Small Mammals L52

Small Mammals
L52
Small Mammals
L52
September 2007
September 2007
CONTENTS
Page
1.
Introduction
1
2.
Sources of supply
4
3.
Housing
5
4.
Diet
13
5.
Handling and sexing
15
6.
Breeding
20
7.
Disease and animal health
22
8.
Health & safety and legal requirements
24
9.
Humane killing
27
10.
Why keep and study small mammals?
29
Appendix 1
Suppliers of cages, racking etc, consumable and miscellaneous items
35
Appendix 2
Sources of information
39
Strictly confidential - circulation
to Members and Associates only
This guide was originally published as a title in the Guidelines series by the ILEA Centre for Life
Studies, hence the ‘g’ on the front cover. Following the closure of the Centre, CLEAPSS has
acquired the copyright of all the CLS publications.
This edition replaces the version issued in April 1994.
 CLEAPSS® 2007
The Gardiner Building
Brunel Science Park
Kingston Lane
Uxbridge UB8 3PQ
Tel: 01895 251496
Fax: 01895 814372
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.cleapss.org.uk
L52 NOTES FOR KEEPING AND
STUDYING SMALL MAMMALS
1.
INTRODUCTION
This guide provides information on most aspects of keeping small mammals in
schools. CLEAPSS guide L56, Housing and Keeping Animals, also contains relevant
information on small mammals (as well as on a wide variety of other animals);
primary schools may request this, free of charge, in paper or electronic form. (Note
that some of the material on small mammals in L56 has been incorporated into this
new guide.) For secondary schools, the guide is on the CLEAPSS Science Publications CD-ROM.
Schools and science departments should think very carefully about the educational use
of animals and plants and develop a policy for approval and adoption by school
governors. The policy should include a rationale for the keeping of animals, especially
small mammals, and the way they are to be used for educational purposes. Schools
should be aware that some pupils, parents and other stakeholders may be against the
practice. CLEAPSS has issued two guidance leaflets which may be useful; they are
PS 3 Keeping and Using Animals and Plants: Towards a School Policy and PS 3A
The Use of Animals and Plants.
There is no single ‘ideal’ small mammal to keep in schools - the choice of what to
keep depends very much on the conditions of the room in which the mammals will be
kept, the time that can be spent looking after them, whether suitable arrangements can
be made at holiday times and, not least, the reasons for wanting to keep small mammals in the first place.
EDUCATIONAL USE OF
SMALL MAMMALS
Teachers ‘use’ small mammals in a variety of ways. They are often, of course, kept as
a focus for a wide variety of observational and investigatory work in science, but they
are also an effective centre of interest and activity for work in many other disciplines
including art, mathematics and so on. The National Curriculum for Science makes
requirements in the Programme of Study (Sc 2) for the study of living organisms. It
stresses that, in years 1-6, pupils “look at humans and other animals” as they study life
processes. In the PSHE component, pupils should be “developing confidence and
responsibility” and in Citizenship, unit 3, be dealing with the ideas of rights and responsibilities through the issues of animal welfare. Work with, and caring for, small
mammals will help to fulfil these goals.
Studies of animal life extend into work in secondary schools. Even though animals
other than humans are not specified in the Programme of Study, the pupils do have to
be aware of ‘variation and classification’. If pupils are to assign animals to their major
groups, then observations and investigations with small mammals will be useful.
Of no lesser importance is the use of small mammals for the general beneficial effect
they have on most pupils. Handling, or helping to look after, small mammals can have
a therapeutic and emotionally-satisfying effect. Much work has demonstrated that
such involvement is especially valuable for those who have difficulty in establishing
relations with other pupils and adults or who have special needs. Some pupils will
inevitably have at home, or obtain in the future, cats, dogs or other mammals, so it is
vital that they are helped at school to become responsible, caring and sensitive pet
owners.
The experience gained in looking after classroom animals will provide valuable
insights for pupils in the problems and responsibilities of keeping pets. (For further
information on the educational use of small mammals, see section 10.)
1
DECIDING TO KEEP
SMALL MAMMALS:
PROBLEMS TO BE
FACED
Before small mammals are kept in school, important questions must be asked and
decisions taken.
1. For what reasons does the school wish to keep small mammals? Eg, for studies of
reproduction, genetics or behaviour, for handling by pupils or just to act as a focus
of general interest? Would it be more appropriate to keep less-demanding
animals1?
2. Will the person(s) responsible for the care of the mammals always have sufficient
time available to look after them adequately? How would an increase in the size
of the mammal stocks affect the school’s ability to care for them properly?
3. Will the school be able to afford the initial costs of setting up a small mammal
collection and then maintain these stocks adequately?
4. Will there be suitable conditions in which to keep mammals safely and humanely?
What type of caging will be available or appropriate?
5. How many animals will be kept? If pairs of a species are intended, is the school
prepared for the inevitable increase in population that will occur? (Single-sex
pairs may be more appropriate.)
6. Can adequate arrangements be made for the care of the mammals at holiday
times? (See section 8 Health & safety and legal requirements for more advice.)
RECOMMENDED
SPECIES
Once it is established that keeping small mammals will not create problems that cannot be dealt with, what species are recommended? There are several small mammals to
choose from for general use in schools. These include the mouse (Mus musculus), the
rat (Rattus norvegicus), the Syrian or Golden hamster (Mesocricetus auratus), the
Russian hamster (Phodopus sungorus), the Mongolian gerbil or jird (Meriones
unguiculatus), the guinea pig or cavy (Cavia porcellus) and the rabbit (Oryctolagus
cuniculus).
This list could be extended to include a number of other species, perhaps best kept by
knowledgeable enthusiasts, eg, the Libyan (pallid) jirds and the chinchilla (Chinchilla
laniger).
Each type of small mammal has advantages and disadvantages depending on the
reasons for keeping it. An attempt is made to summarise these ‘pros’ and ‘cons’ in the
table overleaf. For animals to be kept in nursery, infant and junior schools, perhaps the
guinea pig and gerbil are the most suitable.
CHOOSING
APPROPRIATE
NUMBERS, COLOUR
AND SIZE VARIETIES
1
It will generally be better to keep at least a pair of animals - single or opposite sexes
(though rabbits are usually kept separately). Rabbits can grow to be very large; it may
be more appropriate to obtain a smaller variety, eg, the Dutch or Netherland and Polish
dwarfs. For many small mammals, there may be a wide variety of coat colours and
types to choose from. This is particularly the case with rats, mice, Syrian hamsters,
guinea pigs and rabbits. There are now several colour varieties of gerbils and rats can
be obtained in a ‘hooded’ variety with a coloured head and dark eyes or in a variety of
‘fancy’ coat colours. Some find these rats more attractive than the familiar albino
strain with white coat and pink eyes.
CLEAPSS has also produced information and a number of guides about keeping animals other than small mammals. Primary
schools might investigate these before making a decision about keeping guinea pigs, gerbils etc. These guides include L56
Housing and Keeping Animals, L71 Incubating and Hatching Eggs, L124 Aquaria in Primary Schools; Electrical Safety, L181
Cold Water Aquaria, L197 Giant African Land Snails; L201 Giant Millipedes, L206 Tadpoles, L213 Science with Minibeasts:
Snails and L227 Stick Insects. Those guides appropriate for secondary schools are on the Science Publications CD-ROM which
also includes information on animals in section 14 of the Laboratory Handbook.
2
Species
Advantages
Disadvantages
Mouse
Cheap to buy and maintain; small and so
requires a smaller cage; groups of mice easy
to make up and split; breeds well and reliably;
many varieties; easy to handle when tame;
readily available.
Small and agile and so less suitable for
handling by young children; smelly and
requires very regular cleaning; breeds too
well; can nip when not tame or regularly
handled; has a ‘reputation’ as an animal to
be feared!
Rat
Docile and easy to keep; easy to handle when
tame; several varieties; groups easy to make
up and split; breeds well; an ideal size - good
for handling and does not require too much
room; readily available.
Larger cages needed than for some other
small mammals; breeds prolifically; eats well
and so more costly to keep than other,
smaller mammals; as with the mouse, has a
‘reputation’; fairly smelly and needs regular
cleaning.
Syrian
hamster
Clean; solitary; good range of coat colours;
can be very tame; good for behaviour studies;
attractive to children.
If not tame, can nip fingers; often solitary;
not as easy to breed as some other small
mammals; nocturnal, so often inactive
during the school day.
Russian
hamster
Smallish; clean; attractive to children;
interesting behaviour; does not require very
regular cleaning out.
Can be difficult to tame; may nip fingers if
disturbed; irregular breeding (best results if
animals are kept cooler than average room);
sometimes ‘quarrelsome’; difficult to
establish new groups of animals.
Mongolian Very attractive animal; excellent for behaviour
gerbil
work; good size; very tame; easy to handle
and rarely bites; fair range of coat colours;
very little smell; can be left longer than any
other small mammal before cleaning out.
Breeding can be irregular; parents may eat
young; difficult to establish new groups of
animals; occasional examples of convulsions and ‘tail stripping’ (if mishandled and
held strongly by the tail). Can move quite
quickly so less good for handling than rats,
guinea pigs and rabbits.
Guinea
pig
Attractive animal; responsive to children;
Long gestation period; messy; requires very
excellent size and easy to handle - especially
regular cleaning; must have regular supplies
by younger children; breeds easily; young born of vitamin C; requires a large cage or hutch.
with fur and eyes open - can be handled soon
after birth.
Rabbit
Attractive and responsive; good size for
handling by small children.
Can be very large; requires very large cage/
hutch; large animals consume a lot of food;
needs very regular cleaning.
3
2.
SOURCES OF
SUPPLY
NEED FOR
HEALTHY STOCK
It is obviously important, for the animals themselves, that small mammals kept in
schools are healthy and in good condition. It is also important that any small mammals
brought into schools have been obtained from reliable sources so that the possibility of
the animals passing diseases on to humans or other mammals is remote.
CHECK QUALITY OF
SOURCE
A local pet shop is often the easiest place to find small mammals. To ascertain the condition of the animals and gauge the quality of the supplier, it is necessary to inspect the
animals’ accommodation and ask from where the shop obtains its stock, what health
checks are carried out, the veterinary advice sought, the guidance available to purchasers and how the animals are maintained throughout the week.
Any small mammals should be obtained from long-standing and reputable sources
which have good-quality animals and clearly keep them in good conditions. The Pet
Health Council (see Appendix 2) produces an address list of suppliers of particular
mammals and specialist animal societies (such as the National Mouse Club, The National Mongolian Gerbil Society and the National Cavy Club) and these may be able to
advise on local suppliers.
There may be a local branch of the company Pets at Home (for contact details, see
Appendix 2) and this will supply small mammals as well as offering an adoption
scheme. It also offers access to veterinary and other advice in its stores. The distribution of stores around the UK can be found on the company’s web site. Local branches
of breeding societies may be found in Yellow Pages or local directories.
If small mammals are obtained from a source other than a breeder or highly-reputable
supplier (eg, from another school), it is important to ascertain the source of the original
stock and that the animals have subsequently been maintained in good conditions, so
ensuring their health and disease-free status.
Another CLEAPSS leaflet is available to primary schools: PS55, Bringing Pets and
Other Animals into Schools. This gives advice about bringing children’s and staff’s
own pets into school for short periods as well as considering the issues involved when
animals are brought in from local habitats, other schools, farms and by commercial
organisations, animal charities and conservation trusts. For secondary schools, the
information in this leaflet is included in section 14.1.2 of the CLEAPSS Laboratory
Handbook on the Science Publications CD-ROM.
4
3.
