertheless,many musiciansdo feel let down by their recording companies.A
disappointed
had
degung
that
they
expressed
composers
only received
of
couple
for
popular cassetteswhich, recordedover twenty-five years
payments
one-off
minimal
One
I
today.
that
older
musician
spoke to was particularly upset to
sale
on
ago, are still
213
discover that the rights to one of his albums had been sold overseaswithout his record
company ever having informed him; he only found out becausean American
interview
him
to
turned
up
armed with the US vinyl version of the
ethnomusicologist
been
broken when musicians have found their name
in
has
Trust
also
recording question.
have
they
the
with
which
not actually been involved. This has
on
cover of recordings
it
has
led to situations whereby one
suspicion
and
resentment
when
causedparticular
believe
friend
is
led
has
to
that
mistakenly
a
or
colleague
composer
rerecordedone of his
songswithout first requestingpermission.
Unfortunately,the situationfor musiciansdoesnot look likely to improve.A
in
sharprise music piracy and turbulent economy meansthat cassettecompanies
themselvesare now experiencing increasedfinancial pressures.According to Nano
Suratno,the thriving trade in pirated VCDs (Video Compact Discs), a format that has
come to replacevideotape in Indonesia over the last few years, threatensthe very
existenceof many of the recording companiesthat disseminatetraditional music. Not
illegal
for
less
legitimate
buy
VCDs
than
the
cost
of
cassettes,but a song
only can
public
from
before
TV
be
the official
and
a
promotional
video
put
on
sale
copied
can now
broadcasts
been
Indonesian
has
While
news
often show clips of
released.
even
recording
police units confiscating counterfeit VCDs, the scaleof the problem is such that most
musicians are pessimistic about the government's ability to combat music piracy any
time in the near future (seeJurridns 2001:82-85).
6.3.2 The 'art' of composing for cassette
Although many Sundanesecomposersattribute their creative skills to some abstract
sourceof inspiration, severalthat I spoke to outlined a more down-to-earth approachto
the developmentof their craft. lik Setiawan,for example, spenttime analysing the
initially
Nano
Suratno's
compositions,
modelling his own pieces on the
of
structure
tried-and-testedformats devisedby his former teacher.Both Suratnoand Setiawan said
that when composing a new degung kawih piece, the composition of the song melody
(lagu) usually precedesthat of the gamelan accompaniment;the latter can then be
incorporate
borrowed
from the vocal part. In contrast, Asep
to
melodic
motifs
arranged
Solihin (an STSI lecturer and composerof degung kawih) usually works from the
214
bottomup; he first decidestheposisi lagu (positionof the song)or, in otherwords,the
is
be
based
fit
to
then
that
the
and
constructs
a
melody
will
song
which
on
over
sekaralit
it. He explained that writing songsfor 'standardaccompaniments'(Pirigan yang Sudah
baku) is practical becausedegunggroups can Icam them with minimal rehearsal.Thus,
has
blue'
he
him
it
'out
has
to
the
to
adjusted
of
come
even when a song melody
lik
Setiawan
(p.
2000).
framework
he
tonal
that
to
admitted
c.,
a
pre-existing
conform
his
best-selling
formulaic
Satia
the
when
composing
song
approach
same
employed
fin-ther
Setiawan
Catrik.
is
based
thatappendingan existingsekar
suggested
on
which
longer
is
(p.
incomplete
the
to
common
way
of
making
piece
a
composition
c.,
alit an
2000).Severalmusiciansadditionallymentionedthattheyhavesometimescreatednew
happen
fit
have
discovered
to
that
they
a particularsek-ar
subsequently
vocal melodies
be
It
that
thus
also
unconsciouslyguidedby,
composers'
melodic
choices
may
seems
alit.
their implicit knowledgeof commontonalprogressions.
The actualcompositionof degungkawihmelodiesandlyrics is oftendepictedas
hailed
down
On
driven
I
by
taxi
a
one
occasion,
coincidentally
casual
process.
a rather
driver.Chattingaboutmy research,he
lik Setiawan'sregularDian Records-employed
laughinglytold mehow Setiawanwould regularlymakeup songsin the car on the
in Jakarta.Monthslater,the driver
journey from Bandungto theDian headquarters
Nano
Suratno
Similarly,
hear
then
these
commentedthat
songs
cassette.
same
on
would
he oftenfinds himselfhumminga newtuneashe is goingabouthis normaldaily
householdchores.Workingin this way, it only took him aboutan hour to comeup with
the songKalangkang.However,manyof his lesssuccessfulpiecestook muchlongerto
compose(p.c., 2000a).
As discussedin chapter2, mostdegungkawihcomposers,
manyof who are
do
formal
Bandung's
spendtime notating through.
courses,
music
of
graduates
One
interludes
introductions,
accompaniments.
exception
and
piece-specific
composed
to this is Ujang Suryana,who, as both a visually impaired and self-taught musician, uses
Suryana
document
his
to
explained
own
arrangements.
out
and
a cassetterecorder work
thathe singsor usesa kacapior sulingto recordindividualinstrumentalpartsonto
be
line
that
one
melodic
so
can
superimpose
machine
a
second
using
sometimes
cassette,
is
he
Once
the
the
of
groupwill
result
another
member
with
satisfied
over another.
(p.
2000).
for
the
to
the
c.,
of
group
read
rest
the
transcribe
arrangement
215
Iik Setiawanconfessedthat he doesnot usually presentthe members of his degung
group Sulanjanawith this notation until they are in the recording studio, expecting the
musiciansto sight-readtheir parts. Sometimesthis is the first and last time that this
live,
degung
who
now
rarely
play
will perform a particular
group,
particular
he
longer
Setiawan
As
that
no
stated
a
remembersmany of his
result,
composition.
he
earlier pieces; on one occasion even attendeda wedding at which a degung group
it
him
familiar
that
took
some time to realise was one of
song
a
strangely
were playing
his own (p.c., 2000).
6.3.3 Kabungbulengan: the transmission of a new composition
In August 2000 Nano Suratno invited me to observea rehearsalof a song that he had
written earlier that samemorning. The song,Kabungbulengan(grieving for love),
performed by Nining Meida and the Non Blok group was releasedon the Whisnu label
form,
introduction-verse-refrain
is
Kabungbulengan
later.
With
an
not
severalmonths
basedon any single sekar alit. Instead,the songmelody is accompaniedby a piecein
Bearing
mind the relatively non-directive nature of most
specific arrangement.
Sundanesegamelan rehearsals,I was intrigued to find out how Suratno approachedthe
transmissionof such an idiosyncratic composition.
In Kabungbulengan,as is the casein most wanda anyar style degung
arrangements,the cempresandpeking play through-composedmelodies and riffs that,
frame
functioning
to
or accompanythe vocal part, often serve as a
while essentially
instrumental
for
the
other
parts. Prior to the rehearsal,Suratnohad
melodic model
in
full
(see
fig.
6:
following
1),
Koswara,
the
metallophone
part
although
a
out
written
indicate
leading
line
to
that players should use
to
was
used
short-hand
a
note
as
straight
figuration
lead
(see
idiomatic
Ruswandi 2000:90). Despite
to
to
that
tone
conventional
the fact that the other instrumentalparts were not notated,a couple of melodic
interjections that were assignedto the bonang were also integrated into this single-line
distinguish
from
to
them
the cempresandpeking part.
these
were
circled
motifs
score;
216
GCD
Fig. 6: 1 Skeletal score for Kabungbutengan
V.,
... w--
44
33.3
Pangkat(opening):11.1
M432 =234
45-12
.41
track 20
(Intro andinterlude)
-0
0 11-2 1-5 454
t22 )4j75
(l
32
343 5-1
345 112 15
1
21(l
1.3
.
=2.3
41
i4 ; M55
M2 134
TM'lv =3.3
viir.
74.4
4-3 2
11
jZ-5-17 TM32 172M
51 x2
(Verse)
(singersentry)
12ý2.2 171.1 ý55.5
4
1=2.2
171.71
ý22.2 ý33.3
=1.1
1
41
4
5-5.5
11-1.1
95
T4
.5
-IMT M3.3
Z4 74 33.3
127.2
41
.4
12 72
31
1
21
-5
x2
(Refi-ain)
11
54
3-3
143
.....
....
.3
43
o ...
.3
43
o.
.3
.
15 .5 15 .5 15 .5 15 .55
5-5
2
.3
43
43
.....
5
.3
.1
21
.
1121
.1
21
1
51
.
.3
o
.51.5
21 .1 21 . 1121 .1 21 . 11 21 .1 21 . 1121
121
43
.1
21
11
.1
.
51 x2
At the beginningof the rehearsalthe assembled
musicians,who wereall eitherSMKI,
STSIor UPI graduates,
sight-readtheir way throughthepiece'sinstrumental
introduction.Sitting facingthe cempresandpeking,Suratnohelpedto familiarisethe
line
by
the
the
and
singing
clapping
out
metallophone
asthey
new material
playerswith
formal
it
The
trainingof all of the musicianspresentwasreflectedin the
through.
played
instrumental
'da-ml-na-ti-la'
'
(see
in
the
syllables
were
vocalised
using
parts
which
way
217
technical notes),rather than the less specific 'ne-ning-nang-none. Having masteredthe
introduction, the players beganto work their way through the rest of the song, Suratno
in
eventually putting the vocal melody.
Although employing a more didactic teaching style than is generally found in
Sundanese
types
music rehearsal,getting this song together was still what Hall
of
other
(1992) might classify as a relatively 'high context' operation (2.2.4). While the cempres
form
some
with
notation
and
of direct instruction, the
andpeking players were provided
have
knowledge
idiomatic
instrumentalists
to
the
sufficient
were
expected
of
other
degung
kawih
in
deduct
to
this
type
their own parts.
of
repertoire
employed
conventions
For example,apart from the two bonang motifs circled in the written score,the bonang
in
decide
had
to
to
when play unison with the metallophonesand when to play the
player
in
(kempyung)
that
typically
used
arrangementsof this sort.
are
off-beat chords
Furthermore,while Suratnoclapped out the rhythm of the bonang part, the bonang
fact,
1
In
4,
had
tones
tones
to
to
and
chords
using
play.
out
which
and
work
player also
2 and 5 (as used in this instance),are commonly employed in such wanda anyar inspired
degung arrangementsand so this was a relatively straightforward task for any musician
au fait with Suratno's work.
Fig. 6:2 Introduction to Kabungbutengan (cemprealpeking & bonang)
0 112
15 454
345
.1
.4
.1 .1
21.1
1--------------1.4.4
.4 .4
145 . 1.3
2
112
.1
.4
15 40
.1
.4
343
51 212
2.2
.2 .
.2 .2
5.5
5-.
.5 .5
.
I&4 !anLd
2&
ýos
151 . 2.3
4 11.1
33.3
34 5555
43 2
.22
.55
.2
.5
44.4
.2
.5
1
etc
11.1
33.3
44.4
1
Bonang plays in unison with cempres& peking to end of intro
218
After the cempresandpekingplayershadtakena few minutesto work out the notesof
the introductiona moreconventionalrehearsalprocesswasresumed.As the piece was
in
Suratno
make
pointed
comments
or
sometimes
gesticulate
would
cycledround,
sorne
Nevertheless,
this only rarely
to
to
or
omissions
mistakes.
particular
way alertplayers
resultedin thegroupbeingbroughtto a completestandstillor askedto repeatdifficult
forewarn
in
Similarly,
isolation.
players
would
while
occasionally
or correct
passages
"awas
"
('watch
interlocking
there's
such
as
out,
caruk!
eachotherwith verbalprompts
figurationcomingupV), "sakali deur' (one moretime') or snatchesof instructionsuch
kenong
it
('after
kenong
"habis
the
goesmi-na-ti-la'), therewas little in
mi-na-ti-la"
as
Thoughprovidingcontinuous
the way of explicit explanationor demonstration.
correctionandcueingvia singingandclapping,aswell as 'conducting'the groupwith
handandheadmotions,at no stagein the rehearsaldid the composerpick up a beaterto
illustratea particularinstrumentalpart.
Evenalterationsto the writtennotationwerepresented
without verbal
justification. Hearing, for example,that the cadential sequenceat the end of the
introductionsoundedtoo chaoticat speed,Suratnodecidedto simplify the last three
beats.
Fig. 6:3 Kabungbuiengan: two versions of the cadence at the end of the Introduction
Original
version
Revisedversion
7512 =432
133.344.41
111.1
33.3
44.4
1
14512
3
1234 5
2
5
Suratnoconveyedthis amendmentsimply by changingwhat he was singing - the
information
fluidly
to
this
new
without thinking to
responding
assembledplayers
from
Accustomed
divergence
the
to a composition
this
written
score.
question
developing in rehearsal,Sundanesemusiciansapproachnotation as a flexible guide
The
than
model.
cempresandpeking players eventually even
an authoritative
rather
219
beganto make small adjustmentsto their own parts without being corrected by Suratno.
One modification that survived onto the final recording is found on the fourth beat of bar
3 of the introduction; the metallophoneplayers substitutedthe original rhythmic pattern
found
beat
following
bar (see fig.
in
the
the
that
the
on
second
of
with
score
as notated
6:4). Such variation is inevitable in view of the fact that after the first few play-throughs
the notation was put to one side and the musiciansbegan to play from memory.
Fig. 6:4 Kabungbulengan: bars 3&4 of the introduction (cempres & peking)
Original
version
10
3243 5ý@
10
Variant
version
343
134
ji4
51 222213-
5555
43 21
5555
43 21
After lunch, the degung singer and Kalangkang star,Nining Meida, arrived at the
The
from
Whisnu
by
group played
records.
a
producer
chaperoned
rehearsal
Kabungbulenganthrough a couple of times, Nano Suratnosinging the vocal Part to
familiarise Meida with the melody. The composerthen proceededto go through the
by
melody phrase phrase,paying closer attention to specific ornamentsand points of
lyrics,
Nining
Mcida
been
Having
the
a
of
with
photocopy
provided
articulation.
devised
join
in,
began
the
text
to
with
occasionally
annotating
personally
eventually
help
her
intended
to
rememberparticular ornamentsand motifs.
mnemonic squiggles
As composersrarely, if ever, notate vocal melodies, songsare frequently subject
to ongoing alteration, particularly, though not exclusively, during the early stagesof
transmission.Watching Nano Suratnoteach Kabungbulenganto Nining Meida it
becameevident that while certain sectionsof the song were already predeterminedto the
tiniest details of ornamentation,other phraseswere more melodically ambiguous and
fact
Also
during
the
the
that Suratno did
to
rehearsal.
conspicuous
was
continued evolve
initiated
her
is
Meida
It
she
micro-changes
of
own.
when
a fact that the
not overrule
involved
in
degung
commercial
any
players
recording play an
singersand suling
important role in crystallising the melodic contour of any new songsthat are featured.
220
Since,in the absenceof notation,composersareproneto alteringa particularsong
is
it
is
first
from
that
taken
the
to
of
a
new
piece
recording
onerendition another,
melody
102).
(Williams
2001:
be
it
for
how
the
subsequently
performed
should
as standard
degung
kawih
Nonetheless,
songstendto consistof
popular
mostcassette-driven
lyrics
bound
to
the
tightly
that
and
and
syllabically
are
phrases
relativelyshortmelodic
leeway
for
individual
interpretation
do
therefore,
or
singers
much
not
offer
which,
but,
in
do
feature
in
k4zvih
licks
Melismatic
as
pieces
manypopular
variation.
Kalangkang,thesemeanderingmotifs arefixed asdefiningattributesof the melodic
Suparli,
According
to
than
as
optional
embellishments.
as soon
considered
modelrather
singersareobligedto
successive
asa new compositionhasbeenconcretisedon cassette,
improvised
Phrase
the
to
the
version
of
song.
substitutionsandother
recorded
conform
deviationsfrom what, in effect,comesto be regardedasa definitiveauralscore,are
(p.
2001
'errors'
than
c.,
considered
as
rather
as
c).
creative
enhancements
subsequently
6.4
A new generation of degung composers
With the gradual cessationof regular gamelan degungbroadcastsand rehearsalsat RRI
during the late 1980sand the consequentatrophy of the radio station's in-house group,
increasingly
institutions
have
STSI
come to serveas the main
such
as
educational
breeding grounds for a new generationof professionalgamelan degung musicians and
best-known
degung
Gentra
Madya,
Non
Most
Bandung's
of
such
groups
as
composers.
Blok, SasakaDomas and Jugala,now derive the bulk of their players from the student
formal
Bandung's
of
music courses.More recently, Nano
and graduatepopulations
Suratno has also soughtto evolve his own style of degungkawih by searchingout
knowledge
both
hence
Sundanese
Gatot
Western
of
with
and
musics;
younger musicians
Winandar and Ega CahyarMulyana, both graduatesof the music educationcourse at
UPI, appearas composer-arrangerson severalof Suratno'spost-Kalangkangrecordings.
When askedto summarisethe ways in which Nano Suratno's degung output has
his
decades,
last
that
two
the
compositions
severalplayers commented
changedover
have becomemore rhythmically dynamic and texturally complex; the lilting flow of
1970sand 1980skaw1harrangementsis said to have beenreplacedwith morejolting
Such
fluctuating
frequently,
less
changesareconunonly
metres.
syncopationand,
221
formally
influx
to
trained male players into Suratno's groups.
the
of younger,
correlated
Older players often differentiate their own style of playing from that of 'today's
youngsters' (anak sekarang), generally noting the relative lack of experiencebut energy
latter.
As
in
the
outlined
of
chapter2, the curricula covered on
and creative audacity
Bandung's formal music coursesprovides a more global music education that,
encompassinga wide range of Sundaneseand non-Sundanesegenresin both traditional
and contemporarystyles, promotes a liberal ethosof musical experimentation that is
degung
recordings. As one STSI graduate
manifest on severalmore recent gamelan
is
but
"degung
not
religion
an artistic vehicle which, as such, is open to
maintained,
ongoing innovation" (Permana,p. c., 2001). Another boastedthat Sundanesemusicians
are known for their musical daring, noting that in any Nationwide festival, young
Sundanesecomposersfrom STSI Bandung are always the "most mischievous" (paling
boundaries
in
the
terms
of
of traditional music and shocking their Central
pushing
nakal)
Javaneseand Balinese counterparts(Hartana,p. c., 2000).
