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1. Apostila CEI Jan 2015 FINAL
Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 Curso Especialização Inglês Fonologia do Inglês January 2015 FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© www.letras.ufmg.br/cristofaro 30-1 Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-2 O Ensino de Pronúncia na Aula de Língua Estrangeira 1. O ensino de pronúncia: futuros professores e alunos 2. O papel da sonoridade na aquisição de língua estrangeira 3. O sonho dourado de falar como nativo! 4. Escutando a própria língua 5. Exemplos: 1a. arte 2a. art () 1b. artes 2b. arts 3a. tarde 4a. card () 3b. tardes 4b. cards 6. Ensino de pronúncia e símbolos fonéticos: o uso de dicionários! 7. Transcrições fonéticas (simbolizadas entre colchetes [xxx]) ou fonológicas (simbolizadas entre barras transversais /xxx/)? 8. Quantos e quais são os sons do inglês? 9. A gradualidade fonética e a particularidade de cada som em cada língua 10. Aprendendo o diferente e aprendendo a categorizar o diferente 11. O papel do detalhe fonético na organização do componente fonológico (incluindo-se aqui a língua estrangeira). O ensino de língua estrangeira é específico de cada língua e deve ser gerenciado de maneira específica e não globalizante! Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-3 Fonética e Fonologia [] // 1. Leitura (letra-som) x Escrita (som-letra) cassa – caça cela – sela 2. Correspondência letra-som: cachorro 8L/6S afta 4L/5S advogando 9L/9S 3. graphemes: letra individual associada a um som casa three allographs: seqüências diferentes de letras que representam o mesmo som julho/Júlio; mágoa/água. mail, convey, hate, steak. digraphs: seqüências de duas letras (iguais ou diferentes) geralmente representam um som acha, carro, louco, cheiro. book, issue, shoe. 4. Como identificar SONS. A relação entre fonética e fonologia 5. Leitura do texto transcrito foneticamente ] 6. Comparação de inventários do português e inglês 7. O mecanismo de produção da fala: as consoantes e as vogais 8. O que é uma consoante? O que diferencia as categorias C x V? 9. Explorando os limites do aparelho fonador Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-4 Parâmetros Articulatórios 1. cavidade oral 2. cavidade nasal 3. cavidade nasofaringal 4. cavidade faringal 5. lábio superior 6. dentes superiores 7. alvéolos 8. palato duro 9. palato mole (véu palatino) 10. úvula 11. lábio inferior 12. dentes inferiores 13. ápice da língua 14. lâmina da língua 15. parte anterior da língua 16. parte média da língua 17. parte posterior da língua 18. epiglote 19. laringe 20. esôfago 21. glote Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 anterior arred central nãoarred posterior nãoarred arred alta média-alta média-baixa baixa e arred nãoarred alta média-alta média-baixa baixa arred nãoarred o arred nãoarred a anterior Nasais central posterior nãoarred arred 30-5 Ditongos Crescentes Decrescentes Nasais Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-6 Consoantes do Português Símbolo Classificação do Segmento Consonantal Exemplo Ortográfico Oclusiva Bilabial Desvozeada capa, prata, plana, aspas Oclusiva Bilabial Vozeada cabaça, brava, blasfemar, garbosa Oclusiva Alveolar Desvozeada ataca, trava, atlas, carta, gasta Oclusiva Alveolar Vozeada cada, ladra, árdua, esdrúxula Oclusiva Velar Desvozeada acata, cravo, escama, arca, aclama Oclusiva Velar Vozeada agacha, grata, esgrima, larga, rasga AfricadaAlveopalatal Desvozeada Tiago, típica, mártir, ativista Africada Alveopalatal Vozeada tardia, diária, adiada, dica Fricativa Labiodental Desvozeada fraca, afaga, flama, esfola, arfar Fricativa Labiodental Vozeada árvore, livro, cavalo, esvair Fricativa Alveolar Desvozeada Fricativa Alveolar Vozeada assanhada, cachaça, garça, salsicha, casca, paz, esta dezde, zero, exagera, rasa Fricativa Alveopalatal Desvozeada marcha, xadrês, chuva, Caxias Fricativa Alveopalatal Vozeada Fricativa Velar Desvozeada marajá, argila, janela, general rã, carta, marra, Israel, amar Fricativa Velar Vozeada larga, corda, bárbara Fricativa Glotal Desvozeada rã, carta, marra, Israel, amar Fricativa Glotal Vozeada larga, corda, bárbara Nasal Bilabial Vozeada mãe, arma, esmola, lama Nasal Alveolar Vozeada cana, Arnaldo, asno, nata ou Nasal Palatal Vozeada assanha, cânhamo, lasanha Tepe Alveolar Vozeado praça, sarará, gravador, mar Vibrante Alveolar Vozeada rã,, marra, Israel Retroflexa Alveolar Vozeada carta, amar Lateral Alveolar Vozeada plástica, lua, islã, orla Lateral Alveolar Vozeada Velarizada malvada, alçar, anel, Brasil Lateral Palatal Vozeada galha, malharia, alho ou w ou Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-7 O Método das Vogais Cardeais Cristófaro-Silva. 1999. O Método das Vogais Cardeais e as Vogais do Português Brasileiro In: Revista de Estudos da Linguagem. 1999. Volume 8. Número 2. Belo Horizonte. www.letras.ufmg.br/cristofaro (ir em ‘publicações’) [O artigo apresenta uma proposta de análise do sistema vocálico do português brasileiro baseada no Método das Vogais Cardeais (Abercrombie (1967, Jones (1980)). Inicialmente descrevemos em detalhes tal método] Figuras identificando a área vocálica no aparelho fonador Encontra-se à venda uma gravação dos sons adotados pelo Alfabeto Internacional de Fonética. (http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA). Dentre estes sons temos a gravação das Vogais Cardeais (e obviamente das consoantes também). Este material, elaborado pelo Professor John Wells do University College London, pode ser obtido em fita cassete (U$12) ou em CD (U$17) (http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/cassette.htm). As Vogais Cardeais Primárias expressas em termos das principais características articulatórias: (altobaixo); (anteriorposterior) e (arredondadonão-arredondado) Tomando como referência os valores cardeais descritos acima, podemos identificar qualquer segmento vocálico de qualquer língua. Podemos adotar um dos símbolos apresentados para a vogal cardeal mais próxima à vogal que pretendemos descrever ou podemos utilizar um dos diacríticos abaixo para precisar a localização de tal vogal na área vocálica. levantada qualidade mais alta abaixada qualidade mais baixa retraída qualidade mais posterior avançada qualidade mais anterior Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-8 Diagrama das Vogais Cardeais – Associação Internacional de Fonética http://www2.arts.gla.ac.uk/IPA/ipa.html Combinações formam ditongos, que em portugues podem ser orais ou nasais Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-9 English Vowels http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/hyfl/projektit/vokaalikartat_eng.html#italian_vowels British English (monophthongs) Each vowel type is exemplified with a keyword. Data from Deterding 1997, where the vowels were obtained from a digital speech database consisting of the speech of five male speakers; approximately 10 occurrences per vowel type. Deterding, David (1997) The formants of monophthong vowels in Standard Southern British English pronunciation. Journal of the International Phonetic Association 27, 47-55. http://www.helsinki.fi/hum/hyfl/projektit/vokaalikartat_eng.html#italian_vowels American English vowels: Mean formant values of 33 male speakers for ten American English vowels. The test words were of the form /hVd/ and each speaker produced the testwords twice. The keywords were not includedin the data. Vowel length is not shown in the figure. Data from: G. E. Peterson & H.L.Barney (1952) Control methods used in a study of the vowels. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 24, 175-184 Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-10 Oclusivas vozeadas desvozeadas Africadas vozeadas desvozeadas Fricativas vozeadas desvozeadas Nasais Laterais Rótico Aproximante 12 VOGAIS alta média baixa vozeadas vozeadas vozeadas vozeadas glotal velar alveopalatal alveolar labiodental interdental 24 CONSOANTES bilabial Consoantes e Vogais do Inglês anterior central posterior não-arredondada longa breve Não-arredondada longa breve arredondada longa breve , 8 DITONGOS Ditongo crescente Ditongo decrescente terminado em terminado em Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-11 Consoantes e Vogais do Inglês Vogais Vogais longas curtas Ditongos Ditongos Consoantes decrescentes crentralizados desvozeadas Consontes vozeadas (exceto ) ssw 12 vogais 8 ditongos 44 sons Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva©2004 24 consoantes Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 . 