HOUSING
CHOOSING SUITABLE
HOUSING
It is important to provide sufficient space for the animals. The Universities’ Federation
for Animal Welfare suggests the following minimum requirements.
Species
Minimum floor area, cm2
Minimum height, cm
500
12.5
Mouse (pair or trio)
Rat, gerbil, hamster (pair)
1000
25.0
Guinea pig (pair)
2500
30.0
Rabbit (single up to 4 kg)
5500
45.0
Check that metal, glass or acrylic parts in the cage have well-rounded edges. Any
wood used in its construction should be coated with polyurethane varnish so that it can
be easily cleaned. All doors should close securely and any removable parts should fit
well to prevent escapes. If possible, choose a design that allows the animals to be
taken out without the need to remove the entire cage top (in many cases the door is
only suitable for adding fresh food). Plastic cages should not have any edges that
animals can gnaw. Particular attention should be paid to the food and water containers
provided with the cage; they must be stable and easy to maintain and of a design such
that the occupants do not easily soil them as they burrow through the substrate lining
the cage. Make sure that the base of the cage is deep enough to shelter the occupants
from draughts - a depth greater than the height of the animal to be housed is necessary.
This will also ensure that the animals have the opportunity to conceal themselves in
their bedding. The environment can be enriched using ladders, platforms and tubing.
COMMERCIALLYPRODUCED CAGES
There are various cages that can be used for housing small mammals. Cages available
commercially come in three basic types.
(a)
(b)
(c)
1
‘Laboratory’ cages*1 These have been designed primarily for use in biomedical
research establishments and are very suitable where ease of access, feeding and
cleaning are important factors. They are not, however, the best cages for displaying animals visually and are no longer very available from school suppliers.
‘Hutches’* These are larger, often wooden, constructions for guinea pigs and
rabbits and regularly sited outside. An innovative design, constructed of waterproof plastic and marketed as the guinea pig or rabbit Eglu*, is also available.
‘Pet-market’ cages* These are of various designs, made for the pet trade; they
are generally less suitable for schools where the need is for a more-durable and
serviceable design.
For all items in the text marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
5
LABORATORY CAGES
These are either made entirely of metal (and are not aesthetically pleasing) or have a
rigid plastic base, at least 130 mm deep, with smooth, rounded corners. It is this latter
type which will be most useful, for secondary schools and colleges in particular. The
walls are deep enough to shield the occupants from draughts.
The plastics from which these cages are constructed, polypropylene or polycarbonate,
are impervious to liquids, while the rounded corners make cleaning easy, thereby
contributing to the maintenance of hygienic living conditions. The base is normally
opaque or translucent polypropylene, making the animals more difficult to observe but
providing them with some degree of privacy. Transparent polycarbonate allows the
animals to be seen more easily but it is, however, easily scratched.
Lids for these cages consist of a stainless-steel wire top that clips securely to the base.
The lid can be flat or domed to provide greater height.
A flat lid with food hopper
A raised lid with food hopper and dedicated provision for a water bottle
Provision is normally made for food to be held in the lid, together with a water bottle.
Check if water bottles* and nozzles* are supplied with these lids; if not, they must be
ordered separately.
(Such lids may be available separately from North Kent Plastic Cages*.)
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
6
SOURCES OF
LABORATORY CAGES
Suitable cages for mice, gerbils, hamsters, rats and guinea pigs are available directly
from the manufacturer North Kent Plastic Cages* and for mice, rats and gerbils from
Timstar Laboratory Suppliers*.
These cages are designed to provide good living conditions for small mammals but are
not the best for displaying and observing them.
ANIMAL ‘HUTCHES’
Hutches* are designed for larger mammals such as guinea pigs or rabbits and for
outdoor use. They are usually made of wood and often produced by small, specialist
manufacturers. Hutches can be bought from pet shops, garden centres and from pet
supermarkets on line. On-line suppliers are not, however, really recommended; local
sources will enable you to examine a hutch to establish if it is well-made and robust.
Look for a hutch of adequate size (see the table at the beginning of this section) with a
secure nesting area. If kept outdoors, the addition of a secure exercise pen area should
be considered. Hutches are usually designed to provide a secure nesting box and an
open ‘living’ area. Make sure that the nesting area has a secure door to enable the bedding material to be cleaned out and replaced. All timber surfaces should be smooth,
well-finished and sealed with a good-quality polyurethane-type varnish. In particular,
the flooring (which is usually made of composition board) must be waterproof and
secured with glue and nails to the walls to ensure a good seal. Cheap hutches are rarely
good value in the longer term. If the hutch is to be situated out of doors it is important
to find a situation that is sheltered from strong winds and both frost-free and shaded
from direct sunlight, since extremes of temperature can be harmful to the occupants.
THE EGLU FOR
RABBITS OR
GUINEA PIGS
The Eglu* is made of waterproof, high-density polyethylene in a choice of six vibrant
colours and will accommodate rabbits or guinea pigs. The rabbit Eglu is, essentially,
the same as the model designed first for chickens. It consists of two elements: the
plastic ‘house’ itself (70 x 70 x 60 cm) and a secure outside run (2 m length x 1.5 m
wide x 60 cm high). The run is made of 3 mm steel weld mesh. A 200 mm skirt sits
flat on the ground and prevents animals from digging under the run. The guinea pig
Eglu has the same ‘house’ but just a 1 m length of run. The Eglu is very substantial
housing; it weighs just under 25 kg (the run is around 16 kg). It can be purchased, if
necessary, without the steel-mesh run for indoor use but it will take up a lot of space
on the floor.
The Eglu is delivered almost fully assembled. In one box there is the Eglu itself which
consists of a base unit and separate lid. The run is in another box and it takes a
relatively short time to clip the mesh pieces together and attach them to the Eglu. Food
and water containers can be attached to the housing lid so that the contents are clean,
off the ground and at a comfortable height. They can be accessed for refilling through
a door in the side of the lid. The food container is a hopper for hay; it will not hold
pelleted food. Pellets would have to be added to the bowl provided and placed in the
base unit (where there is some risk of food being soiled) or in a separate bowl fixed to
the mesh of the run.
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
7
THE EGLU (continued)
The run comes with a movable shade which provides some shelter from wind, sunshine
and rain when the Eglu is outside. The Eglu can be cleaned by removing the dropping
tray and the entire lid removed for more-extensive cleaning. The Eglu’s plastic surfaces can be washed with a hose; there are no difficult corners or absorbent materials.
The Eglu is designed for outdoor use and needs a space of 6 m x 8 m, so that it can be
moved and re-sited on a grass lawn.
The Eglu is very expensive [£260 (without run); £320 (+ guinea pig run); £360 (+
rabbit run)] compared with around £45 for a traditional wooden hutch. However, it
could be a wise investment and may be something a bit different that a Parents’
Association might wish to consider purchasing.
PET-MARKET CAGES
These often consist of a shallow plastic tray onto which a metal wire cover fits. The
sides of this tray may help to reduce the risk of debris being thrown out by the occupants, while the cover provides support for exercise wheels, food hoppers and water
containers. Covers of different heights allow for different volumes and arrangements of
accessories to be provided. Many of these cages are not, however, wholly satisfactory
for some small mammals. They may not adequately shield the occupants from draughts
and prying fingers. Without substantial quantifies of bedding, there are few places of
seclusion into which the animals can withdraw. Cages of this type should be carefully
examined to make sure they provide suitable accommodation for use in schools, where
a warm, quiet environment cannot be guaranteed.
THE ROTASTAK
SYSTEM
Rotastak* caging was originally designed to house hamsters and consists of a large
range of moulded, transparent-plastic, housing modules that can be linked by tubes.
Modules can be added to create a structure, the extent of which is limited only by cost
and floor space. The publicity for, and philosophy behind, this system creates a rather
‘humanised’ and sentimental view of animals that may conflict with the teaching and
learning intentions of schools.
Opinions of the system vary. Many owners find its appearance attractive and its structure does encourage the occupants to become active and explore. However, it has a
number of significant disadvantages. Earlier versions allowed the occupants to escape.
The cylindrical elements of the design provide few places for the occupants to seek
refuge and it is not easy to keep clean and hygienic.
HOME-MADE
‘CAGES’ USING
AQUARIA
An alternative to purchasing a cage or hutch may be to construct an enclosure for small
mammals such as gerbils and hamsters using an aquarium. Although such vivaria are
less easy to clean than laboratory cages, they offer the distinct advantage of displaying
the animals in an environment where they can behave as naturally as possible. Old
aquaria that are no longer water-tight or with cracks in the glass may become available
as ‘junk’ to be thrown away but will often be suitable for such vivaria.
METAL-FRAMED
Metal-framed aquaria are now very difficult to find; all-glass or plastic-framed aquaria
AQUARIUM ESSENTIAL are not suitable unless it is impossible for animals to gnaw their way through the
plastic or other frame around the aquarium and so start to chew the edge of the glass;
they will if they can!
EQUIPPING THE
AQUARIUM WITH A
LID
A lid will be needed to carry a food hopper and water bottle. (Food and water bowls
must not be placed directly inside the aquarium - they will soon become contaminated
or buried by the animals.)
If a suitable aquarium is available which is 30 cm deep - from front to back - it is
possible to use a stainless-steel top (incorporating a hopper and bottle carrier) that is
normally supplied with a plastic laboratory cage but which is also available separately.
(Use the top for the mouse cage MB1 (45 cm x 28 cm x 13 cm) from North Kent
Plastic Cages*.) If this will not cover the entire top of the aquarium, a sheet of
hardboard should be used to seal the remaining open space.
MAKING A LID USING
WIRE MESH
*
Alternatively, a one-piece construction can be made using ‘Twillweld’, ‘Weldmesh’ or
similar wire mesh (16 swg is recommended). This can normally be purchased in
lengths off a roll (usually 600 mm wide) from garden centres and other outlets and can
be bent around the frame of the aquarium. (See diagram overleaf.)
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
8
FOOD HOPPER
Holes must be made in the lid for a food hopper and water bottle carrier (though it is
possible to use the food pellet container to support the water bottle as well and thus
reduce the complexity of the construction). The food hopper/bottle carrier can be made
by bending the wire mesh into a box shape with ‘lips’ at its top rim and soldering the
joints using a large electrical soldering iron and solder. This will then sit in the hole
cut into the mesh and, for added security, can be held in place by wire clips.
It may, however, be more convenient to purchase a ready-made food hopper*. A suitable design is the rat food-pellet hopper for the cage GPR2 from North Kent Plastic
Cages*.
With this type of cage, which will probably be 30 cm or more in height, the animals
must be able to gain access to their food and drinking bottle which are situated in the
lid.
ADD HOUSE BRICKS OR This can be achieved by adding numbers of house bricks or earthenware land drainage
LAND DRAIN PIPES
pipes* to the aquarium.
ADD MOSS PEAT AND
HAY
*
This arrangement is ideal for gerbils which will move actively through the interconnecting spaces between the bricks or pipes. A thick layer of dry sphagnum moss
peat* is then added to the vivarium into which the animals will burrow. Hay* may also
be added which will be shredded by the animals and mixed with the peat to give a
more-substantial burrowing medium that is less likely to collapse.
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
9
CREATING A
‘BASKING’ AREA
In addition, a log of wood can be laid on top of the bricks or pipes and the animals can
use this as a ‘basking’ point if the heat from a 60 watt lamp (eg, from an Anglepoise
lamp) is directed through the mesh into the cage. This will encourage gerbils and hamsters to emerge from their nesting areas and so be on view for large parts of the day.