Severalof the players who have worked their way through the ranks of
Bandung's foremost degung groupshave subsequentlygone on to achieve commercial
SMKI
Ek
Setiawan,
STSI,
in
their
of
and
own
right.
a
graduate
and erstwhile
success
is
Non
Blok
Suratno's
Gentra
Madya
Nano
groups,
and
now an established
member of
figure in severalprofessionalmusic circles. As a prominent songwriter and leader of the
degung
group Sulanjana,Setiawanwas also appointed as the
cassette-mediated
Sundanesemusic coordinator for Dian Recordsfollowing Koestyara's retirement. While
is
dissimilar
his
Setiawan's
Iik
to
that
compositional
output
not
of
elders- one
most of
journalist even describing him as a "young Nano S." - Setiawanand some of his
contemporariesfrom STSI have been involved in severalmore radical gamelan degung
recording projects.
In the early 1990s,Iik Setiawanand anotherinfluential degung innovator, Ismet
Ruchimat, collaboratedon a degung album devotedto instrumental adaptationsof
Westernpop songs.While a pop band can approximatepelog degung and madenda
tunings without much difficulty, performing diatonic pop songs on Sundanese
instrumentsdemandedthe construction of a degungdiatonis (diatonic degung). The
resultant recording, Dedikasi (Dedication) (GNP 1993), featuresdegung arrangementsof
(by
"John
L.
[sic]")
Imagine
including
and I Will Always Love You (Dolly Parton).
songs
222
The group's follow up album, Dedikasi II (GNP 1994), includesdegungadaptationsof
Christmas
Degungfor
Indonesian
from
the
archipelago,
while
across
regional pieces
(GNP 1995)presentsa selectionof carols and seasonalsongssuch asSilent Night, Jingle
Bells and, rather incongruously for the tropics, "Ite Christmas.Iik Setiawanremarked
that although theserecordingswere relatively successfulin terms of record sales,the
diatonic degungproject as a whole was not profitable becauseof the high costs involved
in constructing additional instrumentsas well as the excessivelength of time it took to
arrangeand rehearsalsuch 'alien' material.
In addition to absorbing influencesfrom Westernand Sundanese(namely
jaipongan) popular musics, Somawijayanotesthat over the last decadedegung
repertoire has also appropriatedstylistic elementsfrom other Indonesianmusic genres
including keroncong and dangdut (1997:62). This is partly due to the fact that
Sundaneseinstrumentalistsand singersoccasionallyventure into thesefields. In
Bandung's relatively self-containedmusical community there is a constantcrossfertilization of creative ideasas individuals carry their experienceswith them from one
late
Neneng
daughter
RRI
Fitri,
to
the
group
or
musical
genre
another.
of
gamelan
kacapi player Uking Sukri, for example,has establishedherself as both a tembang
both
knowledge
keroncong
Notably,
draws
her
she
of
styles
singer.
upon
vocalist and a
degung
kawih
Taroskeun
(Whisnu),
Nano
Suratno's
cassette,
an album which
on
incorporatesa couple of keroncong inspired tracks (Suratno,p. c., 2000b). Most striking
in this regard is the refrain of the songMorojeng(a, in which the gamelan degung
imitate
is
to
the pizzicato strings of a keroncong band.
accompaniment arranged
6.4.1 Globalisation and world music
Degung cassetteshave also been influenced by wider trends in performancepractice
degung
Suryana's
Ujang
in
Indonesia.
releaseof an album of
campursari
elsewhere
(degung with keyboard) (Marina 2000), for example,is in line with the vogue for adding
keyboard to Central Javanesegamelan at wayang performancesand on commercial
begun
look
further
field
have
to
to
Sundanese
a
and
also
musicians
recordings.
by
Western
the
broader
promoted
the
music
genres
of
popular
variety
with
experiment
international recording industry. Jurridns notes,
223
From the late 1980sthrough the 1990s... artists moved
Sundanesemusic in the direction of a whole range of other
Westernmusical genres... such as house..., rap..., jazz (the
Krakatau band,which includes the SundanesemultiinstrumentalistYoyon Darsono) and world music (Zithermania,
a band led by the Sundanesezither player Dedy Satya Hadianda)
(2001:136-137).
Gamelandegunginstrumentshave often been incorporated into theseexploratory crosshave
begun
the
to be packagedas
some
of
recordings
of
which
cultural collaborations,
'world music. The Jakartabasedj azz-fusionband Krakatau (mentioned in Jurridns'
integrate
for
began
to
traditional Sundaneseinstrumentsinto
example,
abovequote),
their standardWestern-bandline up of keyboards,fretless bass,drums and percussion,in
1993.Krakatau's album Magical Match (Kita Music 2000) featuresseveral STSI
Bandung-trainedgamelan musicians, including the lecturer Yoyon Darsono, whose
has
found
its
technique
also
way onto more conventional
suling playing
extended
Bentang
Kamelang
(Whisnu)
Nano
Suratno's
degung
recordings
such
as
and
gamelan
the STSI-producedDegung Milenium Iff (SP Records).A 'global-village' philosophy
fuels much of this cross-culturalmusical experimentation,a fact which supports
Bohlman's contention that the phenomenonof world music is inseparablefrom that of
Krakatau's
liner
Magical
Match state
(2002:
The
of
album
preface).
notes
globalisation
that aim of the group is to "break through the musical barriers betweenWestern and
Easterntraditions" until "there will be no more saying East is East and West is West,
is
(Kita
Music 2000).
for
anyone our global miracle"
one world
'Globalisation', however, is by no meansa new phenomenonin Indonesia.
Writing of cultural pluralism in Central Java Sumarsamcomments,"One of the
is
history
features
Javanese
the continuous exposureof the Javanese
of
characteristic
ideas"
(1995:
in
2).
Bandung,
foreign
is
to
cultures
and
particular,
a city that is
people
known for having beenreceptive to outside influence from the West. It seemsthat as far
back as the "Culture Polemic of the 193Os","the supposedEast-Westantagonism,much
discussedin Yogyakarta and Jakarta,did not exist to the sameextent in Bandung which
had beena very westernisedDutch colonial city" (Spanjaard 1990:65 in Jurridns
2001:141). After the departureof the Dutch, foreign influences continued to enter
Sundanesesociety "through such meansas... tourism, businessand the electronic
224
Nonetheless,
1990s
123).
(Jurriens
2001:
the
witnessedseveralspecificchanges
media"
thathaverapidlyrendereda muchgreatervariety of foreign
to Indonesia'smediascape
musicsaccessibleto a broadersectionof thepopulation.
Of particularnotewastherelaxationof Indonesia'smedialaws at the endof the
1980sandthe endof overa quarterof centuryduringwhich the government-controlled
televisionchannel,TVRI (TelevisiRepublikIndonesia,Republicof Indonesia
Television),monopolisedthenation'sairwaves.With the dawnof privatetelevision
including,
from
broadcasting
the early 1990s,pop
types
of music
stationscamenew
video showsproducedby MTV. Discussingsomeof thetypesof popularmusicnow
Sutton
Indonesian
Indonesian
that
television,
successive
reminds
us
seenon
governmentshave"beenwary of globalisation",Sukarnobanning"Westernrock and
roll duringthe latterpart of his presidency(early 1960s)"andthe Suhartoregime
constantlywarningof "the aestheticandmoraldangersof excessiveexposureto
Westernpopularcultureat the expenseof localexpression"(I 998b:11).However,over
the pastten years,MTV, with its globalmotto"One World, OneImage,OneChannel".
hasbroadcast"greatquantitiesof foreignpop music"to significantlylargenumbersof
youngIndonesianviewers(ibid., 4& 10).
Recentsurveysindicate that MTV reachessome 16 million
householdsin Indonesia,that MTV shows are watched by 80%
of urban Indonesianyouth at least once a week, 33% watching at
least someMTV every day... While thesesurvey results are
suspectedby many to be inaccurate,this type of programming is
unquestionablypopular (ibid., 6).
The emergenceof the World Wide Web and the proliferation of warnet (warung
internet, 'internet cafes') in towns and cities throughout Indonesia in the late 1990s,has
also revolutionised the way in which Indonesianresidentscan accessthe rest of the
Sambasunda,
for
instance,
STSI-based
One
the
told me that he
group
member
of
world.
had built his own djembedrum following instructions that he found on the Web. Just as
importantly, the Internet has also made it easierfor the rest of the world to communicate
interesting
in
Sambasunda
Indonesia;
an
case point. Running their own site
are
with
(http:Hsurfto/Sambasunda),the group's guestbook includes messagesfrom around the
for
in
from
(dated
DJ
Belgium
25'
At
time
example,
a
the
posting
writing,
a
of
globe.
225
October 2002) informs the group that he is planning to play some of Sambasunda's
tracks on his radio show. Similarly, a messagefrom a Belgian percussionistplanning a
if
it
2002)
be
(dated
January
41
Java
to
asks
would
possible to meet the group.
visit
Such contact is significant. Western influence on Sundanesemusic is not only a
imitating
borrowing
from
but
or
another,
also a consequenceof
result of one culture
face-to-faceencountersand collaborationsbetweenforeign musicians and local artists.
A constanttrickle of overseasmusicians,mainly from wealthier nations in North
America, Australasia,Europe and Asia, passthrough Bandung to record, and to study
have
instrumentalists
Sundanese
Sundanese
and
singers.
artists
also performed with
with
Westernmusiciansof various descriptionsas part of overseasfestivals or work and
study trips abroad.
6.4.2 Ismet Ruchimat
Ismet Ruchimat, an STSI lecturer who Nano Suratnoidentified as one of the most
degung
has
influential
the
composers,
undertakena
of
of
new generation
creative and
Oslo,
Norway,
University
lecturer
the
of
as well as
at
a
couple of residenciesas
has
In
festivals
Ruchimat
the
world.
addition,
music
around
performed at various
by
instrumentalists
European-born
to
contributed severalworld music albumsproduced
led
Jugala
Bandung's
In
1993,
to
in
to
Bandung.
studios
visit
a
chance
working
Ruchimat playing kacapi in a cross-cultural 'jam' sessionthat resulted in the releaseof
the cassetteSundaAfrica (SP Records 1993). While The Rough Guide to World Music
into
degung
Indian
"African
a new
and
percussiongently steer
saysof this album,
degung.
Instead,
does
feature
direction",
the
recording
not actually
gamelan
rhythmic
kacapi, suling, kendangand genggong (bamboojew's harp) are combinedwith tabla,
djembe and congas,the latter all performed by the "globetrotting percussionistof
Spanishorigin" and the album's producer, Vidal Paz (Broughton and Ellingham
2000:141). All but one of the track titles, which include No Risk No Fun, The Wandering
Gypsyand Journey to India, are in English, and the culturally eclectic, new-age feel of
the album is further underscoredby the accompanyingsleevenotes which include a
I-Ching:
from
the
quote
226
Music haspowerto easy[sic] tensionwithin the heartandloosen
the grip of obscureemotions(SundaAftica, SPRecords1993).
SinceSundaAfrica, IsmetRuchimatandVidal Paz(who is alsoknownasDjango
Mango)haveworkedtogetheron a rangeof otherworld musicprojectsincludingMoon
Magic: India MeetsJavaandAfrica (GNP 1998).This albumusesa similar line up to
SundaAfrica, but replacesthesulingwith theIndianbansuriflute (playedby the Indian
flautist HariprasadChaurasia).Songtitles suchasOne WorldandSongto Madhu
Bamba:theMarabauofSenegalfurtherreinforcethe album'sglobalfeel.Apart from
Vidal Paz,IsmetRuchimathasalsodevelopeda closeworkingrelationshipwith the
British bom songwriterandproducerColin Bass(aliasSabahHabasMustapha)who is
famousin Indonesiafor writing thepan-Asianpop hit, DenpasarMoon (Wave,Japan
1994).In 2000,Colin Basscollaborated
with IsmetRuchimatanda Bandunggroup
known asthe JugalaAll Starson the albumSoLa Li (Kartini Music 2000).This
recordingbringstogethera rangeof stylisticallydiversesongswhich, sungby the
kawih singerTati Ani Mogiono,areaccompanied
by a combinationof
Sundanese
instrumentsaugmented
traditionalSundanese
with guitar,bassguitarandviolin. Unlike
the studio-produced
ambientinstrumentalimprovisationsproducedby Vidal Paz,the
for
live performance.TheJugalaAll Stars
So
La
Li
suitable
aremore
popularsongson
haveundertakenseveralinternationaltours,performingin Europeduringthe summerof
2002.
Jurridns;suggests
thatsyncretismcanbe consideredas"the morecelebratory
identity",
Homi
Bhabha"the cultural condition of
a
or
quoting
of
multiple
outcome
people who live in-between" (1999:69). Certainly, the global awarenessand vision that
Ismet Ruchimat has acquiredworking both outside of Indonesia and with foreign artists
in Bandung has influenced the approachthat he has taken to his own homegrown
in
is
This
the world music recordings releasedby
evident
particularly
musical projects.
Ruchimat's group Sambasunda,an STSI-basedensemblewhose first album could be
degung
instrumental.
to
of
a
new
wave
considered represent
227
-
6.4.3 Sambasunda: anew direction for gamelan degung?
The roots of Sambasundag
trace back to the early 1990swhen Ismet Ruchimat and some
improvise
began
STSI
friends
his
to
together on a regular basis.Now a
at
student
of
lecturer at the institution, Ruchimat continuesto direct the group, which has grown from
its original core membershipof eight to a collective of between fourteen and twenty
freelance
in
Many
these
other experimental groups such as the
musicians also
of
players.
JugalaAll Starsand Krakatau, as well as perform in Bandung's more conventional
gamelan ensembles.
Although Sambasundahave developedan innovative and unique sound,
membersof the group are eagerto point out that they primarily use traditional
instruments,playing techniquesand, perhapsmore pointedly, rehearsalmethods.Unlike
in
for
Sambasunda
Bandung
degung
today,
recordings
groups
preparing
many standard
do not use notation to documentor transmit their compositions and arrangements.
Instead,starting from a single musical idea - be it an extant tonal pattem, traditional
song,melodic riff or rhythmic groove - material gradually evolves out of the
improvisation that constitutesthe group's regular practice sessions.Ruchimat explained
that pieces continue to be modified throughout the rehearsaland recording process,and
that nothing is fixed until the final take (p.c., 2001). A couple of musicians remarked
that they particularly enjoy being membersof Sambasundabecause,unlike other
Bandung ensembles,the group operatesrelatively democratically. While Ismet
Ruchimat, as musical director, will illustrate and tweak individual instrumental parts, all
have
hand
in
As
to
the
creative
process.
the
a
are
encouraged
musicians
of
participating
time consuming and labour intensive as this method of composition is, the group are
fact
hours
be
STSI
the
the
that
twenty-four
to
campus
can
a
accessed
on
able capitalise
day; the studentand graduateplayers in the group are accustomedto rehearsingwell into
the early hours of the morning. Severalstudentsalso rent rooms in Ruchimat's family
home, his living room serving as an alternativevenue for the group to get together.
Sambasunda'sfirst commercial release,Sambasunda(GNP 1998), combines an
is
(each
individual
instrument
degung
augmentedwith additional
extendedgamelan
8 The name Sambasundawas adoptedin 1997. Samba,not only refers to the weU-known Latin-American
dancerhythm but also to a young and inquisitive characterin Cirebonesemaskeddance-drama.
228
bamboojengglong.
The
(xylophones)
5+)
3and
of
calung
a
series
with
pitches and
for
by
brother
instruments
the
the
group
of one of the
were specially constructed
wooden
bangsing
kacapi,
(a
Added
to
this
violin,
angklung,
are
suling,
core
ensemble
players.
type of transversebamboo flute from Cirebon) and a rangeof Sundaneseand nonSundanesepercussion,including djembe and congas.The compositions on the album are
highly
by
dynamic,
syncopatedunison melodiesthat are performed over
characterised
repeatedrhythmic riffis and which, accordingto the album's sleevesnotes,reflect a
including
influences
"Kebyar, GambangKromong, Jaipong and
range of stylistic
Samba" (Sambasunda,GNP 1998).
Sambasunda'sfollow up albums,Bali Jaipong (GNP 2000) and SundaBali
(GNP 2000), go one step Rirther and replace the gamelan degungwith a Balinese gong
kebyar ensemble.The other instruments,however, including the group's now trademark
bamboo instruments,violin and extendedpercussion,are retained.The mixing of two
distinct regional styles, in this instanceusing Balineseinstrumentsand performance
techniquesto play Sundaneserepertoire, can be partly attributed to governmentpolicy
dating from the 1950s.The first leadersof the fledgling Republic sought to use state-run
Indonesian
institutions
in
to
the belief that some
an
promote
national
culture
educational
degreeof assimilation betweenregions was desirable(Sutton 1991:175). Given the
is
time
that
allocatedto gamelan degungand Balinesegamelan
comparableamount of
it
is
STSI
Bandung
timetable
the
perhapsonly surprising that graduatesfrom
current
on
this institution do not produce more of this type of cross-regionalfusion.
While, then, not using gamelan degung,SundaBali featuresdegung repertoire,
including a Balinesegamelan arrangementof the degungklasik piece Lutung Bingung (a
by
influenced
in
Balinese
first
the
gamelan
allegedly
place, see3.2.1).
was.
piece which
Coming full circle, the album also incorporatesan arrangementof Koswara's
Sabilulungan, a song made famous throughout Bali by Suryana's 1970sdegung cassette
includes
Sunda
Bali
Finally,
the
also
original compositions such as Ismet
samename.
of
Ruchimat's atmosphericMillenium [sic] Ritual and Yadi Cahyadi's SweetTalking With
Oling.
It is significant that Sambasunda,like Krakatau, often give their compositions
English titles, as well as embellish their sleevenoteswith cryptic English quotations
such as:
229
The Drum is beatenfor the lunatic, the Angklung is played for
the simpleton (SundaBali and Bali Jaipong, GNP 2000).
It seemsas though the inclusion of thesephrasesis not solely for the benefit of the
international market; English languageexcerptsalso serve to imbue the album with
a
certain cosmopolitansophistication for the local audience.Williams notes that slipping
English words into a conversationin Indonesia is "considered stylish and educatedand
in
worldly, much the sameway that an American's use of French (1aissezfaire orje ne
be"
(1989:
109).
Similarly, Sutton observesthat IndonesianMTV Vis
could
sais quoi)
(video jockeys) incorporateEnglish expressionssuch as "now listen up" or "well that's
it", into Indonesianlanguagebroadcasts,this employment of English legitimising "the
show as part of MTV's global Kingdom" (1998b:5).