30-12 Informações importantes OUTROS SÍMBOLOS Indica a vogal tônica: ''black'' k Indica o limite silábico: ''practice'' . Representa os casos em que ocorre em: posição átona final - como em ''happy'' hp.; ou quando seguido de outra vogal (i+vogal) - como em ''react'' r.; ou em alguns prefixos como ''be-, re'' - como em ''believe'' .. Nestes casos uma vogal breve/tensa - - é pronunciada. Representa os casos em que ocorre seguido de outra vogal (u+vogal) - como em ''cruel'' .. Nestes casos uma vogal breve/tensa - - é pronunciada. O t-d que se tornam um tepe ou ''flap'' e é típico da pronúncia norte-americana ''city'' . O ''schwa'' indica que uma vogal pode ser pronunciada muito brevemente ou pode ser omitida: ''bottle'' . ou . Regra de formação de plural e 3ª pessoa singular presente Se o substantivo ou verbo termina... Plural e 3psp em vogal, ditongo ou em consoante vozeada (exceto , , ) Adicione em consoante desvozeada (exceto , , ) Adicione em , , , , ou Adiciona Regra de formação de passado e particípio passado Se o verbo termina ... em vogal, ditongo ou em consoante vozeada (exceto ) Pass e Particípio Pass Adicione em consoante desvozeada (exceto ) Adicione em ou Adicione Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© 2004 Em inglês: Vogais longas são tensas (tense) e vogais breves são frouxas (lax). Vogais longas podem ocorrer em final de sílaba e de palavra em inglês . Vogais breves não ocorrem em sílabas abertas em inglês (ou seja, em finald e sílaba incluindo final de palavra) que é equivalente a dizer queVogais breves sempre ocorrem em sílabas travadas em inglês. As vogais em inglês são tipicamente orais mesmo quandoseguidas de consoantes nasais. Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-13 Weak and Strong forms Exemplo Forma forte a Forma fraca sobre as formas fracas Observação antes de consoantes após I (am) nos outros casos antes de vogais am an and are as at be but can antes de consoantes antes de vogais do does for from has have had her him his is antes de consoantes antes de vogais após após nos demais casos após I, we, you, they. Somente quando verbo auxiliar. nos outros casos após I, we, she, we, you, they. Somente quando verbo auxiliar. nos outros casos após must of shall should some than that the them to us was were Will Would you your é usado antes de consoantes. A forma é usada antes de vogais após vogais e consoantes vozeadas, exceto , , . Após a forma forte é sempre usada quando 'some' quer dizer 'uma certa quantidade' ocorre a forma forte. quando indica, especificamente, algo usa-se a forma forte antes de consoantes. Antes de vogais, tende ocorrer a forma forte antes de consoantes. Antes de vogais, tende ocorrer a forma forte somente em ''Let’s'' após I, he, she, we, you, they após consoantes exceto após vogais e após I, he, she, we, you, they nos outros casos Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-14 Better English Pronunciation O’Connor (1980: 7) Letters are written , sounds are spoken. It is very useful to have written letters to remind us but this is all they do; they cannot make sounds which we do not already of corresponding sounds, us pronounce know; they simply remind us. In ordianry English spelling is not always easy to know what sounds the letters stand for; busy, women, pretty, village the letters example, in the words city, for i, y, u, o, e and a all stand for the same vowel sound, the one which occurs in sit. Especialização Inglês – Fonologia L1 - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] Jan2015 30-15 Exercises Ex 01: Escreva o símbolo fonético inicial das palavras 1. cheiro 2. gato 4. 7. 10. junto couro cinema 5. 8. 11. cheque tipo girafa 3. 6. 9. 12. Ex 02: Indique o número de sons que ocorrem em cada uma das palavras abaixo: 03 1. sal 6. liquidação 2. casa 7. dogma 3. carro 8. cinto 4. pasta 9. quadro 5. gueto 10. xícara janela chuva dica rato 11. impregna 12. tardes 13. quilo 14. também 15. goiaba Ex 03: Classifique o som intervocálico nas palavras abaixo. Escreva o símbolo fonético correspondente. Siga o exemplo. Palavra Símbolo Classificação 1. passa Fricativa alveolar desvozeada 2. cara 3. gata 4. bala 5. palha 6. banha 7. garra 8. casa 9. cajá 10. acha Ex 04: Escreva o símbolo fonético correspondente ao segmento inicial das palavras abaixo: Palavra Símbolo Palavra Símbolo 1. chave 6. gato 2. tijolo 7. dia 3. jaca 8. lua 4. cama 9. xarope 5. gelo 10. rapaz Ex 05: Dê um exemplo de palavra do português brasileiro que tenha o segmento classificado abaixo. Indique o seu símbolo fonético Segmento Símbolo Exemplo 1. Oclusiva bilabial desvozeada capricho 2. Tepe alveolar vozeado 3. Fricativa alveolar desvozeada 4. Fricativa alveopalatal desvozeada 5. Fricativa alveopalatal vozeada 6. Nasal bilabial vozeada 7. Fricativa labiodental desvozeda 8. Africada alveopalatal desvozeada 9. Oclusiva alveolar vozeada 10. Africada alveopalatal vozeada Ex 06: Marque as consoantes que tenham a propriedade articulatória listada à esquerda (3 em cada grupo). a. vozeado f. fricativo b. desvozeado g. lateral c. nasal h. bilabial d. oral i. alveolar e. oclusivo j. velar Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Ex 07: Selecione uma das palavras abaixo cujo segmento inicial corresponda ao segmento listado abaixo. lado – cravo – frio – vaca – tipo – moça – gado – zero a. Oclusiva velar vozeada gado b. Africada alveopalatal desvozeada ________________ c. Fricativa labiodental vozeada ________________ d. Nasal bilabial voeada ________________ e. Lateral alveolar vozeada ________________ f. Fricativa labiodental desvozeada ________________ g. Fricativa alveolar vozeada ________________ h. Oclusiva velar desvozeada ________________ Ex 08: Para cada um dos segmentos listados abaixo escreva o correspondente vozeado. Siga o exemplo. Ex 09: Ex 10: lua mala cena falha lata cinema sol tarde chuva mamãe ala canjica dado melão cará pulga doce salsa muda sal pano droga cassino bola tropa traça calota carro massa selo grade soda caneta folha lama Ex 11: Classifique as vogais tônicas orais do português de acordo com as categorias listadas abaixo. As vogais a serem classificadsa são: ,,,,,, Anterior Central Posterior Alta Média-alta Média-baixa Baixa Ex 12: Nas palavras abaixo indique o símbolo fonético da vogal tônica. 1. balé 2. pivô 4. 7. 10. pavê roça peça 5. 8. 11. médico pássaro fossa 3. 6. 9. 12. japonês poço corda medo Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Ex 13: lã cem sabão sim bombom hora rua canto mulher surda rum pompom atum bem tom placa moda cabelo anjo flor Ex 14: Circule as palavras que terminam em som consonantal 1. system 5. cabagge 9. vulture 2. fox 6. coffee 10. cheese 3. happy 7. ring 11. baby 4. gender 8. blame 12. drama 13. these 14. orange 15. cow 16. service Ex 15: Em cada grupo de palavras abaixo circule aquelas que satisfaçam a condição pedida: a. Termina em som consonantal lady employee laugh drama piece house b. Termina em som vocálico high snow assume him scene spy c. Termina em som consonantal coffee late tough home niece unique d. Termina em som vocálico party plane star edge scene fly Ex 16: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 niece 6 2 bead 7 3 heavy 8 4 is 9 5 meat 10 quite law one sigh piece it green tree English Ex 17: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 fase 6 please 2 basic 7 rice 3 beauty 8 cough 4 of 9 young 5 fantasy 10 crisis Ex 18: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 prices 6 hope 2 said 7 ready 3 says 8 trees 4 eggs 9 cars 5 sleeps 10 cups Ex 19: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 books 6 forks 2 door 7 true 3 good 8 bored 4 pot 9 God 5 boom 10 kisses Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Ex 20: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 boys 6 this 2 they 7 cheap 3 stay 8 these 4 thought 9 shame 5 rouge 10 Jane Ex 21: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 love 6 bus 2 cow 7 water 3 ugly 8 does 4 bird 9 gold 5 just 10 cold Ex 22: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 kings 6 man 2 rooms 7 men 3 noses 8 hanged 4 women 9 beers 5 woman 10 bears Ex 23: Dê um exemplo em forma ortográfica e fonética de cada um dos sons consonantais do inglês listados abaixo: som ortografia fonética som ortografia fonética rouge [ru:] Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Ex 24: Transcreva ortograficamente os seguintes enunciados: 1) ____________________________________________ 2) ________________________________ 3) ________________________________________________ 4) _____________________________________________ Ex 25: Circule ou marque um X nas palavras que têm o som listado na coluna da esquerda: people built key busy sea 1. book shoe move pull soup would 2. love duck flood bug double 3. many ready says marry bye 4. pleasure jam sugar vision regime 5. boat house show know doubt 6. choice cage which edge nature 7. pack ghost orchestra come acquire 8. chew wolf too move look 9. 