LITTER AND
NESTING
MATERIALS
Peat* has been mentioned earlier for use in an aquarium/cage but it is also useful as
litter material in all types of cages. It is absorbent and its high acid content helps to
slow down the decay of faeces and the release of ammonia. White sawdust* from
softwood trees is also a good litter medium but do not use sawdust that has been
previously used, nor hardwood sawdust that contains harmful substances. Other materials which are not suitable include ‘Vermiculite’, newspaper, tissue paper, cotton wool
and cotton waste.
Hay* is the best nesting material to use; it also may be eaten to some extent. Even with
hay from a reputable source, there is the danger that mites or other parasites can be
introduced into the animals’ cage. It is therefore a sensible precaution to place hay
inside plastic bags and place these in a deep freeze (or fumigate with carbon dioxide if
a cylinder of the gas is available) to kill any infestation. Shredded white paper is a
possible alternative nesting medium. Straw should definitely not be used; it is often
hard, abrasive and sharp and can damage the cheek pouches of hamsters. Newspaper
should also not be used.
FULLER’S EARTH
DUST BATHS
Most small mammals will appreciate, and benefit from, the occasional opportunity of
being able to use a dust bath. A shallow dish (of a suitable size for the small mammal
kept) should be filled with Fuller’s earth* and left in the cage for the animals to bathe
in. It should be removed at the end of the day.
DRINKING BOTTLES
As discussed earlier, water should only be given in drinking bottles* which are available commercially from various suppliers. The bottles can be of glass or plastic and of
various sizes. A capacity of 250 cm3 is suitable for mice, hamsters and gerbils; 500 cm3
is better for rats, guinea pigs and rabbits which are thirstier animals.
Stainless-steel spouts are preferred - those with a ball-valve tip help to prevent the cage
being flooded should the nozzle tip come into contact with material in the cage. Spouts
bent at an angle are available. Bottles should be positioned so that the spouts are held
at a 45° angle and low enough for even the smallest animals to reach, yet not so low
that there is a danger of fouling by litter material.
EXERCISE WHEELS
A word or two should be said about activity wheels. Although ‘pet-type’ cages are not
the best designs for use in schools, they will inevitably be employed in some cases.
Many are sold with exercise wheels. It is important to ensure that the wheel is large
enough for the animals in the cage. and that it gives the animal total freedom of access.
A preferred design has one side completely open with a solid rear wall for the pivot as
shown below.
A wire activity wheel with supports on both sides is not suitable, as an animal often
cannot escape from a moving wheel without being trapped between the wheel and its
support stands. If in doubt, remove the activity wheel from the cage. Exercise wheels
and other items for ‘environmental enrichment’ can be bought for the laboratory-type
cages made by North Kent Plastic Cages* and the latter from Lillico*.
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
10
CLEANING AND
HYGIENE
These are clearly important, both for the health of the animals and for those people
looking after them. Hands should be washed before and, of course, after cleaning a
cage; rubber or plastic gloves should preferably be worn. After removing soiled litter
material, the cages should be scrubbed with hot water and liquid detergent.
USING DISINFECTANTS
When disinfecting a cage, it should be realised that a quick wash will not be effective
in killing microorganisms. Cages should be soaked in or with disinfectant for at least
15 minutes. Suitable disinfectants to use are those which are ‘surface-active’ having,
in addition, a detergent action, such as Gerrard ASAB*, available from Griffin Education. Other disinfectants are less suitable, and those containing phenol and cresols, eg,
‘Lysol’, should never be used.
SOILED LITTER
DISPOSAL
Soiled litter should ideally be incinerated; more conveniently it could be sealed in
strong plastic bags and placed with other waste in dustbins.
FREQUENCY OF
CLEANING
As a general rule, this should be done at least every 10 days. Gerbils produce very
little urine and so require relatively infrequent changes. Hamsters produce a little more
urine; mice, rats, guinea pigs and rabbits urinate in relatively large amounts. These
animals should be cleaned at least once a week. Your nose is always a good guide:
cages which are even slightly offensive should already have been cleaned!
CLEANING DURING
HOLIDAYS
Arrangements must be made for cages to be cleaned as regularly as normal at holiday
times.
CLEANING WITH A
NEW-BORN LITTER IN
THE CAGE
Avoid cleaning a cage if at all possible when a new litter of animals has been born. If,
however, cleaning cannot be postponed, transfer the whole nest of animals gently to a
spare cage, ensuring that the young animals are well-insulated - there is a danger of
them losing heat too rapidly.
DECIDING WHERE TO
KEEP SMALL
MAMMALS
The precise location where small mammals are to be kept in the school requires
careful planning. The animals should obviously be readily accessible to pupils and
easily observed. Animal housing must be sited in a situation which meets the following requirements.
• A sink with warm water is nearby for cleaning and hygiene purposes.
• There are no sudden or loud noises nearby (such as the ringing of the school
bell or an alarm).
• Suitable light, temperature and humidity levels.
A tiny number of secondary schools or colleges may have had the luxury of a purposebuilt animal room in the past but, for most, such accommodation will not be
available1.
CONSTANT
TEMPERATURES AND
GOOD VENTILATION
NEEDED
The mammals should be kept in a well-ventilated area where a more or less constant
(cool) temperature and humidity can be maintained. They must be kept out of direct
sunlight. The mammals will inevitably create a certain amount of dust (particularly if
peat is used as litter material), so it is advisable to keep the mammals well away from
the tables, desks or benches where pupils work.
PREVENTING UNDUE
DISTURBANCE TO
MAMMALS
Teachers must consider the possibility of some children disturbing the mammals or
interfering with their normal feeding or watering. If this is likely to be a problem, the
mammals must be sited where they can be constantly supervised and any interference
prevented.
RACKING FOR CAGES
If the animal cages are kept on some form of racking*, this should be capable of being
washed down and disinfected easily and so wood, or metal which will rust, should be
avoided for such racking. Racking and shelving is available from Dexion, Link 51 and
Romstor.
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
1
Details of the appropriate design of animal rooms are in an out-of-print publication, Animal Accommodation for Schools (see
Appendix 2), so contact CLEAPSS if such information is needed.
11
KEEPING MAMMALS
OUTDOORS
If mammals, such as guinea pigs and rabbits, are to be kept outside, it is essential that
no wild rodents, or cats and dogs, can come into contact with them (and thus pass on
infections). Additional amounts of bedding and nesting material to act as insulation
will be needed during the colder parts of the year. Cages or hutches must naturally be
of a construction that will withstand a variety of inclement weather conditions. The
Eglu is specifically designed for outdoor use.
EMERGENCY CAGES
It is important to anticipate situations that may develop, for example, when an animal
in a group acquires an infection or is injured in a fight and needs to be isolated from
the rest of the colony. (If gerbils and Russian hamsters are kept, injuries caused by
fighting are not uncommon.) Suitable additional housing must therefore be obtained
for use in such eventualities, even though it will hopefully not be needed. This
additional expenditure must be considered before deciding to keep small mammals.
The cage will often be used only temporarily but, with animals that are being attacked,
they must be housed separately on a permanent basis.
12
4.
DIET
The small mammals kept in schools are mostly rodents which gnaw with constantlygrowing teeth and have an alimentary canal designed to cope with cellulose from
plants. Their food should therefore be reasonably hard, containing seeds and other
plant tissues that require chewing. Pelleted foods are very convenient and, although
they may not look particularly appetising to us, they are extremely nutritious. Some
fresh fruit, vegetable or leaf material may also be eaten. Rats, mice, hamsters and
gerbils will also eat small insects or other animal tissue such as mealworms* or
crickets*.
PELLETED DIETS
Pelleted foods* are ideal for feeding to many animals. The pellets are produced in various formulations for different animals and contain all the necessary proteins, fats,
carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals for a balanced diet. However, when purchased
from an animal-feeds supplier, such as Lillico*, minimum quantities are likely to be
12.5 or 25 kg. This will clearly create difficulties if only a small number of animals are
to be fed. Smaller quantities of pelleted foods are, however, available from pet stores
and Timstar*.
SIX-MONTH STORAGE
Although pelleted diets are an excellent food source, they will deteriorate over time
and should be used within 6 months. This again will cause problems when feeding
only a small number of animals if food is bought in larger quantities. As an approximate guide to the amount of food pellets that different numbers of animals will
consume in four months, refer to the table below.
ANIMALS’ PELLET
FOOD
REQUIREMENTS
*
Amount eaten, in kg, in 4 months by:
Mammal
Mouse
1 animal
2 animals
3 animals
6 animals
0.33 - 0.45
0.66 - 0.9
1.0 - 1.35
2.0 - 2.7
Gerbil & Russian hamster
0.6 - 0.8
1.2 - 1.6
1.8 - 2.4
3.6 - 4.8
Syrian hamster
1.2 - 1.66
2.4 - 3.33
3.6 - 5.0
7.2 - 10.0
Rat
1.66 - 2.3
3.33 - 4.6
5.0 - 6.9
10.0 - 13.8
Guinea pig
2.3 - 3.33
4.6 - 6.66
6.9 - 10.0
13.8 - 20.0
Rabbit (dwarf - large)
3.33 - 33.3
6.66 - 66.6
10.0 - 100.0
20.0 - 200.0
ADDITIONAL
FRESH FOODS:
FRUIT, VEGETABLES
& SEEDS
If mammals are being reared on pelleted foods, additional fresh foods may be given in
small amounts, once a week. (Because pelleted foods are so nutritious, there is a
danger of over-feeding if ‘treats’ are offered more frequently.) Use hard fruits (apple,
pear etc), leaf vegetables (cabbage, lettuce etc), root vegetables (carrot, turnip, parsnip
etc) and dried fruits (raisins, prunes, apricots). These foods should be eaten in about
ten minutes; some will be stored in nests but should be eaten within one day. If this
fresh food is left uneaten, give less next time. Seeds* may also be added occasionally
to the diet for variety, as can small amounts of crickets*, mealworms* or maggots*.
HAY ALSO EATEN
Hay* should be given as bedding, some of which will also be eaten to some extent.
(Note: Do not use straw as a substitute for hay.)
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
13
SPECIAL DIETARY
REQUIREMENTS FOR
GUINEA PIGS
Guinea pigs require vitamin C in their diet; like humans, and unlike other mammals,
they cannot manufacture it for themselves. There may be some vitamin C incorporated
into a pelleted diet but, on storage, there is the possibility of loss of this vitamin. A
constant and plentiful supply of hay plus some green vegetables should therefore be
given to provide the necessary vitamin C. An alternative (but not particularly cheap)
method is to supply vitamin C in the guinea pig’s drinking water. Use one quarter of a
‘Redoxon’ tablet (or similar; available from pharmacists) in one pint of water and
replenish daily.
ALTERNATIVES TO
PELLETED FOODS
If pelleted diets are not used, it is essential to provide a well-balanced diet by giving a
wide variety of foods from those listed below.
SEEDS & CEREALS
Sunflower seeds*; peanuts*; whole cereals* (oats, wheat, barley, maize); prepared cereals* (middlings, bran, crushed and rolled oats, rice, flaked maize); pulses (dried peas,
beans, lentils etc); seed mixes (eg, wild bird, pigeon). In emergencies, small amounts
of breakfast cereal (Shredded Wheat, cornflakes, Wheatabix, Alpen etc), wholemeal
bread or biscuits and pasta could be given.
DO NOT USE TREATED
SEEDS
It is essential that seeds used for animal food must not have been treated with pesticides or fungicides that will contain harmful chemicals. Obtain seeds from sources
known to be safe.
FRUIT AND
VEGETABLES
If pelleted foods are not used, in addition to the seeds and cereals given to the animals,
regular supplies (at least three times a week) of hay*, fresh vegetables and fruit, as
described above, will also be required. These are particularly important for guinea pigs.
