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สํานวนไทย

LSCAC 2010 Proceedings
i
Foreword
The International Conference on Language, Society, and Culture in Asian Contexts (LSCAC)
was held at Mahasarakham University, Thailand during January 6-7, 2010. As the aim of
LSCAC was to provide a venue for scholars working in different fields related to language,
society, and culture in Asia to discuss and exchange thought-provoking ideas, the conference
welcomed intellectual works in assorted areas including alternative development, Asian
linguistics, community development, cultural diversity, ethnic diversity, foreign language
teaching, folklore and storytelling, history, language and translation, literature, philosophy, and
sustainable development. Much to our contentment, the turnout exceeded our expectations. The
two-day event was well received by over 200 participants from more than 15 countries, not only
in Asia but all around the world.
To make the diverse and stimulating works presented at the conference available to a wider
audience, we have selected a number of papers and published them in the conference
proceedings. Indeed, I hope that they will offer useful insights into the current linguistic, social,
and cultural academic interests being investigated in Asia.
On this occasion, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to all the LSCAC participants and
organizers for their enthusiasm and efforts in making the conference and proceedings a success. I
look forward to the next LSCAC international conference to be hosted in two years by
University of Hyderabad, India, and hope to see familiar as well as new faces joining the LSCAC
community then.
Somkiet Poopatwiboon
Dean
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Mahasarakham University, Thailand
ii
Foreword
Asian languages and cultures in the context of the social functioning need urgent attention from
governmental and academic bodies. Actually, it is necessary to build academia and government
interaction by forming inter-governmental committee within ASEAN to protect and promote
Asian languages and cultures. The proceedings are a reflection of this thought and the
organization of conference on Language, Culture and Society in Asian Contexts on 6-7 January,
2010 at Mahasarakham University, practically proved the necessity of joining academia and
government together to protect Asian languages and cultures. The publication of proceedings
would definitely highlight the idea of active involvement and engagement of various
governmental and non-governmental organizations in this endeavour.
I am sure that the Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University,
Thailand along with the Centre for Study of Foreign Languages, University of Hyderabad, India
has initiated the process towards preservation and promotion of Asian languages and cultures by
organizing, for the first time, an international conference and publication of the proceedings. We
assure that this will be taken forward with the help of relevant academic and government bodies.
J. Prabhakara Rao
Coordinator, Centre for Study of Foreign Languages
School of Humanities
University of Hyderabad, India
iii
Table of Contents
Foreword (Dean Somkiet Poopatwiboon) ....................................................................................... i
Foreword (Professor J. Prabhakara Rao) ........................................................................................ ii
Table of Contents ........................................................................................................................... iii
Asian Linguistics
The Formation of Borrowed Lexis in Malaysian Chinese Newspaper ........................................... 1
Soon Chiow Thai
Study of Asian Languages and Cultures in Modern Context ....................................................... 15
J. Prabhakara Rao
Identification of Thai Loanwords in the Lao Language ............................................................... 19
Rattana Chanthao
The Thai Compound Words Beginning with the /tua/ Morpheme ............................................... 35
Methawee Yuttapongtada
Ratanakosin King Referring Terms: Word Structure and Factors on Lexical Selection ............. 44
Phatcharee Jampa
Language Choice and Language Use Patterns among Telugu-Hindi/ Urdu-English Speakers in
Hyderabad, India ........................................................................................................................... 57
D. Vasanta, A. Suvarna, J. Sireesha, and S. Bapi Raju
Phonological System of Vietnamese in Najok and its Implication to their Migration ................. 68
Woraya Som-Indra
Community Development
Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble, Naimuang Sub-District, Muang District, Chaiyaphum Province
....................................................................................................................................................... 81
Chonchana Srihabutto, Panya Rungrueng, and Manop Wisuthiphaet
The Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Conservation and Revitalization of the Fishing Career in
the Area around the Lampao Dam in Northeast Thailand ............................................................ 90
Budsakorn Saenyabud
Cultural Diversity
Marginalizing or Blending of Transnational Workers: Case of the Kingdom of Bahrain......... 100
Magdalena Maria Karolak and Anjum Razzaque
Folk Art Tradition and Cultural Identity in the Era of Globalization ......................................... 111
V. Rajeev
Yeonwoo Mudae and the Korean Theatre Movement in the 1980s ........................................... 120
Jungman Park
Media in Asia: Teaching Asian Culture within an Australian Context. ..................................... 131
Panizza Allmark
Ethnic Diversity
Diaspora and Rebirth: Ethnic Revival, Cultural Reconstruction and Identity Issues of the
Sakizaya, Taiwan ........................................................................................................................ 141
Yih-Ju Su and Ying-Tang Wang
Globalisation, Identity and Culture: Tribal Issues in India ......................................................... 149
P.S. Pratheep
Foreign Language Teaching
Conceptualizing Asian Languages in Diaspora with Biliteracy: Lessons Learned from Taiwan
..................................................................................................................................................... 160
Hugo Yu-Hsiu Lee
iv
Post-Method Pedagogy and Thai EFL Teachers: Opportunities and Challenges ....................... 167
Saksit Saengboon
Comparative Approaches to Teaching English as a Second Language in the United States and
English as a Foreign Language in Thailand ................................................................................ 175
Kirati Khuvasanond, Tatiana I. Sildus, David P. Hurford, and Richard P. Lipka
An Analysis of Headwords in ELT Coursebooks and Ordinary National Educational Tests in
Thailand ...................................................................................................................................... 188
Apisak Sukying
Thai Style of Social Interaction: A Case Study of Collaborative English Learning at King
Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi ......................................................................... 198
Charatdao Intratat
Learning Strategies in Japanese as a Second/Foreign Language in Thailand: A Case Study of a
Beginner’s Japanese Classroom .................................................................................................. 206
Kamolthip Phonlabutra
A Preliminary Investigation of Promoting Critical Literacy in Thai Secondary School Classroom
through Films .............................................................................................................................. 218
Jeerapong Khamseeya
Vowel Length and Word Recognition among Americans, Chinese, Japanese, and Thais ......... 233
Vorachai Piata
Languages at Home: The Case of Bi-/Multilingualism in Pangasinan ....................................... 247
Francisco C. Rosario, Jr.
Unraveling L2 Learning Strategy Mysteries: Insights from Good Language Learners ............. 259
Anuchit Toomaneejinda
Improving Students’ Talk in the Classroom of Business English for Students of Management 269
Nanis Setyorini
Learner Training for Autonomous Learning: A Voluntary Use of One-to-One Language
Counselling Service at KMUTT Self-Access Learning Centre, Thailand .................................. 278
Shannoy Vasuvat and Charatdao Intratat
Establishment of Comprehensive Russian Studies Program in Thailand ................................... 292
Leonard Storchevoy
TEE Implementation in Korea .................................................................................................... 302
Guiboke Seong
Role of Emotional Intelligence in Teaching Russian as a Foreign Language ............................ 305
Janani Vaidhyanathan
Socio-Structural Changes and their Impact on Russian Language Structure ............................. 317
Ajoy Kumar Karnati
History
Colonial Literary Historiography: A Case Study from Kerala ................................................... 327
Sreenath Muraleedharan K
Plotting History – The Interdependent Development of Siamese and Cambodian Chronicles .. 336
Jan R. Dressler
Language and Translation
Translation of Idioms in Children Literatures into Thai by Soommana Boonyarattawech ........ 349
Sayamon Sornsuwannasri
v
The Study of the Predictors for Communicative Ability of Thai Massage Therapists at Ao Nang
Beach, Krabi ............................................................................................................................... 360
Nisakan Boonyasoot
Literature
Recreating the World: Intertextuality in Austen’s Sense and Sensibility ................................... 373
Fatemeh Gholipour Fereydouni
Lost in the Realm of the Imagination: Hamlet and the Reader................................................... 385
Ismail Salami
The Many Languages of India: From Chutnification to Sacred Games in Indian Writing in
English ........................................................................................................................................ 397
Annette Gomis
Merlinda Bobis’s The Solemn Lantern Maker: The Asian Conspiracy or the Power of the Small
(Filipino) Story to Impinge on the Big (Western) Politics ......................................................... 406
M. Dolores Herrero
English in India the Case of Toru Dutti ...................................................................................... 416
Mohan Ramanan
Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya: A Reflection of Some Indian Concepts .............................................. 428
Navin Wannawetch
Kamanita in Thai Version: Didactic Literature of Buddhist Humanism .................................... 438
Wanna Numun
An Analysis of Figures of Speech in the Isan Mahachat Sermon............................................... 452
Dipti Mahanta
An Analysis of Main Characters’ Self-Empowerment in the Selected Works of Maya Angelou
..................................................................................................................................................... 470
Kingdao Donjerm
Marathi Press and Freedom Movement in Maharashtra: Kesari during the Swadeshi Movement:
1904–1908................................................................................................................................... 480
Meshram Pradhnya Prabhu
The Communication of the Signifier without a Signified in Phramalethethay........................... 493
Nandawan Sunthornparasathit
Rhetorical Strategies and Ideological Messages in Pira Sudham’s Monsoon Country .............. 502
Wantana Khotphuwiang
Nation and Ethnicity in Khmer Literary Heroines: The Works of Pal Vannariraks ................... 515
Areeya Hutinta
Philosophy
Feminist Critique of Science ....................................................................................................... 524
Uma Nambair
Towards Confluence of Cultures: Concording the Aesthetic Theories of Ācārya Ānandavardhana
and Immanuel Kant ..................................................................................................................... 531
Ahinpunya Mitra
Sustainable Development
Urban Community Development with Food Security Management: A Case of Bang Sue District
in Bangkok .................................................................................................................................. 546
Nongnapas Thiengkamol
\
Organizing Committee ................................................................................................................ 557
1
The Formation of Borrowed Lexis in Malaysian Chinese Newspaper
Soon Chiow Thai
University of Malaysia Sabah
Abstract
The usage of borrowed lexis in Chinese language has existed ever since the Qin Dynasty in
China. These borrowed lexis experience change over time. The aim of this descriptive research is
to examine the various forms of borrowed lexis that are used in Chinese newspaper in Malaysia.
The data for this study came from newspaper articles in the field of economics and was
downloaded in the electronic version of the articles from one of Malaysia’s Chinese newspaper,
that is, Sinchew Daily. One hundred most frequent and 50 least frequent used loan words are
identified from this corpus data. The ways of formation of these loan words are analysed in detail.
This research also focuses on the patterns of formation. From the findings of this research, it was
found that borrowed lexis in the research data are formed through the borrowing of sound, shape,
and meaning. Lexis formed through the process of borrowing sound is the most productive form
of borrowed lexis found in this research with the percentage as high as 69.99 percent, whereas
lexis formed through borrowing shape shows a great difference when compare to lexis formed
through borrowing sound with 27.33 percent and followed by lexis formed through borrowing
meaning with only 2.67 percent. In conclusion, the borrowed lexis found in this research were
mainly formed through the process of borrowed sound.
Keywords: lexis, corpus, morphology, semantic, ideographic language
Introduction
“词语是语言中最活跃、最善于出现新内容或新形式的因素” (Hé, 2003). This means
lexis is an element of a language which is most active and easiest to change into a new content
form or format. This happens because lexis is used to describe the changes of socioeconomics
and politics, the influences on politics thought, the changes of lives and the development of
technological culture of those particular language users. Changes and development causes the
formation of more new lexis to fulfill the need of language users. New lexis is formed through
the process of borrowing intra-lingual and inter-lingual creatively and productively, while there
is language contact. Borrowing is the process where new words are formed in the target language
through taking in lexis from the source language.
Objective
There are a lot of different ways of word formation for different languages in this world.
Is the process of formation of loan words of ideographic languages, like Chinese, the same as
phonographic languages? In this study, the researcher would like to know the ways of formation
2
of Chinese loan words which are inter-lingually borrowed. This study also identifies the patterns
of ways of formation of Chinese loan words in the corpus data.
Previous Studies
Lexical borrowing occurs in the formation of simple words, compound words and
phrases (Weinreich, 1970). Borrowing of simple words involves substitution of phonemes from
one language into another, while borrowing of compound words and phrases involves the
substitution of compound elements which suit the syntax of the receiving language.
Borrowed lexis are lexis which are “born” in the family of Chinese language (Hú, 1988).
These lexis are limited by the phonological, semantics and syntax rules of Chinese language but
with the characteristics of foreign language. According to Hú, there are four ways of forming
borrowed lexis in Chinese language.
Pure Sound Translation is a process of using Chinese language elements to translate the
sound from borrowed language to Chinese language. The borrowed lexis which are formed
consist of one, two or many syllables. Translation of Sound and Meaning does not only borrow
the sound of the borrowed lexis. In addition, Chinese language elements are being used to
describe the meaning of the borrowed lexis. While Borrowing of Partial Sound and Partial
Meaning only borrow a part of the sound of the borrowed lexis and added a part of the
translation of meaning. The translation of meaning is either at the front part or the end part of the
borrowed lexis which is made of more than one syllable. Borrowing Sound with the elements of
Ideograph is the process which not only borrows the sound of the borrowed lexis totally, but also
uses ideographic elements to describe the meaning. Radicals are used as the meaning description.
Hú is the researcher who mainly focuses on the Chinese borrowed lexis which is formed
through the borrowing of sound. According to Shǐ (2000), the Chinese borrowed lexis are not
only formed by borrowing of sound. There are some formed by borrowing of form. This lexis
only borrow the form of the borrowed lexis but is pronounced according to the pronunciation
rule of Chinese language. Some of the new pronunciations have the similarity of the borrowed
language but some do not.
Xŭ (2005) added two new processes which are Loan Translation and Semantic
Translation. Loan Translation is used when importing new concept from borrowed language.
Borrowed lexis is formed by translating the meaning of the concept of the meaning of borrowed
3
words by using the form of Chinese language. Semantic Translation, on the other hand, uses the
existing lexis in Chinese language to describe the meaning of the borrowed lexis. This causes the
expansion of meaning in the existing lexis.
Methodology
This morphological inter-lingual borrowed to Chinese language descriptive study was
based on corpus data to analyze the ways of formation of borrowed lexis in Malaysian context.
The description of study was made in the form of quantitative and qualitative.
Data Corpus
This study identifies the usage of Chinese language borrowed lexis in the local electronic
newspaper. The data corpus was made up of articles from one of the most read newspapers, that
is, Sin Chew Daily. The data corpus consisted of 361 articles and 21,645 words in total. The
downloaded articles were about the information of economy and business in Malaysia which
included the perspective of companies which had transactions in Malaysian stock market,
policies or progress and projects announced by government like the National Bank, and the chief
executive officers of local and foreign private companies. This comprised the information of
business and whatever related to transactions and currencies.
Data Analysis
The outcome of the analyzed data is divided into two parts: the frequency of usage and
the ways of formation of borrowed lexis. Since it is quite big in number, and the majority of
these borrowed lexis have the frequency of usage not more than ten times, therefore, only 150
borrowed words are analyzed for the ways of formation in detail. They are 150 of the most
frequently used and the least frequently used borrowed lexis found in this data corpus
respectively.
The reason for choosing the most frequent and the least frequent borrowed lexis is to
examine the feature of the ways of formation more comprehensively. The ways of formation are
analyzed and the percentage of each way is counted to identify which is the most productive. The
pattern of formation is analyzed based on phonology, morpheme and also semantics.
4
Data and Findings
The findings are divided into two parts: the ways of formation and the features of
formation.
Ways of Formation
The ways of formation of borrowed lexis are divided into three main groups, that is,
through the borrowing of sound, form and meaning.
Percentage
Chart 1 : Ways of Borrowed Lexis
Formation
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
69.99
27.33
2.67
Sound Borrowing
Form Borrowing
Semantics
Borrowing
Most of the borrowed lexis in the corpus data were formed through the process of Sound
Borrowing, with about seventy 70 percent of the lexis. The Borrowed lexis formed through the
Sound Borrowing process had quite a great difference in percentage compared to Form
Borrowing which was about 27 percent, while Semantics Borrowing was the least, i.e., less than
three percent. This showed that Sound Borrowing played the most important role and most
productive in forming the loan lexis in this study. About two-thirds of the borrowed lexis was
formed by using this process. The Sound Borrowing is sub-divided into five smaller groups,
while Form Borrowing is sub-divided into two and Semantics Borrowing has no sub-division.
Sound Borrowing
Most lexis in this corpus data were formed by Pure Sound Borrowing, Ideographic Sound
Borrowing, Sound Borrowing with Indicator, Partial Sound Partial Meaning Borrowing, and
Acronym and Abbreviation.
Chart 2 : Sub-division of Sound Borrowing
80.00
71.43
70.00
Pure Sound Borrowing
Percentage
60.00
50.00
Borrowing Sound
Ideographic
40.00
Borrowing Sound with
Indicator
30.00
10.00
Partial Sound Partial
Meaning Borrowing
19.05
20.00
1.90
2.86
4.76
Acronym and Abbreviation
0.00
Ways of Formation
The Pure Sound Borrowing was the most productive way because half of the borrowed
lexis in this corpus data were formed in this manner. This is followed by the Borrowing Sound
with Indicator which covered about 20 percent of the total Sound Borrowing lexis, whereas the
other three processes formed no more than 10 percent of the total Sound Borrowing lexis.
Form Borrowing
Chart 3 : Sub-division of Form Borrowing
70
59
60
Percentage
50
41
40
30
20
10
0
Ways of Formation
Form
Borrowing
withWith
Original
Sound
Borrowing
Sound
Original Sound
Form
Borrowing
withWith
No No
Sound
Borrowing
Relation
RelationofofSound
Sound
5
6
Form Borrowing was the second important process of borrowed lexis formation in this
study. It can be sub-divided into two ways: Form borrowing with original sound and Form
borrowing with no relation of sound. It is different from Sound Borrowing where the subdivision has formed similar amount of borrowed lexis by both processes. It is found that both are
equally important.
Semantics Borrowing
This is the least important and least productive process of borrowed lexis formation,
where only four words were formed in total.
Features of Formation
The borrowed lexis which were formed through the process of Sound Borrowing, Form
Borrowing and Semantics Borrowing had the following features of formation.
Sound Borrowing
As mentioned before, the Sound Borrowing is sub-divided into five groups. Pure Sound
Borrowing forms borrowed lexis through translating the original borrowed sound into Chinese
language. These lexis do not match the characteristics of Chinese language because the lexis are
formed by using the elements in the form of phonographic, but they are meaningless. This does
not match the main characteristics of Chinese language which is ideographic.
One of the borrowed lexis formed by this process is “金务大” (jīn wù dà), formed by
using the Chinese language elements “金” which means ‘gold’; “务” with the meaning of ‘affair’;
and “大” meaning ‘big’. Therefore, the literal meaning of this borrowed lexis is ‘big gold affair.’
The borrowed lexis in the real context is borrowed from the Malay language which is a
construction company Gamuda. Therefore, the borrowed lexis which is formed by Pure Sound
Borrowing can not reflect the actual meaning literally.
Besides that, borrowed lexis which are formed by Pure Sound Borrowing have two
patterns of formation, which are substitution of the sounds [sa], [sau] and [ser] with [sha] and the
usage of phoneme [l] to substitute phoneme [r]. This is shown in the table below.
7
Table 1: Pattern of Pure Sound Borrowing
No. Patterns
1.
usage of sound
[sha] to substitute
the sounds of [sa],
[sau] and [ser]
2.
usage of phoneme
[l] to substitute
phoneme [r]
Borrowed Lexis
沙巴利
Borrowed from
Sabari
沙地阿拉伯利亚
Saudi Arabia Riyal
沙登
沙巴利,丹斯里, 里朱安,
Serdang
Sabari, Tan Sri, Ridzuan,
沙地阿拉伯利亚
Saudi Arabia Ria,
印度卢比
India Rupee
The sounds of Sabari 沙巴利 [sa], Saudi Arabia Riyal 沙地阿拉伯利亚 [sau], Serdang
沙登 [ser] are changed to [sha] with the usage of “沙” when they are formed in the Chinese
language borrowed lexis in this corpus data. The changes happened not because the Chinese
language does not have those phonemes, but because they have become arbitrary among the
Chinese language users.
The borrowed lexis which are formed with the substitution of phoneme [li] to [ri] are
mainly borrowed from Malay language like Sabari 沙巴利, Tan Sri 丹斯里 and Ridzuan 利朱安.
The phoneme [ri] is substituted by [li] because there is the absence of phoneme [ri] in Chinese
language. Besides that, this happened also in the borrowed lexis with phoneme [ra]. For the case
of substituting phoneme [lu] with [ru] in 印度卢比, it is different from the cases as above where
phoneme [ru] occurred in Chinese phonetic system but the language users are more comfortable
with the phoneme [lu].
Ideographic Sound Borrowing is the least important borrowed lexis process in this corpus
data because only two lexis were formed. “天地通” (tiān dì tōng) – Celcom in English has the
literal meaning of “can be reached from the sky to the earth.” This borrowed lexis did not
translate the sound totally but it had the nearest sound. It also described the meaning which
suited the type of business run by the company.
8
Different indicators are being used to form the borrowed lexis through the process of
Borrowed Sound with Indicator.
Table 2: Indicators Used To Form Borrowed Lexis
No.
1.
2.
Patterns
Use of indicator
Borrowed Lexis
美国
Borrowed from
America
“国”
德国
Deutschland
Use of indicators
亚洲
Asia
“洲” and “州”
3.
4.
森州
Negeri Sembilan
America Dollar
Use of indicator
美元
“元”
汶莱元
Use of indicators
彭博社
Brunei Dollar
Bloomberg
公吨
metric tonnes
北马
Northern Malaysia
马币
Malaysian currency
“社”, “公”,
“北”, “币”
There are a few different indicators used when forming the borrowed lexis in this study.
Indicator “国” in Chinese language means ‘country’. It is used after the name of the country for
the borrowed lexis, which is related to country. Normally, for the part of the name of the country,
it is represented by the initial or part of the name. For example, 美国 is the part of America
which is translated to 亚美利加 where 美 is added with such indicator to form the borrowed
lexis which refers to the country, the United States of America. For the borrowed lexis 德国, 德
is the initial of the borrowed lexis Deutschland which is translated to 德意志 and the added
indicator refers to the country of Germany.
Indicator “洲” means ‘mainland’ or ‘delta’. The way of the formation of the borrowed
lexis, 亚洲 refers to Asia, which is translated to 亚细亚 and the initial is added to the indicator
which means ‘the mainland of Asia.’ The case of Negeri Sembilan, however, is different. “州”
does not mean ‘mainland’ or ‘archipelago.’ It refers to part of a country where Negeri Sembilan
9
is only a part or a state of Malaysia. The initial of the borrowing sound Sembilan 森美兰 is
added to the indicator.
“元” is the indicator of Dollar which is the unit of currency. The initial sound of the
borrowed name of the country is added to the indicator to refer to the unit of the currency of that
particular country. 美元 is formed by using the initial of the country and added with the indicator
to refer to US Dollar. But this is different with Brunei Darul Salam 汶莱, where the full sound
borrowing of the country is taken and added to the indicator and formed 汶莱元, referring to
Brunei Dollar.
Different indicators are used by the Chinese language users for different purpose.
Bloomberg is an organization which is related to economy in the United States of America.
Therefore, 社, which means ‘organization’ or ‘party,’ is used. For the purpose of differentiating
the system of certain unit of measurement, the indicator 公 is used for metric system of
measurement. Tonnes, 吨 is the measurement unit introduced by British, where 公 is used to
differentiate the new system from the older system. 北 which means ‘north,’ is used to indicate
the direction or portion of the particular part. This indicator is used in the front part of the initial
of Malaysia 马 is to indicate the northern part of Malaysia or the states located at the northern
part of Malaysia. 币 in the borrowed lexis 马币 refers to the currency of Malaysia. It is different
from 元 as mentioned before, because the dollar or Ringgit of Malaysia is not 元, but 令吉. ‘马
币’ refers to 令吉 and 仙 cent.
Partial Sound Partial Meaning Borrowing formed eight borrowed lexis in this study. The
patterns of formation are as below:
10
Table 3: Patterns of Partial Sound Partial Meaning Borrowing
No. Patterns
1.
sound borrowing + meaning borrowing
Borrowed Lexis
Borrowed from
华尔街
Wall Street
2.
meaning borrowing + sound borrowing
大马
Mighty Malaysia
3.
borrowed lexis with alphabet
DIGI 网
DIGI Net
The borrowed lexis formation process of sound borrowing + meaning borrowing has the
feature of sound borrowing at the front part and the semantics borrowing is at the rear part,
where 华尔 is the sound borrowing of ‘Wall’ and 街 is the semantics borrowing of ‘Street.’
The process of meaning borrowing + sound borrowing is the opposite of the previous
process. 大马 is borrowed from Mighty Malaysia which was formed in the year 1961. Mighty
means ‘very great in power,’ is borrowed through semantic 大 and 马 is the initial of the sound
borrowing of ‘Malaysia.’
DIGI 网 which is borrowed from DIGI net is an example of the new trend of formation of
borrowed lexis where the sound and form of DIGI is totally borrowed from the source language
to Chinese language and is then added with the existing element in Chinese language, 网, which
means ‘net.’
Acronym and Abbreviation had formed five borrowed lexis in this study. The borrowed
lexis is not simply through the borrowing of sound or semantics borrowing. The following table
shows the patterns of the borrowed lexis formation of Acronym and Abbreviation.
Table 4: Patterns of Acronym and Abbreviation
No.
1.
Pattern
pure acronym
Borrowed Lexis
新航
Borrowed from
Singapore Airlines
马航
Malaysia Airlines
马股
印尼
2.
pure abbreviation
3.
acronym + abbreviation 奥运会
Malaysia Stock Market
Indonesia
Olympic Game
11
Pure acronym borrowing only involves the process of acronym, using the initial sound
borrowing of the name of a country or organization in front and then added to the initial meaning
of the Chinese language element. 新航 is formed by the initial of the sound borrowing of
Singapore 新加坡 and the initial of the Chinese language element of airlines 航空.
Abbreviation is different from acronym where the name of the country is borrowed
through sound borrowing, and then followed by the process of abbreviation. ‘Indonesia’ is sound
borrowed as 印度尼西亚 and later abbreviated from five syllables to two syllables as 印尼.
Acronym + abbreviation is a more complicated process, where both processes are
involved. 奥 has gone through the process of acronym of taking the initial of the Olympic 奥林
匹克 and added to the abbreviation of game 运动会 and becomes 奥运会.
Form Borrowing
The borrowed lexis which are formed by this process are not as many as the lexis which
are formed by Sound Borrowing. The lexis which are formed by this process can only be
borrowed from those languages which have the same system of writing or form with Chinese
language. Since the scope of this study is inter-lingual borrowing, the dialects in China, therefore,
are not taken into consideration. Among the languages in the world, Japanese language has the
nearest form with Chinese language. In addition, all the borrowed lexis found in this study were
borrowed from Japanese language.
The borrowed lexis formed through Form Borrowing is sub-divided into two groups. The
criteria used to group the lexis are the pronunciation of the borrowed lexis compared with the
original lexis in the source language. Sound Borrowing with original sound is the process where
the form of the lexis in source language is borrowed exactly and the pronunciation in Chinese
language is the same or near to the source language. The pronunciation of the Sound Borrowing
with no relation of original sound, on the other hand, is different when compared to the source
language. 市场, which is originally pronounced as shijou in Japanese language, is pronounced as
shichang in Chinese language. Similarly, while 计划 was originally pronounced as keikaku in
Japanese language, it is pronounced as jihua in Chinese language.
12
Semantics Borrowing
This is not a productive word formation process in this study, because only four out of
150 borrowed lexis is formed by Semantics Borrowing. Two of the four borrowed lexis are
related to technology, which is a new concept imported from other cultures after the invention of
computer. This is the process of describing translated new concept or meaning of the concept by
using the existing elements in Chinese language.
网络, ‘networking’ is related to information technology. It does not have the outlook of a
net. This new concept is borrowed by using the existing Chinese language elements 网 and 络,
where 网 means ‘net’ and 络 means ‘something that has the shape of a net.’ The usage of these
two elements in Chinese language refers to the new concept clearly, that is, ‘something which
interacts in multi-ways and systematically.’ But it is abstract and not a real ‘net.’
冰岛 is the borrowed lexis which is formed to refer to the country Iceland. It is formed by
the direct semantics translation of ‘ice’ to 冰 and since it is an island, 岛, ‘island’ is used instead
of translating the sound of the morpheme ‘land’ to’兰’.In the cases of Scotland and Holland, the
morpheme ‘land’ has undergone the sound translation by using the element 兰 and has become
苏格兰 and 荷兰.
The process of Semantics Borrowing is very strict in choosing the existing elements in
order to form the borrowed lexis to describe the new concept and thing simply and pack. The
meaning which it refers to might be abstract or concrete.
Conclusion
According to Shǐ (2000), Hú (1988) and Xǔ (2005), the ways of the formation of
borrowed lexis in Chinese language are divided into three main categories, which are Sound
Borrowing, Form Borrowing and Semantics Borrowing. Sound Borrowing is the most important
and most productive method used to form the borrowed lexis in this corpus data, which consisted
of about 70 percent of the borrowed lexis analyzed in this study. Form Borrowing is the second
important process which formed about 27 percent of the borrowed lexis, followed by Semantics
13
Borrowing. Form Borrowing is sub-divided into two ways, both of which have the equivalent
importance in forming Form Borrowing lexis.
Every process has distinguished features of forming borrowing lexis. Some have the
phonological and morphological features, due to the thinking and culture of the language and
society. Different phonological patterns occurred during the process of forming lexis through
total translation, from the source language to the target language. Substitution of phonemes
occurred because of the absence of certain phonemes in Chinese language or the habitual factor
of the language and society. Most of the morphological patterns are related to the usage of
suitable indicators to describe the meaning of the borrowed lexis. Indicators are the existing
elements in Chinese language. The addition of indicators to the sound of the translated elements
from the source language will form a new borrowed lexis. Even though there are rules for new
word formation, there are also exempt cases in formation of new lexis, such as ‘DIGI 网’, which
totally does not fit to the characteristics of Chinese language as an ideographic language. This
has shown a new trend of the formation of new words with alphabets.
References
Akmajian, A., Demers, R. A., Farmer, A. K., & Harnish, R. M. (1995). Linguistik: Pengantar
Bahasa dan Komunikasi. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Chen Chun Ping. (2006). Pemindahan Leksis Bahasa Inggeris ke dalam Bahasa Cina di
Malaysia. Disertasi MML. Kuala Lumpur: Fakulti Bahasa dan Linguistik, Universiti
Malaya.
Hè Guó Wĕi. (2003). <<Hànyŭcíyŭdechănshēngyŭdìngxíng>>. Shànghăi: Shànghăi
císhūchūbănshè.
Heah Lee Hsia. (1989). The influence of English on the lexical expansion of Bahasa Malaysia.
Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Hú Xiăo Qīng. (1988). <<wàiláiyŭ>>.Bĕijīng: Xīnhuáchūbănshè.
Keller, Rudi terjemahan oleh Nerlich Brigitte. (1994). On language change – The invisible hand
in language. London: Routledge.
Lǐ Xíng Jiàn. (2004). <<xiàndàihànyŭguīfàncídiăn>>. Bĕijīng: Wàiyŭjiàoxuéyŭyánjiū
chūbănshèhéyŭwénchūbănshè.
Shǐ Yŏu Wéi. (2000). <<Hànyŭwàiláicí>>.Bĕijīng: Shāngwùyìnshūguăn.
Shǐ Yŏu Wéi, Gāo Míng Kăi. (1985). <<Hànyŭwàiláicícídiăn>>.Bĕijīng: Shāngwùyìnshūguăn.
Wāng Huì Dí. (1999). <<ShídàiXīnjiāpōtèyŏucíyŭcídiăn>>. Singapore: Times Media Private
Limited.
Weinreich, U. (1970). Languages in contact. Paris: Mounton & Co, N.V Publisher. Xià
14
Zhēng Nóng. (1999). <<cíhăi>>.Shànghăi: Shànghăi císhūchūbănshè.
Xiàng Xǐ. (1998). <<jiănmíngHànyŭshǐ,shàng>>. Bĕijīng: gāoděngjiàoyŭchūbănshè.
Xǔ Wén Kān. (2005). <<wàiláiyŭgŭjīntán>>. Bĕijīng: yŭwénchūbănshè.
Yule, G. (1996). The study of language. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.
. (1997). Kamus Linguistik. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
http://www.sinchew-i.com (Februari 2007-Mac 2007).
15
Study of Asian Languages and Cultures in Modern Context
J. Prabhakara Rao
University of Hyderabad
Abstract
Language represents the main instrument of communication. The thoughts and aspirations of any
Nation in the form of culture are stored in language and conveyed mainly through language.
Hence, language and culture are inseparable. In the era of globalization and scientific
technological advancements, the language and cultural boundaries between different nations are
being erased and world is slowly converting into a global village. However, there is an urgent
need to protect cultural diversity because cultural diversity is as important as biodiversity. The
aim of this paper is to focus on the significance of study of Asian Languages and cultures in the
context of growing interconnectivity and interdependence of World in general and Asia in
particular, in modern times. It calls for promotion research in Asian languages and cultures with
an aim to formulate commonalities and differences in order to sketch a unitary picture of cultural
bondness between different Asian cultures. Such study would further strengthen economic,
political, trade and cultural relations among Asian countries.
Keywords: language, cultural diversity, globalization
The scientific technological advancements in recent times have truly brought revolution
in generating, preserving and communicating knowledge. The size of knowledge has grown
tremendously over past two decades with expansion of new fields of knowledge practically on
day-to-day basis. There is a hardly any dispute over the fact that any knowledge is expressed in
language. Because it represents a universal form and means of human communication, scientific
theoretical and artistic thought. In the newly emerging knowledge-based society, there is a
demand and need for better understanding of knowledge itself. One of the strategic challenges
faced by the scientists is to redefine and reanalyze the current qualitatively new stage in overall
human social progress which is based on higher economic growth, unbelievable penetration of
science and technology in daily life. In the time of such rapid change, a major challenge for
linguists to ascertain the crucial role of language and language science in building knowledge
societies and identify the new trends within language structure and its function. Therefore, the
vision and mission of language scientists need to be clearly reoriented towards framing broader
goals and perspectives suitable to the needs and demands of society in order to protect and
develop plurality of languages and cultures in the context of globalization.
16
The progress of any society depends on knowledge and its application to all areas of life.
The study of Asian languages and cultures is not an exception to such scientific endeavour.
Hence, the theme of present Conference is very much relevant and deeply thought. The current
developed societies are based on a production and consumption model that is centred around
science and technology. As a result, Humanities and Social Sciences in general are put aside and
sometimes even totally ignored due to lack of their exchange value. However, increasingly
complex application of technology which led to a hyper-technological society requires more
sophisticated and systematic analysis of social and human aspects of different types of
knowledge and its application. This gives rise to a fundamental question about the significance
of linguistic science and its object of study-language. It can be easily proved by the fact that “in
the emerging knowledge based society, there is a need for deeper understanding of knowledge
itself” because knowledge is expressed (creation, generation, preservation and transmission) only
in the form of language. Thus, the analysis of language and its function acquires paramount
importance especially in a knowledge society. Hence, language study and for that, the study of
culture, continues to be in the forefront of the Scientific Investigation, as long as Human and
Cultural studies, Society exists. Approaching the issue from this pragmatic angle, linguistic
science occurs to be more relevant today than ever before. Besides, linguistics has great deal of
contribution to such important sciences like semiotics, informatics, computer science, history,
anthropology, etc. It is recognized that language and culture play crucial role in promoting trade
and economic relations among nations and contribute to the better understanding of ‘other’
societies. In a nutshell, even in the time of rapid economic and social growth, study of natural
language and culture do not lose its value in life of individuals and entire society, because they
encompass social life of human being, his psychology, intellectual formation and finally
emotions.
Historical analysis and available experience suggest that language and culture serve as
parameter of social development of a given period. All achievements in the sphere of social
development and scientific technological progress are systematically reflected in both language
and culture. For instance, it is found at lexical and grammatical level of language. The
emergence of English now as a global research language which automatically gives an edge to
English speaking or English medium education nations over non-English speaking nations in
terms of axis to research and its presentation. However, there are many nations (Germany,
17
France, China, Japan, South Korea, etc.) who pursue education in their mother-tongue also
coming up with extraordinary, equally competing with wealthy English-speaking nations, not
only research in science and technology and its practical application. Simultaneously, there are
many languages in the world which stand far behind from the social development and scientifictechnological revolution. It is normally mentioned that out of 2500-3000 languages in the world,
only 250-300 languages have writing system.
As per Ethnologue study published in Encyclopedia of Globalization (2007), out of 6,912
languages in the world, the regional share as follows:
Table 1: Continent-wise Share of Languages
Continent
No. of Languages
Percentage
Asia
2,269
32.8%
Europe
239
3.5%
Pacific
1,310
19.0%
Americas
1,002
14.5%
Africa
2,092
30.3%
The above table clearly shows that Asia occupies a major place in terms of number of
languages which speaks the importance of their study.
German philosopher Karl Marx in his “Manifesto of Communist Party” has characterized
the raising and the development of international capitalist market in terms of economic, political
and cultural history of mankind. As a consequence of the establishment of international market,
as it was observed by Marx, there is an increasing interdependency of nations which results in
converting the fruits of spiritual activities of individual nations into a common achievement. He
further said that national over-sidedness and isolation becomes practically impossible and from
immense national and local literatures form over world literature. Hence, the ultimate and allencompassing aim is to encourage the study of Asian languages and cultures with an aim to
identify commonalities and differences in the background historical relations between these
nations. Such study must contribute to become Asian citizens, without losing their respective
national cultural identity, to become integral part of world heritage, i.e., glocal citizens. To
achieve this goal, scholars should be encouraged to carry out research in the following areas:
18
1. to identify the real parameters of cultural bondness among Asian nations through the
study of languages, literatures, mythologies, folklore, history, philosophy, etc.;
2. to conduct an exhaustive and extensive socio-linguistic and enthrographic survey of
tribes and small groups of people and their migration;
3. to suggest measures for the protection of endangered languages and cultures in Asia;
4. to expand the social domain of usage of literary/national languages and cultures to
withstand the onslaught of English and other ‘foreign’ cultures and learn foreign
languages and cultures for specific purposes;
5. to propagate unifying cultural parameters of Asian people within the frame work of
multiculturalism and multilingualism;
6. to extensively use information technology for bridging gap between languages, cultures
and societies in Asia.
The above list, of course, may not be exhaustive. However, the endeavours shall be made
in the direction of studying, identifying and propagating the oneness of Asia in terms of culture.
The process of globalization and intensified international contacts of cooperation in various
fields have once again highlighted significance of languages and cultures to bring in different
nations together for active collaboration in various fields. This is especially important to Asia.
Hence, intensive research in Asian languages and cultures will give a push for further
strengthening economic and trade cooperation between Asian nations and for that, ASEAN can
play a decisive role.
References
Aartscholte, J., & Robertson, R. (2007). Encyclopedia of globalization (Vol. 2, F-M). New York,
London: Routledge.
Marga, A. (2009). Multiculturalism, interculturality and leadership. In Higher education at a
time of transformation: New dynamics for social responsibilities. Palgrave Macmillan.
Von Humboldt, W. (1988). On language: The diversity of human language-structure and its
influence on mental development of mankind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
19
Identification of Thai Loanwords in the Lao Language
Rattana Chanthao
Ph.D. Candidate (Linguistics), Mahidol University
Abstract
The aim of this article is to identify Thai loanwords in the Lao language after 1975. The data
were obtained from four sources: dictionaries, newspapers, magazines and television programs,
published in 2008. Seemingly, the sound change principle proposed by Huagen (1950s) and
Arlotto (1972) is inadequate in identifying Thai loanwords in Lao, as they are a dialect of the Tai
language family. Dialect borrowing is very difficult to point out if the dialects are very close
(Anttila, 1989; Hock, 1991). The study found that the new lexicons appearing in Lao dictionaries
published after 1975, and a meaningful comparison with the Thai language, have an important
role in identifying loanwords from Thai. In dictionaries, there are few words that are clearly
indicated as having originated from Thai. When the lexicons have been compared with the
meanings of Thai words, it has been shown that their meanings are the same. Therefore, there
are many words borrowed from Thai, but they are not referenced. The sound change principle,
however, continues to act well in the borrowed words where the phonemes are different. There is
a fluctuation of the phoneme /r/ in Thai where it becomes the phoneme /h/ or /l/ in Lao, while /j/
in Thai becomes /j/ or /ɲ/ in Lao. This phenomenon shows that the period of borrowing from
Thai has taken place recently. Borrowed words carry over their meaning from Thai. However, a
number of loanwords have a narrow meaning. Many original Lao words have been affected by
borrowed Thai words because they are synonymous. This results in the change in the Lao
language’s ‘semantic space’.
Introduction
The basic principle in identifying loanwords is the change in sound, because some
phonetic features of the source language are adapted into similar (but slightly different) sounds
of the target language (Haugen, 1953; Arlotto, 1972). For example, Hock (1991) examines
European languages as having mixed lexicons from French, Spanish or German, where it is
rather easy to see that words have been borrowed. Similarly, this applies to English loanwords
lent to Thai and to Lao (Udomvong, 1981; Khonphutphro, 2002).
However, borrowing can also come from other dialects of the same language. Anttila
(1989) states that it is very difficult to identify loanwords if two languages or dialects are very
closely related. Because there is no clear boundary between dialect and language, it is obvious
that the same words are adopted by closely related languages. Hock (1991) examines Standard
English and Black Vernacular English. He proposes that both are dialects of the English
language. The words that Lao borrows from Thai will be similar, as they are both dialects of the
Tai language family, and their phonetic features are very close. Therefore, the principle of sound
20
change from language to language may not be adequate in identifying loanwords when they are
two dialects of the same language family.
Hock (1991) proposes that some principles may be added for detecting a verified dialect
borrowed in certain language situations, especially where the donor/source language are related
to each other.
As a consequence, the Sound Change principle cannot be used on its own to identify Thai
loanwords in Lao. I have found that there are other processes to help identify Thai loanwords,
and they can be used in combination with the Sound Change principle. There are consequently
three processes employed to identify Thai loanword in this study:
1. Sound Change process
2. Appearing process
3. Meaning process
The Sound Change process refers to the changing of some phonemes from Thai to other
phonemes in Lao. The Appearing process refers to lexicons that appeared after 1975 and still
having the same meaning as the original Thai word. Lastly, the Meaning process is the term used
to talk about loanwords and original Thai dictionary meanings being consistent. The Appearing
and Meaning processes have to be used in tandem. As the Sound Change process is basically the
process typically used to identify loanwords, it will be looked at first.
Methodology
The data in this study is Thai loanwords borrowed by the Lao language after 1975, in
written and spoken form. The Thai loanwords are grouped from various sources, representing
contemporary written and spoken Lao that is found in magazines, newspapers, dictionaries and
television programs. They cover a variety of content, as below:
1. Magazines: The data is grouped from weekly magazines, namely the Update magazine
published during 2007 and 2008. An issue was collected once a month.
2. Newspapers: The data is grouped from daily newspapers, namely the Vientiane-Mai,
published from May 2008 to April 2009. We collected two newspapers a month.
3. Dictionaries: The data is grouped from the mono-Lao dictionaries written by Konivong
(2005) and Onmanison (2008).
21
4. Television programs: The data is grouped from two Lao television programs; SamosonSaw-Ban, aired on Saturdays and Sundays from 8.00am to 9.00am, and Sabaidee-MuengLao, aired on Saturdays and Sundays from 9.00am to 10.00am. Both were grouped when
they were aired between May 2008 and April 2009 by sampling twice a month, totaling
24 subjects. The products advertised in these programs were also added to the data.
After potential loanwords are grouped, they are recorded on a ‘data card’ and categorized
into various fields: part of the alphabet, semantic field, domain of language use, example
loanword, meaning, source, date and phonology change. They may be compared with other
native Lao lexicons of the same field/meaning. Moreover, all of them have their meanings
compared with those in the Thai dictionary produced by the Royal Institute of Thai (1999).
The Sound Change Process
Sound change is a necessary process for identifying loanwords in any language. It acts
well with languages with mostly different features. If donor and target languages have close
phonemes, borrowed words can be very difficult to identify. The Sound Change process,
however, was used in my study with other processes; the Appearing and Meaning processes. The
results found that there is an adapting of Thai consonants and vowel phonemes when used by
Lao speakers. The consonant phonemes are adapted in two positions – initial and cluster
positions – except final consonant positions. The vowel phonemes of both languages do not
differ from each other. However, there is a change of vowel phoneme in the loanword.
For the tonal phonemes of Thai and Lao, the numbers are typically the same, but they are
different in level of tone. The tonal phoneme in the loanword will be adapted to the Lao tonal
system. Likewise, Varisa (1997) states that when the word is borrowed from Thai, there is no
need for tones to be carried over. She gave some examples of Thai actresses’ proper names; when
pronounced in Vientiane Lao, the tones differ. Therefore, the tonal phoneme will be highlighted
in this study.
Initial Consonant Phonemes
Most Thai and Lao phonemes are the same. There are two consonant phonemes that
occur only in Thai; /-r-/ and /ch-/; while the phoneme /ɲ-/ only occurs in Lao. As a consequence,
both consonant phonemes in Thai are adapted to similar phonemes in Lao. That is, in the initial
position the phoneme /r-/ becomes the phoneme /h-/ or /l-/. The phoneme /ch-/ becomes the
22
phoneme /s-/. The phoneme /j-/ becomes the phoneme /ɲ-/. However, some potential loanwords
have kept the Thai phoneme /j-/.
Thai
(1)
Lao
/ r- /
>
/ h- /
(1-1)
>
/ l- /
(1-2)
>
/ h- / and / l- /
(1-3)
(2)
/ ch- / >
/ s- /
(3)
/ j- / >
/ ɲ- /
(3-1)
/ j- / >
/ j- /
(3-2)
Sound change in (1) and (2) are the corresponding sounds of Thai and Lao as a dialect of
the Tai language family. The phoneme change in this case is not included in my study but will be
proved by the Appearing and Meaning processes to determine that it is a genuine Thai loanword.
The examples below show how to identify a Thai loanword.
Example 1 (1-1):
(a)
(b)
(c)
/ r- / > / h- /
Thai
Lao
meaning
เรียก
IPd
/hiak3/
(D1:1410)
wIh
/haj3/
(D1:1407)
Iu[
/hi:p3/
(D1:1425)
‘to call’
/riak3/
(D4:1410)
ไร
/raj4/
(D4:981)
รีบ /ri:p3/
(D4: 958)
‘devoid’
‘to hurry’
The phoneme /r-/ in Thai and the phoneme /h-/ in Lao are corresponding sounds of the
Tai language family. Thus, the potential loanword might not be a loanword; they just happen to
be alike. This illustrates how the Sound Change process alone is inadequate. We should use the
other processes (Appearing and Meaning) to prove them further. We should test all potential
loanwords that appear in Lao dictionaries after 1975 that have similar meanings as the primitive
lexicons in Lao. In Example 1.1(a) the word IPd /hiak3/ is similar in meaning and use to the
primitive Lao word gvuho /ʔǝ:n3/ – ‘to call’ (D1:1395). In 1.1(c) Iu[ /hi:p3/ is similar to the meaning
of the word 2hk – ‘to hurry’ (D1:1036). In Example 1.1(b), wIh /haj3/ has a meaning akin to [=,
j u
/bƆ:1 mi:4/ – ‘have not’ in Lao.
The sentence below shows same use contexts between the potential loanword ‘wIh’ and the
primitive Lao word ‘[=,j u’.
“0hvp wIh}[=j,u
7;k,l5d
.o
m5d
/ khƆj3- haj3, bƆ:4 mi:4 khwa:msuk naj4 thuk
I
devoid, have no
happiness
in
all
I am devoid of happiness all day.
,nh”
23
(TV2: 12-3-09)
mɯ:3 /
day
When adapted, the phoneme /r-/ in Thai becomes the phoneme /h-/ in Lao (above). All
potential loanwords may not be new lexicons in Lao, but instead borrowed due to Lao speakers’
familiarity with Thai word. The reason supporting the adaptation of the phoneme /r-/ to become
/h-/ is not only that they are corresponding sounds of the Tai language family, but also to avoid
using homophones. For example, the potential loanword Iu[ /hi:p3/ (‘to hurry’) has changed from
/r-/ to /h-/ so speakers can avoid homophone clashes with the traditional Lao word /li:p3/
(‘withered’). The same applies to the potential loanword IPd /hiak3/ (‘to call’) and similar
lexicon ]Pd /liak3/ (‘to select’).
Example 1(1-2) (below) shows how the adapting of the Thai phoneme /r-/ can result in it
becoming /l-/ in Lao.
Example 1 (1-2):
(a)
(b)
(c)
/r-/ > /l-/
Thai
Lao
meaning
ระบาย
/ra4-ba:j1/
(D4:934)
ระบาด /ra4-ba:t2/
(D4:934)
]t[kp /la-ba:j2/
(D1:1105)
]t[kf /la-ba:t2/
(D1:1105)
‘to paint’
ระเบียบวาระ
]t[P[;k]t
‘agenda of a meeting’
/ra4-biap2 wa:1-ra4/
(D4:935)
/la4-biap2 wa:4-la4/
(D1:1106)
‘to spread’
All potential loanwords in the examples above are new lexicons used in different contexts,
so there are no other Lao lexicons of the same meaning (like with the potential loanwords listed
above in 1-1). Accordingly, the Sound Change process works to identify them because it is
generally efficient at looking at adaptation from a donor language to a phonetically close-related
target language (where, say, the phoneme /r-/ becomes /l-/ in this case). However, there is no
rigid system when changing the phoneme /r-/. That is, some lexicons in Lao alter the phoneme
/r-/ to /l-/, whilst some alter it to /h-/, as shown below.
Example 1 (1-3):
24
/r-/ > /h-/ or /l-/
Thai
Lao
meaning
เรง
gIja’
/heŋ1 /
(D1:1413)
g]a’j /leŋ3 /
(D1:1139)
‘to hurry’
(b)
รายการ
Ikpdko
‘television program’
(c)
รุน
(a)
/reŋ3 /
(D4:966)
/ ra:j-ka:n/
(D4: 953)
/run3/
(D4: 961)
/ha:j4 – ka:n2/
(TV2-2/03/09)
]kpdko /la:j4- ka:n2/
(TV2-2/03/09)
Ij5o /hun1/
(TV1-2/03/09)
]h5o /lun3/
(TV2-18/13/08)
‘generation’
The phoneme /r-/ becomes /h-/ or /l-/, so is non-systematic. This choice is based on the
speaker’s own discretion. The potential loanwords are simply lent to Lao and widely used in the
mass media; television programs and magazines. They are not found in dictionaries first. It can
be claimed that these potential loanwords are in the adaptation phase, from Thai to Lao.
Chomdee (1996) found that Thai people often pronounce the cluster phonemes /-r-/ and
/-l-/ as simply /-l-/. This can make Lao people confused when using the phoneme /-h-/ as a
corresponding sound, or when using /-l-/ as a closed phoneme.
The two examples below reflect the sound change of the Thai phoneme /ch-/, which
becomes /s-/ in Lao, because Lao has no /ch-/ sound.
Example 2:
/ch-/ > /s-/
Thai
(a)
สื่อมวลชน
/sɯ:2- muan1- c on1/
(D4:431)
กระเชา /kra - ch aw4/
(D4:28)
สินเชื่อ /sin5 - chɯa:3/
(D4:1,193)
h
(b)
(c)
Lao
meaning
lnj,;o-qo
‘mass media’
/sɯ:4- muan4- son4/
(D1:1,200)
dtg-qhk /ka – saw3/
(Mx/6-08:)
lyog-njv /sin5 – sɯa:3/
(D1:491)
‘flower basket
‘credit’
25
The Thai phoneme /ch-/ corresponds to the phoneme /s-/ in Lao, so the Appearing process
has been used to identify potential loanwords here. It is used only when they appeared after 1975.
For the Meaning process, their meaning is the same as in Thai. So we can identify them as Thai
loanwords by employing the three processes; Sound Change, Appearing and Meaning.
The phoneme /j-/ in Thai is altered in Lao, where is becomes /ɲ-/, with this being the
corresponding sound. An example (3) of adapted phonemes from Thai to Lao is as follows.
Example 3 (3-1):
(a)
(b)
(c)
/ j- / > / ɲ- /
Thai
Lao
meaning
วิทยุ /vit4-tha4-ju4/
;ymtp5
‘radio’
/vi1-tha4- ɲu4/
(D4:229)
(D1:1,229)
ญัตติ /jat4-ti2/
paf8y /ɲat1-ti5/
(D4:390)
(D1:530)
ยุทธศาสตร /jut4-tha4-sa:t2/ p5fmtlkf /ɲut1-tha1-sa:t2/
(D4:911)
(D1:585)
‘a meeting’
‘strategy’
Some potential loanwords, however, retain the phoneme /j-/ of Thai, as follows.
Example 3 (3-2):
(a)
(b)
(c)
/j-/ > /j-/
Thai
Lao
meaning
ยางอาย
1k’vkp /ja:ŋ2-ʔa:j2/
‘to shame’
/ja:ŋ1-ʔa:j1/
(D4:902)
เขยก /kha-jek2/
(D4:198)
ย้ํา /jam4/
(D4:905)
(D1:1,097)
0tg1d /kha-jek2 /
(D1:102)
1he /jam3 /
(D1:1,095)
‘hobble’
‘to repeat’
The phoneme /j-/ becomes the phoneme /ɲ-/ (or can remain as /j-/). It is more systematic
than the adaptation of the phoneme /r-/, which turns into /h-/ or /l-/.
Cluster Consonant Phonemes
The cluster phoneme in Lao is only present in the phoneme /-w-/. In Thai there are three
cluster phonemes: /-l-/, /-r-/ and /-w-/. So the cluster phonemes /-l-/ and /-r-/ are lost when
borrowed by Lao. Example 4 shows the loss of these cluster consonant phonemes.
Example 4:
(a)
(b)
(c)
26
/-l-/, /-r-/ > /ø/
Thai
Lao
meaning
ลายคราม
/la:j1-kh ra:m1/
(D4:1008)
กลั่นแกลง /k lan2-klɛ:ŋ3 /
(D4:78)
]kp7k, / la:j1-kh a:m1/
‘willow’
(D2: 695)
dahocdh’ /kan3-kɛ:ŋ3 /
(D1:125)
‘to frame’
ไกลเกลี่ย
wdjgdp /kaj1-kia4 /
‘reconcile’
/klaj2-klia2/
(D4:159)
(D1:70)
The example (a) loses the consonant cluster /-r-/, and the examples (b) and (c) lose the
consonant cluster /-l-/. Indeed, both consonant cluster phonemes are lost in Thai pronunciation.
Although they appear in written form, Thai people prefer not to pronounce them.
Vow el Phonemes
Vowel phonemes in Thai and Lao are the same. It is difficult to separate loanwords from
native Lao, because the loanwords’ vowel sounds are not changed from Thai. Accordingly, the
remaining vowel phoneme is a clue that can identify loanwords. Example 5 shows this.
Example 5: The remaining vowel phonemes from Thai
Thai
(a)
ตะวันออก
(D4:447)
/ta2-wan1-ʔɔk2/
Lao
Meaning
8k;aovvd / ta:2-wan4-ʔɔk2/
‘east’
(D1: 637)
8tg;aovvd / ta2-wen4-ʔɔk2/
(native Lao)
(D2: 386) /
ลบลาง /lop4-la:ŋ4/
]q[]hk’ / lop1-la:ŋ3/
‘to wipe out’
(b)
(D4:901)
(D1:1156)
]b[]hk’ / lɯp1-la:ŋ3/
(native Lao)
(D1:1157)
(c)
ลด /lot4/
]qf / lot1/
‘to reduce’
(D4:986)
(D1:1,147)
s]5f / lut5/
(native Lao)
(D1:1301)
The example (a) shows both the retained and changed vowel phonemes from Thai. In the
second syllable /-wan-/, the phoneme /a/ has remained. In Lao, it has changed from the short
vowel /a/ to the long vowel /a:/ in the first syllable /ta2/ > /ta:1/. For examples (b) and (c), the
phoneme /o/ has remained. Both the loanwords and native Lao words are listed in the same
27
dictionary, which can confuse the speaker. However, in Lao mass media, the native Lao word is
used more often.
I found that the remaining vowel phoneme from Thai occurs when the loanwords and
native Lao correspond with each other. This phenomenon shows us that the loanword has come
into Lao recently, because it is still used in both lexicons.
The Sound Change process occurs for both changing and remaining Thai phonemes. The
changing occurs with new lexicons, especially consonant phonemes, while the ones that remain
are found when loanwords and native Lao cognate, especially vowel phonemes. However, it is
difficult to know how the loanwords will be changed, or if indeed they will remain the same as in
Thai.
I have found that there are four conditions that can explain whether the phonemes of a
loanword will change or remain. They are: (1) the same phoneme with Lao; (2) the period of
borrowing; (3) range of use in the mass media; and (4) preference of speaker.
These conditions can occur alongside each other. In the first condition, if the phoneme of
the loanword and the Lao word are the same, the loanword’s phoneme will remain, such as the
initial consonant phoneme /j-/. If they are different phonemes, the loanword will change to a
same or similar phoneme in Lao, such as /r-/ becoming /l-/. This includes the loss of consonant
clusters, like /-r-/ and /-l-/ in Thai.
In the second condition, confusion over the use of a phoneme will occur when a loanword
has been recently adopted into the target language, such as /r-/ becoming /h-/ or /l-/, or /j-/
becoming /j-/ or /ɲ-/.
In the third condition, when the loanword has been borrowed for a long time and is
widely used (particularly in the mass media), only one phoneme may be used (to avoid
confusion).
In the last condition, the phoneme will change or remain the same depending on the
speaker’s discretion. Thai and Lao share very similar characteristics, so the original or adapted
phoneme may both be used interchangeably.
The Sound Change process is successful if used alongside the Appearing and Meaning
processes. Figure 1 shows the process of sound change for a potential loanword.
28
Potential loanword
(Appearing and Meaning processes)
Sound Change process
(1) the same phoneme used in Lao - - - - - - the period of borrowing (2)
(3) prevalence in mass media - - - - - - - speaker’s preference (4)
changed phoneme (and)
retained phoneme
Thai loanword
Figure 1: The Sound Change Process
A potential Thai loanword put through Figure 3 has to be checked using the Appearing
and Meaning processes. Then it will be changed or remain the same, depending on the four
conditions and whether they are used together or not. Some potential loanwords may be changed
and some may not. The three processes will ultimately indicate if a lexicon has come from Thai.
Next we will look at the Appearing process.
The Appearing Process
This study seeks to investigate Thai loanwords found in Lao after the country’s societal
change in 1975. A dictionary, as a collection of lexicons used by the population, is the best
source for recording changes in terminology over many periods. Before 1975, the Lao dictionary
widely used as reference was Viravong’s 1962 edition. It was not published until after the
Government published it in 2005. It is the first one to be used as reference for meanings. The
second one was published by the Lao Library in 2008. Some of the lexicons in Viravong’s
dictionary were deleted, but there are many new entries, including Thai loanwords. These new
entries are not listed as having come from Thai, however.
However, the dictionary cannot incorporate new vocabulary in its entirety, as new
editions are produced slower than the speed with which new words crop up. There are therefore
many new lexicons used in society which are not recorded in dictionaries. They can be read and
heard in the mass media, as they are representative of today’s Lao language.
The Appearing process includes potential loanwords published in Lao mass media in
2008, after relatively modern Lao dictionaries were released. The three processes identified these
29
new lexicons. Example 6 shows some Thai loanwords, all of them appearing in various sources,
as follows.
Example 6: Potential loanwords by source
(6.1) Potential loanwords appearing in Lao dictionaries
Thai
Lao
meaning
(a) เลือดกําเดา
g]nvfdegfqk
‘nosebleed’
/ lɯat3-kam1-daw1/
(b) เชือ
้ โรค
/ lɯat3-kam2-daw2 /
(D1: 73)
‘an infection’
/ chɯa4-ro:k3 /
(c) ทรัพยสิน
/ sap4-sin5 /
/ sɯa3-lo:k3 /
(D1: 531)
‘an asset’
(D1: 557)
g-nhv3]d
-a[lyo
/ sap1-sin5 /
(6.2) Potential loanwords appearing in Update magazine
Thai
(a) แผนธุรกิจ
/pha:n5-thu4-ra4-kit2/
(b) ประจําเดือน
/pra2- cham1-dɯan1/
(c) ชิงชาสวรรค
/c iŋ1-c a:4-sa2-wan5 /
h
h
Lao
meaning
czom5]tdyf
‘business plan’
(Mz 7-18-08:1)
‘menstrual cycle’
h
/p a:n5-thu4-ra4-kit5/
xt9egfnvo
/pa2- cham2-dɯa2 /
-y’-hklts;ao
(Mz 8-3-09:4)
‘Ferris wheel’
/siŋ4-sa:3-sa2-wan5 /
(Mz 8-1-09:29)
(6.3) Potential loanwords appearing in Vientiane Mai newspaper
Thai
่ นลอย
(a) ไรเลือ
/ raj3-lɯan3-lɔj1/
(b) โรงเรียนอนุบาล
Lao
meaning
wIjg]nvj o]vp
‘mobile plantation’
/haj1-lɯan3-lɔj4/
(Np 25-7-08:3)
‘kindergarten’
3I’IPovto5[ko
/ro:ŋ1-rian1-ʔa2-nu4-ba:n1/ /ho:ŋ1-hian1-ʔa2-nu4-ba:n1/ (Np 28-8-08:2)
(c) ศูนยการคา
l6odko7hk
‘shopping mall’
h
h
/su:n5-ka:n1- k a:4 /
/su:n5-ka:n2- k a:3 /
(Np 28-1-09:8)
(6.4) Potential loanwords appearing in Lao television programs
Thai
(a) สมุนไพร
/sa2-mun5-phraj1/
Lao
meaning
lts,5owr
h
/sa2-mun5-p raj4 /
‘herbs’
(TV1 12-11-08)
30
(b) ปลากระปอง
/phla:1-ka2-poŋ5 /
(c) ไมแปรรูป
/maj4-prɛ:1-ru:p3 /
xkdtxJv’
w,hcxI6[
‘canned fish’
(TV2 12-11-08)
‘transmuted wood’
/maj3-pɛ:2-hu:p3 /
(TV1 2-2-09)
h
/p a:1-ka2-poŋ5 /
The above words only appear in Lao mass media. Each word will be meaningful to native
Lao speakers before comparison with Thai. If it means the same or something similar, we can
conclude that it is a Thai loanword. Borrowing these loanwords can have the effect of prompting
other (related) words to be adopted. For example, the loanword in (6.3) 3I’IPovto5[ko – ‘a
school for small children’ – is associated with the loanword [=vj to5[ko]6dxk – ‘kindergarten for
pond’. In the same way, the word for ‘herbs’ in (6.4) – lts,5owr – is associated with the loanword
86hvq[lts,5owr, meaning ‘herbal steam’. These loanwords rapidly coincide with the receiving of
new culture from Thailand. They are consequently not found in dictionaries.
Although most loanwords are new lexicons for Lao society, some lexicons are already
found in native Lao, such as the one for ‘menstrual cycle’ in (6.2) – xt9egfnvo. In traditional Lao
it is called g]nvf (literally meaning ‘blood’). Both lexicons are still used. Figure 2 below shows
the identification of Thai loanwords by the Appearing process.
Potential loanword
Appearing process
(after 1975)
(1) Lao dictionaries - - - - - - - - Lao mass media (2)
(Meaning process)
same/similar meaning to Thai
different meaning from Thai
(Sound Change process)
(deleted)
Thai loanword
Figure 2: The Appearing Process
31
The Meaning Process
Lastly, we come to the meaning process. Potential loanwords that appear in Lao
dictionaries and the local media are compared with Thai equivalents for meaning. The Royal
Institute of Thai, publishing in 1995 and in 2003, was used as dictionary reference. The meaning
of the potential loanword has to be identical or similar to Thai. Here ‘similar’ means that it is
defined in the Lao language and must be part of normal Thai. Words may have narrower or wider
meanings than in Thai.
Generally, a lexicon in Thai has multiple meanings and contextual uses. For Lao, the
meaning most commonly used is the most widely-inferred one, typically the first to appear in a
Thai dictionary. It was found that the meaning of a potential loanword compared with its Thai
counterpart is divided into just two types. That is, identical meaning and narrower meaning.
Most meanings of potential loanwords are narrower than in Thai. It has not yet been found that
there are borrowed words with wider meanings than in Thai. New potential loanwords appearing
only in Lao mass media (and not defined in dictionaries) however may expand upon the Thai
meaning. This is a topic for further study. The example 7 shows potential loanwords with
identical and narrower meanings.
Example 7: Potential loanwords
(7.1) identical meanings
Thai
Lao
meaning
g]nvd8ah’
‘election’
/ lɯak3-taŋ3/
/ lɯak3-taŋ3 /
/ kra2-jok2-ŋaw1/
/ ka2-jok5-ŋaw4 /
(D1: 1,135)
‘mirror’
(D1:3)
(a) เลือกตั้ง
(b)
(c)
กระจกเงา
ภาคเรียน
dt9qdg’qk
rkdIPo
/ p a:k3-hian4/
‘semester ’
(D1:1,000)
Thai
Lao
meaning
ผอนสง
zjvolqj’
‘to pay by installment’
/ phɔn2-soŋ2/
/ phɔn1-soŋ4 /
/ ra4-biaŋ1/
/ la4-biaŋ2/
(D1:957)
‘veranda ’
(D1:1,105)
h
/ p a:k3-rian1/
h
(7.2) narrower meanings
(a)
(b)
ระเบียง
]t[P’
(c)
กรรเชียง
32
dt-P’
h
/ kan1- c iaŋ1/
‘oar ’
(D1:12)
/ ka4- siaŋ4/
For the lexicons in the example (7.1), the meanings have been copied from a Thai
dictionary. In some cases, the Lao meaning of a lexicon can be said to not give as much detail as
its Thai meaning. However, they are still used in the same context. As stated above, a narrow
meaning suggests that the Lao word is used in a narrower context than in Thai. So the potential
loanword in (a) – zjvolqj’ /phɔn1-soŋ4 – is used in the context of payment only. In a Thai context,
though, it is also used to refer to death. The potential loanword in (b) – ]t[P’ /la4-biaŋ2/ –
describes the balcony of a home. But in Thai, it can also mean a church balcony. Lastly, in the
example (c) – dt-P’ /ka4- siaŋ4/ – the meaning is restricted to ‘oar’. In Thai, however, it can
extend to ‘oarsman’.
Figure 3 shows potential loanwords fed into the meaning process. Although it is a
valuable and necessary process, it must always be used in conjunction with other processes,
especially the Appearing process.
Potential loanword
(Appearing process)
Meaning process
(1) Thai dictionaries - - - (compare) - - - Lao dictionaries (2)
- - - - - - - - Lao native (3)
the same as Thai
similar to Thai different from Thai
(identical meaning) (narrower meaning)
Thai loanword
deleted
Figure 3: The Meaning Process
Conclusion
The three processes proposed above; Sound Change, Appearing and Meaning; are
interrelated. In practical use, the Appearing process must always occur before the other two. The
Meaning process must come after. This practice means that entries usually appear in modern Lao
33
dictionaries; if they do not, a native Lao speaker can be asked for meaning and context. This will
be especially necessary for potential loanwords found in the mass media.
The Sound Change process may or may not occur, because both languages have very
similar phonemes; in some there was no sound change. A key point made during this study was
that the Sound Change process alone cannot identify Thai loanwords in Lao, because they are
members of the same language family. The Meaning process serves to identify the best examples.
The Appearing process is important in determining whether it is a new addition to modern Lao.
These three processes can, therefore, be configured to detect new loanwords coming from
close relatives of a language family, even if they share similar dialects.
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mv’7e vjvo,toulvoD X@WW)?D ;af9toko5dq, rklk]k;D ry,7ah’mu@j D ;P’9ao: croou cvafg;umkp-y’j D
lt4k[ao7qho7;hk;afmtotmeF dt-;’4tcs]’0jk;c]t;afmtotmeD X!__W?D dv’xt-5,
38t,qodjP;da[;ymtpklkfc]trklk]k;D ;P’9ao: leoadry,c]t9esojkpxnh,csj’]afD
lq,cl’ w-pt;q’D X@WW&?D dkolbdlk7epn,.orklk]k;D ;P’9ao: ,6oymy 383p8hkD
ly]k ;uit;’l%D X!_*@?D ;a9oko5dq,rklk]k;D ;P’9ao: dv’c[[IPocsj’dt-;’lbdlkD
--------------{D X!__*?D ;a9oko5dq,rklk]k;D ry,7ha’muj #D ;P’9ao: fvdgdfD
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35
The Thai Compound Words Beginning with the /tua/ Morpheme
Methawee Yuttapongtada
Kasetsart University
Introduction
Word compounding is a major technique of word building in isolated languages such as
Thai, Chinese, Vietnamese, etc. Especially in Thai, it is often mentioned by most linguists or in
grammatical textbooks both written by Thais and foreigners that the head morphemes of the Thai
compound words include /khon/ ‘person’, /phu:/ ‘person’, /nak/ ‘agent’(the one who does), /mε:/
‘mother, woman who does’, /cha:ŋ/ ‘craftsman, artisan’, /caw/ ‘commander’ , /cha:w/ ‘resident’,
/ro:ŋ/ ‘hall’, /thi:/, ‘place’, /khraŋ/ ‘mechanism, engine, tool’, /naam/ ‘water’, /kh:ŋ/ ‘thing’,
and /hua/ ‘head’. However, since a lot of Thai compound words begin with /tua/ and more words
beginning with /tua/ have been formed, the researcher has collected and studied the Thai
compound words beginning with the /tua/ morpheme from various documents and dictionaries
which have been used since the Sukhothai Period.
Methodology and Theoretical Frameworks
The researcher used data from documents already published. The concerned documents
covered the Sukhothai Period until the present. The researcher has surveyed the preliminary
documents and classified the found documents into 7 categories as follows:
1. Inscriptions
2. Essays
3. Annals
4. Laws, Royal Announcements
5. Memos, Royal Letters
6. Articles
7. Literary Prose, Stage Plays, Novels
The researcher then divided the relevant documents into 6 periods as well as categories of
documents as follows:
36
1. Sukhothai Period: Documents are derived from inscriptions and essays.
2. Ayutthaya Period: Documents are derived from inscriptions, essays, annals,
royal announcements and memos.
All documents of the Thonburi Period have been put together with the Ayutthaya Period,
because there are, in the earlier said period, few numbers and different categories of the
documents.
3. Rattanakosin Period is divided into 4 periods as follows:
3.1 Reign of King Rama I-III: Documents are derived from annals, essays,
memos, laws and literary prose.
3.2 Reign of King Rama IV-V: Increased categories of documents are found
including commented articles, royal writings and novels are found more.
3.3 Reign of King Rama VI-VIII: Documents, which are very different from
the previous periods, are about the stage plays.
3.4 Present Period: Main documents are about the essays, articles and novels.
Documents in the same categories such as articles, essays, novels consist of a lot of
numbers and different meanings. First, the researcher divided each document into groups,
namely: names of author, contents, writing styles, language levels, and then make random a
system of sampling groups from each group in order to get data from the concerned documents
to cover all groups and categories.
The researcher collected data about the compound words being with /tua/ from the
documents mentioned above, but also from dictionaries of different periods as follows:
1. Dictionary of the Siamese Language, Bradley, B. (1873)
2. Dictionary of Royal Institute (1950)
3. The Most Up-To-Date Thai Dictionary edited by Manit Manitjaroen (1961)
6. Dictionary of Matichon (2004)
7. Dictionary Online (Website: http://www.thai-language.com/if/131250)
After the researcher collected the data regarding the compound words /tua/ from
documents as well as dictionaries as selected already, the researcher analyzed the data by using
37
semantic concepts, namely: metaphor and analogy. Both the semantic concepts show that
humans use the advantage from living things, in view of language, for intensifying meanings and
functions of words. The researcher thinks that both ways of thinking can explain the
phenomenon of the increasing importance of the compound words /tua/ in the Thai language.
Some Thai Compound Words Beginning with the /tua/ Morpheme
Used in the Sukhothai Period
In the Sukhothai Period, the /tua/ morpheme was placed before the names of animals
such as /tua na/ (body + meat) ‘land animals’ and /tua pla:/ (body + fish) ‘water animals’ (cited
from King Ramkhamhaeng’s Stone Inscription 1).
Ishii, Akagi and Endo (1972) explained the meaning of the /tua/ morpheme used in the
Sukhothai Period as ‘body, a number, self; used as a prefix to the name of animal’.
Other examples of the Thai compound words beginning with the /tua/ morpheme used in
the Sukhothai Period include /tua-sat/ (body + animal) ‘animal’ and /tua-ma:/ (body + dog) ‘dog’.
The /tua/ morpheme that refers to animals in Thai is used in the same way as in the other
Tai dialects. Kanitthanan (1976) revealed that the /thua4/ morpheme placed at the beginning of
the compound words in the Saek language referred to animals such as:
/thua4-raw6/
‘louse’
/thua4-maa2/
4
‘dog’
4
/thua -mεεw / ‘cat’
/thua4-nuu2/
‘mouse’
/thua4-kaa6/
‘crow’
/thua4-kuŋ/
‘shrimp’
/thua4-lian4/
‘eel’
/thua4-paw6/
‘crab’
4
4
/thua -truan / ‘earthworm’
Kanitthanan (1976) found the use of the /thua4/ morpheme referring to animals in the
Saek language interesting because the /thua4/ morpheme is placed before all the names of
animals. For example, if Saek people are asked what the animal is, their answers are always
/thua4/ + name of an animal. However, when counting the number of animals, some of them will
38
omit the /thua4/ morpheme before the names of animals, but mention the other /thua4/ morpheme,
which is the classifier of animals, after the number, instead. For instance,
plaa2 saam4 thua4 (fish + three + classifier)
6
6
4
‘three fish’
kay haa thua (cock + three + classifier)
‘three cocks’
paw2 sip4 thua4 ‘(crab + ten + classifier)
‘ten crabs’
The conclusion made from the examples above is that the /thua4/ morpheme in the Saek
language is used either as a noun or a classifier. As in /thua4-mεεw4 saam4 thua4/, the former /thua4/
is a noun, whereas the latter is a classifier. It may be inferred that the classifier /thua4/ is derived
from the first syllable of the names of animals. Most Thai classifiers originated from this
linguistic phenomenon. In fact, it is not unusual to place a classifier before a noun in Thai.
However, this phenomenon is likely to disappear from the Thai language because changes in the
word order are occurring in the Tai languages. The same phenomenon is evident in the Central
Thai dialect and the other Thai dialects. Some examples are /hua-h:m/ ‘shallot’. /hua-kra-thiam/ ‘garlic’,
/sa:y-bua/ ‘lotus branches’, /sa:y-sin/ ‘holy cords’, ‘sa:y-e:w/ ‘belt’, /sen-khon/ ‘bodily hair’, /sen-phom/
‘hair’, and /sen-mi:/ ‘grass noodle’. The classifiers /hua/, /sa:y/, and /sen/ have completely
become part of the compound words.
Among all the Thai dialects, the word order in the White Tai and Black Tai dialects
remain unchanged, so it is like that of the Ancient Thai dialect. That is, numbers and classifiers
are usually placed before nouns. For example, the White Tai and Black Tai people say /sip1 to:
ma:4/ (ten + classifier + dogs) ‘ten dogs’, whereas the Central Thai people say /ma: sip tua/ (dogs
+ ten + classifier) ‘ten dogs’.
The Increasing Use of the /tua/ Morpheme as the First Part of a Compound Word
The data collected has revealed that, in the reign of King Rama I, the /tua/ morpheme was
placed before another noun to form a compound noun. This type of compound noun was mostly
found in the Three Seals Law such as:
/tua-tha:t/
‘slave’
/tua-phu:-ku:/
‘money borrower’
/tua-phray/
‘servant class’
/tua-co:n/
‘thief’
/tua-phu: ch:/
‘cheater’
/tua-co:t/
‘plaintiff’
/tua-le:k/
‘slaves with tattooed number’
/tua-khwa:m/
‘people with lawsuits’
/tua-phi-rut/
‘suspect’
39
Since the reign of King Rama V, more compound words preceded by the /tua/ morpheme
that refer to ‘person’ have been coined such as:
/tua-la-kho:n/
‘character’
/tua-e:k/
‘leading actor/actress’
/tua-sam-khan/
‘important person’
/tua-ta-lok/
‘comedian’
/tua-di:/
‘bad person’
Moreover, since the reign of King Rama IV, the /tua/ morpheme before nouns has
referred to other things, not animals nor human beings such as:
/tua-ya:ŋ/
‘example’
/tua-ak s:n/
‘character’
/tua-le:k/
‘number’
/tua-sa-kot/
‘spelling’
/tua- maŋ/
‘city center’
At present, more compound words beginning with /tua/ have been formed to name new
terms in the society. Some of them represent new technology or concepts such as /tua-plε:ŋ-pendi-ci-tn/ ‘digitizer’, /tua-chi:-lεŋ-nay-in-th:-net/ ‘universal resource locator or URL’, /tua-t:plak-fay/ ‘plug inverter’, /tua-kep-lε-du:t- khwa:m- ch:n/ ‘dryer’, /tua-chi:-wat/ ‘indicator’,
/tua-dat-cha-ni:/ ‘index’, /tua -reŋ/ ‘accelerator’, and /tua- mε:/ ‘the real one’.
Assumptions on the Increasing Use of the /tua/ Morpheme in Compound Nouns
The researcher found the reasons why Thai people prefer to use the /tua/ morpheme to
form new words to be as follows: meanings, metaphors and analogy.
40
In the first period, the /tua/ morpheme in the Thai compound words referred to animals
and, in later periods, it referred to ‘person’, it can be concluded that the language users applied
the metaphorical process, using the common semantic feature [+animate] for both animals and
human beings.
/sat/ ‘animals’
/khon/ ‘human beings’
[+animate]
[+animate]
Later, the /tua/ morpheme was used to refer to non-living things such as /tua- ak-s:n/
‘characters’and /tua- le:k/ ‘numbers’ because, like the animals, such things have heads and tails.
More mathematical compound words have been formed this way such as /tua-ha:n/ ‘multiplier’,
/tua-khu:n/ ‘divider’, and /tua-pra-k:p/ ‘composition’. Similarly, the word /tua-maŋ/ ‘city
center’ is considered as the main or central part like the trunk of a living thing, and the /tua/
morpheme in /tua- ya:ŋ/ ‘examples’ has a concrete meaning that refers to ‘a single thing’.
The /tua/ morpheme is found in technical terms such as /tua tham-la-la:y/ ‘dissolver’,
/tua- kla:ŋ/ ‘medium/, /tua- nam- fay- fa:/ ‘conductor’, and /tua-plε:ŋ-san-ya:n/ ‘adapter’. It is
likely that the metaphorical and analogical processes have been applied because, like living
things, the machines can do specific things. More compound words that begin with the /tua/
morpheme have been formed to satisfy the arrival of new technology, especially in computer
science and communication.
The metaphorical and analogical processes are also applied by the Royal Institute in
coining linguistic terms beginning with the /tua/ morpheme such as:
/tua-khian/
‘script’
/tua-khian- pra- dit/
‘artificial script’
/tua-chuay- kri-ya:/
‘auxiliary’
/tua-cham/
‘connector’
/tua-thε:n/
‘representation’
/tua-thε:n-thi:/
‘substitute’
/tua- nen- s:m- khwa:m/
‘intensifier’
/tua-boŋ-khun-na-lak-sa-na/
‘qualifier’
/tua-boŋ-chi:-ka: rok/
‘case marker’
/tua-bot/
‘text’
/tua- bε:p/
‘model’
41
According to Ungerer and Schmid (1996), the initial stage of using metaphors in a
language is limited before the metaphors become more widely used. For example, the /hua/ ‘head’
morpheme has been more frequently used in some new concepts such as /hua-ti:aŋ/ ‘head of a
bed’, /hua-ban-day/ ‘top of a stairway’, /hua-lay/ ‘shoulder’, hua-cay/ ‘heart’, and /hua-tha-non/
‘the first part of a road’. After having been regularly used or conventionalized in daily lives, the
new meaning of the /hua/ morpheme has become lexicalized and recorded in the standard
dictionaries. Therefore, it is not metaphorically used anymore and has become a dead metaphor.
Semantic Changes of the Thai Compound Words Beginning with the /tua/ Morpheme
Semantic changes have occurred with the Thai compound words beginning with the /tua/
morpheme such as /tua-phu:/ ‘male animal’, /tua-mia/ ‘female animal’. The /tua/ morpheme that
refers to animals has been used since the Sukhothai Period. However, in the reign of King Rama
V, it was used in a different context and had a new meaning. For example,
1) ดอกกุหลาบเปนตัวผูตัวเมียอยูในตัว
U
U
/d:k-ku-la:p pen
rose
mi:
ตัวผู คือ มีเม็ดอยูที่ปลายเกสร
U
tua-phu:
U
U
yu: nay tua
tua-mia
U
U
U
tua-phu: kh:
U
U
to be male animal female animal live in body male animal
met
is
yu: thi: pla:y ke:-s:n/
have seed live
at
end the inside of flower
‘Rose as a flower comprising stamen and pistil at the inside of flower.’
2)
รวมใจความวา อยางอเมริกันใชไฟฟาตัวผูตัวเมียหนุนใหมากระทบกันเปนประกาย
(พระราชนิพนธในรัชกาลที่ 5 เรือ
่ ง “ไกลบาน”)
/ruam cay-khwa:m wa: ya:ŋ a-me:-ri-kan chay fay-fa: tua-phu:
U
Total
nun
content
hay ma:
bear give come
that
as
kra-thop
touch
American
kan
is
tua-mia
U
U
use electric male animal female animal
pen pra-ka:y/
together
U
sparks
(King Rama V’s Memoirs)
42
In the first example, the phrase /tua-phu: tua-mia/ has a broadened meaning, that is, in
addition to animals, it was used with plants. In the second example, the same phrase refers to
electric magnets, which was a new form of technology in that period, and reflects the fact that
people tend to apply old words to describe new things in societies.
Other examples of the semantic changes in the Thai compound words beginning with the
/tua/ morpheme are as follows:
/tua-pla:w/ (body + blank) is defined as ‘unarmed’ in the B.E. 2504 dictionary defines,
but as ‘alone or without any belongings or carrying nothing’ in the B.E. 2542 dictionary.
/tua-maŋ/ (body + city) is defined as ‘city surrounded by the wall’ in the B.E. 2504
dictionary, but as ‘city center, often surrounded by rivers or walls’ in the B.E. 2525 and 2542
dictionaries compiled by the Royal Institute and as ‘community in the city center’ in the B.E.
2547 Matichon dictionary.
/tua-keŋ/ (body + good) is defined as ‘skilled person such as skilled soldiers’ in the A.D.
1873 dictionary of the Siamese language, but as ‘frequently worn clothes’ in the B.E. 2547
Matichon dictionary.
/tua-ko:ŋ/ (body + bending) is defined as ‘hunchback, cheater or deceiver’ in the A.D.
1873 dictionary of the Siamese language, but as ‘bad characters or antagonists in plays, dramas
or movies’ in the B.E. 2547 Matichon dictionary.
Therefore, the Thai compound words have been semantically changed from endocentric
or direct meanings to exocentric or conventionalized meanings by means of the metaphorical
process.
Conclusion
It was found that more Thai compound words beginning with the /tua/ morpheme have
been formed. Although the /tua/ morpheme which refers to animals has always been the first part
of the compound since the Sukhothai Period, when some specific meanings need to be
emphasized, it is presently placed before the names of animals instead of using the names alone.
The reason why the /tua/ morpheme is widely used for forming Thai compound nouns is
that the meaning of /tua/ is metaphorically oriented. The users of the Thai language have
increasingly used the process analogy to create new compounds. As clearly seen from the data
collected from the dictionaries of different periods, the number of compound words beginning
with the /tua/ morpheme is increasing. The researcher also found that the dictionaries compiled
by private sectors reveal the existence of new technical terms and spoken words in our society.
Therefore, it is likely that if continuously used, those new compounds will be collected by the
Royal Institute someday. Also, the words that exist in the dictionaries of the old periods may
later become archaic words or disappear from current use. The researcher thinks that a study of
any aspect of Thai compound nouns will certainly bring benefits about word coinage and
lexicography.
Bibliography
Bradley, B. (1873). Dictionary of the Siamese language. Phra Nakhon. Damrong Rachanuparp,
Prince. King Rama V’s memoirs during His visit to Europe in A.D. 1892.
First Pramaharaja (Phyalithai). (1983). Trai Phum Katha Rue Trai Phum Phra Ruang.
Bangkok: The Fine Arts Department.
Ishii, Y., Akagi, O., Endo, N. (1972). A glossarial index of the Sukhothai inscriptions
(Discussion paper no.53). Kyoto: The Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
Juntanamalaga, P. (1992). On the semantics of Thai compound in hua ‘head’. In C. J.
Compton & J. F. Hartmann (Eds.), Paper on Thai language, linguistics, and
literature in honor of William J. Gedney on his 77th Birthday (pp.154-167). Illinois:
Northern Illinois University.
Khanitthanan, W. (1976). Phasa Saek. Bangkok: Thammasat University Press.
Manitjarern, M. (1971). Thai dictionary (4th printing). Bangkok.
Matichon. (2004). Dictionary of Matichon. Bangkok: Matichon Publication.
Na Nagara, P. (2004). Explanation of stone inscriptions of the Sukhothai period.
Nonthaburi: Sukhothai Thammathirat Press.
Naris, Prince. (1982). Royal messages book 1. Bangkok.
Noss, R. B. (1964). Thai reference grammar. Washington, DC: Foreign Service Institute.
Royal Institute. (1982). Dictionary of Royal Institute. Bangkok: Nanmeebooks Publication.
Royal Institute. (2003). Linguistic terms of Royal Institute. Nonthaburi: Sahamitr Printing.
Stone inscriptions of the Ayutthaya period. (1983). Bangkok: Department of Fine
Arts. The Three Seals Law. (1963). Bangkok: Kurusapha Publishing House.
Ungerer, F., & Schmid, H. J. (1996). An introduction to cognitive linguistics. USA: Addison
Wesley Longman.
43
44
Ratanakosin King Referring Terms: Word Structure and Factors
on Lexical Selection
Phatcharee Jampa
Prince of Songkla University
Abstract
The notions of power and distance are widely used in linguistics. They also affect the production
and interpretation of language. This article focuses on the socio-cultural linguistics account of
the synchronic patterns and diachronic change in referring terms to Thai kings in Ratanakosin
Period. The data is divided into four periods of --1782, 1851, 1932 and 2007. This paper aimed
to analyze the pattern of referring terms to Thai kings, and the factors which influence their
choices. The study showed that the pattern of referring terms, social status and cultural values are
closely interrelated. Because the social status of Thai kings is perceived to be the highest, it
seems to override the more influential of social distance, the more complex it is. This complexity
is the reason of choice of appropriateness. Hence, the socio-cultural linguistics that emerges from
this study will lead to a better understanding of the phenomenon of language change and the
relationship between language and society.
Keywords: referring terms, Thai kings, Ratanakosin Period
Introduction
In the recent years, linguists have widely been interested in the study of the relationship
between language, society and culture, especially those about the differences in the use of
language influenced by power or distance between speakers and hearers. The prominent model
of this type of study was conducted by Brown and Gilman in 1960. Their research was indicated
that the bipartite formal (V pronoun) and informal (T pronoun) address systems characteristic of
European languages share common patterns of usage and related to the power and/or solidarity.
I investigated that in Thai society, social ranks also exist. Kingship has been the highest
rank ever since the ancient time. The highest status of kings has caused Thai people use certain
form of language known as “Thai Royal Language”. Even though the address terms and
referring terms were not literary established in the linguistic vocabulary log, the kings’
powerfulness and the relationship between kings and the speakers are included the respects and
the honors of their people toward royal institute for a long time. The kings’ names will never be
directly referred to, but certain titles such as His Majesty the King or the King are frequently
applied.
This paper, then, could be considered as the initiation of the study on factors affecting the
use of referring terms to Thai kings in Ratanakosin Period. The findings of this research will not
45
only contribute the relating perspective between linguistic use in culture and society, but also
give the advantages to those who study Thai language, including linguists.
Purposes
This paper aimed to analyze the patterns of the referring terms of Thai kings in
Ratanakosin Period and to explain the factors affecting the use of those royal referring terms.
Hypotheses
The structures of referring terms on Thai kings in Ratanakosin Period were in various
patterns depending on religions, social patterns and politics.
Data and Sample
Data
The Ratanakosin reign (1782-2007) was, in this study, chronologically divided into 4
sub-periods. This division was based on the criteria used in history study in which Thai culture
and society have been changing. These changes were inevitably considered as factors causing the
changes of the royal referring terms. The 1st period (1782-1851)—in 1782, Ratanakosin, the
capital of Thailand (or historically as Siam), was established when King Buddha Yodfa
Chulaloke (King Rama I) the first king of Chakri Dynasty, started his reign; the 2nd period (18511932)—in 1851, the first year of King Mongkut’s reign (King Rama IV), Thailand contacted
with the westerners. It was considered as the beginning of the modern time of Thai society; the
3rd (1932-1946)—in 1932, the absolute monarchy was replaced by the democracy during the
reign of King Phrajadhipok (King Rama VI); the 4th period (1946-2007 or the present day)—in
2007, the two important royal celebrations occurred during this period (the diamond jubilee of
His Majesty King Bhumipol Adulyadej’s reign and the 80th celebration of his birthday).
Sample
This study is based on the data which were taken from the Ratanakosin written documents,
selected by the purposive sampling method. The contents of these documents were obtained
directly about the kings—the 4 royal chronicles and royal annals were picked up as the
representatives of documents in 1782 and 1851, while the 5 documents like the kings’
46
biographies, royal duties, royal written account, and royal esteeming texts were selected to
represent the documents in 1932 and 2007.
Limitation
This study focused on the diachronic approach that covered the time of 225 years (17822007). However, because of the long period of time, the spoken language during the 1st and the
2st periods can not be reached. Hence, this resulted in the perspective findings, that is, only the
discussion of the written language could be concluded.
Previous Research
The notions of power and distance are widely used in linguistics. They also affect the
production and interpretation of language. The theoretical framework which set out by Brown
and Gilman (1960) indicated that the social factor affecting to the use of title-pronouns in the two
European languages, which are the T/V (Tu and Vous), is the power and the solidarity (or the
close relationship). This research method was later used to study with other languages such as
Brown and Ford (1964), Cooke (1968) and Ervin-Tripp (1972).
Some Thai researchers also studied under this method, such as Palakornkul (1972), and
Tingsabadh and Prasithrathsint (1986). As for Palakornkul (1972), the findings showed that the
pronominal forms also illustrated correlations between the structure of language and the structure
of culture. The social and cultural factors underlying and determining pronominal strategy have
not been arbitrarily posted. A theoretical model for form of address terms in Thai language was
presented by Tingsabadh and Prasithrathsint (1986). Their research was presented historical,
cultural, and empirical evidence for the use of form of address as an indicator of both status and
solidarity. The three address terms in Thai language which most frequently used are name,
pronominal and name, and pronominal. The uses of these three forms of address are determined
by the degree of respect and intimacy the speaker expresses toward the addressee. With regard to
change, the address terms that used by the juniors have more equality since the “Democracy”
period.
In each of the communication context, except for the address terms, the speakers and the
hearers might refer to other people outside that communication context. Form of reference often
involves an indirect relationship among the three communicants (speaker or writer, listener or
reader, and referent). It may retain more formal rules of application than does form of address.
47
Tingsabadh and Prasithrathasint (1986) defined “Term of Reference” as the words which
speakers use to refer to any person whom they speak to. These terms of reference have been
named differently components and patterns, that is, the components in terms of reference are
more than the components of naming words. This observation is very interesting because in Thai
society, the kings are positioned in the highest level. Speakers have to use Royal language when
they communicate with the Kings.
According to the study conducted by Chinachot (1982), it indicated that the royal
reference terms are classified into 5 patterns and composed of 2 to 6 components, HNP, HRRN,
HNPRR, HHNE1NE2, and HH NE1NE2NPRR) H=Honorific, RR=Royal Rank, N= Name, NP= Name
Proclamation, NE1=Name with Embellishment, NE2= Name with Respectful Elaborations(. In
addition, it was revealed that all the referring words have signified Thai social structures which
imply the sovereignty and centrality of the kings. In the other words, the aristocratic appellations
indicate the rank of nobility owing to the descent of royal blood and the relationship to the kings.
The study of Zarchi (2001) showed that in the beginning of politic change during 1930s,
the words /phrábàatsǒmdètphrácâwjùuhǔa/ and /nailǔaŋ/ were on the highest used orderly.
During 1980s and 1990s, the Kings visited to different places more frequently, thus the
occurrence of word /phrábàatsǒmdètphrácâwjùuhǔa/ had higher frequency in formal context,
whereas, the word /nailǔaŋ/ had lower frequency and usually occurred in informal situation.
They also had the other words as /phrácâwjùuhǔa /and /sǒmdètphrácâwjùuhǔa/. He also found
that the status of the kings has been changed from Devaraja (the divine king of the universe) to
the constitutional kings after the regime shift.
Malakul (1984) explained that factors which affect the referring term to Thai kings were
derided from characteristic of Thai people. Most of them were polite, humble and extremely
concerned on social rank especially for the king who positioned in the highest status in society.
Thais preferred using other words in referring to their kings instead of directly express the kings’
name such as phra-pat-samdej-phra-caw-ju-hua, meaning ‘the great man staying over the head
level’. Another is phra-caw-paendin which means ‘the great landlord’. These King Referring
Terms showed the greatest respect and honor followed Buddhist belief. Rabibhadana (1984)
explained that “in the early Ratanakosin era, the king becomes a symbol of dhamma, and he must
be a great merit person. If there was a natural phenomenon, it could display the less powerful and
48
merit of the king”. After the political change in 1932, the royal power was decreased to be under
the law; however, Thai people still paid respect to the king as highest position.
Although recent research contributed to the current study in terms of reference to Thai
kings, a number of interesting terms have not been studied. Thus, this article aimed to investigate
in the details of terms of referring to Thai kings in Ratanakosin Period. The data were obtained
by using the frequency of how many patterns of these terms and which factors influence the
difference of these terms.
Findings
1. Patterns of Referring Terms on the Kings of Ratanakosin Period
The results of the research revealed that the words used in the referring terms of the kings
in Ratanakosin Period could be categorized by their powerful meanings into 5 groups: 1) words
for royal ranks (R)--(phra-caw, caw-ju-hua, phra-buddha-caw-ju-hua, phra-buddha-caw-luang,
phra-caw-paendin); 2) words for kings’ names (N), which could further divided into 3 subgroups:
a) names for the king coming to the thrones but still be used even becoming kings, for example:
Bhumipol Adulyadej, b) the establishing names which were the names of the kings has been
gotten while being on their kingships, for example, phra-Chom-klaw, phra-Pok-klaw, c) words
for prestigious names which referred to the new names to be used side by side with other
categorized names, for example, maha-Makut, maha-Praja-dhi-pok, maha-Bhumipol Adulyadej;
3) Words for titles (T), which referred to the words that would always be placed in the first
position in any name patterns, for example, samdej, phra-pat-samdej; 4) words of honors (H),
which signified the respects to kings, for example, phra-parama-natha-pabitra, phra-paramanaratha-pabitra, phra-paramendra, phra-paramindra, maha-raja; 5) words referring city names (C),
for example, krung-Sri-Ayuddhaya, krung-Thai, krung Siam.
As far as the obtained data is concerned among these 5 groups of words, it was found that
the words used in the king referring terms were under the noun word class and the verb word
class. Based on the total data, there were 11 patterns of king referring terms during Ratanakosin
Period as shown in the table 1.
49
Table 1: Patterns of King Referring Terms during Ratanakosin Period
Pattern
Example
1st Period
2nd Period
3rd Period
(1782-1851) (1851-1932) (1932-1946)
N
1.R
2.T+R
3.R+C
4.T+R+C
5.T+H+R
%
Phra-caw- ju-hua,
2
0.23
Phra-caw-paendin
Samdej+phra-caw-ju-hua ,
Phra-pat-samdej+phra164 18.66
caw-ju-hua
Phra-caw-ju-hua+krung-Sri2
0.23
Ayuddhaya
Samdej+phra-caw+krung9
1.02
Sri-Ayuddhaya
4th Period
(1946-2007)
Total
N
%
N
%
N
%
N
%
2
0.23
11
1.25
61
6.94
76
8.65
7
0.80
10
1.14
378 43.01
3
0.34
-
-
-
-
5
0.57
7
0.80
-
-
-
-
16
1.82
51
5.80
559 63.61
Samdej+phra-paramanatha-pabitra+phra-cawju-hua
51
5.80
-
-
-
-
-
-
6.T+N+R
Phra-pat-samdej+phraChom-klaw+caw-ju-hua
-
-
44
5.0
45
5.11
20
2.27
109 12.38
7.T+R+N
Phra-pat-samdej+phracaw-ju-hua+Bhumipol
Adulyadej
-
-
-
-
-
-
35
3.99
35
3.99
Phra-pat-samdej+phraparamindra+mahaBhumipol Adulyadej
-
-
-
-
-
-
9
1.02
9
1.02
Phra-pat-samdej+phraparama-naratha-pabitra+
phra-Chom-klaw+caw-juhua
-
-
9
1.02
-
-
-
-
9
1.02
Phra-pat-samdej+phracaw-ju-hua+Bhumipol
Adulyadej +maharaja
-
-
-
-
-
-
3
0.34
3
0.34
Phra-pat-samdej+phraparamindra+maha-Prajadhipok+phra-Pok-klaw+
caw-ju-hua
-
-
3
0.34
2
0.22
2
0.22
7
0.8
75
8.53
68
7.73
508
57.8
879
100
8.T+H+N
9.T+H+N+R
10.T+R+ N+H
11.T+H+N+N+R
Total
228 25.94
Hence, the patterns shown in this table could be synthesized as the following formula:
From the above formula, it is clearly seen that words for royal ranks or words for kings’
names would always be used in each of king referring terms. Words for titles, words of honors
50
and words referring city names functioned as additional factors of the terms. These 3 additional
groups could alone or together occur in the referring terms. The words of honors could be placed
before or after the words for royal ranks and words for kings’ names. It was important that the
words for royal ranks could occur alone when the words for kings’ names could always occur
side by side with words for titles.
The overlapped parentheses (≬) in the formula indicate that one of the components in a
parenthesis-unit must occur alone or together with other parenthesis-units. The symbol (±) and
the arrows signify that the parenthesis-units at the top of the arrows could not simultaneously
occur.
Table 1 presents that the king referring terms during Ratanakosin Period were of 11
patterns under which 1-5 components could occur. There were 3 patterns that were of high
frequency, namely; T+R (63.61 %), T+N+R (12.38%) and R (8.65%). Of all patterns, it was
found that the patterns R and T+R occurred in all periods, Patterns R+C, T+R+C, T+H+R and
T+H+N+R were not being used during the 1st, 3rd, and 4th periods. Besides, there were 2 patterns
of king referring terms (T+N+R and T+H+N+N+R), which were used not later than the year
1851 and have existed up to the present day, while the other 3 (T+R+N, T+H+N, T+R+N+H)
didn’t occur until the year 2007.
The findings in this research revealed that there were various patterns of king referring
terms. Every pattern followed the Thai noun phrase (NP) structure, which is [(NP)+NP+(NP)].
That is king referring terms have one main NP-component (the NP without parentheses) and the
modifying NP(s). The modifying NP-components could either come before or after the main NPcomponent, or both simultaneously. The main NP-component could sometimes occur alone. The
main NP-component of the king’s names (N), however, this phenomenon always co-occurred
with words for titles (T), which was the T+N pattern. This last pattern, the (T+N), indicates the
relationship between the speakers and the persons referred in terms of the non-reciprocal one, in
other words, the speakers is socially inferior to the persons referred, and that is why the words
for king’s name never occurred alone.
2. Factors in the Use of Terms Referring to Thai Kings in Ratanakosin Period
The king referring terms in Ratanakosin Period showed the relationship between the
inferiority of speakers and the highest superiority of the referees, the kings. The 11 patterns of
51
the king referring terms implied the highest status of the Thai kings. The data obtained showed
that the lexical selection of the king referring terms depended on the 3 main factors: religion,
society, and politics.
2.1. Religion Factor
Buddhism beliefs through the ancient India and Cambodia states into Thailand have been
influencing the Thai people. These beliefs could be illustrated in table 2.
Table 2: King Referring Terms Comprising Buddhism Influence
1st Period
(1782-1851)
2nd Period
(1851-1932)
3rd Period
(1932-1946)
4th Period
(1946-2007)
Samdej+phra-buddhacaw-ju-hua
Samdej+phra-caw-ju-hua
Samdej+phra- caw-ju-hua
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
U
Table 2 shows that during the 1st period, the lexical choices for the king referring terms
were strongly influenced by Buddhism. Hence, the words from Buddhism were widely used in
king referring terms, for example in the referring term “Samdej+phra-budha-caw-ju-hua”. The
word “buddha” refers to Lord Buddha, the founder of Buddhism. In the term “Samdej-phraparama-natha-pabitra-phra-caw-ju-hua”, the word “parama-natha” refers to the one who was the
great supporter of all creatures, which was Lord Buddha. Whereas the word “pabitra” refers to
‘the purer or the purest’, this is the term for Lord Buddha.
It was, however, found that the words referring to Lord Buddha were not used during the
2nd period (1851-1932) up to the present time. It was during the beginning of the 4th Ratanakosin
king’s reign when the western civilization spread into Thai. The 4th Ratanakosin king was the
scholar of the era who led Thai society through the western influences.
2.2. Society Factor
Thai tradition, custom and self-conducts were considered the factors which have
influence on king referring terms in 2 main issues: the respectfulness and the praise for the gooddoers.
52
2.2.1. Respectfulness
Respectfulness was the main factor affecting the lexical choices in the king referring
terms as shown in table 3.
Table 3: King Referring Terms Comprising Words of Respectfulness
1st Period
(1782-1851)
2nd Period
(1851-1932)
3rd Period
(1932-1946)
4th Period
(1946-2007)
Phra-bat-samdej+ phracaw-ju-hua
Phra-bat-samdej+phra-caw- Phra-bat-samdej+ phraju-hua
caw-ju-hua
Phra-bat-samdej+ phracaw-ju-hua
Samdej+phra-buddhacaw-luang
Samdej+phra-buddha-cawluang
Table 3 shows that in the king referring terms of Ratanakosin Period, the speakers paid
the highest respects to the kings. This was examplified by the term “Phra-pat-samdej+phra-cawju-hua”, which referred to ‘the great king who is the top executive being on all of our heads’
(caw = the authority, ju-hua = being on heads). It can be clearly seen that the term “Phra-patsamdej+phra-caw-ju-hua” had no changes during all periods. Even though, there was the
political change from the absolute monarchy into the democracy during the 3rd period. It means
that Thai people were still giving respect to their kings.
I investigated that the term “Samdej+phra-buddha-caw+luang”, meaning ‘the king who
was the great superb Lord Buddha’ (luang = great, sublime), had no changes in word form, but
changes in meaning. During the 1st and 2nd period, this term referred only to the kings who were
reigning, but during the 3rd period this term only referred to the kings who had passed away.
During the 4th period, however, the term had the narrower meaning, which referred only to the 5th
Ratanakosin King.
2.2.2. Praise for the Good-doers
Thai society has been the society of Buddhists who believed their goal of life is good
doing. The kings were the supporters of Buddhism. They lead their natural life under the 10 rules
of Buddhist principle, in the other word, king was “Dhammaraja” meaning the king who
governed with Dhamma, who possessed the highest Dhamma (Changkhwanyuen, 1999), and
followed the royal principle (rajaniti, cakaravartavatra, and catusamgahavatthu) while ruling the
country. These good doings laid the kings not to perform wrongly. The ancient people believed
53
that the country’s well-being depended on the kings’ self-conducts. These principles then
refrained the kings to perform bad doings.
The characteristics of praising the good-doers brought to the prestigious name of the
Thailand present day king, “Phra-pat-samdej+phra-caw-ju-hua+Bhumipol Adulyadej+maharaja”. Jitprapart (2009) explained that the adding up of the final morphemes “maha-raja” (= the
great king) clearly showed the sublime praise for the king because of the great benefits he
donated to Thailand.
2.3. Politics Factor
Members of Thai society were ranked by their social status. This led to power
relationship which was important in using the king referring terms. The 2 factors under politics
that influenced the king referring terms are the king’s highest social rank and the importance of
Royal Coronation.
2.3.1. King’s Highest Social Rank
Thai society has had the kingship as the political patriarch for a long time (through the
Sukhothai, Ayudhaya, Dhanapuri and Ratanakosin Periods). The highest social rank as the king
of the empire was believed to be the result of accumulating merry of the previous lives up to the
present life. The status of being the most powerfulness of the kings became the factor affecting
in the lexical selection of the king referring terms as shown in table 4.
Table 4: King Referring Terms Comprising Words of King’s Highest Social Rank
1st Period
(1782-1851)
2nd Period
(1851-1932)
Phra-caw-paendin
Phra-caw-paendin
Phra-caw-paendin+krungSri-Ayudhaya
Phra-caw-paendin+krungSiam
-
Phra-pat-samdej+phraChom-klaw+ caw-ju-hua
U
U
U
U
3rd Period
(1932-1946)
Phra-caw-paendin
-
U
Phra-pat-samdej+ phraPok-klaw+caw-ju-hua
U
4th Period
(1946-2007)
Phra-caw-paendin
Phra-pat-samdej+ phracaw-ju-hua+ Bhumipol
Adulyadej
U
The word “Phra-caw-paendin” signified that the king was the owner of his kingdom. The
term “Phra-caw-paendin+krung-Sri-Ayudhaya” and “Phra-caw-paendin+krung-Siam” referred to
the kings of Thailand (krung-Sri-Ayudhaya and krung-Siam were the capitals of Thailand). The
kings had the highest absolute power in ruling the country. There is a crucial code in the
54
constitution of Thailand saying “The king must be on the respectful position in which could not
be infringed”. That is, king is beyond the politic and “anyone” means either public or private
sector which cannot accuse or make a prosecution against him in three ways: constitution,
penalty, and civil (Kluaymai Na Ayudhya, 1996)
The terms “Phra-pat-samdej+phra-Chom-klaw+caw-ju-hua”and “Phra-pat-samdej+phraPok-klaw+caw-ju-hua” referred to the great kings who ruled all of their people (Chom-klaw =
the top of the head, Pok-klaw = the protectors of the heads). The term “Phra-pat-samdej+phracaw-ju-hua+Bhumipol Adulyadej (Bhumipol= powerful ground, Adulyadej = strength)” means
the king who is the strength of the ground. This term implies the sublime praise for the highest
status of the king.
2.3.2. Importance of Royal Coronation
The coronation was held when the new king was established after the former king had
died. The coronation was then the approval of the right kingship. The words involving the
coronation were used in king referring terms to show the lawful or righteous rulers. These terms
are illustrated in table 5.
Table 5: King Referring Terms Comprising Words Indicating Royal Coronation
1st Period
(1782-1851)
Samdej+phra-caw-ju-hua,
Phra-pat-samdej+phracaw-ju-hua
-
2nd Period
(1851-1932)
3rd Period
(1932-1946)
4th Period
(1946-2007)
Phra-pat-samdej+phracaw-ju-hua
Phra-pat-samdej+ phracaw-ju-hua
Phra-pat-samdej+ phracaw-ju-hua
From table 5, the king referring terms comprising words indicating Royal Coronation
have changed since the 2nd period, that is, in the 1st period the terms “Samdej-phra-caw-ju-hua”
and “Phra-pat-samdej+phra-caw-ju-hua” could be alternatively used without political implication.
However, these 2 terms were used differently in the 2nd period: the term “Samdej+phra-caw-juhua” was used to refer to the king who did not pass the coronation, when the term “Phra-patsamdej+phra-caw-ju-hua” was used for the coronationed one. However, after the political change
in 1932, when the king became the ruler under the constitution, the king’s power was decreased.
Burintramart (1994) claimed that in the traditional coronation, the brahmans offered the blessing,
55
the sacred water from the conch, and the kingdom to the new king, but only the blessing was
offered to the new king in the present time.
Conclusion
As far as the data is concerned, we can summarize that the king referring terms were
found to be used under the 11 patterns. They were formed by using the nouns and verbs. The
terms started with the main NP-component accompanying with the modifying NP-component
(either in the front or at the back of the main NP-component). It was clearly seen that words for
royal ranks could occur alone when the words for kings’ names could always occur side by side
with words for titles. The king referring terms in Ratanakosin Period indicated that the speakers
paid the highest respects to the kings. This finding supported by Tingsabadh and Prasithrathsint
(1986) mentioned that the more use of the pattern “title+name” shows the more respects, but
simultaneously indicates the non-intimate relationship between the speakers and the referees.
Moreover, it was found that there were 3 factors on lexical selection: religion, society,
and politics. They, in terms of ways of life, are strongly and mutually inter-related—especially
the basic religious belief that was expressed in forms of king referring. In the ancient time,
people believed in god-kings or Buddha-kings. The referring terms showed the great respects
equally to what people gave to Gods. However, the social factor showed that the changes in the
Thai society caused the king referring terms to change. This can be illustrated by the referring
terms in the 2nd period, in the reign of the 4th king of Ratanakosin when the Thai society was
influenced by the western civilization. The Thai people’s concepts about the status of the kings
had changed from the god-kings to the human-being-kings. Since there was a political shifts into
democracy, the king’s power was regally decreased, the Thai people also still regarded the
kingship rank at the highest level, especially the present king of Thailand who becomes the
spiritual center of the nation. His people honored him the King of the world or King of the king.
The findings of this research accepted the hypotheses in that the structures of referring
terms to Thai kings in Ratanakosin Period were in various patterns. The influential factors are
religion, social patterns and politics.
56
References
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Bhumibol Adulyadej’s reign. Unpublished master’s thesis, Chulalongkorn University.
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Style in language (pp. 253-276). London: Wiley & Sons.
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Psychology, 62, 375-385.
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Chinachot, K. (1982). Patterns of referring the Royal Family members’ namely Chakri Dynasty.
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57
Language Choice and Language Use Patterns among Telugu-Hindi/
Urdu-English Speakers in Hyderabad, India
D. Vasanta
Osmania University
A. Suvarna and J. Sireesha
Nizam’s Institute of Medical Sciences
S. Bapi Raju
Abstract
The South Asian region as a whole is characterized by considerable linguistic plurality as
demonstrated by the magnitude of functional heterogeneity in language use. The sociocultural
and sociolinguistic boundaries are not as clearly marked in India as they are in some parts of the
West. In India where multilingualism is more of a norm than exception, factors such as historic
association among certain languages through contact, language accreditation by the State, the
identity aspirations of speech communities, prestige associated with a variety seem to determine
the nature of multilingualism, which in recent years is increasingly being undermined by the
spread of English language through education. Having realized the need for new non-western
conceptual frameworks to study cognitive aspects of multilingualism in India, we have designed
a language-use questionnaire and administered to 250 residents of Hyderabad city in the age
range, 20-30 years. This paper discusses preliminary observations on the choices made by the
participants, using the rating scales provided in the questionnaire, on their use of Telugu, HindiUrdu (Dakkhini) and English in intimate, informal and formal domains.
I. Theoretical Perspectives
The phenomenon of multilingualism in India has been investigated using multiple
perspectives (e.g. patterns of language use, levels of skills, context of development) and different
disciplines (e.g. psychology, linguistics, cognitive neuroscience). While attempting to synthesize
the various ways in which the concept has been articulated, Mohanty (1994) defined bilingual
persons or communities as those with an ability to meet the communicative demands of the self,
and the society in their normal functioning in two or more languages in their interaction with the
other speakers of any or all of these languages. According to him, in India, bilingualism is an
adaptive strategy of the minor and minority linguistic communities for the maintenance of
mother tongues. This is partly born out by the figures in census reports showing gradual increase
in the rate of bilingualism in India ranging from 13% in 1971, to 13.44% in1981, and 19.44% in
1991 accompanied by a huge jump of reported ‘mother tongues’ of 3000 in 1971 census to about
10,000 in the 1991 census. The 1991 census figures also revealed that 7.26% of the Indian
population has claimed to be trilingual (Bhattacharya, 2002; Singh, 2009). It should be noted that
58
mother tongue invocation during census data collection reflects language naming / loyalty of
individuals rather than the dominant language they choose to use in different domains. Even
dichotomies such as major vs. minor or scheduled vs non-scheduled languages or standard vs.
dialect hardly help in deciding the relationship between individual selves and their language use
patterns. For instance, Hindi-Urdu, going by official figures is spoken and understood by
approximately 46% of the population in India, and yet it is a minority language in the context of
the totality of speakers using non-Hindi languages and dialects. Further, the term ‘major’
language even within a given state is only an identity token since it has several regional and
social dialects associated with it where intra-dialectal intelligibility may range from zero to 100%
(Pattanayak, 1981). From a linguistic perspective, Hindi, Urdu, Hindustani and indeed a variety
of other labels such as Hindavi and Rekhta are essentially the same language at the structural
level. It is only from a sociolinguistic perspective that the divergence is endorsed and analysed
(Agnihotri, 2006).
Annamalai (2001) argues that Indian multilingualism is motivated and sustained by the
primary and secondary socialization processes at home and work place and that only a quarter of
the multilingualism is contributed by formal learning in schools. People use one language for
ethnic identity, another for business transaction, another for official dealings and yet another for
entertainment, rituals and so on. Linguistic convergence that reduces the distance between the
languages in contact; the rules (not forms) getting transferred from one language to another is
one of the characteristic features of multilingualism in India. The language of a minority group
(e.g. Dakkhini, a variety of Hindi spoken in Hyderabad) living in the midst of a majority group
(e.g. Telugu) in Hyderabad is an illustrative case for linguistic convergence.
Much of the sociolinguistic research in India on bi/multilingualism addressed topics such
as language maintenance, functional distribution of communication patterns, convergence, code
mixing and code switching. Some of these studies are briefly discussed here. Taylor, Mahadevan
and Koshal (1978) reported a pilot study based on 21 Kannada-Hindi-English speakers in
Mysore which elicited self-ratings of the choice of language and interlocutor characteristics on a
7-point rating scale. The participants listened to the interlocutor who was also a fluent speaker of
these three languages. The results revealed that they preferred their mother tongue (Kannada) or
Hindi over English for communicating and for listening in that particular situation. Saghal’s
(1991) study also made use of a questionnaire to study patterns of language use among 45 Hindi,
59
Bengali and Tamil speakers living in Delhi. In addition to obtaining dominance scores in the
family, friendship and institutional domains, she also elicited data on these speakers’ attitude
towards different varieties of English. While mother-tongue received dominant scores in the
family domain for all the three communities, Indian English was preferred over BBC or
American English in the institutional domain. For this set of urban elite participants, Indian
English emerged as the dominant language of use even in friendship domain, only for Bengalis
and Tamilians, but not for Hindi speakers. While the linguistic composition of the
neighbourhoods may have had some impact on this finding, the author commented that English
is gradually acquiring more and more functional roles in education, administration and mass
media and becoming part of cultural identity of urban elites in India. In the context of reviewing
certain language policies in the field of education in India, Bapuji (1994) discussed a
questionnaire designed to obtain language-choice (appropriateness of use) of 60 respondents in
Hyderabad in five public domains: legislature, judiciary, administration, intellectual exchange
and commerce. The results revealed that in all these domains, English was preferred over Hindi
and Telugu. Mukherjee (1996) used a questionnaire based sociolinguistic survey to determine
language maintenance/ shift patterns among Bengalis and Punjabis living in Delhi. She found
that among Punjabis of younger generation tended to assimilate to the language of the host city,
that is, Hindi (and Hindi-English mixed code) in all the domains studied, the older generation
continued to use Punjabi. Among the Bengalis, on the other hand, there was a clear division
between formal and informal domains and even the younger Bengalis did not show any signs of
shifting from Bengali especially in the informal domain. She also noted that English had made
perceptible inroads into Punjabi and Bengali in the formal domain while there was a greater
contact between Punjabi/Bengali with Hindi in the informal (intimate) domain. Sachdeva (2002)
reported language use patterns in two North-Eastern states of India, viz., Nagaland and
Meghalaya where there is considerable multilingualism. In these two states, English serves as the
official language. One study was based on 232 educated Naga speakers from different tribes in
formal and informal domains who were fluent speakers of Nagamese (mother tongue) and Hindi
and English. He found that Nagamese and Hindi language use was conditioned by the ethnic
status of the interlocutor, whereas level of education of the interlocutors determined the choice
and use of English. The second study was based on 304 informants who were using Khasi
(mother tongue) and Hindi and English. Sachdeva’s main findings were: (1) interaction with a
60
Khasi speaker triggered occurrence of Khasi (2) interaction with non-Khasi speakers triggered
use of Hindi and (3) interaction with educated speakers triggered use of English. According to
Sachdeva, in both these multilingual tribal societies, the notion of ‘choice’ of a language is a
vacuous one and that different patterns of use condition occurrence of one code rather than the
other.
In recent years, there is a dramatic increase in research on language processing in
bilinguals and second language learners world over. The focus of this psycholinguistically
oriented research is on how individuals who speak and understand more than a single language
mentally negotiate the boundaries of the two language systems that may or may not share
common features at different linguistic levels. While this research has contributed to a better
understanding of the nature of mental representations and processes in bilingual lexicons and led
to model building, it deals primarily with sequential bilingualism typical in the Western countries,
and not the simultaneous or neighbourhood bilingualism common in India. Using neuroimaging
technologies, Evoked Response Potentials and eye tracking methodologies, researchers have also
been able to observe neural representations corresponding to different linguistic levels mostly in
sequential bilinguals or those who became bilingual through formal instruction. Researchers
drawing on such neurolinguistic perspectives to bilingual language use have been attempting to
understand the intimate connection between language and the self and to theorize about
consequences of brain damage in bilingual/ polyglot speakers (see Gullberg & Indefrey, 2006,
for examples). The notion of ‘convergence’ in this perspective is at the neural level of brain areas
that get recruited in the course of acquisition of different languages.
In an illuminating essay on methodological and conceptual issues in bilingual research,
Grosjean (2006) rightly pointed out that most bilinguals or multilingual individuals find
themselves in different language modes that correspond to points on a monolingual-bilingual
mode continuum where the term ‘mode’ corresponds to a state of activation of the bilingual’s
languages and language processing mechanisms. At one end of the continuum, bilinguals are in a
totally monolingual language mode in that they are interacting only with or listening only to
monolinguals of one or other of the languages they know. Here one language is active and the
other is deactivated. At the other end of the continuum, bilinguals are in a bilingual language
mode in that they are communicating with or listening to other bilinguals who share their two (or
more) languages, and where different degrees of language mixing may take place. Here both
61
languages are activated, but the one that is used as the main language of processing (referred to
as the base or matrix language) is more active than the other. There can be intermediary positions
on this continuum. Since the language mode corresponds to a state of activation of bilingual’s
languages and language processing mechanisms, the choice of which language to use or when to
change, how to mix the codes or even the speed of processing while listening and so on might
depend on the language mode in a specific communication situation.
We feel this notion of ‘language mode’ or some adaptations based on it might permit
viewing ‘language using’ as a more dynamic process and help one to reflect on the need to move
away from the dichotomy of monolingualism vs. bi/multilingualism that is unsuitable to the
context of India.
There is no generally accepted theory of language use that integrates all these different
perspectives and this can create problems for those attempting to ‘measure’ bilingualism. The
debate between maximum scope vs. maximum precision is far from being settled (see Pienemann
& Keßler, 2007, for an elaboration of this point with respect to research in different disciplines).
A concern has been expressed very recently about the dominance of Euro-American theories
about language and its use (ways of speaking, speech acts, felicity conditions, implicatures and
other concepts pertaining to pragmatics). Specifically, researchers are being urged to draw their
analytic concepts from their own languages and to work across languages without passing
through the filter of Euro-American theories. This requires identification of native concepts
about language use that may seem skewed when evaluated as descriptions of the world, but are
nevertheless constitutive when viewed as assumptions that frame the act of speaking or
understanding. To cite Hanks, Ide, and Katagiri (2009, p. 3): “the way people use and understand
language is unavoidably shaped by their ideas about language, regardless of the ultimate truth
status of these ideas”. To these researchers, language is a historically embedded practice,
cognitively rich, grammatically structured, and part of the social world in which speech is a
modality of action. This view of language requires borrowing of concepts and methodologies
from different disciplines. This kind of ‘practice’ oriented study treats language as multimodal (it
depends on gesture, posture, spatial and perceptual arrangements of interactants). It focuses on
how ordinary native speakers use, understand, and represent language in the historically situated
social contexts of communication.
62
II. Present Study
Drawing on some of the theoretical perspectives discussed above, we have developed a
questionnaire to obtain preliminary data on the choice and use patterns among Telugu-DakkhiniEnglish speakers living in Hyderabad city. The aim is not to draw up a sociolinguistic profile of
the city, for which we do not have the expertise. A larger project we are involved in requires us
to examine the relationship between conceptualization (of motion events) and their expression
among multilingual individuals in Hyderabad. For this, we need to come up with inclusion /
exclusion criteria for selecting participants among urban educated population. It is this larger
project that gave impetus to the study reported in this paper. In line with the arguments put forth
by Hanks et al. (2009), we have in our questionnaire asked ordinary language users to inform us
as to their views on the nature of their multilingualism, in particular, which language they tend to
use with what frequency and proficiency in three different domains: intimate, informal and
formal.
The Questionnaire
The questionnaire has three sections: Section I deals with personal information about the
informants, their home environment, education history etc. Section II elicits information about
both the choice of language (on a 3-point rating scale) and the frequency with which a given
language is used (on a 5-point rating scale) using 30 questions. Section III deals with language
proficiency ratings on a 5-point scale using 20 questions. Numerical ratings in sections II and III
for all the 50 questions are quantified. The respondents have no idea as to which question
belongs to which domain since they are mixed and presented randomly across the questionnaire.
A sample of the questionnaire is available on the web
at http://uohyd.ernet.in/faculty/~bapi/DST/LUQ.doc
The questionnaire was administered to 250 informants by several people associated with
our project as well as M.Phil./ Ph.D. students of Cognitive Science and Computer Science at the
University of Hyderabad. The respondents were students from the field of Computer Science,
University of Hyderabad; Psychology, Speech Pathology and Audiology studying in colleges
affiliated to Osmania University, software professionals and a few others. Of the 250
respondents, 147 are male, and 103 are female. They were in the age range 20-30 years and were
overwhelmingly right handed (95.6%). In terms of education, 73% of them had UG level
63
education, while the rest had PG level education. Table 1 below provides other information
pertaining to the respondents.
Table 1: Information about the Participants
Religion
Hindu
Muslim
Others
Reported mother tongue
78.0%
16.0 %
6.0 %
Telugu
Dakkhini
Hindi
82%
8%
4%
Self-rating of proficiency for
all the four lang. skills*
T,D,E T,E D,E T,D
45%
15% 2%
35%
* Percentage of the respondents who gave ‘Excellent’ rating on a 3-point rating scale.
Results
The completed questionnaires from 234 respondents (207 native speakers of Telugu and
27 native speakers of Dakkhini) alone were analyzed for the purposes of this paper. Their
responses were coded to discern patterns of language use in three domains, viz., intimate (20
questions); informal (20 questions) and formal (10 questions) for the two main language groups
(L1 Telugu and L1 Dakkhini). The maximum ratings provided by the respondents are noted and
displayed in Tables 2 and 3 and their choice of languages in different domains are displayed in
the bar charts (Figures 1 and 2).
Table 2: L1 Telugu Speakers’ Choice of Languages in Different Domains (N=207)
Domain
Intimate
Telugu
158
Dakkhini
6
English
17
T, E
19
D, E
2
T, D
3
T, D, E
2
Informal
36
0
35
124
2
2
8
Formal
49
0
50
88
7
3
10
Table 3: L1 Dakkhini Speakers’ Choice of Languages in Different Domains (N=27)
Domain
Intimate
Informal
Formal
Telugu
3
1
1
Dakkhini
18
3
2
English
2
6
7
T, E
1
3
2
D, E
0
7
10
T, D
3
0
0
T, D, E
0
7
5
64
T,D,E
100%
D,E
80%
T,D
T, E
60%
English
40%
Dakkhini
20%
Telugu
0%
INTIMATE
INFORMAL
FORMAL
Domains
Figure 1: Domain Profile of Telugu-Native Speakers
T,D,E
100%
D,E
80%
T,D
T, E
60%
English
40%
Dakkhini
Telugu
20%
0%
INTIMATE
INFORMAL
FORMAL
Domains
Figure 2: Domain Profile of Dakkhini-Native Speakers
To summarize the main results, the two figures reveal clearly that for the respondents in
this study: (1) Telugu/ Dakkhini seems to be the choice of language used extensively in the
intimate domain, the use of these two languages however reduces dramatically in the other two
domains; (2) Both groups use Telugu/ Dakkhini along with English in the informal and formal
domains more than in the intimate domain; (3) In both groups, use of English increases as they
move from intimate to informal and formal domains; (4) There is a tendency to use all three
languages more in the informal and formal domains than in the intimate domain, a greater degree
of trilingualism seems to exist among Dakkhini speakers compared to Telugu speakers; and (5)
A considerable number of respondents rated their proficiency as being ‘excellent’ in relation to
the four skills of the three languages, Telugu, Dakkhini and English (see Table 1), and yet their
65
choice of language use varied across different domains suggesting that self-rating of language
proficiency alone may not be a good predictor of language use patterns.
Discussion and Concluding Remarks
Despite the limitations of the tool we have used and the limited number of respondents
who provided this data, the present study has clearly established that no single language caters to
all the needs of people in multilingual society such as India. The choice of a particular language
depends not just on the speaker’s proficiency in the various language skills, but also on the
situational demands and the interlocutors as pointed out by several sociolinguists cited in the first
part of this paper. The findings also throw light on the changing nature of language contact
situations typical of India and other parts of South Asia. Specifically, the relatively small number
of Telugu speakers using Dakkhini or Dakkhini speakers using Telugu outside home may hold
good for the urban educated young adults of Hyderabad city today. This pattern, however, may
not hold good for other age groups or for other times. How much of this can be attributed to the
ever-increasing desire to learn and use English is difficult to ascertain from the data we have
presented, although other scholars have talked about the role of English in shrinking cultural
spaces in the hitherto plurilingual ethos of our country (see Agnihotri, 2006, for an elaboration of
this point). The findings of our study also support Grosjean’s notion of language mode and the
continuum of monolingualism to multilingualism bilinguals traverse in a day-to-day life,
although this notion needs to be adapted for characterizing trilingual language use patterns.
Speaking of the notion of language use, Clark (1996) argued that there must be coordination
between the speaker’s issuing an utterance and the addressee’s paying attention, listening and
trying to understand it. Speakers and addressees cannot achieve this coordination without
establishing commonalities of thought between them. This idea that there can be no
communication without commonalities of thought is central to our work in cognitive linguistics.
The two groups differ from one another considerably in the use of Telugu-English within the
same domain, viz., informal. Can one assume then that Telugu is the dominant language for one
group in terms of directing/ influencing their thinking in activities related to that domain? The
answer cannot be a simple and straightforward yes, because, structurally, Telugu and Dakkhini
share many features in view of the close contact that prevailed between these two languages for a
very long time in Hyderabad. The results of this preliminary study into language use patterns in
66
the city of Hyderabad have underscored the need to fine-tune the questionnaire further in terms
of defining the domains and specifying the contexts of language use in relation to the interaction
settings, interlocutors, topic etc. A more comprehensive language use questionnaire that is able
to tap attitudes and identity aspirations of people may help us generate a linguistic profile and a
typology of multilingual contexts in South Asia, a task that is challenging, but may nevertheless
prove useful to many disciplines.
Acknowledgments
We are grateful to the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India for
supporting the larger project of which this study is only a small part. We would like to thank the
following people who helped us collect and/or analyse the data: Jigar Patel, Kaneez Fatima, K.K
Mercy, M.A. Moid, Pavan Kumar, N. Praveen, S. G. Prakash, Rakesh Sen Gupta, Safia,
Santhoshi, Shailaja, Suchitra Sam, Swathi Ravindra, Santhosha, Srinivas Rao, Venkateswara Rao,
Y. Viswanatha Naidu.
References
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Tollefson (Eds.), Language Policy, Culture, Identity in Asian Contexts (pp. 185-204).
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Annamalai, E. (2001). Managing multilingualism in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Bapuji, B. R. (1994). Essays in the sociology of language. Madras: TR Publications.
Bhattacharya, S. S. (2002). Languages in India: Their status and functions. In N. H. Itagi & S. K.
Singh (Eds.), Linguistic landscaping in India (pp. 54-97). Mysore: Central Institute of
Indian Languages (CIIL).
Clark, H. H. (1996). Communities, commonalities and communication. In J. J. Gumperz & S. C.
Levinson (Eds.), Rethinking linguistic relativity (pp. 324-355). Cambridge, UK:
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Grosjean, F. (2006). Studying bilinguals: Methodological and conceptual issues. In T. K. Bhatia
& W. C. Ritchie (Eds.), The Handbook of Bilingualism (pp. 32-63). London: Blackwell
Publishing.
Gullberg, M., & Indefrey, P. (Eds.). (2006). The cognitive neuroscience of second language
acquisition. Oxford, UK: Blackwell Publishing.
Hanks, W. F., Ide, S., & Katagiri, Y. (2009). Towards an emancipatory pragmatics. Journal of
Pragmatics, 41, 1-9.
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Delhi. New Delhi: Bahri Publications.
Mohanty, A. K. (1994). Bilingualism in a multilingual society. Mysore: CIIL
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Pienemann, M., & KeBler, J. U. (2007). Measuring bilingualism. In P. Auer & Li Wei (Eds.),
Handbook of multilingualism and multilingual communication (pp. 247-275). Berlin:
Mouton de Gruyter.
Sachdeva, R. (2002). Exploring ground conditions for code production in multilingual settings:
Comparative notes on linguistic landscaping in Nagaland and Meghalaya states in
Northeast India. In N. H. Itagi & S. K. Singh (Eds.), Linguistic landscaping in India (pp.
153-173). Mysore: CIIL
Saghal, A. (1991). Patterns of language use in a bilingual setting in India. In J. Cheshire (Ed.),
English around the world: Sociolinguistic perspectives (pp. 299-307). New York:
Singh, U. N. (2009). Language development and nation building in multilingual contexts. In A.
R. Fatihi (Ed.), Language vitality in South Asia. Aligarh: Aligarh Muslim University.
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P. Pattanayak (Ed.), Papers in Indian Sociolinguistics. Mysore: CIIL.
68
Phonological System of Vietnamese in Najok and its
Implication to their Migration
Woraya Som-Indra
Mahasarakham University
Abstract
The objectives of this work are to study Najok Vietnamese phonology spoken in Najok Village,
Muang District, Nakhonpanom Province, Thailand, and to conduct a comparison study in terms
of consonants, vowels, and tones with other Vietnamese dialects spoken in other parts of
Thailand and in Vietnam. A Tagmemic framework is used to analyze the phonological system of
Najok dialect. The result of the study is explained in the phonemic level. There are 24 consonant
phonemes in Najok Vietnamese /
all of which occur in the initial position except //. The 10 consonant phonemes
// occur in the final position. There are 11 single vowel sounds
// and 3 diphthongs /,/. In Vietnamese, the vowel length is not
significant except for the vowels // and //. With 5 contrastive tones: High level (44), Midfalling (31), Mid-falling-rising (324), High-rising, Low-falling (45) with final glottalization (21).
Vietnamese has two syllable structures: open and closed. Typically, there are two patterns of
syllabic structure: monosyllable and disyllable, while trisyllabic is rare. There are four contour
patterns: rising, falling, rising-falling and falling-rising. The comparison study indicates the
Vietnamese dialects spoken in parts of Thailand and in Vietnam share some similar features such
as word and syllable structures. On the other hand, in terms of consonant, vowel, tone and some
vocabulary usage, they signify different features. Therefore, Najok Vietnamese dialect shares the
most features with the Vietnamese dialect spoken in Chumchon Watsrithep (Muang District,
Nakhonpanom Province, Thailand), and the Saigon dialects spoken in Vietnam.
Keywords: phonological system, Vietnamese dialect, Najok Village, Nakhonpanom
Province, Thailand
1. Introduction
It is undeniable that we live in a world of language and cultural diversity. Humans are
social animals; borders cannot stop us from conversing. Differences in language and culture
cannot stop us from interacting and intercultural interaction, therefore, it has been in existence
for a long time. It is obvious that there are a number of ethnic groups conversing in many parts of
Thailand; Vietnamese is one of the biggest groups which have been living harmoniously in
Thailand for long time. The fact that Thailand and Vietnam are so closely situated, they have
shared history and many social aspects. Besides the relationship above, there are other interesting
aspects which inspire a study to be conducted on phonology in Najok Vietnamese dialect in
Nakhonpanom. First, there has been no study on linguistic domain in this area before. Second,
the Najok Village is considered a significant old Vietnamese community which has been firmly
69
conserving their tradition and language. Last, the Najok Village is known as a footnote in
Vietnamese history, as it has been told the hero of Vietnam “Ho Chi Minh” resided in the village
during the World War II. At present, this village has become a highlighted spot in terms of
intercultural linkage, and positive enhancement of international relationships between Thailand
and Vietnam.
1.1. Information on Vietnamese in Thailand
According to Chandavimol (1997), there were two periods of Vietnamese migration to
Thailand. The first period began in the reign of King Narai of the Ayutthaya kingdom until early
Rattanakosin. The main reason of migration was civil and religious wars in Vietnam at that time.
The civil war was a fight between two dynasties that ruled Vietnam at that time. The religious
war occurred when French Roman Catholic missionaries began to enter Vietnam. Thousands of
Vietnamese were converted to Catholic, and the ruler of Vietnam at that time started to suspect
that they might try to ruin the monarchy system; this led to the commencement of the religious
war. The consequence of the war was that many Vietnamese and Catholic Vietnamese fled to the
Thai kingdom. They settled in many parts of Thailand such as in the north, the central, the west
and the northeast of Thailand. The second migration was made after World War II when France
ruled Vietnam. A big group of Vietnamese fled to Thailand again.
1.2. Information on Vietnamese in Nakhonpanom Province
Nakhonpanom is a province in the northeast of Thailand where two groups--old and new
Vietnamese have been residing both downtown and in the villages. They are both Catholic and
Buddhist. Most new Vietnamese groups live in town and engage in commerce. They identify
themselves as the “Bac”, which means north (people from the north of Vietnam), while Najok
Vietnamese called themselves “Trung”, which means central (people from the central part of
Vietnam). Therefore, Najok Vietnamese is Buddhist, and they were told generation to generation
that their ancestors originated from Nghe-An and Ha-Tinh Villages in Vinh City of Vietnam.
Based on the historical record, Najok Vietnamese are old Vietnamese who have been settling in
Thailand for more than a hundred years (since 1890). They were born bilingual naturally; their
language ability of Thai-Thai Isan and Vietnamese dialect are equivalent. But Vietnamese who
can speak their dialect fluently are limited to people age 30 years old and up. Unfortunately, the
new generation hardly speaks it but they can understand the dialect, it is possibly that they are
influenced by the Thai standard language and the Isan dialect.
70
2. Theory: Tagmemic
Tagmemic explains the phonological structure of a language in terms of a hierarchy of
ranks. The analysis starts with the highest rank: the intonation group, and proceeds to the lowest
rank: the phonemes. The intonation group is the highest level of the hierarchy as presented and
has no stable function. Its structure is stated in terms of the phonological word. The phonological
word is the unit above the syllable in the intonation group. The syllable is defined as the rank
whose unit functions in the phonological word, and has a structure described in terms of
phonemes. The phoneme is the lowest level of the hierarchy and has no stable function. It
functions in the syllable and the phonetic forms of the phoneme.
Intonation group
Phonological word
Syllable
structure
Phoneme
function
3. Vietnamese: Language Characteristics
Thousands of years of Chinese domination, Vietnamese characters were influenced by
Chinese characters known as  , and   for their official written language for
many centuries. Later on it was replaced by Roman alphabet, introduced by a French Jesuit
missionary, Alexander de Rhodes. The Roman alphabet continues to be used. Vietnamese is a
tonal and monosyllabic language. Vietnamese is classified in the Viet-Muong branch, MonKhmer subfamily of Austroasiatic language family.
Austroasiatic
Munda subfamily
Khmer
Khmuic
Nicobarese subfamily
Pearic
Vietnamese
Monic
Muong
Mon-Khmer subfamily
Katuic
May (Ruc)
Viet-Muong
Arem
Tay
Pong
(Adapted from Gerard Diffloth, 1974)
3.1. Najok Vietnamese
3.1.1. Phonemes: Consonants, Vowels, Tones
Consonants: there are 24 consonant phonemes.
- 23 initials: / , ,, , , ,/
- 10 finals: / , ,  /
- 9 clusters: /w, w, /
Vowels: there are 14 vowel phonemes.
- 11 monophthongs: /, , , , /
- 3 diphthongs: /, , u /
- Vowel length is not significant, except for vowels // and //.
Tongue position
Front
Tongue Height
Close
Half-close
Half-open
Open
Diphthongs