Unlike GNP's other traditional Sundaneserecording artists (currently including
Ujang Suryanaand Endang Sukandar)who are releasedon the company's subsidiary
Keraton label, Sambasunda'soutput is classified together with recordings such as Moon
Magic and SundaAfrica and releasedon GNP's World Music Label (WML). This is a
deliberatepromotional tactic rather than an inadvertentoversight on the part of record
company marketers.Speakingto musicians in the group it is apparentthat Sambasunda's
ideal target audienceis national and international as much as it is the regional
population. Furthermore, Sambasundaare also attempting to appealto a section of the
local audience,including what could be glossedas the 'MTV generation', that is itself
familiar
Western
Sundanese
than
with
style
pop
with
regional genres.
more
According to Nano Suratno,many Indonesiansin this socio-cultural bracket
considertraditional musics to be parochial (kampungan)and old fashioned(p.c., 2000b).
Of much more practical concernto most Sundanesemusicians is the fact that performers
of traditional music are consideredas the 'poor relation' of pop, jazz or Western-style
lower
levels
generally
receiving
artists,
much
classical
of financial remunerationthan
9
Indonesian
Westem-musical-instrument-playing
their
counterparts. While Sambasunda
is a collective of young musicianswho visibly gain much enjoyment from creating and
performing their own version of Sundanesemusic, the group is also caught up "in
socially acknowledgedgamesof prestige and power" (Stokes 1994b:97), its members
9 As Stokesobserves,a musician's "value in a locality is often
perceivedto be precisely their ability to
transcendthe cultural boundariesof that locality" (1994b:98).
230
living
for
in
themselves
to
out
a
politically, economicallyand
endeavouring carve
does
identity
As
Stokes
times.
turbulent
argues,
simply
music
not
reflect
culturally
and -
hierarchies
but
is
"by
the
of placearenegotiatedandtransformeda means which
place,
(I 994a:4). Adoptingthe marketingstrategiesof Westernproducersand
decontextualising
their uniquebrandof Sundanese
musicby brandingit asworld music
local
'globalising'
Sambasunda
their
productand
way
of
a
potential
with
provides
international
themselves
artistson the world stage.
more
powerful
alongside
positioning
have also
Apart from theway in which their recordingsarelabelled,Sambasunda
fact
in
Capitalising
local
the
that
to
their
on
other
novel
ways.
audience
reachedout
Bandung is a city known for its fashionablecafes,bars and clubs, the group have chosen
to play in venuesusually reservedfor more 'hip' Westernand Western-stYleIndonesian
pop and rock bands.In addition, Sambasundawere the only 'traditional' music group to
take part in Indomusik Expo 2000, a music industry sponsoredexposition that was held
in Jakartato showcasenew Indonesianpop and rock talent. As noted above, unlike most
in
Internet
Sambasunda
Bandung,
their
site as well as sell
groups
own
also
gamelan
run
group merchandisesuch as T-shirts that feature the Sambasundalogo. Articles about the
group have also beenincluded in glossy music magazineslike Gong and NewsMusik,
which are aimed at Indonesia's more affluent and Western-orientatedurban youth.
Critiques of Sambasundain this type of publication generally position the group
ý
as 'ethnic' music.NewsMusikwritesthat at the time of their first album,Sambasunda
were "still exploring Sundaneseethnic music" (masih melakukaneksplorasipada musik
etnis Sunda).SundaBali and Bali Jalpong, on the other hand, are said to "marry two
(NewsMusik,
(mengawinkan
dua
kultur
8týtogether"
music
cultures
musik etnis)
ethnic
29thNovember 2000: 98). As Sutton observes,"The very fact that the term 'ethnic'
(etnik) is now widespreadin the discourseaboutIndonesianregionalmusical
traditions... is indicativeof themarginalizedspaceaccordedthesevarioustraditions
amongpopularmusicians"(1998b:10).In fact,the term ethnic(etnikor etnis)tendsto
by
'other'
traditionalmusicians
to
even
when
employed
some
marginalised
refer
themselves.At SMKI Bandung,for example,studentson thesenimusik(diatonicmusic)
(musik
in
Sundanese
gamelanaspart of a module ethnicmusic
etnýs).
programmestudy
Musik etnis,in this case,is taughtalongsidemodulesin musikklasik (Westernclassical
for
dance).
In
(pop
(music
tari-tarian
and
contrast,
music),
musik
music),musikpop
231
heart
is
the
of the mainstreamcurriculum for those studentson
gamelan positioned at
karawitan(traditionalmusic)courses.For karawitanstudents,the term 'ethnic' is,
instead,usually reservedto denotemore obscurefolk genresthat are specific to a
in
particular village or region elsewhere West Java,Indonesia or the world beyond.
Tellingly, Sambasunda
musiciansoftenpoint to their predominantuseof alatinstruments)
(ethnic
when explaining their group ethos. In contrast to
etnis
alat musik
other fusion groups, such as Krakatau, Sambasundado not always include electronic
instrumentssuch as synthesisersor electric guitars in their line up; neither do they
always perform repertoire modelled on the Westernpop song format. Rather than taking
however,
this non-conformism to the Westernpop idiom seems
stance,
an anti-Western
to have much more to do with an awarenessof the current demandfor "ethnic musics"
As
Sutton
international
the
music
market.
acknowledges,the very notion of "world
on
music/world beat" is, itself, fuelled by Western notions of "exoticism" (1998b:10), with
musical difference constructedto "suit the strategiesof multinational corporate industry"
(Fiona Magowan 1994:153).
6.4.4 World music and pop Sunda
Contrasting Sambasunda'smusical output with the pop Sundarecordings of Nano
Suratno,one is confronted by the paradox that the latter remains, at least for now, a more
(regional,
lesser
'local'
to
and
a
extent, national) music, even when
unambiguously
for
be
instruments.
Western
Part
this
this
of
reason
may that in pop Sunda,
performed on
between
bands
interchange
degung
Sunda
by
indicated
the
of
repertoire
pop
and
as
kawih groups, the specific make-up of the accompanyinginstrumentation is of
be
importance
Another
to
the
themselves.
that the sosongs
explanation
may
secondary
called Western instrumentsin question have beenused in the archipelago for such a
lengthy period of time that they may now be consideredto be just as much a part of
Indonesianculture as of Europeanor African-American culture. Western music and
history
have
long
in
Indonesia,the earliest instancesof European
instruments
a
musical
back
dating
in
Java
to the sixteenth century and the arrival of the
probably
music
Portuguese(seeSumarsam1995). Dutch colonial rule then resulted in the introduction
bands
dance
European
and
military marching
orchestrasinto Central Javanesecourt
of
232
life (ibid. ) with, from 1925 (long before the arrival of MTV), colonial radio stations
broadcastinga wide range of popular and classicalWesternmusics. While Sutton
is
foreign
it
disseminates
MTV's
to
the
that
make
pop
music
strategy
a part of
comments
in
(I
if
it
Indonesia"
998b:
10),
it
for granted
Indonesians
'belongs'
take
many
seem"as
that it already does. Interviewing degung composersabout their early musical
included
in
Western
lists
formative
their
several
unblinkingly
artists
of
experiences,
influences. Ismet Ruchimat mentionedQueenand Deep Purple as favourite childhood
bands (p.c., 2001), while Ujang Suryana,a teenagerin the 1960s,was a fan of American
(p.
by
Martin
2000).
A
Dean
the African musician Youssou
comment
croonerssuch as
c.,
N'Dour seemsparticularly germaneat this juncture: "When people say my music is too
Western, they must rememberthat we, too, hear this music over here. We hear the
African music with the modem" (quoted in Monson 1999:57).
Despite its trappings of modernity, pop Sunda'sunmistakeableprovincial sound
for
it
is
the sameaudienceas MTV disseminatedWestern or
that
competing
not
means
Western-stylepop. Pop Sunda,to borrow Sutton's observationsabout dangdut, "is NOT
trendy, doesnot give its viewers a finger on the pulse of the world, of the global now"
(1998b:8). Jurriens equatesthe localnessand 'Sundanese-ness'of Nano Suratno's pop
Sundacompositionsto the fact that the composerhas "resisted businessstrategiesand
governmentalpolicies that serveto decontextualiseregional artistic traditions and adjust
them to the demandsof a global commercial marketplace" (1999:59). In complete
indigenous
instruments,
though
using
and
even
acoustic
primarily
contrastrehearsal
methods and often performing traditional repertoire - Sambasunda'senthusiastic
adoption of Westernmarketing strategiesand deliberatepositioning of their recordings
as world music, demonstratesa more explicit 'global' consciousness.Thus, in very
different ways, both of thesemusics further support Sutton's conclusion that Indonesian
between
dichotomy
"the
too-facile
traditional/regional/nonpopular genreschallenge
Western on the one hand and modem/intemationaVWestemon the other" (I 998b:8).
To what extent the innovations of groups like Sambasundawill impact on, or
degung
be
Nevertheless,
traditional
to
seen.
styles
of
playing
remains
more
even replace
the Sambasunda'sound' has already spilled over onto more conventional degung
involved
in
because
if
the
of
group
members
are
creatively
such
only
recordings,
1mut
Panglajap
for
kawih
(Whisnu
2000),
is
degung
The
the
cassette
example,
projects.
233
between
from
Sulanjanaand Sambasunda.Featuring
musicians
result of a collaboration
the distinctive soundof Sambasunda'sviolinist Yadi Cahyadi and female vocalist Tati
Ani Mogiono (the singer on Jaipong Bali and So La D), Ismet Ruchimat was
instrumental
for
the
arrangements,the resultant texture of which are
album's
responsible
clearly derivative of Sambasunda'sfirst album (Sambasunda,GNP 1998). Sambasunda
themselveshave also returned to the medium of gamelan degung, producing an
degung
klasik
pieces.Uj ang Suryanamade the
unreleasedrecording of reworked
interesting commentthat he saw a natural successorin Ismet Ruchimat (P.c., 2000).
Perhapsthis is becauseboth composersare predominantly known for their cassetteindustry driven instrumental music and sharea large fan basein the international and
tourist markets.Only time will tell whether Sambasunda'smusic will have the longevity
and wider influence of cassettessuch as Sangkala and Sabilulungan.
Summary
The chapterbeganby charting the developmentof gamelan degung on cassette.
Identifying some of the seminal releasesof 'the 1970sand 1980s,it reviewed both the
musical content of theserecordings and the composers,performers and recording
first
in
implicated
Having
their
reflected upon the relationship
production.
companies
betweencassetteproduction companiesand Sundaneseartists, and the ways in which
issuessuch as marketing and copyright law are (or are not) managed,the chapter
different
by
the
approachesto composition employed by degung
continued exploring
detailed
for
discussion
This
the
a
paved
more
way
examination of the
musicians.
transmissionprocessby meansof a descriptive account of a rehearsalthat Nano Suratno
degung
for
kawih
in
specific
a
recording. The third part of this
organised preparation
degung
focused
investigated
1990s
to
the
recordings
changes
since
and
chapter
on the
impact of 'globalisation' on Bandung's traditional music scene.Contrastingthe music
fusions producedby groups such as Sambasunda,with the modem regional genre of pop
Sunda,it concludedby considering the Way in which contemporarydegung genres
distinguish
from
'Western
boundaries
that
the
non-Westem' (or ethnic), 'art
collapse
from pop', 'traditional from modem' and 'local from global'.
Finally, Chapter 7 will now look at how all of thesedifferent musical categories
in
that constitutesthe Sundanese
converge the artisticextravaganza
wedding.
234
Chapter 7
King for a day: performing tradition at the Bandung wedding
7.1
The role of gamelan degung in wedding celebrations
A Bandungtaxi driver oncecasuallyremarkedto me thatwheneverhe hearsgamelan
degunghe beginsto feelhungry.This Pavlovianresponseis indicativeof the fact that
live
haiat,
hear
Sundanese
the
at
a type of formalparty
only
ever
ensemble
played
most
is
buffet
life
to
celebrate
a
significant
meat
served
event.That
an
elaborate
at which
by non-musiciansoutsideof suchcontextsis alsoreflected
degungis rarelyencountered
in commentsthat moreexplicitly link this smallergamelanto weddings.Onefemale
friend,a socialworker,notedthe soundof tembangSundaandgamelandegungmake
her feel wistful thatsheis still single,while anotheracquaintance,
a managerat a textile
factory,remarkedthat shewould not haveconsideredherselfto beproperlymarriedif
her
degung
had
had
groupat
own wedding.
a
not
she
Weddingsarebig businessin Bandung,a factwhich, alongsidethe emergence
of
develop
has
Sundanese
to
industry,
the cassette
musicians
a more commercial
prompted
"ceremonial
is
Laing
Although
that
their
trading
to
claims
music"
wares.
approach
"have
tenuous
that
those
or
connection,
only
a
no
connection,
activities
musical
amongst
to markets" (2003:319), performing at wedding ceremoniesprovides degung musicians
heard
it
income.
I
their
repeatedly
said that many
sources
of
regular
main
with one of
for
in
to
the
their
the
survival
public's
penchant
owe
continuing
city
gamelan groups
for
At
local
life
taste
time,
the
the
community's
same
glitzy
celebrations.
cycle
elaborate
tradition is attributed to the creativity of the artists who continue to reinvent these
ceremonialproductions.
Travelling around Bandung, one often seessmall handmadeplacardshanging at
the end of alleyways or above shop fronts, advertising degungjaipongan and upacara
be
littered
boutiques
The
to
('traditional
city
also
seems
with
ceremony').
and
adat
for
bride
hiring
the
attire
and groom as well as offering bridal
out
wedding
salons
fashion
hairdos,
face-paint
(rias
the
to
wedding
couple's
packages
panganten)
makeup
lingkung
Two
in
keeping
the
tradition.
regional
with
seni that I worked
and costumes
235
bridal
hire
into
branched
have
this
running
a
andmakeupserviceasa
area,
out
also
with
These
to
the
activities.
groupsalsorent out the
mainstay
performing
group's
sideline
decorates
furniture
the venueor
that
paraphernalia
associated
and
elaborateceremonial
furnishings
bedspreads,
is
held.
Luxurious
the
such
as
shiny
satin
venueswhere wedding
displays
floral
hangings,
door
andthrone-likechairsareall usedto
elaborate
wall and
transformselectedroomsin the bride's family homeandto setup the bridegroomas
'king for a day' (raja sadintenor raja seharz).If theweddingreceptionis held in a hired
hall (gedung),the importeddecormay alsoconsistof moresubstantialstagingincluding
ice
backdrops,
features.
sculptures
and
even
running
water
carved
wooden
ornately
Thereasonthatgamelandegungis the ensembleof choiceat suchurban
functionsseemsto be that its aristocraticheritagelendsan additionalelementof prestige
andtraditionto an occasionwhile, at the sametime,groupsarestill ableto performupto-daterepertoirein the form of the latestcassette-mediated
pop Sundahits. Both of
theseaspectsareaccentuated
at differentpointsin the day.As discussedin chapter1, the
imagined
degung'soriginsin the Sundanese
courtsand
connectionswith the PaJaJaran
kingdommeanthat it is the favouredensembleto accompanythe historicscenesof
in
or weddinggreetingceremony.
statelypompenacted the upacaramapagpanganten
Onceconcluded,however,thedegunggroup'snexttaskis to provideentertainmentfor
the weddingreception,a drop-inparty at which guestscongratulatethe newly married
Thus,
having
the
meal.
musicallyfunctionedto evoke
celebratory
coupleandpartakeof
feelingsof nostalgiafor the glorified Sundanese
pastconjuredin thegreetingceremony,
the degungthereaftertypically servesasa vehiclefor the mostcommerciallysuccessful
brandof kawihrepertoire;mostweddingpartiesthatI attendedin 2000-2002were
dominatedby the songsof NanoS.
Consideringtherole of thegamelandegungin the Sundanese
weddingis
thereforea particularlyappositeway of concludingthis studybecausethe music
discussed
in
the
this
all
of
repertoire-types
events
often
encompasses
at
such
performed
dissertation.Furthermore,aswill be discussedbelow,theweddingceremonyitself can
in
large-scale
be
adaptationand transformation. Tembang
exercise
also consideredas a
dramatists,
devise
dancers
together
to
all
come
and
and execute
and gamelan musicians,
the scripted sequenceof ceremonialgestures,dances,songsand poetic narration that
make up contemporary upacara mapagpangantenperformances.
236
7.2
The wedding reception
Nano Suratnoexplainedthat most weddings follow a relatively standardisedtimetable,
the actual wedding itself and the complex array of rituals linked to it usually taking place
'
hours
during
the morning. The gamelan degungthen typically headsthe
over several
kawih
the
party,
of
at
reception
playing a selection
entertainment
songs and, more
degung
Has&
from
pieces
occasionally,
around I Oarnto midday. Since the early 1980s,
this degung set has usually been followed by or interspersedwith severaljaipongan
dances.Suratnostatedthat thejaipongan craze of the late 1970sand 1980sbrought
gamelan salendro back into fashion at such celebrations,the ensemblehaving
in
due
to the phenomenalsuccessof the all-female degung
previously waned popularity
dominated
that
wedding receptions in the 1960sand 1970s(p.c., 2000b). All the
groups
like
for
SasakaDomas only bring gamelan salendro
economy,
groups
of
same, reasons
instrumentsto the most extravagantof wedding parties. Instead, the group'sjaipongan
dancepresentationis usually performed with a cassetteaccompaniment.Once the
traditional music setshave been exhausted,a pop Sundagroup, dandgut group or
2
keyboard
for
take
the
player
and
singer
usually
electronic
over
rest of the afternoon.
This generally relieves the gamelan and tembangmusicians who, having been either
playing or preparing to play for up to six or sevenhours, can then pack up, help
themselvesto the buffet if they have not already done so, and finally head home.
The diversity of entertainmenttypically found at Bandung weddings meansthat
the city's traditional musicians are accustomedto sharing a stagewith different types of
local 'pop' artist. Indeed, entrepreneurialgroup leadersoften take on the role of
in
'outside' performers to supply
subcontracting
middlemen,
commission-deducing
those musical genresthat lie beyond their own troupes' domains of competence.On
severaloccasionsI encountereda musician friend in a frantic searchfor a fireelance
keyboard player, a PA systemand even a set of gamelan instrumentsthat he had
for
imminent
booking.