FEEDING AT
WEEKENDS AND
HOLIDAYS
Sufficient food and water (from a bottle, not an open dish) must be provided to tide the
animals over a two-day period such as weekends. At Bank Holidays and all other
times, special arrangements must be made so that the animals are inspected, fed and
watered (and cleaned out) as usual.
STORAGE OF FOODS
TO PREVENT
INFESTATION
Animal foods should be stored in air-tight, cool and dry conditions. To prevent infestation of the foods by insects, mites and fungi, the diet should be sealed inside heavygauge plastic bags that are themselves placed inside storage containers* with lids.
Romstor has a range of different kinds of plastic bin-type containers and North Kent
Plastic Cages supplies a blue dustbin-type food bin. Suitable containers can also be
found at supermarkets and local d-i-y or kitchen-furnishing stores. Any container must
be easy to clean as well as air and water tight and clearly labelled.
If anything other than a very light infestation occurs, the foods should be destroyed and
the container disinfected.
OBTAINING SUPPLIES
OF ANIMAL FOODS
Food should be obtained from reliable sources. Seeds and other foods should not be
bought from pet shops or other suppliers where it is known that they are stored in open
sacks or bins - this food may have been contaminated. Pelleted foods can be bought
from suppliers in bulk, but where less than 12.5 kg per six months is needed (a problem for schools with few mammals), alternative arrangements should be considered.
Timstar* sells rat and mouse diet in smaller packs. It should be noted, however, that
buying food in small packs from pet shops and elsewhere, although convenient, is less
economical.
LOCAL COOPERATIVES Schools might explore the possibility of forming local ‘cooperatives’ and sharing the
considerable savings of buying in bulk.
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
14
5.
HANDLING and
SEXING
HEALTH & SAFETY
ISSUES
When handling animals:
• do not consume food or drink,
• do not smoke,
• cover any open wounds or cuts with waterproof adhesive dressings,
• wash your hands with soap and water before, and directly after, working with
animals.
THE IMPORTANCE OF
REGULAR HANDLING
Careful handling of small mammals is most important; the animals should be restrained sufficiently so that they cannot damage themselves or the handler. All mammals
should be handled daily if possible (unless breeding or nursing when they should be
disturbed as little as possible). In this way they will normally become quite tame and
accustomed to being handled.
GLOVES NOT
NORMALLY WORN
Gloves should not normally be worn unless it is known that an animal for one reason
or another is likely to bite or scratch. In this situation a pair of rubber gloves which
does not, however, particularly reduce dexterity, is a sensible precaution.
ANIMALS NOT YET
TAME
An animal that has not yet become tame must receive special attention. Avoid making
loud noises or rapid movements. ‘Talking to’ the animal in a soothing, monotonous
tone will help. Repeatedly stroke the animal on the back of its head to calm it down.
Move your hands towards the animal slowly from the side or rear and not from the
front; avoid ‘swooping’ down on the animal which will only disturb it. When the
animal has become more used to your presence, proceed to pick it up by one of the
methods described below, depending on the species.
HANDLING MICE AND
YOUNG RATS….
Only mice and small, young rats may be lifted by grasping firmly at the base (not the
tip) of the tail and then resting the weight of the animal on the hand or another surface.
…BUT NOT GERBILS!
It is essential not to lift gerbils in this way because of the risk of fur stripping off the
tail.
15
HANDLING GERBILS,
SYRIAN / RUSSIAN
HAMSTERS & SMALL
RATS
Gerbils, Syrian and Russian hamsters and small rats can be picked up by ‘cupping’ the
animal in two hands. The animal should be facing the handler or moved gently into
position and then scooped up as shown.
HANDLING RATS AND
GUINEA PIGS
The best general method of lifting tame, small rodents is described below.
Assuming you are right-handed, use the left hand to support the weight of the animal
and the right hand to grasp the animal firmly but gently around the neck and shoulders.
The thumb and first finger are thus placed around the shoulder and rib cage and underneath the animal’s chin. As the animal’s head is lifted by your right hand, slide the left
hand under the rump to take the weight.
HANDLING RABBITS
The method used here is largely similar to that used with guinea pigs. With the right
hand, grasp the ears and the loose skin at the back of the rabbit’s neck. With the
animal facing towards you, lift its head and at the same time slide your left hand
underneath the belly. Move the animal towards you until its front limbs are resting on
your chest. Then move the left hand so that it is supporting the rump and restraining
the rabbit against your body.
16
RETURN RABBITS
REAR END FIRST
Beware of the rabbit scratching with its claws. When returning the animal to its cage,
always replace it rear end first.
EMERGENCY
HANDLING BY SCRUFF
OF NECK
In emergencies only, for example with a frightened, injured animal, it is possible to
press down on the back of the head to restrain the animal and then pick it up by the
skin at the scruff of the neck. If, having picked up the animal, it is then placed against
a smooth surface, ensure that it is not too slippery; the animal should feel safe and
secure and be able to grip with its feet.
DEMONSTRATE AND
SUPERVISE WHEN
PUPILS HANDLE
ANIMALS
Before allowing children to handle small mammals, ensure that the correct technique
is clearly demonstrated and supervise them constantly until it is clear that the children
are confident and proficient.
SEXING MAMMALS
With experience, sexing most mammals is not difficult using a variety of body
characteristics. There are four basic features to look for.
(i)
Scrotal sacs protruding from the rear end of most adult male small mammals.
(ii) Presence of nipples and mammary glands on females (but note they are not obvious in immature animals and that there are two obvious nipples in male guinea
pigs).
(iii) The penis can be made to extrude in guinea pigs and rabbits by gently stretching
the skin in front and behind the urino-genital region. (But note, in female
rabbits, there is some extrusion of the clitoris which can be confusing.)
(iv) The distance between the urino-genital opening and the anus in males is approximately 1.5 times that in females. This applies to all small mammals other than
the guinea pig and rabbit; (see diagram below).
URINO-GENITAL
OPENING:
DISTANCE FROM ANUS
17
URINO-GENITAL
OPENING:
APPEARANCE
The difference in distance is clear even with an immature animal and is the most
useful feature to use in sexing most mammals.
SEXING GUINEA PIGS
AND RABBITS
In the guinea pig and rabbit, the distance between the anus and urino-genital opening
is similar. The sexes can, however, be distinguished in guinea pigs by stretching the
skin above and below the urino-genital opening and looking for the different shape of
the opening; (see diagram).
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN
SEXES NOT MARKED
This difference is not, however, immediately clear to people not used to sexing guinea
pigs. It is better to rely on the extrusion of the male penis to distinguish the sexes of
guinea pigs, particularly in immature animals.
RABBITS NOT EASY
TO SEX
Rabbits are extremely difficult to sex, particularly when immature. Extrusion of the
clitoris can be confused for extrusion of the penis and the shape of the urino-genital
opening in the two sexes is not markedly different. There is a small difference which
can only be seen by stretching the skin in the genital region; (see diagram.)
In all small mammals other than guinea pigs and rabbits it is not useful to look for
differences in males and females by the appearance of the urino-genital opening. The
clitoris may be as large as the penis and the vagina may have closed up.
In the female there is a fold of skin around the aperture whereas in the male this is
more a complete ring of tissue. Only with experience can handlers become proficient
in sexing rabbits.
SUMMARY OF
SEXING FEATURES
The ‘sexing’ features for all the small mammals considered in this guide are summarised in the table overleaf.
18
Small mammal
Mouse
Rat
Gerbil
Syrian Hamster
Russian Hamster
Guinea Pig
Rabbit
Sexing feature
Urino-genital distance
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
r
r
Obvious scrotal sacs
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
r
Nipples and mammary glands
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
✔
r
r
r
r
r
✔
?
r
r
r
r
r
✔
?
Penis extrusion
Urino-genital appearance
HANDLING MAMMALS When handling mammals to examine their genitals, there are certain techniques which
TO EXAMINE GENITALS should be used.
MICE, RATS
AND GERBILS
With the animal in one hand or on top of the cage, facing away from you, lift the base
of the tail to expose the genital region.
SYRIAN AND RUSSIAN
HAMSTERS
Cup the animal as already described, then rotate and slide the two hands so that the
animal is transferred, resting on its back in one hand while the other hand is used to
cover the top end of the animal’s body and hold down the front legs, while leaving the
back legs free; (see diagram).
BEWARE OF NON-TAME This technique is not advisable unless the animal is quite tame because of the high risk
HAMSTERS!
of the upper hand that is restraining the animal’s head being bitten!
GUINEA PIGS AND
RABBITS
Lift the animal as already described and turn it so that its back is supported against the
upper part of the leg (assuming the handler is standing up). With the free hand, apply
gentle pressure in front and behind the urino-genital region to expose the genitals.
19
6.
BREEDING
SPECIAL
REQUIREMENTS FOR
BREEDING
If mammals are to be bred, it may be necessary to move them to a larger cage to
accommodate the litter until weaning can take place. The animals should receive a
good diet particularly rich in protein. Suitable ‘breeding’ diets*, though not essential,
are recommended where mammals are regularly used for breeding. Details of suitable
diets are available from Lillico. A larger-than-normal quantity of good-quality nesting
material will be required. When the females are pregnant, they should be handled as
little as possible.
DO NOT DISTURB
YOUNG
When the young are born, it is best not to clean the cage, to avoid disturbing the
animals, until the litter is about one week old. Ensure that the spout of the water bottle
is low enough to enable the mother to teach her young to drink from it (but beware of
fouling the nozzle and flooding the cage). As the young move onto solid food, ensure
that they can reach pelleted diet etc, if this is in a hopper.
Brief details of selected breeding data are given below for each type of small mammal.
MOUSE
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
19-21 days
21 days
8-11
6 weeks
1-5 years
Breed with one pair or a trio (2 females and 1 male). Pairs mate immediately after
birth, so remove male before birth to prevent this.
RAT
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
20-23 days
22 days
9-11
4-5 weeks
2-3 years
Breed with one male and female. To avoid the inevitable mating which occurs in the
period of heat immediately after birth (post-partum oestrus), the male should be
removed before the female gives birth.
GERBIL
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
25-28 days
22 days
4-6
9-12 weeks
2.5-3.5 years
Breed with one male and female; these are best established as a pair at weaning.
Offspring may be left with parents as a small colony. Postpartum oestrus is seen in
gerbils but it is not advisable to remove the male before birth as it will then be very
difficult to reintroduce him to the female without fierce fighting. For similar reasons,
do not normally attempt to introduce new animals to an existing colony.
*
For all items and suppliers marked *, details are given in Appendix 1.
20
SYRIAN HAMSTER
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
15-17 days
21 days
5-7
6-8 weeks
1-1.5 years
It is usual to keep pairs separate (though it is possible to establish a monogamous pair
at weaning). Put the female into the male’s cage and watch to see if the animals fight
and, if they do, separate them at once. If mating occurs, leave the pair for 20 minutes
as several matings will help to ensure fertilisation. Then remove the female back to her
cage. Syrian hamsters are on heat generally every fourth evening, so introduce the
female as late in the day as possible and keep trying for three more days if initially
unsuccessful!
RUSSIAN HAMSTER
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
19-21 days
21 days
5
6-8 weeks
2 years
Establish a single pair at weaning. Young may be left with parents to form a small
colony. As with gerbils, males should only be removed if fighting is evident as it is
difficult to reintroduce them later. Similarly, do not normally introduce new animals
to an existing colony.
GUINEA PIG
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
59-71 (average 63) days
25 days
3-5
4-5 weeks (female)
10 weeks (male)
2-3 years
1:1 pairs or ‘harems’ with 1 male for up to 10 females can be established. Males
should be removed before birth if it is desirable to prevent mating immediately after
birth. Young have fur at birth and eyes soon open.