e


Central






Back




71
72
Tones: there are 5 tone phonemes.
Description
1. High level (Ngang)
Phonetic Transcription
Phonemic Notation
/1/
[44]
/2/
[31]
/3/
[324]
/4/
[45]
/5/
[21]
2. Mid-falling (Huyen)
3. Mid-falling rising (Hoi)
4. High-rising (Sac)
5. Low-falling (with final
glotallization) (Nang)
3.1.2. Syllable
Type: there are two main types of syllabic word: monosyllabic and disyllabic word,
while trisyllabic word is very rare.
Example:
Monosyllabic
/1/
[44]
“to eat”
/m5/
[m21]
“mother”
/ 2/
[31]
“to wait”
/51/
[2144]
“honey”
/42/
[4531]
“whisper”
/21/
[3144]
“how much”
Disyllabic
Syllable structure: C(C)V(C)T
There are two main types, open and closed syllable structures, which can occur with
major and minor syllable.
Example:
Open syllable: C(C)VT
- CVT
/m5/
[m21]
“mother”
- CCVT
/1/
[44]
“flower”
[324]
“sea”
Closed syllable: C(C)VCT
- CVCT
/3/
- CCVCT
/n2/
[31]
73
“garden”
3.1.3. Phonological Word
Stress is a term used in phonetics to refer to the force used in producing a syllable
(Crystal, 1991). The usual distinction is between stressed and unstressed syllables, the former
being more prominent than the latter. The prominence is usually due to an increase in loudness
of the stressed syllable, but increase in length and often pitch may contribute to overall
impression as well. The phonological word of Vietnamese at Najok is defined as the stress group,
in which there are two groups: strong and weak stress.
Strong Stress: the strong stress syllable is defined as a syllable which is the loudest and
longest in duration. It always occurs on the major syllable. It is marked by [] in phonetic
transcription.
Example:


/1/
[144]
“vegetable”
/5/
[21]
“rat”
13 
44324

“papaya”
Weak Stress: the weak stress syllable is defined as a syllable which has less volume than
the strong stressed syllable but has more volume that the unstressed syllable. It always occurs on
the minor syllable. It is marked by [] in phonetic transcription.
Example:
/44/
[4545]
“anklebone”
/41/
[4544]
“pencil”
/11/
[4444]
“heaven”
3.1.4. Intonation Patterns
There are 4 types of intonation patterns in Najok Vietnamese: rising (RS), falling (F),
rising-falling (RF) and falling-rising (FR).
74
Example:
1. /4 j4 4551/ (RS)
younger sister/ brother
speak
language
Vietnamese
able
no (Q. word)
“Can you speak Vietnamese?”
2. /1
4
2
4
5
1/ (RS)
May I
water
able
tea
drink
no (Q. word)
“May I have some tea, please?”
1
3. /5
Father
5
5
go
do
work
2 2/ (F)
already
Q.tag
“Did father go to work already, didn’t he?”
4
1
5
4
2/ (F)
4. /1
Cl. Mk.
kid
go
study gone
already
“The children went to school already.”
5. /5411
today
I
not
42/ (RF)
have
money
“I do not have money.”
6. / 
today
father
/ (RF)
not
go
do
work
“Today, father does not go to work.”
7. /5
Come
4
1
3
taste
curry
3
of (Poss.) older sister
75
1/ (FR)
fast
“Let’s come to taste my curry.”
8. /1


Younger sister/brother
5
1
do

4/ (FR)
what (Q.Mk.)
(Final particle)
“What are you doing?”
3.2. Vietnamese Dialects Spoken in Other Parts of Thailand
There are studies conducted on Vietnamese dialects spoken in Thailand, for example
Aranyaprathet Vietnamese (ART) in Sa-Kaeo Province, Khlung Vietnamese (KHL) in
Chanthaburi Province, and Chumchonwatsrithep Vietnamese (WST) in Nakhonpanom Province.
Those Vietnamese dialects are used for comparison in this research.
Aranyaprathet Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental







Alveolar Palatal







Velar
Glottal







76
Klung Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Bilabial
Labiodental
Alveolar Palatal





Velar


Glottal








Fricative
Lateral
Nasal
Semi-vowel









Wat Srithep Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental





Alveolar Retroflex Palatal












Velar
Glottal






3.3. Vietnamese Spoken in Other Parts of Vietnam
The studies on Vietnamese dialects spoken in other parts of Vietnam for example, Hanoi
in the north, Vihn in the central part and Saigon in the south, are used for comparison in this
research as well.
Hanoi Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Bilabial
Labiodental
Alveolar Palatal











Lateral
Nasal
Semi-vowel


Velar



Glottal






Vihn Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental














(tr)





Velar
Glottal






Saigon Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental



















Velar
Glottal






77
78
4. Conclusion
4.1. Najok Vietnamese and other Vietnamese Dialects Spoken in Thailand
In terms of consonant phonemes, Najok Vietnamese shares more similar characteristics to
Vietnamese dialect spoken in Wat Srithep in Nakhonpanom, than other Vietnamese dialects
spoken in Thailand.
•
Retroflex sound //, one of the original characters of Vietnamese sounds, occurs
only in Najok Vietnamese but does not occur in other Vietnamese dialects spoken in Thailand
like in Klung and Aranyaprathet.
•
Retroflex sound /, voiced labio-dental fricative //, voiced alveolar
fricative // and velar fricative //, the original characters of Vietnamese sounds, occur both in
Najok and Wat Srithep Vietnamese but not in other Vietnamese dialects spoken in Thailand like
in Klung and Aranyaprathet.
•
Voiced labio-dental fricative // in Najok and Wat Srithep Vietnamese occurs as
bilabial // in Klung and occurs as palatal // Aranyaprathet Vietnamese.
Example:
•
NJ
WST
KHL
ART
Gloss
/5/
/6/
/2/
/5/
“duck”
/1/
/1/
/1/
/1/
“elephant”
/2/
/2/
/2/
/2/
“gold”
Velar fricative // in Najok and Wat Srithep Vietnamese occurs as voiced velar
plosive // in Klung and Aranyaprathet Vietnamese.
Example:
NJ
WST
KHL
ART
Gloss
/4/
/5/
/3/
/3/
“chair”
/2/
/2/
/2/
/2/
“chicken, hen”
/5/
/5/
/2/
/5/
“rice”
/2/
/2/
/2/
/2/
“near”
79
4.2. Najok Vietnamese and Other Vietnamese Dialects Spoken in Vietnam
Najok Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental



















Velar
Glottal






Saigon Consonants
Point of
Articulation
Manner of
Articulation
vl. unasp.
Plosive vl. asp.
vd.
Fricative
Lateral
Trill
Nasal
Semi-vowel
Bilabial
Labiodental



