10. f chef action social cause shoe laugh Ex 26: Circule as palavras que têm a vogal listada na coluna da esquerda 1) bin, reach, fill, see, sea, sin 2) bet, dead, bed, fell, wet, led 3) bat, dad, card, lack, bad, last 4) duck, cup, nut, lost, luck, rum 5) last, tan, bat, card, ward, pass 6) dock, box, cod, cord, Paul, lack Ex 27: As duas sentenças abaixo representam transcrições que apresentam desvio de pronúncia padrão do inglês. Faça as correcões adequadas. a) _________________________________ b) ___________________________________ Ex 28: Escolha UMA das opções como a transcrição fonética da palavra em forma ortográfica. Marque-a com um X ou circule-a. 1. bird 2. walk 3. mail 4. middle 5. night 6. never 7. family 8. dream 9. woman 10. complete Ex 29: Escolha a uma das opções como a transcrição fonética da palavra em forma ortográfica: 1. rich 2. search 3. fetch 4. bridge Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ 5. surge 6. catch Ex 30: Dê um exemplo de palavra para cada um dos sons listados abaixo (em transcrição fonética e ortográfica) Som Fonética Ortografia Som Fonética Ortografia Ex 31: Escreva a forma ortográfica e a forma fonética de 3a. psp e do passado dos verbos listados na tabela abaixo (indique todo o verbo e a terminação verbal): Fonética Ortografia Presente Passado Ex 32: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo: 1. happy 3. science 5. English 7. house 2. 4. 6. 8. small thing hat fantasy Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ 9. 11. 13. 15. 17. 19. because rice niece basic was street 10. 12. 14. 16. 18. 20. never ask slow these study money Ex 33: Transcreva foneticamente as sentenças abaixo a. He is just twelve years old. b. They arrived very late for the meeting. c. I’ve been thinking about them in the past few days. Ex 34: Em cada par de pronúncia circule aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Indique a forma ortográfica que você identificou. Pronúncia Ortográfica 1. 2. 3. 4. Ex 35: Em cada par de pronúncia marque com um (x) ‘xis’ aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Na forma que não foi selecionada circule o(s) desvio(s) da pronúncia nativa. Ex 36: Em cada par de pronúncia circule aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Indique a forma ortográfica que você identificou. Pronúncia Ortográfica 1. 2. 3. 4. Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Referências ABERCROMBIE, David. Elements of General Phonetics. Edinburgh University Press. Edinburgh. 1967.fonética e fonologia do inglês CRISTÓFARO-SILVA, Thaïs. O Ensino de Pronúncia de Língua Estrangeira. IN; Em torno da Lingua(gem): questões e análises. UESB. Vitória da Conquista. CRISTÓFARO-SILVA, Thaïs. Pronúncia do Inglês para Falantes do Português Brasileiro. FALE. 2005. CRISTÓFARO-SILVA, Thaïs. Fonética e Fonologia do Português.:roteiro de estudos e guia de exercícios. Editora Contexto. 2001. CRISTÓFARO-SILVA, Thaïs. (2000). O Método das Vogais Cardeais e as Vogais do Português Brasileiro. Revista de Estudos da Linguagem UFMG. Volume 8. Número 2, jul-dez 1999. LADEFOGED, Peter. A Course in Phonetics. 3rd. ed. Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich. 1993.fonética e fonologia do inglês O'CONNOR, J. D. Better English Pronunciation. 2nd ed. Cambridge Univesrity Press. 1980.Excelente livro de pronúncia do inglês KREIDLER, Charles. The Pronunciation of English: A Course Book in Phonology. Blackwell. 1989.Excelente livro de fonologia do inglês WELL, J. Why phonetic transcription is important. Online. 2008. Dicionários JONES, D. English Pronuncing Dictionary. Cambridge University Press. 1997 (1st ed 1917 by J. M.Dent &Sons Ltd.). 15th ed. Edited by Peter Roach and James Hartman. CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY PRESS. CIDE (Cambridge International Dictionary of English). 2000. KENYON, J. S. & Knott. Pronouncing Dictionary of American English. G & C Merrian & Co. 1953. WELLS, John. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Longman. 1990. Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Instruções Praat 1) Para abrir o PRAAT: clicar no ícone no seu explorer Duas janelas: Praat objects – abre arquivos, faz gravações, etc. Praat picture – imprime Para gravar: Na janela do praat objects, clique em new, record mono sound ou record stereo sound. Para salvar um som que você acabou de gravar clique em save to list, na caixa de gravação, depois selecione o som e vá no menu Write, Write to Wave file. Para abrir um arquivo já existente: Clique no menu read depois read from file. Se for um som longo, clique no menu read, depois open long sound file. Para editar: Selecione o dado que você quer editar na janela em branco, que aparece do lado esquerdo no praat objects. Clique em edit. Aí aparece o som editado. Em cima o oscilograma, ou seja, a onda, e em baixo o espectrograma. Espectrogramas: Banda larga – estrutura do formante Banda estreita - harmônicos Se o espectrograma não é visível no sound editor, clique em show spectrogram. O default é o espectrograma visível. Você pode ajustar os parâmetros do espectrograma, clicando em Spectrogram settings ou Advanced spectrogram settings. No spectrogram settings aparece uma janela com as opções: View range Window length – define banda larga e banda estreita. Banda larga: 0,003 a 0,005 (depende do informante) Banda estreita: 0,03 Dynamic range – o default do praat é 50 db. Se você aumenta, as linhas escurecem, se diminui, clareiam. Se há um sinal com muito ruído, a solução é diminuir (passar pra 30 ou 40 db). - Você pode pegar o valor da intensidade, do pitch ou dos formantes, clicando no menu correspondente a esses parâmetros. Se você pedir show formants, vão aparecer pontos vermelhos indicando o lugar dos formantes. Para editar Para recortar uma palavra, primeiro você seleciona a palavra. Depois você salva. Para salvar, clique em file, write selection to wav file, dê um nome.wav, por exemplo, onda.wav e salve. Para abrir novamente esse som. Vá ao praat objects, clique em open, depois em edit. Para imprimir: Para imprimir ou para inserir o espectrograma em algum documento do word, você precisa transferi-lo para a janela praat picture. Para transferir a onda. Selecione a onda. Clique em file, extract selection. O nome sound untitled aparece na janela do praat objects. Selecione esse som. Clique em draw. Quando você dá ok, esse som aparece na janela do praat picture dentro da caixa cor de rosa. O espaço dessa caixa cor de rosa, será o espaço ocupado pela onda. A partir daí você pode imprimir, clicando em print, ou criar um arquivo de figuras para inserir em qualquer documento do word. Para criar um arquivo, clique em: Write to windows metafile. Dê um nome .emf, por exemplo, onda.emf. Para transferir espectrograma. No janela sound, onde está o espectrograma, vá em spectrogram e extract visible spectrogram. No praat objects aparece spectrogram untitled. Selecione, vá à janela do praat picture e defina o tamanho da caixa cor de rosa. Em seguida, clique em paint. O espectrograma aparecerá na janela do praat picture. Para imprimir clique em print. Para salvar como uma figura do word, clique em file, write to windows meta file. Dê um nome .emf, por exemplo, espectrograma.emf. Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ Resposta dos Exercícios da Apostila CEI - © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva - 2014 Ex 01: Escreva o símbolo fonético inicial das palavras 13. [ cheiro 16. junto 19. couro 22. cinema 14. gato 17. cheque 20. tipo 23. girafa 15. janela 18. chuva 21. dica 24. rato Ex 02: Indique o número de sons que ocorre em cada uma das palavras abaixo: 03 1.sal 09 ou 10 6. liquidação 07 ou 08 04 2. casa 05 ou 06 7. dogma 05 ou 06 04 3. carro 04 8. cinto 04 05 4. pasta 06 9. quadro 05 04 5. gueto 06 10. xícara 06 11. impregna 12. tardes 13. quilo 14. também 15. goiaba Ex 03: Classifique o som intervocálico nas palavras abaixo. Escreva o símbolo fonético correspondente. Siga o exemplo. Palavra Símbolo Classificação 1. passa Fricativa alveolar desvozeada 2. cara Tepe alveolar vozeado 3. gata Oclusiva alveolar desvozeada 4. bala Lateral alveolar vozeada 5. palha 6. banha 7. garra 8. casa Lateral palatal vozeada Nasal palatal vozeada Fricativa glotal desvozeada Fricativa alveolar vozeada 9. cajá 10. acha Fricativa alveopalatal vozeada Fricativa alveopalatal desvozeada Ex 04: Escreva o símbolo fonético correspondente ao segmento inicial das palavras abaixo Palavra Símbolo Palavra 1. chave 6. gato 2. tijolo 7. dia 3. jaca 8. lua 4. cama 9. xarope 5. gelo 10. rapaz Símbolo Ex 05: Dê um exemplo de palavra do português brasileiro que tenha os egmento classificado abaixo. Indique o seu símbolo fonético Segmento Símbolo Exemplo 1. Oclusiva bilabial desvozeada capricho 2. Tepe alveolar vozeado cara 3. Fricativa alveolar desvozeada seu 4. Fricativa