RABBIT
Gestation period:
Weaning age:
Average number in litter:
Young mature after:
Average life span:
30-32 days
55 days
4-6
16-24 weeks
4-5 years
The sexes should be separate with the female taken to the male. Mating, (and
hopefully not fighting), will normally occur immediately as the female has a more or
less continuous oestrus period. After mating, return the female to her cage. Young
should not be handled until 1 month after birth.
HOUSING
‘INCOMPATIBLE’
ANIMALS TOGETHER
If it becomes essential to introduce ‘incompatible’ males and females - a problem most
likely to be encountered with gerbils, Russian hamsters and to some extent Syrian
hamsters - the following technique should be adopted.
BLOW HARD TO STOP
FIGHTING!
Separate a clean cage into two compartments with wire netting or mesh. Place the two
animals in each section with food and water available to both. Every day for a week
swap the animals over and at the end of the week remove the partition, or place
animals into a clean cage with lots of their favourite foods on the floor as distractions
from fighting. Keep the animals under close observation for some time and separate
them immediately if fighting begins. (To stop animals fighting before moving them
apart, try blowing hard on them!)
21
7.
DISEASE and
ANIMAL HEALTH
RECOGNISE NORMAL
BEHAVIOUR AND
APPEARANCE
Recognising diseases or other signs of ill health in mammals depends very much on
knowing what is normal. It is therefore important to study a mammal thoroughly when
it is healthy and so be aware of its normal behaviour patterns, its general appearance
and feeding habits. Any departure from this normal state should arouse suspicions.
LOOK FOR SIGNS OF
ILL HEALTH
Important signs to look for include:
INADEQUATE DIET OR
ENVIRONMENT
Even though the mammals used in schools will have originated from a reliable,
disease-free source, it is possible that some aspects of ill health will develop in certain
circumstances or as the animals age. Ill health may result from an inadequate diet or
environment. In this case, correction of the fault will normally be sufficient to restore
the animal to full health.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
a patchy, rough coat which has lost its normal glossy, sleek appearance;
dull, clouded eyes;
any body openings which appear runny, blocked, bloody or inflamed;
wounds on feet, tail or skin suggesting that animals have been fighting;
animals that are listless, huddled in a corner or hiding;
animals that appear unduly aggressive, reacting abnormally to handling;
animals not eating or drinking normally;
animals scratching themselves regularly.
For example:
•
•
•
•
•
MINOR WOUNDS AND
INFECTIONS
Animals fighting - separate individuals to new cages.
Rabbits or guinea pigs develop sores on hind limbs - use a cage with a smaller
mesh size for the base wire grid and/or supply more hay as litter.
Rats develop ‘ring tail’ - increase the humidity of the area in which they are
kept.
Guinea pigs develop scurvy - give more vitamin C in their diet.
Animals develop diarrhoea - reduce the amount of fresh vegetables given in the
diet.
If animals develop minor wounds because of, for example, fighting, these can be
treated in school by cleaning the wound with a suitable antiseptic/disinfectant eg,
‘Cetavlon’ or ‘Savlon’ and then dressed using a dry antiseptic dusting powder or spray
such as ‘Citatrin’ or gentian violet spray (available from local pharmacists). Plasters or
bandages should not be used.
22
MITE INFESTATIONS
Mite infestations may develop in the fur of some mammals. Signs of this might
include scratching, loss of fur or, if the nose is infested, slight bleeding. A proprietary
brand of insecticide/acaricide which is safe for use on mammals (available from pet
shops) may be used, but these are rarely completely effective. An alternative treatment
is to place the infested animal in a plastic container and dust thoroughly with flowers
of sulfur*. The animal’s cage must be cleaned completely and disinfected to reduce
the chance of re-infestation. If mites are being brought into the cage in litter or nesting
material, obtain supplies from a more-reliable source.
LOOK OUT FOR SIGNS
OF FIGHTING
Particularly in colonies of gerbils and Russian hamsters, it is not unusual to experience
some fighting between individuals. This may only become a problem as the animals
grow older and territorial/dominance disputes change, or arise in a colony which had
previously been very peaceful. Animals which initially could defend themselves
easily, so that fighting did not lead to injury, may be subject to severe attack. Such
individuals must be removed immediately and housed separately; additional cages
should be obtained before they become needed.
It is essential that colonies of gerbils and Russian hamsters are never split up and later
re-established, for example, at holiday times if mammals must go home with pupils or
other people. Violent aggression will occur, even in groups of animals that were originally quite compatible.
SIGNS OF SERIOUS ILL
HEALTH
Any more serious symptoms of ill health must be left to the expertise of a veterinary
surgeon. The services of such professionals are, however, often expensive - possibly
exceeding the cost of a replacement animal and so may not be economical. Many
animals will, however, be worth such expense and a reputable vet may be found by
consulting ‘Veterinary surgeons’ in Yellow Pages or asking at the nearest branch of
Pets At Home*.
Local PDSA* clinics may be consulted for advice, along with RSPCA clinics or other
voluntary animal welfare organisations offering a treatment service. It is most
unlikely, however, that schools would be provided with free consultations by such
services. (Details of local clinics can be found by looking in Yellow Pages under
‘Animal Services’ or ‘Animal Welfare Societies’.)
*
See Appendix 1 and 2.
23
8.
HEALTH & SAFETY
and
LEGAL
REQUIREMENTS
OBTAIN MAMMALS
FROM GOOD SOURCES
The health of the small mammals themselves is discussed in the previous section; here
it is the health & safety of pupils, teachers and technicians that is considered. In order
for there to be minimal risk to humans of diseases being transmitted from mammals
kept in schools, it is important that animals are healthy. Unless mammals are known to
have originated from a reliable source, it will not be possible to be confident that they
are free from disease.
KEEPING MAMMALS
DISEASE-FREE
Furthermore, if the mammals are not then kept in scrupulously clean conditions, or
come into contact with other mammals from dubious sources, it will no longer be
possible to guarantee that the animals will remain in a disease-free condition. This
means that mammals from an unreliable source must never be added to existing stocks.
It is also prudent not to reintroduce mammals from a school’s own stocks if for any
reason they have been housed for some time off the premises. If this practice is
unavoidable (eg, at holiday times), steps must be taken to ensure that, while elsewhere,
the mammals are well maintained and also could not have become infected by other
mammals (including wild rodents, cats and dogs).
TRANSMISSION OF
PARASITES
If food has become infested with beetles or moths and these animals are carried with
the food into the animals’ cage, they may then be eaten by the mammals. This raises
the remote possibility that adult parasites, transmitted by the insects, will then infest
the mammals. Eggs from these infested animals could be picked up by humans from
the animals’ droppings and contaminated litter and, if eaten, may produce a similar
infestation in the human body.
SMALL MAMMALS
AND HOLIDAYS
Holiday times, particularly in primary schools, obviously create real difficulties. It is
much better that the mammals remain at school and suitable arrangements are made for
their normal feeding, watering and cleaning. If, however, this is impossible and
mammals have to be taken out of school at holidays, they should not be sent home with
pupils or other people unless all of the following considerations can be satisfied.
•
•
•
•
•
•
DO NOT KEEP
MAMMALS IF THE
SCHOOL IS INFESTED
It can be guaranteed that the animals will be looked after as well as usual.
Whoever is caring for the animals must have all the necessary information,
equipment, food, skills, etc.
Parents must have been informed and given their consent.
Steps will be taken to ensure that the school’s mammals will not be able to come
into contact with pet animals (cats, dogs, rodents or other mammals).
The small mammals cannot come into contact with wild rodents (mice, rats, etc)
while off the school premises.
Colonies of mammals must always be kept together, never split up to be sent
home with different people and later re-established.
If the school premises are infested with wild rodents, small mammals should not be
kept because their health status cannot be guaranteed. The practice of loaning animals
for short periods for whatever reason should be discouraged because of the difficulties
of ensuring that the mammals are returned in a suitable disease-free state and have
been properly looked after.
24
HANDLING SMALL
MAMMALS
When pupils, teachers or technicians handle small mammals, they should always wash
their hands thoroughly before and after handling. Any person with an open cut on the
hands, with infected cuts, or suffering from any infection should not handle the animals or come into contact with them. Care must be taken to avoid injury by biting and
scratching with animals that are likely to behave aggressively to the handler. (Note that
mammals which are handled regularly are unlikely to be difficult.) See section 5 for
further information.
ALLERGIES
Teachers must also beware of the development of allergies among pupils or members
of staff. The skin, eyes or nose may be affected after handling/cleaning the animals or
there may be breathing difficulties. If allergies are identified, the affected person
should avoid all further contact with the school mammals.
Note also, however, that there is now some evidence that children brought up in close
contact with small mammal pets actually suffer less from hay fever, asthma and other
allergy problems than children denied access to pet animals.
PROTECTION AGAINST
TETANUS
It is a sensible precaution to ensure that people who regularly look after the school
mammals are fully immunised against tetanus; (the bacteria causing this disease may
be present in dirty litter or on cages if inadequately cleaned).
TREATING CUTS OR
BITES
It is also sensible to advise anyone bitten by a small mammal (so that the skin is
punctured) to have a tetanus inoculation (if not already immunised).
If the skin is cut or bitten while handling or cleaning mammals, encourage bleeding
(unless profuse) by squeezing the skin. (This will help to clean the wound which
should not be sucked.) Then clean with antiseptic and apply a bandage or plaster.
Monitor the affected person for any signs of unexplained symptoms developing and, if
they do, seek medical advice immediately.
LEGAL
REQUIREMENTS IN
KEEPING SMALL
MAMMALS
Under the legislation governing the welfare of animals in this country, small mammals
must be kept and treated in such a way that there is never any interference with the
normal conditions of their care. This means that, at all times, the mammals must be
housed correctly, cleaned out regularly and have access to supplies of clean food and
water. Any treatment or investigation which involves a restriction of the diet in any
way will therefore contravene the requirement of ‘normal well being’ and must not be
attempted. Thus, for example, motivating mammals in learning investigations by even
slight reductions in their diet is illegal in schools and colleges, as are tests on feeding
preferences which involve anything other than a range of natural and manufactured
rodent foods. All other experiments on small mammals in which they are ill treated in
any way are, of course, forbidden.
DEALING WITH
INJURED ANIMALS
BROUGHT INTO
SCHOOL BY PUPILS
If pupils bring into school injured small mammals that they have found, it is essential
that these animals are treated humanely but also to guard against possible risks of
disease and parasite transmission. While the animals are on the premises, they must be
isolated from any school small mammals and kept in quiet, dimly-lit conditions. They
should be handled as little as possible, with due regard for safety and hygiene.
If their injuries warrant such action, the animals should be killed humanely as quickly
as possible. If this cannot be carried out in school, immediate arrangements should be
made to take the animals to a vet or animal-welfare clinic.
PETS BROUGHT INTO
SCHOOL FROM HOME
From time to time, it may be appropriate and valuable if pet mammals are brought into
school for the day from the homes of pupils or adults. These might include small
mammals such as hamsters and guinea pigs or, in some circumstances, cats and dogs.
CLEAPSS guidance in leaflet PS55 or Laboratory Handbook 14.1.2 (see section 2)
gives more detail but important issues are discussed below.
NEVER MIX PETS
TOGETHER
It is essential that each small mammal pet is housed separately and that different
species, or individuals of the same species from different litters, are never placed
together in a cage. This will prevent the possibility of diseases being passed between
individuals and stop any aggressive conflict between incompatible animals. Care must
be taken when pet animals are handled to ensure that they are used to regular handling
and are unlikely to bite.