Velar
Glottal






In terms of consonant phonemes, Najok Vietnamese shares more similar characteristics with the
Vietnamese dialect spoken in Saigon than other Vietnamese dialects spoken in Vietnam.
•
Retroflex //, voiceless velar fricative // and alveolar trill // occur in
Najok, Vihn and Siagon Vietnamese, but not in Hanoi Vietnamese.
•
Voiced retroflex fricative // occurs only in Vihn dialect, with no occurrence in
Najok and other dialects in Vietnam.
In summary, the comparison study results indicate that Najok Vietnamese shares both
similar and different aspects with other Vietnamese dialects spoken in Thailand and in Vietnam.
80
The similar aspects are mostly found in the structure of syllable, phonological word and
intonation group, on the other hand, significant differences are found in consonant and tone
phonemes. Therefore, Najok Vietnamese shares more characteristics in consonant and tone
phonemes with the Vietnamese dialect spoken in Wat Srithep in Nakhonpanom and in the Saigon
dialect spoken in Vietnam.
References
Amornsukdi, B. (1981). Phonological replication in Vietnamese. Unpublished master’s thesis,
Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
Chantawimon, P. (1998). Vietnamese in Thailand. Bangkok: Thai Research Fund.
Diffloth, G. (1974). Mon-Khmer Studies XV: Proto-Austroasiatics. Hawaii: The University Press
of Hawaii.
Emaneau, M. B. (1951). Study in Vietnamese grammar: Vihn dialect. Berkely and Lanhgeles:
University of California Press.
Phuget, S. (1996). A phonological study of Vietnamese in Aranyaprathet District, Sa-Kaeo
Province. Unpublished master’s thesis, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
Saliphot, K. (1998). A phonological study of Vietnamese at Chomchon Wat Srithep, Muang
District, Nakhonpanpanom Province. Unpublished master’s thesis, Mahidol University,
Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
Schultz, G. F. (1958). The Vietnamese language: Saigon dialect. Vietnam: Vietnamese American
Association.
Srichampa, S. (1990). Vietnamese study from the conversation. Bangkok: Institution of
Language and Culture for Rural Development, Mahidol University, Thailand.
Ubolchot, J. (1998). A phonological study of Vietnamese at Khlung District, Chanthaburi
Province. Unpublished master’s thesis, Mahidol University, Nakhon Pathom, Thailand.
Bio-data
NAME
Woraya Som-Indra
DATE OF BIRTH
6 September 1975
PLACE OF BIRTH
Mahasarakham, Thailand
WORK PLACE
Department of Western Languages and Linguistics
Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences
Mahasarakham University, Thailand 44150
E-MAIL
[email protected]
EDUCATION
2003
Master of Arts in Linguistics, Mahidol University, Thailand
1997
Bachelor of English, Mahasarakham University, Thailand
81
Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble, Naimuang Sub-District, Muang District,
Chaiyaphum Province
Chonchana Srihabutto
Panya Rungrueng
Kasetsart University
Manop Wisuthiphaet
Phranakhorn Ratchaphat University
Abstract
This study was a qualitative research using ethnomusicological technique. The aims of this study
were (1) to examine the history of the instrument and composition band, (2) to analyze the
quality of music, and (3) to investigate the social role of the Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai,
Naimuang Sub-District, Mueng District, Chaiyaphum Province. The result showed that the Kaen
Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai was founded by Mr. Suti Laorit and Mr. Loon Wongkhamsing in
1968 for the community solidarity. The Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai consisted of eight
kinds of instruments including kaen 7, kaen 8, kaen 9, lute, long drum, frame drum, finger
cymbals, cymbals, and a triple mouth piece kaen (functioned only for special show). Three types
of tunes were performed: the local Esan tunes and the rural and urban popular songs. Most of
musical texture was heterophony combined with drone harmony for the kaen style of playing and
the rhythm was controlled by percussions. The roles and functions of this ensemble were to
preserve and transmit Esan’s musical culture from generation to generation. Finally, the Kaen
tuning system was Diatonic with the Tonic of Kaen called Do (Bb). It was slightly different from
western Do (C). The lute was tuned to match kaen 8 in order to be tuned in perfect 5, which the
low string in C and high string in G. The range of Kaen 8 was 2,400 Cents (Ellis).
Keywords: music, folk music, kaen, kaen ensemble; Ban Khilekyai
Introduction
In the early period, the wind instrument was always made from reed grass or clump rice,
for instance, pampas grass and bamboo etc. It was then called the “flute and bamboo pipe”.
When played, a single pampas grass with a dry bottle gourd, it produces a sound called “Namtao
flute”. It is then called a “Rerai”. However, when either the pampas grass or reed grass is
accompanied by the Namtao, it produces several kinds of sounds known as “bi-sound”. The reed,
located inside the pampas grass, plays a major role in producing a sound. This is known as
“Kaen” (Wongtest, 1989). Kaen is the wind instrument which has a long history of more than
3,000 years. A sculpture of a kaen player that was imprinted on a hammer was found at Song
River, Thanhua Province, Vietnam. A piece of kaen was also found in Yunan, China. There are
many legends of kaen. One legend states, kaen was the sound which immitated the Karaveg bird.
The Karaveg bird is known as having a sweet and magical sound. Some legends mention that
82
kaen was made by a woman. In addition, some scholars stated that the King ordered an
intellectual to make it (Kammong, 1995). There are many forms of playing kaen depending on
the use of it. If a single kaen played with a singer, it is called “Mor-Lam”. If it plays with another
instrument or plays with various types of kaen, it is called either the “Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble”
or “VongKaen Ensemble”. At Ban Khilekyai, the Kaen Ensemble uses Kaen with many
percussion instruments including long drum, frame drum, finger cymbals and cymbals. The type
of band was not specific when playing by the Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai. It depends on
the player including Thai Traditional Music, Thai Folk Song, New-Style Thai Song and Country
Song (Chantorn, 1988).
Kaen Ensembles has been founded since the period of King Rama IV. King Rama IV saw
a picture of kaen from a solider who worked in Ubonratchathani Province. That solider told King
Rama IV that this kaen could be mixed well with other Thai music art including Thai Orchestra,
Thai verse, and harvest music. People in that period considered Esan a colonial province called
“Lao Colony Province”, this notion was dismissed in 1932. Since then, kaen was considered as a
foreign instrument. King Rama IV became worried about this issue until his brother died. In
1866, the King Rama IV declared that nobody could play Laos Kaen or Aeaw Laos. After that,
kaen disappeared from the Thai society until World War II, when kaen became more popular in
the Esan region. Nowadays, we can find kaen in some provinces.
The change of Thai society affected kaen by using Western instruments in order to play
called “Applied Kaen Band”, causing the new younger generation not to know the origin of Kaen.
Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai, Naimuang Sub-District, Muang District, Chaiyaphum
Province, is known as the music band which has an important role in the Esan community. In
general, Kaen of Khilekyai Village has three types of playing style. We intend to study the Kaen
Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai Kaen focusing on the history, composition, song types and the social
role. The aims of this research are to (1) examine the history of the instrument and composition
band, (2) to analyze the quality of music, and (3) investigate the social role of the Kaen
Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai. The result of this study will reserve and convey information for the
conservation and transmission of the music tradition for the future generation.
83
Methodology
This study used the qualitative research method. The authors studied from documents
related to Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai and Esan Folk Music Band. In addition, our field
work had been processed in 2009. Regarding to the community information, we collected and
observed through the villagers. The history of the instruments, band, songs, quality of music and
the relationship between Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble and local community was interviewed.
The result was analyzed and presented by the ethnography technique.
Results
History
Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai was founded in 1968 by two important personsa: Mr.
Suthi Laorit and Mr. Loon Wongkamsing. Both live in the Khilekyai Village, Naimuang SubDistrict, Muang District, Chaiyaphum Province. At that time, when the people in Khilekyai
Village had a celebration or ceremony, the adolescences in the village always fought each other.
The leader of the village found a way to solve this problem by introducing the Kaen Ensemble in
order to make all villagers to join. In the beginning, it was not called the Khilekyai Kaen
Ensemble. They played instrument such as lute, fiddle and percussion. They began to establish
the Kaen Ensemble because they did not want to waste their time on setting the stringed
instrument. Consequently, they established Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble. The instruments of
the Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai includes kaen 7 (reed mouth organ), kaen 8 (reed mouth
84
organ), kaen 9 (reed mouth organ), lute, drum, ram-ma-na (a one-faced round and short drum),
cymbal and small cymbal. Even though it is not the main instrument, the kaen sam tao is often
used during the ensemble. Kaen sam tao is known as the “reed mouth organ” which has three
mouth pieces. Three players can play together at the same time. From the bottom position of
kaen sam tao, the first position is called kaen 8. The following position is then called kaen 7. The
kaen sam tao is also known as the symbol of Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble.
Band Combination
The combination band of Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai consisted of two main
instruments: kaen and lute. The necessary percussion included drum, ram-ma-na, cymbal and
small cymbal. The two forms of performances are (1) playing on stage and (2) playing in a
parade. In this study, we collected the information from the Rice Offering Ceremony for
Phrayalare in January 9, 2009. The players played Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai by playing
on stage, as shown below:
85
The Songs
The Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai played at the Rice Offering Ceremony for the
Phrayalare in January 9, 2009. They played nine songs: the Mangtubtao Song, Heakuntok Song,
Lompadpraw Song, Ramvongdaoprasuk Song, Phitakchaiyaphum Song, Chaiyaphum March,
Cleunkratobfang Song, Laolek Song, and Mornramdab Song.
Music Quality
We chose the examine the music qualigy of three songs in which the Kaen Ensemble at
Ban Khilekyai played in the Rice Offering Ceremony for Prayalare in January, 9 2009. These
three songs are the Mangtubtao Song, Phitakchaiyaphum Song, and Cleunkratobfang Song. All
three songs were different in their structures as follows:
Mangtubtao Song: played in one stanza form or single form by repeating two times until
ending in Coda. Kaen is the main instrument. The lute is in the same tune but the lute is played in
the up tune and alternated with down tune. The music is played smoothly through the song.
86
Pitakchaiyaphum Song: the song has three stanzas or triple form: introduction (A)
which is played two times and ends in Coda, using kaen 8, medium; the main instruments are
kaen and lute. Two instruments are played close to the same tune but the player would flick the
lute in the up tune and alternated with down tune. The music is played smoothly through the
song.
Cleunkratobfang Song: the song consists of two sections called binary form: part A and
part B. Each part was played two times and end in part B. The main tune was a kaen and lute
playing in the same tune but the player would flick the lute in the up tune and alternated with
down tune through the song. The music would be played smoothly until the end. If we would
compare with Cleunkratopfang Song Chan Song of Thai Music Band, it is quite different
because it always ended in part B. But the player of Kelectyai Village would play part A again
and ended with this part.
Based on the above information, we concluded that the medium used in the Kaen
Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai were as follows: lute, kaen 7, kaen 8, kaen 9, drum, ram-ma-na,
small cymbal and cymbal. Each instrument has the same tune. Kaen 8 and percussion had one
tune in every song. The melody of the kaen scaled by the chromatic tuner was Diatonic Scale.
The note or mode that was used depended on the song. Dorn Harmony of Kaen made the tune
melodious and tuneful. There were four ranges of the sound called “Octaves”. The melodic
contour found in the songs included Conjunction and Polyphony Texture with Drone Harmony
forms. Some songs were so different from the original because the player played only in Ban
Khilekyai. In part of the Dynamic, the tune was soft which played with a lute. All other
instruments were playing second measure, except the song which intro by a Kaen.
87
Social Role
The social role the band played in the Khilekyai Village was divided in two parts: social
role and social duty. First, social role is the role of Esan culture conservation. They taught Esan
Folk Music to the children by performing in public places. This helps to conserve Esan Folk
Music. Second, the social duty was to give performances of Esan Music. They showed their
performance in various ceremonies, which employed by the hosts. Kaen Ensemble at Ban
Khilekyai is an important part in conserving the Esan Music Culture.
Discussion
Regarding the research of the Kaen Ensemble at Ban Khilekyai, Naimuang Sub-District,
Muang District, Chaiyaphum Province, it was found that Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble is the
music band that has been played by people in the village since 1968. That was why all people in
the village called this music band the Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble. In the early period, they played
and got a small wage from the host. The leader of the band, Mr. Suthi Laorit, had to pay wages to
the musicians because he did not want Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble to be extinct. The
government did not support the budget to develop the band. The government just wanted them to
perform and give them a few wages as in the past.
The songs which are played in Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble include folk songs, country
songs, new-style Thai songs, old-style Thai song and modern song. They covered the song for
compatible performing, but it is still the same. The quality of the songs is similar because each
song has 1-2 parts so that it is easy for the musicians to remember. By observing the note which
is used in the song is Monophony; using the same note through song. The reason why the players
could not play well was that they could not make money from this job. They have no time to
88
practice. Therefore, they could not be a professional player. However, there were some players
who were expert in playing music. It was easy if they played the same note. They always set the
time for practice before they perform. Nevertheless, young people in the village still attended and
joined Ban Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble.
From the past until now, Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble still performs. The musicians can not
develop their skills because young people in the village brought Western Culture into their
community. This reason caused the trainer hardshipin teaching them and finally they resigned
from the band. However, the standard of Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble was still good. It was neither
bad nor good from the past. People in the society denied to conserve and to develop Esan Folk
Music. Therefore, both the government and private should help and support the budget for the
Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble so they can practice their skills to be more interesting. Moreover,
young people from other village should be persuaded to learn Esan folk music. These points are
enough for conserving Esan folk music.
There are several limitations in this study. First, the ethnomusicology study was a case
study on music and human culture which focused on the music. The main point of the
ethnomusicology study was a field study. After we had basic data and knew the field study, we
had to start collecting data. If not, the value of the culture might be gone with the person.
According to our problem, the person who supposed to give us the information passed away
before we got the information. Second, the researchers needed to prepare themselves and
necessary equipment such as a camera, a tape-recorder as well as the questions for the
knowledgeable people. In addition, the researchers should have had at least two research
assistants to help because they could not collect all the data in a short time. A research assistant
was needed in collecting data to gain the information.
Acknowledgements
We gratefully thank Mr. Suthi Laorit, Deputy Minister of Councilor, Chaiyaphom, the
Leader of Khilekyai Kaen Ensemble and all the members.
References
Chantara, B. (1988). Kaen: Esan folk music. Bangkok: O.S. Printing House.
Khammong, S. (1995) Esan music: Kaen and other music. Khon Kaen: Prasan Priting.
Wallipodom, S. & Wongted, S. (1991). Thai Noi Thai Yai Thai Siam. Bangkok: Matichon
Printing.
Wongted, S. (1989). Rong Ram Tum Pleng: Music and Siam art. Bangkok: Matichon Printing.
89
90
The Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Conservation and Revitalization of the
Fishing Career in the Area around the Lampao Dam in Northeast Thailand
Budsakorn Saenyabud
Abstract
The Lampao Dam is an important issue because of the impact it has had on the ecosystem. This
is a problem to be discussed in this paper. As a result of the dam, biological diversities and the
quantity of water animals have decreased, impacting the way of life of fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na
Thom, who had to face poverty and had to struggle hard. This was because the resources in water
were made unavailible for use by villagers. The purpose of this study is to examine the
background of building the Lampao Dam and the use of indigenous knowledge for conservation
and revitalization of the fishermen's careers. The study was Ban Sa-at Na Thom, Tambon
Lamkhlong, Amphoe Muang, Changwat Kalasin. The study procedure was the qualitative
research methodology. Data were collected from related literature, and field data were collected
using structured- and unstructured-interview forms, and focus group discussion from 24
participants. The study findings were presented by means of a descriptive analysis. The findings
reveal that, for the background of building the Lampao Dam, the construction began in 1963 and
completed in 1968. The construction purposes were for flood relief, for agriculture, and for
recreation. The use of indigenous knowledge relied on the traditional concept by believing in the
powers of Phi Pu Ta Phon Phraison (the spirits of villagers’ ancestors who guard the forest).They
used the belief as a means to control fishermen not to catch fish in the forbidden area of
forgiveness of Chao Pu spirit called “forgiveness water area” of the ancestors’ spirit. They used
indigenous knowledge of new concept for conservation of fish breeds. This was generated from
cooperation in building homes for fish to live in, called “hoe pla” making. Revitalization of
fishing career was generated from the use of indigenous knowledge of the new concept of
performing activities on the National Fishery Day. They performed the ritual of life lengthening
and activities for the short-term fishing career from nurturing water animals together with the
long-term fishing career from conservation tourism by fishing. In conclusion, the fishermen used
indigenous knowledge for conserving fish resources by using the traditional concept of believing
in the powers of Phi Pu Ta and they used indigenous knowledge in the new concept of relying on
the state sector and self-reliance and participation of everyone in retaining the fishing career in
the short term and long term. It could reflect building the dam and household economic
development which could exist using self-reliant and market system-reliant economy.
Keywords: indigenous knowledge, the use of indigenous knowledge for conservation of
fishing career, revitalization of the fishing career, the Lampao Dam area,
Northeast Thailand
Introduction
The Lampao Dam is the largest soil dam in northeast Thailand under the irrigation project
for agriculture. It was built in 1963 and completed in 1968 to bar the Lampao River and Huai
Yang Canal at Ban Nong Song Hong, Tambon Lampao, Amphoe Mueang Kalasin. Building the
91
Lampao Dam could impact the way of life of the villagers around the dam. There were changes
in land ownerships because the government purchased land from the villagers, and asked for
public land to build the dam. The villagers had to change their occupation from rice farming to
fishing because they had no lands for living and they could not gather food from natural forests
(Mibun, Vaddhanaphuti, Srisontisuk, & Wittayapak, 2007). This case study of Ban Sa-at Na
Thom, Tambon Lamkhlong, Amphoe Mueang, Changwat Kalasin examined the background of
building of the dam and changes in careers of the villagers at Ban Sa-at Na Thom from rice
farming to be fishermen. This was generated from the villagers’ way of thinking: What causes
can connect the use of water source from the dam?
Procedure
The qualitative research methodology was used. Data were collected from related
literature, and field data were collected using structured- and unstructured-interview forms, and
focused group discussion from groups of participants: five fishermen, five fishmongers, five fish
buyers, three owners of fishing tool shops, three fishery officials, and three community leaders,
totalling 24 informants. The findings were presented by means of a descriptive analysis.
Results
The Lampao Dam was built according to the government policy as related to the way of
life of Ban Sa-at Na Thom villagers because the area of this village is in the area of the Lampao
Dam. The building of the dam appears as in the following details.
The Background of Building the Lampao Dam
In Changwat Kalasin, there are 2 major origins of rivers flowing through this area. A
large quantity of rain water in the flooding season impacts people in the Lampao basin. They
face the problems of natural danger of floods. This generated the project of building the Lampao
Dam from the Lampao River which is the branch of the Chi River.
92
Picture 1: Lampao Dam
Its origin is in Nong Han, Amphoe Kumphawapi, Changwat Udon Thani. It runs through
Amphoe Wang Sam Mo of Udon Thani, Amphoe Sahatsakhan, Amphoe Mueang Kalasin,
Amphoe Nong Kung Si, Amphoe Huai Mek, and Amphoe Yang Talat. Then it runs to join the
Chi River in Amphoe Kamalasai of Changwat Kalasin. The Lampao River is 250 kilometers
long. The area of this river basin is 5,960 square kilometers. The Irrigation Department began
this project in 1956 by building the large reservoir to keep water in the north of the dam. It was
used for irrigation and for relieving floods and preventing floods. The building of the dam began
in 1963 in 3 phases: building water channels, water-draining canals, dikes, and complementary
buildings in a total area of approximately 110,000 rai (2.5 rai = 1 acre). The construction began
in 1963 and completed in 1968. From the Lampao Dam construction, there were many villages
through which the Pao River ran. Ban Sa-at Na Thom is the village in the area near the Lampao
Dam involving the building of the Lampao Dam. For its background of community
establishment, people moved to settle down from the long past from the Kingdom of Lan Chang
Thai-Laos about 200 years ago. Archeological evidence still appears at present. There are dikes
and canals and swamps around the village, namely Nong Waeng Swamp, ancient moats around
the village in the area of Mueang Siang Som. These things show that people in the ancient
community of Sa-at Na Thom were an agricultural society. They adjusted themselves to rely on
93
natural resources in the community because there are dikes and canals from water sources around
the village for them to seek natural foods for living.
In 1892, a group of Thai-Laos moved from Ban Kham Mak Mai, Ban Kham Bon, and
Ban Nong Son in Amphoe Yang Talat, Changwat Kalasin. This group traveled along the Yang
River in the south of Amphoe Yang Talat. Then they established the village near Nong Waeng.
There are low plains for cultivating crops. Next to Khok Ngu highland were abundant natural
forests. Their settlement during the year 1926 had a small population, only 10-15 households.
The village was called Ban Sa-at Na Thom (Sata, Vinai, Bowjai, & Rithidet, 2008).
The Impacts of Building the Lampao Dam on the Way of Life of Ban Sa-at Na Thom
Villagers
From the building of the Lampao Dam which was completed in 1968, Sa-at Na Thom
community lost its land for living-making and public land which community people used to
share. Forest areas and forests of food supplied in the forest were widely destroyed in the area of
the origin of the Lampao River. The lands in the community area near the dam were expensive.
Poor people had limited opportunity to own the land for living-making. The rice farming
households lost their lands for living-making. The government declared that the public lands and
peoples' lands had to be surrendered to the government. It took a long time to pay compensations.
The money they received could not buy new lands because the land price increased. People in
Sa-at Na Thom community lost their own lands for living-making and Khok Ngu natural forest
to the government to build the dam. Of all the 100 households only 10 households did not lost
the lands. In 1963 many families refused to move away. They still lived there and made their
livings in the area around dam where there were no floods. For the impacts while the Lampao
Dam was being built, the villagers moved to look for new places for living-making. In some
places they protested the government because they did not receive compensations for their land,
or they did not receive the exact amount of money. The officials paid the money to wrong people
by paying to the old land owners. Moreover, the allotted land was inappropriate for crop
cultivation. It appeared that the number of villagers who were moved from the Lampao Dam to
the area allotted by government was smaller than the number of people who moved from other
places.
94
Changes in the Way of Life of Ban Sa-at Na Thom Villagers from Rice Farmers to
Become Fishermen
Sa-at Na Thom community is near the edge of the Lampao Dam. It does not receive
benefits from the dam for agriculture because the community is located on the highland which is
the origin of river. It costs too much money from the government to take water from the Lampao
basin to this highland. Therefore, this community is not included under the Lampao irrigation
project. The community people use the Lampao Dam for earning a living by fishing. After losing
their lands, about 50% of the population catch fish from the Lampao Dam water to exchange
with rice. About 10% of the population still have rice farming. The other 40% moved away to
live in other places. The building of the dam caused them to change the name Na Tham to be Na
Thom because the lost their lands, and the land prices were expensive. The villagers make living
by fishing without modern fishing tools. They still used fish nets, cooping nets, hooks, and small
boats. The caught fish is used to make fermented fish and dried fish. Then they sell the fish to
buy rice. For community economic development of Ban Sa-at Na Thom villagers, after the
building of the Lampao Dam, their chief career is fishing. Few villagers make their living by rice
farming, showing adaptation of community people to the social context. When there is a water
source and there is water all the year round, the villagers can catch fish and other water animals
and do not think any longer that the dam is the problem of living. Instead, they adjust the way of
life from rice farmers to become fishermen. When the production has changed from substantial
production to commercial production in rapidity in 2001. They use modern fishing tools, largesized boats, large pulling nets. Due to the lack of rice without rice farming, they must make
living by fishing for money to buy rice. Barter trade is used at this level. In addition, they sell
fish in the market system for money.
The Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Conservation of the Fishing Career
The fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na Thom adjust themselves to have the fishery career by
using indigenous knowledge in two types: indigenous knowledge from traditional concept
generated from beliefs in phi pu ta of Siang Som, called Chao Pu Phon Phraison. These villagers
believe that Phi Pu Ta are spirits of their ancestors who built Ban Sa-at Na Thom in an ancient
community. When they moved here they built this village. Thus there is the holy house of Phi Pu
Ta Phon Phraison as a place of worship for the community people. In the sixth lunar month the
villagers perform the ritual of worship for the community to be peaceful and to be able to catch a
95
large number of water animals. From the belief in powers of Phi Pu Ta, they have occurred the
regulations for societal control. There are the following regulations to prohibit fish catching: The
area of forgiveness of Phi Pu Ta (spirits of ancestors of Siang Som). For the beliefs in powers of
Phi Pu Ta Phon Phraison, there are common regulations in the area of the village landing place.
Fishing is prohibited. A larger number of fish can breed rapidly. The fishermen in Ban Sa-at Na
Thom and nearby villages rely on water animals for the living. This promotion of conserving the
fishing career is because there are several kinds of fish to catch all the year round and because
there are water source for fish to breed in the reservation area due to the belief in their ancestors’
spirits.
Picture 2: Phi Pu Ta Phon Phraison at Lampao Dam
Building Home for Fish to Live in
Ban Sa-at Na Thom villagers cooperate in conservation of fish from the use of indigenous
knowledge of the new concept. They use natural tree branches and weeds of various kinds to
make “hoe pla” or fish homes called “Luang pla” for fish to live in. The fishermen go together to
catch fish from “hoe pla” without destruction of them and weeds. It is the same as building
homes for fish to live in for a period of time. Fish can be caught all the year round. This shows
that household economy of the fishermen at this village can occur with incomes every day. It is
because there are water sources for fish to breed and places for fish to live in. Thus they have
96
fish as natural resources for consumption and sale together with conservation fish breeds
(Ubonlert, Chantachon, & Engwanich, 2009).
The Use of Indigenous Knowledge for Revitalization of the Fishing Career of Ban Saat Na Thom Villagers
The fishing career at Ban Sa-at Na Thom has been adhered to after the building of the
Lampao Dam during 1998-2009 due to the supporting factors in the following details:
The National Fishery Day to Perform the Ritual of Life Lengthening
For the development of the fishing career, the state policy has declared that the first of
April every year is the National Fishery Day. There are activities for freeing fish into the water
of many dams. The Lampao Dam has the activity for freeing fish and on this particular day
fishing is prohibited. It is the same as revitalization of water, not allowing people to disturb or to
destroy natural resources of water animals of different kinds. As results, the number of fish
increases due to freeing fish into water sources, and the fishermen stop fishing. Indirect benefits
are: it is revitalization of the fishing career to have time for relaxation and to make merits by
freeing water animals for life lengthening to have happy life according to the belief I Buddhism
of northeastern people. There are rituals of freeing animals to enhance life fate. The activities on
the National Fishery Day are related to the way of life of the fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na Thom
such as people in general participate in the activities for freeing fish in 1998, they stop fishing in
the Lampao Dam, causing the fishermen at this village to have time for relaxation with their
families for only a short time. However, it is a revitalization of their own minds not to kill water
animals for one day. It seems like purifying the mind not to be against the precept according the
principles of Buddhism (Tambiah, 1970).
The Short-term Fishing Career for Nurturing Water Animals
To follow the awareness of the importance of the fishing career at Ban Sa- at Na Thom,
the villagers cooperate with the state in 2000 for developing fish raising under the project for
nurturing fish breeds from nurturing small fish in the nets. They use their own areas of water
landing places by diving the water area for members of the Future Fund Project from nurturing
water animals. The state provides promotion of fish feeding, breeding and catching to sell
without using fishing tools. It is like decreasing the cost of production because they do not need
to buy such tools as fishing nets of different kinds and boats. Raising fish in the nets is to save
97
the cost of fishing tools. The fishing career occurs in their own households by using labor to look
after their fish, feed the fish, and prevent fish pets. The villagers participating in the project are
making the fishing career which the state promotes, gives knowledge of fish raising but relying
on their self-reliant labor. Then they pay back the cost to the state in the form of soft loan. This is
like the fund for enhancing incomes savings in their households by raising fish in the nets in a
short time by relying on the state and themselves. It is community economic development with
the production unit and consumption unit in their own households. That is, it is production for
consumption and sale to make incomes based on the sufficiency economy principle
(Ravipolsadtanan, Aengwanich, & Littide, 2009).
The Long–term Fishing Career, Conservative Tourism and Fishing
From the purposes of building the Lampao Dam to use water for agriculture and to use
the sources of natural resources of the dam as places of recreation and relaxation of tourists, Ban
Sa-at Na Thom villagers have formed a group to make the project for fishing conservative
tourism in 2000 at the area of Nong Waeng Swamp. The members of the project have released
many kinds of fish into this swamp which is a large-sized water source. In the area around Nong
Waeng Swamp they grew several kinds of ornamental plants to make the climate shady and
pleasantly cool. It is a community tourist attraction. There is a fishing activity as a pleasant
hobby. However, each tourist must pay for hiring a fish rod and buying fish feed. It is beneficial
to the fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na Thom in community economic development by community
participation in origination of this activity for building incomes to rotate within their own
community. They do not have to make their living by direct fishing. Instead, they use the way of
thinking to culture fish breeds, increasing fish breeds from natural water sources, and to add the
values. They have incomes at the production group level. It is revitalization of the fishing career
using several activities, but they use fish as a median for tourists who visit the Lampao Dam in
all seasons from a long-term fishing career, fishing to relaxing all the time (Kaewthep, 2004).
Discussion
The findings revealed that in the way of life of Ban Sa-at Na Thom villagers they used
water to make their livings by fishing, causing the way of life to exist because they used
indigenous knowledge of the community people to keep and extend the fish breeds. They used
water resources together by believing in powers of Phi Pu Ta Chao Pu Phon Phraison and also
98
used indigenous knowledge in relying on state powers to participate in the project for nurturing
fish in the nets. They had activities for organization of fishing conservative tourism. Thus the
building of the Lampao Dam in the way of thinking of these fishermen was like large rice fields
for all of them because they made their livings chiefly by fishing instead of rice farming. They
earned regular incomes. The use of indigenous knowledge of conservation and revitalization of
the fishing career in the area around the Lampao Dam caused these fishermen to have methods of
adapting themselves to the fishing career using activities for using water resources as places for
seeking food and relaxation. They regard fish and water as very important resources for human
beings. It is in accordance with their saying: “The dam is the large rice field” of everyone at Ban
Sa-at Na Thom because there are no droughts and no floods. The fishermen earned incomes in
all seasons. It was because short-term and long-term fishing career was promoted according to
the activities generated from their belief in powers of the spirit and state reliance.
Conclusion
In this study of the use of indigenous knowledge for conservation and revitalization of the
fishing career in the area around the Lampao Dam in northeast Thailand: a case study of the
fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na Thom, from compilation of knowledge obtained from collecting field
data in supplement to synthesis of related literature, it was found that the Lampao Dam is like a
large rice field for fishermen at Ban Sa-at Na Thom. It was because they could make a living by
fishing in all seasons. There were no droughts and no floods because these fishermen used
indigenous knowledge for conservation fish resource using traditional knowledge of believing in
Phi Pu Ta and new concepts of relying on the state and on themselves. Participation of everyone
could retain the fishing career in the short-term and the long-term reflected the building of the
Lampao Dam and household economic development. The change from rice farming to the
fishing career could exist by the way life has adapted to the ecosystem of the building of the dam
generated from the state policy. The fishermen could exist by the self-reliant economy and the
market-reliant system. Various fishing activities were useful to conserving fish breeds and
revitalizing the fishing career. It could be the model of the way of life of fishermen depending on
the changing ecosystem. The study findings could be used as information for conservation and
revitalization of the fishing career in other dam areas with similar context in the future (Rithidej,
Piampongsan, Prathepha, & Yodmalee, 2005).
99
References
Kaewthep, K. (2004). Communication for beautiful world: The lesson from communication to
manage the environment in community (1st ed.). Seven Printing Group Ltd. Press.
Mibun, W., Vaddhanaphuti, C., Srisontisuk, S., & Wittayapak, C. (2007). A story and belief in
spirit of phoo (Grandpa) loop: An access to resources of fishermen at the Ubon Rattana
Dam, Khonkhaen, Thailand. J. Soc. Sci., 3, 172-175. Retrieved
from http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/jss43172-175.pdf
Ravipolsadtanan, P., Aengwanich, W. & Littide, P. (2009). Social capital concerning a
conservation of sweet wild trees (Phak Whanpa) in a Northeastern Thailand community.
J. Soc. Sci., 2, 146-148. Retrieved from http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/jss45146-148.pdf
Rithidej, P., Piampongsan, P., Prathepha, P., & Yodmalee, B. (2005). The development of
community economic system of Thung Kula Ronghai Farmers at Ban Ta Yuak,
Northeastern Thailand. J. Soc. Sci., 1, 240-242. Retrieved
from http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/jss/jss14240-242.pdf
Sata, W., Vinai, V., Bowjai, P., & Rithidet. (2008). Environmental change of Lampao Dam
communities in Northeast Thailand. J. Soc. Sci., 4, 334-337. Retrieved
from http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/jss44334-337.pdf
Tambiah, S. J. (1970). Buddihsm and the spirit cults in north-east Thailand. UK: Cambridge
University Press.
Ubonlert, W., Chantachon, S., & Engwanich, W. (2009). The adaptation of fishing instruments
by a farmers’ community in the Thung Kula area in Northeastern Thailand. J. Soc. Sci., 2,
112-116. Retrieved from http://www.scipub.org/fulltext/jss45112-116.pdf
100
Marginalizing or Blending of Transnational Workers:
Case of the Kingdom of Bahrain
Magdalena Maria Karolak and Anjum Razzaque
New York Institute of Technology, Bahrain Campus
Abstract
This paper adopts a comparative case study of three Asian communities numerous in the
Kingdom of Bahrain, namely Filipino, Indian and Pakistani. People from these communities
migrate to work in a variety of jobs with skill levels ranging from professionals to unskilled
labors. Our paper assesses how each of these communities transports their cultures to the
Kingdom of Bahrain. It has been observed that these communities are clustered in certain
geographical areas, in which they set up their respective cultural foundations to sustain their
cultural identity in this foreign land. Taking into account that these communities cluster in their
own groups; our paper assesses through a survey of thirty respondents from each community
how this phenomenon contributes to their partial, and in some cases complete, isolation from the
local community of the Kingdom of Bahrain. In addition we analyze whether this action (of each
of the three Asian communities) is their own choice or an effect of policies and regulations
imposed by the community of the Kingdom of Bahrain. With little or no social protection at all,
people within each of the three communities form networks of reliance upon their countrymen to
face emerging problems. With a high rate of observed and reported worker abuse, protective
actions are sometimes taken by their respective embassies. Transnational work is a must for
economical development of a country such as the Kingdom of Bahrain. Our case study is an
illustration of overall trends observed also in other GCC countries.
Keywords: Bahrain, transnationalism, migration, diaspora
Transnationalism: Bahrain as a Case Study
Transnational workers constitute nearly half of the total population of Bahrain. They are
considered temporary migrants by the authorities and their stay abides strict regulation. Bahraini
citizenship is restricted no matter the length of residence in the kingdom. Thus foreigners find
themselves split between the sending and the host country. Based on case study of Asian
migrants who dominate Bahrain foreign population, our research aims at assessing how the
transnational status accounts for their marginalization and to what extent.
Transnational Workers in Bahrain: Causes and Consequences
With a territory of 711,9 sq. km and a population of 1.04 million inhabitants, Kingdom of
Bahrain is the smallest country in the Persian Gulf. Its economy, as well as other Gulf
Cooperation Council (GCC) countries, is characterized by a high reliance on foreign workforce.
The discovery of oil in 1932 and natural gas marked the beginning of a steady flow of foreigners
101
to the kingdom that continues until this day. In the 1930’s Bahraini society barely had enough
labour to fit the need for growth. Oil revenues furthered the rapid development of the country
with creation of modern industry and vast range of services exacerbating the demand for labour
(Lawless & Secombe, 1986). Foreigners filled various occupations from manual labourers to
highly qualified professionals. With a decline of oil reserves, Bahrain has positioned itself as a
banking centre of the region. Foreigners continue to be a necessary element of economic growth
and account for 49% of inhabitants (2008). Such a high ratio of expatriates comes as third high in
the Gulf region, preceded only by United Arab Emirates and Qatar, both with an estimated 80%
of foreign population (Kapiszewski, 2004).
Table 1: Growth of Foreign Population in Bahrain 1971-2008
Population
1971
1981
1991
2001
2008
Bahraini
178,193
238,420
323,305
405,667
529,446
Non-Bahraini
37,885
112,378
184,732
244,937
517,368
Total
216,078
350,798
508,037
650,604
1,046,814
% of Bahrainis
82.5%
68%
63.6%
62.4%
51%
Source: The ratios for 1971-2001 – Dito (2004); the ratios for 2008 - Central Bank of Bahrain
The effects of that influx of foreigners are twofold. Official data show that foreign
workers make up about 75% of the total workforce (391,000 foreign employees) and dominate
almost entirely the private sector. A gap between public and private sector exists in terms of
income and offered benefits. The low wages and hard working conditions deter Bahrainis from
employment in the private sector and are held responsible for structural unemployment among
native population (Louër, 2008).
Graph 1: Structure of total employment
(excluding domestic workers)
Graph 2: Average monthly wages
Source: Central Informatics Organization, Kingdom of Bahrain
102
Foreign workers are often caught in between the state demand for growth and the
disenchantment of local population. Recently, Bahrainis started to assess the foreign cultural
influence on the kingdom. Calls preservation of country’s identity and culture against the
overwhelming impact of expatriates were discussed in the Bahrain Parliament and in the media.
It has been observed that migrants live in areas populated usually by their countrymen and stay
within that social circle. Foreigners almost exclusively inhabit certain areas in Bahrain, such as
the old Manama (migrants from the Indian subcontinent) or Juffair (mainly Westerners).
Expatriates hardly learn Arabic or follow other local traditions. Instead they set up their
respective cultural foundations to sustain their identity promoting their own lifestyle, cuisine,
clothing, language and so on. It is often stated that foreigners do not want to abide by local
cultural rules. However, the roots of this phenomenon are much more complex.
Asians as Dominant Migrant Population
Foreigners residing in Bahrain come from a number of countries. The major foreign
expatriate communities are Indians (nearly 290.000) Pakistanis (60.000), Egyptians (30.000),
Iranians (40.000) and Filipinos (30.000), (Kapiszewski, 2006). Asians form nowadays the largest
immigrant group in the kingdom.
Table 2: Share of Asian Population in Bahrain (2003)
Ethnic group
Numbers
Percentage
Bahraini Arabs
420,000
63
Other Arabs
80,000
12
Iranians
40,000
6
Asians
130,000
19
Source: Kapiszewski (2004)
Although other Arab countries such as Egypt, Morocco or Syria export their labour force
that would fit within the socio-cultural context of the Gulf, as Arabic speakers and mostly
Muslims, GCC countries prefer to employ Asians (Kapiszewski, 2004). Since 1973 a decrease in
non-Gulf Arab numbers has been noted. While non-Gulf Arabs used to occupy public posts,
Asian migrants always held various posts in the private sector. Politics of nationalisation of job
market transformed primarily the public sectors that started to favour employment of ethnic
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Bahrainis (Rivlin, 2001). Employment of Asian nationals is however a matter of choice of
hosting countries. They are considered less expensive, easier to manage and do not carry with
them revolutionary political ideas that could catch on in the Gulf. Many Asian governments
facilitated also the labor migration by establishing recruitment agendas for that purpose.
Comparison between Chosen Immigrant Communities
In our research we chose to concentrate on three Asian migrant groups, namely Indian,
Pakistani and Filipino. We are going to proceed with a brief overview of the three communities.
Origins
Indian community has a long history of contact with Bahrain, while Pakistani and
Filipino migrants to the Gulf are a phenomenon of the 1970s. The first wave of Indian migrations
dates back to early history of Bahraini civilization. Already 5000 years ago, a kingdom called
Dilmun thrived in this area, playing a role of a trading link between Indus Valley civilizations
and Mesopotamia. Traders from the Indian subcontinents would be the first temporary migrants
to the region. Second wave of Indian migration occurred in the 19 c. when Bahrain was part of
British colonial Empire. The island‘s administration was linked to the India Office, which
fostered the establishment of Indian merchant community in Bahrain as well as migration of
public servants. It is estimated that by 1925 there were 2500 Indian families settled in Bahrain,
most of them involved in retail. In comparison, Filipino and Pakistani migrations to Bahrain
were both fuelled by the economic boom in the Middle East in 1970s. For both countries it was
the beginning of mass scale government-regulated labour overseas migration. Their arrival
overlapped the third wave of Indian migration to Bahrain. However the approach of government
policies towards migration in each sending country differed. That accounts for different socioeconomic profiles of each community residing in Bahrain.
Socio-economic Profile
Socio-economic profile of the Indian community in Bahrain presents a variety of extreme
cases. An estimated 65% of Indian migrants are blue-collar workers employed in construction
and maintenance where wages average 150 BD per month (400 USD). Doctors,
engineers, businessmen, managers and other professionals constitute the remaining 35%. Second
and third generation businessmen operate establishments started by their fathers or grandfathers
such as Sindhis; Gujerati businessmen, Bohra Muslims, Dhobi laundrymen (Gardner, 2008). The
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head start over other immigrants made the Indian community an important factor in Bahrain’s
economic development. Indian businessmen elite presents many rags to riches stories, such as
the multi-million dollar Dadhabai group of companies or the Landmark Group run by Micky
Jagtiani.
The Filipino community is much more evenly represented in terms of economic status.
Since the beginning of labour migration in the 1970s, the Filipino government took an active part
in the overseas recruitment process. The aim was to encourage employment of skilled workers
abroad and to limit migration of blue collar workers vulnerable to abuse (Agunias, 2008).
Despite shortcomings, the model proved to work out in Bahrain. The Filipino community in
Bahrain consists mainly of medical, sales, finance and hospitality sectors employees. The
Embassy of the Philippines assumes that the number of domestic workers was kept at minimum.
The Filipino community, unlike Indian and Pakistani one, is dominated by female migrants (60%
in 2002). Most of them are young single females often supporting their families back home or
single mothers (Nagy, 2008).
Labor migration from Pakistan to the GCC region originated in the early 1970s with the
construction boom in the Middle East. In 1971 the Government of Pakistan set up the Bureau of
Emigration and Overseas Employment to deal with export of Pakistani manpower mainly to the
Gulf States. Pakistani community in Bahrain comprises a significant number of semi-skilled and
skilled workers employed in various areas (banking, IT, healthcare, construction, etc).
Cultural Foundations
Bahrain is one of the most liberal countries in the GCC region. Foreign cultural, religious
and educational associations are allowed to exist and cater for expatriates needs. Due to its long
history in Bahrain Indian community has established its cultural presence very early. The Indian
Club operates since 1915. In total, there are as many as 32 registered and 68 unregistered sociocultural organisations and clubs, some representing various India’s regions. These organization
perform cultural as well as charitable activities. Religious centers include a Hindu temple, 5
churches and 6 Gurudwaras. Educational institutions offer primary, secondary and tertiary
degrees. A total number of seven Indian schools and one institute of higher education exist in
Bahrain. Since 65% of Indians in Bahrain come from Kerala, (other important regions include
Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra, Goa and Punjab), Hindi is taught along
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with main regional languages. Indian community is the only to have its own radio station Voice
FM 104.2.
A number of Pakistani social organizations operate in Bahrain, namely the Pakistan Club,
Pakistan Women‘s Association and Pakistan Association, which involved in promotion of
culture, sports and charity. Professional associations include Engineers Pakistan-Bahrain Chapter
(IEP-BC) and Pakistan Association of Consulting Engineers. Baloch ethnicity is represented by
the Baloch Club. Education in Urdu exists since 1950s. Nowadays three schools offer primary
and secondary education.
Filipino community is centered around the Filipino Club established in 1979. The club
promotes cultural and leisurely activities such as music, cinema, cuisine and sports but gives also
room for professional associations (nurse group, hairdressers group, etc). The website of the club
provides a platform for exchange and communication of the Filipino community. It is interesting
to note that, due to feminization of the Filipino workforce, the community stages a number of
beauty pageant. Miss Philippines, July Rose, “My Wonderful Mom“ and Little Miss Philippines
are not only social events but a search of an ideal for female migrants (Nagy, 2008). In terms of
education, the efforts to provide schooling to Filipino children were initiated with the opening of
the Embassy of the Philippines in 1992. The Philippine School was soon established in 1995.
Another major breakthrough was the opening of the Filipino-operated AMA International
University in Bahrain in 2002 that provides educational services mainly to Bahraini students.
Considering the relatively small size of the Filipino migration, it is one of the most active
communities in Bahrain.
Method
We surveyed thirty randomly chosen respondents from three major migrant communities
in Bahrain, namely Filipino, Indian and Pakistani. Data gathered might present deviations
between respondents of the three groups in terms education attainment or length of stay in
Bahrain (see below). However, overall trends presented in findings section show a clear pattern.
Filipino respondents: education (83 % tertiary; 17% secondary; 0% primary); length of
stay in Bahrain (70% 1-3 years; 17% 3-10 years; 13% <10 years)
Pakistani respondents: education (50% tertiary; 23 % secondary; 27% primary); length of
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Indian respondents: education (20% tertiary; 44 % secondary; 36% primary); length of
Survey: Summary of Results
Table 3: Arabic and English Language Skills
Arabic skills
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
Fluent
0
13
17
Conversational
10
20
20
Simple words
50
30
33
Cannot speak
40
37
30
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
Fluent
50
57
53
Conversational
50
40
16
Simple words
0
3
26
Cannot speak
0
0
5
English skills
Table 4: Residence Location Choice
Factors
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
Provided by employer
47
53
40
Accessibility
23
13
18
Affordability
17
34
23
Proximity of countrymen
13
0
0
Facilities
0
0
19
Table 5: Factors of Identity Preservation
Factors
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
National language
27
40
44
Friends/ family
37
60
50
Personal / physical
23
0
0
13
0
6
qualities
Promoting one’s culture
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Table 6: Difficulties Experienced in Bahrain
Problems
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
Economic
7
0
0
Adapting to local culture
2
0
0
Isolation / xenophobia
0
24
20
Communication
13
0
0
No problems
78
76
80
Filipino %
Indian %
Pakistani %
1-5 years
83
7
20
5-10 years
10
73
40
Permanent
7
20
40
Table 7: Intended Length of Stay in Bahrain
Term
Findings
Recent debates over loss of Bahraini cultural identity emphasized, between the others,
that the overwhelming use of English and other foreign languages in Bahrain leaves out Arabic
as a secondary language in the country (Klieger, 2008). Our findings confirmed that foreigners
usually do not learn Arabic. On the average, in the first year of residence foreigners pick up a
few words, if they work in an environment where it is needed (sales, hospitality, healthcare).
However there is no clear correlation between intended length of stay and knowledge of Arabic.
Those who declare a permanent stay, do not show better language skills than other groups.
English is the main language of communication in Bahraini multinational society. Lack of
incentives towards learning Arabic is related to job market opportunities. Public jobs that require
knowledge of Arabic are almost exclusively restricted for ethnic Bahrainis. Also, the difficulty of
naturalisation might make learning Arabic unavailing since English is sufficient in daily
communication.
The geographical distribution of immigrants follows their socio-economic profile. While
a large portion of foreigners are provided with accommodation by their employer, for the
remaining ones, choice depends on their economic status. Selection of accommodation in
Bahrain vary widely from area to area. While it is possible to rent a room for 50 BD per month in
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an old neighbourhood, prices can go up to 1000 BD for a modern apartment with many facilities.
The districts in Bahrain are divided according to these lines. Some areas offer exclusively
modern and luxurious accommodation, while in others, buildings without basic facilities are
rented to manual workers. It has been observed that Bahrainis move out of certain areas and rent
out their old houses that have never been maintained (Al A’ali, 2009). Whole districts of the city
turn that way into dilapidated neighbourhoods inhabited by laborers. A high concentration of one
ethnic group favours in turn establishment of businesses catering for their particular needs
(clothing, foodstuff, remittance services). However it is not a voluntary isolation of a particular
ethnic group. While laborers from Pakistan may live in the labour camps in old Manama,
educated and wealthy Pakistanis may choose to live along Westerners in Juffair and Seef area.
Our research confirms, however, that social contacts between different communities are
limited. Respondents of different communities pointed out that keeping one’s identity was linked
closely to meetings with countrymen and speaking their own language. Rarely, it was an effect
of promoting one’s culture among other ethnicities. Respective national clubs are intended to
provide a ground for gatherings of their own countrymen. Even in case of multicultural events
organized by local authorities, each migrant community shows interest only in performances
from their own country (Haider, 2009). The patterns of interaction show a preference for contacts
within the same nationality groups rather than with outsiders.
The relations with ethnic Bahrainis are also limited. Foreigners find it difficult to make
Bahraini friends. Cases of informal ostracism exist in form of limiting interactions only to
workplace. Even living in proximity of Arab neighbours usually does not mean foreigners
become included in their social network. Keeping in touch with the migrant community provides
an individual with company as well as safety in case of problems such as late salary payments.
Each respective embassy takes an active role in protection of its citizens against workers abuse.
A factor that could deepen division between Arab and foreign communities are precisely cases
of abuse of foreign workers but also crimes committed by foreigners in Bahrain, both usually
publicized by the media. In 2004 riots against Asian businesses swept through the country. Their
reasons were mainly economic but also cultural. Many Asians occupy low income jobs and are
looked down by the local society that accuses them of illegal liquor distribution or running
prostitution houses. In common perception, Asian bachelor workers are, as expressed by
Manama councilor Sadiq Rahma, making the neighborhood “dirty” (Khonji, 2009). A law
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proposed in 2007, and still discussed in 2009, aims at indirectly segregating the areas where
manual workers could live. Bahraini parliamentarians argue that workers behave in immoral
manner and corrupt life of families. On the other hand foreign businessmen and investors
complain about “second class“ treatment in governmental offices as well as unfavourable
property ownership and naturalisation rules (Torr, 2009). As outlined above, problems of
marginalization of different groups of expatriates in Bahrain have many aspects.
Future Repercussions
Since 2007, Bahraini media have been preoccupied with the problem of foreign cultural
influence in the Country. Given the constantly rising n, umbers of expatriates, Bahrainis could
soon end up as a minority in their own country. No satisfying solutions have been found to
balance the need for growth and identity preservation. Gulf economies require constant influx of
inexpensive labor that is, in turn, considered responsible for erosion of national identity. Next
years will probably bring more pressure on providing solutions to the issue such as some sort of
limitation to duration of residency or reduction of foreign labor dependence. That could deepen
the marginalization of transnational workers.
Conclusion
Through a survey conducted among three Asian communities in the Kingdom of Bahrain,
our paper aimed at analyzing factors, which contribute to their partial cultural seclusiveness.
Indian, Pakistani and Filipino communities are well established in Bahrain with a number of
cultural and educational associations. They are indeed shaping the face of Bahraini society.
Bahrain offers a friendly and tolerant atmosphere fostering growth of each of the communities.
However, reassessment of Bahraini identity questions cultural influence of migrants in the
kingdom. Our survey revealed that the perceived cultural isolation is due to a combination of
factors independent from the individual members of three communities studied. Firstly, a short
intended length of residence and low economic status of an individual are usually factors
contributing to strong bondage with native community in Bahrain. Secondly, even long-term
residents did not always find it rewarding to adhere to local community thus limiting their
willingness to learn Arabic. This phenomenon has to be understood through the official policy of
Bahraini state, which considers foreigners as temporary labour migrants and is not intended to
110
draw a source of permanent migration. On the other hand, even temporary migration on such a
large scale as in Bahrain will undoubtedly leave an imprint on country‘s identity.
References
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Dito, M. (2007, October 23). Migration policies and challenges in the Kingdom of Bahrain.
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Gardner, A. (2008). Strategic transnationalism: The Indian diasporic elite in contemporary
Bahrain. City & Society, 20, 54-78.
Haider, A. (2009, December 7). Low arts festival turnout surprises the organizer, Gulf Daily
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Kapiszewski, A. (2006). Arab versus Asian migrant workers in the GCC country. UN Expert
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Folk Art Tradition and Cultural Identity in the Era of Globalization
V. Rajeev
Catholicate College (Mahatma Gandhi University)
Abstract
South India has a rich cultural folk tradition. Folklore arts, beliefs, rites and rituals, myths, and
rural handicrafts are factors that enrich our folk-tradition. They became well-known as
knowledge transmitted by oral tradition. Folklore has an important role in handing down social
norms and religious knowledge and wisdom and in keeping the social structure stable. The
transformation that globalization is going to make in the cultural arena is that the whole world is
going to come under the dominance of a macro culture. As a result the micro cultures that retain
our cultural identity are on the verge of effacement and society is becoming subject to cultural
domination. It topples the social structure itself. The survival of micro cultures depends on ethnic
diversity. Religion and ethnic culture take an important role in the formation of the social
structure. Globalization brings about cultural interaction. Our society consists of structural units
based on structural pluralism. Folk arts and folk songs play an important role in their survival.
The ritualistic art forms, ‘Theyyam’, ‘Thira’ and ‘Padayani’ of South India are evidence to this
fact. They stand in relation to the power system in every society. Power system is related to caste,
gender and economic status. Folklore opposes the power structure and compromise with it. They
preserve ethnic identity also. In the world of today where global civilization has become a
challenge to national identity, micro cultures will survive only if cultural pluralism is retained.
The protection and nourishment of folk arts is the means to it.
Keywords: folk art tradition, cultural identityfactors, globalization, cultural pluralism
Introduction
The twenty first century, the age of globalization, is also the age of cultural crisis. It is the
age in which many folk arts either undergo change in their form, or totally disappear. South India
has a rich cultural folk tradition. Folklore arts, beliefs, rites and rituals, myths, rural handicrafts
etc. are factors that enrich our folk-tradition. They have become well known as knowledge
transmitted by oral tradition rather than written branches of knowledge. Folklore has an
important role in handing down social norms, moral laws, religious knowledge and wisdom, and
in keeping the social structure stable. This thesis is a search into how such folklores and arts
become relevant in this era of globalization.
The transformation that globalization is going to make in the cultural arena is that the
whole world is going to come under the dominance of a macro culture. As a result the micro
cultures that retain our cultural identity are on the verge of effacement, and society is becoming
subject to domination by a Euro-American macro culture. It topples the social structure itself.
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It is in the form of inherited culture that we see folklore elements in every culture. But the
present age of globalization is also that of popular culture. The new economic system and the
global culture adversely affect the cultural identity of society. A great economic crisis took place
in the 90’s as a result of globalization in the Asian countries of Indonesia, Malaysia and Thailand.
They were compelled to study the changes that took place in the cultural arena. They affect such
diverse areas like nationality, economic development, modernity and ethnicity, community
structure, social structure, and cultural changes. Globalization brings about cultural interaction
and cultural globalization. This adversely affects cultural identity at the local, ethnic, and
national levels. The present study diversifies for examination and discussion the areas and
aspects where such adverse impacts crisscross and become perceptible in sub-headings such as
Definition of Identity, Religion and Identity, Ethnicity and Identity, Gender Identity, Folk Arts
and Social Identity, and Generalization’s Impact on Folk Art.
What is Identity?
Globalization creates crises in the social, economic and cultural arenas and destroys what
cultural identity is. In its place a homogenized and westernizes situation which is based on a
consumer culture is created. This has a negative impact on the third-world countries where there
is a weaker culture. Its excessive influence causes retrogressive activities. The main change is
that cultural identity is destroyed. It is common assumption that identity formation is a universal
feature of human experience. Cultural identity is determined in connection with factors such as
gender, linguistics, religion, ethnicity and nationality. The identity that is created through them is
not just a fragile communal attachment. On the other hand, it is a social formation in relation to
them. Social formation is possible only through a combination of social norms, customs and
rituals, education, myths, and physical conditions. Such an identity formation is an inherent
human trait. One attains it through cultural practices. They form themselves and become
meaningful at the conscious, subjective level of human nature. Identity is people’s source of
meaning and experience. To quote Dr. Yogendra Singh: “Identities are formed and become
meaningful at the subjective of human nature and consciousness on the one hand and on the
other through sharing cultural practices common defined by the differences of territory, ecology,
ethnicity and historical experiences of the people in societies” (Singh, 2003, p. 71). We have to
discuss the relation that folk arts have with these factors.
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Religion and Identity
Religion has a very important role in the formation of identity of each society. It is the
shell of cultural formation. Emile Durkheim is of the view that norms and values form social
structure. The individuals in a society are born into them. It is through these customs and
practices that social solidarity remains (Jones, 2005, p. 33). Pre-existing cultural rules determine
our ideas and behaviour through socialization. Lack of regulating norms in a society is the key
cause of the ill-health of individual as well as social life. It is as an organic system that a society
becomes capable of action. Its structure and function are similar to an organic system. “Social
system works like an organic system. Societies are made up of structures of cultural rules,
established beliefs and practices to which their members are expected to conform” (Jones, 2005,
p. 38). The functional failure of a society will lead it to its ruin. Loss of social solidarity, lack of
integration and loss of equilibrium will do away with the very social structure itself. Durkheim is
of the view that religion is the basic element that preserves social structure. Each social structure
has unique customs and practices as well as systems of beliefs. Folk arts and beliefs play an
important role in the timely reforms and establishing of these customs and practices.
This is made possible by the yearly performance of each art form as well as the custom
and practices in connection with it. To illustrate this we may take the art form “Padayani”
performed in the Central Travancore part of Kerala in India. The rigorous ritualistic discipline
maintained for 41 days, vegetarianism, the rite of brining out the mother goddess from the
sanctum sanctorum, the musical accompaniment known as “pachathappukottu”, and attributing
godhead to the figures are ancient religious practices. The plots presented through padayani are
the emancipation of society from sins, healing and casting out evil spirits. It is the expression of
fellowship, among the members of society, irrespective of gender differences. The restructuring
and renewing of social structure becomes evident here. There is no distinction between the high
and the low though it is a religious function. They exhibit a secular nature. The godhead they get
gives them a mystic attribute. The ritualistic nature of folklore arts raises them to the level of
metaphysical reality. These art-forms are performed and enjoyed as the special level of mystic
experience. The same customs and rituals are followed in the art forms of Theyyam, Thira and
Mudiyett. They maintain this religious characteristic in their plot, performance, and appreciation.
This gives a unique identity to them.
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Ethnicity and Identity
Another element that contributes to the creation of identity is ethnicity. All our folk art
forms have an ethnic nature. They remain within a particular geographical region – Theyyam in
Malabar, Padayani in Central Travancore and Tottam in South Kerala. The myths of a particular
region form the plot of these art forms. These art forms are the totality of the cultural experiences
of particular regions. It is the highly popular and religious cultural groups that help them rise
beyond time. These fellowships that have the nature of ethnic nationalism will never be
ethnocentric. These folk-art forms maintain their ethnic nature through which they make
socialization possible; they regulate them and harmonise them with other communities.
Gender Identity
Gender has an important role in creating social identity. Idealistically there is no gender
inequality in the world of Indian rites and rituals. But it is evident at the practical level. All this
can be analysed in relation to the worship of mother-goddess. Fertility worship and worship of
mother goddess are closely related to folk-art forms. A social system based on male domination
is prevalent in Indian society. But we see in folk-arts a system that worships woman and
attributes mystic qualities to her. It appears mainly in the form of the worship of goddess ‘Kali’.
The Darika-Kali dialogue that is often conducted in South India is a liberation from the gendercentered power system. Female worship comes in Mudiyettu, Theyyam and Padayani, as the
worship of goddess ‘Kali’ (The dominant icon of Mother Goddess that is worshipped all over
India. Her incarnation was sprcially for the destruction of the demon ‘Darika’. There were
repartees counters and heated exchanges between the two before the demon was finally
suppressed). At the same time, gender domination was prevalent in all societies of all times. In
the ancient social system, power was always the right and monopoly of men. Isn’t the female
worship performed by a male-dominated system in the midst of gender inequalities indicative of
an attempt for equality? In the performance of folk-art forms the system of male domination is
preserved while efforts are made simultaneously for balancing the inequality.
Folk art forms’ relation with the fertility concept makes this fact relevant. The society
which is not ready to recognize women attributes to them mystic qualities and recognizes them
as invincible female power in these art forms. In this way, the nature power that is woman is
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sustained. We can think about it connecting it with Oedipus complex. It is the fulfillment of the
Libido, the source of male sexual instincts. We can read it along with the fertility concept. The
folk-art performance is also suggestive of the outward flow of emotions. What happens here is
the mental activity which Freud calls ‘displacement’ (Jaaware, 2001, p. 191). These art-forms are
‘defence mechanisms’ (Moghadam, 2007, p. 181). These are achieved as a psychic production
for avoiding painful admission or recognition. The ritualistic nature of folklore arts raises them
to the level of metaphysical reality (Baskom, 1981). The traditional ritualistic art forms in Kerala,
‘Theyyam’, ‘Thira’ and ‘Padayani’ evince this fact. They stand in relation to the power system in
every society. This is not something evident but it is there indirectly. Power system is related to
caste, gender and economic status. Those who were kept away from the power structures/forms
took part in the folklore art forms. During the presentation of these art forms they are able to be
equalized with those in the above mentioned power-structures. The performers in Theyyam,
Thira and Padayani claim to be deities for the time being, claim to attain godhead and have the
power to reward and punish. It is the ritualistic nature of these art forms that gives them the
supernatural air. They may be from the oppressed lower communities. It is during the moments
of this performance that they become relieved of the mental conflicts inflicted by caste, race and
gender suppressions. They are thus able to live in harmony with society. As a part of the social
power-structure, the individual is placed in the subject position. Here power is diffused through
the social institution which is an art-performance. Power is exercised rather than possessed and it
is not repressive but productive. It is made possible through the daily activities of individuals. A
network functions in every social institution. The very life of artists is shaped within this special
network. It gives them a special identity and each art form is a creative expression of this identity.
These art forms are not the mere expressions of what is just ‘ancient.’ Their performing
nature gives them a special identity. The annual performance of these arts does not only present
the old or the ancient, but also renews the past. Every folk-art form is a reminder of ancient
social discourses and their renewal. They also hint at the need to recreate cultural identity in
accordance with the changing times. “It is not a nostalgia that is called for here. The past-present
becomes part of necessity, not the nostalgia of living” (Bhabha, 2001, p. 142).
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How Folk Arts Create Social Identity
Apart from creating cultural identity, fork-art forms have other great social missions. The
most important is the collective conscience they produce. The integrity of individuals and
equipping them to meet social challenges are a part of this. If the influence exerted by this
collective representation is lost, that loss leads an individual to the loss of his self. This is the
most important among the complex crises faced by modern society. In the folk-arts there is no
distinction between the actor and the spectator. As the spectator himself becomes a part of the art
the artist becomes a part of social integrity.
Impact of Globalization on Folk Art
In the background of the above-mentioned cultural contexts, we have to think deeply
about the changes that globalization makes. Globalization is a power that can exert cultural and
economic pressures in individual and social life all over the world. This phenomenon has swept
like a flood tide through the world’s diverse cultures destroying stable localities, displacing
peoples, bringing a market-driven, ‘branded’ homogenization of cultural experience, thus
obliterating the differences between locality-defined cultures which had constituted our identities.
Through globalization the entire world is changing into a single place, single culture and single
identity. Individual distinctions of culture and society are wiped off through a homogenous
global culture. Globalization creates the opportunities for studies in the disciplines of political
geography, communisation, agriculture, ecology economics and cultural studies. Earlier,
globalization was discussed in relation to cultural phenomenon which was placed far above
economic systems. “Globalisation was a term used by anthropologists and sociologists to discuss
cultural changes well before the widespread use in discussions of economics and business”
(Dalby, 2007, p. 36). It is clear that globalization destroys localities as, for example, in the crude
homogenization thesis, all regions were badly affected their cultural uniformity. Globalization
will create favourable and unfavourable changes in the cultural arenas. It related to modernity. It
will redefine cultural contexts. Folk-art forms are removed from their religious ritualistic nature.
When they move away from ethnical and geographical contexts, cultural diversity will be
affected. When the religious nature of cultural groups is lost, the entire social structure will
crumble and there will no longer be any social solidarity. There are about hundred communities
which have thus lost their cultural identity. “The Athropological Survey of India finds Mizoram,
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Meghalaya and Sikkim foremost among them. The Anthropological survey of India has also
notified that there are 4,635 cultural communities in India” (Singh, K. S., 1992, p. 23). This
creates inter-religious and inter-cultural problems in each identity groups and will in turn be the
cause of ethnic wars and conflicts. It is the unending conflicts between groups that have lost their
cultural identity, that are behind the blood-shed in Bosnia, Kosova, Croatia and Chechnia. These
conflicts are termed ‘new war’. The folk-art forms presented out of their contexts lead to their
commercialization and in market economy the traditional artists will be out. With this, the
physical and ecological landscape based on ethnically significant history, legends and myths will
no longer be there. In the Asian community, it will adversely affect the earth’s habitat system. It
will not have much of an adverse impact on ethnically more homogeneous countries like China
and South Korea.
In the countries that are culturally weak, gender inequalities increase and social structure
imbalances are created. Once the female worship conducted by the male community through
folklore art forms ceases the social system that works as an organic system will move away from
its functions. When the attributing of mystic qualities in female worship is no longer done, the
desire to exploit the feminine identity will rise in the male dominated power system. This causes
adverse reactions in the psychology of the male community. In such a situation even the social
divisions of labour are re-defined. Gender inequalities are politicized and the atrocities against
women will be on the rise in certain contexts. The male-dominated family system will set in with
greater force. Healthy thoughts about man-woman relationships will disappear from the
conscience level of the individual, and a woman becomes a commodity. As a result of
globalization, those marginalized communities recognized as a part of the power-structure owing
to their dominant presence in the folk art forms have been exited and the ethnic attacks on them
have become stronger. In the ancient days it was through the folk-art forms that their safety was
ensured. In the modern age some ethnic groups which suspect the loss of their safety have been
active in Indian society. They have raised riots and have become a threat to national integrity.
This is a matter for serious consideration.
Globalization destroys regional linguistic identity and English is growing as a global
language. The regional and minority languages that have been part of the existence of ancient
ethnic and complex societies will be wiped off from the face of the earth. There will be the
attempts to oppose and root out other linguistic communities to preserve one linguistic identity.
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The consequences of the politicization of Tamil linguistic nationality in South India are
spreading into other such communities also and this is something that deserves serious attention.
The loss of social cultures will adversely affect national integration. At the same time in the new
world order brought about by globalization artists will have economic benefits and the arts get
global acceptance. Market economy will create a lot of opportunities for artists and will help
them thrive financially. Popular culture will replace regional culture and people’s life style,
language, abodes, dress, food culture, and identity markers will undergo changes and they will be
totally modernized. At the cultural level, this will spread cultural pluralism. This is described as
the emergence of hybrid culture. Indian society has great strength historically and socially and
this has created a powerful social structure. This powerful social structure will help us tide over
the culture crisis in globalization.
At the same time, we cannot forget the fact that Indian society faces a great culture crisis.
“Traditional community organizations are under acute moral, social and economic pressure and
in most cases facing decline. The phenomenon of ethnicity, on the other hand, shows a
remarkable rise in strength in terms of social organization, moral legitimation, consciousness and
movement” (Singh, Y., 2003, p. 211).
Conclusion
The dichotomy in front of us is the powerful cultural heritage on the one hand and
modernity on the other. Standing within the frame of the ideology of pluralism, we must be able