alveopalatal desvozeada 5.Fricativa alveopalatal vozeada 6. Nasal bilabial vozeada 7. Fricativa labiodental desvozeda 8.Africada alveopalatal vozeada chave jogo meu foi cappuccino 9.Oclusiva alveolar vozeada 10. Africada alveopalatal vozeada dar dia Ex 06: Marque as consoantes que tenham a propriedade articulatória listada à esquerda (3 em cada grupo) a. vozeado b. desvozeado Apostila CEI 2014 – © Thaïs Cristófaro Silva – FALE-UFMG [email protected] ___________________________________________________________________________ c. nasal d. oral e. oclusivo f. fricativo g. lateral h. bilabial i. alveolar j. velar Ex 07: Selecione uma das palavras abaixo cujo segmento inicial corresponda ao segmento listado abaixo. lado – cravo – frio – vaca – tipo – moça – gado – zero a. Oclusiva velar vozeada gado b. Africada alveopalatal desvozeada tipo c. Fricativa labiodental vozeada vaca d. Nasal bilabial voeada moça e. Lateral alveolar vozeada lado f. Fricativa labiodental desvozeada frio g. Fricativa alveolar vozeada zero h. Oclusiva velar desvozeada cravo Ex 08: Para cada um dos segmentos listados abaixo escreva o correspondente vozeado. Siga o exemplo. x Ex 09: ----- ----- Ex 10: lua cinema ala pulga pano traça grade mala sol canjica doce droga calota soda cena tarde dado salsa cassino carro caneta falha chuva melão muda bola massa folha lata mamãe cará sal tropa selo lama Ex 11: Classifique as vogais tônicas orais do português de acordo com as categorias listadas abaixo. As vogais a serem classificadsa são: ,,,,,, anterior Média-alta ,, , Central Média-baixa , Posterior ,, Alta , Baixa Ex 12: Nas palavras abaixo indique o símbolo fonético da vogal tônica. 13. balé 16. pavê 14. pivô 17. médico 15. japonês 18. poço Especialização Inglês – Fonologia - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] 19. roça 22. peça 20. ] pássaro 23. fossa 21. corda 24. dedo Ex 13: lã cem sabão sim bombom hora rum placa rua canto mulher pompom atum bem tom moda cabelo anjo flor Ex 14: Circule as palavras que terminam em som consonantal 1. system 5. cabagge 2. fox 6. coffee 3. happy 7. ring 4. gender 8. blame 9. vulture 10. cheese 11. baby 12. drama surda 13. these 14. orange 15. cow 16. service Ex 15: Em cada grupo de palavras abaixo circule aquelas que satisfaçam a condição pedida: e. Termina em som consonantal lady employee laugh drama piece house quite f. Termina em som vocálico high snow assume him scene spy law g. Termina em som consonantal coffee late tough home niece unique one h. Termina em som vocálico party plane star edge scene fly sigh Ex 16: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 niece 6 2 bead 7 3 heavy 8 4 is 9 5 meat 10 piece it green tree English Ex 17: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 phase 6 please 2 basic 7 rice 3 beauty 8 cough 4 of 9 young 5 fantasy 10 crisis Ex 18: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 prices 6 hope 2 said 7 ready 3 says 8 trees 4 eggs 9 cars 5 sleeps 10 cups Ex 19: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 books 6 forks 2 door 7 true 3 good 8 bored 4 pot 9 God 5 boom 10 kisses 30-26 Especialização Inglês – Fonologia - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] 30-27 Ex 20: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 2 3 4 5 boys they stay thought rouge 6 7 8 9 10 this cheap these shame Jane Ex 21: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 2 3 4 5 love cow ugly bird just 6 7 8 9 10 bus water does gold cold Ex 22: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo 1 kings 6 man 2 rooms 7 men 3 noses 8 hanged 4 women 9 biers 5 woman 10 bears Ex 23: Dê um exemplo em forma ortográfica e fonética de cada um dos sons consonantais do inglês listados abaixo: som ortografia fonética som ortografia fonética pot this bus these tea shoe dad rouge cow home ugly shame cheap no just ring thin love the right phone yes very water me toy Tom book you I men busy they door it man about does bird beers Especialização Inglês – Fonologia - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] 30-28 now tour cold bears Ex 24: Transcreva ortograficamente os seguintes enunciados: They came yesterday. 1. Thank you very much for your advice. 2. 3. Yes, I mentioned it. What’s her phone number. 4. Ex 25: Circule ou marque um X nas palavras que têm o som listado na coluna da esquerda: people built key busy sea 11. book shoe move pull soup would 12. love duck flood bug double 13. many ready says marry bye 14. pleasure jam sugar vision regime 15. boat house show know doubt 16. choice cage which edge nature 17. pack ghost orchestra come acquire 18. chew wolf too move look 19. 20. f chef action social cause shoe laugh Ex 26: Circule as palavras que têm a vogal listada na coluna da esquerda 1) bin, reach, fill, see, sea, sin 2) bet, dead, bed, fell, wet, led 3) bat, dad, card, lack, bad, last 4) duck, cup, nut, lost, luck, rum 5) last, tan, bat, card, ward, pass 6) dock, box, cod, cord, Paul, lack Ex 27: As duas sentenças abaixo representam transcrições que apresentam desvio de pronúncia padrão do inglês. Faça as correcões adequadas. a. b. Ex 28: Escolha UMA das opções como a transcrição fonética da palavra em forma ortográfica. Marque-a com um X ou circule-a. 11. bird 12. walk 13. mail 14. middle 15. night 16. never 17. family 18. dream 19. woman 20. complete Ex 29: Escolha a uma das opções como a transcrição fonética da palavra em forma ortográfica: 1. rich 2. search 3. fetch 4. bridge 5. surge 6. catch Especialização Inglês – Fonologia - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] 30-29 Ex 30: Dê um exemplo de palavra para cada um dos sons listados abaixo (em transcrição fonética e ortográfica) Som Fonética Ortografia Som Fonética Ortografia thin try Mum enjoy light now joke say that free church bed write bad fact word wrong is home dog Ex 31: Escreva a forma ortográfica e a forma fonética de 3a. psp e do passado dos verbos listados na tabela abaixo (indique todo o verbo e a terminação verbal): Fonética Ortografia Presente Passado snow beg please decide kiss grab aim whistle open practice help depend arrive pick push taste protect enjoy free sniff Ex 32: Transcreva foneticamente as palavras abaixo: happy science English house because rice niece basic was street small thing hat fantasy never ask slow these study money Especialização Inglês – Fonologia - CEI-FALE-UFMG Thaïs Cristófaro-Silva© [email protected] 30-30 Ex 33: Transcreva foneticamente as sentenças abaixo a. He is just twelve years old. b. They arrived very late for the meeting. c. I’ve been thinking about them in the past few days. Ex 34: Em cada par de pronúncia circule aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Indique a forma ortográfica que você identificou. Pronúncia Ortográfica thank you 1. very good 2. Yes, I’m well. 3. What’s your name? 4. Ex 35: Em cada par de pronúncia marque com um (x) ‘xis’ aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Na forma que não foi selecionada circule o(s) desvio(s) da pronúncia nativa. I love cakes. This is my favourite toy. Who is that man? I’m very concerned. That’s very nice of you. Thank you! I like you very much, my dear friends. Ex 36: Em cada par de pronúncia circule aquela que parece ser mais próxima a um enunciado de falante nativo. Indique a forma ortográfica que você identificou. Pronúncia Ortográfica I was in London. 1. It is a miracle. 2. It is cold. 3. I’m going home. 4. JOHN WELLS Goals in teaching English pronunciation 1. Aims in language teaching The current debate about the phonology of English as an international language (EIL) should encourage us to think about our aims in language teaching, and specifically in the teaching of English pronunciation in the context of English for speakers of other languages. Some of the questions we need to address are as follows. • • Are we teaching EFL, ESL or EIL? that is, do we intend our students to use English as a foreign language, as a second language, or as an international language? Now the mere formulation of this question exposes its absurdity. English in Poland may not currently have any role as a second language in the sense of a role such as it plays in India, Nigeria or Singapore; but Polish learners of English will surely want to be able to apply their learning of English both in an EFL context and in an EIL context. They want to be able to apply their acquired knowledge of English by participating wherever English is used. It is not realistic to ask for a choice between EFL and EIL: our students need both. Do you and your students want to be able to interact with native speakers? or only with non-native speakers? Will they interact with the British, the Americans, the Australians, the Irish, the English-speaking West Indians and the Canadians? Or will they interact