25
CATS AND DOGS
Care should be taken with any cat or dog that is brought into the classroom to ensure
that the animal is docile and friendly and will not be disturbed by the attentions of a
large number of excited and possibly noisy pupils. Furthermore, the animals should
have been recently inspected by a vet and given a clean ‘bill of health’ so that the
possibility that parasites might be transmitted is remote.
HYGIENE IMPORTANT
Advice already given on hygiene etc when pupils handle the pet animals must be
strictly observed at all times. As with school small mammals, teachers should watch
for the development of allergic reactions in pupils who come into contact with the
visiting pet animals.
26
9.
HUMANE
KILLING
AVOIDING PAIN AND
SUFFERING
Should an animal need to be killed, teachers and technicians have considerable responsibilities which must be taken seriously. An animal in immediate pain, perhaps
resulting from an accident or illness, or suffering from neglect, should be killed at
once to prevent further distress. There is an obligation to ensure that the procedure
used is humane and avoids any further pain and suffering to the animal. Conditions in
which animals may become frightened or antagonised must be avoided.
VETS OR THE PDSA
The person who is to carry out the humane killing must be sufficiently confident or
experienced. This will usually reduce a school’s options considerably. The animal may
be taken immediately to a veterinary surgeon or Pets at Home* outlet, though this will
usually incur a fee. If there is a local PDSA* treatment centre or other animal-welfare
clinic near your school, these could be contacted (though such charitable organisations
normally offer their services only to people with limited finances).
SCHOOL AND
COLLEGE
TECHNICIANS
A secondary school or further education college may have an experienced technician
in the biology department who may be willing, and is able, to kill animals from other
schools. It would be prudent to make contacts to explore this possibility well before a
situation arises necessitating destroying an animal.
USING CARBON
DIOXIDE
For teachers or technicians prepared to perform the task of killing animals themselves,
the recommended procedure is to induce unconsciousness with carbon dioxide gas and
then to use an overdose of the gas to kill the animal by suffocation. To ensure a humane death, the animal must be exposed to a gradual increase in carbon dioxide concentration.
The animal, (or preferably the entire animal cage, if this is possible), is placed inside a
heavy-gauge plastic bag (eg, as used for the disposal of refuse) and carbon dioxide
introduced slowly from a cylinder* into the bottom of the bag or cage. (If the only
cylinder available is a siphon model, designed for making dry ice, it must be used
upside down and great care taken. Lightweight, non-refillable, aluminium cylinders*
of carbon dioxide are manufactured by CryoService and available from Scientific and
Chemical Supplies.) The gas will gradually displace the air inside the container which
should be allowed to escape through the neck of the bag. (See the illustration
overleaf.)
DO NOT USE ETHER
OR CHLOROFORM
*
Leave the animal sealed in the bag for at least 30 minutes after the animal stops
moving, to ensure that death is certain. By this technique, correctly performed, the
animal will not suffer. This is not the case with chemical vapours such as chloroform
or ether, which, although effective, cannot be recommended for humane killing as they
act as irritants. They also present a hazard because of their flammability or toxicity.
See Appendix 1 and 2.
27
MECHANICAL
METHODS - HUMANE
BUT REQUIRE SKILL
Mechanical methods of killing mammals are quite humane when performed correctly
(indeed they are the preferred methods of killing), but they may appear to be barbaric.
They are not, therefore, normally suitable for use in schools. Also, if performance of
the technique is to be humane, considerable skill is required; this will not be acquired
in the occasional killing of a few animals.
28
10.
WHY KEEP and
STUDY SMALL
MAMMALS?
As outlined in the introductory section, there are several educational objectives for
schools and colleges to justify keeping and studying small mammals. These are
summarised below and more extensive suggestions are then given for work that can be
carried out using small mammals as the focus of enquiry.
USEFUL EDUCATION
FOR KEEPING PETS AT
HOME
Where appropriate, pupils rarely need to be persuaded to help in looking after the
small mammals in a classroom or laboratory but it is important for their general
education that, at some time, all children should be exposed to the daily and weekly
routine of animal care. As a result, they will:
•
•
•
•
become aware of the problems that this may create,
become responsible for the welfare of small mammals,
develop the necessary skills involved in looking after animals,
develop an awareness of, and a consideration for, the needs of living organisms.
This links to the QCA Primary Scheme of Work for Citizenship, Unit 3, Animals & Us.
It will be in primary schools that opportunities for such activities are most likely to
arise.
REMEDIAL AND
GENERAL BENEFICIAL
EFFECTS
Small mammals generally have a therapeutic effect on all pupils and this can be
particularly beneficial for children who have difficulty in establishing relations with
other pupils and adults or who have mental or physical disabilities. Handling, and
caring for, small mammals is emotionally satisfying and encourages learning through
direct experience.
AS A FOCUS OF
INTEREST AND
ENQUIRY
Keeping small mammals, which will eventually die, is also valuable in that teachers
can use the sad occasion of a death to help pupils appreciate the finite lifespan of all
animals and help prepare them for the ultimate demise of school mammals, pets at
home and indeed humans.
Keeping small mammals can give rise to a wealth of investigatory work. For example,
at Key Stages 1 and 2, activities in mathematics, English and other languages, creative
writing, painting, modelling, acting and dancing are all possible, as well as the direct
scientific study of the organisms themselves. Such extensive work rarely needs much
prompting.
It is not so easy to find time for work with small mammals at Key Stage 4, where the
demands of syllabuses leave little room for additional activities. At Key Stage 3,
however, there will be more scope for introducing work with small mammals, which
may be used to herald more detailed studies later on, lead on to related work, or to
encourage basic skills of observation, recording and handling data, suggesting hypotheses and testing them by appropriate experiments.
Establishing a science or animal ‘club’ for after-school activities will also enable more
extensive studies to be performed, even if by a restricted number of pupils.
29
SMALL MAMMALS AS A FOCUS FOR INVESTIGATORY ACTIVITIES
GENERAL BODY
FEATURES AND
CHARACTERISTICS
OF MAMMALS
A great deal of work can arise out of simply observing the external characteristics of
small mammals or features noted when handling them.
HANDLING A SMALL
MAMMAL
What does the animal feel like? Does it feel the same all over its body?
At Key Stages 1 and 2 (and the earlier years of Key Stage 3), some suggested questions that can promote careful observations and lead on to other work are listed below.
(Children should be able to feel the hard spinal column beneath the skin of the animal’s
back. Underneath, the abdomen of the animal has no bony protection. Work on prepared skeletons of animals and humans may develop from these observations.)
What words can you use to describe the feel of the animal on your skin?
(Hopefully children will comment on the body heat of the mammal, a characteristic
feature of all mammals including humans. This can lead to work on keeping body
temperatures steady in humans, or insulation and heat loss, particularly relating to body
fur coverings.)
SKIN AND FUR
Is the fur the same colour and length all over the body? Is the whole body covered with
fur; are there any bare patches of skin? What is the colour of the fur? Look carefully at
the individual hairs; are they all the same colour? Do they have the same colour along
their length?
(Individual body hairs, depending on the colour of the mammal, may be quite variable.
There may be an external colour to the coat but, underneath, the fur is a different
colour.)
Do all new-born mammals have fur? (Guinea pigs do!) Do young mammals always
have the same colour fur as their parents?
(Much work here on reproduction and inheritance - see later for details.)
How does fur help a mammal?
(As insulation to help keep the body temperature steady; to give the animal a camouflaging colour so that it will merge in with its surroundings; to give visual signals to
other mammals.)
NOSE AND WHISKERS
(VIBRISSAE)
How does the animal use its nose and whiskers? What are they used for? Why are they
at the front of the body? How well can the mammal smell its food?
(Lots of scope here for investigations to discover if a mammal can detect its favourite
foods only by smell, with different samples in small pots covered by muslin. This can
be extended to include work on the sense of smell in humans.)
EYES AND EARS
What colour are the eyes? Do parents and offspring always have the same colour eyes?
(See later suggestions on inheritance.) How large are the eyes; how large is the pupil?
Where on the head are the eyes positioned? How might this affect the animal’s ability
to see things?
(With eyes at the front pointing forwards, stereoscopic vision and accurate distance
judgement are possible. With eyes on the side of the head there is not much overlap in
the visual fields for each eye but the animals can see much further behind them without
turning the head.)
How does the ear help the mammal to hear sounds? Can you tell when an animal is
using its ears? What shape are the ears? Where are they positioned on the head? Can
the animal move its ears? How large are the ears; are they covered with fur or not?
(Rabbits’ ears are furry, other mammals’ ears are not covered with fur. Is this related to
loss of heat, with larger ears losing more and so needing insulation?)
Any work done on a small mammal’s vision or hearing must in no way cause distress
or discomfort but many observations can be made of responses to visual and sound
stimuli arising out of normal activities. There is much scope for work on human vision
and hearing arising out of initial observations made on small mammals.
30
LEGS, FEET AND TAILS
How many toes are there on each foot? How many claws? How are the legs used in
movement and feeding? Could you make a copy of the animal’s foot prints? (Scope
here for comparisons with larger animals and the foot and hand prints of pupils.) How
is the tail useful to the animal? What does it look and feel like? How long is it
compared with the rest of its body?
(The tail can be used as an aid in balancing when an animal stands on its hind legs. Tail
length can be used as a measurement of growth of the animal.)
BREATHING AND
HEARTBEAT
Pupils will often notice a mammal breathing and also feel the heart beating when the
animal is being handled, but it may be necessary to direct children’s attention to these
factors.
How fast do the animals breathe? (Movement of the rib cage can be observed and
counts per minute calculated.) Does this rate change at any time, eg, with age or
exercise? How fast does the heart beat? Can it be measured? How? Why do breathing
and heart rates change?
(This work can easily be extended to investigations on the breathing and heart rates of
humans, with pupils feeling the pulse in the wrist and counting breaths taken each
minute. How exercise affects both of these can also be studied.)
MAMMALIAN
CHARACTERISTICS
At Key Stages 3 & 4, AS and A-level, the emphasis in studying small mammals will
shift to a consideration of what these animals reveal about the mammal group as a
whole. Knowledge and understanding of the characteristic features of mammals is
required. These can of course be taught theoretically, but it will be much better to use
small mammals as the basis for direct observational work.
While observing and handling the animals, students will inevitably notice the body
warmth of the mammals, see the rib cage movements in breathing and feel the heart
beating. These observations can easily be extended to any or all of the following.
•
Quantitative studies of breathing and heart rates: relating these to basic physiology, in particular the effects of activity or exercise (in the animals themselves and/or humans).
•
Maintenance of a steady body temperature; balance of heat losses and gains;
fur as insulation.
•
Size and surface area - relating heat production and increased heat loss to a
large surface area relative to a small body.
Books that are no longer in print, but which may still be in schools and which are
available from Amazon, such as Revised Nuffield Biology Text and Teachers’ Guide 2
(Longman 1975), provide excellent suggestions for supporting practical work.
FEEDING AND
NUTRITION
At Key Stages 1-3, a simple introduction to work on feeding and teeth using small
mammals as the initial focus can be developed at an appropriate level. The smaller
mammals such as mice, rats and gerbils do not lend themselves so well, because of
their small size, to direct studies of feeding and dentition; guinea pigs and rabbits are
better.
Pupils should have the opportunity of observing small mammals feeding and be able to
relate this to the teeth they possess. [The availability of prepared skulls (perhaps borrowed from local secondary schools) will help here.] Pupils can then go on to compare
their findings with feeding in carnivores and larger herbivores (being encouraged if
possible to observe pet dogs and cats chewing meat at home, and sheep or cows feeding if the opportunity arises). Work can then be extended to human teeth and nutrition.