to establish a strong interactive relationship between modernity and tradition. We can use folkart form as the tools for this. Timely reforms are the very spirit of folk-arts. These art forms took
shape based on caste, religion and ethnic boundaries. In the world of today where individual
revaluation and global civilization become challenges to national identity, micro cultures will
survive only if cultural pluralism is retained. The protection and nourishment of folk arts is the
means to it.
References
Baskom, W. R. (1981). Four functions of folklore. In Contribution to folkloristics. Meerut:
Folklore Institute Archana Publications.
Bhabha, H. K (2001). Locations of culture: The postcolonial and the postmodern. In S. Malpas
(Ed.), Postmodern debates. London: Palgrave Macmillan.
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Dalby, S. (2007). Globalization, geography and environmental security. In E. Kofman & G.
Youngs (Eds.), Globalization: Theory and practice. New York: Continuum.
Jaaware, A. (2001). Simplifications: An introduction to structuralism and post-structuralism.
New Delhi: Orient Longman.
Jones, P. (2005). Introducing social theory. New Delhi: Atlantic.
Leitch, V. B. (Ed.) (2001). Theory and criticism. New York: W.W. Norton & Company.
Moghaddam, F. M. (2007). Great ideas in psychology, cultural and historical introduction.
England: One World Publications.
Singh, K. S. (1992). People of India: An introduction. Calcutta: Anthropological Survey of India
Singh, Y. (2003). Culture change in India: Identity & globalization. Jaipur and New Delhi:
Rawath Publications.
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Yeonwoo Mudae and the Korean Theatre Movement in the 1980s
Jungman Park
Sungkyunkwan University
Abstract
Korean theatre in the 1980s in the culmination of military regime’s dominance witnessed a series
of exemplary reactions in theatre field to the upheavals, which is summarized as 1) the expansion
of little theatre movement, 2) the rise of political drama, and 3) the variety of theatrical
experiments. Related to the artistic circle’s such efforts to respond to the time of turmoil, one of
the most noteworthy theatre companies was Yeonwoo Mudae (Yeonwoo Stage). In the lack of
space for theatrical performance, the establishment of the ‘little theatre’ Yeonwoo in 1977
demarcated a new era of little theatre movement committing to theatrical experimentation,
differentiating itself from other little ‘commercial’ theatres. Yeonwoo’s experimentation
included the adaptation of literary works into performing texts, the documentarization of
historical affairs into political drama, and most importantly the creation of flexible stage with
intimate actor-audience relationship. Different from previous post-Korean War theatre
companies trying to introduce Western realistic plays to Korean stage, Yeonwoo Mudae
attempted to graft authentic Korean traditional outdoor theatricality called madang-geuk in the
form of changjak-geuk or original drama, and then vitalize them on indoor spaces, the
westernized stage convention dominating the contemporary Korean theatre production.
Embodying or standing as an exemplary model for theatre circle’s response to societal and
political changes, Yeonwoo Mudae marked a new demarcation in the topography of Korean
theatre movement in the 1980s.
Keywords: Yeonwoo Mudae, Korean theatre, Little Theatre Movement, political drama,
experimental, Madang-Geuk, Changjak-Geuk
Introduction and Objective:
Topography of Post-War Korean Theatre and Yeonwoo
Theatre is usually regarded as a genre sensitive to social changes. Korean theatre after the
Korean War (1950-1953) was no exception. Korean theatre was hit by the social changes under
the post-war environment, remarkably the dominance of military regime. Especially the 1980s,
in the culmination of the military control, witnessed a series of exemplary reactions by theatre
field to the upheavals, which is roughly summarized as follows: the expansion of little theatre
movement, the rise of political drama, and the variety of theatrical experiments.
The increasing number of little theatres in the mid of 1980s reflected the changes in the
social and cultural environment of Korea resulting from the rapid quantitative expansion of the
facilities for mass entertainment. The little theatre movement of Korea in this period was
somewhat different from that of the Western counterpart. While the latter aroused as
experimental theatre against to the banality of the existing commercial theatre, Korean little
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theatres opened as commercial performance space with an intention to survive the competitive
theatre market.1 With poor financial ability, the founders’ choice of small space was unavoidable.
As of mid-1980s, Korean audiences were suffering a severe lack of space for theatrical
performance. At that time, there were only two grand-scale theatres with over 1,000 seats which
were the National Theatre of Korea and the Sejong Center. The KCAF (Korean Culture & Art
Foundation) Theatre was the one and only medium-sized theatre with about 600 seats (Shim,
2002, p. 15). In this situation, little theatres in Korea, with cheap ticket price and convenience in
proximity and access, gained popularity from the increasing number of audiences. Almost all
types of performance, ranging from realistic to experimental performances and from Broadway
musicals to Korean traditional theatricalities called madang-geuk, were presented miraculously
in these small places.2
Another noticeable theatrical trend in the 1980s, especially in the second half of the
decade, was the rise of political dramas and productions. This trend was related to the general
mood for democratic actions in the contemporary Korean society which included a series of
historical moments such as the military regime’s June 29 Declaration for democratization in
1987 and the abolition of pre-censorship system targeting for publication, press and theatre
performance in 1988. With the removal of the censorship, considerable amount of political
material gushed out and began to make outspoken satires on society. The gust of stuff with
political tone in effect produced a momentum in which all the oppressed voices were released
and, therefore, alternative points of view came up to the surface deconstructing the authoritative
center of culture and politics in the society. Such general deconstructivist process gave an
immediate influence on the Korean theatre circle: structural change in theatre administration,
variation of viewpoint in playwriting and reinterpretation in dramaturgy.3
Lastly, the deconstructivist process was merged into the experimentation of style on
Korean theatre stage. In the mid-1980s, revisionist realism or anti-illusionism took the initiative
in the experimentalist movement while realistic and naturalistic styles were in decline. For
example, the experimentation of Brechtian epic theatre was welcomed by many theatre directors
who intended to amplify the spectators’ active role and participation in theatre experience. It is
worth noting that Korean traditional theatricality called madang-geuk appeared as a part of
theatrical experimentation in this period.4 The rise of madgang-geuk in this time had twofold
significance. Firstly, madang-geuk is understood in terms of Korean ‘minjok-geuk’ (national
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theatre) in the sense that this theatre form stirred up as an anti-cultural movement against the
Western-centered modernization and enlightenment dominating the Korean peninsula since the
1950s. Secondly, madang-geuk can be described as a reformist theatre in the sense that this
theatre form was related to the explosion of antidespotic libertarian demands under the military
regime in the 1980s.
Related to theatre field’s response to the time of turmoil, the most remarkable theatre
company was the Yeonwoo Mudae (Yeonwoo Stage). What differentiated Yeonwoo from other
contemporary theatre companies was its commitment to the creation of Korean changjak-geuk
(original drama). While previous post-war Korean theatre companies in the 1950s, represented
by the Shilhum Geukjang (Experimental Playhouse), were mostly established by university
intellectuals with an intention to introduce Western realism drama to Korean stage, the
establishment of Yeonwoo in the late 1970s was the fruit of the new intellectual generations’
effort to celebrate the so-called ‘woori-got’ (our things). Actually, Yeonwoo attempted to
integrate authentic elements of Korean traditional outdoor theatre into the form of original plays,
and then enliven them on indoor space, that is the westernized stage convention dominating the
contemporary Korean popular theatre production.
In terms of the three exemplary reactions by the theatre field in the post-war era
mentioned above, Yeonwoo, I argue, is significant in that it embodies theatrical circle’s response
to social changes and, consequently, illuminates the historical and artistic topography of Korea in
the 1980s. Additionally, it would be safe to day that the history of Yeonwoo is the history of
Korean changjak-geuk movement. In this respect, this paper intends to trace the three stages of
movement of Yeonwoo Mudae, illuminating the theatre group’s significance in creating a new
demarcation in the topography of Korea theatre movement in the 1980s.
Foundation and Homeless Years
The Yeonwoo Mudae was founded on February 5 in 1977 and officially announced its
existence to the public with the production of Achimenun Nul Honjayeyo (Always Alone in the
Morning) at the little theatre Gonggan Sarang (Space Love) in March of 1978 (Jung, 1990). The
founding members, who were mostly students and graduates of Seoul National University,
insisted on writing and producing changjak-geuk (original drama) on stage. Under the motto that
‘the company does act only for the truth and is responsible for the audience,’ Yeonwoo made
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efforts to make original plays filled with ‘living’ stories from everyday life. Along with the
mission statement, Yeonwoo abandoned the director-or-dramatist centered authority easily found
in the established commercial production convention. Instead, Yeonwoo adopted a ‘collaboration
work’ system in which the priority in the stage production was given to the discussion and
agreement among actors, playwrights, directors and even audience members (Jung, 1980, p. 40;
Kim, 1986, p. 297-298).
Yeonwoo faced an obstacle even in the earliest days of foundation. According to the
regulation of the Theatre Association of Korea (TAK), a theatre company should be composed of
over ten full member of TAK in order to be a legitimate member of TAK. Composed of ‘legally’
non-professional actors and, accordingly, unable to get the membership to TAK, Yeonwoo had
to present their theatre productions in the form of ‘amateur’ workshop rather than as a
professional company’s performance for general audiences. Since it was illegal for a nonprofessional company to make a profit from box-office income, Yeonwoo had to present all the
workshops as complimentary performances. What is worse, having no permanent theatre
building, Yeonwoo had to wander one theatre to another looking for workplace. Every workshop
was performed at most for two days in each place and had to move for another place. In short,
not only the legal status of the Yeonwoo actors but also the environment the theatre company
was in ‘amateurish’ condition (Shin, 1980, p. 30). On the other side, it was true that such amateur
spirit was the intrinsic driving force that made the foundation and performance of Yeonwoo
possible. It is worth noting that Yeonwoo did not regret the amateurish condition. Rather,
Yeonwoo cherished the amateurism, the company’s founding spirit. In this respect, the fact that
Yeonwoo continued the workshops along with regular performances even after obtaining the
regular membership to TAK in 1979 and became a legally professional theatre company.
The most remarkable work of Yeonwoo in the homeless years was the stage adaptation of
Hwang Sok-Young’s original novel Changsan-got-mae (Changsan Cape Falcon) at the Drama
Center in 1980 (March 28–31). Hwang was a so-called dangerous writer who was publicly
banded by the South Korean government as a pro-North Korea figure. Actually, North Korean
themes and related ambiance is prominent in Hwang’s original novel. ‘Changsan-got’ in the title
refers to the name of a real cape located in the southwestern part of North Korea. The full title
‘Changsan-got-mae’ refers to a legendary falcon believed to live in the area. According to the
legend, the bird was small but strong, and never did harm to people, livestock, and grain. Instead,
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the legendary falcon is described as a protector of the Korean peninsula from other falcons
coming from Manchuria to plunder the farming and livestock. By staging the problematic work
written by the leftist writer and containing North Korean contents, Yeonwoo gave impact to the
established theatre circle while attracting public attention. In addition, the staging of Changsangot-mae was significant because it triggered a boom of ‘woori-got’ (our things) in the
westernized Korean theatre environment. With this production, Yeonwoo experimented
theatrical elements of Korean outdoor, especially the immediacy and the spontaneity or
improvisational quality of madang-geuk, and expanded the established concept of performance
into further dimension by grafting these authentic theatricalities of traditional Korean theatre into
the indoor space which had been haunted by western theatre convention (Lee, 1980, p. 74). This
performance is credited for introducing the form and contents of madang-geuk into the theatre
stage for the first time in Korean theatre history.
Under the government’s close surveillance, Yeonwoo continued its relationships with
problematic and progressive artists including Hwang Sok-Young while reinforcing the
collaborative workshops and the experiments of madang-geuk form.5 In the fall of 1980,
Yeonwoo succeeded in popularizing its problematic performances to the mass public by
participating in the Korean Theatre Festival, one of the established performing spaces. At the
same time, Yeonwoo expanded its interests in social problems, which was reflected in the 1984
production titled Na-u Saldon Kohyang-un (Hometown Where I lived Was). This performance
dealt with the problem of environmental pollution resulting from the government’s initiation of
excessive industrialization. For this performance, Yeonwoo, which had been the object of hatred
from the government authorities, was suspended its performing activity for six months by the
Performance Ethics Committee.
Years in Shinchon
Despite the severe censorship by the despotic military regime, Yeonwoo held fast to the
founding idea that is to nurture and create changjak-geuk as the mirrors to reality. However, in
order to secure stable activity, Yeonwoo desperately needed a permanent performing space of its
own. The short run due to the high rent and the discontinuity of performance resulting from
traveling had prohibited the fulfillment of the experimentation of changjak-geuk. For this reason,
Yeonwoo opened its own little theatre at Shinchon, a province inside Seoul, in November of
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1985, with the fund raised from its members and the backing of citizens. This permanent theatre
was a sort of ‘found space’ remodeled from the existing building for other purpose. Accordingly,
the building’s interior was not appropriate for its new usage as a playhouse: it had a low ceiling,
a small floor space with 200 seats, and the lack of facilities including dressing-room and
lighting-room. The poor environment paradoxically helped the company reinforcing its
experimentation in terms of space usage. Instead of individual seats, the flat wooden floor was
allotted to audiences, which allowed the audience members the freedom of location and the
variety of viewpoints (Lee, 1986, p. 56). The result was the birth of a flexible stage where a more
intimate relationship and interaction between actors and audience is possible in the vacuum of
the forth wall, the imaginary barrier between the stage and auditorium. Furthermore, reminiscent
of the openness penetrating the performing space of madang-geuk, the flexible open stage
effectively enlivened Yeonwoo’s experimenting with the mode of communication with
spectators. With the opening of the permanent theatre, Yeonwoo broke off with the past of
‘homelessness’ and settled down as a real sense of professional company. The first sign of the
transformation was the staging of Hwang Sok-Young’s original novel Han-si Yondaeki (Years of
Mr. Han).
Han-si Yondaeki tells the chronicles of the turbulent years of the Korean War through the
life of Mr. Han who is a medical doctor and professor at Kim-Il Sung University in North Korea.
Han believes that his mission in life is to treat the sick and this holy task should not be
influenced by political ideologies. However, his belief is shaken in front of the outbreak of war.
He eventually turns into a poor alcoholic and dies in a small town in the South. A series of
tragedy, including Mr. Han’s political excommunication from the North and his consequent
failure in living up to his belief in life delivers a message, how individual existence and dream
are vulnerable to the group ideology and false belief. Dealing with the tragic life of an individual
who is the victim of ideological and regional division of the Korean peninsula, the production
presented a transcendental ground for communication in which postwar generation shares the
pains and memory of parting with the war generation (Kim, 1986, p. 312). Since the premiere
performance in April of 1985 in Seoul, Han-si Yondaeki toured the major cities over the country
and was performed over 170 times till February of 1986. Having the long run of a year, the
production demonstrated that Yeonwoo secured its position in the professional theatre world.
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Furthermore, through the long run, the production delivered the sentiment that the issue of the
South-North division needed to be freed from ideological taboos and open to discussion.
In the spring of 1986, Yeonwoo staged another problematic play titled Chilsu-wa Mansu
(Chilsu and Mansu). This play can be understood as the extension of Yeonwoo’s
experimentation that is to create Changjak-geuk as the mirror to reality. At the same time, the
production of the play was a new attempt for Yeonwoo in that it was the experimentation of
theatrical minimalism. Only two characters appear on stage and their stage actions happen in an
extremely restricted space that is ‘gondola’ on which the two men are painting a signboard with
hanging on to the ropes. Such minimalist space plan effectively plays a role turning the
audience’s attention to the two signboard-painters and their act of spitting bitter satire on society
while they are working. With the rise of curtain, the two young men appear as narrators who
make conversations with the audiences breaking down the imaginary fourth wall. Various timespaces are inserted between the conversations of the young painters, which composes the
episodic plot. Besides, in each scene, Chilsu and Mansu present again the transformation of roles
right before the presence of the spectators. Together with such satirical elements, the variety of
episodes, the swift changes of scenes and other theatrical devices are fused to make the
production into an amusing as well as serious performance (Kim, 1995, p. 109-110).
Chilsu-wa Mansu deals with the estrangement in the city life that the two young men,
Chilsu from a military camp-town and Mansu from a countryside. By putting these two lowerclass laborers on the height of the 15-story building, and by making them paint the signboard for
commercial ads, this production visualizes the theme of human estrangement under the
capitalism. The young men’s language choices revealed in the conversation are also remarkable.
They present a feast of abusive language and sexual volubility, which delivers the sad
disillusionment such as the estrangement from dream and reality as well as the anger of the labor
class.
Compared with Han-si Yondaeki, Chilsu-wa Mansu seems to come closer to reality.
While the former mainly deals with a rather complicated matter of ideology and essential human
being, the latter focuses on the down-to-earth issues in the contemporary time such as the
individual alienation in urban life and the evil of capitalism. Like the case of the former
production, the year-long run of this production—397 performances from May 14, 1986 to May
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31, 1987—demonstrated that such sense of reality appealed to the contemporary audiences and
therefore won the sympathy from the general audience members.
Years in Daehak-no
In the late of 1986, when the performance of Chilsu-wa Mansu was on going, Yeonwoo
moved to a northern side of Seoul and settled in a new home located at Daehak-no (University
Street) that is now known as Korean Broadway where. In the new home, Yeonwoo’s experiment
with flexible performance space full of metaphysical transformation was reinforced further. In
addition, compared with such previous performances as Han-si Yondaeki and Chilsu-wa Mansu,
Yeonwoo’s experimentation with Changjak-geuk or original plays at Daehak-no had a tendency
to become more provocative and frank in both contents and forms. This time, Yeonwoo took a
decisive action to extend the experimentation by adapting poetic works into a visual text on stage.
The outcome of this attempt was the 1988 production of Saedul-do Sesang-ul Tununguna (Birds
Are Also Leaving This World).
Composed of 12 skits or episodes adapted from Hwang Ji-Woo’s original poems, the
stage version of Saedul-do Sesang-ul Tununguna presented a unique performing text with an
episodic structure. This production was an extremely stylized performing text with an intention
to de- and-re-construct the history of modern Korea through the various angles of view to the
contemporary reality. As the subtitle “variety show of the 1980s” says, each episode is
reminiscent of painful moments in the Korean history: the Kwangju Citizens’ Uprising in 1980
against the military government’s brutal massacre on civilians, labor-management dispute
studded with class hostility, and ‘A Campaign for Reunion of Dispersed Family Members’ in the
mid-1980s. Especially for the Kwangju Uprising scene, the performing space was full of visual
images in which blood-clotted limbs of mannequins and overlapped with the projected pictures
presenting dreadful appearances of the victims of massacre. Actors sprayed insecticide to the
auditorium, which led the audiences to the experience of the way in which the Kwangju citizens
were treated as mean and cheap like flies. By deconstructing the epic immanent in the poem, by
rearranging it into dramatic actions and by introducing Korean traditional performing elements
such as singing, reading, dancing and everyday nori (play) culture, such epoch-making
experiment of performing solution was remembered as “the most unique and original variety
show in the history of Korean modern theatre” (Yoo, 1988, p. 7).
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In the end of the same year, Yeonwoo presented another significant performance titled
with Sa-wol Koo-il (The 9th of April). Dealing with accident of Inmin Hyungmyong Dang
(People’s Party of Revolution) that broke out as the reaction to the long-term dictatorship of Park
Jung-Hee’s military regime, this performance reflected the contemporary concern for the
experiment of political drama. It is worth noting that this production was planed and realized
based on the historical documents including the records of trials, testimonies of victims and their
families and the newspaper reports, with a super objective of bringing the truth from the
concealment to the light.
Following the narrator’s description about the background of the Inmin Hyungmyong
Dang accident, the interior of the stage is revealed from the darkness. It is a simple stage
composed of floor, stairs and a platform stage with iron bars that symbolizes imprisonment. And
such simple stage reminds the audience of the minimalist platform stage for Chilsu-wa Mansu. A
large portrait of President Park is hanged on at center in the front façade of the platform stage.
Like seen frequently in the previous productions, eight actors transforms their identity from
narrator, President Park, investigator, victim and victim’ family. President Park’s appearance
symbolizes effectively the postcolonial topography of Korea: General McArthur wearing a black
sunglass, and the samurai in kimono with a Japanese word in hands.
Also the devices of the alienation effect continued to be introduced on stage. And this
time, such devices took a tendency to obtain more objectivity integrated with the element of
documentary. Beginning with a part of diary called Kohaeng 1974 (Penance 1974) written by a
poet Kim Ji-Ha during the years of imprisonment, this production consistently tried to be truthful
to documenting the facts without addition and subtraction. Such attitude was reflected in the
announcement of real names of victims who were given a death or jail sentence as well as the
real names of the government-patronized organizations that praised the long dictatorship of
President Park. On the contrary, pro-governmental material was also presented on stage. A
propaganda film, featuring the well-off status of a middle-class farmer family in the future, was
projected on stage. While the film was run, a military-march-like Sae Maul Norae (New Town
Song) reverberated through the auditorium. The ending scene, appearing right after the execution
scene, is filled with the pictures of the victims and their families while the narrator tracing back
the memoir of each victim’s identity including name, age, vocation, and career.
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Such devices are understood as an attempt to historicize the present life in the 1980s by
evoking the historical event to the present and in turn by searching for the meaning of the present
in the relation with the past. However, the production itself reserves its opinion. Instead it is just
shows the objectified topography of the history through the juxtaposition of similar or
contrasting images related to the historical event, which turns the task of interpreting the
historical and contemporary moment to the audience. In the direct dealing with the contemporary
political issue, the production of Sa-wol Koo-il had significance both for Yeonwoo and for the
theatre history of Korea.
Conclusion
The Yeonwoo Mudae consistently produced changjak-geuk as the mirror to reality while
maintaining critical point of view to the times and society. In this sense Yeonwoo can be
regarded as one of the most unique and original Little Theatre companies in the 1980s. The
importance of the company in creating and nurturing changjak-geuk can be summarized as
follows. First, Yeonwoo’s workshop performances laid the foundation for the environment in
which the experiment of changjak-geuk would be cultivated more by other little theatre
companies. Introducing new dramatists and encouraging collaboration work system, the
workshop of Yeonwoo contributed to nurture the democratic and experimental performance
culture in the 1980s. Second, Yeonwoo’s adaptation of literary works into the stage performing
texts expanded the range of theatrical activity in terms of contents and form. Solving the
practical problems occurring in the process of adaptation, such attempt resulted in the added
effect that is the various experiments of theatre language. The best example is found in the
experiment tried in the production of Saedul-do Sesang-ul Tununguna. Besides, the adaptation
between different genres was also related to the experiment of theatre space, which is best
exemplified in the flexible space plan for the Yeonwoo Little Theatre. Lastly, Yeonwoo’s
experimentation with the theatre language and space eventually led to the rebirth of a flexible
stage with open and intimate actor-spectator relationship penetrating the performing environment
of Korean authentic theatricality such as madang-geuk. By grafting the elements of madang-geuk
such as open stage and episodic plot, Yeonwoo encouraged the audiences’ critical role in
interpreting and judging the contemporary social problems. Such attempt is reflected the most
clearly in the production of Sa-wol Koo-il where objectified the historical events and projected
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them in the present time and, in turn, left the task of interpretation and judging to the audience.
Especially in terms of the three exemplary reactions by the theatre field in the post-war era
mentioned in the beginning, Yeonwoo, I argue, is significant in that it embodies theatre circle’s
response to social changes and, consequently, illuminates the historical and artistic topography of
Korea in the 1980s.
References
Jung, Han-kyeol. (1980, August). Why do we stick to changjak-geuk. Hankuk Yoenkuk, 39-41.
Jung, Han-lyong. (1990, March). Abbreviated history of Yeonwoo. Yeonwoo 1.
Jung. Ho-soon. (2002). Little Theatres and Theatre Movement in Korea. Seoul: Yongeuk-kwa
Ingan.
Jung, Ji-Chang. (1989). Sosa-geuk, Magang-geuk and Minjok-geuk. Seoul: Changjack-kwaBipyong.
Kim, Kyun-Hyung. (2000). Korean theatre, potential theatre. Seoul: Somyong Choolpan.
Kim, Sok-man. (1986). Production note of Han-si Yondaeki. Woori Shidae-u Munhak, 5, 296312.
Kim, Sung-Hee. (1995). Sociology of theatre, analytics of drama. Seoul: Munyemadang.
Lee, Hye-Kyung. (1986). Study on the interior space of Korean Little Theatre. Seoul: Ehwa
Woman’s University.
Lee, Sang-il. (1980, April 13). Production review of Yeonwoo Mudae’s Changsan-got-mae:
Lifelike nature of Madang-geuk and Minung-geuk. Chugan Chosun, pp. 74-75.
Shim, Jung-soon. (2002). Korean performance and culture in global age I, Seoul: Pooroon
Sasang.
Shin, Yeoung-Chul. (1980, August). Persistent and diverse efforts. Hankuk Yeongeuk, 27-33.
Yoo, Min-Young. (1988, March 18). Performance criticism: Yeonwoo Mudae’s Saedul-do
Sesang-ul Tununguna. Hankuk Ilbo, p. 7.
Notes
1
See Jung Ho-soon (2002), for detailed accounts of little theatre movement of Korea in the
1980s.
2
Madang-geuk refers to a Korean traditional theatre form that combines various forms of folk
entertainment including puppetry, mask dance, tightrope, dancing and music. Madanggeuk used to be presented in open-air arenas or found space such as marketplaces and
town squares. The word ‘madang’ is Korean for an open yard, and ‘geuk’ a play.
3
See Kim Kyun-Hyung (2000), for detailed accounts of political drama in the time as well as
critical analysis of specific plays.
4
See Jung Ji-Chang (1989), for the experimentation of Brechtian epic theatre on Korean stage
and its relations to the theatricality of madang-geuk in the 1980s.
5
Yeonwoo staged a series of Hwang’s problematic original works including Toeji Kum (A
Dream of Good Fortune), O’dum-u Chashikdul (Sons of the Darkness), and Changsa-u
Kum (A Dream of a Hercules).
131
Media in Asia: Teaching Asian Culture within an Australian Context.
Panizza Allmark
Edith Cowan University
Abstract
This article traces the pedagogical success of the unit Media in Asia taught at Edith Cowan
University, Australia, since the 1990s, as the part of the Media & Cultural Studies and Mass
Communications major. In unit evaluation reports since 2005 the unit has ranked higher in
student satisfaction than other units in the School of Communications and Arts and the faculty.
The article conveys the successful teaching strategies and student engagement with the unit, with
its emphasis on the role of international students in the class to breakdown prejudices and
misunderstandings concerning Asian culture. The article also traces the unit’s vital role in
reflecting wider Australian initiatives and University based policies on internationalisation.
Keywords: Asian media, Australia, university teaching, internationalisation
Australia’s close geographical positioning within the Asian region makes it integral for a
cultural understanding of its neighbours. This article explores strategies and pedagogical efforts
within the unit, Media in Asia, conducted at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Western Australia
to enhance and promote Asian society and culture, as part of the Mass Communications and
Media and Cultural Studies course. The article will explore some of the challenges and
highlights how aspects of Asian culture are transmitted through key media in Asia. In the unit
themes of diversity, religion, gender, politics and ‘Asian values’ are explored, as well as an
emphasis on comparative studies.
In the Media & Cultural Studies and Mass Communications stream at the School of
Communications and Arts, Edith Cowan University (ECU), Media in Asia is a compulsory unit,
with an enrolment of around 40 students per year. Whereas the other units of the undergraduate
course focus specifically on broader tenets of cultural studies, such as the significance and
theoretical emphasis of gender, environment, nationalism and globalization, Media in Asia
encompasses all these matters, in an interdisciplinary manner with a focus on developing a
critical awareness of the major issues facing contemporary Asia.
The unit also moves away from Ango/Eurocententric course materials, and encourages
student contribution. The following student comment relates to the point of the limited
international outlook within the overall course structure at ECU and how the unit material has
enriched cultural understanding. The student states, “I have never really learned anything about
132
Asian countries” before “therefore I have learned a lot of new things about Asia” in the unit
(Edith Cowan University, Unit Teaching Evaluation Instrument (UTEI) report, 2008). Media in
Asia became a core unit in 2006 and reflects a small shift from Edith Cowan University’s focus
on internatationalisation to “educating students to participate in, and contribute to, a global
society” (“Internationalisation: assessment and future directions” ECU report, 2005, p. 56).
The unit was initiated in the late 1990s and is credited to Professor Brian Shoesmith
1
whose interest and scholarly work concerns the Asian region and the media . He asserts that
around that time there were an increasing number of students from Asia and the unit offered a
forum in “speak with some authority whereas the Eurocentric model used widely in the course
tended to disempower them” (Shoesmith, 2009, personal email). Despite an initial lack of School
interest about the unit, Media in Asia, which reflected Shoesmith’s research-led material, has
become one of the most successfully rating units in student evaluations, in both the School and
Faculty.
Political Background
The introduction of the unit within the course also reflects wider Australian political
initiatives to “prioritise Asian languages and studies in the education system for the potential to
broaden Australia's conceptual framework about the region” (Henderson, 2003a, p. 22).
Henderson has identified a series of reports and policy papers have that have emphasised the
significance of developing Asia-literate Australians for our national interest (Henderson, 2003).
She states:
An example of this is the Asian Studies Council (1988), which argued in its National
Strategy that ‘the study of Asia should not be an elective’ and that ‘the proper study
of Asia and its languages is about national survival in an intensely competitive
world’ (p.2). A year later the Ingleson Report claimed that Asian studies was ‘the
obverse side of the coin to Australian studies’ and it was vital ‘that in teaching
about Asia and its languages we constantly seek ways of reiterating this to our own
society …’ (Ingleson, 1989, Vol. 1, p. 13). More recently, the Rudd Report claimed
1
Since 2005 the unit has been coordinated by Dr Panizza Allmark, course coordinator Mass
Communications and Media & Cultural Studies, School of Communications and Arts, Edith Cowan
University.
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that Australia required an ‘export culture’. This involved ‘the range of linguistic
and cultural competencies required by Australians to operate effectively at different
levels in their various dealings with the region – as individuals, organisations and
as a nation’ (Rudd 1994: ii). (Henderson, 2003b, p. 1)
Similarly, the Asian Studies Association of Australia report ‘Maximizing Australia’s
Asia Knowledge: Repositioning and Renewal of a National Asset’ (2002) highlights that skillful
planning and investment will be necessary to “make the most of the Asia-knowledge asset”, as
“many Australians have become ‘Asia Mobile’ in ideas and imagination – without really
thinking about it” (p.7). Also summarising the Ingleson Report (Asia in Australian Higher
Education) it highlights the challenges of tertiary education concerning Asia. Overall, the
Australian reports emphasise that knowledge about Asia is essential in a globalised world. The
UNESCO paper "Higher Education in a Globalized Society" (2003) has also identified
opportunities for support for the diversification and a generation of new academic environment
to promote a wider knowledge economy.
On a local level, the unit Media in Asia aims to produce an ECU graduate who “is
culturally sensitive, appreciates other cultures and demonstrates international and global
perspectives” (“Internationalisation: assessment and future directions” ECU report, 2005, p. 58).
The unit provides an overview of the media in Asia, paying attention to the economic, cultural
and political dimensions. Importantly, it is stressed that the term Asia is used as label of
convenience and covers a geographic, cultural, linguistic and economic diversity. It is
acknowledged that simply defining “Asian cultures and Asian values are problematic, nor can
they be capable of providing a cultural basis for East Asian regionalism” (He, 2004, p. 121). As
such, students are encouraged to examine definitions of Asia and what is means to be Asian and
in particular its relationship with Australia. Various media, such as film, television and music,
are analysed within a postcolonial context. Case studies are used and the students are encouraged
to actively contribute through guided, inquiry-based and reflective discussion. A comment from
a student relating to the unit that “The best aspect was the fact that it made me see Asia in a
different light” reflects the positive sentiments voiced, in teaching evaluation reports and
informal comments, towards the teaching and learning initiatives established over the past five
years (UTEI report, 2009).
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Teaching Strategies
A constructivist approach to teaching, which consists of “fitting new understanding and
knowledge into and with extending and supplanting, old understanding and knowledge”, is
undertaken (Fry, Kettridge & Marshall, 2009, p.10). In the initial lecture, students are asked to
consider a series of questions, such as what their concept of Asia is? Can they list the countries
of Asia? What level of interaction have they had with Asian culture? How do they define culture?
What does it mean to be Asian? Extracts from popular media, such as the Facebook quiz ‘How
Asian are you?’ and films such as Ghandi (1982), Slum Dog Millionaire (2008) and The Year of
Living Dangerously (1982) are also shown and students are asked to consider the concept of
Orientalism and are introduced to alternative perspectives and debates. Student have commented
that they “like the use of movies to reinforce key concepts of the course” and the “use of
contemporary examples that they could relate to” (UTEI report, 2007). The lectures and tutorials
attempt to building upon previous understandings and (mis)conceptions concerning Asia.
The learning outcomes consist of students being able to identify significant developments
in the Asian mediascape; analyse trends in media development in Asia; develop a critical
awareness of the major issues shaping the Asian mediascape; and assess the significance of
globalisation for the Asian media. Other significant issues such as censorship, press freedom, the
development of values through the media, propaganda and globalisation are also covered. At the
commencement of each lecture students need to contribute their news findings from topics of the
week from Asian media. As such, they are encouraged to actively engage and develop awareness
of reporting from Asian media. These findings are then briefly discussed and, thus, align with the
learning outcomes.
The unit now comprises of a one-hour lecture and a two-hour tutorial for twelve weeks.
This is a modification to the previous initial unit structure in which the lecture ran for a two
hours session. The shortening of the lecture time and the lengthening of the tutorial duration have
provided more time for class discussion and to encourage interactions between local and
international students. As previously highlighted, students are encouraged to actively contribute
through guided, inquiry-based and reflective discussion.
In particular, the emphasis on an inquiry-based discussion task, in which “learners are
further required to bring in information and issues from outside the textbook or classroom for
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discussion” enables the students from various parts of Asia to provide interesting insights
(Ngeow & Kong, 2003). Through their anecdotal recollections the Asian students provide a
valuable contribution in providing breadth and ‘real life’ experience to the unit content. A good
example of student involvement is in a module looking at the influence of the SARS epidemic
and media reporting, where a number of students have recounted their own experiences of the
crisis. Their anecdotal reports, such as the use of the mobile phone texting to receive and convey
information provided an alternative insight into communicative models, aside from the
mainstream media. Similarly, the module on tourism in Bali provides an opportunity for students
(both local and international) to share stories of cultural experiences. A comment from an
Indonesian student, “that Bali mainly caters for Western tourists”, is certainly pertinent cause for
reflection in considering the idea that, for many Australians, Bali is considered a ‘neighbourhood
playground’ (Lewis & de Masi, 2007; Higgins-Desbiolles, 2007). The opportunity for discussion
allows for cross-cultural exchange. This is particularly significant in the introductory module on
the debate concerning Asian values, which is highly politicized and contested (Wee, 1999; Chua
Beng Huat, 1998; Lee, 2007).
Student Assessments
The unit also requires students to complete a media profile of one country in Asia. This
gives the students an opportunity to investigate a country of their choosing in which they need to
report on the significance of the media, press freedoms and cultural impact. Acknowledging the
diversity between countries, students are also called upon to present their reports to the class.
This gives the opportunity for the entire class to gain some insight into a comparative analysis of
neighbouring countries. This initial exploration provides a starting point for more in depth
research into media and cultural impacts, and what it means to live in a globalised world.
Comments from students include: “As an Australian with limited travel experience it was cool to
study our neighbourhood, particularly enjoyed doing the media profile” and “The content is
interesting and gives you a want to learn more on the topic” (UTEI report, 2009).
Students are also required to present on tutorial topics and write accompanying blogs,
which consists of a short summary style essay on the topic of around 250-300 words. The unit
has also a final examination paper, which consists of short answer questions and an essay. The
approach of the assessments and unit structure follows a standard university assessment format
136
but also pursues White’s (1998) curriculum perspectives in Asian studies centred around human
values and culture, which should involves students in investigative research and is a model
which aims to facilitate informed attitude formation. The success of the unit has resulted in
positive Unit and Teaching Evaluation reports. Over the past five years, the unit and lecturer
have often scored a mean and student satisfaction rating of up to 22% higher than other units in
the School and Faculty (UTEI, Lecture report 2005). With up to 70% response rate, which is
much higher than the standard 45% of other units in the completion of the UTEI forms, the
positive student satisfaction suggests that the unit is successful in achieving its goals of
introducing, engaging and also encouraging research into Asian culture and the media.
Guest Teaching Staff
Maintaining a high quality of teaching has been an essential aim of the course coordinator.
Various students have commented that “she was a good listener and seemed to know what she
was talking about, i.e., drew on her experiences. She welcomed comments from students in
lectures. This broke it up a bit and made the concepts clearer and “She was very enthusiastic and
entertaining. Even in the less exciting parts of the course she managed to keep us all engaged.”
(UTEI report, 2007, 2006). Student engagement with the course material is a high priority to
maintain interest and to achieve learning outcomes. The encouragement and showcasing of
independent research is also a priority.
A number of students enrolled in the unit are also postgraduate students who intend to
undertake research projects in the area of Asian media and culture. The unit provides a sound
foundation in the consideration of research topics. The encouragement of further research into
the area is also facilitated by the quality of the lecture material and staff. Alongside the
coordinator of the unit’s research and background in cultural geography, guest lecturers who are
researching in the Asian context are utilised. Their research-led teaching provides a “close and
symbiotic relationship between research and teaching” which brings currency to the unit
(Robertson & Bond, 2001, p. 5). Their expertise in teaching and research engagement provides
varied perspectives to enhance the overall quality of learning experience.
Dr. CY Hoon, author of Chinese Identity in Post-Suharto Indonesia (2008), who
presented a lecture on popular media in Indonesia, is an example of the research-led guest
lecturers. His lecture which discussed the role of media in defining culture and disseminating
137
popular cultural products provided insights into the negotiation of conflicting values, such as
national identity versus global identity and the ubiquitous east versus west debate. His discussion
of Indonesian Idol, its localisation and hybridisation provided an accessible example of a
globalised media product. Similarly, his elaborations concerning Pan-Asian identity and the
intra-regional flow of cultural products provided further understandings of contemporary
considerations in regards to regionalism and cultural identity.
Dr. Jonathan James, the Honorary International Director of Asia Evangelistic Fellowship
International (AEFI) has also given lectures, tutorials and discussed his research concerning Tele
Evangelism in India, McDonaldisation, Masala McGospel and Om Economics (2010). His
expertise, based on his fieldwork on the Church and Hindu Community has provided students
with interesting insights into the influence of transnational televangelism in contemporary, urban
India. A student comment such as “he was encouraging and approachable, and was able to speak
from experience in some instances, so it was good to mix that with the more theoretical side
(which I love)” reflects his valuable contribution to the unit (UTEI report, 2009). Another guest
lecturer, Dr. Dean Chan, co-editor of Gaming Cultures and Place in Asia-Pacific (2009),
presented on his area of research concerning East Asian gaming. He presented a discussion of
intra-Asian cultural flows and the marketing of Asianness in online games. Chan citing from
Iwabuchi’s (2004) Introduction on Cultural Globalization and Asian Media Connections
highlighted that intra-Asian cultural flows newly highlight structural asymmetry and uneven
power relations in the region. This is a significant consideration in terms of regionalism and
cultural identity, in which for example it has been argued that “Asian values, rather than regional
universalism”, have been pushed (Katzenstein, 2000). Nevertheless, in the Chinese gaming
industry, for example, national identity has been heavily promoted in its characters, settings, and
narratives (Hearn & Willis, 2008). Considering aspects of national identity, globalisation,
regionalism and mainstream popular culture are themes that generate through the discourse of
Media in Asia.
The course also utilises research from current or past postgraduates. An example of this is
the outstanding ECU Master’s thesis by an Indonesian scholarship student Titik Rahayu, on
“DetEksi Newspaper Polls: The Representation and Commodification of Indonesian Teenagers'
Identity” (2009). The original research that examines discourses on the politics of representation,
contemporary Indonesian youth identity, post-Suharto Indonesian print media capitalism and
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precision journalism provides an interesting case study, which contributes to the research content
of Media in Asia.
Unit Success
The unit success can be contributed to the quality of the coordination and lecture staff.
Yet, what also contributes to the student satisfaction is the ability to engage with the material,
either by reflecting on personal experience or through discussion. One of the unit’s initial intent
to offer a forum in which international students “could speak with some authority” is certainly a
key attribute. Certainly, student comments such as “in the lecture we look at not only theory but
also case studies, and in tute we can discuss about the things related lecture. It really helped my
understanding in this unit.” And the best aspect was “interactivity and it was an interesting and
relevant unit” (UTEI report, 2007), seems to suggest that the level of student engagement and
satisfaction is high. Other student comments, which have been pervasive over the past five years,
state that “the encouragement given and willing to voice our opinions and experiences” was the
best aspect of the unit (UTEI report, 2007). The teaching design of the unit aimed to encourage
intercourse between local and international students also reflects Australian political initiatives
set up in the early 1950s. For example in 1952, Richard Casey, Australia’s Minister for External
Affairs, argued that “for Asian students to see Australia at an impressionable stage of their lives
and to exchange views at our universities and with our officials should do a great deal to break
down prejudices and misunderstandings on both sides” (cited in Oakman, 2002, p. 89). This view
is also shared, as previously discussed early in this paper, with subsequent numerous reports on
the emphasis of Asian studies in Australia. Nevertheless, teaching media in Asia within an
Australian context still poses some challenges in terms of gaining student interest. There has
been occasional resistance from the local students in having to undertake this unit as part of their
degree. This may be attributed, unfortunately, to the insularity of some Australian students who
2
are not convinced that there is a need for to study the subject area . To address these concern
various modifications to the unit to have been implemented. For example, more emphasis is
given to argue the case of the significance of the unit. This is achieved by drawing upon
2
An interesting point to note is that modules in the Media in Asia unit have been offered in 2007 and
2008 to consortiums of international students from Germany who have been eager to engage with studies
of the Asian region.
139
University initiatives for internationalization and wider Australian cultural politics of the
importance of the unit material to local students. Nonetheless, as previously discussed the unit
has been considerably successful in contributing to a wider understanding of the media in Asia,
and cultural exchange amongst students which, in turn, has the potential for ‘Maximising
Australia’s knowledge of Asia’ as well as empowering international Asian students in valuing
their contribution to the content and quality of the unit.
References
Attenborough, R. (Director). (1982). Gandhi. [Motion picture].
Boyle, D. (Director). (2008). Slumdog Millionaire. [Motion picture].
Chan, D., & Hjorth, L. (Eds.). (2009) Gaming cultures and place in Asia-Pacific. New York:
Routledge,
Chua Beng Huat. (1998). Asian values: Restraining the logic of capitalism. Social Semiotics, 8
(2/3), 215–226.
Edith Cowan University. (2005). Internationalisation: Assessment and future directions report.
Retrieved from http://www.ecu.edu.au/CLT//directorate/itl/index.html
Edith Cowan University. (2005, 2006, 2007, 2008 and 2009). Unit teaching evaluation
instrument (UTEI) reports ‘MST2150: Media in Asia’.
Fitzgerald, J., Jeffrey, R., Maclean, K., & Morris-Suzuki, T. (2002). Maximizing Australia's Asia
knowledge: Repositioning and renewal of a national asset. Canberra: Asian Studies
Association of Australia.
Fry, H., Kettridge, S., & Marshall, S. (2009). A handbook for teaching and learning in higher
education. London: Kogan Page.
He, B. (2004). East Asian ideas of regionalism: A normative critique. Australian Journal of
International Affairs, 58(1), 105–125.
Hearn, K., & Willlis, A. (2008) Lei Feng lives on in cyberspace ACM. International Conference
Proceedings of the 3rd International Conference on Digital Interactive Media in
Entertainment and Arts. Retrieved
from http://portal.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=1413634.1413682
Henderson, D. J. (2003a). Meeting the national interest through Asia-literacy – An overview of
the major stages and debates. Asian Studies Review, 27( 1), 23-53.
Henderson, D. J. (2003b). Future directions: Incorporating studies of Asia. In Discovering
democracy insite newsletter, pp. 1-2.
Higgins-Desbiolles, F. (2007). Hostile meeting grounds: Encounters between the wretched of the
earth and the tourist through tourism and terrorism in the 21st century. In P. M. Burns &
M. Novelli (Eds.), Tourism and politics: Global frameworks and local realities (pp. 309332). Oxford: Elsevier.
Hoon, C.Y. (2008). Chinese identity in post-Suharto Indonesia. Brighton, UK & Portland, USA:
Sussex Academic Press.
James, J. (2010). McDonaldisation, Masala McGospel and Om Economics: Televangelism in
contemporary India. Sage Publications.
Katzenstein, P. (2000). Regionalism and Asia. New Political Economy, 5(3), 353-368.
140
Lee, H. J. (2003). Development, crisis, and Asian values. East Asian Review, 15(2), 27-42. The
Institute for East Asian Studies.
Lewis, J., & de Masi, S. (2007). Unholy wars: Media representations of the first Bali bombings
and their aftermath. Media International Australia, Incorporating Culture & Policy, 122,
59-72. Retrieved December 13, 2009,
from http://search.informit.com.au/documentSummary;dn=897264451495991;res=IELH
SS
Ngeow, K., & Kong, Y.S. (2003). Learning through discussion: Designing tasks for critical
inquiry and reflective learning. The Clearinghouse on Reading, English, and
Communication Digest #185. Retrieved
from http://www.indiana.edu/~reading/ieo/digests/d185.html
Oakman, D. (2002). Young Asians in our homes: Columbo Plan students and White Australia.
Journal of Australian Studies, 72, 89-98.
Robertson, J., & Bond, C. (2001). Experience of the relation between teaching and research what
do academics value. Higher Education Research and Development Journal, 20(1), 5-19.
Wee, C. J. W. (1999). Asian values, Singapore, and the third way: Reworking individualism and
collectivism. Sojourn Journal of Social Issues in Southeast Asia, 14(2), 332–358.
Weir, P. (Director). (1982). The Year of Living Dangerously. [Motion picture].
White, M. (1998). Source curriculum perspectives, 18(1), 35-45. Imprint Canberra: Australian
Curriculum Studies Association.
141
Diaspora and Rebirth: Ethnic Revival, Cultural Reconstruction and Identity
Issues of the Sakizaya, Taiwan
Yih-Ju Su and Ying-Tang Wang
National Dong Hwa University
Abstract
This paper explores the generation and becoming of Sakizaya as a “new” ethnic group in Taiwan.
Before officially recognized as the thirteenth indigenous group, the ethnic name and identity of
the Sakizaya people were virtually non-existent. It has been shaped by historical processes and is
transforming into the future. Since the occurrence of Chialiwan battle (also known as
Takobowan battle) in 1878, the Sakizaya people have reduced in size with survivors and their
descendents disappearing into the Amis tribes for more than one hundred years. The fact of the
Sakizaya descendents initiated the campaign in 1990 not only shows that history has played an
important role in bringing about the Sakizaya people’s ethnic movement, but its current
becoming is also subject to several conditions. In the Sakizaya people’s ethnic movement,
culture reconstruction has proven to be the most effective mechanism in the marking of ethnicity.
Through the invention of traditions and historical memories, key actors in the initial stage of the
campaign have helped creating the Sakizaya people’s ethnicity. However, the effect of cultural
reconstruction is not totally due to exceptional cases of ethnic identification. Since the identity of
an ethnic group isn’t necessary the commitment of personal identity in the daily life, how can the
members of an ethnic group create their collective ethnicity? How can personal cognition of
ethnicity become the collective one? This paper argues that cultural reconstruction, especially
ritual performance, of the Palama ceremony, is a vital factor for them to create collective identity.
However, multiple and hybrid personal identities still exist. In the meantime, through the annual
ritual performance gradually transforms personal cognition of ethnicity into collective one. By
doing so, ethnicity always includes both, the outer collective character as well as the inner
individual cognition, and it is always under construction and reconstruction.
Keywords: Sakizaya people, diaspora, ethnic revival, cultural reconstruction, identity
Becoming an Ethnic Group
Before the Chialiwan Battle happened in 1878, the Sakizaya people were neighbors with
the Toroko people, Chialiwan people and Nanshih Ami people in the Hualien plains. Scholars
assumed that these different people all formed their own tribal group, each with more than 1,000
persons (Kang, 1999; Pan, 2008). Owing to this battle, the Sakizaya people have reduced in size
with survivors and their descendents disappearing into the Amis tribes for more than one
hundred years. Now that the Sakizaya people have succeeded in their name rectification
movement, becoming an ethnic group in 2007, the Sakizaya people have been re-recognized by
the world.
142
We would like use the Sakizaya example to discuss how groups of people become ethnic
groups. Here we emphasis that ethnic groups should, t be regarded as unalterable substances, we
must carefully inquire how the Sakizaya ethnic group was formed socially and historically. As
such, two issues are raised as follows: 1. Under which context can an ethnic group be built? 2.
Why after officially acknowledgement of their ethnic group, the Sakizaya identity still exist
problems to be struggling?
Appearance of Classification System of Taiwan Indigenous Ethnic Groups
It was not until the Japanese colonial era that a classification system of Taiwan
indigenous ethnic groups began to appear. Through in-depth investigations and in accordance
with customs, language, and appearance-based conditions, Japanese scholars started to classify
all Taiwan indigenous people. From when Taiwan was ceded to Japan in 1895 to the end of
World War II in 1945, and even Taiwan was returned to the government of the ROC, the
government still adopted the classification system created by Japanese scholars. According to
different methods of investigation, Japan scholars developed different classification systems. The
ROC Government adopted one of these systems called the nine indigenous ethnic groups
classification system. The nine indigenous ethnic groups were the Amis, Atayal, Bunun, Rukai,
Paiwan, Saisiyat, Tsou, Puyuma, and Yami, with no mention of the Sakizaya ethnic group.
Actually, the Sakizaya people have always been viewed as members of the Amis ethnic group.
From the point of view of Japanese scholar Ino Kanori, who was the first person introduced to
the classification of Western peoples, the Sakizaya and Amis were probably viewed as similar in
regard to customs or language. Another Japanese scholar, Mabuchi Toichi, divided all
classification systems into two categories: cultural and linguistic classification systems. He
pointed out that according to these two categories, two different classification systems are
evident. According to the distinctions habits and customs, there are nine indigenous ethnic
groups; according to linguistic distinctions, there are twelve groups (Su, 2009). Because the
Sakizaya and Amis differ greatly when it comes to language, we assume that these two kinds of
people were put together based on their similar customs in that time.
Even though the Sakizaya and Amis people have similar customs, it does not mean that
the Sakizaya people think that they are part of the same ethnic group as the Amis. In addition, as
the aforementioned Taiwan indigenous ethnic group classification system started in Japan
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colonial era, in accordance with specific conditions, Japanese scholars divided all the indigenous
people into nine or twelve ethnic groups. Obviously, this was a way to separate people from an
outsiders’ point of view. Lacking consideration of the daily life of insiders and actual interaction
between groups, this kind of external demarcation has been challenged, especially when Taiwan
experienced a wave of democratization and grass-roots movements during the 1980s. During that
period, indigenous people voiced for themselves and attempted to restore their dignity. Later,
when the Democratic Progressive Party became the ruling party in the year 2000, the
government supported the efforts of many kinds of indigenous movements. This greatly
stimulated the boom of the indigenous name rectification movement. We can say that Taiwanese
politics and society became more open after 1980s. Such conditions triggered the Sakizaya
descendants, Tiway‧Sayion, to initiate Sakizaya name rectification activities. After more than
ten years, the Sakizaya people gradually made their movement become reality, and were finally
recognized as being independent from the Amis in January, 2007.
The Road to Rebirth
How was the Sakizaya ethnic group reborn? Historical development shows there are three
different periods. The first period was up to 1878. When the Chialwan(Takobowan) battle ended,
the Sakizaya people fled to the neighboring Amis tribes. Due to most of the young and adult
males were killed in the battle, the survivals (mostly the elderly and children) fled to the Amis
tribe. The second period started in 1990, when Tiway‧Sayion held Sakizaya ancestor worship
activities for the first time. He spent a lot of time finding and visiting Sakizaya descents.
Meanwhile, he made great efforts to compile Sakizaya language and myths. Then, in June of
2003, Tiway‧Sayion gathered together with several Sakizaya leaders to discuss ethnic name
rectification issues. Unfortunately, he passed away three months later. His eldest son, Toko‧
Sayion, took over his role to the third period. The first step Toko took was to organize the
Sakizaya Development Association in 2004. As the association was built, their campaign was
officially launched as well. The third phase, dated from 2004 to 2007, was the most effective
period. Key strategies were used to continue the campaign.
1. Ethnic Revival and Favorable Conditions
Ethnic revival conditions include: 1. an open political and social environment for
indigenous name rectification. Since the DPP became the ruling party, from 2000 to 2004, three
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indigenous ethnic groups were established and two of them were in Hualien county—Kavalan
and Truku. These successful examples encouraged Sakizaya descents to start name rectification.
2. The central leadership of key actors. On the one hand, Toko planned and strictly monitored the
whole process of the rectification movement. On the other hand, Toko and his team visited
frequently Sakizaya descendents to seek support. These efforts gave the Sakizaya name
rectification movement clear steps and time schedules. Furthermore, based on rich official work
experience, Toko plays the role of a key person. not only he knew all administrative procedures
very well, but also he understood how to meet the requirements of the government
administration. Therefore, even though he faced some opposition, he still succeeded in getting
signatures more than 4000 for consent. In addition, he invited experts and scholars to write
assessment reports for the Sakizaya name rectification movement and solved variety of problems.
Under Toko’s leadership, over more than 10 years struggling for Sakizaya name rectification
finally completed all procedures and requirements.
2. Cultural Construction as the Main Strategy: Creation of the Fire God Ceremony
However, the result of the vote was unpredictable. One of the important question is, did
the Sakizaya people have the strong subjective will to be independent from the Amis and form a
new ethnic group? If they did, how could they prove it? In other words, could the Sakizaya
people translate their Sakizaya identity into objective matters? This was a key problem in the
Sakizaya name rectification movement. A few months before the committee vote, the team
decided to create a ceremony belonging to the Sakizaya—the Fire God Ceremony. This rite not
only successfully drew popular attention, the ceremony and clothing also created strong
symbolic meaning. We can say that through the Fire God Ceremony, the Sakizaya people
conveyed their highly subjective desire to become a new ethnic group. Why was the Fire God
Ceremony able to successfully unite the Sakizaya people and show their identity?
The Fire God Ceremony made a connection to the real historical battle. By doing so, the
vivid ceremony produced a new link to their ancestors. More importantly, this ceremony induced
a sense of ethnicity which could be seen clearly during the process of the ceremony. When the
straw figures of the chief and his wife placed on the top of tower was lit, many Sakizaya
participants crooned mournful songs and were moved to tears. This successful rite not only
gathered together more than one hundred Sakizaya people throughout the entire ceremony
program, but also gave them a chance to declare their subjectivity. It was also reinforcing their
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determination to fulfill the mission of name rectification. In short, the Fire God Ceremony was a
part of the name rectification campaign. Through the ritual performance, the Sakizaya people
distinguished from other groups concretely, particularly from the Amis.
Forming the Collective Consciousness - the Invention of Tradition
and Physical Performance and Exhibition
Besides the creation of Fire God Ceremony, they continued to build Sakizaya
consciousness. Why was it necessary to build Sakizaya consciousness? Since more than 100
years, the Sakizaya mingled with Amis people through marriage, they shared a lot of customs,
and language. Their cultural boundaries were blurred. Many Sakizaya people were confused
whether to become a member of the Sakizaya group or to remain Amis. In addition, the
Taiwanese government followed the classification and made indigenous administrative policy
accordingly. The indigenous language policy is an example of this phenomenon. Since
indigenous people can get extra points on many entrance exams by passing indigenous languages,
the language policy reinforces the classification system. People always choose the language they
are good at or familiar with, and the Amis language is more popular than Sakizaya. Hence, the
Sakizaya people speak the Amis language and share similar customs. In such a case, we are
curious how Sakizaya people produced their own ethnic consciousness. The answer is the Fire
God ceremony.
Through key actors narrating and performing history of ancestral blood and sweat to
defend the homeland in the Fire God ceremony every year, more and more outsiders want to
know who are Sakizaya are attracted. To evoke emotional identity of the Sakizaya people, the
ceremony creates moving and tragic atmosphere portraying the martial behavior of the Sakizaya
ancestors. In other words, those who have hybrid blood and are touched by the ceremony have a
higher possibility of turning their identity from Amis into Sakizaya. Of course, not all people
who have hybrid blood transfer their ethnic group consciousness in such a way. There are still
many people were taught to have Amis or Sakizaya identity through their family and other
intimate relations.
In addition, the Fire God ceremony strengthens a sense of history which is very different
from the contemporary “Amis Happy Harvest Festival Carnival.” There are still many Sakizaya
descendants related by blood or affinity to the Amis people, who stick to their Amis identity. By
doing so, those people were evoked to think about who are they and what are they. In fact, many
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people had heard about the Sakizaya people from their Amis elders. However, they gradually
forgot or did not care about their Sakizaya identity over time.
The key actors of the Sakizaya worked hard to promote the Fire God ceremony and
highlighted the brutal genocidal plot. They also focused on the brave defender role which
Sakizaya ancestors played in the historical event, thus, evoking some people’s sense of identity
to the Sakizaya group. In addition, the characters, procedures and performance all contribute to
the creation of a sense of Sakizaya we-groupness and further produce Sakizaya group
consciousness. This can be seen clearly from the amount of participants. Since the complicated
procedures of the Fire God ceremony, a lot of participants are required to perform it. As such,
Sakizaya ethnic group consciousness is quickly formed. Toko also frankly shared with us his
wish that the Fire God ceremony would be an annual rite and then gradually becomes Sakizaya’s
tradition. The definition of tradition to Toko is not necessarily referring to the past here it is
defined as an updated, invented and on going thing.
Hobsbawm believes the most important meaning of tradition is its invented character,
and the invented tradition is inevitably connected to the past (1992). According to Connerton
(1989), a set of rituals and physical performances are two key elements in the formation of
collective memory. These factors allow collective memory to pass through generations. The Fire
God ceremony of the Sakizaya provides a ritual along with physical performances or exhibitions.
In this way, a Sakizaya ethnic group consciousness emerged gradually.
Identity Dilemma
As the name rectification movement succeeded, the Fire God ceremony became the
Sakizaya’s well-known rite. This rite has been held for four successive years. Every year it
attracts a certain number of Sakizaya people to participate and thus is gradually developing
Sakizaya collective ethnic consciousness. However, this outcome did not attract people to
register as members of the Sakizaya ethnic group. According to official statistics by April 2009,
376 people registered their identity as Sakizaya. Considering the preliminary estimate of 10,000
people during the campaign period and the consent petitions for supporting Sakizaya name
rectification signed by more than 4,000 people, the fact that only 376 persons have registered as
having Sakizaya identity is difficult to believe (Su, 2009). Why people are unwilling to change
their identity to Sakizaya?
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In the field investigation, we found that a significant a number of people have Sakizaya
consciousness and express their Sakizaya identity, but when to make decision to change their
identity is full of various kinds of personal concerns. For example, some people consider how
much indigenous benefit they can get; others are interested in the indigenous election activity.
All of these factors depend on what identity they choose. Owing to the Amis is the largest
indigenous population in Taiwan and that many Amis persons who are already registered in the
election voting system, they may not be willing change their mind and support the Sakizaya
ethnic group, even though they may have partly Sakizaya origin. As the largest indigenous
population in Taiwan, the Amis occupy almost 1/3 of the total indigenous population. This is
why many people worry that for the new ethnic group may adversely affect their welfare. They
would rather wait and see when to change. This situation has become more obvious after the
success of Sakizaya name rectification.
All through the Fire God ceremony performance every year, a kind of collective Sakizaya
ethnicity is forming gradually. However, it cannot guarantee the individual choice of identity. In
other words, we cannot judge collective ethnicity only to observe the cumulative outcome of a
personal ethnic identity. People may have strong feelings for the Sakizaya, but they refrain from
joining the Sakizaya ethnic group based on personal reasons. We cannot rely on the outcome of
individual identity registration surveys to infer collective consciousness.
Conclusion
This paper explores the generation and becoming of Sakizaya as a “new” ethnic group in
Taiwan. It has been shaped by historical processes and is transforming into the future. Since the
occurrence of Chialiwan battle in 1878, the Sakizaya people have reduced in size with survivors
and their descendents disappearing into the Amis tribes for more than one hundred years. The
fact of the Sakizaya descendents initiated the campaign in 1990 not only shows that history has
played an important role in bringing about the Sakizaya people’s ethnic movement, but its
current becoming is also subject to several conditions. In the Sakizaya people’s ethnic movement,
culture reconstruction has proven to be the most effective mechanism in the marking of ethnicity.
Through the invention of traditions and historical memories, key actors in the initial stage of the
campaign have helped creating the Sakizaya people’s ethnicity. However, the effect of cultural
reconstruction is not totally due to exceptional cases of ethnic identification.
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Since the identity of an ethnic group isn’t necessary the commitment of personal identity
in the daily life, how can the members of an ethnic group create their collective ethnicity? How
can personal cognition of ethnicity become the collective one? This paper argues that cultural
reconstruction, especially ritual performance, of the Palama ceremony, is a vital factor for them
to create collective identity. However, multiple and hybrid personal identities still exist. In the
meantime, through the annual ritual performance gradually transforms personal cognition of
ethnicity into collective one. By doing so, ethnicity always includes both, the physical collective
character as well as the inner individual cognition, and it is always under construction and
reconstruction.
References
Connerton, P. (1989). How societies remember. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Hobsbawm, E. J. (1992). Introduction: Invented traditions. In E. Hobsbawm & T. Ranger (Eds.),
The invention of tradition. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Kang, P. D. (1999). Colonial encounter and imperial margin. Taiwan: Daw Shiang Press. (in
Chinese)
Pan, G. D. (2008). State, region, and ethnic groups (1874-1945). Taiwan: East Taiwan Press. (in
Chinese)
Su, Y. J. (2009). Becoming Sakizaya. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Taiwan. (in Chinese)
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Globalisation, Identity and Culture: Tribal Issues in India
P.S. Pratheep
Catholicate College (Mahatma Gandhi University)
Abstract
Impact of Globalisation, both theoretically and practically, can be observed in different economic,
social, cultural, political, finance, and technological dimensions of the world. Globalisation’s
impact has touched all political, cultural, economic and ideological dimensions. Asia, the land of
religions, culture, traditions and languages, now confronting a massive deterioration and
disappearance of their culture. The most disturbing element in the process of Globalisation is its
relentless drive towards cultural sameness or universalism. Tribals in India present a significant
degree of cultural and ethnic diversity. The tribes, who have been mainly confined to hills and
forests, have now sought their absorption into the regional and national mainstream. In many
ways, Globalisation destroys identities. Before the era of Globalisation, there existed local,
autonomous, distinct and well-defined, robust and culturally sustaining connections between
geographical place and cultural experience. Globalisation is not merely a question of
marginalization for indigenous peoples it is a multi-pronged attack on the very foundation of
their existence and livelihoods. New trade and investment agreements, has forced indigenous
peoples to defend their homelands under an invasion of unprecedented rate and scale. The new
economic regime has led to privatization and marketisation of economy and thus it as been
treated as powerful threat to the survival of tribal communities. Vast indigenous knowledge, rich
culture and traditions, and any hope of preserving the natural world, and a simpler, more holistic
way of life for future generations.
Keywords: globalisation, privatization, tribal identity, tribal culture, Dongria Tribe,
Jarawa Tribe, Chengara, Plachimada, Narmada
Introduction
Globalisation describes an ongoing process by which regional economies, societies, and
cultures have become integrated through a globe-spanning network of communication and
execution. The term is sometimes used to refer specifically to economic Globalisation: the
integration of national economies into the international economy through trade, foreign direct
investment, capital flows, migration, and the spread of technology (Bhagawati, 2004). However,
Globalisation is usually recognized as being driven by a combination of economic, technological,
socio-cultural, political, and biological factors. The term can also refer to the transnational
circulation of ideas, languages, or popular culture through acculturation.
Andre Gunder Frank, an economist associated with dependency theory argued that a form
of Globalisation has been in existence since the rise of trade links between Sumer and the Indus
Valley Civilization in the third millennium B.C. (Frank, 1998). Impact of Globalisation, both
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theoretically and practically, can be observed in different economic, social, cultural, political,
finance, and technological dimensions of the world. Globalisation is the process of rapid
integration of countries and happenings through greater network of connections and interconnections via trade. It also refers to increased possibilities for action between and among
people in situations where latitudinal and longitudinal location seems immaterial to the social
activity at hand as per the definition of social theorists. Globalisation is a three dimensional term,
encompassing political, economical and cultural aspects.
Identity and Culture
Globalisation can be defined as the increasing “interconnectedness of the world through
new systems of communication” (Sacks, 2003, p. 26), and affects all areas of life. This everincreasing capacity to communicate worldwide has resulted in the increasing domination of
American and European cultures, whose economics, and political institutions are most affluent
and powerful. This process has had profound effects on less powerful cultures. Development
planners seem uncomfortable with ethnic diversity because it challenges the homogenizing
tendency of economists to reduce populations to quantifiable groups. Globalisation is more than
just about economics. It is not only about the ratio of exports to Gross Domestic Product (GDP)
but also about culture, society, politics and people (Rangarajan, 2007, January 15).
Globalisation becomes a problem from the cultural identity perspective. In the global
economy, culture has almost become only a one-way operating manner of business cultural
goods and services produced by rich and powerful countries have invaded all of the world’s
markets, placing people and cultures in other countries, which are unable to complete, at a
disadvantage. These other countries have difficulties in presenting the cultural goods and
services, which they have produced to the world market and therefore are not able to stand up to
competition the natural result is that these countries are unable to enter the areas of influence
occupied by multinational companies of developed countries.
The most disturbing element in the process of Globalisation is its relentless drive towards
cultural universalism of American/European culture and associated ideological frameworks, and
its implied disregard and disrespect for cultural and language diversity. There are some 350
million indigenous people in more than 70 countries around the globe, speaking autochthonous
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languages, and who are marginalized and frequently denied basic human rights, including their
cultural rights.
Globalisation has led to democratization and identity politics in third world countries.
Political identity and cultural identity have become part and driving forces of democratization.
Third world societies like South Africa, Nigeria and India too have discovered that identity and
cultural dynamics are intrinsic forces. While global trends in economics and politics are
converging, cultural, religious and social differences seem to be widening. Globalisation and the
revolution in communications technology bring people together, but also cause fears about loss
of cultural identity. Simultaneously, literature, film, theatre, art, and dance productions often
create a sense of belonging to a specific national, regional or ethnic zone.
Under Globalisation there has been a great expansion of western culture. Accusations of
cultural imposition and domination have been widely heard. English language has emerged to a
predominant position of being the language of communication within and between global
organizations and institutions. It has become the transmission belt for western goods and services.
Globalisation involves extensive migrations of people both within and across states. The
communication networks make other cultures shape one’s way of life very intimately. They
strengthen the fabric of culture, which increasingly confronts tendencies for cultural domination.
Globalisation and Tribals in India
India is a land with many cultures, faiths, and ways of life, dress, food habits, traditions
and rituals, united like petals of one flower. Its political, economic and socio-cultural contexts
occur under conditions of a multi-structural whole. The national movement and the exposure to
the western culture mediated by the colonial rule made Indians very self-conscious of their
cultural identity. The anxieties about the impact of Globalisation and marketisation of economy,
media and information systems, the leisure and style of life etc, have today generated anxious
debate among the scholars, the people and political parties. Such policy has long been in the
making, but today the process of Globalisation and its impact on culture, both local and national,
give it a new urgency (Singh, 1994).
The word ‘tribe’ is generally used for a socially cohesive unit, associated with a territory,
the members of which regard them as politically autonomous. Different tribes have their own
cultures-dialects, life styles, social structures, rituals, values, etc., differing some what from those
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of the dominant non-tribal peasant social groups. The forest occupies a central position in tribal
culture and economy. The tribal way of life is very much dictated by the forest right from birth to