with those whose L1 is not English, for example with the Japanese, the Scandinavians, • • and the Arabs? Or indeed with those who will shortly be your partners in the European Union – the Italians, the Spanish, the Austrians – to the extent that they will be speaking English with them rather than French, German or some other EU language? Clearly, Polish learners will want to be able to interact with both native speakers (NSs) and non-native speakers (NNSs). The teaching of English to speakers of other languages may indeed have different aims in, for example, Britain, Nigeria, and Japan respectively. In teaching English to immigrants in Britain, the main aim is clearly to enable learners to interact with British people, native speakers. In Nigerian primary schools, it is to enable them to participate in the public life of their country by interacting with other Nigerians. In Japan a main focus might indeed be the use of English to communicate with the Chinese or the Latin Americans. What are the student’s personal aims and aspirations in language learning? Different students in the same class of school or university may well have rather different aims. Some just want enough English to communicate at a basic level, or indeed just enough to pass some examination. Others aim to achieve the best they possibly can. We must cater for both types and for those who fall somewhere between. Speaking personally, I must say that my own aspiration in learning languages is NS-like proficiency. I acknowledge that I may be unlikely to attain it. But that doesn’t stop me aiming for it. I try to inspire my students with the same high ideal. If it were suggested that I should not even aim so high, I should feel short-changed. 2. ‘English as an international language’ What, then, are the characteristics of English as an International Language? Arguably, it suffers from a number of design faults, characteristics that make it unsuitable for this role newly imposed upon it. • It has an elaborate and unwieldy vocabulary. Even among the most basic and frequent words there are many sets of nearsynonyms such as ill vs. sick, big vs. large, small vs. little, tricky to distinguish between. Where we have a single noun king we have three related adjectives: kingly (of Germanic origin), royal (French) and regal (Latin). They have subtly different nuances, which may be fine for literature and literary language, but are a superfluous burden for those who only want to use the language for practical purposes. The verb arrive has an associated noun arrival; but for depart the noun is not *departal but departure. When the plan lands that is not a *landal or a *landure but a landing; when it takes off again that is not a *take-offal, *take-offure or *taking-off but a simple take-off. This inconsistency in derivational morphology (typical of English) is an unnecessary complication for NNSs. • It has a complex syntax, although this is partly compensated for by the simplicity of the inflectional morphology. • Its orthography is notoriously inconsistent and irregular. You cannot safely predict the pronunciation from the spelling. Nor, given the pronunciation, can you reliably infer the spelling. • Its phonetics is idiosyncratic, including various characteristics that are unusual from the point of view of universals: an large and elaborate vowel system, including complex processses of length alternation and weakening (compete-competitive-competition); a consonant system that includes dental fricatives ([7, ']) and voiced sibilants ([z, =, d=]), which are problematic for many learners; words stress placement that is free, i.e. arbitrary and frequently unpredictable; and an intonation system that seems to be more complex and to have a much higher functional load than that of most other languages. It it because of such considerations that some (including me) have argued that for international purposes we ought to use Esperanto, rather than English. Given, however, that most people seem content for English to play this role, what special provisions do we need to make for EIL? The Lingua Franca Core (LFC) approach can be represented — with oversimplification and rather unfairly — as saying that we should ignore the parts of English that NNSs tend to get wrong. Jennifer Jenkins has made a number of proposals in The Phonology of English as an International Language (Jenkins 2000). We shall consider some of them in a moment. If we applied similar proposals not to phonetics but to grammar, it would arguably mean ignoring such difficult matters as the articles (coffee—a coffee—the coffee), the number system (singular vs. plural, dog vs. dogs), the distinction between countable [C] and uncountable [U] (so that we could happily talk of informations and furnitures), and the distinction in verbs between progressive and non-progressive (are you smoking? vs. do you smoke, which even fluent users of English in Scandinavia typically ignore). In vocabulary we could stop worrying about false friends such as actually and eventually, relatively international words where the NS English meaning is out of line with the meaning in other languages that have the word. Many of the oddities of NNS pronunciation of English are due to inappropriate inference from the spelling. The NS spoken form of marvellous is [§m$Ø(r)v()ls]. NNSs who say [§mavelus] or the like, with [u] in the final syllable, are doing so purely on the basis of (mis)interpreting the spelling. Native speakers pronounce climbing as [§kla,m,1] or [§kla,m,n]. Nigerians who say [§klaimbi1g], with [-b-], do so because of spelling. For NSs, the past tense of look [l8k] is looked [l8kt]. Nigerians typically treat the past tense as [d] and then apply voicing assimilation, giving [lugd]. Arabs speaking English often treat it as [,d], giving [§l8k,d]. Arguably, both of these forms are mispronunciations arising simply from defective teaching: no one has ever taught such NNSs how the English regular past tense is pronounced. There is no more reason to regard them as acceptable than there is for *childs instead of children or *teached instead of taught. In cases where NSs make differences in pronunciation that are not reflected in spelling, NNSs tend to ignore them. Although the difference between the noun entrance [§entrns] and the verb to entrance [,n§tr$Øns] can be coped with, the difference between the verb to separate [§sepre,t] and the adjective separate [§seprt, §sep()r,t] may be lost, as is that between the verb to document [-ment] and the noun a document [-mnt]. South and southern have different vowels for NSs ([sa87, §s£'()(r)n]), but often not for NNSs. There are many other ways in which English spelling misleads NNSs, who unlike NSs learn visually rather than auditorily. NSs pronounce front with the STRUT vowel (RP [fr£nt]); NNSs often use the LOT vowel ([frcnt]), purely because of the way it is written. There are two possible remedies for this general problem (if it is indeed a problem): either we must reform English spelling (and I might mention that I have just become President of the Simplified Spelling Society) — or teachers of English to speakers of other languages must teach the pronunciation of each word as well as its spelling. This implies teaching the use of phonetic symbols, at least passively for reference. 3. Phonology of EIL? Jenkins’s proposals still require the mastery of a fair number of difficult pronunciation points that are not in practice mastered by many users of EIL. The consonant [f], a major problem for Koreans, Filipinos and others. Korean [ph] instead of [f] is likely to trigger a breakdown in communication, as Jenkins shows; Korean [hÆ] (their other L1 possibility) is hardly a better substitute. We have to teach the articulatory difference between bilabial plosive [p] and labiodental fricative [f]; we have to train the learner not only to produce the difference but also to perceive it (the latter task being often overlooked). There is no way to avoid drilling the learner with minimal pairs such as pork—fork, copy—coffee. Other consonantal differences that constitute serious problems for some learners, but which Jenkins rightly insists must be mastered, include [b–v, r–l, s–6, s–z, t6–d=, j–d=]. Failure to discriminate one or two of these pairs can perhaps be condoned, given sufficient redundancy in the context to disambiguate otherwise ambiguous messages. We can readily cope with Swedish English in which every /z/ becomes [s], provided that all the rest of the pronunciation is pretty NS-like. But Japanese English in which [b-v] and [r-l] are confused, together with various vowel confusions and phonotactic problems, ends up unintelligible. I am in favour of Jenkins’s suggestion that l-vocalization should be allowed, indeed