Suggestions for questions to be raised are outlined below.
How does the animal find its food? How does it feed? How does it use its legs to help
in feeding? What kinds of teeth does the animal have? How many of each type are
there? How does it use its teeth?
(Pupils should be able to see the large cutting incisor teeth at the front of the mouth.
There are no canine teeth in the small mammals kept in schools. Premolars and molars
at the back of the jaw are used for grinding and crushing food.)
31
CONSUMPTION OF
FOOD AND WATER
How much food and water does an animal consume, each day, each week etc? Do the
animals eat and drink the same amount each day? Is more water consumed at different
times of the year when it is hotter or cooler? Why? Do animals, fed largely on dry
foods, drink more than those eating a diet rich in fresh vegetables? How does the type
and quantity of food eaten relate to the waste produced? Do all types of mammals eat
and drink similar amounts? What food preferences does an animal have?
How does food and water intake relate to an animal’s size? (Should size be measured
in relation to the animal’s weight or its overall surface area?) Do young animals eat
more for their size than adults? How much of the food consumed is used by the animal
in growth and how much is removed as waste in droppings?
(Food can be weighed before and after the period of study. The level of water inside
the drinking bottle could be marked and the volume needed to restore the water level
noted afterwards. Pupils will need to consider how much food and water is wasted by
the animal and not consumed. Quantitative measurements of waste as droppings pose
certain difficulties and are best made by weighing bedding material before and after the
animal’s cage is cleaned out. Such measurements will, however, also include food
remains that have not been eaten, as well as wastes produced by the animal.
In studies of food preferences; it is essential that at all times small mammals are given
a completely balanced diet, using only appropriate food materials. Much experimentation can still be carried out, however, within these restrictions.)
REPRODUCTION AND
GROWTH
An enormous amount of work can be initiated in these topic areas at all stages of
National Curriculum work but particularly at Key Stages 2 & 3. Work on human reproduction can often arise most easily out of studies of a small mammal breeding colony,
(though it is crucial that sex education must be much more than a study of just reproduction in, eg, hamsters!) Some suggestions for questions to be asked are given below,
which can be developed according to the age of pupils taught.
How can the sexes of animals be identified? Do the pairs show any signs of courtship
before mating? How many young are born in a litter? What are the sizes and features
of newly-born animals? How are the young fed? Are they all suckled at the same time?
Does the male help to care for the offspring? What nesting material is chosen by the
female? What behaviour is seen if young animals move out of the nesting area?
(Parental care can normally be observed when offspring which have strayed, or been
carried inadvertently by the mother, out of the nest are retrieved.) How fast do young
animals grow? Do all parts of the body grow at the same rate? Do all animals in the
litter grow equally fast? Do males and females grow at the same rate? How is growth
related to food intake? How does growth change with age?
(As appropriate to their age, pupils can keep a diary of development for newly-born
mammals, recording daily visible changes such as when eyes and ears open, when hair
first appears, when solid food is first taken, when the young first leave the nest and so
on. At the same time, quantitative measurements of daily growth can be made by
weighing, or recording lengths (of the whole body or tail), and graphs of development
produced.
INVESTIGATIONS
MUST AVOID
DISTURBANCE AS
MUCH AS POSSIBLE
Pupils will often wish to make detailed observations of young animals but it is important to avoid disturbing the newly-born animals and their mother as much as possible
during at least the first few days after birth. If young animals will be moved for
observations or measurements, they must of course be handled very gently, removed
from the nest for as short a time as possible and prevented from losing body heat to the
surroundings.
Some small mammals (gerbils and hamsters in particular) may kill or eat their young if
disturbed, but this problem can be substantially reduced by ensuring that the female
has become accustomed to being handled for a long period before the investigation.
Guinea pigs are precocious when born; this is very useful for comparisons with other
mammals. Rabbits should not be disturbed during the first two weeks after birth.)
BEHAVIOUR
Many observations of the behaviour of small mammals will be made when other work
is undertaken. It may be appropriate to make some of these observations more systematic, especially by introducing a quantitative aspect, so that the length of time an
animal spends on various activities is noted.
32
Detailed studies of how a mammal behaves can best be done after introducing an
animal to a new cage, or after cleaning and the addition of fresh bedding. Alternatively,
strange objects or new foods can be placed in the cage for the animals to investigate.
Behaviour of males and females before and after birth of offspring is also worth
exploring.
QUANTITATIVE
Observations will readily lead to an identification of various patterns of behaviour.
OBSERVATIONS OF
Some are illustrated below; others will include stretching, shredding materials (particBEHAVIOUR PATTERNS ularly by gerbils), retrieving young animals strayed from the nest, dust bathing and so
on, as well as the obvious activities of sitting, walking, sleeping, eating and drinking.
MORE ADVANCED
STUDIES OF INNATE
AND LEARNED
BEHAVIOUR
For A-/AS-level work, students may need to consider the differences between innate
and learned behaviour. Learning could be investigated using a simple Y- or T-shaped
maze with a food reward at the end of one arm of the maze. The time taken to run the
maze successfully on each trial is recorded and these times plotted against trial number
to produce a learning curve. A more-complicated maze can be used if appropriate and
the time for successful completion of the maze, or number of mistakes made, is
recorded each time. It is important to be able to clean the maze thoroughly between
each trial so that the mammal cannot find the correct route by scent alone. (Note,
however, that legal restrictions associated with reinforcement of learning, discussed
below, make it difficult to carry out maze-learning investigations with complete
success.)
There are many examples of innate behaviour that can be investigated. For example,
nipple location and suckling, mating behaviour, negative geotaxis (a young animal
placed on a 45° angle slope with its head pointing downwards will normally turn and
move up the slope) and retrieval by the female of young moved from the nest. The
latter behaviour is particularly easy to investigate and work here is described in
Experimental Animal Behaviour by Hansell & Aitken (Blackie 1977). This is also a
good reference for many other suggested investigations of small mammal behaviour.
In any behavioural work, it is essential that mammals are not caused any distress by
the procedures used. It is in fact illegal to restrict diet in any way in order to make an
animal more motivated and heighten a food reward. Nevertheless, favourite foods
which are not given daily can be used to reward appropriate behaviour and may act as
sufficient positive reinforcement to promote learning. Some researchers report favourably on the use of small amounts of condensed milk as a reward but it is important for
the mammal that this should not form a substantial amount of its diet. Negative
reinforcement must never, of course, be used to promote learning.
INHERITANCE
At Key Stages 1 & 2, it is probably inappropriate to attempt a formal study of inheritance with pupils but, if breeding pairs of different coat-colour varieties of mammals
are kept, some discussion of inheritance will inevitably arise. Questions of the following type can be asked and basic answers obtained through direct observation.
33
INHERITANCE (cont.)
Are there equal numbers of males and females in a litter? Are the colours of the
animals related to their sex? Will the babies be the same colour as the mother, like the
father, or sometimes in between? If the colour of one of the parents disappears in the
offspring, will it reappear or is it gone for good?
[For information: Coat and eye colour are controlled by genes, some of which are
recessive and do not produce their effects unless an offspring inherits two of these
genes - one from each parent. Thus a characteristic can be ‘carried’ in the genes of an
animal but not expressed.
For example, the. absence of pigment (in hair and eyes - which will be pink as a result)
produces an albino. This results from a recessive gene (p). The scheme below show
how albino colouring can disappear and then reappear in some animals.
(The chance of having an albino offspring is 1 in 4 although, with a small litter, there
might not always be an albino baby present.)]
At Key Stages 3 & 4, AS and A level, this is a topic which may be investigated practically and organisms such as Drosophila or maize are best suited for use in schools.
Studies of monohybrid inheritance are possible using various small mammals including mice and gerbils but they are unlikely to take place in school because of the difficulty of obtaining pure-bred strains and the demands of maintaining stock1.
DISSECTION
For work at Key Stages 3 & 4, and particularly in post-16 courses, some
teachers may feel it is appropriate for the dissection of a small mammal to be demonstrated or even carried out by students. Teachers must make up their own minds on the
matter according to the circumstances within the school and the attitudes of pupils.
A joint statement, The Use of Animals and Plants in School Science, produced by the.
Association for Science Education, Institute of Biology and Universities’ Federation
for Animal Welfare, in part discusses the issues involved in dissection. A copy of this
statement is on the CLEAPSS Science Publications CD-ROM as guidance document
PS 3a. This, and document PS 3, Keeping and Using Animals and Plants: Towards a
Science Department Policy, will aid in the formulation of a departmental statement on
using living organisms, including the educational objectives of dissection.
It is questionable and not cost effective to breed small mammals solely for the purpose
of providing material for demonstration dissection. If animals are, however, killed to
be dissected, it is essential that these are never animals which pupils have seen, handled, or cared for. No pupil should see, or be involved in, the killing of small mammals.
If teachers feel that it is appropriate for pupils to be able to see a dissection performed,
then the minimum number of animals for dissection should always be used, consistent
with educational objectives. Pupils must be given the opportunity of not observing
animal dissections if they wish, and no pressure should be placed on them to take part.
Alternatives to animal dissection are the use of video or computer graphics; AVP has a
series of Vertebrate Dissection Guides (including one on the rat) - see Appendix 2.
1
Good references for work on the genetics of small mammals are now out of print but may be in school or college libraries:
Organisms for Genetics in the Educational Use of Living Organisms series (Hodder & Stoughton 1976) and Learning Genetics
with Mice by Margaret Wallace (Heinemann Educational 1971).
34
APPENDIX 1
SUPPLIERS OF CAGES, RACKING etc,
CONSUMABLE and MISCELLANEOUS ITEMS
Pages 5-7
LABORATORY
CAGES
The major manufacturer/supplier of the type of laboratory cages typically used in
schools is North Kent Plastic Cages. The only general school science equipment supplier that now includes (a limited range of) laboratory cages in its catalogue is Timstar
Laboratory Suppliers.
North Kent Plastic Cages
Unit 4, Gills Court
Medway City Estate
Strood, Rochester ME2 4NR
Tel:
01634 295888
Fax:
01634 725877
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: -
Timstar Laboratory Suppliers
Timstar House
Marshfield Bank
Crewe CW2 8UY
Tel:
01270 250459
Fax:
01270 250601
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site www.timstar.co.uk
Page 6 DRINKING
BOTTLES
These may need to be ordered separately from cages and North Kent Plastic Cages
above supplies suitable items, designed for laboratory cages. Try also local pet stores.
Take care to select the appropriate type of nozzle for the cages in use and the animals
to be housed.
Pages 5 & 7
HUTCHES
Local pet shops and garden centres will often have a range of wooden hutches. If it is
not possible to find suitable housing locally, there are several manufacturers that can
provide details of local retailers and sometimes arrange delivery.
Bransby Bunny
Bransby
Lincoln LN1 2PH
Tel:
01427-788385
Fax:
01427-787062
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.bransby-bunny.co.uk
Rob Harvey
Kookaburra House, Gravel Hill Road
Holt Pound, Farnham GU10 4LG
Tel:
01420 23986
Fax:
01420 23078
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.robharvey.com
Hutch Co.
7 Sunfield, Stanningley
Pudsey LS28 6DE
Tel:
0113 255 9382
Fax:
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.hutchco.co.uk
D & P Marchant
Pentre Bach Uchaf
Llanaelhaearn, Caernarfon LL54 5BE
Tel:
01758 750469
Fax:
01758 750125
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.dandpmarchant.co.uk
Pet House Ltd
16 Towerfield Road
Shoeburyness
Southend-on-Sea SS3 9QE
Tel:
01702 296007
Fax:
E-mail Web site: -
Pet Planet Co
10 Lindsay Square
Deans Industrial Estate
Livingstone EH54 8RL
Tel:
0845 345 0723
Fax:
0845 601 2765
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.petplanet.co.uk
35
Page 7 EGLU HUTCH
Delivery is included in the prices quoted in the text though, for Northern Ireland and
the offshore islands, there may be an additional charge.