death. It is ironical that the poorest people of India are living in the areas of richest natural
resources. Historically, tribals have been pushed to corners owing to economic interests of
various dominant groups.
Colonisers have always considered tribal and indigenous people as a race to be conquered.
Individuals and groups who do not meet the racialised standard have their political and cultural
rights questions and sometimes violated. International indigenous organising activities
increasingly rely on similar beliefs about there being a global indigenous race that is
monolithically in opposition to technology and globalization. At risk is respect for the political
authority and distinct cultural practices of indigenous peoples. This realization of tribal and
indigenous peoples inhibits decolonization and political self-determination.
The scope of trade and market, which are accelerated by the process of Globalisation,
poses formidable cultural problems in both the developed and the developing societies. The
economic policy of India up to the 1980’s has been that of import-substitution and protectionism
in trade and market. The full momentum of the Globalisation of economy started from 1990’s
onwards but many checks and balances continue to persist. This historical change in policy has
impacts upon local cultures deeply in addition to having an overall cultural impact on the society.
The new changes have been noticed in the lifestyle, consumption pattern, production of cultural
objects and their circulation and usages, in the cultural ecology and habitat and the religious
practices, etc.
The impact of Globalisation on local culture and the changing role of the nation-state can
be examined by observing the particularities of the social and cultural patterns and their local,
national and transnational manifestations in India. These social and cultural realities have plural
character in terms of language, geography, ethnicity, religion and culture. With partial exception
of the tribal population, the caste system and its related kinship structures have shaped the profile
of the culture, economy and power structures within the local communities and regions. The new
institutional innovations that Globalisation may bring about in society are market, trade and
finance, communication and media, technology and science, migration and inter-cultural
transactions. In social structural terms, Globalisation is a historical process of transition from the
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agrarian-industrial, post-industrial and finally the stage of the information society (Dissanayake,
1988).
Indigenous people are on the cusp of the crisis in sustainable development. Their
communities are concrete examples of sustainable societies, historically evolved in diverse
ecosystems. Today, they face the challenges of extinction or survival and renewal in a globalised
world. The impact of globalization is strongest on these populations and they have no voice,
therefore, easily swept aside by the invisible hand of the market and its proponents.
Globalization is not merely a question of marginalization for indigenous peoples it is a multipronged attack on the very foundation of their existence and livelihoods.
Indian Constitution and Tribal Policy
The Indian Constitution, adopted soon after independence, defines the rights and
privileges of castes, minorities, tribal groups and the weaker sections of society. Subject to
legislation by Parliament, the power to declare any area as a ‘Scheduled Area’ is given to the
President [5th Schedule, paras. 6-7] and the President has made the Scheduled Area Order, 1950,
in pursuance of this power (Basu, 1992). The constitution provides for the appointment of a
Commission to report on the administration of the Scheduled areas and the welfare of the
Scheduled Tribes in the State (Basu, 1992).
The Scheduled Tribe’s (ST’s) constitute 8 percent of the total population of the country.
In 2001, their number was around 820 lakh persons. They can be divided into two categories: (1)
frontier tribes, and (2) non-frontier tribes. The former are inhabitants of the northeast frontier
states-Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Meghalaya, Manipur, Mizoram, Nagaland and Tripura. They
constitute 11 percent of the total tribal population. The non-frontier tribes, constituting 89
percent of the total population, are distributed among most of the States. They are concentrated
in large numbers in Madhya Pradesh (23 percent), Orissa (22 percent), Rajasthan (12 percent),
Bihar (8 percent), Gujarat (14 percent), Dagra Nagar Haveli (79 percent), and Lakshadeep
islands (94 percent) (Shah, 2004).
The tribal policy of the Government has consistently aimed at encouraging their
autonomous growth with protection to their local cultures. To protect their rights in land in and
forest resources, etc., the law prohibits outsiders from purchasing estates, which is their preserve.
There is an inner line protection policy pursued by the government, which protects tribals from
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intrusion by outsiders from other States or the foreigners. Constitutionally, they enjoy privileges
in running their own educational, cultural and social institutions. These measures have, however,
been less successful in maintaining the autonomy of the tribal local cultures. Here is evidence
that outside entrepreneurs, traders and influential people have succeeded in alienating the land
and natural resources meant for the tribals by surreptitious means. In spite of the protection given
to the tribal population by the Constitution of India (1950), educational standard, economic
status and political empowerment of the tribal communities still remained backward in India.
However, as the functioning of the democratic forces has become stronger, a resentful
local leadership has emerged among these communities sponsoring movements for either a
separate State, or political autonomy or even separation from the Union (Oommen, 1997).
Cultural modernization, sponsored by the forces of globalisation, is resented if it encroaches
upon or does not promote the core cultural values of society, its language, social practices and
styles of life. The vigour of the renewed sense of self-awareness generated among the members
of the local cultures and communities and regions in India, which have existed historically,
reinforce instead of threatening the national identity. These bonds seem to become stronger as
India encounters the forces of modernization and globalization.
Impact of Globalisation on Tribals
The tribals are a part of the Indian society and general problems of consciously changing
or modernising Indian society are applicable to them. Before independence, tribals enjoyed an
almost untrammeled control over forestland and its produce for their survival. Forest offered
fodder for their cattle, firewood to warm their hearths, and above all a vital source of day-to-day
sustenance. The wonderful equation between man and nature demolished after independence
with the encroachment of rapacious contractors on tribal land and the indiscriminate destruction
of forest in the name of development.
Tribals in India present a significant degree of cultural and ethnic diversity. They differ in
their socio-cultural levels as well as in their behaviour patterns Tribal situation in the country
poses peculiar problems of development, not encountered in other areas. The peculiarities can be
broadly summed up as geographical, demographic, socio-cultural and exploitative. Tribal
development indicates serious challenges to the policy makers, administrators and development
activists. The socio-economic forces of modernization and development have no doubt brought
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some benefits to the people of respective areas, but the benefits accrued to them have been
largely outweighted by the harm more to them. Development induced displacement, involuntary
migration and resettlement has cause marginalization of tribals and presented enormous
problems to them. The new economic regime has led to privatization and marketisation of
economy and thus it has been treated as powerful threat to the survival of tribal communities
(Singh, 2008).
According to one estimate, irrigation projects, mines, thermal power plants, wildlife
sanctuaries, industries, etc., between 1950 and 1990 in India, displaced 213 lakh persons. 85
percent of them are tribals (Fernandes & Paranjpe, 1997). The government is aware of (a) the
eroding resources base and socio-cultural heritage of tribal population through a combination of
development interventions, commercial interest, and lack of effective legal protection of tribal
and (b) the disruption of life and environment of tribal population owing to unimaginative,
insensitive package of relief.
Case Studies
1. A Tribe Faces Extinction
Several tribal groups spread over the Eastern Ghats across the southern and eastern
region of the Indian sub-continent. In Orissa, a tribal group named Dongria Kondh people who
inhabit the Niyamgiri Hills now faces extinction. According to the Census, there are only 7,952
surviving members of the Dongria, a sub-sect of the Kondh peoples, who have inhabited the
forests of eastern India for thousands of years. On one side sits the state and Central government
and the Indian subsidiary of Vedanta Resources Plc, a British mining corporation. They are
applying for permission to dig up the Niyamgiris-rich n bauxite, used in the manufacture of
aluminium-at the rate of three million tonnes a year and then pour them into a huge alumina
refinery, which has already been constructed at the foot of the hills (Foster, 2008, May 18). The
Dongria are the next casualities of the headlong rush for industrial development.
2. Jarawa Tribes
Jarawa tribals, an ethnic group in Andamans, also faced extinction due to various reasons.
An approximate number of Jarawa tribals were 500. Of these 260 were reported to have survived
the devastating tsunami by hanging on to the trees. According to the 2001 census figures, there
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were around 250 Jarawas inhabiting the middle-south Andaman Islands. These people are still
living in primitive stage of the society in isolation.
3. Chengara Land Struggle
During the last two years, Chengara in Kerala had become the symbol of a silent war for
land. Unlike in Singur or in Nandigram, it was not against eviction. Instead, it was the fight of
those who toiled in land, but never possessed any cultivable land, asserting their right to own
sustainable land in a society that professes equality and fraternity. The agitation at Chengara in
Pathanamthitta district had commenced on August 4, 2007, when 300 families from various parts
of the state belonging to Dalits, Adivasis and other landless communities converged on the
rubber estate owned by Harrison’s Malayalam Plantations Ltd and pitched up thatched sheds and
started living there. Their demand was five acres of land for cultivation and Rs 50,000 as
financial assistance per family. The demand was later reduced to one acre of land. After 790 days,
the struggle has been ‘settled’ at a discussion convened by the Chief Minister V S Achutanandan
with Laha Gopalan and others of the Sadhu Jana Vimochana Samyukta Vedi (SJVSV), which
spearheaded the agitation. 1432 families out of the 1738 families who had started living on the
rubber plantation of Harrison’s will get land and financial assistance to build houses, as part of
the settlement.
4. Fight for Water
The struggle for water in Plachimada, is another episode in Kerala, where The Coca-Cola
Company bottling plant has both drained and contaminated groundwater on which the local
farming community depends. Coca-Cola came to India in 1993, looking for water and markets in
a country where one third of all villages are without anything approaching adequate water and
shortages are growing every day. Indeed India is facing a gigantic water crisis, even as Coca
Cola and other companies haul free water to the cities from the countryside and water parks and
golf courses metastasize around cities like Mumbai. The bloom was on neo-liberalism back then
when Coca-Cola came in, with central and state authorities falling over themselves to lease, sell
or simply hand over India's national assets in the name of economic "reform".
Coca-Cola had sound reasons in zoning in on Plachimada. A rain-shadow region in the
heart of Kerala's water belt, it has large underground water deposits. The site Coca-Cola picked
was set between two large reservoirs and ten meters south of an irrigation canal. The ground
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water reserves had apparently showed up on satellite surveys done by the company's prospectors.
The Coke site is surrounded by colonies where several hundred poor people live in crowded
conditions, with an average holding of four-tenths of an acre. Virtually the sole source of
employment is wage labor, usually for no more than 100 to 120 days in the year. Within six
months, the villager’s mostly indigenous adivasis and dalits saw the level of their water drop
sharply, even run dry. The water they did draw was awful. It gave some people diarrhoea and
bouts of dizziness. To wash in it was to get skin rashes, a burning feel on the skin. It left their
hair greasy and sticky. The women found that rice and dal was not cooked but became hard. A
thousand families have been directly affected, and well water affected up to a three or four
kilometers from the plant. The cruel fact is that water from our underground sources is pumped
out free and sold to our people to make millions every day, at the same time destroying our
environment and damaging the health of our people. For us rivers, dams and water sources are
the property of the nation and her people.
5. Narmada People’s Struggle
Since 1985, the adivasis of the Narmada valley have been struggling against
displacement and destruction resulting from the Sardar Sarovar Project (SSP). Their united fight
reveals that not only the political and economic aspects of globalization, but also its intellectual
repression must be resisted. The people’s knowledge resulting in their land must not be ignored.
Particularly when government information is fraught with consistencies (Aravinda, 2000,
November 11). Living in the mountains and plains of the Narmada river valley, stretching for
1,300 km through Madhya Pradesh, Gujarat, and Maharashtra communities including tribal
people also known as adivasis have, since 1985, mounted a tenacious struggle against
displacement, state repression, and the destruction of natural resources resulting from the
Narmada Valley development projects. The projects comprise 30 large dams, 133 medium size
dams, and 3,000 small dams, along with 75,000 km of canal networks to direct the waters of the
Narmada River to wherever the state decrees (Sangvai, 2000). Sardar Sarovar takes up over 80%
of Gujarat's irrigation budget but has only 1.6% of cultivable land in Kutch, 9% of cultivable
land in Saurashtra and 20% cultivable land in North Gujarat in its command area. Moreover,
these areas are at the tail end of the command and would get water only after all the area along
the canal path get their share of the water, and that too after 2020 AD.
158
Conclusion
Culture is defined as patterns of human activity and the symbols that give these activities
significance. Globalisation, as a process, has far-reaching cultural potential in India.
Developmental strategies under the New Economic Policies led to a process of conscious and
systematic annihilation of culture and identity of the first people-the adivasis- of this country.
This process of globalization has invaded India since the introduction of New Liberalisation
Policy. The socio-cultural change among the tribal communities has no doubt empowered the
tribals; however, their cultural identity is under severe stress. However, it is not too late to rise
above the politics of exclusion and marginalization, to unearth and mainstream fast vanishing
tribal traditions, whether in India, or in African countries. Perhaps its time to amplify long
marginalized voices and awaken contemporary nation States to the realization that only through
the establishment of such democratic, reconciliatory, gender friendly grass root tribal traditions
could one create a more equitable, more just society and world order. The reality remaining that
without rapid action, these native communities may be wiped out, taking with them vast
indigenous knowledge, rich culture and traditions, and any hope of preserving the natural world,
and a simpler, more holistic way of life for future generations. Globalization does hold out great
promise if it managed properly. However, it will only work if the winners share with the losers.
References
Aravinda, L. S. (2000, November 11). Globalisation and Narmada People’s Struggle. Economic
and Political Weekly, 35(46), 4002-4005.
Basu, D. D. (1992). Introduction to the constitution of India. New Delhi: Prentice-Hall.
Bhagwati, J. (2004). In defense of globalisation. Oxford, New York: Oxford University Press.
Dissanayake, W. (1988). Communication, knowledge and a post-industrial society: The need for
values-centred approach. In Christian Academy (Ed.), World community in postindustrial society. Seoul: Wooseok Publishing.
Fernandes, W., & Paranjpe, V. (Eds.). (1997). Rehabilitation policy and law in India: A right to
livelihood, New Delhi: Indian Social Institute.
Foster, P. (2008, May 18). A tribe faces extinction. The Week.
Frank, A. G. (1998). Reorient: Global economy in the Asian age. U.C. Berkeley Press.
Oommen, T. K. (1997). Social movement and state response: The Indian situation. In A. M. Shah,
B. S. Baviskar, & E. A. Ramaswamy (Eds.), Social structure and change: Development
and ethnicity. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Rangarajan, C. (2007, January 15). Who’s afraid of gobalisaton? The Economic Times.
Sacks, J. (2003). The dignity of difference. New York: Continuum.
Sangvai, S. (2000). The river and life: People’s struggle in the Narmada Valley. Mumbai: Earth
Care Books.
159
Shah, G. (2004). Social movements in India. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Singh, A. K. (2008). Tribal development in India. New Delhi: Serial Publishers.
Singh, Y. (1994). Significance of culture in the understanding of social change in contemporary
India, Presidential Address. New Delhi: Indian Sociological Society.
160
Conceptualizing Asian Languages in Diaspora with Biliteracy:
Lessons Learned from Taiwan
Hugo Yu-Hsiu Lee
Indiana University Bloomington
Abstract
This study presents a broad overview of diaspora biliteracy developments in immigrant women
after examining observation data in one Taiwanese community. Methodologies include a mixture
of narrative inquiry with some ethnographic methods. Fifteen Asian women in diaspora, two
Burmese, one Cambodian, one Filipino, four Indonesians, three Thai and four Vietnamese, were
interviewed and observed in an immigrant community. Results of this study, with a primary
focus on five occurrences in the development of diasporic biliteracy, reached the following
conclusions. 1. L1-L1 Diasporic Continuum: Some diasporic women acquire one or two L1s, or
first languages, from childhood through young adulthood in their homelands and continue
utilizing these L1s after their migration to a host country. 2. L2-L1 Reversal-Biliterate
Enhancements: Mastery of L2 literacy becomes a foundation for facilitating acquisition of L1
literacy for immigrant women. 3. Imbalanced-Biliterate Reliance: Immigrant women can learn
two L2s in the host country simultaneously, but they prefer one, or rely on one, over the other. 4.
First L2 Effects: Immigrant women who received formal prestigious L2 literacy instruction first
and then acquired a local vernacular L2 in the home developed their formal literacy in a manner
superior to that of the local literacy. If they first acquired a local literacy and knew it for several
years before receiving formal L2 literacy instruction, their local literacy was superior to their
formal literacy. 5. Irreplaceable-Biliterate Transculturation: Some immigrants acquire biliteracy
while engaging in monolingual activities. They participate in L1 literacy activities during some
situations while practicing L2 literacy activities in others. Certain L1 literacy instances are not
replaceable by L2 literacy practices and vice versa.
Keywords: biliteracy, diaspora
Introduction
Language and literacy socialization, and second language acquisition for immigrants, can
in part be conceptualized on bases of diaspora biliteracy (DB) because it involves transnational
trajectories from homelands to host countries. Diaspora biliteracy (DB) does not apply to those
individuals who acquire biliteracy by learning a language not native to their countries of origin
while practicing learned L1 literacy in home countries. Diaspora biliteracy deals with patterns of
biliteracy developments and their effects among immigrants and transnational travelers in the
host country as consequences of migration. Diasporic biliterate learners (DBLs) are coined
referring to immigrants who are in ongoing progressions and backlashes toward conventional
and independent biliteracy. The rationale for exploring diaspora biliteracy (DB) is an apparent
absence of this kind of literature concerning adult DBLs among Taiwan’s immigrant woman
161
communities. Little research has been conducted on whether these immigrant women draw on
linguistic resources available for them to develop diaspora biliteracy (DB).
Methodologies
This work adopts narrative inquiry (Riessman, 2008) and continua of biliteracy
(Hornberger, 2003) as theoretical lens. Hornberger’s model is helpful to illuminate data from
macro-micro continuum, L1-L2 continuum, vernacular-formal continuum, and oral-literate
continuum, and fills in gaps in literature. This study pursues the following research question:
How do diaspora biliterate learners (DBLs) among Taiwan’s immigrant woman communities
manage developments of biliteracy? A research setting in this study is an immigrant woman
service center in Kaohsiung City, Taiwan. This site would provide naturally non-manipulated
circumstances and real-world conditions for qualitative study. Fifteen participants purposefully
selected for this study include two Burmese, one Cambodian, one Filipino, four Indonesians,
three Thais and four Vietnamese.
Table 1: Profiles of Participants
MP3# and
Interviewee
Pseudonyms
B1
Ethnicity of
Individual Female
Immigrant DBLs
Burmese
Age
2009
Dates of Interviews
Memberships and Titles in the Site
Near 30
May 5, 2009
Director of the Center
B2
Burmese
40-45
May 11, 2009
Junior Member
C1
Cambodian
25-30
May 21, 2009
Senior Member
F1
Filipino
25-30
May 26, 2009
Senior Full Member
I1
Indonesian
25-30
May 29, 2009
Junior Member
I2
Indonesian
Near 30
June 6, 2009
Senior Full Member
I3
Indonesian
25-30
June 11, 2009
Senior Full Member
I4
Indonesian
25-30
June 11, 2009
Senior Full Member
T1
Thai
40-45
June 13, 2009
Retired Member
T2
Thai
40-45
June 14, 2009
Junior Member
T3
Thai
30
June 18, 2009
Junior Member
V1
Vietnamese
25-30
June 20, 2009
Senior Full Member
V2
Vietnamese
20-25
June 21, 2009
Senior Full Member
V3
Vietnamese
60-65
June 23, 2009
V4
Vietnamese
25-30
June 25, 2009
Committee Member/ Boarder &
Chinese Literacy Teacher
Senior Full Member
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Data sources include fifteen digital-recorded interview transcripts from participants and
three transcripts of group interviews. Included as data sources are field-notes from observing
participants interacting with each other, and spontaneous conversations in the field-site.
A narrative approach to elicit digital-audio narratives in interviews is employed. A
narrative approach is grounded in socio-cultural theory in the broadest sense (Moen, 2006). A
narrative approach emphasizes individuals who attach meanings to personal socio-cultural
experiences through storytelling. Narratives capture both individual perspectives and larger
socio-cultural contexts regarding stories that are told. A narrative involves more than hearing
voices from participants in this study context. It also involves the sequential order participants
give to the events they describe. A narrative inquiry requires that the researcher enables
participants to talk, freely expressing views concerning developments of biliteracy.
Data analysis procedures are in a circular and recursive manner in this study. The first
stage is macro-level thematic analysis. Predefined categories that differentiate among concepts
and characteristics of data are recommended by Cain and Labov’s analytic strategies (cited in
Riessman, 2008) as data are broken down into smaller units to be classified.
Main Points (MP)
Turning Points (TP), i.e., Move to another country
Propositions (Prop), i.e., Fluency in L2 is the goal; Languages relate to identities.
Episodes, i.e., Establishing personal relationships
Events, i.e., Someone observes the class on the past Tuesday
The second stage is micro-level structure analysis. For this, Labov’s structure analysis
strategy and some Riessman’s adaptations from Labov’s are adopted to code data, looking for
structures that hang narrative texts together (Riessman, 2008).
AB
abstracts, concise synopses and points of narrative texts
CA
complicating actions that carry actions forward “are those things in a
narrative which creates problems for the ongoing trajectory of the main
character and were in need of resolution,” explicated by Barbara Dennis
(personal communication, November, 2008)
EV
evaluative commentaries made by participants, such as the importance,
163
meanings of events and significance behind certain socio-cultural
behaviors as well as narrator’s attitudes toward some certain topics and
issues
OR
orientations, background information, characters and settings, i.e., time,
places, conditions and participants
RE
resolutions for problems and tensions
Table 2: Quantitative Measures of Main Patterns and Unique Features
Top Two MacroLevel Themes
Relevance to
Categories of Diaspora
Biliteracy
Main
Patterns
4 Common
Sequences
Across 15
Participants:
4 Common Episodes
(#1)
L1-L1 Diasporic
Continuum
Imbalanced-Biliterate
Reliance
First L2 Effects
Irreplaceable-Biliterate
Transculturation
Irreplaceable-Biliterate
Transculturation
L2-L1 Reversal-Biliterate
Enhancements
√
Top Two
Micro-Level
Structures:
Components of How
Narratives
Structured
2 Complicating
Actions (CA)
(#1)
Relevance to
Categories of Diaspora
Biliteracy
Main
Patterns
Reliance
First L2 Effects
1 Evaluation (EV)
(#2)
Reliance
1 Common Event
(#2)
1 Unique Episode
Unique
Features
Numerical Evaluation
Frequencies Percentages
(N=15
Subjects)
7
47%
√
10
67%
√
√
6
12
40%
80%
√
12
80%
√
1
7%
Unique
Features
Frequencies
(N=15
Subjects)
Percentages
√
10
67%
√
6
40%
√
10
67%
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Results
Findings are to fill in gaps identified in literature. Findings are organized into five major
categories of diaspora biliteracy and are integrated in a dynamic relationship of continuum (see
Hornberger’s continua of biliteracy in Hornberger, 2003).
Table 3: Frequency of Five Salient Findings for DBLs and Immigrants
Categories
of DB
(N= 15)
Frequencies
Representatives
L1-L1
Diasporic
Continuum
L2-L1
RerversalBiliterate
Enhancements
ImbalancedBiliterate
Reliance
First L2
Effects
IrreplaceableBiliterate
Transculturation
(N=15)
7 (47 %)
(N=15)
1 (7 %)
(N=15)
10 (67 %)
(N=15)
6 (40 %)
(N=15)
12 (80 %)
B1, B2, I1, I2,
I3, T2, V3
I1
B1, B2, C1, I1,
I2,T1, T2, V1,
V2, V4
C1, I1, I2, T1,
V2, V4
F1, I1, I2, I3,
I4, T1, T2, T3,
V1, V2, V3, V4
With regard to five prominent findings, L1-L1 diasporic continuum means that native
languages and L1 literacy of immigrants are coincidentally official languages, formal literacy, or
national languages, or local vernacular dialects in host countries. Some immigrant women
acquire one or two L1s, or first languages, from childhood through young adulthood in their
homelands and continue utilizing these L1s after their migration to a host country. However,
employments of the same L1s before and after migration do not guarantee the same L1
experiences in the host country among DBLs. The differences lie, in part, in different language
and literacy socialization experiences between homeland and the host country. The intensity
required in adopting the same L1s might vary depending whether L1 is a foreign language, a
household language in the homeland, or a national or official language in the host country.
Continuing five major findings, L2-L1 reversal-biliterate enhancement means that
mastery of L2 literacy becomes a foundation for facilitating acquisition of L1 literacy for
immigrant women. L2 independent literacy competency has first been attained followed by
successive learning of L1 literacy at a later time. Some immigrant women did not receive
adequate L1 literacy instruction, thus they did not achieve L1 mastery in their homelands. Socioeconomical reasons ranging from growing up in war zones or coming from poor native families
before diaspora are the main causes for non-mastery of L1 literacy. However, formal L2 literacy
165
instruction will continue in the host country until they become independently literate in L2 skills
of speaking, listening, reading, and writing. Then success in L2 motivates them in acquiring L1
literacy in a successive manner.
In line with these five salient findings, imbalanced-biliterate reliance means that
immigrant women can learn two L2s in the host country simultaneously, but they prefer one, or
rely on one, over the other. Any imbalanced-biliterate reliance individuals might continue to read
their L1 texts in the host country while learning to read L2 texts, but their L1 reading ability
might be much better than their L2 ones even after living in the host country for several years.
Another type of imbalanced-biliterate reliance is that adult DBLs simultaneously learn two L2s
but, for some socio-economical reasons, they prefer to utilize one over the other or they rely on
one more heavily than the other (see explanations in first L2 effects above). While acquiring
biliteracy and a L2, some DBLs tend to rely on one particular language and literacy over others.
For instance, they might only use a L2 monolingual dictionary instead of L1-L2 bilingual
dictionary. Likewise, they might only listen to L1 folklore songs and read L1 religious scriptures
without involving any L2 languages and literacies. In rare cases they may only watch L2 TV
programs even though L1 TV programs are accessible. Almost all DBLs in this study sang
lullabies to their children in only L1s. Some only read L2 children’s books to their children at
bedtime. In comparison, others might want to read only L1 bedtime stories to their children (see
explanations in irreplaceable-biliterate transculturation below).
Within these five primary findings, irreplaceable-biliterate transculturation means
inexchangeability between certain L1 literacy practices and particular L2 literacy activities. This
study acknowledges that different languages and literacies function as multilayered
communications in multilingual settings. Each language and literacy serves different economical
and socio-cultural intensions. Some immigrants acquire biliteracy while engaging in
monolingual activities. They participate in L1 literacy activities during some situations while
practicing L2 literacy activities in others. Certain L1 literacy instances are not replaceable by L2
literacy practices. There are times when individual DBL cannot find an alternative language and
literacy to substitute for the ones they favor in certain literacy instances taking place in the host
country. They do not abandon all L1 literacy texts overnight during transculturation as
deculturation may suggest. Neither do they accept all L2 literacy prints overnight in
transculturation as enculturation might imply. In other words, their preferred L1s and L2s are not
166
interchangeable when it comes to certain daily literacy activities in diasporic L2 contexts. They
engage in L1 literacy instances on some occasions while practicing L2 literacy activities at other
times. Certain L1 literacy occurrences cannot be replaced by L2 literacy practices, and some L2
literacy activities cannot be replaced by L1 literacy activities. In other words, biliteracy activities
and monoliterate events in either L1 literacy or L2 literacy are practiced by immigrants in host
countries at the same time.
In summary, knowledge of daily interactions immigrants have with languages and
literacies is a prerequisite for multilingual-educational policy makers and bilingual or
multilingual education practitioners. This study contributes to our knowledge of diaspora
biliteracy among Asian immigrants.
References
Hornberger, N. H. (Eds.). (2003). Continua of biliteracy: An ecological framework for
educational policy, research, and practice in multilingual settings. Tonawanda, NY:
Multilingual Matters.
Moen, T. (2006). Reflections on the narrative research approach. International Journal of
Qualitative Methodology, 5(4), Article 5. Retrieved
from http://www.ualberta.ca/~iiqm/backissues/5_4/pdf/moen.pdf
Riessman, C. K. (2008). Narrative methods for the Human Sciences. Los Angeles: Sage.
.
167
Post-Method Pedagogy and Thai EFL Teachers:
Opportunities and Challenges
Saksit Saengboon
National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA)
Abstract
Thai EFL teachers, like their counterparts around the globe, have been searching for a teaching
method that will yield the most optimal learning outcomes. Therefore, it is no surprise that the
majority of them will not hesitate to receive any teaching “innovation” whose originators purport
to work wonders—be it Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and its many realizations e.g.,
Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT). In this presentation and following the post method
dictum, I argue that Thai EFL teachers should strive for “local wisdom” that will more
realistically enable them to come to grips with teaching opportunities and challenges that they
encounter on a daily basis. Specifically, I will delineate strategies that should allow both the
teacher and students to realize their potential to learn English successfully, bearing in mind that
optimism as well as options, notably those self-initiated ones, should reign supreme.
Keywords: post-method pedagogy; CLT; Thai EFL teachers
Introduction
Thai EFL teachers at all levels of education, like their counterparts around the globe,
have shouldered great responsibility in their attempts to teach English only to be confronted with
the stark reality that most of their students fail to “learn.” This situation has prompted many of
them to look for ways to help their students. Among the myriad factors, they believe that
teaching method, if and when judiciously applied, should be the final answer. Again, they have
been wrong for those students still cannot use English as effectively as they should.
Post-method pedagogy, as proposed by Kumaravadivelu (1994b, 2001, 2003b, & 2006)
emerged as a response to a call for the most optimal way of teaching English that will free itself
from the method-based stranglehold. According to Kumaravadivelu (2006), the nuts and bolts of
post-method pedagogy are concerned with teacher autonomy. It is an effort to liberate teachers
from being restricted in their choices of teaching methods. Previously, teachers are usually the
consumers of theory and knowledge generated by theorists such as linguists, applied linguists
and psychologists. This is problematic because what transpires in a typical English classroom is,
more often than not, dictated by the teaching methods as suggested by those theorists. For
instance, the grammar-translation and audiolingual methods, which focus almost exclusively on
the language system rather than student learning, provide teachers with rigid sets of steps to
follow in teaching activities. This rigidity has resulted in the incomplete learning on the part of
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the students, thereby generating a series of complaints from all parties concerned—be they
teachers, parents, students, and school administrators—that most Thai students cannot use
English despite years of formal schooling.
Owing to their inability to make students competent users of English, the grammartranslation and audiolingual methods were vigorously disparaged and eventually replaced by
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). The years that marked the milestone of this “soft
revolution” were the 1980s when language teaching experts (e.g., Nunan, 1987; Richards &
Rodgers, 1982, 1986; Savignon, 1983, to name a few) began to decry the much-practiced
grammar-translation and audiolingual methods, and suggested that a new (and presumably better)
teaching method was found. It’s CLT.
According to the principal tenets of CLT, second language (L2) learners and their
teachers are given opportunity to learn how to use language. This suggests that CLT is not a
method but an approach or a set of guidelines about what to do and not to do in an L2 classroom.
On the surface, CLT is almost identical with the post-method pedagogy because it appears to
give much leeway for all parties concerned to “use” the L2. However, being a brainchild of
Western scholars and created out of real L2 context, CLT has over the past two decades been
subject to much criticism because it has been unable to lend itself to “local conditions.”
Moreover, CLT itself cannot escape from the stranglehold of the “method” grip. This is so
because it does not succeed in addressing diverse “local” teaching conditions. As Dornyei (2009)
aptly puts it:
The teaching of foreign languages is a massive worldwide enterprise with a great
deal of diversity. Countries, regions, school types, and target languages display
immense variation in the actual process of what goes on in the language classroom,
and in the light of this heterogeneity it is questionable whether we can talk about
any uniform trends, approaches, or methods to characterize the teaching practice of
certain periods. A good example is communicative language teaching (CLT); even
though, … most language teachers today claim to follow a communicative
approach, genuinely communicative classroom still seem to be in the minority. This
indicates that even when the majority of the teaching profession accepts, in theory,
the importance of a methodological development, it may be little more than mere
lip-service in view of the actual practice on the ground (p.272).
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Realizing that a leaning towards the best method amounts to nothing, some applied
linguists (e.g., Kumaravadivelu, 2006) have proposed that it is high time for us to break free
from the method concept and look beyond the horizon. There emerged post-method pedagogy.
Post-Method Pedagogy: What’s in store for us all?
As briefly mentioned above and as put forth by Kumaravadivelu, 2006, post-method
pedagogy has the following attributes:
•
The Parameter of Particularity
•
The Parameter of Practicality
•
The Parameter of Possibility
As far as the parameter of particularity is concerned, post-method pedagogy emphasizes
the key aspect of local context or what Kumaravadivelu calls “situational understanding” (p.
171). Operating within this parameter, L2 policy makers and administrators will heed local
contingencies and, most probably, make do with whatever is amenable to teaching effectiveness.
It is a bottom-up sort of approach to the arrangement of L2 teaching and learning.
Concerning the parameter of practicality, post-method pedagogy suggests that, rather
than being overly concerned about what outside experts have to say regarding teaching efficacy,
local teachers should begin to look for ways that will help them teach and their students learn
successfully. They are not supposed to follow in the footsteps of any teaching “gurus”. In the
words of Kumaravadivelu:
[t]he parameter of practicality, then, focuses on teachers’ reflection and action,
which are also based on their insights and intuition. Through prior and ongoing
experience with learning and teaching, teachers gather an unexplained and
sometimes explainable awareness of what constitutes good teaching (p.173).
As for the parameter of possibility, post-method pedagogy considers L2 teaching and
learning not as absorbing new linguistic and cultural knowledge but as a site of struggling
between the old and new identities for teachers and learners alike. That is to say, L2 teaching is
seen more as a tool to help learners come to grips with their own identity and as a vehicle to
explore other peoples and cultures. This parameter of possibility enables L2 learners to adopt a
critical mindset towards their L2 learning experiences. In other words, an L2 they are attempting
to acquire will be not just a new linguistic experience but, more importantly, a new lens through
170
which to appreciate the world out there and the world inside, hence the global and local
becoming part and parcel of the whole L2 experience.
It should be noted that subsumed under the three aforementioned parameters are the roles
of context, which is not only pre-exiting and external to the learner but, as Larsen-Freeman and
Cameron (2008) point out through the complexity theory, “…is not a stable background variable
outside the individual…humans shape their own context” (p. 7). Because context, however
conceptualized, cannot be considered complete without the learner and teacher, a topic that I turn
to next.
The Post-Method Learner and Teacher
Any discussion of a teaching method would be remiss if it were not to include the roles of
teacher and learner. The post-method pedagogy sees the teacher’s role as having autonomy in
their daily teaching performances. What we need to reconsider is the very term “teacher
autonomy.” As Kumaravadivelu (2006) puts it, teacher autonomy has to do with the challenge
that L2 teachers will no longer need to be unduly concerned whether their teaching practices are
in congruence with what outside “experts” prescribe. Rather, they will be given autonomy to rely
on their experiences as L2 learners and teachers in deciding teaching and learning activities.
While this may not necessarily be a “laissez-faire approach,” it nevertheless encourages criticalmindedness on the part of the teachers.
In order to instill critical-mindedness in the post-method teacher, one area that needs
serious scrutiny is professional development of the incumbent teacher. According to Hussain
(2009), “[P]rofessional development of teachers is believed to be one of the most powerful
strategies for bringing about the magnitude of changes needed to address the most pressing
challenges confronting public education…” (p. 105). Following the dictum of the post-method
pedagogy, such a professional development has to be ongoing, for “…a one-shot, one-size-fitsall event…” (p.105) will not suffice to transform the teacher into a post-method teacher.
Certainly, such a professional development entails concerted efforts from all stake holders.
As far as the learner’s role is concerned, post-method pedagogy takes as its utmost duty
to turn the L2 learner into an autonomous learner who takes charge of his/her own learning. This
entails such key factors as learning strategies and styles as well as learning opportunity. That is,
the learner will have to be more risk-takers, experimenting with learning strategies and seeking
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opportunity to use the L2 under study. In essence, post-method pedagogy seeks to inculcate in
the learner self-awareness and self-critique. In this respect, we can see that the learner will not be
forced to “get it right from the beginning” (Willis & Willis, 2007) as is common in any methodbased teaching practices, especially the grammar-translation and audiolingual methods. In other
words, the learner will turn him/herself into an explorer, venturing into a linguistic jungle.
However dangerous the jungle might appear, the post-method learner will not be left to explore
alone, for the teacher will still serve as a facilitator. As is implied in the aforementioned
description, the post-method learner will be invited to re-think the goals of L2 learning. As put
forth by Baker (2008), who critically examined ELT in Thailand, the Thai EFL learner should be
taught English in ways that will enable them, through the medium of English, to “…explore Thai
culture; explore language learning materials, explore the traditional media and arts; explore
IT/electronic media, and contact with people from other cultures…” (p. 142).
The Post-Method Pedagogy and Grammar Instruction
It goes without saying that grammar teaching has always been a contentious issue. With
the advent of communicative language teaching (CLT), applied linguists and classroom teachers
alike have argued either for or against the role of grammar instruction in an ESL/EFL classroom.
Notwithstanding the debate, the role of grammar has for the past decade been revived, although
disguised in a new label. The “focus-on-form” movement (Doughty & Williams, 1998) attests to
the fact that the learner needs something to hold on to in learning an L2. Focus on form
emphasizes the teaching and learning of grammar in context, whereby forms, functions and
meanings are properly intertwined. Interestingly enough, the post-method pedagogy, which does
not put any premiums on one single best teaching method, appropriately embraces the focus-onform practices. In attempting to teach grammar, the post-method teacher has a range of options
from giving explicit explanations to certain problematic areas to immersing the learner with
contextualized instruction. Whether to explicitly teach or provide guidance depends, in large part,
on the overall purpose of teaching.
The Post-Method Pedagogy and Culture Teaching
What has long been a cultural conundrum and, presumably, a cultural imperialism will
now cede to cultural heterogeneity in L2 teaching. This could be made possible because the post-
172
method pedagogy has as its ultimate goal the fostering of critical stance on the part of the learner.
The very construct “culture” in an L2 class will be re-conceptualized to accommodate the
variegated dimensions of culture in the L2. The post-method learner will be introduced to all
ranges of culture possible, including the so-called “mainstream” Anglo culture as well as their
very own cultures seen through English. The conduit metaphor of L2 teaching is dying out in the
era of post-method pedagogy only to be supplanted by the transformative experiences for both
the teacher and learner. From the post-method pedagogy’s point of view, culture that comes with
the L2 being learned and the learner’s own culture will mesh, for the teacher and learner will
need to rethink what it means to learn culture in an L2 classroom. Whereas the traditional
methods of teaching (e.g., grammar-translation, audiolingualism or even communicative
language teaching) prescribe and somehow glorify the target language culture, the post-method
pedagogy views culture teaching and learning as a site of contest, in which the learner must be
wary in trying to appropriate any strands of it. The learner will truly have to become his/her own
strategist, manager, or conductor in learning the L2.
A second language that is being learned will eventually turn into the learner’s own
language in the sense that the L2 is no longer seen as external to the learner as traditionally
construed in the second language acquisition (SLA) literature. The learner will appropriate their
L2, hence blurring the false line between a native versus a foreign language. For the learner will
consider English or any other L2 attempted as belonging to him/herself as well. This poses a real
challenge. It will mean that the notion of being a native or a non-native speaker of an L2 is being
contested. Indeed, culture in the L2 classroom needs rethinking, culture becoming more and
more a public sphere. This also resonates with the World Englishes trend, whereby English is
construed as being in the plural, Englishes.
Practical Strategies for the Post-method Teacher and Learner
Based on the discussion concerning the three key attributes of post-method pedagogy and
the roles of post-method teachers and learners, instructional strategies that are needed should, in
my opinion, be as follows:
•
The teacher and learner will collaborate on designing lessons to be taught and
learned.
•
173
Such collaboration will include not only linguistic features to be studied but also
socio-cultural components that they deem appropriate and relevant to their needs.
•
Classroom activities will encourage both focus on form (contextualized grammar
teaching) and focus on forms (grammar in isolation), especially when the latter is
in need.
•
As a corollary to the previous statement, the use of target language (L2) and the
learner’s first language (L1) will alternate on an as-needed basis.
•
The Use of task-based or task-supported language teaching will be provided on an
as-needed basis.
•
Being empowered, the teacher and learner will be prepared to adjust midstream if
and when things do not go as planned.
•
The act of teaching is looked upon as dynamic, suggesting that change is the name
of the game.
•
The act of learning is looked upon as experiential, suggesting that hands-on
experiences with the language use cannot be avoided.
•
When it comes to language testing, the post-method teacher and learner are
encouraged to experiment with various formats and language contents without
being restricted to any monolithic formats.
Conclusion
Given the aforementioned discussion, suffice it to argue that the post-method pedagogy is
a liberating framework, one that allows all parties concerned to make their own decisions about
teaching efficacy. It is an educational innovation in favor of the label “critical.” Although it
attempts to liberate the teacher and learner from traditional methods of teaching, it should be
applied with caution. This is because, like any innovation, it has both pros and cons, depending
on various factors, linguistic and non-linguistic alike. In my opinion, what makes the postmethod pedagogy a challenge and an opportunity is the fact that it does not prescribe monolithic
procedures about what to do in a classroom, it being on the verge of becoming a free-floating
entity. Therefore, it is incumbent upon each individual teacher and learner to make judicious
decisions to turn the attendant challenges into practical opportunities.
174
References
Baker, W. (2008). A critical examination of ELT in Thailand: The role of cultural awareness.
RELC Journal, 39(1), 131-146.
Dornyei, Z. (2009). The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Doughty, C., & Williams, J. (1998). Focus on form in classroom second language acquisition.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Hussain, N. (2009). Transforming professional development with changing times. In S. Mansoor,
A. Sikandar, N. Hussain & N. M. Ahsan (Eds.), Emerging issues in TEFL: Challenges for
Asia (pp. 105-127). Karachi: Oxford University Press.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (1994). The postmethod condition: (E)merging strategies for second/foreign
language teaching. TESOL Quarterly, 28, 177-180.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2001). Toward a postmethod pedagogy. TESOL Quarterly, 35, 537-560.
Kumaravadivelu, B (2003). A postmethod perspective on English language teaching. World
Englishes, 22, 539-550.
Kumaravadivelu, B. (2006). Understanding language teaching: From method to postmethod.
Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Larsen-Freeman, D., & Cameron, L. (2008). Complex systems and applied linguistics. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Nunan, D. (1987). Communicative language teaching: Making it work. ELT Journal, 41, 136145.
Richards, J., & Rodgers, T. (1982). Method: Approach, design, procedure. TESOL Quarterly, 16,
153-168.
Savignon, S. (1983). Communicative competence: Theory and classroom practice. Reading, MA:
Addison-Wesley.
Willis, D., & Willis, J. (2007). Doing task-based teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Bio-data
Saksit Saengboon is an assistant professor of English, School of Language and
Communication, National Institute of Development Administration (NIDA) in Bangkok,
Thailand. His research interests lie in Second Language Acquisition and Teacher Education. He
can be reached at [email protected].
175
Comparative Approaches to Teaching English as a Second Language in the
United States and English as a Foreign Language in Thailand
Kirati Khuvasanond
University of Kansas
Tatiana I. Sildus, David P. Hurford, and Richard P. Lipka
Pittsburg State University
Abstract
The study examined the strategies that American and Thai teachers commonly use in teaching
vocabulary to English as a Second Language (ESL) and English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
students. The study, conducted with 7 ESL teachers in the United States, 16 EFL teachers in
Thailand, 34 ESL students in the U.S., and 52 EFL students in Thailand, took the form of an
interview for teachers and a survey for students. Teachers in the US and Thailand were asked to
identify the types of strategies that were being used. In addition, the teachers in the study were
asked about the frequency of use of teaching strategies for vocabulary and the types of common
mistakes made by their students. Students in both countries were also asked about teaching
strategies and their own mistakes. To determine the effectiveness of various strategies that were
used to teach English, a vocabulary test was given to students in which they were asked to
produce synonyms and antonyms for common words. The Hotelling’s T2 and MANOVA
indicated that active learning strategies (speaking strategies) were used more than passive
learning strategies (listening strategies) in ESL classrooms in the United States. EFL classrooms
in Thailand used a different approach, which showed their preference in utilizing recognition and
listening learning strategies more. The results of the students’ vocabulary tests also indicated
significant differences across nationalities. The study provides suggestions and recommendations
for educators on improving English vocabulary learning of their students.
Keywords: active learning, passive learning, ESL/EFL, strategy, vocabulary
Comparative Approaches to Teaching ESOL in the United States and Thailand
A hallmark of effective strategies for teaching English as a Second Language (ESL) and
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) involves assisting students to comprehend and
communicate using the appropriate function of words (Gallo-Crail & Zerwekh, 2002). Such
strategies include cooperative learning (Hansen, 2006) and games (Nguyen & Khuat, 2003).
Involvement in conversation and activities in class also helps English learners acquire new
vocabulary (Collins, 2005). Many of the strategies used to teach ESL students in the United
States are different from the strategies used to teach EFL students in Thailand. For example,
games, storytelling, and role playing (Vaughn, Mathes, Linan-Thompson & Francis, 2005) are
included in the American classroom, while vocabulary lists and spelling tests are mostly used in
the Thai classroom (Maskhao, 2002).
176
Currently, Thai students who study EFL are faced with the problem of acquiring applied
vocabulary. Gu (2003) found that one of the first problems a foreign language learner encounters
is how to commit a large number of foreign words to memory. Students in Thailand are taught
vocabulary by repeating words spoken by their teachers and memorizing the word’s spelling and
meaning, which are passive learning strategies. Students do not have the opportunity to apply
their vocabulary in real-life situations, that is, through active learning strategies. Teachers in
Asian countries generally require students to memorize a large corpus of words for vocabulary
tests, but the majority of the words are forgotten within a relatively short time. As a result, this
strategy does not seem to result in effective learning in terms of application and long term
retention, (Idoine – Shirai, 2007; Wei, 2007).
Asian students may view vocabulary as a list of new words that they must associate with
their native language meaning without any real practice that involves a context. This strategy can
inhibit the learning of correct word meanings (Huyen & Nga, 2003). Moreover, dictionaries
provide abstract and difficult definitions for ESL/EFL students. This leaves students guessing the
meaning of the word and/or its use (Taylor, 2004). Passive learning strategies to teach
vocabulary may not be sufficient to teach vocabulary to students. Nonkukhetkhong, Baldauf Jr.
and Moni (2006), and Wiriyachitra (2002) argued that the traditional Thai education system,
which focuses on passive strategies, requires that students must “wait” for knowledge. Manchak
and Manchak (2006) indicated that this may be one of the reasons why only half of Thai students’
English proficiency scores meet the entrance criteria into English-speaking universities.
Barcroft (2004) strongly argued that instructional activities must increase the number of
activities used in the classroom so that students can successfully acquire word form, meaning,
and specific word usage. Kojic-Sabo and Lightbown (1999) discovered that a frequent and
elaborate strategy usage was associated with a higher level of achievement in vocabulary
learning. For example, video projects in which teams of students plan, prepare, and perform on
videotape in specific conversation situations using target vocabulary were instrumental in the
process of learning vocabulary (Sildus, 2006). Vocabulary parades of students dressed up and
illustrate a particular word are enjoyable activities that increase word knowledge (Frasier, 2000).
Many researchers argue that engaging children in wordplay activities and replacing overused
words with new words that have different and varying meanings is crucial in boosting students’
vocabulary growth (Duke & Moses, 2003; Feldman & Kinsella, 2004; Wilcox, Murphy, Bacon,
177
& Thomas, 2001). These strategies have a common element: they actively engage and involve
students.
The objective of the present study was to determine what strategies were the most useful
in developing vocabulary when learning a second language. Of particular interest was comparing
and contrasting the strategies of teaching English vocabulary that were used by teachers in the
United States and Thailand.
Method
Participants
The survey questions for ESL/EFL teachers and students in the United States and
Thailand were administrated to 7 ESL teachers in the United States (all were female) and 16 EFL
teachers in Thailand (4 male teachers and 12 female teachers). The American teachers had an
average of 9.7 years teaching experience (ranged from 2 to 20 years) and had an average of 8.7
students in their classrooms. The Thai teachers had an average of 16.8 years teaching experience
(ranged from 8 months to 22 years) and had an average of 42.9 students in their classrooms. All
of the students who participated were either in the 7th or 8th grades; 34 EFL students in the
United States (19 male students and 15 female students) and 52 ESL students in Thailand (29
male students and 23 female students).
Measures
Appendices A and B include selected information from the questionnaires used to
interview ESL/EFL teachers and students in the United States and Thailand. The questions were
designed to determine what strategies and activities were employed in the various classrooms.
The interview questions for the teachers focused on the strategies used to teach vocabulary. The
response format for these questions involved a 10-point Likert Scale. The student survey focused
on the way ESL/EFL students learned vocabulary in their classes. The students also completed a
short vocabulary test involving generating synonyms and antonyms of high frequency words.
Procedure
ESL/EFL students completed the surveys during class time. The survey of EFL students
in Thailand was administered by a representative, who held a Bachelor’s degree in Education,
but had no direct authority over the students surveyed. ESL/EFL teachers in the United States
178
were interviewed individually in person. EFL teachers in Thailand were interviewed individually
by telephone.
Results and Discussion
Qualitative Analysis
The major themes discovered as a function of evaluating teacher surveys included: 1.
Thai teachers felt that they used pictures to assist their students to learn vocabulary while
American teachers used activities that helped the students to discover the function of vocabulary.
2. American teachers indicated that they used computers and the Internet to teach vocabulary to
their students. 3. American teachers required their students to speak to each other during
classroom lessons, and 4. Both American and Thai teachers were aware that Asian students were
more likely to be shy, inhibited and fearful of making mistakes when they spoke. As a result,
many Asian students were less likely to fully engage in activities that required them to learn
vocabulary through speaking and interacting with classmates and the instructor.
Both American and Thai teachers indicated that they used recorded conversations,
pictures and gestures as teaching strategies in assisting their students to learn vocabulary.
However, American teachers were much more likely to endorse that they used teaching strategies
that actively engaged students in learning vocabulary.
Quantitative Analyses
To examine the potential differences in teaching strategies between American and Thai
teachers, Hotelling’s T2 was used to examine their responses to the speaking and listening
sections of the survey.
The results indicated that there were significant differences between the strategies that
teachers from the United States and Thailand use in teaching vocabulary, Wilkes Lambda = .24,
F(9,13) = 4.53, p < .007. Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc analyses indicated that the significant
multivariate effect was due to American teachers requiring their students to spend more time
engaging in conversation to use their newly acquired vocabulary and in class/group discussion
than their Thai peers (p < .05). For all other strategies there were no significant differences (See
top panel A. of Figure 1).
Significant differences were also determined between the strategies that teachers from the
United States and Thailand use in teaching English vocabulary, Wilkes Lambda = .22, F(7,15) =
179
7.54, p < .0006. Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc analyses indicated that American teachers use
synonyms and word meanings as teaching strategies significantly more frequently than do Thai
teachers (p < .05; see bottom panel B. of Figure 1).
Students’ Perceptions of Teacher Strategy Usage
To examine the differences between students’ perception of their teachers’ strategy use in
learning vocabulary, the data were subjected to a 2 (Nationality) x 2 (Gender) x 10 (Strategy)
repeated measures analysis of variance with repeated measures on strategy (i.e., games, role
playing, conversation, class/group discussion, retelling a story, film, song, synonyms, antonyms
and word meaning). The results indicated that there were main effects of nationality, F(1, 82)=
40.74, p < .0001, gender, F(1, 82) = 6.58, p < .0121, strategy, F(9,738) = 48.55, p < .0001, and
interactions of Nationality x Strategy, F(9, 738) = 7.05, p < .0001, Gender x Strategy, F(9, 738)
= 2.39, p < .0113, and Nationality x Gender x Strategy, F(9, 738) = 2.79, p < .003. StudentNewman-Keuls post-hoc analyses further substantiated that there were significant differences in
student perceptions in terms of strategy use by teachers. American ESL students perceived that
their teachers used games, role playing, class/group discussion, retelling stories, and using film
more frequently than the Thai EFL students (p < .05).
Interestingly, although there was some variability in the ratings among ESL/EFL students,
they generally agreed with their teachers’ perceptions of the speaking strategies used to teach
vocabulary. In addition, there is considerable consistency between American teachers and their
ESL students and Thai teachers and their EFL students for speaking vocabulary strategies.
However, Thai teachers believed that they used games and role playing more than their EFL
students did while American ESL students believed that their teachers used role playing more
than their teachers did. There is considerable agreement between ESL/EFL students and their
teachers in terms of the frequency of use of listening strategies.
Vocabulary Test
A vocabulary test that was comprised of ten words was given to each of the student
participants in the study. The students were to answer each question in English. Half of the test
asked the students to provide as many synonyms for the word that was presented and half of the
test asked the students to provide antonyms for the word that was presented. In each case,
students were assessed on the number of correct synonyms or antonyms (meaning) and the
correct spellings (spelling) of each of the words provided.
180
Meaning. To examine the results of the vocabulary test with regard to meaning, the data
were subjected to a 2 (Nationality) x 2 (Gender) x 2 (Type of Task) x 5 (Words) repeated
measures analysis of variance with repeated measures on type of task (Synonym vs. Antonym)
and words (words within task: Synonyms: “get,” “want,” “give,” “good,” “bad”; Antonyms:
“small,” “slow,” “like,” “stupid,” “ugly”). The results indicated that there were main effects of
gender, F(1, 82) = 7.05, p < .01, type of task, F(1, 328) = 109.24, p < .0001, and words, F(4,
328) = 36.24, p < .0001 and interactions of Nationality x Task, F(1, 328) = 5.20, p < .025,
Gender x Words, F(4, 328) = 3.15, p < .0157, and Task x Words, F(4, 328) = 21.97, p < .0001.
Student-New-Keuls post-hoc analyses indicated that the main effect of gender was due to
males outperforming females with the words “good,” “bad” and “small.” ESL/EFL students were
asked to produce synonyms for “good” and “bad” and an antonym for “small.” The main effect
of type of task indicated that synonyms were more difficult for ESL/EFL to produce than
antonyms. The main effect of word was confounded with task in that different words were used
for the two types of tasks, producing synonyms or antonyms. As a result, further analyses
involving the word main effect will not be discussed. Student-Newman-Keuls post-hoc analyses
indicated that the Nationality x Type of Task interaction was due to American ESL students
outperforming Thai EFL students on the Synonym Task and both groups performed significantly
better on the Antonym Task.
Spelling. To examine the results of the vocabulary test with regard to spelling, the data
were again subjected to a 2 (Nationality) x 2 (Gender) x 5 (Words) repeated measures analysis of
variance with repeated measures on words (“get,” “want,” “give,” “good,” “bad,” “small,” “slow,”
“like,” “stupid” and “ugly”). The results indicated that there were main effects of gender, F(1, 82)
= 5.30, p < .02, and words, F(4, 328) = 33.75, p < .0001 and an interaction of Gender x Words,
F(4, 328) = 2.76, p < .03.
10
9
8
American
Thai
MEAN RESPONSE
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
A
0
Conversation
Discussion
Story
Games
Role Playing
STRATEGY
10
9
8
American
Thai
MEAN RESPONSE
7
6
5
4
3
2
B
1
0
Word Meaning
Synonym
Antonym
Song
Film
STRATEGY
Figure 1: Mean response of usage of speaking (A.) and listening (B.) strategies by
type of strategy and nationality of teacher.
181
182
Student-New-Keuls post-hoc analyses indicated that the main effect of gender was due to
males outperforming females on the word “good.” Males outperformed females on all of the
words; however, significance was only reached on the word “good.” The main effect of word
was due to relatively good spelling performance for the words “good,” “small,” “slow,” “stupid”
and “ugly” and relatively poor performance on the words “get,” “want,” “give,” “bad” and “like.”
Examining the frequency and types of vocabulary mistakes made by American ESL and
Thai EFL students, indicated that when there were significant differences, Thai EFL students
were making more of almost every type of mistake than American ESL students. The vocabulary
test confirmed that differences between the two nationalities favored American ESL students.
Thai ESL students made more errors in pronunciation, word choices, meaning and spelling.
Surprisingly, the results indicated that EFL teachers in Thailand used synonyms and
meaning more frequently than ESL teachers in the United States. However, the results of the
vocabulary test (test on synonyms and antonyms) showed the opposite; that is, that ESL students
in the United States performed better than EFL students in Thailand. This may be because of the
strategies that were used in teaching students. Active strategies (speaking strategies) were used
more to teach ESL students in the United States, and passive strategies (listening strategies) were
used more to teach vocabulary to EFL students in Thailand. This finding is consistent with
Hwang, Lui, and Tong (2005) who also determined that students in active learning classrooms
performed better than students in a passive learning classroom.
Summary, Conclusions and Recommendations
The present study intended to compare and contrast the various strategies of teaching
vocabulary to ESL students in the United States and EFL students in Thailand. This study
indicates that active learning strategies appear to be more effective in teaching vocabulary than
passive learning strategies. Active learning strategies may allow students to practice their newly
acquired vocabulary in ways that are more comparable to English language environments and
may offer greater opportunities for students to practice or experience what they have learned.
These strategies could be a helpful additional tool for ESL/EFL teachers to improve their
students’ English proficiency.
Additional research is necessary to determine if passive learning strategies can be
effective in teaching specific areas of English vocabulary, and if so, what these specific areas are
183
and in what circumstances. It is clear; however, that active teaching strategies appear to result in
stronger vocabulary development in student who are learning English as a second language.
Thailand is promoting a change to more active learning strategies. However, Thai EFL
teachers still tend to use the same passive strategies that focus on textbook-based grammar and
translation (Maskhao, 2002). For successful change to take place in EFL classrooms in Thailand,
teachers need to be trained to apply the active learning strategies in the most effective way.
Teachers trained to use active learning strategies should learn and practice to feel more
comfortable in using the strategies in their classroom, in order to create a more desirable
environment for the students.
References
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from http://teacher.scholarstic.com/products/research/pdfs/PP_10_ResearchTested_ways.pdf
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vocabulary instruction. Retrieved October 5, 2007,
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Gallo-Crail, R., & Zerwekh, R. (2002). Language learning and the internet: Student strategies in
vocabulary acquisition. In C.A. Spreen (Ed.), New technologies and language learning:
Cases in the less commonly taught language (pp.55-80). Honolulu, HI: University of
Hawaii Press.
Gu, Y. P. (2003). Vocabulary Learning in a Second Language: Person, task, context and
strategies. TESL-EJ Teaching English as a Second or Foreign Language, 7. Retrieved
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passive learning environment. Accounting Education, 20(2), 151-165.
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Retrieved October 8, 2007, from http://iteslj.org/Articles/Idoine-Mnemonics.html
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their relationship to success. The Modern Language Journal, 83(2), 176-92.
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skills and providing in-service training on active learning student-centered teaching
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from http://www.rotarylp.org/spark/Mar132006/specialReport.htm
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postgraduate diploma course. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of
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185
Appendix A
Selected Survey Data - Teacher Survey
II. Speaking
2.1 What ways of vocabulary teaching do you use in speaking activities to increase your
students’ vocabulary and how often do you use each activity (1 = never, 10= always)? Place an
“X” on the line to represent your answer.
1. Teach words through games
2. Ask students to use the word
they learned in role play
3. Ask students to use the word
they learned in conversation
4. Whole class/group discussion
5. Read students a story and ask
students to retell the story
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
III. Listening
3.1 What ways of vocabulary teaching do you use in listening activities to increase your
students’ vocabulary and how often do you use each activity (1 = never, 10 = always)? Place an
“X” on the line to represent your answer.
1. Teach words by showing films
2. Teach words by using songs
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. Give students the synonyms
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4. Give students the antonyms
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
5. Provide the meaning of wordsNever,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
186
Appendix B
Selected Survey Data - Student Survey
II. How do you learn words?
Please select the way you learn words. (1 = never, 10 = always). Place an “X” on the line to
represent your answer.
1. Teacher teaches words through game Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2. Teacher asked you to use the word
you learned in role play
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
3. Teacher asked you to use the word
you learned in conversation
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
4. Whole class/group discussion
5. Teacher reads you a story and
asks you to retell the story
6. Teacher teaches words by
showing films
7. Teacher teaches words by
using songs
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
8. Teacher gives the synonyms
(words that have the same meaning) Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
9. Teacher gives the antonyms
(words that have opposite meaning) Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
10. Teacher tells you the meaning
of words
Never,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,___,Always
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Bio-data
Ms. Kirati Khuvasanond, originally from Thailand, received her M.S. in teaching degree
with emphasis in ESOL from the department of Curriculum and Instruction at Pittsburg State
University in Pittsburg, Kansas, in 2008. Ms. Khuvasanond is currently a doctoral student in
Curriculum and Teaching at the University of Kansas. Her research interest is TESOL.
187
Dr. Tatiana I. Sildus holds a Ph.D. from the Kansas State University in curriculum and
instruction with emphasis in second language acquisition. She is currently an associate professor
of TESOL at Pittsburg State University. Dr. Sildus served as Ms. Khuvasanond’s Master’s thesis
advisor. Dr. Sildus’ research interests include language and cognition, vocabulary strategies/
retention, communicative language teaching and cooperative learning.
David P. Hurford received his Ph.D. from the Department of Psychology, University of
Akron, and is currently a professor of psychology and counseling and directs the Center for the
Assessment and Remediation of Reading Difficulties at PSU. His research interests include
reading disabilities/dyslexia, information processing and educational strategies.
Richard P. Lipka received his Ph.D. from the University of Illinois. He is a professoremeritus at Pittsburg State University. His research interest is affective development with
emphasis upon self-concept and self-esteem. In addition, he has written book chapters and
articles for variety of professional journals.
188
An Analysis of Headwords in ELT Coursebooks and Ordinary National
Educational Tests in Thailand
Apisak Sukying
Mahasarakham University Demonstration School
Abstract
Whether students’ English scores gained from the Ordinary National Educational Tests (O-NET)
could be any washback for the learning and teaching of English in Thai high schools has been
skeptical among Thai scholars and practitioners. The relationship of the lexical input in ELT
coursebooks and the English O-NET papers would be one of the possible ways to answer the
question if density of the unknown words in the English O-NET papers hindered learners’
achievement. Therefore, the study compared the English headwords found in ELT coursebooks
and those in the English O-NET papers. Five series of ELT coursebooks widely used in Thai
high schools throughout Thailand and the English O-NET papers of Years 2006-2008 were
purposively chosen and used in the study. The RANGE program was employed to compare and
analyze the English headwords in both coursebooks and the tests. Percentage and descriptive
analysis were exploited to present data. It was found that five series of the ELT coursebooks
contain the similar number of headwords and provide learners a preferable proportion of the
most 2,000 frequent words and good coverage. A sizable proportion of the 1st 1,000 GSL was
found when comparing total overlapped headwords in both the ELT coursebooks and the English
O-NET papers. With such a vocabulary size learners were likely to succeed in sitting the English
O-NET papers if those papers were well designed in terms of coverage. Discussion and
suggestions are drawn for pedagogical implications in the paper.
Keywords: lexical input, ELT coursebooks evaluation, headwords in ELT coursebooks,
vocabulary size, vocabulary learning and teaching
Introduction
Vocabulary knowledge has come to be recognized as a critical feature of all language
abilities in general and reading ability in particular (Koda, 1989; Mckeown & Curtis, 1987; Nagy,
1988; Nation & Coady, 1988; Stanovich, 1986).
In school context, a coursebook is always regarded as a primary source for word learning.
To this point, learners have to rely on the course book if they want to improve their language and
prepare themselves for language examinations. Typically, texts are classified as being at
independent, instructional or frustration levels for learners. According to Clay (1991), for
instructional purposes, the text and its readability relate to how much the text matches learners’
reading ability. A text in which learners can read 90%-95% of words easily is considered to be at
learners’ instructional reading level, that is, the level where instruction will be most effective. A
text that is easier is considered to be at the learners’ independent reading level. A more difficult
189
text is considered to be at the learners’ frustration level, and is not appropriate for reading
instruction. To this end, whether students English scores gained from the Ordinary National
Educational Tests (O-NETs) could be any washback for the learning and teaching of English in
Thai high schools has been skeptical among Thai scholars and practitioners. To clarify it, the two
major factors – words in English coursebooks and words in the O-Nets – would be counted as
the subject matter for the present study from a lexical perspective.
The purpose of the study was to examine words appearing in the coursebooks used in
Thai high schools and those in the O-Nets. This should answer the questions of how similar are
the lists of the coursebooks; how similar are the lists of the O-NETs; and whether the lists from
the various coursebooks are similar to the lists of the O-NETs. The study compared sets of
wordlists of the English coursebooks widely used in high schools and those of the O-NETs of
years 2006, 2007, and 2008. It also looked at the amount of overlap between the words in the
two main series and the GSL and AWL words.
Methods
The Range program is a Windows-based program developed by Paul Nation and Alex
Heatley (2002) of the Victoria University of Wellington and is freely downloadable. It can be
used with three distinct word lists, called baseword lists, on any text. The baseword lists contain
word families. The English coursebooks used in the study were Face to Face (FF), Matrix (MA),
My World (MW), Opportunity (OP), and Super Goal (SG). Another sample consisted of the
three English Ordinary National Educational Test papers of Years 2006, 2007, and 2008.
Procedure
The study adapted a computer method as used in Wan-a-rom’s study (2008) as the
following:
Step I: Investigation and comparison of words in the target coursebooks and the GSL lists.
Step II: Construction of the baseword lists of the words found in the target coursebooks
and the O-Net Tests.
Step III: Comparison of the wordlists of the target coursebooks and the O-Net tests.
Step IV: The process to find the word intersects between the two wordlists in each level
of the text so as to double check the overlap of words.
190
Results
Comparing the number of words appearing in terms of word families and
coverage in the five target English coursebooks against the GSL and AWL
Table 1: Word Families Appearing in the Five Target English Coursebooks against GSL
and AWL
1st
2nd 1,000
570
Low
Proper
GSL
GSL
AWL
Frequency
Names
956
693
342
1552
1123
(95.6%)
(69.3%)
(60%)
(4.55%)
(2.97%)
981
798
398
2072
1361
(98.1%)
(79.8%)
(69.82%)
(4.63)
(2.95%)
940
708
305
1445
778
(94.0%)
(70.8%)
(53.5%)
(6.53%)
(3.21)
938
659
281
1434
1207
(93.8%)
(65.9%)
(49.3%)
(5.55%)
(3.49%)
966
719
395
1810
1239
(96.6%)
(71.9%)
(69.3%)
(5.18%)
(3.06%)
1,000
Coverage
Coursebooks
92.49%
Face to Face
92.42%
Matrix
My World
90.26%
Opportunity
90.96%
Super Goal
91.76%
Note: percentage coverage is calculated from the number of token in the text while percentage for
words is calculated from word families.
As in Table 1, the number of the first 1,000 words in five English coursebooks shows is
likely to be sufficient for enhancing readability in each series. For the 2nd 1,000 GSL, as a whole,
five target English coursebooks did not seem to provide very big sizes of the 2nd 1,000 GSL
words. In a similar manner, different portions of 570 academic words provided slight differences
among the series. In terms of readability, overall, the five target English coursebooks did not
seem to give big sizes of low-frequency words.
191
Comparing the numbers of words appearing in terms of word families and
coverage in the three O-Net papers against the GSL and AWL
Table 2: Words Appearing in the Three English O-Net Papers against GSL and AWL
1st 1,000
2nd 1,000
570
Low
GSL
GSL
AWL
Frequency Names
515
154
97
228
77
(51.5%)
(15.4%)
(17.02%)
(8.17%)
(5.72%)
480
148
56
102
57
(48%)
(14.8%)
(9.82%)
(4.61%)
(5.34%)
471
140
60
140
35
Proper
Years
Coverage
2006
86.11%
2007
90.05%
2008
91.05%
(47.1%)
(14%)
(10.53%)
(6.94%)
(2.01%)
Note: percentage coverage is calculated from the number of token in the text while percentage for
words is calculated from word families.
As in Table 2, the figures show the 1st 1,000 GSL words ranging from 47.1% to 51.55,
and providing not a very big size of the first 1,000 GSL words as a whole. Likewise, there were
quite a similar number of the 2nd 1,000 GSL words in the three lists of the O-Net papers,
providing 15.4%, 14.8%, and 14% respectively. However, there are slightly different portions of
570 academic words: 17.02% (year 2006), 9.82% (year 2007), and 10.53% (year 2008). In terms
of readability, the sizes of low-frequency words were 8.17%, 4.61, and 6.94% respectively. For
the proper names, the three O-Net papers gave 5.72%, 5.34%, and 2.01% in that order. Such
figures constituted almost similar coverage including 86.11%, 90.05%, and 91.05%, falling in a
range of 90%-95% coverage, which is suitable just for a well-prepared instruction.
Comparing the total overlap of the wordlists of the combined three O-Net papers
of years 2006, 2007, and 2008 against the list of five target English coursebooks
192
Pie Chart 1: Overlap of the 1st 1,000 Words between Combined Words in the Wordlists of Each
Coursebook and Composite O-Nets
Pie Chart 1 above shows the overlap of the 1st 1,000 words shared by each wordlist of the
English target coursebooks and the wordlist of combined O-Net papers. It is obvious that the size
of the overlap of 1st 1,000 GSL words was quite noticeable, ranging from 96.59% to 99.18%. In
other words, 12 (1.64%) words in the three O-Net papers were not in FF, 4 (0.55%) words not in
MA, 22 (3.0%) words not in MW, 25 (3.41%) words not in OP, and 6 (0.82%) words not in SG