The diversity of
to
supply
an
wedding
previously promised
has
families
hosting
also encouragedsome
such
events
of
musical requirements
traditional musiciansto branch out into more popular music idioms. Spiller, for example,
' SeeBratawidjaja
(1980)for descriptions
(1997)andHerdiana
thatmakeupthe
of thevariousceremonies
Sundancse
wedding.
contemporary
' Thewealthiest
familieswill thencomplete
theday'scelebrations
withanall-nightwayangperformance.
237
Rawit
the
that
gamelangroupoftenperformwhat theyrefer to as
of
members
notes
"semi-dangdue'at weddings;this involves"the goong,thekendang,andsomeother
being
in
instruments"
played
conjunctionwith an electronic
unpitchedpercussion
keyboard(2001:264-265,268).Similarly,while SasakaDomasemployan elekton
(electronickeyboard)playerandfemalecabaretsingerto performIndonesianand
Westerndiatonicballadsat the tail endof thereception,Didin Bajuri (theco-directorof
SasakaDomas)usuallymakesa coupleof guestappearances
with this duo.The ease
with which musiciansandguestsnegotiatethe eclecticmix of traditional,modem,local,
international
stylesperformedaspart of theseweddingcelebrations
often
nationaland
for
in
Didin
BaJuri
between
the
that
would
effortlessly
switch
way
me
was encapsulated
in
Rajah
the greetingceremony,to a moving
the
tembang
song
performing reverential
Frank Sinatrainspiredrenditionof My Wayat the reception.Nevertheless,
while Didin
Bajuri haswon nationalcompetitionsfor performingbothtypesof song,this particular
type of bi-musicalityseemsto be fairly unusualamongstSundanese
singers.
is thatthe exactmusical
Whattheseanecdotalexamplesserveto demonstrate
contentof Sundanese
weddingcelebrationsvariesfrom groupto group,with musicians
andgroupsexploitingtheir individualskills andadaptingtheir servicesaccordingto the
demandsof specificperformancecontexts.The mostlavishweddingpartiesthat I
instance,
for
in
during
than
took
the
the afternoon.At one
attended,
eveningrather
place
included
function,
held
in
hotel,
Bandung
the
music
provided
such
a rathergrand
a set of
degungHas& rampaksekarsongs.Accordingto EndangSukandar,the musicianwho
bookedthe degunggroupfor this event;the largenumberof singersinvolvedservedto
underscorethe exclusivityof the occasion.In contrast,andasmentionedin chapter5, it
is commonto seea smallkacapian(zither-based
ensemble)or tembanggroupreplace'
thegamelandegungat lowerkey events.
Whatevertypeof musicis performed,the ultimategoal of the entertainmentat
thehajat ideally
the weddingreceptionis to generatea rami (lively) atmosphere,
day"
One
(Spiller
2001:
253-254).
lively
"crowded
throughout
the
and
way in
remaining
is
is
by
interaction
',
and
created
maintained
encouraging
an
ambiance
which such
betweenthe performingartistsandthe invitedguests.Weddingguestsoftenrequest
(kauo
from
to
the
take
to
the
and
some
stage
sing
musicians
even
one or
songs
specific
foreign
As
themselves.
to
a
two numbers
musicstudentI was forcefullyencouraged
238
'repay' my hosts in this way at every wedding I attended.Often awkwardly trussed up in
female
heavy
hairpiece
Sundanese
(sangguo and
traditional
costume,
complete
with
a
thick makeup,I, as a curiosity, would often prompt much more cheering and applause
than the competentprofessionalspresent.On one occasionmy discomfort reachednew
heights as the masterof ceremoniesbeganto inform the assembledwedding guests
degung"
incongruous
"doktor
PhD
topic,
the
phrase
reverberating out of the
about my
PA systemjust as a microphonewas thrust into my hand and I was motioned to start
his
helped
Spiller
that
to
such
performances
own
presence
at
similarly
notes
singing.
leader
informing
lively
him
his
that
the
openly
one
group
atmosphere,
requisite
produce
"novelty value as a bule (BS: literally albino, but more colloquially European-looking)
(ibid.,
262).
to
the
saleability"
group's
addition
performer was a welcome
Another way in which a large crowd is assuredis by opening the reception with
I
ceremony.
greeting
was told that this
or
wedding
an upacara mapagpanganten
beginning
to
turn
the
up
at
of the
guests
colourful multimedia spectacleencourages
is
long
line
friends
that
there
thereby
a
of
relatives,
ensuring
and
wedding celebrations,
by
food
is
to
the
the
time
their
the
to
wedding
party
respects
neighboursqueuing up pay
is
formal
Conventionally,
be
to
this
the
to
employed
prior
pageant
servedup.
ready
family
formally
his
(akad
the
are
greetedtwenty
groom and
nikah);
marriage ceremony
home
bride
from
the
take
the
the
wedding
will
place and to which,
where
of
so
metres or
bride's
family,
dancers
by
the
they
then
of
acting
as
representatives
escorted
it
has
become
in
for
However,
the newly
also
popular
recent
years
ceremonially process.
families
to receive a similarly stagedwelcome when arriving at
their
and
married couple
is
hall.
in
hired
Again,
I
held
told
that
this
one way of ensuring that the
was
a
receptions
host family do not suffer the humiliation of turning up to an empty venue.
7.3
Invented tradition
Althoughcommonlyreferredto asa traditionalceremony,the weddinggreeting
least
is
it
today
creation,
or
at
artistic
a theatricalreworkingof a
an
ceremonyas exists
3
is
'tradition'.
It seemsthatprior to the
formerly adhoc customthat now promotedas
3 For this reason,some scholarsand artists prefer to describecontemporaryceremonials as upacara
karesmen('embellished' or 'beautified ceremony') or upacara khusus('special ceremony').
239
the groomto the bride's
1960sand 1970s,the businessof meetingandaccompanying
homewas a modestaffair of courtesythat lackedthe dramaandperceivedsymbolic
inspired
by
However,
the opulentscenesenacted
today's
extravaganzas.
significanceof
Bandungarts
in WahyuWibisana'sceremonialsandgendingkaresmenperformances,
increasingly
Now,
began
to
sophisticated
versionsof this processional.
offer
groups
imagery
drawn
from
Paj
featuring
the
and
characters
ajaran-based
pantuntales,
routinely
theseproductionsfall into Hobsbawm'sdefinitionof "inventedtradition" asa setof
repeatedlyexecutedpractices"of a ritual or symbolicnature"that imply a "continuity
historic
"continuity
the
with
a
suitable
past'' (1983:1).
with
past"andwherepossible,
haveno real interestin
HidayatSuryalagaclaimedthatmostceremony-directors
historical'authenticity'or in accuratelyrepresenting
theregalcharactersor associated
indispensable
form
that
an
part of theweddingprocession.He cited
paraphernalia now
the widespreaduseof the ceremonialparasol(payungor songsong),a grandioserelic
from the aristocraticcourts,asa casein point. ThehistorianNina H. Lubis explainsthat
thepayungwasan importantstatussymbolfor any Sundanese
nobleman,the colourand
patterningusedon the parasoldenotinghis particularsocialranking(1998:187-189).
Nevertheless,
payungof all coloursandsizesregularlyappearin weddingceremonies,
the parasolsimply functioningasa decorativeprop to adda touchof colonialglamourto
the occasion.Suryalagaalsopointedout that accordingto kabypatenetiquetteit would
havebeenconsideredasindecorousto useapayungindoors,let aloneaspart of a dance
performance(p.c., 2000).Both practicesarecommonin Bandungupacara,with some
four
horizontally
held
parasolsto represent'wheels' in moving
groupsevenutilising
formationsthat areconfiguredto resembletrain carriages.
In fact, the resurgence
of interestin recoveringandelaborating,if not inventing
broader
Sundanese
fabricating
traditions
reflects
socio-culturalchangesin Indonesia
and
Soeharto's
Pemberton,
thought
a
who
provides
provoking
critique
of
asa whole.
Order
Javanese
'tradition',
New
the
and
practice
of
politics
notesan
oppressive
in
1970s.
Central
Particularly
Javanese
the
weddings
early
of
analogousreworking
is
Pemberton's
to
this
observationthat,aspart of this process,manyof
study
germane
the trappingsof Javanese
wayangwong(humanpuppettheatre)wereconvertedinto
"ritual scenesof dramatic'tradition"' (1994:226).At the sametime, manyof the art
forms incorporatedinto theserevisedceremonialswerethemselvessubjectto a similar
240
form of upgrading and standardisation.Discussing the effects of nationalist ideology on
the evolution of Sundanesedance,Spiller discussesthe consequentmarginalisation of
improvised participatory dancing and the promotion of fixed choreographiesthat "could
be shown off to non-Sundaneseas examplesof 'high' Sundaneseart, alongside similar
6classical'dancesfrom Central Java and Bali" (2001: 301-302). Significantly, this type
is
feature
dance
core
of most wedding greeting ceremonies,with
a
of presentational
Sundanese'tradition' demonstratedto be every bit as elaborateand impressive as its
Javaneseand Balinese counterparts.Conceived of as a theatrical spectatorevent rather
than as a participant-centredritual, the wedding processionhas even beenperformed in
hotel lobbies for the entertainmentof foreign tour groups.
Since the 1970s,Bandung artists have becomemastersof invented tradition,
developing ceremoniesfor eventsranging from weddings and circumcisions to high
businesses.
launch
Anecdotes
the
of
shops
new
and
about the
and
school graduations
degung
One
prominent
musician related that several
creation of new rituals abound.
him
local
division
had
because
from
he
approached
a
army
wanted
years ago a general
to stagea 'traditional' military procession.In the absenceof any precedentthe musician
Seven
Steps.
Apparently,
has
Parade
he
to
the
the
call
of
no
one
came
what
concocted
4
become
has
Similarly,
the
a
regular
annual
origins
of
what
since
event.
ever questioned
Hidayat Suryalagacommentedthat he developedthe ngaras ceremony,at least in its
5
(p.
in
2000).
1983
Sasaka
This
Domas
form,
the
c.,
custom, now
group
with
current
is
by
Bandung's
the
middle
affluent
classes,
convened
more
amongst
extremely popular
involves
day
before
bridegroom
bride
the
the
their soonwedding
the
and
or
parentsof
before
for
daughter
kneeling
them,
their
publicly apologising
to-be-wed son or
imported
feet
(often
their
and
scenting
with
expensive
shortcomings,and washing
5').
The
by
'Chanel
then
no.
parents
usually
reciprocate telling of their
perfumes such as
love for their child. Suryalagaexplained that, as an ethnic group, the Sundanese(unlike
the Javanese)are known for being easily provoked to laughter or to tears and that
4 As previously discussed,however, certain bodies of so-calledtraditional musical repertoire only date
back to the 1970s,1980sand even 1990s.It seemsthat in Sundathe term 'tradisional' is often used to
it
does
'local';
'regional'
the
to
the
not necessarilyimply any continuity with a distant past.
or
refer
5 Suryalagaclaimed that he basedthis ceremony on an older aristocratic practice. In fact, Pemberton
describes
in
West
Java.
In this account, the term
1916
to
a
wedding
which
a
source
reference
makes
kissed
knees
his
father-in-law,
in
the
the
to
groom
of
which
an Islamic official
a
ritual
ngaras refers
(1994:218).
241
various parts of the wedding celebrationsdeliberately exploit both emotional extremes.
The ngaras ceremonyundoubtedly emphasisesthe latter, the gentle strains of tembang
Sunda and kacap! suling function to musically contain the communal sobbing that
typically infuses such affairs. On one occasion,even someof the musicians had tears in
their eyes as the rather stem looking father of the groom took his son into his arms and
6
him
he
have
his
did
feet.
Nevertheless,retaining sufficient
told
that
to wash
quietly
not
personal control, the suling player managedto respondto this situation, urgently
7
to
the
more melancholic madendatuning.
whispering a quick change
According to Iik Setiawan,the degungis not normally employed in the ngaras
ceremony (or any of the other wedding rites that precedethe upacara mapag procession)
because,unlike the more portable kacapi, gamelan instrumentsare simply too
cumbersometo cart around from venueto venue (p.c., 2000). Severalrecording
degung
have,
however,
released
cassettesspecifically designedto accompany
companies
Sundariese
including
the
the
thesepreliminary rituals.
various
stages
of
wedding,
of
all
7.4
The upacara mapagpanganten
Each lingkung seni developsits own version of the wedding greeting ceremony,
musicians and dancersoften working in collaboration with dramatistsand
Sundanologists;to develop the script and stage-plan(naskah)that details the texts, music
and action sequencesthat make up contemporarypresentations.Over time, individual
for
be
have
distinctive
the
to
recognized
come
spin that they have put on the
groups
for
known
in
for
dance
Domas,
Sasaka
their
example,
are
emphasising
procession.
identified
I
Sari,
Kandaga.
that
regularly
group
another
observed,
are
productions, while
for their liberal use of tembangsinging.
As with Wahyu Wibisana's multimedia productions of the 1960s,most of the
is
by
imaginatively
together
content
and
choreographic
pieced
ceremony's musical
drawn
from
Sundanese
the
transforming
materials
across
existing
recycling and
6Theelderlygrandmotherof this particulargroomtold methatthis typeof eventnevertook placewhen
in
is
it
but
theparent-childrelationshipand
transition
the
a
that
as
marks
useful
event
shewasyoung
of themarriagecontractthattheyareaboutto enter.
makesthe sonor daughterawareof the seriousness
7Most Sundanese
musiciansseemto agreethatmadenda(sorog)soundsmoremelancholicthanpelog.
to bejolly pieces.
However,somemadendasongs,suchasthepopularEsDIM, areconsidered
242
it
is
Sometimes,
only the narrated and sung texts that are
arts
complex.
performing
specifically composedfor this purpose.Bearing in mind that this is a culture in which
there is an ongoing flow of freelanceplayers and dancersfrom one group to another and
in which practicesusually take place in an impromptu fashion in the moments
immediately prior to a performance,the use of music and dancerepertoires that are
already familiar to performers usefully minimises the rehearsaltime neededfor a
Even
developing
that
several
mentioned
so,
musicians
ceremony.
particular
upacara that
are sufficiently visually and audibly arresting,but that also meet the practical
important
creative challenge.lik
requirementsof a specific occasion,still constitutesan
Setiawanobservedthat there is a fine line betweenputting on an impressive, starin
dances
for
that
too long and leave the
cramming
songs
and
go
on
and
studdedshow,
in
limbo.
Recalling
that as a young musician he
ceremonial
suspended
wedding party
bridal
looking
in
the
their
members
of
entourage
at
watches
often
notice
would
frustration or stifling yawns, Setiawannow usually custorniseshis own productions to
it
is
for
individual
Thus,
the
tastes
while
standardpractice for
clients.
example,
of
suit
the groom and his entourageto be escortedby dancersto the bride's home (or the venue
he
has
bride's
the
that
take
the
the
ceremony
adapted
so
will
place),
wedding
where
it
is
for
bride's
join
Reasoning
that
the
the
more
polite
procession.
parents
parentsalso
to greet and usher the groom themselves,Setiawanalso rationalised that as it is usually
the bride's family who finance this part of the wedding it is only fair that they should
(p.
in
2000).
involved
the
c.,
role
proceedings
play a more
7.5
Sasaka Domas' version of the upacara mapagpanganten
While thereis a fair degreeof flexibility built into this greetingritual, mostwedding
key
basic
format
the
same
and
personnel.Figure7:1 presentsa
employ
ceremonies
for
S
flow
chart
asakaDomas'versionof the upacaramapagpangantenas
performance
in
hired
hall. An
to
to
a
wedding
reception
a
married
couple
newly
a
utilised welcome
fi-amework
in
the
this
ceremony
will
adaptation
provide
particular
of
of
a
examination
devices
different
discuss
that areusedin
the
to
repertoires
and
musical
which
in
detail.
however,
Firstly,
I will introducethe
this
type
greater
of
performances
243
involved
in
basic
the
the
that
and
actionsequence
production
outline
characters
principal
definesthis event.
7.5.1 The action sequence
The cast list for the SasakaDomas ceremonycomprises:
0
the lengser (the king's ambassadoror envoy)
thepayung bearer(the ceremonialparasol bearer)
a pair ofponggawa dancers(male courtiers)
a group of umbul umbul dancers(male dancerscarrying brightly-coloured flags,
bannersor parasols)
female
dancers
(young
dancers)
a group ofpagar ayu
(peacock
dancers)
in
dancers
(only
larger productions)
Tari
Merak
a group of
from
(set
the main proceedingsand often dressedin
ceremonies
apart
a masterof
a Western-stylesuit rather than in regional dress)
At the very beginning of the ceremonythe lengser escortsthe wedding entourageto the
initial point of greeting or starting position (fig. 7: 1,3). In tales of Pajajaran,the lengser
is the king's envoy, a characterthat acts as an intermediary betweenthe world of the
living
beyond
Tbough
the
the
the
walls.
palace
world of
masspopulace
nobility and
consideredto be a wise and prudent dignitary, the lengser is often depicted rather
comically! However, apart from adding a much-appreciatedelementof humour to the
is
dancer
for
the
this
playing
part also responsible making sure that the
proceedings,
bride and groom (and their parents)navigate their way through the ceremonywithout
any difficulties. Such is the importanceof this role that Asep Setiadi claimed that he
earnsthe bulk of his living as one of Bandung's few professional lengser.More recently,
his detailed knowledge of upacara protocol has also led to him to start devising and
directing his own ceremonials(p.c., 2000).
8Ade Suparmansaidthatmanyweddingguests,particularlyin rux-Aareas,look forwardto thehumorous
in
knger
the
muchthe sameway thattheyanticipatethe arrivalof thecomicclowncepotin
of
entrance
Sundanese
wayangtheatre(p.c., 2001b).
244
Fig. 7: 1 Performance flow chart for Sasaka Domas'wedding greeting ceremony
-No.
1
Musical event
Goong
Description
3 goong strokes
6.
Tumenggungankering
7.
Tumenggungankendor
Slower version of 6
Narangtang
3.
Overture I
4.
Narration
5.
Overture 2
Gamelandegung
(composedfor this
ceremony)
n/a
Welcome speech
Repertoire source
Male vocalist
accompaniedby
kacapi suling with
degung tremolo
Dramatic opening
piece performedon
degung and kacapi
siter
Narrationwith
musical
.
accompaniment
Imposing
instrumental
overture
Fast dance piece
2.
Function and
correlation to action
seq ence
Signals the start of
the procee ings
A musical bridge. A
formal way of leading
into the main
performance
The lengser escorts
the wedding party to
starting position
Male vocalist
accompaniedby
kacapi suling.