Omlet
Tuthill Park
Wardington OX17 1RR
Tel:
0845 450 2056
Fax:
01295 758118
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.omlet.co.uk
Pages 5 & 8
PET-MARKET
CAGES
These are available from local pet shops but may not be particularly suitable for use in
schools. The Rotastak range of hamster cages is well known and is available from
several outlets. If difficulties are experienced in obtaining the equipment or spare
parts, contact the distributor.
Armitages Pet Products
Armitage House
Colwick NG4 2BA
Tel:
0115 938 1200
Fax:
0115 938 1234
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.armitages.co.uk
Page 8 TWILLWELD or
WELDMESH
Contact local hardware/ironmonger stores or builders’ merchants (see Yellow Pages).
Page 9 FOOD
HOPPERS
Obtainable directly from North Kent Plastic cages; see above for address.
Another supplier of hoppers is:
John Hopewell
6 Hellaby Lane
Hellaby Industrial Estate
Rotherham S66 8HN
Tel:
01709 542428
Fax:
01709 541430
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.johnhopewell.co.uk
Page 9 LAND DRAINAGE PIPES
Contact local builders’ merchants (see Yellow Pages).
Pages 9-10
MOSS PEAT
This must be sphagnum moss peat and not other types of peat-based compost. It must
not be moistened before use. It can be purchased locally from garden centres; pet
shops etc. Large bales are most economical.
Pages 9-10
SAWDUST and
HAY
Most economical if purchased in bulk; see Yellow Pages under ‘Sawdust and shavings’ and ‘Hay & straw merchants’ for details of local suppliers. Also available from
Lillico (though it is not sensible to obtain from this source unless a substantial order
for these items and/or pelleted diets is placed at the same time - see discussion below
under ‘pelleted animal diets’).
(Pet shops are generally not recommended as a source of hay and sawdust because of
the likely additional expense though, for schools which keep just one small mammal,
such sources will be the most convenient and probably inevitable.)
Lillico
PO Box 431
RH6 0UW
Tel:
01293 827940
Fax:
01293 827944
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.lillico-biotech.co.uk
[Note: Entry to the Lillico web site (under development at the time of producing this
edition) will require a password.]
36
Page 10 FULLER’S
EARTH
This can usually be obtained from local pharmacists as a fine powder.
Page 10 DRINKING
BOTTLES
See details in earlier entry, relating to page 6.
Page 11 DISINFECTANT
A good disinfectant for animal cages is ‘Gerrard ASAB’ from Griffin Education
(1 litre; catalogue number GASAB).
Griffin Education
Bishop Meadow Road
Loughborough LE11 ORG
Tel:
01509 233344
Fax:
01509 231893
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.griffineducation.co.uk
This contains a detergent and does not attack metal, which is an unfortunate property
of some other disinfectants, including bleach. Pet shops should also supply disinfectants suitable for animal cages.
Page 11 RACKING FOR
CAGES
Specialist racking for animal cages is supplied by North Kent Plastic Cages; see
address under the earlier entry on laboratory cages.
Speedframe, manufactured by Dexion, and Square Tube construction system, supplied
by Link 51, are suitable systems that can be used in schools and colleges to build
racking to suit the space available. Details of local Speedframe stockists are available
from Dexion; Link 51 supplies direct. Romstor also supplies the Square Tube system.
Dexion Comino Ltd
Forbes House, Harris Business Park
Hanbury Road
Stoke Prior
Bromsgrove B60 4BD
Tel:
0800 581531
Fax:
0870 2240 221
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.dexion.com
Link 51 Ltd
Link House
Halesfield 6
Telford
TF7 4LN
Tel:
0800 169 5151
Fax:
01384 472599
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.link51.co.uk
Romstor Ltd
West Station Industrial Estate
Spital Road
Maldon CM9 6TS
Tel:
01621 855600
Fax:
01621 875919
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.romstor.co.uk
Page 12 HUTCHES
See details in the earlier entry, relating to pages 5-7.
Page 13 MEALWORMS,
MAGGOTS and
CRICKETS
These are often available from local pet shops [or, for maggots, local fish tackle shops
(but not during the period 14 March to 16 June - the close season)]. There are many
other suppliers; some of the best and cheapest sources include the companies listed
below.
Livefoods Direct
North Anston Trading Estate
Houghton Road
Sheffield S25 4JJ
Tel:
01909 518888
Fax:
01909 568666
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.livefoodsdirect.co.uk
37
Monkfield Nutrition
Church Farm Barn
Wendy
Nr. Royston SG8 0HJ
Tel:
01223 208261
Fax:
01223 208424
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.monkfieldnutrition.co.uk
Page 13 MEALWORMS,
Peregrine Livefoods
MAGGOTS and
PO Box 45
CRICKETS (cont.) Loughton
Essex IG10 2NF
Tel:
01992 815181
Fax:
01992 814787
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.peregrine-livefoods.co.uk
Pages 13 & 14
PELLETED
DIETS
The best source for purchases of bulk supplies is Lillico; see address in earlier entry
for sawdust and hay. Lillico will deliver but there are surcharges for small orders and
long-distance deliveries. Timstar Laboratory Suppliers sells pelleted diet, but only for
rats and mice, in quantities of 2.5 or 12.5 kg; (see address in earlier entry on laboratory
cages). Many pet stores may also supply pelleted diets, though not very economically.
Page 14 SEEDS
Pet shops may be used for certain types of seeds, but an excellent source of a wide
variety of seeds, including sunflower, peanuts, mixed pulses, oats, barley, wheat and
rice, is:
John E Haith
Park Street
Cleethorpes DN35 7NF
Tel:
0800 298 7054
Fax:
01472 242883
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.haiths.com
Page 14 HAY
See details in earlier entry.
Page 14 FOOD
STORAGE
CONTAINERS
Plastic dustbins with tightly-fitting lids, purchased locally from hardware stores (see
Yellow Pages) can be used but may take up too much room. Also storage bins from
Romstor and North Kent Plastic Cages; see earlier for contact details. For small
amounts of diet, use plastic storage containers from supermarkets, hardware stores etc.
Page 20 ANIMAL
BREEDING
DIETS
See details in earlier references to Lillico.
Page 23 FLOWERS OF
SULFUR
Primary schools should contact a local secondary-school science department to request
a small sample.
Page 27 CARBON
DIOXIDE
CYLINDERS
Carbon dioxide is most readily available as 34, 58 and 110 litre capacity lightweight,
non-refillable, aluminium cylinders. A nickel-plated brass regulator valve is also
required to fit these cylinders. These CryoService cylinders are available to schools
from:
Scientific and Chemical Supplies Ltd
Carlton House
Livingstone Road
Bilston WV14 0QZ
Tel:
0845 165 0845
Fax:
01902 402 343
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.scichem.com
38
APPENDIX 2
SOURCES OF INFORMATION
AVP
AVP
School Hill Centre
Chepstow NP16 5PH
Tel:
01291 625439
Fax:
01291 629671
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.avp.co.uk
Vertebrate Dissection Guides: The Rat, 603005, £40.00
(For post-16 courses as an alternative to performing actual dissections: videos of
dissections, 3-dimensional computer animations and teacher’s notes.)
Animals and Us, WO7-777027, CD-ROM with free site licence, £16.80
(A CD-ROM of resources that covers the QCA Primary Scheme of Work for Citizenship, Unit 3, Animals and Us. The unit introduces children to the idea of rights and
responsibilities through exploring issues of animal welfare. Included are 7 interactive
whiteboard wall charts, 113 colour photographs and 31 worksheets.)
EDUCATIONAL USE OF
LIVING ORGANISMS
PUBLICATIONS
Animal Accommodation for Schools, J D Wray, ISBN 0340170492, Hodder & Stoughton 1974.
Small Mammals, J D Wray, ISBN 03401 70506, Hodder & Stoughton 1974.
(These useful publications, produced for the Educational Use of Living Organisms
project of the former School Council, are now out of print but the information they
contain is still largely relevant. They may, however, be available in school/local libraries or for purchase via Amazon or other online sources.)
PEOPLE'S DISPENSARY
FOR SICK ANIMALS
PDSA Head Office:
Whitechapel Way
Priorslee
Telford TF2 9PQ
Tel:
01902 290999
Fax:
01902 291035
E-mail: via web site
Web site: www.pdsa.org.uk
Contact the head office, PDSA web site or use the local telephone directory (under
‘PDSA’) for details of local Pet Aid hospital or Pet Aid practices.
To be eligible for treatment, pet owners need to live within the defined catchment area
of a PDSA centre and must be receiving financial help with their housing costs.
Alternatively, to confirm what help is available in your area or whether you are
eligible for free treatment use the e-mail enquiry form on the web site or call 0800 731
2502.
39
PET HEALTH COUNCIL
Pet Health Council
1 Bedford Avenue
London WC1B 3AU
Tel:
020 7255 5408
Fax:
020 7255 5454
Web site: www.pethealthcouncil.co.uk
This promotes the health and welfare of pet animals in the interests of both pet and
human health and provides information on choosing pets and keeping them healthy,
parasites carried by cats and dogs, etc. It also has available a range of visual and
printed educational materials.
The former Very Useful Address List is available at the Council’s web site by clicking
on the ‘Useful Contacts’ button. This provides details of all sorts of organisations and
societies concerned with pets, vets, small mammal breeders and animal welfare in the
UK.
PETS AT HOME
Pets at Home Ltd
Epsom Avenue
Stanley Green Trading Estate
Handforth SK9 3RN
Tel:
0870 194 3600
Fax:
0161 485 4846
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.petsathome.com
This company has a large number of pet shop outlets throughout the UK. These can
give face-to-face advice as well as providing information sheets. Local branches can
be found via the company’s web site.
Veterinary care may also be available. There is a subsidiary company, Companion
Care, which has surgeries across the UK.
Companion Care (Services) Ltd
Manor Barn
Kingston Lisle Business Centre
Kingston Lisle
Wantage OX12 9QX
Tel:
01367 820820
Fax:
01367 820732
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.companioncare.co.uk
To find your nearest surgery, visit the web site.
SMALL MAMMAL and
PET CARE
INFORMATION BOOKS
Various colourful books and booklets, some suitable for use with pupils, are available
or have been published in the past. Many, however, are now out of print. Searches on
web sites such as Ebay and Amazon should help in tracking down titles for particular
animals.
One company which specialises in animal information books is:
Interpet Ltd
Interpet House
Vincent Lane
Dorking RH4 3YX
Tel:
01306 881033
Fax:
01306 885009
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.interpet.co.uk
This company is a major supplier of equipment for the pet market and Interpet
Publishing has over 2000 titles on pet animals, many on small mammals, in its
catalogue, a copy of which is available on request.
40
UNIVERSITIES FEDERA- UFAW
TION FOR ANIMAL
The Old School
WELFARE (UFAW)
Brewhouse Hill
Wheathampstead AL4 8AN.
Tel:
01582 831818
Fax:
01582 831414
E-mail: [email protected]
Web site: www.ufaw.org.uk
This is an independent charity that works to promote the welfare of animals. It also has
published various titles, most notably:
UFAW Handbook on the Care and Management of Laboratory Animals, Vol 1 Terrestrial Vertebrates, ISBN 0632051310, 7tth edition, Blackwell, 1999.
(This is an advanced text for reference.)
41