encouraged for those learners for whom dark /l/ constitutes a problem. There are millions of Londoners and others who say [m,ok] for milk, [b£ob] for bulb, [§bcto] or [§bco] for bottle, etc., and I see no reason why the French or the Cantonese should not do likewise. Allophonic reduction in vowel length (pre-fortis clipping, as in right as compared with ride) helps intelligibility, but is difficult to teach and learn. However phonemic vowel ‘length’ differences, perhaps better considered primarily as vowel quality differences, are another matter. Jenkins is right to insist on mastery of the [iØ–,] distinction (leave vs. live, sheep vs. ship), which is made by all NSs. Her wording also implies that the distinctions [uØ–8] and [oØ–c] are equally required, and here I disagree. Millions of Scottish speakers of English manage perfectly well without any difference between the vowel of shoot and that of foot, and there are tens of millions of Americans and Canadians for whom hawk and hock are homophonous. These distinctions have a low functional load and are not needed in EIL. Jenkins’s wording does not leave it entirely clear whether the vowel oppositions /e-æ, æ-£, oØ-8/ are required in the LFC, but I assume that they are, despite constituting a considerable problem for some NNSs. The difficulty with English /æ/ is that many languages have only two vowels available for the three English vowels /e, æ, £/ to be mapped onto. The consequence is that learners disregard either the /e – æ/ distinction (Polish, Russian, German and Hungarian learners, who tend to make bed and bad identical) or the /æ - £/ distinction (Japanese and Spanish-speaking learners, who tend to make bad and bud identical). In either case misunderstandings can result. It is to be emphasized that we are concerned here with the vowel system rather than with the details of vowel realization. All NSs distinguish bed – bad – bud, though the actual vowel qualities used may vary widely. Listeners can tune in to such variability without too much difficulty. There are six short vowels in most kinds of English, representing the standard lexical sets KIT, DRESS, TRAP, STRUT, LOT, FOOT (Wells 1982:ch. 2), as in bid, bed, bad, bud, cod, good. There are NS accents that merge STRUT and FOOT (the north of England, where cut and put rhyme) or TRAP and LOT (popular Jamaican, where black and block sound identical). But no NS accent merges DRESS and TRAP (/e - æ/, bed—bad), a distinction that also bears a high functional load. Nor is there any NS accent that merges TRAP and STRUT (/æ - £/, bad—bud). These oppositions, difficult as they may be for learners, are ones on which we must insist. In teaching such vowel oppositions it is important not to forget to teach the spelling-to-sound rules associated with them. For /e – æ/ there is a fairly reliable rule: if the spelling is e or ea, the sound may be /e/ but never /æ/; if the spelling is a, the sound may be /æ/ but never /e/. Thus we have let, dress, when, very, never, dead, bread, head, pleasure with /e/ and hat, cap, ran, stack, have, gather, tram, dabble with /æ/. The only exceptions are any and many, together with ate if pronounced /et/ and the suffix –ary if pronounced /-eri/. For /æ £/ the rule is 100% reliable: if the spelling is a, the sound may be /æ/ but never /e/; if the spelling is u, o or ou the sound may be /£ £/ but never /æ/. Thus we have hat, cap etc. again with /æ/, and hut, cup, run, stuck, love, mother, come, touch, trouble with /£/. While there are various NS accents of English that manage without the opposition between LOT and THOUGHT (don—dawn, RP /c - oØ/), there are none that dispense with that between THOUGHT and GOAT (law—low, RP /oØ - 8/). So here again we must insist that this distinction be learnt. Again what is important is the systemic contrast rather than any particular realization: clearly in an EIL context [oØ] is as acceptable for GOAT as [8] or [o8]. From a comparative and historical perspective, the accents of England (including RP), Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa are unusual in having lost the distinction between the lexical sets THOUGHT and FORCE, merging them as /oØ/ in homophones such as flaw—floor, caught—court, sauce—source (as in Gimson’s joke about good chefs who, like good journalists, refuse to reveal their /§soØs,z/). The resultant homophonic clashes do not cause serious problems, even though Jenkins’s proposals remedy them by restoring historical r as appropriate. Jenkins also insists on the mastery of the [Ø] of the NURSE set (or rather of its rhotic equivalent [´Ø]). Whichever variant we select, however, we are dealing with a sound-type that is from the point of view of language universals highly marked, being vary rare indeed among the languages of the world – though fortunately, perhaps, the widely spoken Mandarin Chinese does have a sound similar to American [´Ø]. There are many EIL learners for whom this vowel remains problematic, not least the Japanese, who typically confuse star and stir. Let us turn now to the question of phonotactics: cases in which it is not so much individual sounds that constitute a problem as their combinations in particular positions in the syllable. Although Poles have no difficulties with English consonant clusters, there are many learners who do – Japanese, Chinese, and Koreans for example as well as speakers of Spanish. Thus an English word such as strong may come out most easily as [es§tron] (Spaniards) or [s8t8§rc] (Japanese), with the difficult initial consonant cluster /str-/ resolved by the addition of epenthetic vowels. Rather than add vowels, speakers of Cantonese tend to omit consonants that are in positions they find difficult, which has an even worse effect on intelligibility. In wordinitial position the clusters in such everyday words such as pray, bread, train, queen, splash may offer a problem; so in word-final position may the clusters in milk, lamp, left, fox and wasp (not to mention its plural wasps). Voiced obstruents are not a problem for speakers of Polish, German, or Russian, but producing them in word-final position is. Hence they must learn to produce voiced (or at least lenis) obstruents in such words as rub, bad, big, love, rose, rage. Whether bed is pronounced as [bet] (German) or [be] (Cantonese), in each case the NS opposition between final /d/ and /t/ is lost. A particular problem with consonants is that the L1 may have phonological processes – allophonic or assimilatory – that are inappropriate in English. However learners of English will tend to apply them in English unless taught not to. Thus Korean learners, for example, need to be warned against the Korean assimilatory processes that turn pop music into po[m] music or Rugrats into Ru[1n]ats. Poles should be discouraged from applying Polish-style voicing assimilation such as makes ice dancing sound like eyes dancing and pick them up like pig them up. When we turn to suprasegmental matters, Jenkins rightly insists on the importance of not accenting function words. There must be a difference between a big one (e.g. when we are talking about waves, a big wave: one is a function word) and a big one (which might be a large figure one: one is a form word). She rightly insists also on the importance of deaccenting repeated lexical items, or of lexical items with the same semantic referent. Although this principle applies in many other languages more or less as in English, there are differences of detail: as pointed out by Ortiz-Lira, 1995, where the English reply to We’re already late might be I don’t care if we are late, with the repeated word late deaccented, the Spanish equivalent would be Pero si ya estamos atrasados – No me importa si estamos atrasados with no such change in accent pattern. In summary, my prioritizing recommendations for the teaching of English pronunciation in an EFL/EIL context would be: • to concentrate on the matters that most impede intelligibility; while encouraging fluency and confidence; • not to neglect the need to interact with NSs; arguably, we also need to educate the NSs; • to exploit the findings of contrastive analysis to help pinpoint likely areas of difficulty. While contrastive analysis does not provide all the answers, it goes a good way towards pointing us in the right direction. This means, for instance, that Polish learners of English must pay particular attention to those consonants that are not found (or not found as phonemes, or found with very different phonetic realization) in their L1: /7, ', 1, r, h/; to final obstruent vocing, and to aspiration; among English vowels, to /æ, Ø, , 8, e/, to pre-fortis clipping, to vowel duration and to weakening. Thank you [§7æ1k ju], or as we might say in the LFC [§te1k ju §veri §mat6]. References Jenkins, Jennifer, 2000. The Phonology of English as an International Language. Oxford University Press. Lewis, Jack Windsor (ed.), 1995. Studies in General and English Phonetics. London: Routledge. Ortiz-Lira, Héctor, 1995. ‘Nucleus placement in English and Spanish: a pilot study’. In Lewis 1995. Wells, J.C., 1982. Accents of English. Three volumes. Cambridge University Press. 