8. Rajah
Female singer adds
vocal harmony
Femalevocalist with
Candrawulanor Salaka kacapisuling
9
. Domas
accompaniment
Repeatedtriplet
10. Cacagan
pattern on tones 2&
5 (all instruments)
Choral singing
11. Tinawuran(Catrik)
accompaniedby
degung
Rapid, ascending
triplet sequenceon
12. Triul
bonang
Aftemating male and
female vocalists
13. Pangapungan
accompaniedby
kacapisuling
Gamelanplays
tone
slow,
repeated
Guruh (thunder)Ilerit
5s while suling
14
. (screaming)suling
improvisesin the
high register
Instrumental
15. Sulintang (Catrik)
arranclement
Instrumental
16 Tad Merak
.
adaptatio
Conventional'exit'
Jiro Catrik/ Gambir
17.
Sawit
music
245
n/a
TembangSunda
Gamelandegung
(composedfor this
ceremony)
Gamelanpelogsalendro
Gamelanpelogsalendro
Lengser's entrance
Flag or banner
(umbul umbub dance
Male courtiers
(ponggawa)dance &
lencserdance
TembangSunda
Entry and formation
of female dancers.
Lengser genuflects
before bridal couple
TembangSunda
Ceremonial parasol
(payung)dance
n/a
Parasol placed
behind bridal couple
Gamelandegung
n/a
Entire group slowly
processestowards
the stage area
Signals end of
procession
TembangSunda
Dance using the
ceremonial
keds dagger
n/a
Lengser shows off
the keris dagger
Gamelandegung
Gamelanpelogsalendro
Gamelandegung
Petal throwing (tawur
kembang) s quence
Peacock (Merak)
dance
Group line up, bow
and leave stage area
As soon as the wedding party are in position there follows a welcome speechby the
master of ceremonies(fig. 7: 1,4). In contrastto other parts of the wedding in which an
omnipresentnarrator usually provides an ongoing commentaryand interpretationof the
events at hand, the upacara mapagpangantenthen typically unfolds without any
substantialverbal interjection. The context-specific song texts that are written especially
for this event do, however, frequently make referenceto the institution of marriage,the
splendourof the bride and groom and the various charactersinvolved in the greeting
ceremony itself.
Once the short introductory addressis concluded,the gamelan strikes up with an
instrumental overture and the lengser majestically paradesinto the performancespaceto
mark the beginning of the performanceproper (fig. 7: 1,5). On the heelsof the lengser
follow the umbul umbul who, carrying multi-coloured banners(umbul umbuo or
parasols,perforra a routine that concludeswith the dancerssplitting off into two groups
and lining up on either side of the pathway along which the wedding party will
eventually process(figs. 7: 1,6 & 7:2).
Fig. 7:2 Entrance of the umbul-umbut dancers
As soon as thesebannersor parasolsare in position, theponggawa (male courtiers),
lengser andpagar ayu (female dancers)enter in turn. Each group performs a short
synchroniseddance sequenceand then positions itself into static formations that
246
transform the performancespaceinto an ever changing theatrical tableaux (figs. 7: 1,7-8
& 7:3). Indeed,central to the structuring of the group dances,as well as to the
is
the
the use of complex floor plans (bloking)
as
ceremonial
a
whole,
of
choreography
to configure the assembleddancersinto visually pleasing symmetrical patterns (Spiller
2001:305-306).
Fig. 7: 3 Pager ayu dance formation
Next in the proceedingscomesthepayung bearerwho, weaving his way through the
in
dramatic
the
party
and
a
wedding
moment
of
approaches
climax
performers,
other
bride
(fig.
behind
7:
1,910).
the
This
and
groom
the
parasol
ceremonial
marks
places
bridal
the
beginning
the
couple and their retinue, along with
wedding procession;
the
of
the amassedperformers, slowly promenadetowards the stagedareathat servesas the
focal point for the final part of the upacara as well as the ensuingreception party (fig.
7: 1,11-12).
Once the processionis complete and the wedding party are seatedthere follows a
begin
dances.
Sasaka
Damas
keris
dagger
dance;
with
a
the
presentational
of
short suite
be
is
believed
is,
keris
to
bladed
supernatural
charged
with
powers
and
as a result,
wavy
in
heirloom
(pusaka)
be
(fig.
7:
1,13-14).
to
aristocratic
circles
a
valuable
considered
Then follows the flower scatteringdance;the pagar ayu dancerskneel at the foot of the
bride
handfuls
towards
(fig.
the
7: 1,15).
throw
petals
of
and
groom
and
area
staged
247
Finally, the ceremonyconcludeswith a brief performanceof Tari Merak, the popular
Peacockdancethat was choreographedby Tjetje Somantri in the 1950s(fig. 7: 1,16).9
As this dancedraws to a close, all of the performers assembleat the foot of the stage,
bow to the bridal party and swiftly leave the performancearea(figs. 7: 1,17 & 7:4).
Fig. 7: 4 Led by the lengser, the assembled dancers bow before the bridal party
7.5.2 The music sequence:overtures and dramatic gestures
While the musical medley accompanyingthe various stagesof this action sequenceis
mainly put together using existing bodies of traditional repertoire, most groups compose
their own instrumental 'overture' to open the performance.According to lik Setiawan,
contemporaryperformancepractice dictates that thesemelody-basedovertures should be
in
kompak
(compact
fast
tempo
or tight) unison that shows off the
and
a
a
at
played
technical virtuosity of the players (p.c., 2000). This appearsto be a relatively recent
innovation; older musicians concurred that when such ceremoniesfirst emergedin the
late 1960sand early 1970s,degung groups simply used standardbubuka (opening
pieces).I was told that the emergenceof more complex group-specific arrangements
9 According to one of Spiller's informants, Tari Merak was first included in the upacara adat in around
1978during preparations"for a wedding hosted by lbu Tien Suharto (the wife of the former Indonesian
president Suharto),who was a fan of the dance" (2001:260).
248
decline
in
the
all-female
groups
and
of
a
resurgence
with
all-male degung
coincided
influenced
by
'explosion'
thejaipongan
was
which
a
phenomenon
ensembles,
of the late
1970s and the resultant renewed demand for more specialist gamelan players at
Bandung hajat (Suratno, p. c., 2000b). The development of increasingly sophisticated
to
also
reflected
wider
changes
urban upacara as a whole
accompaniments
musical
including, for example,the introduction of more flamboyant costumesand stageprops
dance
As
routines.
elaborate
part of this trend, many younger
more
ever
as well as
'wow'
daring
inventiveness
deliberately
to
the
audiences
with
out
set
now
of
musicians
'o
(Suryalaga,
2000).
p. c.,
their group-specific compositions
The SasakaDomasversion of the greeting ceremony includes two instrumental
first,
The
the
of
either
side
narrator's
on
welcome
speech.
overtures, one positioned
kacapi,
is
based
figure
the
on
upbeat
on an exuberant
a
vibrant
which openswith
descendingmotif that is realised in instrumental unison (rampak waditra) (figs. 7: 1,3
and 7:5).
(ý)Mtrack2l
Fig. 7: 5 Opening of Sasaka Domas'upacaramapagpanganten
kacapi
23 23 234
23 23 234
55
55
rampak waditra
.
rampak waditra
11723-1
2
.
Z51-4
1231
2
4514
@11
x2 etc
rampak waditra = unison instruments
10The Jugala group is a casein point. The music employed in its own version of the wedding greeting
degung
is
of
gamelan
combination
and gamelan salendro (tuned so
ceremony performed using an unusual
in
the
have
that
two
enables
assembledplayer to make dramatic
common)
pitches
two
the
ensembles
that
back
fik
Setiawan
degung
Ismet
tuning
Ruchimat,
to
the
again.
from
and
salendro
the
and
pelog
switches
from
that
the
juxtaposing
directed
aside
both
this
explained
striking
have
visual
ensemble,
effect,
the
who
is
better
Bandung's
to
that
in
suited
sound
powerful
a
more prestigious
this
creates
way
two gamelan
venues.
249
The second'overture', which is usedto accompanythe initial entranceof the lengser,
begins with a solo kendangpattern (a device previously used in Entjar Tjarmedi's 1960s
gending karesmencomposition Lengser Midang). The cempresandpeking then perform
bonang
4,
tone
the
plays striking fanfareon
over
which
a repetitive ostinato pattern
(figs.
&
7:
6).
1,5
7:
esquegestures
Fig. 7: 6 Second 'overture' in Sasaka Domas' upacara mapag panganten
(DCD
kendang
rampak
waditra
(rw)
.DD.
goong /
kempul
rw
bonang
goong /
kempul
DD.
D
..
D DDD
DD.
DD
...
Pt
DD D
P
23
rw
bonang
DDD
@
kendang DDD
rw
DD
DDD.
track 21
44 44 44 44 44 44
pp
35
1
54
.
S
...
pp
pp
.SS"
.
pp
SS""
.
p
pp
44 44 44 44 44 44
pp
44 44 44 44 44 44 44 44
44 44
54 35 1ýj
pppp
44 44
54 35
pp
-P
pp
44 44
44 1
2
3
35 154
35 1
2
3
p
p
p
p
p
p
D= dung, P= pak, t= tung (kendang sounds),
rw = rampak waditra (unison instruments),p= kempul G= goong
250
1
The bonang flourishes in the above example, as with much of the musical content of the
intended
to reflect the pomp and circumstanceof the occasion. To this
ceremony,are
end, the conventionsof standardperformancepractice are sometimesput to one side and
individual instrumentsusedmore freely to evocatively set the scene.For example, the
SasakaDomas version of the upacara begins rather solemnly (like Tjarmedi's Lengser
Midang) with three strokesof the goong (fig. 7: 1,1). This is a dramatic device that,
back
Wibisana,
Wahyu
traces
to the one-off ceremonials that he designed
to
according
in the late 1950sand 1960s(p.c., 2000). Fragmentarymotifs are also used to mark
in
behind
the
the
the
positioning
sequence;
of
action
ceremonial
parasol
specific points
the bridal couple and the end of the wedding processionare both signalled by theatrical
triplet gestures(fig. 7: 1,10 & 12). Elsewherein the performance,atmosphericwashesof
bronze
instruments
by
the
the
tremolo
on
of the degung as well
use
of
soundare created
distinctive
bamboojew's
harp
(karinding).
Similarly,
introducing
the
by
timbre
the
of
as
'thundering' (guruh) repeatedtone 5s on the metallophones,pots and gongs, coupled
help
(ferit)
'screaming'
to reinforce a senseof mystery
high-pitched
solo,
suling
with a
bridal
by
keris
dagger
is
lengser
(fig.
the
to
the
the
couple
presented
magical
and awe as
7: 1,14).
7.5.3 Music to accompany movement
Though most upacara make use of an eclectic mix of musical styles, the fact remains
that sometypes of piece occur with more regularity than others.Inevitably, the
by
dramatic
is
determined
for
the
ceremonial
partly
scope
repertoire chosen a particular
and choreographiccontent of the production, with composer-arrangersobliged to
include material that can function to accompanyspecific dancesand action sequences.
The SasakaDomas group, for example,employ a degung adaptationof the gamelan
(a
dance
for
flag
Tumenggungan
bearers'
the
and
wayang
piece)
pelog-salendro piece
(fig.
1,6-7).
Similarly,
dances
7:
TariMerak
a
reworked
version
of
and male courtiers'
form
dance-specific
the
this
after
of
choreography
which
a
condensed
accompanies
(fig.
7:
1,16).
The
is
wedding
ceremony
was
named
also one
arrangement
musical
degung
is
repertoire
usedto accompanydance.Sasaka
occasionwhen mainstream
Domas, for instance,perform a group-specific instrumental arrangementof Catrik in
251
(fig.
j
7: 1,15), while the generic closing
the
sequence
con unction with
petal-throwing
dancers
for
Sawit
Gambir
'exit
(panutup)
the
at the endof the
serves
as
music'
piece
performance (fig. 7: 1,17).
Themusicalconstructionof the upacaraadathasnot, however,beensubjectto
listed
Setiadi
handful
Although
Asep
degree
a
of
of standardisation.
any significant
pieces that he has observedare recurrently used to accompanythe entranceof the
lengser (p.c., 2000),11most musiciansthat I questionedwere insistent that there is no
clear-cut correlation betweenparticular ceremonialcharactersand specific bodies of
be
innumerable
Instead
to
there
pieceswith the appropriatefeel and
are said
repertoire.
rhythmic structureto complement any given choreographyor section of the procession.
According to Hidayat Suryalaga,the kendangis the main focus in this type of
multimedia 'show', and the melodic content of a performancevery much of secondary
importance to the strident dance-drummingpatternsthat bind dancersand musicians
together and drive the ceremonyforwards (p.c., 2000).
In fact, wedding ceremonyperformanceswere the only context in which I ever
witnessed Sundanesegamelan musicians also following an external 'conductor'. The
reasonfor this is that at many venuesthe main presentationunfolds out of direct view of
the kendangplayer. The choreographerA'im Salim fulfils this role within the Sasaka
Domas group. He could be regularly observedat wedding performancespeering over his
how
his
the action sequencewas progressing
tiptoes
to
of
shoulder or on
catch a glimpse
before turning back to the instrumentalistsand clapping out a tempo change,
louder,
for
to
the
or
or signalling a repeat or a sudden
softer
gesticulating
ensemble grow
lengthen,
be
Players
to
cut short or even cut out the pieces on
stop.
must always ready
their set list in accordancewith various logistical factors such as the amount of time that
it takes to manoeuvrea wedding party through a particular stageof the ritual or the
length of ground that the processionhas to cover.
11ThepiecesthatAsepSetiadilistedincluded:degungklasikcompositionssuchasLutungBingungand
LengserMidang-,lagu dagelanCokingor clowningsongs)suchasGudril, KodehelandKaIkun,and
popularkawihsongssuchasKunangKunangandRenggongBuyut.
252
7.5.4 Choral songs and tembang Sunda repertoire
Another type of piece that is popular in theatrical performancesis lagu rampak sekar or
be
in
defted
Tuneful
that
can
sung
choral
melody
unison.
a
clearly
pieces
with
songs
for
karesmen
(originally
1960s
Dewata
Inten
composed
a
gending
of the same
such as
in
Sasaka
Sunda
Domas
(originally
the
Ninun
tembang
song)
and,
production,
a
name),
Tinawuran (fig. 7: 1,11), are a stock feature in Bandung ceremonials;the addition of
brighten
is
to
up a performance.
group singing considered
In contrast,tembangSundarepertoireis usedto bolsterthe senseof gravity that
imbues such events.The SasakaDomas wedding greeting ceremony opensin a
bridge
formulaic
formal
that
the
narangtang
musical
mannerwith
particularly
in
Sunda
tembang
songs
a
a
ofpapantunan
concludes
set
conventionally precedesand
invocational
has
Rajah
21).
The
CD
1,2;
(fig.
7:
tembang
track
song
also
performance
becomea relatively standardfeature in Bandung upacara. The SasakaDomas group
lengser
in
the
the
ceremony
when
position this reverential piece at a climatic point
(fig.
7:
1,8).
Perhaps
bride
feet
devotional
the
the
groom
even
and
of
pose at
assumesa
in
highly
is
tembang
conjunction
with
used
more
also
repertoire
more surprisingly,
Salaka
Candrawulan
Domas
indeed,
the
or
and
songs
mamaos
choreographedscenes;
Pangapunganfunction to accompanythe parasolbearer's dance(fig. 7: 1,9) and the
(fig.
7:
1,13),
keris
respectively.
sequence
ceremonial
Decontextualisingand functionalising parts of the tembangSundarepertoire in
disputes
led
to
the
that
is
type
the
angry
amongst
of activity
this way presumably
in
Enoch
Atmadibrata
Wibisana
by
Wahyu
to
relationto
and
tembangmusiciansalluded
(see1.2.ý). Certainly,it is suggested
that many
1960sgendingkaresmenperformances
into
incorporating
feel
theatricalproductions
this
type
that
of
piece
tembangaficionados
is inappropriatebecause"tembangshouldnot be performedin a largeconcerthall... the
have
interest
in
heard
be
the
audience
would
no
watched,
and...
andnot
musicshould
in
1975:
16
Williams
Satra
Indonesia
2001:
59-60).
Mahasiswa
(Gelanggang
the music"
Nevertheless,the reality is that tembangSunda singing has come to play an increasingly
decades,
last
infiltrating
in
two
the
even
ceremonies
significant role urban upacara over
form
any
of musical accompaniment.Moreover,
that were originally executedwithout
Bohlman's
that
the
agree
with
contention
publicly
tembang
may
more
specialists
while
253
its
do
"cultural
is
the
to
more
work,
ontology as an aestheticobject is
music engaged
income
(2003:
55),
the
that
and
singers
musicians
privately
welcome
extra
many
sullied"
performing at weddings affords them.
7.6
Recenttrends
The current demandfor tembangSundagroups at Sundaneseweddings is partly a
consequenceof the financial difficulties that many Bandung residentshave experienced
since krismon (krisis moneter, monetary crisis) hit Indonesia in 1997.The catastrophic
in
in
the
the
of
and
subsequent
rupiah
rise bankruptcies,unemployment
collapse value
12
in
basic
living
has
costs,
meant that many previously affluent families are no
as
as well
longer in a position to host expensivehajat celebrations(seeWilliams 2001:35-36).
While this has resulted in dwindling employmentopportunities for most Bandung artists,
tembangmusicians have been able to capitaliseon the situation to a certain extent
becausetembangSundagroups are not as costly to hire as a completegamelan group or
pop band.
During my fieldwork in 2000-2001,1 was repeatedlytold that Bandung had not
really beenaffectedby the outbreaksof violenceandlarge-scalepolitical proteststhat,
Soeharto
in
President
1998,eruptedin variouspartsof Java
the
resignation
of
prompting
in responseto the deterioratingfinancialsituation.Evenso,while day-to-daylife in the
city may haveremainedrelativelystable,a precariouseconomicclimatecontinuesto
difficult
for
life
extremely
mostperformingartists.MamahDasimahcommented
make
that SasakaDomasproductionshavehadto be drasticallyscaleddownsincethe
economicdownturnandthegroupforcedto cut backon the numbersof musiciansand
dancersthat they employ(p.c., 2001).AsepSetiadisimilarly remarkedthatbetween
1990and 1996he hadbeeninundatedwith offersof work asa lengser,but that since
krismon,performanceopportunitieshadbeenmuchmorethin on theground(p.c., 2000).