respectively. These figures show that words in the five coursebooks highly relate to the words in
the three O-Net papers.
The same pattern happened with the 2nd 1,000 GSL words shared by the three O-Net
papers. As we can see from Pie Chart 2 below, from a whole view of the overlap, it was a
considerable size for the overlap between the three O-Net papers and each coursebook series.
Pie Chart 2: Overlap of the 2nd 1,000 Words between Combined Words in the Wordlists of Each
193
From Pie Chart 3 below, for overlap of 570 academic words shared by the three O-Net
papers and the five English course books, not big overlap was found in Pie Chart 3. Only one
series Matrix gave a rather big size of the overlap and outstood the rest of the coursebooks.
Pie Chart 3: Overlap of 570 AWL Words between Combined Words in the Wordlists of each
Discussion, Conclusion and Implications
The results of the study indicated that the five English coursebooks series exploit highfrequency words, particularly the 1st 1,000 GSL words, to provide readable texts suitable for
establishing known vocabulary and learning unknown vocabulary, although the number of the
2nd 1,000 word families is slightly different. As a whole, when the overlap compared, five series
of the English coursebooks did not seem to provide very big sizes of the 2nd 1,000 GSL words.
According to the number of the GSL words found in each series and the total overlap, it suggests
that the total number of 1st 1,000 GSL in each series of the English coursebooks is likely to be
sufficient for enhancing readability. If the number of 1st 1,000 GSL words is a matter of
constructing a reading context, any series of the five English coursebooks can successfully
contribute a fruitful word source for learners to learn and use for building up an understandable
context when coping with their own reading for comprehension. Furthermore, any of the five
series of the English coursebook can be practically used for in-class instruction of lexical
presentation. In other words, there is no any difference in using each of the five English
coursebooks series for a productive teaching to grow learner’s basic words for both guessing
194
word meaning in context and reading independently. This pertains to learning a new word in
context when independent reading is engaged.
On the same issues, if the O-Net paper is regarded as one coursebook, each of the O-Net
papers did not provide a big proportion of the most frequent 2,000 words and the AWL. Such
numbers suggest that topics, subject areas or themes vary each year. Thus, the relationship of the
word choice is likely to vary, which results in a small number of the words and overlap. When
total overlap considered, although the 1st 1,000 GSL words outstood the rest, it gave a rather
small proportion of the words shared by the three O-Net papers. Differences in numbers of the
words and total overlap imply that a freedom of selection of contents, themes, or even topics
seems to be practiced each year when the examination paper is designed. In effect, it may be
difficult for learners to predict what words will appear in the test paper each year. In other words,
it may be hard to get through reading tasks in the paper unless learners have gained enough
proportion of vocabulary required for handling such a task at a time. Furthermore, when
coverage of each O-Net paper looked at, the paper gave coverage suitable for instruction. It can
be said that to succeed in handling any task in the O-Net paper, learners, when achievement is
required, are in need of teacher’s assistance as given in classroom practice.
When the total overlap of each course book series and the three O-Net papers considered,
the findings of the study suggest a few groups of useful information. First, percentage of the total
overlap of the 1st 1,000 GSL words was higher than 96%. This means that words in each of the
English course book series prepare learners for encountering the similar words which will appear
in the test paper. In terms of readability, such words could construct meanings of the unknown
words by giving suitable context. Second, although the number of the total overlap of the 2nd
1,000 GSL and AWL words decreases, there is still a considerable size. Such words seem varying,
depending on a wide range of the topics selected each year. Lastly, Based on the words found as
compared or overlapped words, it shows the close relationship between the number of words and
learner’s readability. As a whole, learners are able to learn the new words if preferable coverage
provided. However, as indicated by coverage for the O-Nets, practically, for learners as
successful test-takers, favorable coverage which enhances guessing from context and
understanding of text being read is required.
The overall findings support the ideas that the most frequent 2,000 words as well as the
academic words in both English coursebooks and the test papers are not problematic to learners
195
if effective instruction is practiced. The similar numbers of those words in terms of actual used
words cannot help learners much in the case of testing since such words need an effective
instruction to foster learner’s learning of the word knowledge. For learners, learning and sitting a
test are different, though. For pedagogical practice, sizable proportions of useful words in the
English coursebooks are likely to be useless without a well-prepared instruction practiced by
teachers or practitioners. Likewise, to exploit such words successfully, test designers should give
careful attention to word selection in terms of actual word use and coverage when designing tests.
With a narrow focus, the present study would give some useful information in terms of
vocabulary learning. However, on the same issue, a further study is still needed to look at
different aspects which might affect learners’ achievement in doing the Ordinary National
Educational Test.
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198
Thai Style of Social Interaction:
A Case Study of Collaborative English Learning at King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi
Charatdao Intratat
King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi
Abstract
English teachers usually assign group activities such as collaborative writing for group projects
to practice students’ communicative skills and to encourage students’ greater accomplishment
than individual task. The key to success is that the group members develop awareness of
collaboration which boosts up their capacity in working. Collaborative learning groups are
actually desirable for foreign language students and teachers but such successful condition could
not be achieved without several factors such as students’ social interaction. This study
investigated and compared Thai style of social interaction among 160 graduate and
undergraduate students from mixed faculties who worked collaboratively for their group projects.
The results revealed that both groups had several similar positive styles of social interaction such
as group satisfaction, mutual respect to every member’s opinion and responsibility in solving
problems. When compared between groups, undergraduate students rated significantly higher
degree of group satisfaction than graduate students at 0.05 levels. The study also revealed that
there is significant correlation between the students’ level of study and mutual respect, patience,
group satisfaction, and flexibility.
Keywords: collaboration, collaborative learning, Thai social interaction
Introduction
In most English classes, especially at King Mongkut’s University of Technology
Thonburi, teachers usually assign group activities such as collaborative writing for group
projects to practice students’ communicative skills. Moreover, these activities also help them to
accomplish a greater task than working individually. The most important strategy is that the
group members share the same goal and work together towards that goal. That is to say, they
develop awareness of collaboration and cooperation which boost up their capacity in working as
teamwork. The power of teamwork is essential for modern world because “…as science
advances, for example, there is less and less that any one individual can do alone to make any
substantial advance in research and knowledge” (Johnson & Johnson, 2004, p. 6).
As cultural diversity also affects people’s social manner and interaction, it is one
important factor for collaborative learning. In Thai culture, politeness, respect of seniority,
consideration and modesty is regarded as traditional etiquette that most people practice. Thai
people are generally shy and do not speak out in public especially to disturb or attack the other
199
(Supap, 1997). With these typical characteristics in mind, it is interesting to investigate Thai
students’ social interaction in an academic environment of collaborative learning.
In this study, these important factors were investigated through social interaction in Thai
style, in comparison between the graduate and undergraduate students at King Mongkut’s
University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT).
Background of the Study
At KMUTT, writing group projects are assigned to students in several English language
courses. The students have to write group projects as a principle task. At first, they deliberately
form a group of 4-5 students and brainstormed for the topic. All students have similar
background knowledge in science and technology but they can choose any topics of interest to
them. Then they develop the theme and sub-topics before searching for relevant information for
the report. They work together for the introduction and conclusion of the group report but each
member is responsible for writing an article from each subtopic. After the report had been
written, the students presented it together in groups, with visual aids. To accomplish their goal,
the students certainly have to use teamwork and be well-organized. This usually results from
collaborative attitudes among the group members, due to positive social interaction.
Collaborative Learning
It is defined as a set of instructional principles or situation in which a group of students
learn from and with each other through working together (Dillenbourg, 1999; Hijzen, Boekaerts
& Vedder, 2006). This definition matches with the summary by Johnson, Johnson and Smith
(1991) about cooperative learning that students work together in small groups to produce higher
achievement than in working individually or in competition with each other.
In online collaborative learning, as well as other computer mediated courses, the effective
strategies are to minimize psychological distance and to promote the feeling of connectedness
and belonging. Intimacy and immediacy are two essential factors. Student perceptions of
collaborative learning have statistically positive relationships with perceptions of social presence
and satisfaction. The course structure, emotional support and communication medium were
critical factors associated with student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and
satisfaction (So & Brush, 2008).
Collaborative learning groups are actually desirable for Thai students and teachers alike.
However, such successful condition is not easy to be created, developed and maintained without
200
several factors. For example, there are students’ attitudes to the task and cultural etiquettes
among group members, their styles of working and learning, emotional maturity, degree of
participation and involvement in the group, reaction to time limits and so on.
Social Interaction
Many researchers state that the team work, when functioning effectively with social skills
or awareness of social interaction among the members, maximizes their own and each other’s
competences (Johnson, Johnson, & Smith, 1991; Ghaith, 2002; Johnson & Johnson, 2004;
Solimeno et al, 2008). This means that the students have and use essential collaborative skills for
leadership, decision-making, trust-building, communication, and conflict-management which are
also needed for real life situations after they graduate and start to work.
In modern classroom where computers are used as media, students have less interaction
among each other and with the teacher than in traditional classroom where there were lectures
and discussions. Remarkably, the use of group decision support system, such as among
conference participants, to create a sense of online community and to promote interaction in a
collaborative learning process, enhances students’ skill development, self-reported learning, and
evaluation of classroom experience in comparison with students who had no such support (Alavi,
1994; Gunawardena, 1995). It has also been found that in collaborative learning, the perceptions
of classroom social support and belonging to the group were positively correlated with the
academic achievement of learners whereas the learners’ feelings of alienation from the group
have been found to be negatively correlated with achievement (Ghaith, 2002; Hijzen, Boekaerts
& Vedder, 2006). Moreover, the key factors in supporting learning are the rapid and smooth
acceptance of the group of newcomers to participate in the task (Lave & Wenger, 1991; Wegerif,
1998).
The nature of study also affects the requirement of social interaction. In a comparison of
undergraduate and graduate online courses, Jahng, Krug, and Zhang (2007) discovered that
online graduate courses were less effective than face-to-face ones, but such a finding could not
be confirmed for the undergraduate online courses. The reason was discussed by Zhao, Lei, Yan
and Tan (2004) that undergraduate courses usually require content knowledge and skills whereas
graduate courses require critical thinking and are based on discussion, so for them face-to-face
communication was essential.
201
Methodology
The subjects
The subjects in this study were 80 second year students and 80 graduate students from
science and technology faculties at KMUTT who enrolled in English language courses in
semester 2/2008. Their courses required writing group projects in which the students had to work
collaboratively and cooperatively.
Instrument of the Study
The instrument used in the study was a set of questionnaires on social interaction,
distributed by selected sampling. It consisted of questions with Likert scale answers. The
questions asked about the students’ styles of working and learning, emotional maturity,
participation and involvement in the group, reaction to time limits, satisfaction of teamwork and
leadership.
Data Analysis
The data from graduate and undergraduate students was analyzed for means and SD The
difference between groups was analyzed by t-test for statistic significance and the related data
was analyzed with Pearson’s correlation. The results of students’ opinions were interpreted,
applying the ranking by Best (1981) as follows:
1.00 - 1.70
= the least
1.80 - 2.50
= less
2.60 - 3.30
= moderate
3.40 - 4.10
= much
4.20 - 5.00
= the most
Findings
The students answered about their social interaction within the group. The overall
answers showed that mostly, both graduate and undergraduate students had much positive
attitude towards collaborative work. The two highest rating were that their group respected every
member’s opinion (mean = 4.0000) and that they were happy to work with their group members
(mean = 4.2000). The two lowest rating showed that they were moderately upset if other
members complained about their mistakes and that they wanted less to change the members for
different task. The detail is shown in Table 1.
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Table 1: The Students’ Overall Attitudes to Group Work
Students’ Overall Attitudes to Group Work
Level of
Mean
SD
1. Making new friends (through group work)
3.4500
.87452
much
2. Social interaction (during group work)
3.5125
.78498
much
3. Group respect (for every member’s opinion)
4.0000
.89020
much
4. Voting for solution (when there is disagreement)
3.5500
1.03280
much
5. Speaking out (when disagree)
3.2875
.94094
moderate
6. Being upset of complains (about your mistake)
2.5313
1.05163
moderate
7. Being happy to work (with the group members)
4.2000
.89583
the most
8. Change the members (for different task)
1.9750
1.03978
less
9. Being the representative (of your group)
3.2125
.87873
moderate
Attitudes
When compared between the graduate and undergraduate students, there was significant
difference at the 0.01 level in certain attitudes. Undergraduate students thought that their group
respected every member’s opinion more than graduate students. The undergraduate students
were also happier with their group members. On the other hand, the graduate students showed
more emotional maturity that they were upset less with their group members’ complaining about
their mistake and they were more independent in changing the members for different task. The
analysis is in Table 2.
Table 2: t-test Table Comparison of the Undergraduate and Graduate Students’ Attitudes
Students’ Attitudes
Undergraduate
Graduate
t
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
1. Making new friends
3.3875
.87863
3.5125
.87140
.903
.368
2. Social interaction
3.5375
.77857
3.4875
.79546
-.402
.688
3. Group respect
4.1875
.74789
3.8125
.98204
-2.717
.007**
4. Voting for solution
3.6375
1.08200
3.4625
.98010
-1.072
.285
5. Speaking out
3.3375
.88509
3.2375
.99675
-.671
.503
6. Being upset of complaint
2.8500
.99492
2.2125
1.01500
4.012
.000**
7. Being happy to work
4.4125
.65010
3.9875
1.04934
-3.079
.002**
8. Change the members
1.6500
.79715
2.3000
1.15177
4.151
.000**
9. Being the representative
3.1875
.84335
3.2375
.91740
.359
.720
203
**p<0.01
From the correlation analysis, it was found that some attitudes were correlated
significantly at the 0.01 level (**r< 0.01) or at the 0.05 level (*r< 0.05). For example, making
new friends correlated positively with social interaction (r =.349**), group respect for members’
opinion (r =.283**), voting for solution (r =.170*), speaking out (r =.209**), and being happy to
work (r =.278**). Social interaction, group respect and being happy to work also correlated
positively with being the representative of the group (r =.188*), (r =.209**) and (r =.217**)
respectively. Being upset with complaint correlated positively with changing of members (r
=.329**) whereas the latter correlated negatively with group respect (r = -.374**) and being
happy to work (r = -.379**).
Summary and Discussion
The graduate and undergraduate students in this study showed positive attitudes to
collaborative learning. Most of all, both parties were happy to work with the other group
members. They made new friends through group work, performed in democratic ways such as
voting when there was a problem and spoke out when they disagreed and were open-minded
enough not to be upset with complaints about their own mistakes.
The comparison between the two parties of students showed some significant difference.
Whereas the undergraduate students felt more respect for the members’ opinion and sense of
belonging to the group, the graduate students expressed more emotional maturity, independence
and leadership.
The correlation between some attitudes reflected the importance of social interaction in
enhancing successful collaborative learning as previously stated by So and Brush (2008). The
students in the study said that they were happy to work with the group, and this resulted from
their positive attitudes such as friendship, intimacy from frequent social interaction, democratic
performance such as voting for solution and group respect for every member’s opinion. The
findings matched with the studies by Ghaith (2002) and Hijzen, Boekaerts, and Vedder (2006).
204
As for the typical Thai style of social interaction, the students of both parties profited
from being polite and considerate. In an academic environment such as collaborative learning,
they showed respect for other members’ opinion and accepted complaints. However, the weak
point of Thai students was their shyness since they rated moderately on being the representative
of the group. This was not significantly different between the two parties, though the graduate
students show a slightly higher rating than the undergraduate students. This clearly showed that
leadership was not these students’ prominent characteristic, though it might be developed
through practice and maturity.
Suggestion for Further Studies
It would be very profitable to extend the scope of study to compare the performance of
students in other countries. It is also interesting to study in depth about Thai style of social
interaction in other environment such as politics, international companies, etc.
References
Alavi, M. (1994). Computer-mediated collaborative learning: An empirical evaluation.
Management Information Systems Quarterly, 18(2), 159-174.
Best, J. W. (1981). Research in Education (4th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean by ‘collaborative learning’?. In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.),
Collaborative-learning: Cognitive and computational approaches (pp. 1-19). Oxford:
Elsevier.
Ghaith, G. M. (2002). The relationship between cooperative learning, perception of social
support, and academic achievement. System, 3(3), 263-273.
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collaborative learning in computer conference. International Journal of Educational
Telecommunicatio, 1(2), 147-166. Retrieved from http://www.editlib.org/p/15156.
Hijzen, D., Boekaerts, M., & Vedder, P. (2006). The relationship between the quality of
cooperative learning, students’ goal preferences, and perceptions of contextual factors in
the classroom. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 47, 9–21.
Jahng, N., Krug, D., & Zhang, Z. (2007). Student achievement in online distance education
compared to face-to-face education. European Journal of Open and Distance Learning.
Retrieved from http://www.eurodl.org/materials/contrib/2007/Jahng_Krug_Zhang.htm
Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, R. T. (2004). Assessing students in groups: Promoting group
responsibility and individual accountability. Thousand Oaks, California: Corwin Press.
Johnson, D. W., Johnson, R. T., & Smith, K. A. (1991). Cooperative learning: Increasing college
faculty instructional productivity. In ASHE-ERIC Higher Education Report 4.
Washington, DC: The George Washington University, Graduate School of Education and
Human Development.
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Lave, J., & Wenger, E. (1991). Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
So, H. J., & Brush, T. A. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence
and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors.
Computers & Education, 51, 318–336. Retrieved from
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
Solimeno, A., Mebane, M. E., Tomai, M., & Francescato, D. (2008). The influence of students
and teachers characteristics on the efficacy of face-to-face and computer supported
collaborative learning. Computers & Education, 51, 109-128. Retrieved from
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/compedu
Supap, S. (1997). Society and culture (in Thai). Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University Press.
Wegerif, R. (1998). The social dimension of asynchronous learning networks. Journal of
Asynchronous Learning Networks (JALN), 2(1), 34-49.
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research on the effectiveness of distance education. Retrieved
from http://ott.educ.msu.edu/literature/report.pdf
Biodata
Charatdao Intratat received her Ph.D. in Linguistics from Chulalongkorn University,
Thailand. She is now an associate professor at the Department of Language, School of Liberal
Arts, King Mongkut’s University of Technology Thonburi (KMUTT), Thailand. Her fields of
interest include syntax and semantics, especially in grammaticalization of verbs and zero
anaphora. She is also interested in self-access materials for teaching English and has designed
some English CALL materials, which are uploaded on the KMUTT website<etsrc.com>.
206
Learning Strategies in Japanese as a Second/Foreign Language in Thailand:
A Case Study of a Beginner’s Japanese Classroom
Kamolthip Phonlabutra
Phetchaburi Rajabhat University
Abstract
While much research has been investigating learning strategies in English as a second/foreign
language (ESL/EFL), far less research has been exploring the ones in Japanese as a
second/foreign language (JSL/JFL), especially in a context such as Thailand. In an effort to
further the understanding of learning strategies of Japanese learners, this case study utilizes a
mixed-method design. Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL) version 5.1 developed
by Oxford (1990) is adopted as a questionnaire to examine strategies’ categories, frequency of
strategy use, and characteristic of strategy use in learning a basic Japanese course. The
questionnaire has been administered to 68 students of one local university studying basic level
Japanese. Qualitative data is collected through classroom observation based on video recording,
field notes, and in-depth interviews. The quantitative data illustrates that the mean of over all
strategies use is medium. Among the means of use frequency of all learning strategies, those of
Affective and Social strategies being highest, respectively. However, the mean of use frequency
of Cognitive strategy is the lowest. On the other hand, the exploration of the strategy use in
classroom indicates that the participants adopt collaborative learning strategy in two major
contexts. The contexts are collaboration in comprehending the instructor’s speech, and giving
feedback to peers’ linguistic output. This collaboration provides accuracy in grammar and word
choices. Although far from conclusive, these findings suggest that learning strategies have an
important role in assisting language learning.
Keywords: learning strategies, Japanese as a second/foreign language (JSL/JFL),
case study
Introduction
Due to the unique characteristics of Japanese, it is hard to assume that research on
learning strategies for commonly taught languages such as Indo-European ones can be applied to
Japanese (Chamot & El-Dinary, 1993). Among many variables such as language proficiency and
motivation that are perceived as influential factors to language learning strategies, learning
context can be critical as well. Learning Japanese as a foreign language in Thailand is
qualitatively different from learning Japanese as a second language in Japan in terms of exposure
to the target language in daily life.
Therefore, an exploration of learning strategies of Japanese learners in Thailand can
contribute to the understanding of language learning strategies in different learning context. This
study aimed to answer two research questions including:
207
(1) How often do the JFL learners use language learning strategies for each strategy
category?
(2) How do the JFL learners use language learning strategies in the beginner’s
Japanese conversation class?
The organization of the paper begins with the introduction of the theoretical framework
and related research on second language learning strategies. The next section focuses on
methodology and context for the research. Discussion of the results and conclusions comes at the
end of the paper.
Theoretical Framework
Foreign or second language (L2) learning strategies are considered as specific actions,
steps, behaviors, or techniques that L2 learners use consciously in order to comprehend,
internalize, and use the L2 (Oxford, 1990). Though there is an issue of no clear distinction
between various actions such as steps, techniques, and tactics, Cohen (1996) positions that all of
these can be referred simply as strategies, while still recognizing that there is a continuum from
the broadest categories to the most specific. Learning strategies are conscious behaviors which
L2 learners can describe. However, if learning strategies become unconscious and the learners
are not able to identify, then the strategies lose their significance as they would be referred to as
a process (Ellis, 1994).
Learning strategies are significant because research suggests that successful L2 learners
effectively use strategies which contribute to their outstanding L2 performance (Rubin, 1975).
The pioneer research in language learning strategies (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975) suggested that
strategies used by successful L2 learners can be taught to less successful ones. If students and
teachers are aware of how learning strategies are most effectively used, both groups can benefit
greatly (Oxford, 1986).
In addition to a positive relationship to language performance and the teachability aspects
of language learning strategies, learner autonomy and self-direction derived from appropriate
learning strategies are also crucial in second language learning. Findings from cognitive
psychology show that all learning, especially language learning requires learners to actively
assimilate new information into their existing mental structure which contributes to increasing
rich and complex structure (Oxford, 1986). As active L2 learners work with the L2 overtime,
208
they gradually refine their linguistic understanding. And with practice, the learners develop their
L2 proficiency. Appropriate learning strategies help L2 learners to keep on learning
independently even they may no longer take formal language instruction.
There are various classification systems of language learning strategies to group
individual strategies within broader categories (Chamot, 2004). Earlier researchers made a list of
strategies from their observations of good language learners (Rubin, 1975; Stern, 1975). Some
researchers separated language learning strategies into direct strategies and indirect strategies
(Chamot, 2004). Direct strategies are the ones that directly manipulate linguistic input. Indirect
strategies involve planning, monitoring, and evaluation of language learning.
However, Hsiao and Oxford (2002) did a comparative study of classification systems in
the area and found that the Oxford (1990) system of six categories of language learning
strategies was most suitable in accounting for various strategies described by L2 learners. The
categories of language learning strategies are memory, cognitive, compensation, metacognitive,
social, and affective. Much descriptive research of L2 learning strategies has been the linking of
strategy use with variables such as motivation, gender, proficiency level, type of task, learning
style, culture and context (Oxford, 1994; Chamot, 2004).
Though far from conclusive, the research suggested that more motivated L2 learners tend
to use more strategies than less motivated students. Findings with gender are still indecisive. For
proficiency level, more proficient L2 learners use more strategies with greater varieties of
strategies than less proficient ones. Also, the former group is more skillful than the later group in
matching appropriate strategies to a particular task. However, type of task also influences
choices of strategies employed to carry out the task. Learning strategies do not function
independently of learning styles (Cohen, 1998). For example, analytic-style learners prefer
strategies such as contrastive analysis and rule-learning strategies, while global students use
strategies to guess or predict and to communicate without knowing all the words (Oxford, 1994).
Learning strategies are sensitive to the learning context (Chamot, 2005). In educational culture
that prioritize individual competition, successful L2 learners may prefer strategies for working
alone than social strategies that require collaboration with others (Chamot, 2004).
209
Methodology
The greatest numbers of descriptive studies of L2 learning strategies have utilized a
questionnaire developed by Oxford (1990), the Strategy Inventory for Language Learning (SILL).
This instrument is a standardized measure used extensively to collect data concerning English as
a second language (ESL) learners and foreign language learners (Chamot, 2004). This study used
SILL version 5.1 (Oxford, 1990) for collecting data of JFL at a local university in Thailand.
The SILL is 5-point Likert scale contains 80 items according to the six categories of
language learning strategies. There are 15 items on memory strategies, 25 items on cognitive
strategies, 8 items on compensation strategies, 16 items on metacognitive strategies, 7 items on
affective strategies, and 9 items on social strategies. The frequency of strategies use are divided
into 3 frequency ranges according to frequency mean: 1.5-2.4 (low use), 2.5-3.4 (medium use),
3.5-4.4 and above (high use). The questionnaire was administered to 68 learners. Also, the
quantitative data is triangulated with classroom observation (through video recording and field
notes taking) and in-depth interviews with the learners.
Context
This study was conducted in a beginner’s Japanese conversation class in the second
semester of academic year 2008. The research site was a local university in a western province in
Thailand. The participants were Tourism-majored students, and the participating teacher was a
Japanese female. This was her first experience teaching Japanese in a foreign country, Thailand.
Abbreviaions in the Video Transcript
There are three groups of abbreviations in the video transcript including J (the Japanese
teacher), C (class), and pseudonyms of the participating students.
Results and Discussion
As shown in the table, the mean of overall strategy use was 2.97 (medium range). The
ranking of categories according to frequency use was affective strategies (M=3.18), social
strategies (M=3.14), metacognitive strategies (M=3.01), compensation strategies (M=2.97),
memory strategies (M=2.77), and cognitive strategies (M=2.76)
210
Table: Mean of Frequency for Language Learning
Strategy
Mean
Frequency Range
..................................................................................................................................................................
Affective Strategies
3.18
Medium
Social Strategies
3.14
Medium
Metacognitive Strategies
3.01
Medium
Compensation Strategies
2.97
Medium
Memory Strategies
2.77
Medium
Cognitive Strategies
2.76
Medium
.............................................................................................................................
Mean of overall strategy use
2.97
Medium
In this study, as in most conducted in FL situations (Grainger, 1997; Mori, 2007;
Wharton, 2000) the average frequency of overall strategy use (M=2.97) was medium range
which was lower than that found in studies of language learning strategy use in SL settings. This
is probably due to differences in availability of authentic input and interaction opportunities. L2
proficiency level is also believed to affect the use of learning strategies (Rivera-Mills & Plonsky,
2007). However, participants of this study were at the introductory level. Green and Oxford
(1995) found higher frequencies of strategy use among learners at higher levels.
For the six categories of strategies, affective strategies were the most frequently used.
Among affective strategies, the most preferred specific strategy (subcategory strategies under
affective categories) was making an encouraging statement to oneself in order to continue to try
hard and do one’s best in learning Japanese. This finding suggests that self-encouragement is as
important as self-directing for learning a foreign language, especially for beginning L2 learners
of a difficult language like Japanese. The well-known theory affective filter (Krashen, 1982)
points out that in second language acquisition, positive self-talk is useful for students who have
any degree of anxiety about learning activities. Findings from in-depth interview reveal affective
aspect of JFL learning such as the following comments from the learners:
I cheer up myself by telling myself that I will get the most of the learning and do my
best. Learn as much as I can do.
I was very stressed when I was unable to answer the teacher’s question. I was
afraid of making errors such as grammatical errors and wrong word choices.
211
The second most favored strategy category was social. The highest use of specific
strategy in social categories was having a regular language learning partner. This reflects the FL
learning environment where FL learners rarely have opportunities to use L2 for meaningful
communication in real context. Also, the finding shows learning behavior of Thai students who
often need a close knit of friends to support each other in the classroom.
Metacognitive strategies ranked as the third preferred strategy category. The most
frequently used specific strategy was taking responsibility for finding opportunities to practice
Japanese. The in-depth interviews with the participants further elaborated the chosen specific
strategy. The participants described several ways of their Japanese practice such as joking with
friends in Japanese, talking to themselves in Japanese, reviewing the lessons, and exposure to
multimedia in Japanese. However, they were much less likely to plan, monitor, and evaluate their
Japanese learning. This may reflect the previous FL learning experience (EFL) that the students
have never trained to use these kinds of strategies before. Therefore, they hardly transfer the
strategies for learning another FL, Japanese.
Compensation strategies were reported as the fourth frequently used category with
highest use of specific strategies such as asking peer for unknown vocabularies and using Thai,
English, and body language for communicating with the Japanese teacher. This suggests the
limited proficiency of the learners.
Memory strategies and cognitive strategies were almost approximate and the least used
categories. Among memory strategies, acting out the new learned words or using flash card were
the least used ones. These findings are consistent with the study of Mori (2007) which revealed
that Chinese and Korean of Japanese learners rarely use these strategies. A likely explanation for
this is that JFL learners are not familiar with these kinds of strategies, in other words, these
strategies were not popular in Japanese language learning.
In contrast to Oxford’s (1990) position that cognitive strategies are extremely popular
with L2 learners and necessary for learning a new language, they were least frequently used in
this study. The specific strategies that were least used were writing personal notes, messages,
letters or reports in Japanese, reading for pleasure in Japanese, and participating in events where
Japanese is spoken. Perhaps these strategies are more possible in SL contexts especially ESL
rather than in JFL contexts. Another explanation may be that these strategies require higher
Japanese proficiency level.
212
Triangulating with the above results, the actual practice in a beginner’s Japanese
conversation class shed more light on how the JF learners used language learning strategies
which led to a major theme, collaborative learning strategy. There are three theoretical stances
that support collaborative learning strategy: 1) collaborative learning theory, 2) Vygotsky’s Zone
of Proximal Development, and 3) interaction and second language acquisition (SLA).
A central principle in collaborative learning theories is that learning is socially
constructed. Language socialization studies have demonstrated that language is learned through
social interaction (Watson-Gegeo, 1988). Research in first language (L1) writing and L2 writing
have found that learners improve their writing skills through dialogue and interaction with peers
(Liu & Hansen, 2002).
The development of writing skills is based on Vygotsky’s (1978) notion that cognitive
development occurs from social interaction in which less experienced learners can extend their
current competence through the guidance of more experienced ones. The space between the
individual’s actual level of development (what can be done without help from others) and the
potential level of development (what can be done with help of others) is called the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD).
The findings of the research on interaction and second language acquisition provide clear
evidence that interaction requires negotiating of meaning such as giving feedback to promote L2
learning (Long, 1985; Pica & Doughty, 1985). This is because negotiation of meaning increase
opportunity for comprehension. Also feedback requires error correction and to push learners to
produce comprehensible output which are believed as essential for L2 development (Swain,
1985).
Based on these three theoretical frameworks, the collaborative learning strategy used by
the JFL learners was found in two major contexts those being: comprehending the instructor’s
speech, and giving feedback to peers’ linguistic output. Below are two sample lessons (from
VDO recording) representing how collaborative learning strategies occurred in each context. The
first sample lesson was about the linguistic pattern of ～たことがります (used to do).
The teacher introduced the lesson by showing a photo of herself when she was a junior
high school student. She emphasized that she used to play table tennis at that time. The class
repeated after the teacher in simple phrase “ちゅうがくせいピンポンをしました” (Junior high
school student... used to play table tennis) but they didn’t seem to understand the meaning. There
213
were several students who collaborated in interpreting the keywords for comprehending the
teacher’s speech. The keywords in question are ちゅうがくせい (a junior high school student)
and linguistic pattern ～たことがります (used to do). Although one student offered a
misinterpretation of ちゅうがくせい (a junior high school student) as ‘senior high school
student’, this collaboration helped the class understand the general meaning the teacher wanted
to convey.
Sample Lesson 1: ～たことがります (used to do)
J：私は今中学生です。中学生です。わかりますか。(In this picture I was a junior high school
student. A junior high school student, do you understand?)
Pa：นักเรียน (student)
J：ピンポンをしました。 (Played table tennis)
c: ピンポンをしました。(Played table tennis)
J：私はピンポンをしました。いま中学生です。ピンポンをしました。(I played table tennis.
At that time I was a junior high school student. I played table tennis.)
C: ちゅうがくせいピンポンをしました。(A junior high school student... played table tennis.)
Pi：ちゅうがくせい ก็คือนักเรียนมอปลาย (‘Chuugakusei’ means a high school student.)
J：おぼえてますか。「したことがあります」べんきょうしました。(Do you remember? We
have studied the pattern ‘used to do’.)
C: (silent)
J：おぼえてない。(You cannot remember?)
Pi：เคยทํา (used to do)
C: はい、はい。(Yes, yes we remember.)
Ja：べんきょうしました。(We studied it.)
J：べんきょうしましたね。(We studied it, didn’t we?)
C: はい。(Yes.)
J：ピンポンをしたことがあります。テニスをしたことがあります。バレーボールをしたことが
あります。(I used to play table tennis. I used to play tennis. I used to play volleyball.)
Ja：เคยไหม เคยไหม (Have you ever done? Have you ever done?)
J：では、しんぶんを...... (Then, newspaper....)
Bi：しんぶんをよみました。(Read newspaper)
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J：よみました。きのうしんぶんをよみました。しんぶんをよんだことがあります。(Read.
Yesterday I read newspaper. I used to read newspaper.)
Bi：よんだことがあります。(เคยอาน) (Used to read newspaper)
Another sample lesson concerned a presentation on daily activity. The task required the
students talking in front of the class about their routine. This sample showed a clear evidence of
how peers collectively scaffold the presenter (R) to develop linguistic accuracy. The presenter
did not seem to acquire the appropriate use of the postpositional particle と (with/and). He was
unable to complete the sentence by leaving the particle と (ともだちともだち..... friend)
which made the sentence incomprehensible. However, his peers scaffolded him with the
appropriate particle と for the sentence. The presenter picked up the appropriate particle from the
peers’ feedback, but he still made an inappropriate word choice for verb in sentence ともだちと
しました (did with my friend). One peer immediately pointed out the error of word choice and
corrected it as ともだちとあいました (met with my friend).
Sample Lesson 2: Presentation on Daily Activity
R：わたしは８じにおきました。そして、シャワーをあびました。きゅうじにあさごはんをた
べました。じゅうじからじゅうにじまでともだちともだちともだち＿＿
(I got up at 8 o’clock. Then I took shower. I had breakfast at 9 o’clock. From 10 o’clock to 11
o’clock I...... my friend.)
C:
と (with)
R：ともだちと (with my friend)
C:
(laugh)
R：ともだちとともだちとじゅうにじ (...... with my friend at noon)
N:
ทําอะไรยังไมรูเรื่องเลย (I don’t understand what you are saying.)
R：ともだちとしました。(did with my friend)
N：ともだちとあいました。ใชไหม (Met with my friend, right?)
215
Conclusion
Evidence from this study suggests that context of learning and proficiency level are
influential in employing strategies. Choices of particular strategies are mostly classroom-based
learning. This reflects less use of the language for communication in an authentic context due to
the limitation of FL context. Some strategies in the SILL developed from a western context are
not familiar to the JFL learners in Thai context. Triangulating data indicates that the beginning
level of JFL learners need positive self-talk to help them continue their learning. In addition,
interaction in classroom show that regardless of proficiency level and context, the beginning
level JFL learners can use collaborative learning strategy to promote the learning by cooperating
in comprehending the target language and giving feedback to peer’s linguistic production for
comprehensible output.
Pedagogical Implications
The findings of the study suggest that affective and social aspects of language learning
are important. If instructors have awareness in these aspects and have the explicit discussion with
learners, there may be a direct payoff on learners’ outcome. In addition, collaborative learning
strategies support language learning and can be applied to as early as a beginning level of
Japanese.
Suggestions for Future Study
Because this study was only investigating learning strategies in Japanese at the beginners’
level in general and in a natural classroom setting, more additional research needs to be done.
For example research in identifying strategies JFL learners use while performing specific tasks.
Previous studies show that effective L2 learners are skillful in matching appropriate strategies to
specific task. Moreover, studies in learning strategies for each skill, listening, speaking, reading,
and writing in Japanese, should also be explored.
Acknowledgements
This study and the conference presentation have been possible with the support of a
research grant and funding for research dissemination from Phetchaburi Rajabhat University.
The author acknowledges this very generous contribution.
216
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218
A Preliminary Investigation of Promoting Critical Literacy
in Thai Secondary School Classroom through Films
Jeerapong Khamseeya
Abstract
The study investigated whether films could enhance critical literacy in Thai secondary school
classroom or not. If so, which film genre can best promote critical literacy? The subjects were 32
Thai boarding secondary school students. They were asked to move from pre-viewing to whileviewing to post-viewing. Data were obtained through the questionnaire regarding students’
opinions toward critical literacy before watching films, the open-ended questions, and
questionnaire regarding students’ opinions of critical literacy after watching films. The results
provided some insights into how the films with Thai secondary school students were carried out
and provided evidence to support teaching of critical literacy through film genres in Thai
secondary school classrooms.
Keywords: critical literacy, film genre
Introduction
Currently, societies in our world are information technology societies. The movement
and changing of economy and culture affect people’s life. People in the world are constantly
influenced by mass media such as books, daily news, magazines television programs, radio
programs, advertisements, internets, films and so on. Therefore, everything that surrounds people
has ability to manipulate them. We have to make sense of our world and understand the meaning
of what is happening to us. We need to be aware of the influences and their motives for their
messages. This paper examines whether films can enhance the students’ critical literacy in Thai
secondary school students or not. If so, which type of film genre can best promote critical
literacy in Thai secondary schools. According to Shor (1993) critical literacy is analytic habits of
thinking, reading, writing, speaking, or discussing which go beyond surface impressions,
traditional myths, mere opinions, and routine clichés, understanding the social contexts and
consequences of any subject matter; discovering the deeper meaning of any event, text,
technique, process, object, statement, image, or situation; and applying that meaning to your own
context. Critical literacy is also included encouraging students to make connections between
texts and their life experiences, considering multiple interpretations and readings of texts, and
considering what is at stake as a consequence of any particular reading (Comber, 2002;
McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2004; Vasquez, 2001).
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Walsh and Grant (2002), have created their critical literacy framework and questions to
implement 20 questionnaire questions and 7 open-ended questions to students. Developing the
critically literate learner, the researcher has applied the following questions to encourage the
students to become more aware of aspects of critical literacy and to support students practicing
critical literacy. According to the concluded definition of critical literacy above, the critically
literate person can be identified based on the core tenets suggested by Walsh and Grant (2002) as
shown in Appendix A.
Research Procedures
Selection of Subjects for the Study
This study was divided into two phases: phase 1 and phase 2. Phase 1 was a pilot study
particularly conducted in order to try out the research tools to be used in the main study. Ten
students (5 males and 5 females) with similar qualifications to the real participants in the main
study were purposively selected. Phase 2 was the main study which included 16 males and 16
female Mattayomsuksa 5 students who studied in a boarding school in Northeast Thailand.
Selection of Film Genres
The researcher obtained the movies to be used in the study from the
website http://www.filmsite.org/genres.html created by Tim Dirks (2008). Each of the selected
films was a popular film viewed throughout the world. In this study, the researcher selected 11
film genres including action, adventure, comedy, crime & gangster, drama, epics/historical,
horror, musical(dance), science fiction, war (anti-war), and western film. The films which were
chosen for this study were representatives of each film genre and were nominated for and
received an Academy Award. Each film was shown in original English version with Thai subtitle.
This helped students understand better what the characters were saying.
Research Instruments
The Questionnaire Regarding Students’ Self Assessment of Critical literacy Before
Watching Film
The participants were administered a questionnaire before watching films. The
questionnaire consisted of twenty questions designed to elicit information about watching film
behavior investigated in this study. The majority of the questions focused on critical literacy
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framework of Walsh and Grant (2002). They were encouraged to evaluate their attitude toward
watching films. It took them about 20 minutes to complete the questionnaire.
The Open-ended Questions
To collect more detailed and focused information, 32 participants were given open-ended
questions individually after watching each film genre. The participants were given the alternative
of responding in Thai language, their first language, so as to allow them to express their views
free of hindrances that might result from lacking oral proficiency in English. There were seven
core open-ended questions and each core tenet had keywords in order to check the students’
response. This instrument was used to obtain the written responses based on the core tenets of
critical literacy from the participants. Each question was taken from the critical literacy
framework of Walsh and Grant (2002). Each participant spent about 30 min on the open-ended
questions. Their responses were analyzed quantitatively and qualitatively following the core
tenets of critical literacy suggested by Wash and Grant (2002). Moreover; after watching each
kind of film all students’ response were rated by the experts of critical literacy.
The Questionnaire Regarding Students’ Self Assessment of Critical Literacy After
Watching Film
The participants were administered a questionnaire after watching films. The
questionnaire consisted of twenty questions designed to elicit information about watching film
behavior investigated in this study. The majority of the questions focused on critical literacy
framework of Walsh and Grant (2002). They were encouraged to evaluate their attitude toward
watching films. This questionnaire was given again after showing each kind of film. It took them
about 30 minutes to complete the questionnaire.
Strategies for the Viewing Films
The researcher adapted the guided reading technique suggested by Blackall (2002) to be
used in this study: pre-viewing, while-viewing, and post-viewing.
Strategies for the Pre-Viewing Stage
Before viewing each kind of films, 32 subjects were explained the meaning of all film
genres, power, role, position, stereotype, culture, values, and attitudes in Thai language and
given the sample events that represent seven core tenets before viewing each film genre. There
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were 11 selected film genres: action, adventure, comedy, crime & gangster, drama,
Epics/historical, horror, musical(dance), science fiction, war (anti-war), and western films to be
viewed in the Thai secondary school classroom. Two kinds of films were shown a week. The
filming instruments were DVD player, projector, microphone, and speakers.
Strategies for the While-Viewing Stage
The viewing of the film was done in the classroom, allowing the subjects to check their
predictions each kind of film. A whole film approach was used because showing complete film
enhanced the subject motivation to such an extent that they were visibly impressed with the film.
It did not interrupt them during their watching of the films
Strategies for the Post-Viewing Stage
The strategy used during the post-viewing stage was to extend the understanding obtained
from each film in the pre-viewing and while-viewing stages into speaking and writing tasks. Two
research instruments used in this stage were the open-ended questions, and the questionnaire
regarding students’ self assessment of critical literacy after watching each film.
Data Analysis
To answer the research questions, can films enhance the students’ critical literacy in Thai
secondary school students or not? And if so, which kind of film genre can most promote critical
literacy. To collect data, the present study made use of a technique which includes the
questionnaire regarding students’ self assessment of critical literacy before watching film genres,
the open-ended questions, and the questionnaire regarding students’ self assessment of critical
literacy after watching each film genres. The data obtained from different methods were
analyzed and interpreted in two main ways, quantitative and qualitative data analysis.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Quantitative data analysis obtained from the questionnaire regarding students’ self
assessment of critical literacy before and the questionnaire regarding students’ self assessment of
critical literacy after watching each kind of film. Both of them were compared and analyzed by
using the computer software program, SPSS for windows. The frequencies, one-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) and independent student t-test sub-programs were used t find standard
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deviation, and arithmetic means. The results of the average means were classified into 5 levels
based on Likert scale.
Qualitative Data Analysis
The Data obtained from open-ended questions consisted of seven questions. Each
question was 4 points thus, the total point was 28. In this process, the data were examined and
compared with other kinds of film as critical literacy development material. The number of
students who had similar answers with keywords in the core tenets of critical literacy was
categorized and then interpreted to support the data from other instruments. Thus, the students’
interpretations would be analyzed whether films could support students’ critical literacy or not. If
so, which film genre most enhanced students’ critical literacy in Thai secondary school.
Results of the Study
The Comparison of Questionnaire Regarding Students’ Self Assessment of Critical
Literacy Before and After Watching Film
The following tables illustrated the data analysis results of questionnaire regarding
students’ self assessment of critical literacy before watching film in different questions.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Students’ Self Assessment of Critical Literacy
before Watching Films
Before Watching Each Film Genre
Students’ self assessment of critical literacy
before watching
X
3.439
SD
Level
.273
moderate
Note: Likert scales coding: very low = 1.00-1.49, low = 1.50-2.49, moderate = 2.50-3.49, high = 3.50-4.49,
very high = 4.50-5.00.
From table 1, the average mean of students’ self assessment of critical literacy before
watching films was at a moderate level ( X =3.439) and this means that students are satisfied
with watching films critically at the moderate level.
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Table 2: Descriptive Statistics and Correlations of Students’ Self Assessment of Critical Literacy
after Watching Films
After Watching Each Film Genre
Film Genre
Representative Film
X
SD
Level
Drama
Dead Poets Society
4.040
.597
High
Gang-crime
The Departed
3.815
.474
High
Science fiction
Artificial Intelligence
3.968
.497
High
Western
The Unforgiven
3.756
.541
High
Comedy
Babe
3.732
.350
High
Action
Spiderman
3.956
.419
High
Musical
Chicago
3.510
.486
High
Adventure
Gladiator
3.967
.479
High
Epic/Historical
The Last Emperor
3.842
.555
High
Horror
28 Days Later
3.530
.577
High
Anti-war
Saving Private Ryan
3.746
.365
High
Note: Likert scales coding: very low = 1.00-1.49, low = 1.50-2.49, moderate = 2.50-3.49, high = 3.50-4.49,
very high = 4.50-5.00.
From table 2, the average mean of students’ assessment of critical literacy after watching
film in drama film genre was the highest at 4.040. In addition, the average mean of other film
genres: crime & gangster, science fiction, western, comedy, action, musical, adventure,
epics/historical, horror, and anti-war film were also at high level (3.815, 3.968, 3.756, 3.732,
3.956, 3.510, 3.967, 3.842, 3.530, and 3.746 respectively). Students also ranked all 11 kinds of
film at higher level than before watching film. And this means that students thought that the
films used in the development of critical literacy was appropriate.
Open-ended Questions
In this part, there are seven open-ended questions: (1) How are the roles of characters
different in this film?, (2) How are other characters positioned in this film?, (3) How is power
used in this film?, (4) What are the stereotypes represented in this film?, (5) What are the values
that are held in this film?, (6) What aspects of culture can you identify in this film?, and (7) How
does this film affect attitudes and relationships with others or your understanding in our world?
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These questions had been utilized and combined the parts of the critical literacy
framework of Walsh and Grant (2002) to be used to gather data from the students after watching
each kinds of film. The open-ended questions were included in the survey aimed at providing
subjects with opportunity to enhance decoding the seven core tenets of critical literacy: role,
power, culture, position, values, attitude, and stereotype through films. This following table
below illustrates the data analysis results of students’ open-ended questions in different film
genres.
Table 3: Descriptive Statistics of Students’ Open-ended Questions after Watching Each
Kind of Film
After Watching Each Film Genre
Film Genre
Representative Film
X
SD
Drama
Dead Poets Society
23.06
2.30
Gang-crime
The Departed
19.28
2.02
Science fiction
Artificial Intelligence
22.03
1.53
Western
The Unforgiven
16.84
1.19
Comedy
Babe
20.63
2.47
Action
Spiderman
18.78
1.85
Musical
Chicago
15.47
2.00
Adventure
Gladiator
19.84
1.90
Epic/Historical
The Last Emperor
21.03
1.88
Horror
28 Days Later
16.56
2.12
Anti-war
Saving Private Ryan
17.88
1.60
From table 3, the average mean of students’ open-ended questions after watching film in
drama film genre was the highest at 23.06. In addition, the average mean of other film genres:
crime & gangster, science fiction, comedy, action, adventure, epics/historical, was also at high
level (19.28, 22.03, 20.63, 18.78, 19.84, 21.03, 16.56, and 17.88 respectively). On the other hand,
the average of western, musical, horror, and anti-war film were at the low level (16.84, 15.47,
16.56, and 17.88 respectively). Students also ranked all 11 kinds of film at different level and
this means that each kind of film could enhance students’ critical literacy differently.
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In this part, there are seven questions to be administrated to investigate whether students
can identify deeper power, role, position, stereotype, culture, value, and attitude in each film or
not and if so, how the core tenets of critical literacy were presented in each film. After viewing
the films, they could response as follows.
Learner 5
In Dead Poet Society, each character is different, Mr. Keating’s role is teacher, but
sometime his roles are friend, rugby trainer, poet, inspirer, and so on. I like him
because he does his duties very well, especially, his strange teaching style. It makes me
have a wider inspiration. As for me I also have my own roles in daily day. I am a
student, son, brother, and friend.. However, I will try to do my roles best. I will not do
my roles to cause any problem to other people.
Learner 2
…there are differences of position in the film (Dead Poets Society). This film,
Mr.Keating is poisoned as a teacher who breaks the school rules, but is inspiring
teacher. In the case of Mr.Keating, showing that position is presented into two sides:
good for students and bad for other teacher in school. After watching this film, it
makes me aware of positioning people. We should think critically. Neil is put as an
unlucky student, he is always pressured to be a doctor by his parents. Then it causes
death of Neil. This case, I think that parents position themselves in a wrong way
because they do not accept their son’s ability.
Learner 13
The power is shown in Dead Poets Society is Naile’s father. He is repressed by his
father. His father wants him to be a doctor. After watching this film, it makes me see
what power is. We should use it properly. After I watched this film it empowers me as
well especially, seizing my days and reaching for a beautiful dream before it is too late.
Learner 2
The stereotypes that I can identify in this film (Dead Poets Society) are two things.
Firstly, the rich children are sent to study in a boarding school (Walton) by their
wealthy family. And secondly, the teachers who teach in this boarding school must be
the best teachers, so all students must follow everything that they say.
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Learner 2
The cultures, I have seen in this film (Dead Poets society) are giving a present on
someone’s birthday, wearing suit, and playing rugby. In this film I also see the black
color in the western funeral I think that it is the symbol of sadness. This color is used
in many countries including Thailand. Last month, I went to my cousin’s funeral with
my parents we all wore the black dress.
Learner 2
Dead Poet Society affect my attitudes and relationships. In my opinion, Keating’s
teaching methods and manner are strange. I think he should have been a little more
careful with his teaching. He may have been too idealistic in promoting freethinking,
individuality and non-conformity within the school and community that is highly
conservative. Most of his students come from conservative backgrounds and he is
teaching his students not only to go against the school conventions but also their
families’ expectations. Finally, I think some his teaching methods are not suitable.
These items were designed to elicit the core tenets of critical literacy: role, power, culture,
position, value, attitude, and stereotype which were portrayed in the films. After they watched
each kind of film, the responses of student have shown that they are able to decode the core
tenets of critical literacy in the films. Learners could express the core tenets of critical literacy in
the films differently.
Discussion
1. The results of viewing films to promote students’ critical literacy in a Thai secondary
school classroom indicated that films could enhance critical literacy at different levels. Like the
previous studies with a few notable exceptions, (Johnson, 2006; Parker & Daly, 1973; Shafer,
2000; Dziedzic, 2002; Aiex, 1988) pointed out that films were also a motivating source of
critical writing, providing experiences, authentic spoken language in context - a resource for both
language and culture for students. This take-up rate compares favorably with those reported in
studies that support the effectiveness of using film to enhance students’ critical literacy (Comber,
2002; McLaughlin & DeVoogd, 2004; Vasquez, 2004).
In addition, Vetrie (2004) supported that using a film as a text improves students’ reading
abilities in the same way as reading photographs. When students see that the same literary
elements also apply to film, they begin to understand that film is literature as well, and thus they
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can see that film in reality contains valuable academic merit. They began to move away from the
idea that movies in class are just a non-educational filler. Like photographs, film utilizes visual
images, with which today’s adolescents are well-accustomed to. Parker and Daly (1973) found
that by high school graduation, the average American teenager has seen over 15,000 hours of
television and over 500 films. In the thirty five years since this study was conducted, these
numbers have undoubtedly increased significantly; today’s students are now heavily immersed in
a world of moving images. Their society believes that such large degrees of exposure are
detrimental to teenagers, but Parker and Daly argue that “films provide experiences out of which
students develop new insights about themselves and the world” (Parker & Daly, 1973).
Therefore, English teachers must get involved in media and film education in order to teach
students how to make meaning out of these images instead of just mindlessly consuming them.
Often, teachers misuse film in today’s classrooms. When a teacher has nothing else planned,
viewing the movie at the end of a unit is a reward or a way to fill space (Golden, 2001). Vetrie
(2004) acknowledged this by adding that, the teacher must provide some sort of structure to the
film being viewed. Without an assignment of structure the students would passively view the
film and would not realize the academic value attached to watching the movie.
In 2003, Milner stated that film can support students practicing their literacy skills,
analyzing a film enables them to practice some of the same literary terminology applicable to
printed text. Symbolism, character, plot, setting, mood and others all apply to both film and
literature. Because students are less intimidated by film, they may be more willing to discuss
these elements as they see them on screen as opposed to when they read them in text. In the same
fashion, while most students have seen a great many films, almost all students are equally
inexperienced at analyzing a film. Students will feel more confident taking guesses about an
element’s meaning because they feel as though they are on a level playing field. In addition,
Shafer (2000) asserted that films are highly encouraging and they also promote learners’
interdisciplinary learning. Furthermore, Aiex (1988) reported in regards to learning historical
background information, films can help students understand better. In English classrooms,
teachers can show documentaries to introduce background information before starting a novel.
Like viewing historical photographs, documentaries give students a factual background to
connect back to while they read which as a result can increase their understanding. Another
benefit of implementing film into the curriculum is that film can be a springboard for writing. In
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order to keep students from reverting into passive viewers, it is necessary to give them a task to
complete during or shortly after viewing to keep on engaging.
2. The results of film genre analyzing which kind of films could most promote students
critical literacy, found that drama films were the most effective. They encourage the students’
use of critical literacy the most in Thai secondary school at 4.040. In addition, the average mean
of other film genres: crime & gangster, science fiction, western, comedy, action, musical,
adventure, epics/historical, horror, and anti-war film were also at high level (3.815, 3.968, 3.756,
3.732, 3.956, 3.510, 3.967, 3.842, 3.530, and 3.746 respectively). Furthermore, the average mean
of students’ open-ended questions after watching film in drama film genre was the highest as
well. As the results, the drama film genres are serious, plot-driven presentations, portraying
realistic characters, settings, life situations, and stories involving intense character development
and interaction. These films are the easiest for Thai teenager to relate to, as they can as they are
realistic and the students can see examples of certain similar behaviors in their everyday life.
Moreover, dramas are very straight forward they are not clouded by such things as humor, fear,
or other human emotions the viewer might experience while watching the film.
In addition, the science fiction film genre is understood by students because the students
today easily related to the futuristic world, and new technology depicted in the genre. Science
fiction has always been about what can happen now, or in the immediate future, something
today’s students are interested in. Behrman (2006) suggests that the practice of reading from the
perspective of resistance involves students in the interpretation of a text from the viewpoint of
the world and not just the common Euro-centric ideology often found in standard texts. Foss
(2002) also points out that by considering how people from different backgrounds (i.e., racial,
cultural, gender, religious, socio-economic status, sexual orientation) would read the same text,
students can gain a better understanding of how the representative group would be affected by a
reading of a text. This type of reading would be particularly effective and beneficial in social
studies classes because it would offer students multiple perspectives of the same event. By
providing the stories of people whose voices typically aren’t heard, teachers offer students the
opportunity to participate in dialogue about why certain perspectives are normally privileged
while others are silenced. Mellor & Patterson (2000) suggest that incorporating multiple texts
based on similar literary themes offers students the opportunity to critique the values or voices
that are being promoted. Furthermore, this practice challenges the idea that meaning is fixed and
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encourages students to use evidence to support their interpretation. Students can evaluate the
social, cultural, and historical frameworks of texts by analyzing differing perspectives of a single
event.
On the other hand, some film genres such as musical or horror the underlying message is
more difficult to decode due to the fact that their underlying messages can sometimes be blurred
by the effects of the movie. Because the fact that they must first wade through music or emotion
before being able to deconstruct a movie. This is not specific to Thai students every culture find
it more difficult to decode these genres.
Conclusion
This study is conducted to find out whether film can enhance students’ critical literacy or
not. If so, which kind of film can most promote critical literacy in Thai secondary school in the
fist semester of 2008 in order to provide useful information to design the use of film as a
teaching material for critical literacy development. The results of the data for each topic are
concluded as follows.
1. Students’ assessment of critical literacy before watching films
Students’ assessments of critical literacy before watching films were at a moderate
level.
2. Students’ assessment of critical literacy after watching films
Students’ assessments of critical literacy after watching films were at a high level and
drama film genre was the highest. Students also ranked all 11 kinds of film at higher level than
before watching film. And this means that students thought that the films could develop students’
critical literacy.
3. Students’ open-ended questions after watching each kind of film
The average mean of students’ open-ended questions after watching film in drama
film genre was the highest. This kind of films could most encourage students to decode the core
tenets of critical literacy. In addition, the average mean of other film genres: crime & gangster,
science fiction, comedy, action, adventure, epics/historical, were also at high level. On the other
hand, the western, musical, horror, and anti-war film were at the low level.
230
Suggestions and Recommendations
1. The result of the study showed that films could enhance students’ critical literacy and
attitude in Thai secondary school classroom at the different levels, therefore; teacher should
provide suitable films to promote their critical literacy.
2. Using films to encourage students’ critical literacy might be new in Thai secondary
school classroom, thus; teacher should give the students’ background of viewing films on critical
literacy development.
3. According to the results, films could be used to enhance students’ critical literacy
individually, hence; honesty is the most important factor that we should consider since it helps us
to obtain the valid data.
4. As the result of this study, dram film genre was the most effective enhancing critical
literacy in Thai secondary school classroom. On the other hand, horror and musical film genres
were able less motivate students’ critical literacy. This suggested how teacher should choose
suitable films for students.
5. Future research might compare which kind of film influences the students’ critical
literacy stability, the ability of solving the problem, motivation of learning.
6. In addition, it should be investigated which kind of film can enhance the students’
critical literacy in the other level students.
References
Aiex, N. K. (1988). Using film, video and TV in the classroom. ERIC Digest Number 11.
Retrieved from http://www.ericdigests.org/pre-929/film.htm
Behrman, E. (2006). Teaching about language, power, and text: A review of classroom practices
that support critical literacy. Journal of Adolescent and Adult Literacy 49(6), 490–498.
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232
Appendix A
The Critical Literacy Framework of Walsh & Grant (2002)
Critical
Literacy
Aspect of the Critically Literate Person
Keywords
Framework
Role
Position
Be able to deconstruct and understand the deeper
Character, teacher,
relationships of roles that are viewed in the film
friend, careers, duties,
and also apply to the daily life.
responsibility, daily life
Overpowered, winner,
relationships of position that are viewed in the film
use position, two sides,
inspiring, ability
Power
relationships of power that are influenced in the
film and also apply to the daily life.
Stereotype
relationships of stereotype that are shown in the
Overpower, repressed,
strong, force, allow,
banned, influence,
encourage
Rich, wealthy, lifestyle
stereotypical, depicted
Unattainable, famous,
Be able to deconstruct and evaluate the deeper
Values
art, passion,
relationships of values that are portrayed in the film development, freedom,
meaningful, message,
high
Attitude
relationships of attitude that are portrayed in the
Culture
Scared, suffering, unfair,
pitiful, competition
Western, clothes, black,
relationships of culture that are presented in the
symbol, practice, cultural
practice
233
Vowel Length and Word Recognition among
Americans, Chinese, Japanese, and Thais
Vorachai Piata
International Christian University, Tokyo, Japan
Abstract
This thesis investigated the pronunciation differences between the NS (Americans) and the NNS
(Japanese and Thais). The thesis included two experiments. First, Vowel Length Experiment
involved a measurement of vowel lengths in two phonological contexts; namely, vowel lengths
before voiced vs. voiceless consonants as in “bead” and “beat” and lengths of Tense and Lax
vowels as in “heat” and “hit”. Vowel lengths of 1440 words recorded from fifteen speakers (5
Americans, 5 Japanese, and 5 Thais) were measured using Praat Program. Second, Word
Recognition Experiment was designed to address two research questions: the Interlanguage
Speech Intelligibility Benefit (Bent & Bradlow, 2003) and the impact of vowel lengths on word
recognition. The results portrayed that (a) the American and the Japanese speakers had a
significant contrast of the vowel length before the voiced and the voiceless consonants (e.g.,
vowels in bead and beat) but no significance was observed in the Thai speakers. (b) The
American, the Japanese, and the Thai speakers had a significant contrast of the lengths of the
tense and lax vowels. (c) The American listeners, as a comparison group, found the American
speakers most intelligible. Non-native listeners (Japanese and Thai), however, did not find the
speakers from the same L1 more intelligible than speakers from different L1. (d) The Long
Vowel Words were not found more intelligible than the Short Vowel Words. The discussions
relating to the above findings are beneficial contributions to a theoretical knowledge on vowel
length production of the NNS as well as the influence of vowel lengths on the perception of
English words.
Keywords: vowel length, word recognition, interlanguage speech, intelligibility benefit
Background
English language obtains a status as an international language. Kachru (1989) divided
speakers of English into three circles: The Inner Circle, The Outer Circle, and the Expanding
Circle, which represent NS, ESL, and EFL speakers, respectively. Since English is spoken as a
native language, NSs used to be reckoned as norm providers and definite judges of language
standard. This perception is changed due to the fact that the number of NNSs of English has
surpassed the number of the NSs (Crystal, 2003; McArthur, 2003). McArthur (2006) postulated
that it is hard to establish a standard of English language between the native and the non-native
speakers of English. The royalties of the English language speaking countries may consider other
varieties of English as a deterioration of their English language, while the speakers of the nonnative varieties of English are codifying a standard version of their own English. Kachru (2003)
advocated that the future of English will be in the hands of the non-native speakers because their
234
numbers will be much bigger the numbers of the English natives. The non-native speakers will
develop their own norms which are not identical to the norms of the RP and GA varieties due to
some reasons such as the insufficiency of good teachers, budget and English teaching support
medias.
Having said thus far, ones might have been informed that the standard of English is
heading toward plurality and native speakers are no longer finite owners of the standard of
English. Munro (2008) suggested that in language teaching contexts where communication is the
highest priority, the goal of pronunciation instruction should be to help learners realize their full
communicative potential in second language acquisition. Rather than seeing foreign
accentedness as inherently problematic in L2 oral output, we should accept it as part of normal
variation in human speech. We should not assign L2 speakers all the responsibility for
intelligibility. Rather, we should acknowledge the role of listeners as active participants in the
contraction and recognize that they may be capable of enhancing their ability to understand L2
speech. We should not define the intelligibility of L2 speech solely in terms of native listeners’
perceptions, but should understand it as the response of a linguistically diverse audiences to the
L2 speakers. Jenkins (2002) proposed the Lingua Franca Core, which pontificates that only some
aspects of the nativeness of English are crucial for intelligibility. Among other Lingua Franca
Core areas of English, Jenkins portrayed that vowel length contrasts in words like “live” and
“leave”, and “sad” and “sat” are crucial for intelligibility and that it should be put on spot for L2
learners.
Following Munro (2008), study on intelligibility should corporate non-native listeners as
judges for intelligibility. In addition, Kachru (1998) advocated that more research on
intelligibility should be done in The Outer and The Expanding Circles. As revealed in some
studies on intelligibility (Bradlow & Pisoni, 1999; Bradlow & Bent, 2007; Munro, 1998; Smith,
Bradlow, & Bent, 2003; Smith & Bisazza, 1983) that most of the data were collected in The
Inner Circle and they involved only native listeners as the judges of intelligibility. This study was
conducted in Japan and Thailand which are countries in The Expanding Circle. It also
investigated the NNS-NNS recognition of English words with vowel length contrasts.
Four research questions of this study were addressed via two experiments: Vowel Length
Experiment and Word Recognition Experiment. The sections that follow describe the two
experiments’ methodologies and their findings.
235
Vowel Length Experiment
The Vowel Length Experiment sought to answer two research questions concerning a
measurement of vowel lengths in two different phonological environments; vowel length before
voiced and voiceless consonants (Voiced vs. Voiceless Question), and length of tense and lax
vowels (Tense vs. Lax Question). The vowel length measurement was aimed to verify whether
there would be any length differences in the production of English words in the contexts as stated
previously between the NSs and the NNSs.
Participants. This research included 15 native and non-native speakers, each five was
from America, Japan and Thailand. All the fifteen speakers reported to have normal hearing. The
average ages for the American, Japanese and Thai speakers were 22, 22 and 24 years,
respectively. The American and the Thai participants were studying at Japanese universities
around Tokyo during the data collection. The Japanese and the Thai speakers possessed more
than 550 TOEFL score (average 560 and 547 for Japanese and Thai speakers, respectively). The
speakers were involved in reading a set of sixteen sentences four times. Words embedded in a
carrier sentence, “I want to say_____ more than _____” were used for length measurements.
Materials. A set of 16 minimal pairs were used for the vowel length measurement (Table
1). Two words in a pair contrasted to each other based either on the contrastive voicing of the
final consonants like in “cab” and “cap”, or on the vowels’ tenseness and laxness as in “heat”
and “hit”. According to Ladefoged (2006), native speakers of English always pronounce a longer
length for vowels preceding voiced consonants and the native English speakers’ length of tense
vowels is longer than that of the lax vowels. However, length is not the only factor that draws a
distinction between tense and lax vowels. Tense vowels involve muscle tension during tense
vowel production. In addition, tense and lax vowels are contrastive in term of their vowel quality
meaning that tense vowels seem to be projected on a higher tongue position compared to their
lax counterparts (Ladefoged, 2006). However, the contrast of English vowel lengths before
voiced and voiceless consonants, and tense and lax vowels have yet been well documented
among the NNSs. Therefore, it was a worthy point that this research was subjected to explore.
236
Table 1: Sixteen Minimal Pairs for the Vowel Length Experiment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
Tense Vowels
Spelling
IPA
heat