1 http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/whytranscription.htm June 2008 Why phonetic transcription is important John Wells, UCL This document uses Unicode to encode IPA phonetic symbols. If you cannot see a schwa here [ə ə] on your screen, Windows 95/98/ME/NT/2000/XP users please download Lucida Sans Unicode free of charge and install it on your system, and/or install a newer browser. This talk was given at Seoul National University, Korea, in 1996 and published in Malsori (Phonetics), the Journal of the Phonetic Society of Korea, No. 31-32:239-242, December 1996. 1. Introduction In this talk I want to discuss the usefulness and importance of phonetic transcription for people studying languages. Since most of you here are phoneticians, you are presumably already convinced of this; I may be preaching to the converted. Nevertheless, there are many language teachers who appear to be far from converted, and I believe that certain arguments do need to be spelled out. The principal reason for using phonetic transcription is easily stated. When we transcribe a word or an utterance, we give a direct specification of its pronunciation. If ordinary spelling reliably indicated actual pronunciation, phonetic transcription might be unnecessary; but often it does not. This is obvious when we consider a language such as English, whose spelling is blatantly irregular; or a language such as Chinese, with a nonalphabetic orthography, whose written form generally does not give any direct information about pronunciation (and of course this applies also to Chinese characters used in writing Japanese or Korean). But even in languages with socalled phonetic orthography, such as Swahili, Finnish or Korean han’gŭl, there may be sporadic mismatches between the sound and the spelling of words, while there are almost always phonetic characteristics of continuous speech that are not reflected in the orthography. For the language learner, a passive acquaintance with phonetic transcription enables him or her to extract precise and explicit information on pronunciation from a dictionary, bilingual or monolingual. Without this information, a learner risks being misled either by an inadequately trained ear or by the dazzling effect of the ordinary spelling. Nowadays learners of foreign languages ought to have ample opportunities of hearing the language spoken, and not just by their teacher and their fellowpupils. Television, video tapes, cassettes and CDs give today’s learners an advantage which earlier generations did not have. However, mere exposure to authentic language material, while it will certainly improve a learner’s comprehension ability, is not sufficient to ensure a good productive command of 2 the language or a good pronunciation. Almost everyone can benefit from explicit pronunciation teaching, in which the use of phonetic transcription has an important role. In what follows I shall concentrate on the teaching and learning of English; but many of the points apply to other languages too. 2. The dictionary entry A good dictionary gives information on a whole range of matters. As well as telling you what a word means (by translation or otherwise), it should at least give relevant information about its grammatical status and about its pronunciation. There are various ways of giving information about pronunciation: respelling using orthographic conventions of the learner’s language, respelling using orthographic conventions of the target language, or phonetic notation. All of these can be regarded as types of phonetic transcription, though they may well vary considerably in quality. The easiest transcription system for the beginner is arguably a respelling using the orthographic conventions of the first language: for example, showing English pronunciation in a Korean-English bilingual dictionary by transcribing English pronunciation into han’gŭl, in a Japanese-English bilingual dictionary by transcribing it into katakana, or in a Turkish-English bilingual dictionary by writing it in Latin letters with Turkish spelling conventions. In its crudest form, this has the major drawback of treating English as if its sound system were the same as that of the learner’s first language. At the very least the transcription system will need to be made more elaborate, and therefore more complicated, by devising ways of symbolizing those sounds of English that are not found in Korean, Japanese, or Turkish respectively. Obvious examples of such sounds are the two th-sounds of English, the voiceless and voiced dental fricatives heard in thin and this respectively; or the vowel sound of the word nurse (no matter whether we take British RP or GenAm as our pronunciation model for English). Respelling systems using English orthographic conventions are found mainly in monolingual dictionaries aimed at native speakers. Such systems are still generally in use in the United States, though I am gratified to say that in Britain they have quite recently been displaced by transcriptions using the International Phonetic Alphabet. They have to contend with various awkward facts about traditional English spelling: for example, that there is no unambiguous way of spelling the diphthong sound /a aʊ/ (as in mouth, now), because both ou and ow, the obvious candidates, correspond to a different diphthong in soul, own (not to mention still other possibilities for ou exemplified in the words group, thought, could, cough, double, tourist, journey ). There is no unambiguous way of showing the diphthongs of price, goat in traditional English spelling; so respelling systems have to resort to special symbols involving the letters i and o with a macron diacritic (ī, ō). We can be proud that EFL 3 dictionaries have led the way in employing IPA notation, which is unambiguous and systematic. 3. How is this word pronounced? Every beginner needs to learn, for example, that the w in the English word write has to be ignored. This word is pronounced identically with the much less common word rite. We can show this by transcribing them: they are both transcribed phonetically as /rraɪt/. Furthermore, there is yet another word pronounced in the same way: right. All three words are homophones. Strangely enough, there are many native speakers of English to whom facts such as this are not self-evident. English people beginning the study of phonetics sometimes imagine that words such as write and wrong begin with a w-sound. Or they may believe that know ends with one (but not no). They are so dazzled by their knowledge of the spelling that they hold quite mistaken views about pronunciation. And there are learners of English as a foreign language who get equally misled by the spelling. Learners of English have to contend with the ambiguity inherent in many spelling sequences. As you know, o plus consonant letter plus e usually corresponds to BrE /əʊ/, AmE /oʊ/, as in home, nose, vote. But sometimes, as in love, come the vowel is /ʌ/; and in move it is /uː/. Where the letter o denotes a short vowel, the sound is usually BrE /ɒ/, AmE /ɑː/, as in lot, top. But in many other cases it is /ʌ/, as in front, monkey. In the case of the combination or the sound is usually /ɔː/ (with or without a following r-sound depending on whether we are taking non-rhotic RP or rhotic GenAm as our model), as in north, short, core. But after the letter w we find a quite different vowel sound — BrE /ɜː/, AmE /ɝː/ — in work, word, world, and in BrE another one again, /ʌ/, in worry. In unstressed syllables the pronunciation is usually /ə, ɚ/), as in minor, tractor and also in information, Oxford (even though many EFL learners wrongly believe these words are pronounced with /ɔː/ in the second syllable). There are various “reading rules” (spelling-to-sound rules) to help the learner pass from the written form of an English word to the spoken form. (A certain amount of information is available at each letter of the alphabet in my LPD, Wells 1990/2000; for a very thorough survey, see Carney 1994). But these rules are complicated and have many exceptions. In practice it is necessary to learn the pronunciation of many words individually. 