All the same,onetype of performancethat appearsto be buckingthis trendandgrowing
in popularityis the upacaramapagpanganten'gayaIslami' or 'Islamic-style'wedding
greetingceremony.
12Ruth Fryer,a formerlongtermresidentof Bandung,observedthat in theeightmonthspreceding
bill tripledfrom 600,000rupiahto 1,800,000
Soeharto'sresignationhermonthlyhousekeeping
rupiah
(p.c., 2003).
254
While West Java is generally regardedas one of the most strongly Islamic areasin
Indonesia,critiques of Islam in the region have generally emphasisedthe way in which
Hindu
Muslims
to
Sundanese
maintain
certain
continue
pre-Islamic
and animist
many
beliefs and practices. Still, in urban centresat least, large sections of the middle classes
from
further
"localized
be
their
to
syncretic past and closer to a
away
moving
appear
(Williams
Iik
Setiawan
2001:
30).
Islam"
noted that a
more nationalizedversion of
have
begun
displays
families
to
the
reject
ostentatious
of grandeur
growing number of
depicted in conventional upacara and have insteadbegun to requestceremonialswith an
13
flavour (p.c., 2000). While Setiawansaid that he believes that this
'Arabian'
Islamic,
in
future,
Komaran
Ade
dominate
the
to
suggestedthat the
upacara
trend will continue
do
fashion
has
for
for
to
demand
this
type
with
a
more
all things
of
performance
current
Middle-Eastern in Sundaneseculture rather than a more profound religious revival.
14
This, he added,explains why Islamic songsare sometimesused to accompanywedding
bathing
in
Hindu
that
the
clearly
are
ritual,
pre-marital siraman
ceremonies,such as
(an
&
Shalawat
Takbir
Sambasunda
That
2000b).
(p.
album which
released
origin c.,
featuresa rangeof Islamic style percussion,Arabic languagesongsand a young santri
Islamic scholar chanting holy verses) in 2001, also suggeststhat the popularity of this
for
do
'world
be
the
to
current
vogue
music'.
type of repertoire may partly attributable
is
it
this
that
Certainly, appears
particular recording more a product of the group's
One
its
religious
than
zeal.
members'
musician
an expressionof
entrepreneurialspirit
devotional
increased
is
of
recordingsreleased
there
volume
always an
explained that
Sundanese
festivals
important
that
artists were simply
and
religious
around the time of
15
local
Muslim
beginning to exploit the commercial potential of the
market.
This blending of the local performing arts with the national Islamic culture is not
have
Sundanese
Nano
Suratno,
According
development.
to
composers
an entirely new
least
least
topics,
that
the
at
since
address
religious
songs
or
at
songs,
written religious
1920s.It is also widely known that Koko Koswara composedseveralIslarnic-inspired
13Setiawanusedtheadjective'Arab' whichtranslatesaseither'Arab', 'Arabian' or'Arabic'. Ihaveused
better
fact
it
Islamic-style
'Arabian'
be
to
the
that
these
I
reflect
the
to
as
seems
more
poetic
what consider
imported
from
inventions
Arab
than
any
specific
ritual
practices
rather
culture.
artistic
are
ceremonies
14It was,however,drawnto my attentionthat in recentyearstherehasbeena dramaticincreasein the
(a
head
Islamicjilbab
to
the
Sundanese
scarfthat coversthe cars,
choosing
wear
women
numberof young
neckandhair).
15In fact, in 2000,membersof the samegroupwerealsoemployedasfreelancemusicianson an albumof
'Christiandegung'producedby a Philippinostudentwho wasstudyingat STSIBandungat the time.
255
kawih songs including Hamdan andLebaran; the former is said to be the song of choice
for "overtly devout women" who wish to sing at a performance"Without compromising
their Islamic beliefs" (Williams 2001:29). Suratnohimself also collaboratedwith the
known
(more
RAF)
Affandie
Islamicdramatist
R.
Ading
commonly
as
on
an
and
writer
thernedgending karesmencalled V Syawal]6diAlam Kibur'in 1977 (Maulana 1997).
In any event, today's artists appearto have few qualms about inventing Islamicbe
imaginatively
to
the
as
appears
contrived
content
of
which
much
of
style ceremonials,
in
dramatic
in
As
is
history
Sundanese
the
that
the
standard
productions.
re-enacted
as
re-creation of the Pajajaranand colonial courts, putting on a glamorous spectacleseems
to take precedenceover any concernsabout 'authenticity'. For instance,at one Islamicfemale
dancers
I
the
that
observed,
wore tight-fitting gold
wedding
procession
style
outfits with semi-veiled headdressesthat, I was informed by one of the singers,were
female
by
the
those
cabin crew on Emirates airlines. To my great
worn
modelled on
drums
dancing
Islamic
to Arabic songs,the entrance
though
small
and
carrying
surprise,
by
irreverent
from
dancers
these
was
greeted
an
wolf
whistle
one of the male guests.
of
The music played to accompanysuch productions again varies from group to
group but usually comprisesmedleys of Arabic (albeit IndonesianizedArabic) language
frame
drums
(terbang
by
or rebana) and
songsaccompanied a combination of
Sundaneseinstrumentssuch as the kacapi siter. 17On closer inspection, it is apparentthat
this repertoire is still very much rooted in traditional Sundaneseperformancepractices.
Typically theseArabic songsare rhythmically compatible with standardSundanese
fitting
At
fi-ameworks,
Islarnicthe
tonal
some
even
over
extant
structures.
with
metrical
body
I
by
the
the
that
music
was
always
usual
observed,
performed
of
ceremonials
style
tembangand gamelan musicianswho would simply work out a few suitable rhythmic
I
Sundanese
in
to
the
the
the
prior
performance.
moments
only
met
one
rebana
riffs on
instrumentalist who confessedto having any specialisttuition in 'Arab' music, this being
in
had
Turkey.
he
It
time
that
collaboratively
working
spent
with
musicians
a result of
that
to
the
that
though,
to
able
sing
one
reason
many
musicians
are
me
suggested
was
16Syawal is the I O'hmonth in the Arabic calendar.
" It seemsthat this use of 'Arabic' or IndonesianisedArabic songs(with titles such as 'Shalallahu',
'Shalawat Badar' and I Tahlil') and the employment of handheldwooden frame drums (terbang or
(gaya
Islami)
defining
'Islamic
features
these
style'
ceremonials.
two
the
musical
principal
rebana) are
256
Arabic songsused in such performancesso convincingly is that many Sundaneselearn
18
from
Quran)
(pangajian
Qur'anic recitation
childhood.
al
As far as I could ascertain,gamelan degung has not yet been incorporated into
theseIslamic ceremonials.Nano Suratno,who was himself working on a cassetteof
Islamic-inspired songsafter a pilgrimage to Mecca in 2001, explained that certain
have
difficulties
Sundanese
the
still
population
some
conflating gamelan
sectionsof
instruments
because
(particularly
(religion)
the goong, suling and
certain
with agama
kendang)are identified with a whole host of incongruent animist beliefs and
19
2001).
Ade
Komaran
(p.
supportedthis view, noting that there are still
superstitions c.,
Bandung
in
where there are strictly upheld musical taboos.The goong,
around
areas and
for example,is forbidden from ever being brought into one particular geographical
locale on the outskirts of the city becauseof a deep-rootedconviction that doing so will
bring about sometype of natural disaster.Repletewith stories of devastatingfloods and
fires, residentsin this community insist that gamelan groups leave their goong at home
hajat
in
Komaran
that
this
region.
remarked
ensemblesnow
at
performing
when
keyboard
instead
by
the
this
part
on
an
electronic
playing
goong
problem
overcome
(p.c., 2000). Despite the persistenceof such entrenchedbeliefs, Nano Suratnosuggested
that as artists keep pushing the boundariesof acceptableperformancepractice it may
becomes
before
to
be
time
the
accustomed
urban
population
seeingand
of
matter
a
only
hearing a greatervariety of Islamic songsperformedon a wider variety of Sundanese
instruments(p.c., 2001). As one musician only half-jokingly suggestedto me, "in the
future, Sundanesewedding parties might be sailing away with the gamelan degung to
lost
kingdom
back
Pajajaran"ýO
'Arabia'
the
imaginary
than
to
of
rather
some
" it haspreviouslybeensuggested
thatthe pervasiveness
of Qur-anicchantmayhaveevenimplicitly
influencedindigenousformsof Sundanese
vocalpracticeincludingtembangSunda(SeevanZantcn
1987:43 & Williams2001:29-30).
'9 SeeWilliamsfor finther informationaboutanimistbeliefssurTounding
thesuling(2001:208-209).
20When
is
described
Sunda
bridge
backto the
that
tembang
that
sometimes
genre
as
a
oneconsiders
-a
has
been
200
1)
(see
Williams
for
Pajaj
the
to
already
utilised
as
a
medium
aran
and
ancestors
begins
Qur'anic:
less
improbable.
this
Sundanese
to
translations
of
verses,
sound
of
performance
257
Summary
in
Bandung
degung
has
that
plays
wedding
the
This chapter
gamelan
considered role
because
is
degung
the
has
It
choice
at
such
events
that
of
ensemble
argued
celebrations.
bridal
for
desire
both
the
the
former
of
party
on
part
a
this
court gamelan can satisfy
in
form
for
the
'tradition'
the
entertainment
of the
popular
more
need
and
prestige and
latest cassette-mediatedkawih hits. Having describedthe diverse musical styles that are
typically performed to generatethe requisite 'lively' atmospherein the wedding
reception, the focus of the chapterthen shifted to the upacara mapagpanganten or
(upacara
it
Though
traditional
a
custom
adat),
promoted
as
ceremony.
wedding greeting
is
in
invention
fact
that grew out of
theatrical
that
this
a
pageant
greeting
was noted
innovative multimedia productions dating from the 1960s.An examination of Sasaka
Domas' version of this ceremonialwas then usedto illustrate that the musical content of
these ceremoniestends to be imaginatively pieced togetherby recombining and adapting
existing materials drawn from a variety of 'traditional' performing arts genres.Very few
from
'composed'
scratch.Finally, the chapterconcludedby contemplating
sectionsare
demand
for
to
the
ceremonial
changes
productions
and,
more
specifically,
recent
rising
productions with an Islamic or 'Arabian' flavour.
258
Wider summary and conclusions
The overriding purposeof this study of Sundanesegamelan degung has been to fill a
literature.
in
fact
Despite
the
the
that degung is one of
ethnomusicological
perceivedgap
the few regional musics in Indonesia to have a conspicuouscassette-disseminated
its
borders,
both
this popular gamelan has
of
own
cultural
outside
and
within
presence
little
Max
Harrell's
in
1974.
attention
scholarly
since
study
surprisingly
attracted
Harrell's work, predating as it doesmany of the massmedia driven innovations that
have defined the recent history of degung, is primarily devotedto an etic;modal analysis
Given
(as
the
the
the
court-derived
repertoire.
changed
profile
of
gamelan
ensemble's
of
discipline
decades
the
three
the
of
ethnomusicology)
on, a review of
of
nature
well as of
degung as it survives in Bandung today seemedto me to be long overdue.
Taking an integrative approachto its subject,the degung's musical and sociofrom
interconnecting
diachronic
has
been
transformation
considered
and
cultural
intended
These
to provide a
while
principally
perspectives,
synchronic perspectives.
have
former
broader
to
holistic
this
also
served
offer
court
gamelan,
of
a
account
more
degung
The
has
Sundanese
generally.
more
making
of
music
not
aspects
commentaryon
developedin a musical vacuum; tracing its evolution has thus necessitatedwidening the
frame of referenceof the enquiry to encompassallied performing arts genresand
associatedrepertoires,taxonomic schemes,tuning systems,performancepractices and
musical personnel.
Charting the history of gamelan degung 'from court to cassette',the study began
by outlining existing theories of the ensemble'sinitial emergence.It was hypothesised
that, notwithstanding the scarcity of material evidenceand reliable primary sources,the
degung's earliestbeginnings may be obscuredby the heterogeneousinstrumentation of
intriguing
in
Further
this
area remains to be
research
the ensemble'sarchaicprecursors.
have
implications
for
degung
history
in
those
not
only
the
of
may
working
out;
carried
the field of Sundanesemusic but also for the way in which the origins of gamelan in
Java are more broadly understood.
259
Chroniclingthe degung'srelocationto Bandunganddetailingits radicalmetamorphosis
following IndonesianIndependence,
the historicalsurveycontinuedby correlating
to
function,
in
specificsocio-cultural
and
personnel
the
repertoire
gamelan's
changes
the
that
Particular
on
role
was
placed
emphasis
andpolitico-economicshifts.
it
had
in
institutions
the
ensemble
once
popularising
played
governmentandprivate
beendivestedof the securepatronageandartisticprotectionformerlyprovidedby the
kabypaten.Branchesof the local massmediawereidentifiedashavingactively
to
to
repertoire
and
createnew artisticproducts
existing
refashion
musicians
encouraged
increased
At
tastes.
the
time,
to
same
an
that would appeal mainstreampublic
have
invent
to
to
prompted
artists
shown
entrepreneurial
also
was
awareness
commercial
in
the city. In
contexts
and
employment
opportunities
andexploit new performance
broadcasts,
to
cassette
on
radio
recordingsor aspart of weddingor
addition playing
have
formal
to
of
musicians
a
number
were
secured
celebrations,
also
noted
other
instructors
leaders.
It wasclaimedthat a centralaspectof
and
group
positionsasmusical
the degung'surbanrenaissance
wasthe emergence
andproliferationof studentand
degungclubswhich, quiteapartfrom providingestablished
Gamateur'
musicianswith
new teachingopportunities,openedup the ensembleto a wholenewbreedof player.
Certainly,the enormoussuccess
of the all-femaletroupesthatdominatedthe degung
is
1960s
1970s
during
the
commonlyattributedashavingplayeda pivotal role
and
scene
in renderingthis smallergamelanthe favouriteregionalensembleof Bandung's
burgeoningmiddleclasses.
While the recenthistoryof gamelandegungcanbe usefullyoutlinedin termsof
to their altering'external'environmentovertime, this
musicians'adaptiveresponses
dynamics
'internal'
has
the
of the macromusicalculturein which
alsoexplored
study
inherent
is
transformabilityof the repertoiresat the centre
the
the ensemble rooted,and
Merriam
(paraphrasing
Alan
As
degung's
the anthropologist
explains
the
evolution.
of
H. G. Barnett 1953), "all individuals must of necessitywork out of a cultural background
innovation
and certain conditions within
them
potentialsfor
with
certain
which provides
313,
1964:
(Merriam
emphasismy own).
which they must operate"
260
The casewas madethat innovation in Sundanesemusic usually has more to do with the
imaginative recycling, recombining and reworking of extant musical elementsthan
with
a more radical pursuit of originality or novel invention. Analyses of the degung's klasik
kawih
and
repertoiresestablishedthat musicians are constantly required to resourcefully
disposal
by varying, translating, transposing,
traditional
the
their
at
materials
maximise
expanding and contracting musical units of all sizes from one phrase,piece, instrument
or genreto another. Significantly, it was also demonstratedthat some of the same
transformative processesthat are operative in the act of performance lie at the heart of
interrelatedpractices of composition, adaptationand arrangement.Transformation, or
"the ability to transfer and adaptknowledge from one context to anothee'(Brinner
1995:57), was thus identified as a key domain of Sundanesemusical competence.
An examination of the leaming processconcludedthat Sundanesemusicians
acquire the basic transformative skills essentialfor the creative perpetuation of their
traditions from the earliest stagesof their training. In the absenceof explicit instruction,
develop
the ability to recogniseanalogousmusical situations
must
rapidly
novice players
in order that they can fully exploit their growing store of performancemodels and
deductively extemporisetheir own parts. It was observedthat this is a particularly
for
foreigners
accustomedto the 'spoon-feeding' of a formal
challenging approach
Western music education.The notion that Westernpedagogictechniquesmight be guilty
of fostering a certain teacher-dependencyand consequentpassivity in recipient learners
was conveyedto me by the degreeof autonomy, ingenuity and perseverancethat is
commonly demandedof aspiring Sundaneseinstrumentalistsand singers.
It was posited that, apart from the methodsof transmissionemployed, Sundanese
ftirther
themselves
ensuretransformative competence.A concrete
music structures
illustration of this was presentedwithin a study of cempresplaying in degungkawih. It
was shown that as young musicianswork their way through the sekar alit pieces they
discover how to reuseand remould playing patternsin accordancewith the different
kenong
individual
defte
tones
that
and
patokan frameworks, as
combinationsof goong
in
density.
Moreover, the act of leaming to play
in
line
tempo
changes
and
with
well as
implicitly
imparts
instruments
bronze
the
traineeswith many of the
the
of
gamelan
of
all
skills necessaryto realise a single melodic contour at multiple densities(Sutton 1993).
261
Having ascertainedthat transformative practicespervade Sundanesemusic making more
domain
has
it
has
been
for
that
this
a
argued
particular
relevance
generally,
any study of
in
degung.
This
'floating'
terms
the
explained
of
ensemble's
was
position in
gamelan
the musical landscapeof postcolonial Bandung. Situatedsomewherein betweenwhat
are perceived to be the artistically weightier and more culturally entrenchedtraditions of
tembangSunda and wayang golek (gamelanpelog-salendro), degungnow functions as a
subsidiary field of competenceand point of musical interface for specialistsdrawn from
both spheres.A specific type of transformation is called into play as theseversatile
musicians are required to transfer knowledge and skills acquiredwithin these 'parent'
genreswhen realising certain degungrepertoires(and, though less often, vice versa).