take

deep

ease

peak

leap

deed

team

Final Voiced Consonants

cab

cub

pig

phase

save

buzz

aid

bead
Lax Vowels
Spelling
IPA
hit

tech

dip

is

pick

lip

did

Tim

Final Voiceless Consonants

cap

cup

pick

face

safe

bus

ate

beat
Procedures. The speakers were appointed to do the sixteen sentence reading task a
process at which the speakers’ sentence readings were recorded using Audacity audio editor
program. Before the reading task started, all the speakers were informed that their readings
would be recorded and they needed to sign an Informed Consent Form if they agreed to
participate in the experiment. All the sound files were saved as .WAV format for an easy play
back with Praat. After all the fifteen speakers had completed the reading task, the researcher
extracted 1440 words (15 speakers x 32 words x 3 times) from the recorded sentences and
measured the lengths of vowels embedded in the extracted words using Praat program. The
decision on the vowel onset and offset was based on suggestions provided by Hirata and Whiton
(2005) and Ladefoged (2006). The vowel onset was marked using both waveform and formant
inspection. Hirata and Whiton (2005) suggested using the spectral view, the vowel was measured
to the abrupt ending point across all formants. When all formants ended at the same point in time,
the points constituted the end of the measurement. An enlarged spectrogram in Figure 1
demonstrates how the onset and the offset of vowel in “team” were measured.
237