4. Ambiguous spelling Some English spellings are entirely ambiguous. If you see the spelling entrance, you will need the context to decide whether it denotes the way in, pronounced /ˈentrəns/, or the verb meaning to fill with wonder and delight, to /ɪnˈtrɑːns/. Other homographs (same spelling, different pronunciation and meaning) include bass, bow, buffet, does, gill, lead, live, minute, putting, read, resume, tear, tinged, wind, wound (Carney 1994: 397-399; Cruttenden 1994: 211-212). As soon as we transcribe them, we show the difference in pronunciation. 4 There are also some tricky verb-noun and verb-adjective pairs. English has nearly a hundred words of the type conduct, digest, incense, object, pervert , where the same spelling is used for a verb, with final stress, and for the related noun, with initial stress. Associated with the stress difference there is often a difference in vowel quality, because of the phenomenon of vowel reduction. Tiresomely, there are many other English disyllabic verb-noun pairs where both are pronounced alike, with no difference of stress: thus control, promise. An important group of verb-adjective or verb-noun pairs are those ending in -ate. The verb separate is pronounced /ˈˈsepəreɪt/, as in the two friends separated at the crossroads. Here, as you observe, the suffix has a strong vowel, the diphthong /eɪ/. But the corresponding adjective, spelt identically, is usually pronounced /ˈseprət/, as in we want separate bills, or (as an adverb) in they left separately. Here the suffix has a weak vowel, in RP traditionally /ɪ/ but nowadays more usually /ə/. One consequence is that the structural description for the process I call compression is now met, so that the basic three syllables readily get reduced to two. Similar considerations apply to many other words in -ate, including advocate, appropriate, delegate, intimate, moderate, subordinate . Notice that the main word stress remains in the same place in these cases. The same applies to words in which -ment is attached to a bound form, including compliment, document, increment, ornament: thus I e/nted her on her excellent work. complim/e paid her a complim/ə/nt; I Relevant here is the whole question of strong and weak forms of function words (see e.g. Cruttenden 1994: 228-229). Words such as of, can, them have a strong form with a strong vowel, /ɒv, kæn, ðem/, used mainly when accented, and a weak form with a weak vowel, /əv, kən, ðəm/, used otherwise. This alternation is not shown in spelling, but anyone who fails to apply it in casual speech sounds very un-native-like. Facts of this kind are not revealed in ordinary spelling, but are immediately evident once we use a phonetic transcription. 5. Transcribing from an orthographic text Ideally, then, every learner should learn the correct pronunciation of a word at the same time as he incorporates it into his active vocabulary. Experience shows, however, that even advanced students often fail in this task. Fluent speakers of EFL may have an inaccurate impression of what the native-speaker pronunciation of a word is; the inevitable corollary is that their own oral production of it is flawed. A useful exercise for more advanced learners is “doing transcription”, i.e. transcribing an orthographic text, a passage of ordinary English prose, into phonetic symbols (normally, into a phonemic version, perhaps including intonation). In our phonetics classes at University College London we regularly 5 make both our native-speaker and our EFL students of phonetics do this kind of exercise. For ordinary weekly coursework the student can consult a pronouncing dictionary whenever needed. Under examination conditions, however, the exercise is done unseen, and the student must rely on memory alone. It is both revealing and depressing to see how many errors of transcription are made even by some quite advanced students. I take the following examples from one of our best Spanish-speaking MA Phonetics students, who speaks English fluently and idiomatically, as well as having an excellent grasp of phonetic theory. These are some of her errors in the transcription of English words in a recent examination: weather ˈweəðə releasing rɪˈliːzɪŋ rɪˈliːsɪŋ polluting pəˈlʊtɪŋ pəˈluːtɪŋ nuclear ˈnʊkljə ˈnjuːkliə chemicals ˈkemɪkəls ˈkemɪkəlz instead of ˈweðə The first of these words, in the British Received Pronunciation we teach as eə/ must be a standard, ought to be transcribed /ˈˈweðə/. The student’s use of /e false inference from the spelling. In fact, weather in RP is a homophone of whether. The only position in which orthographic ea sometimes corresponds to phonetic /eə/ is when followed by r, as in bear, swear. The distinction between /s s/ and /z z/ is difficult for learners who do not have that phonemic contrast in their mother tongue. Unlike please, which does contain /z z/, release has /s s/. In pollute and nuclear, the spelling suggests only /uː/, not /ʊ/; perhaps the student was misled by familiarity with the spoken form of these words, in which however the relatively short duration of the vowel is caused by pre-fortis clipping (Wells: 1990: 136), not by inherent shortness. Even advanced students sometimes forget the phonetic rules for regular plural and past tense formation in English. Although spelt with s, the plural z/ if the preceding segment is voiced and non-sibilant. ending is pronounced /z Clearly someone who thinks they are pronounced as transcribed above (wrongly) is not going to pronounce them correctly, and will have a noticeable foreign accent. 6. Types of transcription For the last part of this talk I would like to consider phonetic transcription from a more general point of view. Beginners in phonetics often imagine that in transcription we can use one symbol for each “sound”, a separate phonetic symbol for each sound-type our ears or our machines can detect. However this approach is not practical. What might appear to be “the same sound” in two different languages usually turns out, on closer inspection, to exhibit certain differences. Even within a given language, “the same sound” 6 usually comprises a fair number of different variants associated with different positions in the word or different phonetic environments. This is what lies behind the development, over the course of the past hundred years, of the notion of the phoneme (or of more sophisticated phonological units). It also explains why all phonetic transcription depends for its interpretation upon two things: the transcribed text itself, but also the conventions for its interpretation (Abercrombie 1964: 16-24; Jones, 1956: App. A). The phonemic principle allows us to use the same transcription symbol for all the variants of a given phoneme. We can write the same /tt/ in English /tɒp, stɒp, lɒt, rɒtn, bɒtl/, despite the clear differences in aspiration and type of release. We can write the same /aʊ/ in now, louder, mouth, outing, despite differences in the duration of the diphthong. These differences, though real, are a matter of conditioned variation, determined by phonetic context. Every language has its own phoneme system and its own rules for allophonic variation. The simplicity principle tells us to use the simplest phonetic symbol consistent with the avoidance of ambiguity. Although a few languages distinguish between dental and alveolar plosives, most do not. Although a few distinguish between aspirated and unaspirated plosives, most do not. This means that it is acceptable to use the same symbol /tt/ for a range of soundtypes in different languages: in English for what is typically an aspirated alveolar, in French for an unaspirated dental, in Swedish for an aspirated dental, and in Dutch for an unaspirated alveolar. The alternative is an explosion of complicated symbols and dictionary entries full of difficult diacritics. Until we have determined the phonemic structure of a language, we can produce only an impressionistic transcription depending on our familiarity with general-phonetic sound-types. Once we have worked out the phonemics, we can use a systematic transcription, which will be simpler. This is what is appropriate for dictionaries and language textbooks. When considering connected speech, however, we need to take account of the features of connected speech, of the phrase-level and sentence-level phonology: we can produce a “phonotypical” transcription of how we expect a given sentence to sound, or alternatively an impressionistic transcription of what was actually uttered on a given occasion. Each has its uses. References x Abercrombie, D., 1964. English Phonetic Texts. London: Faber and Faber. x Carney, Edward, 1994. A Survey of English Spelling. London and New York: x Cruttenden, A. (ed.), 1994. Gimson’s Pronunciation of English. London: Routledge. Edward Arnold. x x Jones, D., 1956. Outline of English Phonetics, 8th edn. Cambridge: Heffer. Wells, J.C., 1990, second edition 2000. Longman Pronunciation Dictionary. Harlow: Longman.