The integration of distinct types of professionalmusician and, as described
above, amateurplayers in degungensembleswas also noted to have had important
ramifications in terms of the repertoire performed by post-1950sgroups. According to
Nano Suratno,mixing musical personnelin this mannerweakenedthe social
frameworks and teacher-studentbondsthat serveto regulate a tradition as it is
transmitted from one generationto the next. This might partly explain why, in contrast
to tembangSundawhich continuesto thrive as a highly specialist art form with strict
codes of performancepractice, the post-court degungensemblehas beenpermitted to be
the subject of more bold experimentation.A direct connectionwas also made between
this widening of participation and a specific type of transformativeprocessthat has
played a fundamentalrole in the expansionand modernisationof degungrepertoire:
cross-genreadaptation.It was contendedthat just asgamelan degungbecamea common
for
different
kinds
of musician, so it developedas a site for the assimilation of an
ground
equally eclectic mix of repertoires-types.From the 1960s,the original Has& repertoire
be
by
began
to
the
abandoned
performers,with groups insteadplaying
courts
of
idiomatically reworked - often structurally modified and/or transposed- versions of
As
from
drawn
genres.
part of this processthe ensemblealso emergedas
other
pieces
distinctive
have
in
been
performance
practices
contested,negotiated
which
one arena
be
in
A
this
to
the
transformed.
example
of
was
shown
conspicuous
way
which
and
tembangand gamelan singersadapt (or do not adapt)their vocal techniquewhen
kawih.
degung
performing
262
Borrowedrepertoireandplayingtechniqueswereadditionallydemonstrated
to form the
basisof mosttypesof 'novel' composition.An examinationof seminaldegung
but alsoto
recordingsnot only servedto contextualiseandcritiquelandmarkcassettes,
illustratethatthe majority of suchreleasesfeaturenew kawihsongsandinstrumental
thatarebasedon extanttonal frameworksaswell as,in someinstances,
arrangements
melodicmodels.NanoSuratno'shit songKalangkangis a casein point; structurally
Catrik,
by
the
this piecealsoutilisesa catchymelodichook taken
sekaralit
underpinned
from the improvisatorystoreof oneof WestJava'sleadingkawih singers.Similarly, the
invented
the
ceremonialsthat arenow a standardpart of formal urban
of
content
musical
wasrevealedto be largelyput togetherby recombiningandadaptingpre.
celebrations
from
drawn
acrossthe regionalartscomplex.It wasremarkedthat
existingrepertoire
be
drawing
to
are
what
considered
upon
collectively-ownedtraditionalmaterials
while
in this way usefullyreducesthe amountof rehearsaltime neededto preparea groupfor a
does
this
or
recording,
practice
performance
sit comfortablywith the Western
particular
introduced
have
been
into
Indonesiain the
that
ownership
of
artistic
capitalistnotions
form of copyrightlaw. AlthoughmostSundanese
artistshavepreviouslybeen
dismissiveof suchlegislationit seemsthat asthe authoritiesstepup enfbrcementý
so
increasingly
improvisers.
their
questioning
rights
as
composers
are
and
even
musicians
Both thepenultimateandfinal chaptersof this dissertationconcludedby
future
directions
for
degung.
It wasdeterminedthat
gamelan
contemplatingpossible
has
long
history
in
Indonesia,
1990s
'globalisation'
the
a
sawsweepingchangesto
while
the nation'smediascape
which haverendereda greaterselectionof foreignmusics
broader
Perhaps
the
to
sections
of
population.
not surprisingly,then,the last
accessible
decadehasalsowitnesseda new generationof Sundanese
composers
embarkon more
into
hitherto
and
collaborations
venture
alienmusicalterrains.
artistic
exploratory
Degunginstrumentshaveoftenbeenincorporatedinto theseexperimentalkreasiand
fusions
inspired
by
'ethnic'
themarketingstrategiesof the
which,
cross-cultural
internationalrecordingindustry,havebegunto bepackagedas 'world music'.
As I workedon the first draft of this conclusionin June2003,this global
because
in
foremost
that I receivedfrom
mind
of communications
my
perspectivewas
Indonesiathat month.Firstly, I wassenta letterfrom my formersulingteacher,Endang
Sukandar,with newsof a 'teachyourselfsuling' VCD (Video CompactDisc) that he
263
had beenworking on. Requestingthat I undertakesome Indonesian-Englishtranslation
for this project, Sukandarexpressedthe hope that this learning aid would be of interest
to studentsof Sundanesemusic both in Indonesia and abroad.The establishmentof
Sundanesegamelan groups in Europe,North America, Japan,Australasia and beyond is
a topic that has not beenaddressedin this dissertationbut which deservesfurther
consideration elsewhere.
Secondly, I received an email from a friend in Sambasundainforming me that
the group were to be performing at the high-profile WOMAD ('World Of Music And
Dance') world music festival in the UK in July 2003. Cognisant of this news (as well as
of the way in which I have more recently come to rely upon text messagingfriends in
Indonesia to resolve last-minute researchqueries),Bohlman's remark about the "history
of encounter from which world music has emerged"has a particular resonance.
Each of us - ethnomusicologist,musician, avid amateur,passive
listener - will increasingly encounterthe music of the world in a
growing variety of ways, drawing us ineluctably into a world, the
identity and culture of which is no longer separablefrom our
own lives (2002:150).
This observation is as relevant for the Sundaneseartists that I have beenprivileged to
encounter,as for myself and thoseethnomusicologists,musicians,avid amateursand
passive listeners whom I imagine to be the main readershipof Bohlman's book. Whether
or not gamelan degung ever comesto play a part in the Islamic-style ceremonialsof the
contemporary Sundanesewedding or to what extent groups like Sambasundawill be
able to impact on the international world music market remains unknown. What does
seemcertain given Indonesia's profound economic difficulties, as well as in the face of
locally
forms
in
'globalisation'
pervasive
such
as the Internet and regionalised
rampant
MTV, is that ambitious young Sundanesemusicians will continue to look beyond their
own provincial and national borders in order to export their art forms and generatenew
audiencesoutside of West Java.By the sametoken, theselocal musicians' experiences
feed
back
into
firsthand
both
to
the
will
continue
undoubtedly
and virtual of
global the degung tradition as it survives in 2 Is' century Bandung.
264
Appendix I
The principal instruments
AM
of the gamelan degung
:
goong and kempul
jenggiong
bonang
cempres and peking
kendang
265
Summary of the roles of individual instruments In degung klasik and degung kawih
Instrument
bonang
cempres;
peking
jengglong
goong &
kempul
kendang
suling
voice
Degung klasik
Performsthe 'fixed' melody that
defines each degung klasik piece
using a distinctive style of playing
called gumekan (see 3-2)
Degung kawih
Plays simple off-beat octave-patterns
(kemprangan),or variants thereof, which
anticipate and reiterate the patokandictated goong & kenong tones (see 3.3)
'Improvises' melodic phraseswhich lead
to the goong, kenong and, possibly,
Plays an idiomaticallyparaphrased
in a style of playing called
pancertones
version of the bonang melody. The
(see 4.2); these phrases may
ngamelodi
cempres generally realises this
to
kawih
or
may
not
also
relate
a
specific
melody at half the density of, and in
Alternatively,
the
song
melody.
cempres
the octave below, the bonang using
interlocking
may
play
more
standardised
a steady, even rhythm
figuration (caruk) in combinationwith the
peking or bonang
Plays an idiomaticallyembellished 'Improvises' often-syncopatedmelodic
version of the bonang melody.The phrases leading to the goong, kenong,
peking part is typically realised at
and, possibly, pancertones (usually at
the same density as the bonang
twice the density of, and in the octave
line but is characterisedby more
above, the cempres);these phrases may
frequent syncopation.The peking,
or may not also relate to a specific kawih
tends to be played in the same
song melody. Alternatively,the peking
octave as, or in the octave above,
may also play interlockingfiguration with
the bonang
the cempres
Sounds the core tones (goong, kenong
Plays a skeletal version of the
and pance6 of the patokan frameworks
bonang melody. The jengglong
which structurally underpin repertoire of
typically sounds one tone for every this type. The jengglong may fill in this
tonal outline by repeatingthese tones
eight on the bonang but this is not
(see 3.3.3) or by abstracting additional
standardised
pitches from an overlying kawih melody
The goong,is sounded at the end of
the introductionand at other
Colotornicallymarks out the goong cycle
important points of cadence.The
using a standardisedgoong [G] and
kempul is not employed in degung
kempul [p] sequence: [p
G]
ppp
.p.
klasik pieces
Rhythmically
leads
the ensemble,
Rhythmicallypunctuatesthe
directing
in
tempo
changes
and wilet.
bonang melody using a simple style
Employsthe same style of handtfoot
of stick drummingthat is unique to
drumming
(ditepak)
is
in
that
used
this body of degung repertoire
gamelan pelog- salendro
Four-holeor six-hole instrumentsmay
be used. The suling shadows and cues
The four-hole instrument is
the singer, whilst also taking the melodic
lead in instrumentalinterludes (and in
normally used in this repertoire.
The suling plays an idiomatically
the absence of a vocalist). The suling
embellishedversion of the bonang
either plays an idiomaticallyembellished
version of a specific kawih song melody
melody
or improvises melodic phrases to fit a
specified tonal framework
Choral singing (rampak seka6 was A solo female singer Yurukawih)
performs 'precomposed'kawih songs
appended to certain pieces in this
(see 4.3). In the absence of a singer the
formerly instrumental repertoire in
the 1950s. These 'fixed' vocal lines suling becomes the focus of melodic
interest
were derived from the bonang part
266
In order to more clearly illustrate the differences between the functions of the individual
bronze instrumentsin the degungklasik and degung kawih repertoires I have notated two
degung
Lalayaran
below.
The
first
is
degung
klasik
the
piece
of
a
versions
contrasting
bonang
the
the
the
plays
piece-defining central melody while the
piece:
of
arrangement
heterophonically
instruments
bronze
paraphrase,embellish or punctuate this
other
in
kawih
is
degung
bonang
losesits
this
The
the.
arrangement:
version
a
second
melody.
blander
bronze
instead
the
performs
ensemble
patokan-generated
and
melodic role
figuration which servesto accompanya sung kawih melody or suling improvisation. For
Sundanese
kendang
information
detailed
and
about
vocal,
suling
performance
more
Williams
(1987,1989),
(1989,200
(1998);
1),
Rosliani
Zanten
Harrell
van
practices see:
(1974), Swindells (1996); and Cook (1992), Spiller (2001) respectively.
1) Lalayaran in the degung Was& style
pangkatl introduction
Z23
--bonang: .5 55 55
2255 25 1.232
jengglong:
21355
3703334 3232 3452 3.54
4-
9ý
bonang:
4325
5
cempres:
.. E! E3ý
4325
4323
224
3232
1525
43
23
24
32
15
321
215
5.5
1.232
325
512
.
321
peking:
.
jengglong:
0
bonang:
-22.21
1.454
3452 3452
4325 4325 4323
cempres:
254323
peking:
jengglong:
.
.
75
.
0
@75
321234
432
.
321
i.
55@
267
.
2.2
=3 4
etc
ii) Lalayaran in the degung kawih style
pangkat introduction
22 33 22 35
bonang: LH
22 33 22 355
RH
@
unison instruments:
G
H
bonang LH
RH
33
55
5
cempres:
peking:
5154
32.2
215
.
234
532
3432
15.5
jengglong:
12
13
goong:
p
p
512
332
fl
bonang LH
RH
3432
15.5
5
2
.
512
354
5154
12
34
32.2
=3
4
.
2
jengglong:
goong:
5
5
cempres:
pekinT.
2
3
3
p
p
G= goong
p
p= kempul
268
etc
Appendix Il
Nine cycles of Catrik played on cempres by Ade Komaran
OCD
track 3
sawilet
Al.
A2.
A3.
A4.
15
*12 32121
54 51 2;4132
15 15 12 35 43 21 51
115
--
35 43 42 35143 21 51 24132
115
112
A5.
15 1-2 3-211-5 45 34
gi
H -I @4
15 12 32 15 45 34
15 12 34
151
21 34
43 45 13 21 54 51 24 32 15 12 32 15 21 34
15 32 32115
14 51 24132
15 12 351 52 15 34
------ slowingdownfor naekinto dua wilet---------- xx
dua wilet
5
A6.
21 2
15 12 32 15 43 54 32 34 51 52
21 541
51
23
.4
15 43
43 45 13 21 21 24 32 13 21 54
A7.115
15 12 32 15 25 12 32 32 15 15 45
34
42
34 51
51
23 43
15 45 34 51
115
A8.
43 45 12 15 25
32 15 12 15 25
12 35 43 23 21
12 32 32 15 21 54
54
14 54 51 241
1
81
32 32 32 34
54 32 15 12 34 54 32 35 43 24 35 43121 21 51 24
32 15 25 12 52 15 112 34 51 52-15'15143
269
42 34
Tx,
Nine cycles of Catrik played on cempres by Lill Suparli
OCDtrack4
sawilet
BI.
'12
@
-5
5-4 3-2 3-2 3-212-1 5-4 5-1 2-213-5 1-2 3-5
3 4-5 1-5 3-4
45 15 12 21 54 51 22 35 12 32 35
54 3-2 3-4 (ý51
----45 15 12 21 54 51 22 32 15 12 35
@51
54 32 34
43 45 12 21 54 51 22 35 12 32 35
54 32 34 (ý5
43 45 45 12 21 51 23 22 35 12 32 35
54 32 34 (ý5
B2.113
B3.113
B4.
B5.
-115
down
for
into
dua
slowing
naek
wilet------------ xx = :0x------
dua wilet
B6.113
45 13 45
135
B7.113
12 35
13 45 15 12 23 23 21 54 54 51 21 22
12135
45 13 4-5
113
12 32 35 54 34 54 34 32 32 34
45 15 12 23 23 21 2-3 21 54 51 22
-132
35 12 35 12 35 12 32 35 54 51 54 34
B8.113
-.
B9.15
35
32 34
g5
45 13 45113
I
I-.
------ 21 22
45 15 12 23 23 21 54 54 51
12 35 12135
12 32 35154
-g5
51 54 3-413-2 32 34
-
-
-
-.
-
-.
-
-.
,
135
-.
g5
43
-.
.--.
15 43 15 43
12 35
-.
-.
I----I----I
15 12 43 23 43 23 21 25 13 22
12 35 12 32 35 51 51 54 34 32 32 34
270
G)CDtrack5
Nine cycles of Catilk played on peking by Ade Kornaran
sawilet
cl.
12
5-5
112,32
C2.
1=215
15-12
C3.72
543-2
72
1525
11232
3432
ý3454
12-12
-M2 3M43
3 2-43
ý3
11232
-217
2154
12
32.2.2
C5.11-1
4.451
2 32
1234
@75041
ir
ýýý
354314543
2125
=5 433453ý
3 5-432
.......
34 72
4351
w
.
234
=5
1-54 5 3-45 1
75'M2 9'21-5 75-1-2 3 5-432 =2 51 =3 2
ý25 12-34
.
11232
3453
2154
3215
=5
3
2 15-2 1
54.4
1525
3543
11232'
1515
ý
I'M
11-232 1525
C4.1
i-2317121
g-74il
=4321
1
"' 1--11234
@.-
2
I
3-5-1 2ý57
...
'30
M4
W3
=5 34 ý35
ý32
=3
7
15
1 25 2 3ý3 54
ý15
=1
=215 'Wo
0353
0.01501-2
3 4-323
54
43=2
74M1
into
dua
down
for
naek
wilet---- xx
slowing
----
duawilet
C6.
E51
74'72
UM2
11152
12 32154512343
=1
-5ý15
4353
21
.
44514
1 Ml 2 32 1-5 1-23-4
! M45 ý4342 33=5
...
....
13
=1
5
ý31
3
11 2
....
271
1-4Ml
5345
.
5.512
2154
3454
-
3m2
74
2U
3
2"E3
ý--.
1324
3215
4514
5123
5154
...
32334
........
-I
5152
2432
3215
1514
55123
4535
4321
5451
2 32
1512
15112
3215
12341
3543
2221
2342
32131
C7.15554
2152
1515
4543 423341F12-3
MN=Sw-
V.. EMFý
--I
44512
3432
C8.44515
1ý2432
171-25
2151
C9.1=232
15213
=3
3543
M531
2154
3451
2342
3543
44514
5123
4543
2 131
2125
1234
3212
32131
7154
3234
@Tj
-REER-
11232
1232
35431
33451 2313
....
1
=234
ý4342 =451
3ý435
54-32
....
....
5454
....
2432
3432
....
1514
5512314535
1215 1132 1525 1215
5451
13-21 5434
-ýI
52-15
21
@717
5434
3212
3451
rl
4321
......
54-32
....
T-451
4512 5125 1232
Mý2
272
32.2
33454
75'-41
...
2215
345i
Nine cycles of Catrik played on peking by Lili Suparil
OCDtrack6
sawilet
Dl.
D2.
1 -M5
=3
=5
1 2 15-12 3
1734-5
1543
M5
'72
....
....
... Amim~
ý
1543
D3.44345
11235
73-55
4323
11 5 1-543 4-323
1-231ý4543
M21
ý45
4 3232
12-3 23 5-5413
....
....
....
....
154
'.11235
727? -....
1232
1ý
3451 5154
....
1-2ý35
3453
2121
=3
ýjýl
4515
5154
ý15453 1221
24431
4
=121
.
2.234
734-5 M2231ý4543 2321
33454
1543 4345 1 23 4543 2343
45
...
....
....
235
D5.1;
3 23 2345
5-1
7275
D4.72351
5154
54
gTýj
F2751
5121
'ý
3234 @751
2151
3432
3234
4514
5121
2232
1512 3215 1232 3215 4345 1554 3234
TX
for
into
down
dua
naek
slowing
wilet
XX
=
--------
duawilet
D6.
3
JIM23
5
15
5M21 ! M21
43145
512312343
15
15
=321
=151
1.2
232
'
1=515
1515 =232
M32
1
1232 12 32 3511
5
5=1
17M ýM54
;
3454 15413432 . 432 3234
51
273
5121
5121
iý
211
1.
55.121 5121 55121 5121 5154 5154 3454
34511
12321
1
3451
3451
5154
D7.3234
151-51
D8.3234
5123 2321
51-51 51-54
515413451
5454
5321IM1
9 '454
72'-32
7-2.234
34-32134-32
5432 3234 5154 33451
4321 2321 2321
1515
5154
D9.14343
1232
5154
4515
4543
....
1515
2345
....
1232
15-15
5154
4343
4543
....
1515
54 5154
TM32
3432
4515
1515
.
432
4345
2321173'21
....
....
72341=232
5154 5154 5154 343213-M2
274
.
5154 3451
-I
223
5154 33451
72M2
1232
1551
432
=215
=123
1232
3.234
.
7345
(57151
1 23
....
2=51
....
2ý321
. ..
1515
1512
3 54
343-2 T274
Appendix III
GunungSari (pelogdegung)
The bonang degung part played by Ade Komaran,Entis Sutisna and Lill Suparil
OCD
tracks 12,13 & 14
ý
pangkat - introduction---,
Ade Komaran:
12 34 55
33 53 41
12 15 Ul12
Entis Sutisna:
12 34 55
34 53 4
12 15
Lili Suparli:
12 34 55
34 53 4
12 15
H
ý-ý
1515
4353
4.515
Sutisna:
15
43
Suparli:
15
4443
Komaran:
1112
-s=ar-r-
i44
1515 4.353
4.515
53 45 1
15
ý5ý345 i
4.515
1515 44 43 4.515
1112
3
i
fl
4. 454 45 43 22
Komaran:
4.454
Sutisna:
44
Suparli:
Z-4 45 4.343
44 45
H
i
Komaran:
22
Sutisna:
Suparli:
43
2,
4
2223
2121 2341 2.343
4.2
222
2 .2 3331 2.343
4
2.1
4.515
1
12
1
2
22 3331 2.343
222
551
.
2
i
2 .2
2.2
1
5555
4.515
1
222
2.1
5551
4.515
1
.1
EM23 M223 E27
5
275
4512
Komaran:
44.4
55.5
11.1
23
3.2
1525 1.232
3.3
5555
1111
23
334
5434
3.3
4512
Sutisna:
4444
-5
4
Suparli:
3
334
23
.
445511
H
Komaran:
1.232
5434
1.232
5551
...
5454
....
..
3.3
33
3.333
3.333
3.333
............
3.333
334
...
333
...
3
Sutisna:
3.333
...
Suparli:
3.333
...
3.333
...
3
3
3
3
.3
.3
3.333
...
3
3
3
3
.3
.3
334
5551
5454
3
.3
34
5551
.
5454
333
H
Komaran:
31
1112
11
54
445 1545 2.343
4
4
Sutisna:
1112
1112
1514
445
54
1545
2.343
444
45 43 444
444
44
Suparli:
31
1113 2121 544
Komaran:
4545
1112
Sutisna:
Suparli:
4 45
1112
4 45 1112
1515
4445
1515
Z44
1515
444
4345
4 45
444
1111
=115
4 45 1115
276
25
12 355
172'32
345
.. EEL1.232
355
Komaran:
Sutisna:
5.515
5.515
5.515
5154
3334
3232
3452
3.454
5
5.515
ýf5154
3334
3232
3452
3.454
5
5154
3334
3232
3452
3.454
555
22
Suparli:
555555
11
Komaran:
Sutisna:
35
.5
3.3
2.343
444
44 5 53 4.515
i. 4
3333
2.343
444
44 5553
4.515
1
4.515
V=F,-.
111
Suparli:
55 3333
Komaran:
4.454
Sutisna:
1
1
Suparli:
1
Komaran:
5
53 444
4.454
4543
222
22
44 45
4343
2223
2121 2341 2.343
4.2
15 44 45
4343
222
2.2
4
2
2
1
2
2
1
2
i-2 2
2
Sutisna:
Suparli:
44 5553
2
1 2223
221
1
.
2223
2121
3331 2.343
514.515
1
5
2
2.2
3 31 2.343
2.2
222
277
1
5551
4.515
1
21
5551
4.515
11
4
Komaran:
Sutisna:
4
5
1
2
4444
5555
1111
23
4
5
1
2
4444
5555
1111
23
5-5
T--1
2
4-4
334
5434
1.232
325
334
5434
1.232
3.2
2
i-34
23
;
ý1-.
232
..
3.2
Suparli:
44
Komaran:
43 25 43 25 43 23 22 23
21 21 54 14 5.121
Sutisna:
2.222
2.222
2.222
2
2
2
2
Suparli:
H
11
55
2.222
2-. 2ý2
.2
2
.2
2
434
22
23 21 2222
2.222
2
.2
2ý
.
2
22 23 21 21 222
5
-F
Komaran:
55.5
11.1
Sutisna:
5555
1111
Suparli:
25
1115
22
1.232
-f-P-
334
5 51 2151
3.454
5l
345
5 51 2151
3.454
5l
3334
5551
2151
3.454
5-. lil
112
32
15
H
11
11.111
Komaran:
Sutisna:
Suparli:
1.111
1. lil
1.111
1.111
1.111
1.111
11-2
1.111
112
1.111
=334
111
32-31 2222
3-33-3 2225
111
H
-11Lý
--
Komaran:
14
32
3.454
555
5 53 4443
Sutisna:
5555
3333
53
4441
5454
Suparli:
13
333
33 32 444
278
4-4
4.515
3334
53 45
ý553
"'771
4.515
@
Appendix IV
The RRI-based Parahyangan gamelan degung group (1950s)
bonang: Tj an-nedi,cempres:EncasCasmita,panerus: Absar,jengglong: Uking Sukri, suling:
Ono Sukarna,kendang:Mamat Rahmat,goong: Aduy (photo courtesy of Didi Wiardi).
Nano Suratno(Nano S.) and his wife Dheniarsahmake an impromptu
appearanceon stageat a wedding reception.
279
Didin Bajuri, from the group SasakaDomas, singsMy Wayat a wedding reception
A child sits in with the SasakaDomas,degunggroup at a wedding reception
280
L,
Nano S. teachesNining Meida the songKabungbulenganbefore a degungrecording
Iyan Arliani sings with a degunggroup at a wedding
281
Marnah Dasimah
Iik Setiawan(accompaniedby Agus Super) notatesa degung
his
to
a
rehearsal
with
prior
group Sulanjana
arrangement
A Sambasunda'jam' at STSI Bandung
282
'",
4ft41 'IF-k 7
to,
A tea plantation south of Bandung
1111111
.
m
The cover of the Mangle cassette
Ade Komaran tunes a gambang
283
Glossary
Abbreviations
BI: BahasaIndonesia (Indonesian)
BS: Basa Sunda (Sundanese)
BJ: Basa Jawa (Javanese)
agama (BI)
religion
ahli (BI)
expert, specialist
akad nikah (BI)
formal marriage ceremony
akord (acord) (BI)
musical chord
(BI)
etnis
alat
musik
alat
edmicmusicalinstruments
(B
S)
alok
interludessung by a male gamelan singer (juru alok)
(BI)
alun alun
town square
(BS)
sekar
anggana
solo singing (the opposite of rampak sekar)
(BS)
angklung
tuned bamboorattle
(BI)
aransemen
arrangement
baku(BI)
standard
balungan(BI/BJ)
skeletalmelody (Javanesegamelan term)
bangsi(bangsing)(BI)
transversebamboo flute
bonang(BS/BJ)
gong-chime instrument
bubuka(BS)
opening piece
bupati(BI)
regent or regional official
calung(BS)
bamboo idiophone
campursari (BS)
a music fusion using a combination of Western and
Sundaneseor Javaneseinstruments
(BS)
caruk
interlocking figuration
284
(BS)
cempres
in
deeper-pitched
used
metallophone
multi-octave,
degung
gamelan
cengkok(BJ)
melodic pattem
ciptaan (BI)
composition
cirl khas (BI)
distinctive feature
dalang (BS)
puppeteer
dangdut (BI)
Indonesianpopular song style influenced by Indian music
dedegungan(13S)
literally, 'in the mannerof degung' - describesa body of
tembangSundarepertoire,as well as arrangementsof
degungklasik pieces for kacapi suling.
degung (BS)
1. term usedto refer to the repertoire, instrumentsand
degung
Sundanese
tuning
the
of
gamelan
pelog
2. the former name for a hangingjengglong
degung ibu-ibu (BS)
degung
all-female
ensemble
degung instrumental/
instrumentalia (BS)
instrumental
cassette-driven,
gamelan degung genre
degung kawih (BS)
light vocal songsaccompaniedby gamelan degung
degung klasik (BS)
the original repertoire of the gamelan degung
degungmojang(BS)
degunggroupcomprisingteenagegirls or youngwomen
denggung(BS/BJ)
degung (in Cirebon)
didegungkeun(BS)
to adapt for degung or to 'degung-ise'
dirangkep (BS)
techniquewhereby a playing pattern is 'doubled-up'
elekton(BI)
keyboard
or synthesiser
electronic
(BI)
(etn1k)
etnis
ethnic
galimer (BS)
tone4 in gamelancircles- (tone5 in tembangSunda
circles!)
gambang(BI/BS)
xylophone
285
kromong
(BI)
gambang
popular urban genremixing Chinese,Indonesian&
Western instrumentsand musical styles
gamelan degung (BS)
small Sundanesegamelan
gamelanpelog-salendro (BS) term usedto refer to the repertoire and instrumentsof
Sundanesegamelan which may be tuned to thepelog or
salendro scales
(BS)
salendro
gamelan
Sundanesegamelan tuned to the salendro scale
(BS)
gamelan selap
type of gamelan in which multiple scalesare arrangedon a
single set of instruments.
gelenyu (BS)
instrumental interlude played between sectionsof a vocal
melody
gender (BJ)
metallophoneused in Javanesegamelan
gending (BJ/BS)
musical composition
gending berdialog (BI/BS)
sectionsof a piece in which the melody is divided between
two or more instrumentsusing question-and-answer
phrases(a term coined by Koko Koswara,)
(BS)
karesmen
gending
theatrical form featuring danceand sung dialogue
(BI/BS)
gending macakal
sectionsof fluough-composedmelody (a Koko Koswara
term)
goong (BS)
1. large hanging gong 2. point in the musical structure
goong ajeng (B
archaicgamelan ensemble
goong renteng (BS)
archaicgamelan ensemble
gumekan (BS)
bonang techniqueused in degung klasik
guruh (BI)
literally, thunder-a term usedto describea dramatic
monotoneostinatoplayedon thegamelandegungin the
weddingceremony
hafal (BI)
to know by heart or to memorise
hajat (BI/BS)
celebratory feast
halimpu(BS)
melodious,sweet,soft
286
inghak (BS)
type of vocal ornament,literally means'sob'
jaipongan (BS)
modem Sundanesedanceform
jejemplangan (BS)
division of the metrically-free tembangSundarepertoire
jengglong (BS)
large gong-chime instrumentused in Sundanesegamelan
juru (BI/BS)
specialist or skilled worker
kabupaten(BI)
regency or official residence
kacapi (BS)
zither
kacapi bibla (BS)
instrumental genrewith violin and kacapi
kacapi indung (BS)
literally, 'mother kacapi' -a large eighteen-stringboat
shapedzither used in temhangSunda
kacapijenaka Sunda (BS)
slapstick Sundanesefolk genrecombining comedy
routines and music
kacapi rincik (B S)
small fifteen-string zither used in tembangSunda
kacapi siter (BS)
portable zither with twenty strings
kacapi suling (BS)
instrumental genrewith kacap! indung, kacapi rincik and
suling
kacapian(BS)
vocal genrein which the maininstrumentof
is
accompaniment the kacapisiter
kaleran(BS)
literally, northern- describesa musicstyleassociated
with
the north-easterlyregionof SundathatbordersCentral
Java
kam ungan(BI)
parochial,provincial
karawitan (BJ)
traditional pentatonic music
karinding (B S)
bamboojew's harp
kaul (B S)
literally, 'a vow' - refers to performing on-stageas a guest
at a wedding or other celebration in honour of the host
k,awih (BS)
type of light vocal songanda styleof singing
287
kecrek-(BS)
percussioninstrument comprising two metal plates that are
struck togetherusing a beater
kembangan(BI)
flowerings or embellishments
kemprangan(BS)
bonang technique in which the instrument is played in offbeat octaves
kempul (BS)
small hanging gong
kempyung(B S)
interval approximating a Western4th or 5th
kendang(BS)
drum
kenong (BS)
structural tone found half-way through a goong cycle in
sekar alit pieces
kenongan(BS)
seepatokan
keprak (BS)
instrument
gong-chime
archaic
keraton (BI)
palace
keris (BI/BS)
wavy, double-bladeddagger
keroncong (BI)
has
its
in
Indonesian
that
music
genre
roots
popular
Portuguesesong
ketuk (BS)
single pot gong-chime
ketuk Ulu (BS)
literally, three ketuk-a type of folk dance
klasik (B I)
literally 'classic' or 'classical' - term now used to describe
the type of instrumentaldegung repertoire originally
developedin the Sundanesecourts
kliningan(BS)
&concert
music' playedon gamelanpelog-salendro
kobongan(BS)
alternative name for the mandalungan/ mataram tuning
kompak(BI)
compact or tight
kreas!(BI)
new composition or creation
kunci (BI)
key
288
4
lagon (13S)
term usedby Lili Suparli to mean a type of implicit
melodic gammar
lagu (BUBS)
song,piece or melody
lagu dagelan (Bl/BS)
joking or clowning songs
lagujadi (BUBS)
Exed song melody
laras (BI)
tuning systemor scale
latihan (BI)
rehearsal
lelol (BS)
ornamentalturn
lengser (BS)
kings' ambassador-a central characterin Paj ajaran-based.
legendsand in the Sundanesewedding ceremony
leotan(BS)
notebendor slide
1111tan
(BI)
coil or twist
Ungkungseni (BI)
arts circle (performing arts group)
Moran (BS)
name given to tone 2- also known as kenong
lurus (BI)
straight
(BS)
madenda
Sundanesepentatonic tuning
mamaos(BS)
non-metrical songsof tembangSunda
(BS)
mandalungan
Sundanesepentatonic tuning that is a modal transposition
ofpelog degung
mataram (BS)
anotherterm for mandalungan
muatan lokal (BI)
local content (a type of school curriculum)
nada sisipan (BI)
literally, insertedtones - accidentalpitches occurring
fixed
tuning system
the
outside of
(BS)
naek
to make a musical transition from one piece to another,or
to
level
another
expansion
structural
of
one
(BS)
narangtang
'bridge'
between
functions
that
sets
as
a
musicalpassage
Sunda
songs
tembang
of
289 -
ngamelodi (13S)
style of playing used on the metallophonesin degung
ngaras (BS)
pre-wedding ceremonyin which the bride or groom
apologiseto their parentsfor their shortcomings
ngeuyeumbeu(BS)
slowly flowing water
pagar ayu (BS)
beautiful female dancersor 'ladies-in-waiting' of the
Sundanesewedding ceremony
panambih (BS)
metrical songsused in tembangSunda
pancer (BS)
pivot tone
panelu (BS)
tone 3
panerus (BS)
low pitched metallophone,seecempres
pangaget (BS)
secondarypivot tone
pang(adi (BS)
opening section of a gamelan piece - has a tempo
regulating function and/or servesto identify the piece in
question
pangkat (BS)
introductory phrase
(13S)
pantun
Sundaneseepic narratives sung by blind bard
a
who
accompanieshimself on the kacap!
(13S)
papantunan
division of the mamaosrepertoire
(BS)
pasinden
femalegamelansinger
(BJ/BS)
patet
mode
(BS)
patokan
type of hierarchicallyorganisedtonal framework
structurallyunderpinningthe sekaralit repertoire
payung(BI)
umbrellaor ceremonialparasol
(BS)
peking
high-pitchedmetallophone
pelog(BS)
1.seven-tone
tuningsystemthatcomprises
thepelog
jawar,pelogliwungandpelogsorogmodes
2. pelog degung
pelog degung(BS)
five-tonepelog scale
uniquelySundanese
290
pencak silat (BI)
systemof self-defence
pesindhen (BJ)
Javanesegamelan singer
pirigan (BS)
accompaniment
pola (BI)
pattern, template
pold tabuhan (BI)
playing patterns
ponggawa (BS)
court official
pop Synda (BI)
Sundanesepopular music using pentatonic tunings
posisi lagu (BI)
tonal structureof apiece
pusaka (BUBS)
heirloom
raja sadinten (BS)/
raja sehari (BI)
king for a day
rakyat (BI)
fo lk
rami (BS)
lively, busy
rampak sekar (BS)
unison choral singing
rampak waditra (BS)
unison instrumentalpart
ranggon (BS)
wooden stageerectedon stilts
Ratu Agung (BS)
title meaning His or Her Royal Highness
rebab (BS)
two-string bowed lute
(BI)
rebana
Islamic style frame drum
riaspanganten (BS)
bridal makeupand styling
fincik- (BS)
small high-pitched bonangused in gamelanpelogsalendro
ronggeng (BS)
female singer-dancer
(BS)
salendro
intervals
pentatonictuningsystemwith near-equidistant
sandiwara(BI)
theatricalform (seegendingkaresmen)
291
sanggian (BS)
arrangement,compilation or composition
sanggul(BS)
hair bun
(BI)
santri
student at a Muslim school or strict adherentof Islam
saron (BS)
metallophone
saronbarung(BS)
one-octavemetallophone
sekar (BS)
literally flower - usedto meanpiece, song or melody
sekar ageung (B S)
large piece(s)
sekar alit (BS)
small piece(s)
(BS)
tengahan
sekar
middle-sizepieces
senggol(BS)
1. melodicpattem 2. melody 3. omamentation.
(BI)
senimanalam
natural (fonnally untrained) artist
singgul (BS)
tone 5
siraman (BS)
bathing
ritual
pre-wedding
songsong(BS)
ceremonialparasol
sorog (BS)
Sundanesepentatonic tuning - also known as madenda
suling (BS)
bamboo fipple flute
suling degung (BS)
four-hole bamboo flute used in gamelan degung
(BS)
tembang
suling
bamboo
flute
in
tembangSunda
used
six-hole
surupan (BS)
tuning or mode
tarawangsa (13S)
bowed lute
tari rnerak (131)
dance
peacock
tatalu (BI)
instrumental overture
tembang(BS)
1. sung poetry 2. singing 3. a specific style.of singing
(seetembangSunda below)
292
tembangSunda (BS)
aristocratic genre in which sung poetry is accompaniedby
kacapi suling
terbang (13S)
Islamic style frame drum.
tond (BI)
theatrical form (seegending karesmen).
triul (B S)
triplet figure
tugu (BS)
tone 1- also known as barang
Tumenggung(BS)
title for a newly installed regent
ukuran (BI)
size or measurement- the length of the suling in
is
centimetres often usedto describethe pitch-level of an
ensemble
umbul umbul (BS)
flags or banners
upacara adat (BI)/
upacara khusus(BI)/
upacara karesmen(BS)
scripted ceremonyfeaturing music, danceand narration
upacara mapagpanganten (BS)
wedding greeting ceremony
wanda anyar (B S)
new style (primarily refers to the form of instnunental
developed
by Koko Koswara)
arrangement
(BI)
warnet
for
acronym
warung (food stall) and internet -a type of
internet
accesspoint
pay-per-hour
wayang golek (B S)
rod-puppettheatre
wilet (BS)
denotesthe relative length of a goong cycle - levels
include sawflet (one wilet), dua wilet (two wilet) and opat
wilet (four wilet)
293
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310