Figure 1: A Clear Distinction of Formants of Vowel and Consonants in “team”
Formants of the vowel and the consonants in “team” have a clear disintegration, therefore, they
manifestly identify the boundaries between the vowel and the consonants.
One sees in Figure 1 that the releasing of [t] is clearly represented apart from the onset of
the vowel [i:]. In addition, there is an abruption ending points of the formant 1, 2, and 3 of the
vowel [i:]. This makes it possible to mark vowel’s onset and offset. With Praat, the scale of
measurement was by millisecond (ms.). Based on this technique, the researcher measured the
length of vowels in the 1440 words. The results are as presented in the following section.
Results. This section reveals the results of the two research questions. Related
interpretations of the findings are discussed after distributing the results of each research
question.
Table 2: Vowel Length before Voiced and Voiceless Consonants
Words
Vd.
Vls.
cab
cap
pig
pick
phase face
cub
cup
bead Beat
save safe
buzz bus
aid
ate
Average
American
Speaker Group
Vd.
Vls.
Diff.
186
115
71
112
76
36
250
156
-6
132
74
58
184
112
72
237
168
69
193
116
77
235
156
99
191
122
69
Japanese
Speaker Group
Vd.
Vls.
Diff.
167
118
49
139
105
34
223
163
60
138
104
34
194
173
21
196
166
30
166
138
28
216
195
21
180
145
35
Thai
Speaker Group
Vd.
Vls. Diff.
109
99
10
86
91
-5
174
170
4
91
84
7
167
151
16
195
122
73
122
120
2
200
194
6
143
134
9
238
The Voiced vs. Voiceless Question. One sees from Table 2 that the average length of
vowels before voiced and voiceless consonant for the American Speaker Group were 191 ms,
and 122 ms, respectively. The average vowel lengths before voiced and voiceless consonants for
the Japanese Speaker Group were 180 ms, and 145 ms; and it was 143 ms and 134 ms for the
Thai Speaker Group. Average differences of vowel lengths before voiced and voiceless
consonants were 69 ms, 35 ms, and 9 ms for the Americans, the Japanese, and the Thai Speaker
Groups, respectively. It was revealed by the Two-Way ANOVA that the American Speaker
Group and the Japanese Speaker Group significantly contrasted the length of vowels before
voiced and voiceless consonants, (F (1,12) = 51.69, p < .01), and (F (1,12) = 41.32, p < .01),
respectively. However, no significance was observed in the Thai Speaker Group (F (1,12) = .55,
n.s.).
Voiced vs. Voiceless Discussion. It was not surprising that the American Speakers Group
significantly contrasted the length of vowels before voiced and voiceless consonants because
similar result was also observed in other studies (Ladefoged, 2006; Smith, Bradlow, & Bent,
2003). It was revealed in the literature about Japanese and Thai phonological systems (Okada,
1999; Vance, 2008; Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom, 2005; Tingsabadh & Abramson, 1999; Abramson,
1990) that Japanese phonology only permits three phonemes, [m], [n], and [at the post vocalic
position. Even though Thai phonological system allows more phonemes at the syllable final
position, voiced consonants do not exist in syllable final position. Despite the fact that the
Japanese Speaker Group should have more limitations, compared to the Thai speakers, on
contrasting the length of vowels since there are only 5 vowels in Japanese and there are nine
vowels in Thai (Okada, 1999; Tingsabadh & Abramson, 1999). It was interesting why the
Japanese Speaker Group significantly contrasted the length of vowel before voiced and voiceless
consonants while the Thai Speaker Group did not. The researcher further investigated waveforms
of the words “bead” and “beat” of the first speakers from the three countries. It was portrayed
that Japanese, like American speakers, pronounced the voicing contrast between the phonemes
[d], and [t] in “bead” and “beat” while similar performance was not found in the Thai Speaker
Group. This was important evidence showing that contrasting of voicing quality in the syllable
final position affects vowel length production between Japanese and Thai speakers.
239
The Tense vs. Lax Question. Table 3 shows the results of the length of tense and lax
vowels. Following Ladefoged (2006), it was expected that the American Speaker Group would
produce tense vowels longer than lax vowels. Table 3 provides an approval result for this
expectation. The lengths of tense and lax vowels produced by the American Speaker Group were
147 ms and 102 ms. For the Japanese Speaker Group, the results were 176 ms and 116 ms, and
the results for the Thai speaker Group were 166 ms and 92 ms.
As presented in the bottom of Table 3, the different lengths between tense and lax vowels
observed in the American, the Japanese, and the Thai Speaker Groups were 45 ms, 60 ms, and 74
ms, respectively. Thai Speaker Group had the biggest length difference between tense and lax
vowels. The Two-Way ANOVA analysis showed that the American, the Japanese, and the Thai
Speaker Groups significantly contrasted the length of tense vowels in comparison to the length of
lax vowels.
Table 3: Vowel Length of Tense and Lax Vowels
Words
Tense Lax
heat
hit
take
tech
ease
is
deep dip
leap
lip
deed did
team Tim
peak pick
Average
American
Speaker Group
Tense Lax Diff.
106
80
26
106
83
23
275
202
73
122
80
42
102
71
31
201
125
76
155
92
63
99
83
16
147
102
45
Japanese
Speaker Group
Tense Lax
Diff.
158
105
53
146
101
45
254
175
79
169
109
60
146
74
72
209
152
57
167
108
59
157
101
56
176
116
60
Thai
Speaker Group
Tense Lax Diff.
149
80
69
147
61
86
215
180
35
162
81
81
144
70
74
187
88
99
177
79
98
152
81
71
166
92
74
Tense and Lax Vowel Discussion. The fact that lengths of tense vowels are longer than
lengths of lax vowels has been found in previous studies (Ladefoged, 2006; Munro, 1998; Smith,
Bradlow, & Bent, 2003). Ladefoged (2006) postulated that in words with the tense and lax
vowels contrast as in “beat” and “bit”, the tense vowel [i] in “beat” is longer than the lax vowel [I]
in “bit”. It was depicted in Munro (1998) that the temporal difference between tense and lax
vowels before voiced consonants was more substantial in the NSs than the NNSs. Contrastively,
this research revealed that the Thai and the Japanese Speakers produced greater temporal
difference than did the American Speakers. The explanation on this finding could be based on
240
the fact that in Thai phonology, tense and lax vowels appear phonemically, all the Thai nine
monophthongs have short and long vowel counterparts. In addition, Thai tense and lax vowels
are represented with different orthographies (Iwasaki & Ingkaphirom, 2005; Tingsabadh &
Abramson, 1999; Abramson, 1974; Gandour, 1984; Danvivathana, 1987; Chaimanee, 1999). For
example, the vowel [i] is represented by / ี/ and the vowel [] is represented by / ิ/ in the Thai
writing system. For the Japanese orthographic system (Vance, 2008), an application of the length
mark /ー/ after a vowel signifying the prolonging of the vowel preceding the length mark like in
the words ビル / or “building”, and ビール /or “beer”. Based on a clear
representation of vowel length distinction in both the Japanese and the Thai orthographies, the
Japanese Speaker Group and the Thai Speaker Group perhaps had greater distinction of the tense
and the lax than the American Speaker Group.
Word Recognition Experiment
Two research questions were addressed in this experiment, The Interlanguage Speech
Intelligibility Question, and The Vowel Length and Word Recognition Question. The first was
aimed to find whether an L1 similarity of listeners and speakers would be benefit for an L2
recognition. The latter was restricted to test whether long vowel words would be more
intelligible than the short vowel words.
Participants. The Word Recognition Experiment involved forty listeners who were
representatives of the NSs and the NNSs. Each ten were from America, China, Japan, and
Thailand. The American Listeners’ average age was 39 years old (range 22-63). Four of the
American Listeners were students at ICU, while six other were language naive Americans who
never studied foreign languages or lived outside of the United States. The Chinese Listeners’
average age was 25 years old (range 19-37). They were students studying in Japanese
universities around Tokyo. The Japanese Listeners’ average age was 24 years old (range 19-29),
Nine of the ten Japanese Listeners had never lived or studied in an English speaking country.
The Thai Listeners’ average age was 22 years old (range 20-25). The Thai Listeners had never
been out of Thailand to study English in an English speaking country. All the 40 listeners
reported to have normal hearing.
241
Materials. Words for the Word Recognition Task. The words used for the Interlanguage
Speech Intelligibility Benefit Question and for the Word Recognition Question were the same set
of words. Based on the measurement of vowel lengths of the 1440 words in the Vowel Length
Experiment, two of the longest vowel words and two of the shortest vowel words from the
American, the Japanese, and the Thai speaker groups were extracted (Table 4). Each word was
duplicated to make five identical sound files which were saved in the WAV format. After all the
selected sound files were duplicated, a total set of sixty words was ready to be programmed in
Cedrus Superlab for a randomized playback to the listeners.
Cedrus Superlab. The sound files were played back to the listeners in a random order
using Cedrus Superlab. To prepare the sound files for the Word Recognition Experiment, the
researcher instructed the program to play out the files in a random order. In addition, the
researcher did not specify any correct answer during the programming to enable the listeners to
type any words they thing hey heard from the program. The program would save the answer that
the listeners typed automatically at the end of the Word Recognition Task.
Table 4: Twelve Words with the Shortest and Longest Vowel Lengths Spoken by American,
Japanese, and Thai speakers
Speakers
American
Japanese
Thai
Word with Longest Vowel
(LVW)
LVW1
LVW2
aid
phase
(347ms)
(308ms)
phase
ease
(375ms)
(355ms)
is
ease
(256ms)
(250ms)
Word with Shortest Vowel
(SVW)
SVW1
SVW2
pig
pick
(39ms)
(56ms)
lip
pick
(58ms)
(64ms)
cup
Tim
(42ms)
(58ms)
Procedures. All the listeners were told that they would be listening to a random set of 60
words, each of which would be played to them only once from the computer. They did a practice
by listening and answering to 10 randomized words from the program (the words used for the
practice were the same words used in the real task) to prepare them for the task. The frame below
represents the print screen version of the instruction presented in Cedrus Superlab.
242
After the listeners heard each word, they had to type their answer in the box and press
“Enter” to save their answer, while pressing the “Enter” mode for the second time would lead to
a presentation of the next word. During this time, the cursor in the box would not blink and the
program would not progress any further which means that the listeners could have as much time
as they wanted to think about the correct answer. If the keyboard was left without any operation
for 5 seconds (the cursor blinks five times) after the listeners had typed any letter or words in the
box, the program would automatically save the incomplete answer. Then whatever word or
letters typed in the box would disappear and the answer could not be revised after it was saved.
The fact above became a limitation of using Superlab for this research. The researcher
and his professor did not experience this limitation during the trial period. But during the data
collection in The United States, some American listeners reported that after they had typed some
letters in the box, and then they stopped in order to think about the answer again, then the letter
that they had typed disappeared and they could not input any answer after that. As a result, the
answers that were saved under this circumstance were not completed and they were marked as
zero during the score tabulating. Although this happened very few times, it was important to note
here because it might have some effect on the score of the word recognition among the American
listeners. Nonetheless, this matter did not happen to the Thai listeners. To prevent the same
mistake, the Japanese and the Chinese listeners were told to think of their definite answer before
they would type any letter in the box and that they must finish typing their answers within 5
seconds. The Japanese and the Chinese listeners did alright on this matter.
243
Results. The Interlanguage Speech Intelligibility Benefit Question. Table 5 shows the
recognition score of the American Listener and American Speaker dyad which were 99 % and
78 % for the Long Vowel Words and the Short Vowel Word, respectively. The intelligibility
scores of this dyad were underlined in order to show that their intelligibility score is the highest
compared to other dyads where listeners and speakers also shared the same L1. American
Listeners found Japanese Speaker the second most intelligible after their American fellows.
Chinese Listeners found Japanese Speakers most intelligible. The Japanese listeners found
American most intelligible, followed by the Japanese in the second place, and Thai in the third
place. The Thai listeners found Japanese most intelligible. It is interesting to further discuss why
Thai people found the Japanese speakers most intelligible even though all the Thai listeners were
in Thailand and had lesser communication with Japanese people.
Table 5: Percentage of Correct Word Recognition of Long Vowel Words (LVW) and Short
Vowel Words (SVW)
American
Listeners
Chinese
Listeners
Japanese
Listeners
Thai
Listeners
American Speakers
LVW
SVW
99 %
78 %
Japanese Speakers
LVW
SVW
89 %
55 %
Thai Speakers
LVW
SVW
46 %
63 %
58 %
63 %
63 %
73 %
51 %
78 %
81 %
73 %
58 %
60 %
36 %
73 %
49 %
56 %
61 %
74 %
44 %
72 %
Interlanguage Speech Intelligibility Question Discussion. It was not surprising to
observe that the American listeners found the American Speaker most intelligible because
English is a native language for them. Likewise, it was expected that the Japanese Listeners find
the American Speakers most intelligible because American English is a main model for language
teaching in Japan (Honna, 2007; Kachru, 1997). The other dyads where listeners and speakers
shared the same L1 were not observed to have higher intelligibility score compared to other
dyads where listeners and speakers were from different L1s. However, it was interesting when
the Thai listeners found the Japanese most intelligible even though they had less contact with
Japanese compared to American. Bent and Bradlow (2003) postulated that L2 English speakers’
high level of proficiency can promote better perceptual development. It was assumed that the
Japanese speakers’ had high level of speaking proficiency. However, this assumption could not
244
be verified because, for some reasons, the Japanese participants refused to give the researcher a
valid copied of their TOEFL report.
The Vowel Length and Word Recognition Question. This question was to examine
whether there would be any difference on the recognition of long vowel words and short vowel
words. In contrast to what was expected, the long vowel words were not necessarily recognized
better than the short vowel words. It seems to suggest that vowel length difference may not be
the main criteria for the word recognition. Other factors co-contributing to the recognition of an
English word should be level of word difficulty (Bradlow & Pisoni, 1999), and also an acoustic
signal derived from voicing contrasts at the end of the syllable (Smith, Bradlow, & Bent, 2003;
Ladefoged, 2006; Munro, 1998).
Conclusion
This research was aimed to compare the temporal difference of English words as spoken
by NSs and NNSs. Important findings regarding the vowel length experiment were (a) voicing
contrast at the post-vocalic position should pay some role in the different vowel length between
the Japanese and the Thai speakers. (b)With regards to the relationship between the vowel length
and word recognition, it was showed that vowel length should not be only factor that affects how
listeners recognize English words. It was suggested from this study that signals derived from the
voicing of the consonants at the post vocalic position should be co-contributing with vowel
length to the recognition of English words.
This research was aimed to provide experimental evidence to the temporal analysis of
vowels and their effects on word recognition, yet the methodology employed in this research
carried some limitations. The research would encourage that more research focusing on
examining the relationship between vowel length and word recognition should be conducted.
One suggestion that should be addressed as an implementation of this research is that, in order to
be able to precisely trace for the relation of vowel length and word recognition, the same word
with two different vowel lengths e.g., short and long versions of “bead”, should be used for the
word recognition task.
245
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Journal of Phonetics, 18, 79-92.
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the Acoustical Society of American, 114(3), 1600-1610.
Bradlow, A. R., & Bent, T. (2007). Perceptual adaptation to non- native speech. Science Direct,
106(2), 707-729.
Bradlow, A. R., & Pisoni, D. B. (1999). Recognition of spoken words by native and non-native
listeners: talker-, listener-, and item related factors. Acoustical Society of America, 106(4),
2074-2085.
Chaimanee, N. (1999). Universal communicative strategies in acquisition of second language
phonology. Muenchen: Lincom Europa.
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Gandour, J. (1984). Vowel duration in Thai. Crossroads: An Interdisciplinary Journal of
Southeast Asian Studies, 2, 59-64.
Hirata, Y., & Whiton, J. (2005). Effect of speaking rate on the single/geminate stop distinction in
Japanese. Journal of Acoustical Society of America, 118(3), 1647-1660.
Honna, N. (2006). English in Japanese society: Language within language. In K. Bolton & B. B.
Kachru (Eds.), World Englishes: Critical concepts in linguistics, Volume 3 (pp. 131-147).
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and Multicultural Development, 16(1, 2), 1995: 45-62).
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Jenkins, J. (2002a). A sociolinguistically based, empirically researched pronunciation syllabus
for English as an international language. Applied Linguistics, 23(1), 83-103.
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University Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1988). The spread of English and sacred linguistic cows. In H. Lowenberg (Ed.),
Language spread and language policy: issues, implications, and case studies (pp. 207228). Washington, DC: Georgetown Press.
Kachru, B. B. (1989). Teaching world Englishes. Indian Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 8595.
Ladefoged, P. (2006). A course in phonetics (5th ed.). Australia: Thomas Wadsworth.
McArthur, T. (2006a). The printed word in the English-speaking world. In K. Bolton & B. B.
Kachru (Eds.), World Englishes: Critical concepts in linguistics, Volume 3 (pp. 463-473).
London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group. (Reprinted from English Today 49, 31(1),
1997: 10-16).
McArthur, T. (2006b). World English and world Englishes: Trends, tensions, varieties, and
standards. In K. Bolton & B.B. Kachru (Eds.), World Englishes: Critical concepts in
linguistics, Volume 1 (pp. 89-124). London: Routledge Taylor & Francis Group.
(Reprinted from Language Teaching, 34, 2001: 1-20).
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20, 139-154.
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Munro, M. J. (2008). Foreign accent and speech intelligibility. In J.G. Hensen Edwards & M. L.
Zampini (Eds.), Phonology and second language acquisition (pp. 193-218). Amsterdam:
John Benjamins Publishing Company.
Nittrouer, S. (2004). The role of temporal and dynamic signal component in the perception of
syllable-final stop voicing by children and adults. Journal of Acoustical Society of
America, 115(4), 1777-1791.
Okada, H. (1999). In Handbook of the International Phonetics Association: A guide to the use of
the International Phonetics Alphabet. Japanese Language, pp. 117-119. New York:
Smith, B., Bradlow, A. R., & Bent, T. (2003). Production and perception of temporal contrasts in
foreign- accented English. 15th ICPhS Barcelona, 519-522.
Smith, L. E., & Bisazza, J. A. (1983). The comprehensibility of three varieties of English for
college students in seven countries. Language Learning, 32 (2), 259-269.
Tingsabadh, K., & Abramson, A. S. (1999). In Handbook of the International Phonetics
Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetics Alphabets. Thai language,
pp. 147-150. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Vance, T. J. (2008). The sounds of Japanese. New York: Cambridge University Press.
247
Languages at Home: The Case of Bi-/Multilingualism in Pangasinan
Francisco C. Rosario, Jr.
University of the Philippines Baguio
Abstract
Language contacts have brought different changes in the world. These contacts have affected the
linguistic environments of many societies that competition among languages is inevitable. The
experience of Pangasinan, which is considered one of the major languages in the Philippines and
is being used by more than 1.5 million of Pangasinenses in the province of Pangasinan, is no
exception. Other languages being used in the province are English, Filipino and Ilocano. This
research considered that parents play an important role in the transmission of languages to the
younger generation. It used survey questionnaires to gather data from 34 parents. The survey
focused on the home language preferences of the parents in Pangasinan and the reasons for their
preferences. Also, this showed the respondents’ frequency of exposure to media and different
discourses and explained the possible influence of these to their preferences and their perceptions
towards the language/s that they use at home. Lastly, this research explored the possible
reactions of the Pangasinenses towards the new Department of Education (DepEd) order, which
is the mother tongue-based Multilingual Education (MLE). In general, this research provided
insights on the status of Pangasinan language as it faces the threats of English – the language of
globalization, the Filipino – the national language in the Philippines and Ilocano – the emerging
language threat to Pangasinan.
Keywords: Pangasinan language, language contact, bi-/multilingualism
The Language Situation in Pangasinan
Pangasinan, which is located in the northwestern region of Luzon, is one of the provinces
in the Philippines with the largest number of population. According to the 2007 Census of
Population, there is a total population of 2,645,395 in the province
(http://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html).
The languages spoken in the province are Pangasinan, Ilocano, Filipino and English.
Pangasinan and Ilocano both belong to the Austronesian languages family. Pangasinan is used
primarily in the province while Ilocano is used in the northwestern provinces of Luzon like
Ilocos Norte, Ilocos Sur, La Union and Abra. Ilocano speakers spread to nearby provinces like
Pangasinan due to migration. The popularity of Filipino and English in the province is attributed
mainly to their status as the country’s official languages.
In the 2000 Census of Population and Housing of the National Statistics Office, 47.60%
of the population classify themselves as Pangasinense, 44.25% as Ilocano, 3.79% as Tagalog,
248
1.96% as Bolinao, and the remaining 2.41% belong to other linguistic groups living in the
province (http://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html).
Based on the NSO data, we see large number of Ilocanos in the province. In the history of
Pangasinan, it was during the 19th century when large number of Ilocanos started to migrate in
the province. There were already established towns in Pangasinan then, and the rice fields were
very productive. Because of the available opportunities in the province, the migrants increased in
number and eventually gained political power in the province (Anderson & Anderson, 2007).
Ilocano, then, became one of widely spoken languages in Pangasinan.
English language was one of the official languages in the Philippines during the
American occupation. On the other hand, as part of the country’s desire to establish its national
identity, Filipino (originally, Pilipino) was designated by the government as the national
language. The government started its efforts to popularize Filipino along with English through
the educational system where both languages are designated as the official medium of instruction.
The use of these languages in the local media took part not only to their popularization but also
to their status as the prestige languages in the country.
At present, there are still a large number of Pangasinan speakers. There are
approximately more than 1.5 million of Pangasinan speakers in the province. This may be large
enough to maintain the use of the language but not a guarantee that Pangasinan will be free from
different language threats.
Languages in Contact and Conflict
Bi-/multilingualism is a widespread linguistic phenomenon. In a simple statement, Li
Wei (2007) said bi-/multilingualism happens because different linguistic groups have contact to
other groups. However, language contacts are not just simple linguistic events because linguistic
environments in many societies can be seriously affected by these linguistic phenomena.
Preferences and beliefs attached to languages may be influenced by these changes in the
linguistic environment. According to John Edwards (1994), language contacts may also lead to
conflicts. Because of the influx of different languages in a particular linguistic community,
domination and competition happen among languages. Hence, we have existing dichotomies like
international and local languages, the dominant and the dominated ones.
249
These issues on domination and competition among languages created more serious
problems especially in language policies. The designation of national and official languages and
the pervasive use of these languages in the local media highlighted the differences among
languages giving advantage to the “superior” language and its speakers. The limited use of the
local languages in the educational system has created the idea that knowledge in the local
languages is more of a disability and education can only be achieved through the official
languages (Martí et. al., 2005).
If language contacts affect language policy making in the macro-level, more so to the
micro-level. It is important to take note of the effects of these language issues to the decisons that
parents make for their children. Furthermore, it is necessary to look at the home language
preference and on how situations at home can affect the country’s language policies.
From BEP to MLE
In July 2009, the Department of Education signed the DepEd Order No. 74 known as
“Institutionalizing Mother Tongue-Based Multilingual Education (MLE).” This policy is the
replacement of the Bilingual Education Policy (BEP) which was first implemented in 1974. In
the BEP, Filipino and English are the official medium of instruction along with the vernacular
language in the community as the auxiliary medium. This was aimed to develop the language
skills of the learners in both Filipino and English.
The new DepEd (2009) directive believes in the “superiority of the use of the learner’s
mother tongue or first language in improving learning outcomes…” as proven by different
empirical studies like the Lingua Franca Project and Lubuagan First Language Component.
Quoting from the Department of Education (2009) memorandum, these studies assert that,
a) First, learners learn to read more quickly when in their first language (L1);
b) Second, pupils who have learned to read and write in their first language learn to
speak, read, and write in a second language (L2) and third language (L3) more
quickly than those who are taught in a second or third language first; and
c) Third, in terms of cognitive development and its effects in other academic areas,
pupils taught to read and write in their first language acquire such competencies
more quickly.
250
Also, the new policy gives opportunity to individuals to regain their right to learn in their
first languages which was not enjoyed for so many years because of the dominance of English
and Filipino in schools.
Scope and Limitation
There are four cities and 44 municipalities in Pangasinan. In this study, the researcher
focused on San Carlos City which is located in central Pangasinan. San Carlos has the largest
number of population in the province and Pangasinan language is widely spoken in the city.
This research used survey questionnaires to gather data on the preferred home language/s
and language in different situations and the reasons for their preference. There were 34 parents
who participated in the survey. The research also provided insights on the reactions of the
parents to the recently-signed directive from the Department of Education, which is the mother
tongue-based multilingual education.
The Home Language Preference
As mentioned earlier, Pangasinan is a multilingual province because languages, namely
Ilocano, Tagalog/Filipino, Bolinao and English are being used and spoken. It is not so surprising
then to have bi-/multilingual set-up at home.
As reflected in the Table 1, the use of Pangasinan, Filipino and English is preferred by
most parents.
Table 1: Home Language Preference of the Parents
Home Language Preference
N = 34
Pangasinan-Filipino-English
18
Filipino
4
Filipino-English
4
Pangasinan-Filipino
3
Pangasinan-Ilocano-Filipino-English
3
Pangasinan
1
Pangasinan-English
1
251
However, among these languages, we see that Filipino is the most preferred language in
bilingual or multilingual environment. Though most of the respondents’ first language is
Pangasinan, Filipino dominates the preferred home language.
This can be explained by various reasons. As stated in the Table 2, either of the
respondent or the partner is non-native speaker of Pangasinan. In interethnic marriage, there is a
possibility for the non-native speaker to adopt the language spoken in the community.
Table 2: Language/s Used by the Parents
Respondents’ First Language
Pangasinan
26
Tagalog/Filipino
5
Ilocano
2
Ilonggo
1
Partner’s Language/s
Pangasinan
28
Tagalog/Filipino
7
Ilocano
1
Bisaya
1
Waray
1
Ilonggo
1
This case of interethnic marriage may contribute to the dominance of Filipino being the
most preferred home language. The couple has higher tendency to use a language that is
understood by both, and in most cases, Filipino is the most convenient choice.
We may also look at the reasons expressed by the respondents to explain this case. Based
on the gathered data in the survey, the main factor considered by the respondents for the home
language is its usefulness in communication.
Pangasinan is the language in the province however skills in the vernacular language is
not enough to help their children in communicating with non-native speakers of Pangasinan. As
compared to Pangasinan, Filipino is more functional because this can be the common or “neutral”
language that can be used in different situations for communication.
252
This can also be validated by the preferred language in different situations. The
respondents think that Filipino is the most useful language in majority of the given situations.
English can also be very useful in several situations however in most cases, the use of English in
Pangasinan may not be as necessary as that of Filipino or even Pangasinan.
The researcher also tried to look at the educational background of the respondents as one
possible reason that may explain the dominance of Filipino. It is assumed that respondents who
were able to reach in college may have leaning towards the use of Filipino and English since
these are the prestige languages, and mostly, these languages are accessed through education. In
the survey, there are 29 respondents who are college graduates or at least were able to go to
college, and 5 respondents went to high school.
Contrary to the assumption, educational background does not affect the home language
preference of the respondents. The survey indicates that the preference of the respondents both
high school and college group is towards the use of Filipino. This may indicate something about
the language behavior of the respondents but it is hard to conclude with the small number of
respondents.
The Frequency of Exposure to Different Discourses
In this part of the survey, the respondents were tasked to rate the frequency of their
exposure to different discourses. Home language preference can be affected by the exposure of
the parents to different discourses like media texts (television and radio programs, newspapers
and magazines) and other available printed materials. One’s language preference is influenced by
the available discourses in the environment because of the need to understand these texts.
Based on the respondents’ frequency of exposure to television programs, most of the
respondents are exposed to Filipino and English and very minimal in Pangasinan and Ilocano.
Though ABS-CBN and GMA have their own regional networks and have been broadcasting
local programs like TV Patrol North Central Luzon, Gandang Umaga Kapamilya and Mag-TV
na, Atin ‘to (ABS-CBN Channel 32) and Balitang Amianan and Primera Balita (GMA Channel
10), these programs still have heavy use of Filipino.
253
30
25
20
15
ชุดขอมูล1
10
5
0
Pangasinan
Ilokano
Filipino
Ingles
Figure 1: Exposure to Television Programs
The survey result on the frequency of exposure to radio programs is the same as the TV
programs. FM radio stations play music in various genre which primarily are in Filipino and
English. Songs in Ilocano and Pangasinan are not available in the FM stations, and these
languages are rarely being used by the disc jockeys.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Pangasinan
Ilokano
Filipino
Ingles
Figure 2: Exposure to Radio Programs
Nowadays, local AM radio programs have heavy use of Filipino language as compared to
past decades when Pangasinan was the primary medium in the local AM radio programs. In a
phone interview with Eddie Sumera and Dexter Dupagan, both anchormen and reporters of
DZWN Bombo Radyo Dagupan last 18 September 2009, Filipino is the language often used by
most radio reporters and anchormen. Pangasinan was used before but then it is quite impossible
254
nowadays for the sole use of Pangasinan because some of the radio reporters speak Ilocano.
Filipino became the preferred language because it is the language that is common to the
anchormen and reporters.
They also added that this is the trend among the existing local radio stations in the
Pangasinan namely, DWCM Aksyon Radyo, DWPR Power Radio, DZRD Sunshine Radio and
DZMQ Radyo ng Bayan.
The exposure of the respondents to different printed discourses is almost the same as
shown in the previous data. The respondents have the highest frequency of exposure to
newspapers in Filipino and followed by English. National newspapers use English for
broadsheets and Filipino for tabloids. Local newspapers, namely Pangasinan Today, Sunday
Punch, The Gazette and Northern Journal, release their issues in English. Pangasinan Star uses
English and provides one column for Pangasinan.
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
ชุดขอมูล1
Pangasinan
Ilokano
Filipino
Ingles
Figure 1.3: Exposure to Written Texts
It is noteworthy that aside from the usual announcements that are seen in the city and
town plazas, the Bible is just one of the available written texts known to the respondents.
Pangasinan Language in Education
In this part of the survey, the respondents were tasked to rate their level of agreement or
disagreement to particular statements. These statements are related to the use and non-use of
Pangasinan as the primary medium of instruction in the schools.
255
The results show that respondents “agree” with the use of Pangasinan as the primary
medium while the other set of statements (non-use of Pangasinan) got higher level of agreement
from the respondents. This response is not really surprising at all considering the survey results
shown earlier in this report. The respondents expressing agreement with the use of Pangasinan is
already a favorable response knowing that prestige languages are being used and spoken in the
region.
On the other hand, the results (indicating higher level of agreement with the non-use of
Pangasinan) may be attributed to the desire of the parents for their children to learn a language
other than their first language. In fact, during the first phase of data gathering, one parent
commented that teaching Pangasinan in the schools is not necessary since this language can be
learned at home or in the community. The parent also added that teaching a language like
Pangasinan is not practical anymore since better opportunities await someone who can speak
languages like English and Filipino.
Though the parents obviously have leaning towards the use of languages other than
Pangasinan, based on what we see here, it will still be very easy for the parents to accept the new
policy having their considerably favorable response towards the use of Pangasinan in education.
MLE Issues
The new language policy is DepEd’s way of recognizing the importance and use of the
vernacular languages especially in education. The implementation of the BEP in the country has
given primary focus on the teaching of Filipino and English, and somehow “displaced” the
vernacular languages by designating them as the auxiliary medium of instruction.
As already noted, the primary objective of MLE is to use the learner’s first language as
the primary medium of instruction. However, the implementation of the new policy is not simple
at it may seem. The DepEd may have pleased the different ethno-linguistic groups in the country
by signing the new policy; however challenges and several issues have yet to be faced.
The different communities in the Philippines, like San Carlos, are mostly multilingual if
not bilingual. The bi-/multilingual nature of most linguistic communities in the country is just
one issue that the DepEd has to look into. How the schools would address the needs of the
learners using and speaking languages different from the community or region seem to be a
problem. Also relating to this is the production and funding of educational materials which is
256
considered one of the major problems in Philippine education even before MLE. This is a
problem particularly of the teachers who are the ones responsible for the proper implementation
of the policy. Several problems in the system of education such as lack of teachers, incompetent
teaching skills and not-so conducive learning environments should also be taken into
consideration if the government, particularly the DepEd, is serious with their objectives in
implementing this policy.
Conclusion
The case of Pangasinan particularly in San Carlos is an example of what happens to a
local language when pitted against “superior” languages. As stated in this research report, the
parents indicated that Filipino is the most preferred language at home and in different situations.
This does not discount the fact that Pangasinan is still widely being used in the province and
English in more specific situations. The influence of Ilocano in San Carlos is not as strong as its
presence in other Pangasinan cities and municipalities where Ilocano is widely being used along
with Pangasinan.
There are different factors mentioned that may have contributed to the wide usage of
Filipino in the area. Because of the pervasive use of Filipino in the local media and its status as
one of the official medium of instruction, it has become very easy for Pangasinenses especially
the younger generation to learn the language.
In addition, Filipinos, especially in the provinces, are aware of its status as prestige
language. This language has to be learned because education is accessible in Filipino. Local jobs
require knowledge in Filipino language. It is for these reasons that for some local residents,
teaching their children a local language like Pangasinan has become impractical.
Indeed, in multilingual communities like San Carlos in Pangasinan, competition among
languages is an inevitable case. Even worse, the Philippine national language has become the
main language threat to Pangasinan. Others may consider it advantageous to the status of
Filipino for its popularization and propagation; however, it cannot be denied that this has also
become detrimental to the status of local languages like Pangasinan.
We have always thought that English being the hegemonic language threatens and
endangers a number of languages. However, as we see in this research report, it is not English
257
versus Pangasinan, but Filipino against the vernacular. This may not just be the case in
Pangasinan, but also in other local languages in the Philippines.
The new DepEd directive which is the mother tongue-based Multilingual Education
(MLE) is something long overdue. The idea that education is better in the first language of the
learner has been proven several decades ago.
The major shift in the language policy can also be considered as the government’s
contribution in helping protect the threatened languages in the country. However, aside from the
government’s effort, it is also necessary that the individuals or the language speakers themselves
do their part in the preservation of their own languages and culture. Quoting Edwards (1994):
Languages do, then, have a span of existence which is granted by human society
and culture rather than by natural laws… they [linguists] do recognize that the
fortunes of languages are inexorably bound up with those of their users. Perhaps,
we might consider languages as inorganic parasites on human hosts (pp. 8-9).
It is a known fact that there are various factors that may contribute to the decline of many
languages. It is in this case that the language speakers themselves need to take their part to
maintain the use of their languages, and parents play the key role to the transmission and
continued use of their languages.
References
Anderson, V., & Anderson, J. (2007). Pangasinan–An endangered language: Retrospect and
prospect. Philippine Studies, 55. Retrieved
from http://www2.hawaii.edu/~vanderso/Pangasinan.pdf
Department of Education. (2009). Institutionalizing mother tongue-based multilingual education.
Retrieved
from http://www.deped.gov.ph/cpanel/uploads/issuanceImg/nDO%20No.%2074,%20s.%
202009.pdf
Edwards, J. (1994). Multilingualism. England: Routledge.
Martí, F., Ortega, P., Idiazabal, I., Barreña, A., Juaristi, P., Junyent, C., & Amorrortu, E. (Eds).
(2005). Words and worlds: World languages review. USA: UNESCO ETXEA.
National Statistics Office. (2002). Pangasinan: The most populated province in the Philippines.
Retrieved from http://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html
National Statistics Office. (2009). 2007 Census of population. Retrieved
from http://www.census.gov.ph/data/census2007/index.html
258
Rahman, T. (n.d.). Language policy, multilingualism and language vitality in Pakistan. Retrieved
from http://www.tariqrahman.net/language/Language%20Policy,%20Language%20
Death%20and%20Vitality.htm
Tollefson, J. (1991). Planning language, planning inequality. London: Longman.
Wei, L. (Ed). (2007). The bilingualism reader (2nd ed.). USA: Routledge.
259
Unraveling L2 Learning Strategy Mysteries: Insights from Good Language
Learners
Anuchit Toomaneejinda
National Institute of Development and Administrative (NIDA)
Abstract
This qualitative case study was aimed at ascertaining learning strategies as employed by six Thai
participants who reflected on their experiences of learning English as a foreign language. The
participants, representing THAI airways, were considered to be successful L2 learners of English
and the reported learning strategies exemplified L2 learning strategies in a professional context.
Semi-structured interviews were conducted and analyzed with salient findings that run the gamut
from the use of metacognitive strategies to parental influences that served as enabling roles in
their reported success in learning English. Moreover, the findings suggested that learning
strategies, although a well-researched and deceptively straightforward topic, need to be
construed context by context. Also discussed in the study are recommendations for future
research.
Keywords: language learning strategies, Thai EFL learners, individual differences
Introduction
This study revolves around the so-called “good language users” in a professional context.
Good language users, a construct that almost axiomatically implies their being good language
learners, should serve as a resource group whose ideas and beliefs about how English is learned
will most likely elucidate the long-standing problem of how to best teach, and more importantly,
best learn the language (O’Malley & Chamot, 1990; Ellis, 1994). Given the aforementioned
emphasis, the primary concern that this study seeks to address is the L2 learning strategies that
the participants reported to have employed as graduate students.
Purpose of the Study
The purpose of the present study is to investigate language learning strategies employed
by success L2 learners affiliated with THAI Airways International Plc and factors influencing
their reported strategy use.
Research Question
This research paper aims to answer the following question: What are learning strategies
employed by successful language learners?
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Review of Literature
This study aims at investigating language learning strategies of successful language
learners as well as factors which influence their reported strategy use. Specifically, the following
key factors will be discussed: Language learning strategies; Individual differences; and
Successful language learners.
1. Language Learning Strategies
1.1 Definition of Language Learning Strategies
According to Ellis (1994), ‘learning strategies’ are multifaceted, incorporating not only
psychological but also cultural and social dimensions. Moreover, learning strategies are contextspecific. That is to say, various learning tasks and learner’ preferences play pivotal role in
determining which learning strategies to be used. In this paper, learning strategies are defined as
specific actions that language learners use consciously to facilitate their purpose of language
learning.
1.2 Classification of Learning Strategies
Learning strategies can be classified into three categories:
1.2.1 Metacognitive strategies refer to higher order executive skills
including planning for, monitoring or evaluating the achievement of learning activities.
1.2.2 Cognitive strategies are those directly operate on incoming
information by manipulating it in the ways to enhance language learning.
1.2.3 Social/affective strategies are a broad grouping of either interaction
with other people or ideational control over affect.
Moreover, according to Oxford (1990), learning strategies can be classified into two
major classes: direct and indirect. Direct strategies refer to mental processing tasks of the target
language while indirect strategies are strategies that support and manage language learning but
not directly involving the target language. These two classes can also be divided into six
subcategories which are as follows:
1) Direct Strategies
1.1) Memory strategies are mental processes which are used to arrange
information orderly, making associations and reviewing. These are sometimes called
“mnemonics.
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1.2) Cognitive strategies concern analyzing expressions, practicing,
reasoning and summarizing. They involve manipulation or transformation of the target language.
Practicing includes repeating the practice of sound and writing systems, recognizing and using
formulas and patterns, and recombining naturalistically. The knowledge of using linguistic
resources is another example of cognitive strategies which is believed to allow learners to
understand and communicate in the new language. Moreover, language learners use analyzing
and reasoning to build up general rules and revise those rules when they engage in new
information by the use of analysis, generalization and comparison.
1.3) Compensation strategies help language learners fill up what they are
missing in the target language both oral and written communication.
2) Indirect Strategies
2.1) Metacognitive strategies relate to how language learners coordinate
their own learning process.
2.2) Affective strategies refer to emotions, attitudes and values.
2.3) Social strategies are believed to help language learners not only to
appropriately interact with others but also to understand culture that is always bound with the
language they are learning.
2. Individual Differences
Success in second language acquisition, unlike first language acquisition, seems not to
have a clear cut. It is always noted that some learners perfectly succeed in L2 learning though the
conditions they are exposed to are not conducive to success or good quality input does not
guarantee the comprehensibility or achievement in the SLA process. The question of what factor
can explain individual learning abilities leads some researchers to the study of characteristics of
successful and unsuccessful language learners. Ellis (1994) claims that individual differences
(IDs) are good predictors of learning outcomes. To investigate individual learner variables, he
proposed a framework consisting of three sets of interrelating variables. First, IDs comprises
three main types which are beliefs about language learning, affective states and general factors
(e.g. language aptitude, motivation, age). The second set of differences is learning strategies
which are always studied in parallel with the achievement of language learners. The third set is
the outcomes of language learning which can be considered from learners’ overall proficiency,
achievement on a particular linguistic task and rate of acquisition. Learning outcomes are thus
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the products of the acquisition process. Ellis further suggests that these three sets of variables are
complicatedly interrelated and there are many studies attempt to investigate the influences of
these individual differences. However, the question like “Do IDs really influence the learners’
achievement or vice versa?” always arises. There are presently considerable research literatures
investigating individual differences and the researchers all agree that the differences of
individuals are a critical factor that influences the success of language learners.
3. Successful Language Learners
According to Qinquan et al. (2008), the research on the relationship between strategy use
and learning attainment has been increasing through investigating learning strategies employed
by those who are recognized as good or successful language learners. The study of good
language learners provides useful insights to investigate the way strategies affect language
learning (Ellis 1994). Rubin (1975) concludes that successful language learners always have
characteristics of having strong desire to communicate, willing to guess and not afraid of being
foolish. Also, they always practice and pay attention to their own and others’ language use
depending on target language proficiency, age, situation and cultural differences. Moreover,
Stern (1975) suggested that the good language learners are those who have positive learning style
and learning strategies to the learning tasks. They are tolerant to the ambiguity of target language
structures, have strategies of experimentation and planning to manage their own language
learning by regular practicing and maximizing their opportunity to use the target language in real
communication. According to Naiman et al. (1978), successful language learners are those who
consciously monitor their own performance to understand language system and they are also
active communicators who emphasize both fluency and accuracy, and are expected to deal with
the unavoidable stresses when they need to take part in foreign language activities. Most
importantly, good language learners need to be flexible, know how to vary their learning
strategies, and avoid using their L1 in language learning process. Also, Ellis (1994) proposes that
successful language learners always use learning strategies more frequently and appropriately
with a particular learning task, pay attention to both form and meaning while learning language
and are able to describe their use of learning strategies. As a result, good language learners are
those who are confident in their language ability, can appropriately employ the best strategy for a
specific task and expect to succeed, fulfill their expectation as well as highly motivated.
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Research Methodology
This research aims to investigate learning strategies employed by successful language
learners. First, it seeks to discover what learning strategies they use to facilitate their language
learning. Second, it aims to find what factors influence such strategy use such as motivation,
language proficiency, and culture.
1. Participants
Altogether, six THAI Airways International Plc. flight attendants (3 males and 3 females)
were invited to participate in this study. Their ages ranged from 28 to 31 (the average was 29.67)
and they received a bachelor’s degree in various fields. They were purposefully chosen following
these two criteria:
1. All of them began their careers in 2003, the year when a new recruitment
policy was implemented.
2. They obtained a minimum score of 900 on the TOEIC (Test of English for
International Communication) test. The score was preferred since it was recognized as a rather
high performance which was hardly found among THAI cabin crew and Thai EFL learners for
that matter.
2. Research Instrument
This study explores language learning achievers’ strategies by using an interviewing
technique. This type of methodology is favorable since it was considered most effective and
appropriate to draw in-depth information, especially, the perceptions, feelings, and particularly
past learning experiences of participants. The semi-structured interview approach enabled
researcher to focus on only needed information by his specific questions, to make comparison
between those participants (Baxter & Babbie, 2004) as well as to adapt and adjust researcher’s
question structure and wording to assimilate to the participants’ background knowledge and
social background (Sommer & Sommer, 2002).
3. Data Collection Procedures
In this study, semi-structured interview was conducted with six participants from THAI
Airways International Plc. In accordance with the aim of the study, the interview method is used
as a means in collecting the data because the aim of interview is to find out what successful
language learners’ strategies are and what shapes (or is shaped by) such usage. Semi-structured
264
interview, which usually consists of a list of questions which provide interviewer substantial
freedom to change wording or structure of questions to best fit his participants (Baxte & Babbie,
2004). The language of the interview session was Thai.
The interviews were electronically recorded. The same set of questions was asked as seen
fitted to the interview situations and the previous response of the interviewees regardless of the
sequence. The interview files were, then, transcribed and, to get accurate results, the transcripts
were checked against the recorded files. The interviews ranged approximately between 25-31
minutes in length, lasting 27 minutes on average.
The responses of each interviewee were categorized into major themes. These themes are
(1) learning strategies and (2) factors influencing strategy use. Later, each participant’s responses
corresponding to each theme were elicited from the interview transcriptions into each
categorized theme.
4. Data Analysis
The analysis of data proceeded by investigating the participants’ perspectives concerning
each theme. Comparisons among six participants were then made as well as agreement and
disagreement with the related theories.
Findings and Discussion
The report of findings encompasses learning strategies and enabling factors. I will begin
with learning strategies.
1. Learning Strategies
1.1 Metacognitive Strategies
Data analysis suggested that metacognitive strategies seem to play a key role in language
learning particularly in the Thai EFL context. The result reported suggests that the strategies of
metacognition play a pivotal role for all participants who are perceived as successful language
learners in this study. It is obvious in foreign language learning environment, particularly in
Thailand, where foreign language contact opportunity is relatively scarce, and thus language
learners need to be aware of their knowledge and know when and how to appropriately apply
metacognitive strategies to language learning situations. Also, the learners themselves need to
have clear objectives for target language learning, strong commitment to their language learning
goals, and well-planned learning cannot be ignored from successful language learning. Hence, it
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can be said that metacognitive strategies are distinct and necessary in foreign language learning
environments (Takeuchi, 2003), especially for those who want to attain their goals of language
learning since the use of such strategies enable the learner to monitor and control his or her own
learning process.
1.2 Cognitive Strategies
A. Listening
For listening, there are four reported strategies used by six participants; extensive reading,
extensive listening, imitating and broad listening. Extensive listening is most frequently used
here in this study. They seem to regard extensive listening as an effective strategy for
familiarizing themselves with the target language sound or its native speaker’s accent. The data
indicate that there is a strong connection between listening skill development and strategies of
extensive reading and listening.
B. Speaking
There are six strategies reported by six participants: extensive reading, emphasizing on
accuracy over fluency, emphasizing on fluency over accuracy, imitating, paying attention to
sound and practicing. However, it is interesting for focus on form strategy. The role of conscious
learning or focus on forms seems to play a significant role on these successful language learners.
Most of participants tend to pay much attention to what they speak especially the correctness of
language use. In this study, all participants either directly or oblique mentioned the utility of
extensive reading and regular practicing as supportive factors in the rate of L2 success.
C. Reading
Extensive reading is one of the most preferable strategies employed by these successful
Thai learners. It is believed that doing so will help facilitate language learning process.
Interestingly, it is also found that extensive reading benefits not only overall reading proficiency
but also, in this study, vocabulary acquisition. According to many SLA researchers, L2
vocabulary can be incidentally learned through extensive reading (Zhang, 2003; Yamashita,
2008; Schmitt, 2008). Of all reading strategy variables, extensive reading is found to be a good
predictive of Thai EFL learning achievement. Extensive reading seems to play an important role
here on reading skill improvement. It also reveals that all participants benefit from extensive
reading in overall command of L2 proficiency (Renandya et al, 1999). Moreover, the successful
language learners are found to pick up new vocabularies from contexts by extensive reading
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since it leads to incidental vocabulary learning (Brown et al, 2008) and reading seems to be the
easiest way to input-rich resources.
D. Writing
In order to improve writing skills, all participants seem to recognize the importance of
extensive reading as a solid foundation. The same benefit of extensive reading holds true for
writing strategies as well. Through the use of extensive reading as a writing strategy, it is
indicated that reading and writing are two skills that are complementary. Reading materials can
be important resources of knowledge which is very necessary for learners to create ‘rich’
writings and they can be good models for motivated learners where they can borrow many
expressions and learning styles from the pieces they read. Through extensive reading, the
learners themselves also incidentally learn a large amount of vocabularies which are perceived as
important raw materials to develop good writing. Moreover, interestingly enough, it should be
noted that two of the participants were reported to have used note-taking and diary-writing
strategies. While it is infrequent for EFL learners in general to use such strategies owing to a lack
of authentic opportunity, only proficient L2 learners have been observed to use them.
2. Factors Influencing Strategy Use
2.1 Parental Influence
The analysis of data reveals that Thai parents together with family members are very
influential in their children’s language learning achievement since they play an important role on
shaping learners’ language learning attitudes, motivation, learning beliefs and strategy use. It
thus implies that non-linguistic factors in SLA theories need to be reconceptualized to
incorporate the factor of parental influence in these findings because all participants agree that, at
least for the initial stage of acquisition, it is parents who will consciously or unconsciously
encourage them to become successful language learners. With this, it reflects the importance of
Thai macro culture which seems to be opposed to western culture which believes that the
interference of parents might marginalize their children’s independency. However, for these six
Thai participants, parents’ assistance is instead praised and necessary since they view their
parents as an important ‘language learning advocates or facilitators’ which is perceived as a
characteristic of FL learning in East Asian contexts (Xuesong, 2006). Hence, the notion of
learner autonomy should be reconceptualized as to how far we should go in applying such notion
267
since all the participants firmly believe that their parents were a major force in allowing them to
excel in the L2 learning.
2.2 Motivation
It is quite obvious that motivation can assist L2 learners to be more successful. If learners
get highly motivated towards foreign language itself or foreign language learning, they will get
actively involved in the learning of the target language, which is believed to enable learners to
learn better and encourage them when they encounter learning difficulties. In this study, the
participants concurred that instrumental and resultative motivation play a key role in the rate of
second language acquisition, especially with regard to the Thai FL learning context where
foreign language proficiency is first and foremost in schools and working environments. In case
of integrative motivation, it is found from most participants in this study that the cultures of
target language users play a very important role on their language learning achievement. With
this, it indicates that integrative motivation is another important characteristic of successful
language learners (Quinquan et al, 2008). In addition, the study has provided evidence that
whether or not an L2 learner will decide to pay serious attention to grammar or forms of
language depends on the kind of motivation he or she has. Especially, intrinsic motivation is
quite influential for the learners’ attitude towards mistake and accuracy.
Conclusion
This study shows that the participants were aware that learning strategies played a key
role in their L2 learning and that they did employ different language learning strategies. The
deciding factors were their initial language proficiency and motivation. Moreover, preference for
meta-cognitive strategies was also reported. For cognitive strategies, extensive reading strategy
and regular practices are two most frequently employed strategies among the participants. The
data also reveal that parents and, to a lesser degree, other family members are influential in their
children’s language learning achievement. In addition, the findings suggest that learning
strategies are not “ready-made formulas” which can be employed by any language learners
across the board. Individual learners have individual learning strategies. As much as individual
learners differ from one another, cultural dimension can ill afford to be ignored, for the purpose
of any responsible teaching is to maximize the effective use of learning strategies. Finally, the
data seem to reaffirm the multidimensionality of learning strategy study.
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Improving Students’ Talk in the Classroom of Business English for
Students of Management
Nanis Setyorini
STIESIA Surabaya
Abstract
Many students of management had no initiated talks or responses in the classroom of business
English at STIESIA Surabaya, Indonesia. This research aimed to explore the effects of various
activities and relevant materials in order to improve students’ talk by applying an action research.
It involved five phases on each cycle, i.e., identifying potential problems, modifying action plans
for unsuccessful teaching practices, implementing, observing, and reflecting. Data used were
teaching journals, questionnaire and interview results that were analyzed and compared between
the cycles to show the improvement. The actions were done until four cycles that included four
authentic materials as students’ field of study as well as four activities: 1) a class discussion
without rehearsal time, 2) a class discussion with rehearsal time, 3) a group discussion with a
rehearsal time and the use of visual, and 4) group presentation with a rehearsal time and the use
of visual. The results showed that students’ positive interests continuously increased (15% to
97%) and influenced the improvement of students’ talks (0% to 97%) during the classroom
discussion. Conducive classroom atmosphere also played a role in the results obtained in this
study.
Keywords: students’ talk, action research, business English
Introduction
It was common to find students were unresponsive in the classroom of English as a
foreign language (EFL) as well as of English for specific purpose (ESP) in STIESIA Surabaya,
Indonesia. They simply sit, listened to a teacher’s explanation or direction, and had no initiated
talks until the end of the class. The students did so because of some reasons. First, they were
afraid of making grammatical mistakes and of misspelling words. Second, they were shy to be
corrected for the wrongs or to be made a mock of other students. And last, they were bored with
the teaching activities. These problems had to be noted and solved by the teacher. The teachers’
understanding of students’ problems and knowing on how to control the problems may help
improving students’ interests to participate in the classroom interaction (Johnson, 1995; Defrioka,
2009).
Classroom interaction is generally classified into two talks (Flanders, 1970; Couniham
1998). The first is talk by the teacher to encourage student participation, to ask questions about
content to students, to give explanation or information, to give directions or orders, and to justify
students. Another is talk by students to answer questions both from the teacher or other students,
270
to give information or ideas, and to make questions to the teacher or other students. Both are
fundamentals in developing students’ EFL learning; however, maximizing students talk can lead
the higher probability in developing their EFL skills (Ellis, 1990; Arends, 2001; Van Lier, 2001).
In encouraging students’ talk, the EFL teachers have to limit their talk, give students more
chances or equal opportunities to speak in the class, and pay attention to introverted students by
applying various classroom activities (Defrioka, 2009).
Many classroom activities can be employed in the EFL or ESP classroom. But
appropriate ones may potentially increase students’ talk, such as: information gap activities
(Hess, 2001; Raptaou, 2002), partial texts and jigsaw stories (Basturkmen, 1994), class
discussion (Leng Hui, 2004), reading discussion (Kieltyka, 2005), student presentation (Pollard,
2002), and so on. These will lead to positive outcomes if the classroom atmosphere is conducive
in which students can feel free to do the tasks (Lewis & Hill, 1998; Richards & Renandya, 2002)
and can do the tasks with teaching materials as their needs (Hutchinson & Waters, 1987; Munby,
1991). In short, appropriate teaching activities and authentic teaching materials can support
students’ interest to learn and to participate during the EFL or ESP classroom interaction.
Methodology
This research aimed to explore the effects of using various teaching techniques and
relevant materials in order to increase students’ talk in the classroom discussion. It was not
interested in developing test scores; but on how to arise students’ positive interests to talk in the
classroom by using specialized materials as their field of study i.e. management. Therefore,
action research was employed to answer the research goals.
An action research was a systematic classroom-based approach done by teachers who can
also be the researchers in the purpose to reflect upon their teaching as well as to develop insights
into their students’ learning for more positive outcomes (Brown & Rodgers, 2002; Cresswell,
2003; Stringer, 2004; Jones et al, 2004). Practically, it included problem identification, action
plan, implementation, observation, and reflection on each cycle (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1981).
The phases were stopped after a positive improvement was achieved.
Cycle 1:
1. Problem identification 1
2. Action plan 1
3. Implementation 1
4. Observation 1
5. Reflection 1
Cycle 2:
2. Action plan 2
3. Implementation 2
4. Observation 2
5. Reflection 2
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Cycle 3:
2. Action plan 3
3. Implementation 3
4. Observation 3
5. Reflection 3
Figure 1: The Cycle Phases in Action Research (Kemmis & Taggart, 1981)
Data of this research were collected from journal of observation, questionnaire results,
and interview results. On every cycle, teacher-researcher observed and made notes to all students’
performance, while students filled out the same questionnaires independently. Comments by
students on the interview were used to support numerical data. Then, all were analyzed and
compared between the cycles.
Students observed was a class of thirty-three students who were taking Business English
2 in STIESIA Surabaya, Indonesia. They were between the ages of 15-21, with twelve males and
twenty-one females. Before doing this research, the teacher-researcher had given questionnaires
to six classes in management departments (academic year of 2009/2010) to know their general
attitudes in learning of English. The preliminary questionnaire results showed that only 32% of
students had positive attitudes towards their ways of English learning. Then, the teacherresearcher decided to observe one class that was indicated of having the lowest attitudes (Table 1)
as a sample and tried out some plans in the form of action research.
Table 1: Students’ Preliminary Questionnaire in Learning English
Questions
1. I like listening songs or dialogues in English.
2. I like reading books, newspapers, or magazines in English.
3. I like speaking with friends, teachers, or foreigners in English.
4. I like writing letters, reports, or diary in English
Yes
12
2
5
8
No
21
31
28
25
Findings
On the first cycle, the teacher-researcher tried out a class discussion without rehearsal
time that involved teacher-student interaction in which students were introduced with new terms
or words and discussed a text titled “company formation”. The teacher-researcher observed that
students were still unresponsive to questions as well as to vocabulary exercises. Based on the
interview results, students’ unresponsiveness because (1) there were not student preparation for
class so they did not understand the meaning of new English terms, (2) there were not clear and
272
structured commands to do the tasks; and (3) the classroom activities were not interesting. The
weaknesses on the first cycle were noted in order to modify a new action for the next cycle.
On the second cycle, a class discussion with a rehearsal time was tried out. The material
was about “ways of selling”, supported with grammar exercises about comparison of adjectives.
This second session took 90 minutes. As the observation results, there were two differences
compared with the first cycle that six students were brave to define new terms (e.g. agent, sales
reps, franchise, outlet, wholesaler, retailer) and two students voluntarily answered questions
about the text. Students’ talk was not improved, so next action was needed to do.
On the third cycle, group discussion with rehearsal time was applied. The new trial was
the use of visual, e.g. graph that was intended to help students in comprehending a text titled
‘business cycle’. The grammar was about conjunctions (e.g. because, as a result, as a
consequence of). All materials were given one week before the class. In this cycle, students
looked more passionate to work in group and answer questions about the text. There were
eighteen students who started to talk. However, students’ talk was not performed as their
initiation because the teacher-researcher directed them to do. So, another plan was planned for
the next cycle.
On the fourth cycle, the teacher-researcher implemented group presentation with a
rehearsal time. The topic material was about ‘management’. Before presentation session, there
were some steps to do: grouping, selecting sub-topic and references for presentation materials,
drafting the presentation visual (in power point form), and consulting theirs to the teacherresearcher. Guidance for academic presentation and expressions were also provided to students.
The steps and guidance were done out of class schedule. Student presentation took two sessions
since there were nine groups.
Each group got 10 minutes for presentation and 10 minutes for question-answer session.
The first group presented a manager who had a leadership skill. They performed a picture of a
man who was leading some people to walk and explained that leadership was important to
increase professionalism in the workplace. The second group told about a creative manager and
visualized a man who had a new idea or an invention in a company’s marketing strategies. The
third group explained about a manager who was knowledgeable. The picture was interesting and
made other laughed at it. The fourth group described a manager who was sensitive to others and
got respects from his sub-ordinates and colleagues. The fifth group performed a technically
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skilled manager who could operate machines well. The sixth group described about a good
communicator manager who could present product details well and gave clear information or
solution to customer problems. The seventh group discussed about a manager who has social
skills. Social skills would keep business relations. The eighth group told about a flexible
manager who easily adapted to different and new situations. The last group performed a manager
who has mental skill. The classroom interactions during the fourth cycle were so active in which
all students had their own initiation to share information and ideas and to response other students’
questions. The action research was stopped on this fourth cycle since the students’ talks were
performed well as the research goals.
Numbers of students
Discussion
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
Cycles
3
4
Figure 2: Students' Attitudes to Business English 2 Classroom
Students’ talks were considerably improved on the fourth cycle. This might be influenced
with their positive attitudes towards the Business English 2 classroom. 78% of students started
enjoying classroom interaction on the third cycle and 100% felt enthusiastic on the fourth cycle.
So, it was true that positive attitude could be considered as one of important aspects to motivate
students to do the task in the EFL classroom and can achieve more practical outcomes
(Kavaliauskiene, 2003; Petrides, 2006; Setyorini, 2008). In brief, students’ positive interest could
influence students’ motivation to talk with the use of relevant materials and appropriate teaching
activities.
Teaching materials used in this research included four reading texts, vocabulary exercises
and grammar exercises that were selected and modified from various business English books
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published by Cambridge and Oxford university press. The texts were about company formation,
ways of selling, business cycle, and management. The vocabularies dealt with the texts including
company structure or organization, sales and promotion, company’s upturns and downturns in
doing a business, management theory and manager characteristics. And the grammar materials
were about prefixes, suffixes, comparison of adjectives, conjunctions, and present tenses in
active and passive forms that were practiced with various sentences related to topics. As a result,
more than a half of students stated that the materials were applicable since all were dealt with
their field of study, i.e., management and were useful for their academic as well as occupational
needs. These were linked to Jiajing’s research (2007) and Basturkmen’s arguments (2002).
Numbers of Students
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
Cycles
Figure 3: Students' Attitudes towards the Relevancy of Teaching Materials as Their Needs
The kinds of teaching activities, indeed, influenced students’ willingness to participate in
the classroom interaction. The observation along with the questionnaire results showed that
students, indeed, enjoyed group discussion (55%) and group presentation (97%). Most of
students indicated that they felt more comfortable during the fourth cycle. Group work and
rehearsal time could alleviate their anxiety because they had enough opportunities to practice the
materials at home; and they considered the activities to be a positive experience. Meng (2009)
and Leng Hui (2004) underlined on their research that student presentation through group work
was valuable for increasing students’ motivation, improving the quality of students’ talk,
increasing the quantity of communication, understanding the content matter easily and creating a
positive affective environment in the classroom.
Numbers of Students
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35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
2
3
4
Cycles
Figure 4: The Students' Talk Performance
Another factor which might be attributed the results was the supportive classroom
atmosphere. Students felt more enthusiastic when they were given much opportunities to speak
freely; when they could consult their problems to the teacher-researcher in developing their
presentation material; when their errors on grammar or pronunciation were not directly corrected
in front of other students; when the teacher-researcher gave students such appreciation even to a
minute talk; and when their attempts were celebrated by both the teacher-researcher and the
students. These had to be explored more for further EFL and ESP education delivery in
Indonesian universities.
Conclusion
This action research discovered that the implementation of proper teaching activities and
authentic teaching materials could help students improving their interests to talk in the classroom
of business English. Despite the weaknesses in the first and second cycle, it could be concluded
that university students preferred such classroom activities that were able to explore their
creativities and to develop their opportunities to speak freely. Class discussions through group
work and student presentation were examples of appropriate activities in the classroom of
business English for management students. Rehearsal time was also a key point for students in
order to study before the class so that they had more self-confidence to talk. Moreover, relevant
teaching materials as management students’ educational and professional needs were considered
to expand students’ interests to talk during the class discussion. Those actions were practiced
well as the goals if a classroom was managed supportively by the EFL or ESP teachers.
276
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Basil Blackwell, Inc.
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Hess, N. (2001). Teaching large multilevels classes. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Huthcinson, T., & Waters, A. (1987). English for specific purpose: A learning-centred approach.
Jiajing, G. (2007). Designing an ESP course for Chinese university students of business. The
ASIAN ESP Journal, 3(1), Article 6.
Johnson, K. E. (1995). Understanding communication in second language classroom.
Jones, D., Kaufman, E., & Rudd, R. (2004). Daily classroom improvement with action research.
The Agricultural Education Magazine, 76(6), 8-9.
Kavaliauskiene, G. (2003). English for specific purpose: Learners’ preferences and attitudes.
Journal of Language and Learning, 1(1), 14-23.
Kemmis, S., & McTaggart, R. (1981). The action research planner. Victoria: Deakin University
Press.
Kieltyka, A. (2005). Exploring the round robin oral reading strategy in the elementary classroom:
An action research. English Quarterly, 37(4), 10-17.
Leng Hui, et al. (2004). Morning discussion as a communicative activity. English Teaching
Forum, 42(4), 6-11.
Lewiss, M., & Hill, J. (1998). Practical techniques for language teaching. England: Language
Teaching Publication/Commercial Colour Press.
Meng, F. (2009). Encourage learners in the large class to speak English in group work. English
Language Teaching Journal. 2(3), 219-221.
Munby, J. (1991). Communicative syllabus design: A sociolinguistic model for defining the
content of purpose-specific language programmes. Cambridge: Cambridge University
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Pollard, A. (2002). Reflective teaching: Effective and evidence-informed professionals practice.
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Richards, J., & Renandya, W. (Eds.). (2002). A methodology in language teaching: An anthology
of current practice. USA: Cambridge University Press.
Setyorini, N. (2008). Preferences and attitudes towards English for economics and business
studies in diploma III Stiesia Surabaya. Ekuitas Journal Stiesia Surabaya, 12(4), 439-454.
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Routledge.
Bio-data
Nanis Setyorini is an English lecturer in a school of accounting and management located
in Surabaya, Indonesia. She has been teaching English as a foreign language as well as English
for specific purpose (business/ academic) for 12 years for children, high school and university
students and professionals (lecturers of non-English department, managers, staff, doctors, etc.)
with various levels of proficiency. She has designed six curriculum as well as modules of
English for Business purposes that have been applied for students of accounting and
management.
Academically, Nanis has got her sarjana as well as master’s degree in education of
English language from Universitas Negeri Surabaya, Indonesia. Now, she is in the process to get
a Ph.D. scholarship to an Australian university (UNSW) from Indonesian Education Ministry. In
the future, she intends to design new teaching materials of English for students of non English
departments with Indonesian cultural context as well as global context for better Indonesian
educational delivery.
278
Learner Training for Autonomous Learning:
A Voluntary Use of One-to-One Language Counselling Service at KMUTT
Self-Access Learning Centre, Thailand
Shannoy Vasuvat and Charatdao Intratat
King Mongkut’s University of Technology, Thonburi (KMUTT)
Abstract
Among various learning supports offered by self-access centres worldwide to promote
“autonomous learning”, one that is being widely used is counselling. The objective of this paper
is twofold: (a) provide the details of the one-to-one language counselling service called ‘Tailored
Course’ offered by the Self-Access Learning Centre, King Mongkut’s University of Technology,
Thonburi (KMUTT), Thailand and (b) to present and discuss the extent to which the program has
affected the ways in which the participants who frequently continued with their participation in
the course approached their learning as well as changes in learners attitude toward autonomous
learning. Data obtained from a developed questionnaire were analyzed quantitatively through use
of means, frequencies and percentages. The findings indicated the positive changes on both the
participants’ learning habit and perception about autonomous leaning. It is anticipated that the
organisation of the service and the results of the investigation can be used by counsellors,
managers and policy makers involving in developing or implementing learning supports for selfaccess centres. The results of the study can also be used for further consideration on specific
areas where improvements on learner training are needed.
Keywords: autonomous learning, independent learning, learner training, language
learning support, language counselling
Introduction
Empowering Autonomous Learning
Autonomous learning, with its different interpretations, appears to be almost universally
accepted as an important, general educational goal (Sinclair, 2000). One interesting definition of
autonomous learning comes from Dam (2000) stating that “Autonomous learning can be
described as what takes place in a situation in which the teacher is expected to provide a learning
environment where the learners are given the possibility to be consciously involved in their own
learning and thus become autonomous learners” (p. 49).
279
Attempts have been made from educators to empower autonomous learning for learners.
A key aspect that has been continuously highlighted throughout its history is learners’
responsibility for their own learning (Holec, 1988; Dickinson, 1995). Together with the learners’
responsibility, a willingness and capacity to manipulate new information and integrate it into
existing knowledge (Dam, 1995) and placing learners in a better position to take on more
responsibility for their own learning (Sinclair, 2000) are to be considered for empowering
learners. In relation to the contents to be implemented in learner training plan to develop learner
autonomy and learning strategies, knowledge about language learning, and attitudes towards
learner autonomy are to be focused (Wenden, 1991). With respect to language teaching, the task
of teachers/counsellors is to help learners develop the motivation, confidence, knowledge and
skills that they required to communicate and learn more independently and to be more
independent as individuals (Littlewood, 1997).
From the literature review on research completed so far on learner training, heavy
emphasis has been focused on the teaching of tactics and strategies, overlooking other important
factors including learners’ attitudes towards autonomy (Victori & Lockhart, 1995).
Psychological preparation is seen by Dickinson (1987) as “a process of developing selfconfidence among learners in their ability to work independently of the teacher, and of
developing a different attitude towards language learning, essentially that of self-direction”. The
importance of dealing with learner attitudes as a part of psychological preparation has been
highlighted by a number of researchers (Wenden, 1991; Dickinson, 1995). Learners whose
evaluation towards autonomy is positive tend to put more efforts to become more responsible in
their learning than those whose evaluation is negative (Wenden, 1991). This idea is also raised
by Sinclair (2000) stating that developing positive attitudes is ‘crucial’ to the success of the
developing of learner autonomy and an essential, long term aim of any learner training
programme.
Counselling as a Means to Promote Autonomous Learning
According to Sturtridge (1997), “A successful centre will attempt to make learner
development an ongoing cycle of action and reflection and to offer a development that keeps
pace with the learners as they work” (p. 71). Among various learning supports offered by selfaccess centres worldwide to promote autonomous learning, one that is being widely used is
counselling. The main aim of a self-access centre providing a counselling service for students is
280
to support students in their language learning and help them find the most effective and efficient
way of doing so in a variety of learning environments. Though counselling varies on their
principles, purposes and practices from place to place, it is seen as ‘a valid application of
counseling within education’ (Kelly, 1996) while its role in self-access centers goes ‘beyond the
centre itself and into the students academic lives’ (Reinders, 2006).
According to its drop-in or voluntary nature, researchers have raised a question on the
overall effectiveness of counselling. Among various researches already completed, return figures
and the drop-out rate of the learners participating in the programmes have been a major concern.
However, although it is generally agreed that learners working in self-access systems may
benefit from counselling and that this kind of service is being run elsewhere, it does not appear to
be common place and there is a need to share experiences and to better understand its nature.
At the Self-Access Learning Centre, KMUTT, the one-to-one language counselling
service called ‘Tailored Course’ has been developed with the aim to promote learner autonomy
for students and also for KMUTT staff who wish to develop their English on a voluntary basis
for either personal or professional growth.
The addressed research questions are:
1. To what extent did the ‘Tailored Course’ affect the ways in which participants
who frequently continued their participation in the course approach their learning?
2. What kind of changes did it bring? Did it change participants’ attitudes towards
autonomous learning?
“Tailored Course” at SALC, KMUTT
In the following section, the purpose, the concept, the format and the counsellor’s role of
the “Tailored Course” are described to give a broad overview.
I. Purpose
• To help the participants to develop greater learning autonomy
• To work on personal objectives to improve their English
II. Concept
i. Providing a learning environment where participants can experience a
language learning process utilising the support and guidance of a counselor
ii. Making learning relevant to participants’ needs and interests
281
iii. Raising participants’ awareness on oneself as a learner knowledge about
language learning the processes of learning
iv. Raising confidence in applying existing knowledge to work on ones’
relevant contexts
v. Encouraging participants to take responsibility with their own learning
vi. Empowering participants so they can find what they need to know
As learning is lifelong and a never ending process, participants can use the service for as
long as they need.
III. Format
The format of counselling run on “Tailored Course” is similar to those run in
self-access centres elsewhere. The only difference seems to be the length of the course which is
clearly stated and that there is no limit on time spent at the SALC. The only rule that participants
need to be aware of is that only one consultation per week is allowed and it should be limited to
one hour. Below is a summary of the three main sections of the course.
Before the First Consultation: The Orientation
The initial consultation normally takes about 45 minutes to an hour for a “Walk-in” who
drops to the SALC counsellor room. The details of each phase are as follows:
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Finding out the areas that the “Walk-in” wishes to improve and focus on.
(skill/task/specific/general) and the reasons for improvement (personal/professional)
Discussion on questions/concerns
Narrowing down the goals and organizing the possible learning plans
Note: A guideline booklet called “Learner Guide” is used as a starting point for
discussion.
Providing information about different types of courses offered by SALC
counselling service (including the “Tailored Course”)
If the “Walk-in” agrees to join the course, the following phases continue:
Phase 5
Phase 6
Phase 7
Giving more detailed information:
- the concept of consultation
- the role of both the participant and the counselor
Preparation for the next meeting:
A task relevant to the goal(s) set by the participant is assigned.
Note: The task is aimed as a starting point for both the participant and the counsellor
during the first consultation.
Scheduling for consultations
Note: If the participant cannot make a decision on the spot, he/she can call the
counsellor later for confirmation.
282
The First Consultation: The First Attempt
The first consultation involves the following phases:
Phase 1
Phase 2
Phase 3
Phase 4
Summarizing what has been done and problems encountered
Discussion on questions/concerns
Note: Here revising, summarising and advising concerning the content explored are
covered.
Discussion on what needs to be adjusted for the next consultation.
Note: Here the related concepts of autonomous learning are covered.
Working on a tentative plan for the next consultation
The Other Consultations: The Discovery
The second consultation and further consultations that follow are of a similar structure to
the first one. The two key concepts that have been adopted are:
1) the “feedback loop” introduced by Voller (1998)
2) Lev Vygotsky’s interactive instructional support- the Scaffolding” where the
counsellor steps in when the participant need more help and steps back when less is required to
allow the participant to progress on his/her own.
The interactive nature of Voller’s loop is shown in the figure below:
Figure1: The Interactive Nature of the Feedback Loop (Voller, 1998)
IV. Counsellor’s Role
According to researches (Holec, 1981; Dickinson, 1987), learner support
involves two kinds of preparation: methodological and psychological preparation. The former
283
focuses on helping learners plan, monitor and evaluate their learning while the latter deals with
learners attitudes, feelings and beliefs about language learning and self-directed learning. The
role of the counsellor in the “Tailored Course” focuses on both methodological and
psychological preparation.
The Study
This study took place during the academic year 2009 (starting from October 1, 2008September 30, 2009). A total of 39 participants enrolled in the “Tailored Course”. The
participants joined the course voluntarily; they did not receive any credits or a certificate from
joining the course. The service was free of charge. The frequency of the participants participating
during the course is shown in the table below:
Table 1: Frequency of Participants Participating in the “Tailored Course”
Number of participations
Number of participants
34
1
26
1
19
1
15
1
10
2
8
1
7
1
5
2
4
2
3
5
2
5
1 0
10 7
Of all the 39 participants, ones who attended at least 5 consultations were selected to be
the subject of the study. However, as one of those selected participants had not answered the
questionnaire, only 9 participants were used as the subjects of this study. Table 2 shows the
background information of the subjects, while Table 3 shows the frequency of the subjects’
attendance and the total number of counseling sessions attended.
Table 2: Background of the Subject Participating in the “Tailored Course”
Participant
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
Identity
Lecturer
Post-graduate student
Officer
Officer
Graduate student
Lecturer
Officer
Lecturer
Graduate student
Educational
Background
Master degree
Master degree
Bachelor’s degree
Master degree
Bachelor’s degree
Master degree
Master degree
Master degree
Bachelor’s degree
Focus
TOEFL test
General English
Speaking
Academic writing
Grammar revision
Pronouciation
CU-tep test
Presentation
Academic writing
284
Table 3: Frequency of the subject attending the “Tailored Course”
Participant
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
Oct.
08
Nov.
08
Dec.
08
Jan.
09
Feb.
09
Mar.
09
Apr.
09
May
09
Jun.
09
Jul.
09
Aug.
09
Sept.
09
////
////
///
////
///
///
/
/////
//
//
///
//
///
/
//
/
///
////
///
///
////
/////////
///
//
///
///
///
//
//
////
////
//
////
///
//
//
//
/
///
///
//
///
//
/
/
/
///
/
///
No. of
consultations
34
26
19
15
10
10
8
7
5
Research Method
To gather data, a questionnaire was given to each subject at the end of the academic year,
2009 (i.e., in October). The questionnaire was composed of two parts: Part I with eleven items of
a five point Likert-type rating scale (ranging from ‘Not at all’ to ‘A great deal’) which answered
the research question about the changes on the subjects’ attitudes towards autonomous learning
and Part II which was an open-ended question answering the question about the subjects’
practice on autonomous learning (see the questionnaire in Appendix 1).
Data Analysis
The obtained data on the closed questions was analyzed by means, frequencies and
percentages while the open ended data was considered and grouped according to the list Candy
(1991) produced based on more than 100 competencies that researchers have identified to be
linked with successful autonomous learning. They are grouped under 13 headings as follows:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
be methodical and disciplined
be logical and analytical
be reflective and self-aware
be curious, open and motivated
be flexible
be interdependent and interpersonally competent
be persistent and responsible
be venturesome and creative
be confident and have a positive self-concept
be independent and self-sufficient
have developed information seeking and retrieval skills
have knowledge about and skill at learning processes
develop and use criteria for evaluating
285
Results & Discussion
Attitude Change
The table below shows the result obtained from the analysis of closed-ended questions
focusing on the subject’s confidence in performing the selected autonomous learning activities.
Table 4: Summary of Attitude Change in Participants
Heading
1. Setting goals
2. Planning according to the goal(s) set
3. Learning English more from different sources: either
materials or people
4. Managing learning time, according to the plan set
5. Selecting materials suitable for ability and interest
6. Working on exercises to increase your knowledge
7. Finding answers for unknown questions
8. Trying new learning strategies
9. Evaluating your own progress
10. Reflecting on problems found when working on
exercises
11. Applying what has been learnt to new situations
Not
at all
Very
little
Little
Much
-
-
33%
22%
11%
67%
44%
44%
A
great
deal
33%
44%
-
11%
11%
11%
44%
11%
11%
22%
33%
44%
56%
44%
67%
56%
56%
56%
11%
33%
33%
22%
44%
11%
11%
-
11%
44%
22%
22%
-
As can be observed, the majority of the subjects felt more confident in all aspects, except
applying what have been learnt to new situations. Among the activities, the highest ones which
indicated very positive attitude from the subjects were the management skill on setting goals and
finding answers for unknown questions. The other two outstanding positive indicators were
learners’ attitude on using alternative learning sources available to them and trying new learning
strategies which were rated ‘a great deal’ from nearly half of the respondents (44%).
How Participants Approached Their Learning
This part shows the analysis of results obtained from the open-ended part of the
questionnaire which asked the subjects to write a summary of any new activities done as a result
of joining the course. The activities noted by the participants were grouped, based on Candy
(1991) list to show the link between the activities and the elements that indicate successful
autonomous learning. Among the 13 headings, 9 were highlighted. The table below summarizes
the highlighted heading, the number of respondents and the number of answers raised under each
heading.
286
Table 5: Summary of Participants’ Practice of Autonomous Learning (see detail in Appendix 2)
Heading
1.
2.
3.
4
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
be methodical and disciplined
be curious, open and motivated
be venturesome and creative
have developed information seeking and retrieval skills
be confident and have a positive self-concept
develop and use criteria for evaluating
be logical and analytical
be persistent and responsible
be reflective and self-aware
No. of
respondents
6
5
5
4
3
2
1
1
1
No. of item
raised
16
18
8
6
3
2
2
1
1
The results of the first research question on the extent to which the ‘Tailored Course’
affected the way participants approached their learning, suggested that the course had affected
participant’s learning in these areas:
•
planning skill, resourcing, evaluating, and reflecting
• willingness to take responsibility for their own leaning
• confidence and motivation
Based on the data, it is noticeable that the subjects indicated the positive changes on both
skills and motivation, i.e., the two side–learning habit and perception about autonomous learning.
As can be observed, though some subjects highlighted on self–assessment and reflection, the
number seems to be very small when compared to others skill developed.
Conclusion
The participants of “Tailored Course” on a voluntary basis brought a variety of
knowledge, experience, skills, expectations as well as their individual attitudes towards
autonomous learning. No matter how different they were, it could be assumed that they were
ready to explore issues of autonomy. With all the differences as an individual, the subjects in this
study, thought few in numbers, have shown some acknowledgement that one-to-one couselling
on a voluntary basis is another means to the road of success which help them to develop greater
learning autonomy and to meet their personal objectives in improving English. Consider the
following view on developing autonomous leaning by Dam (2000):
Developing learner autonomy is a long, difficult and often painful process, not least
for the teacher. It demands constant effort on the part of teachers and learners; not
287
only as individuals but in collaboration with one another. It is an experiencesbased learning process for teachers and learners alike (p. 49).
The above view reflects well our roles as teachers/counselors to work through the route to
the success of autonomous learning.
References
Candy, P. C. (1991). Self direction for lifelong learning: A comprehensive guide to theory and
practice. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Dam, L. (1995). Learner autonomy 3: From theory to classroom practice. Dublin: Authentic.
Dam, L. (2000). Evaluating autonomous learning. In B. Sinclair (Ed.), Learner autonomy,
teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp. 48-59). London: Longman.
Dickinson, L. (1987). Self-instruction in language learning. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Dickinson, L. (1995). Autonomy and motivation: A literature review. System, 23(2), 165-174.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy and foreign language learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Holec, H. (1988). Autonomy and self-directed learning: Present fields of application. Strasbourg:
Council of Europe.
Kelly, R. (1996). Language counseling for learner autonomy: The skilled helper in self-access
language learning. In R. Pemberton, S. L. Edward, W. W. F. Or, and H. D. Pierson (Eds.),
Taking control: Autonomy in language learning (pp. 93-114). Hong Kong: Hong Kong
University Press.
Littlewood, W. (1997). Self-access: Why do we want it and what can it do? In P. Benson
and P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and independence in language learning (pp.79-92).
London: Longman.
Reinders, H. (2006). University language advising: Is it useful? Reflections on English Language
Teaching, 5(1), 79-92.
Sinclair, B. (2000). Learner autonomy: The next phase. In B. Sinclair (Ed.), Learner
autonomy, teacher autonomy: Future directions (pp.15-23). London: Longman.
Sturtridge, G. (1997). Teaching and language learning in self-access centres: Changing roles? In
P. Benson & P. Voller (Eds.), Autonomy and Independence in Language Learning (pp.
66-78). London: Longman.
Victori, M., & Lockart, W. (1995). Enhancing metacognition in self-directed learning. System,
23(2), 223-234.
Voller, P. (1998). One to one consultations guide book. Hong Kong: English Centre,
University of Hong Kong.
Wenden, A. (1991). Learner strategies for learner autonomy. UK: Prentice Hall
International.
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Appendix 1
The Questionnaire Used in this Study
Part I
After joining the “Tailored Course”, how confident do you feel to work on developing
U
U
your English on your own under the following headings?
Please put a √ in the corresponding level(s) where:
0 = Not at all 1
= Very little 2
= Little 3
= Much 4
= A great deal
Heading
0
1. Setting goals
2. Planning according to the goal(s) set
3. Learning English more from different sources: either materials or people
4. Managing learning time, according to the plan set
5. Selecting materials suitable for ability and interest
6. Working on exercises to increase your knowledge
7. Finding answers for unknown questions
8. Trying new learning strategies
9. Evaluating your own progress
10. Reflecting on problems found when working on exercises
11. Applying what has been learnt to new situations
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Part II
While joining the “Tailored Course”, you have been involved in working with a variety
of activities. Please write a summary in the space provided of any new activities that you have
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undertaken which has resulted from joining the “Tailored Course”.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………................................
Appendix 2
The Detailed Answers of the Open-ended Part of the Questionnaire
1. be methodical and disciplined
-plan writing using ‘mind mapping’-set a goal for improving pronunciation-adjust
materials for practice at a higher level-use ‘mind mapping’ to summarize exercises on writingthink about topic(s) to be studied (according to grammar, vocabulary and structures)
-use a variety of learning methods
-use ‘mind mapping’ to link ideas for speaking
289
-learn via e-mail mode
-write notes in English (to practice writing and learning new vocabulary)
-read the topic, study the familiar words, study the pictures before reading academic
articles
-practice pronunciation to communicate with a foreign guest speaker
-make clear objectives before learning
-make a learning plan (translate two international songs a week, read English news every
Tuesday)
-set goal(s) for improving more than usual (e.g. a goal for writing better academic articles)
-fix study time (as a result, become more determined and can make better self-control)
-practice remembering interesting vocabulary in a more systematic way (write down
meanings, how to use the word and parts of speech as oppose to traditionally noting the short
meanings and then forgetting them)
-allocate more time for self-study
-choose materials to suit own level of proficiency
2. be curious, open and motivated
-observe more
-listen to English, both from materials and conversations
-notice words and expressions found in articles written in English (to study its form and
vocabulary)
-write notes in English (to practice writing and learning new vocabulary)
-search for vocabulary when playing computer games
-like to work on tests provided by computer games for elementary level students (easy
and can be used in real life – an “interesting happiness”)
-remember transliterates form movies or conversations heard and find their meanings.
-seek more information about product advertisements shown at different places and use
the Internet to search when in doubt about their usage)
-learn the words that exist in English but cannot be translated into Thai (especially words
involved with I.T. learning)
-study information and use it to talk with friends
290
-have conversations with foreigner friends using both Thai and English (sometimes you
may need to write the words on a piece of paper)
-become interested in pronunciation and start learning pronunciation symbols from
dictionaries
-become more interested in using English materials (e.g. listen to music, watch movies
and use the search engine to find interesting and new international websites)
-pay more attention to make revision about English (e.g. read books and work on English
tests)
-rehearse what to talk to the guest speaker about (there is a need to communicate between
the two parties)
-become more enthusiastic in learning through different mediums (e.g. from suggested
websites and self-access centre’s books)
-practice conversations with Thai’s and foreigner friends
-work on grammar and comprehension tests from various sources
3. be venturesome and creative
-think about English sentences along with what is actually used in an everyday life
situation (asking questions to self how to say if wish to talk about that)
-use transliterates when in the classroom with friends and lecturers
-write English words that you know the meaning instead of writing in Thai
-change the language used in the computer from Thai to English version -apply the
knowledge gained in academic writing (e.g. descriptive writing)
-use transliterations instead of Thai
-apply presentation skills to actual work
-try new strategies (e.g. take notes on vocabulary)
4. be persistent and responsible
-pay more attention when listen to information
5. have developed information seeking and retrieval skills
-find technical terms from different dictionaries
-use different types of dictionaries
-research learning resources (the Internet, newspapers, brochures, journals)
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-borrow books from resources that have never accessed before
-search information from teaching and learning English websites
-search additional information from a variety of sources
6. be confident and have a positive self-belief
-have more confidence to talk (no matter if it’s grammatically right or wrong)
-have more confidence and understanding when listening to songs and watching movies (in
English)
-have more confidence when sitting for English tests organized by different institutions
7. develop and use criteria for evaluating
-chat with friends online as a way to find a solution to problems in learning English
-try practicing pronunciation with a friend and have the friend check the mistakes made;
if the friend is not sure, more information searching will need to be done
8. be logical and analytical
-proof out when have doubts about what has been learnt
-talk about the different interpretations between Thai and English
9. be reflective and self-aware
-spend time for self-reflection and make corrections on the errors or misunderstandings
(note down any defining points as a reminder)
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Establishment of Comprehensive Russian Studies Program in Thailand
Leonard Storchevoy
Srinakharinwirot University
Abstract
Russia has made a significant contribution to the world culture and is playing an important role
in international politics and economy. Furthermore, Thai/Russia’s relations are now witnessing a
strong mutual political support and a visible increase in trade. As a result, Thailand experiences
significant need in preparing high-quality experts in Russian Studies and establishing a
comprehensive program in Russian Studies. At least two Thai universities--Thammasat and
Chulalongkorn--offer programs in Russian Studies taught mainly in Thai language. However, in
the opinion of the author, to increase competitiveness of Russian program graduates, all major
subjects should be taught in English. Srinakharinwirot University is in the process of establishing
a comprehensive B.A. Program in Russian Studies, offering a unique multidisciplinary
curriculum on the entire post-Soviet space. This article describes the proposed program and
explains how it will allow students to understand political, economic and cultural impact of
Russia on South-East and Far East nations.
Keywords: Russian Studies, foreign languages in Thailand, humanities programs
Why Study Russian?
Over the past decade Russia’s (“Russian Federation’s”) political and economic
importance has been growing worldwide, and so have its long-established ties with Southeast
Asia, including Thailand. In recognition of the strengthening of these ties, in 2007 both the
Kingdom of Thailand and the Russian Federation introduced a bilateral visa waiver program for
citizens of the two nations. Presently Thailand experiences strong need in preparing high-quality
experts in Russian Studies.
Russia is the world’s largest country in terms of territory and has been enjoying an
economic growth throughout the past several years. Russia has made substantial contribution to
the world culture, giving it the names of Dostoyevsky and Tolstoy, writers; Tchaikovsky and
Stravinsky, composers; Tsiolkovsky and Saharov, physicists; Lenin and Gorbachev, politicians;
Gagarin, the first man in space; and the total of nearly 20 Nobel Prize laureates in medicine,
chemistry, literature, economics, etc.
Being one of the six official languages of the United Nations, Russian is spoken by nearly
250 million people in Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Latvia, and of course Russia.
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Russia is the world’s largest country in terms of territory. With purchasing power parity
of $2,117 trillion (as of 2009), it is the world’s sixth largest economy.
1
While Russian is one of the six official languages of the United Nations (UN), Russia is
one of the five original permanent members of the UN Security Council and as such has a power
of veto on any resolutions and proposals made in the UN.
Lastly, the Thai-Russian relations have recently witnessed a strong mutual political
support and a visible increase in trade. In 2008, bilateral trade turnover between the two
2
countries was approximately US$4 billion. For the past several years, the average of
approximately 250,000 Russian tourists have arrived in the Kingdom annually.
3
Russian Studies: What Language Should Be Used for Classroom Instruction?
All of that certainly justifies a need in studying Russian culture and Russian language in
Thai schools. To our knowledge, Russian language is presently taught at three universities:
Ramkhamhaeng, Thammasat and Chulalongkorn. Ramkhamhaeng offers Russian language as
4
part of the curriculum at the Institute of International Studies. Thammasat has a B.A. program
in Russian Studies whereby Russian Language is taught in conjunction with a number of courses
on Russian culture, history and economics. It is noteworthy that language is taught both by Thai
instructors and native speaker instructors from Russia, while other courses are taught by Thai
professors in Thai. While the program in Thammasat is well structured, it puts too much
emphasis on the use of Thai language, thus impeding students’ ability to develop proficiency in
Russian. Another problem with the Thammasat curriculum is that it focuses mainly on
contemporary Russian culture, not paying enough attention to classical culture of the Russianspeaking space.
1
CIA, The World Factbook, available at https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-worldfactbook/fields/2001.html
2
See D. Smakhtin, Report at the Seminar Organized by the Ministry of Commerce of the Kingdom of
Thailand on February 26, 2009, available at http://www.rusthaitrade.com/reports.htm
3
See Statistika vyezda iz Rossii i vyezda v Rossiu, 2002-2008 gg, available at
http://profi.travel.ru/stats/stat_2007_inout.html
4
See Thammasat University, Institute of International Studies, Curriculum, available at
http://www.iis.ru.ac.th/English_Program/BA_English/ba_english_curriculum.htm
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Lastly, Chulalongkorn University has an interdisciplinary graduate program leading to a
Master of Arts degree in Russian Studies; its curriculum includes a wide selection of courses on
Russia, all of which are taught in Thai. Despite this selection, the program is somewhat
shorthanded: Offering a limited number of courses in Russian language, it affords a low priority
to developing students’ proficiency in the language and, rather, focuses on the country’s history,
politics and economics. In fact, knowledge of Russian and a background in Russian studies is not
even a requirement for enrolling into the program.
Currently Srinakharinwirot University is in the process of establishing a comprehensive
Russian Studies program leading to a B.A. degree. As it will be shown in this article, this
program will employ a different and innovative approach to developing a program in Russian
Studies.
Unquestionably it is always preferable that a foreign language be taught by a native
speaker having required credentials to do so. Nonetheless, I would note in this regard that having
a native speaker instructor should not be a goal in and of itself. Such an instructor has to have
proper qualifications to teach and possess proper pedagogical skills and ideally hold a degree in a
related field, whether it is linguistics, literature or education. Having native fluency in the target
language is not the ultimate key to being a successful teacher of this language. If it were
otherwise, any bird could become an ornithologist, while any fish would be right to call itself an
ichthyologist. For that reason, a qualified and experienced Thai teacher with a degree in ESL
who may not have a perfect Boston accent may still be more efficient in teaching ESL than a
Bostonian who holds a degree in Computer Engineering and is not knowledgeable in
pedagogical techniques and linguistic methods. Same applies to teaching Russian as a second
language.
If an educational institution is offering a program in any foreign country studies, mere
proficiency in the target language would be insufficient to qualify a graduate as an expert in the
field. Acquiring genuine understanding of the target language is impossible without
understanding its social and historical roots as well as a cultural context in which it emerged and
developed. This is particularly true in case of cultures so distant from each other as Thai and
Russian cultures. Accordingly, a curriculum in Russian Studies must be comprehensive in nature
and include disciplines encompassing all aspects of Russian culture, both from a historic and
modern perspective.
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Furthermore, the differences between the two cultures in question are abundant and
encompass not only phonetics and grammar particularities but also mentality. Thai people and
Russian people see the world, the society and themselves quite differently. While Thai seek to
fuse with society and nature and become their part, Russians tend to set themselves against
society and the outer world or in a best case scenario may seek to embrace the world rather than
be embraced by it. Accordingly, it is highly desirable that an instructor lecturing on Russian
political history, intellectual history, literature or fine arts have an in depth understanding – and
preferably – appreciation of Russian mentality. The question that arises in this regard is what
language should be used to show this understanding, or worded differently, what language
should non-language courses in Russian Studies be taught in?
It is a basic principle of foreign language teaching that foreign language curriculum
should directly relate the target language to students’ lives and that students should be
encouraged to use the target language in other courses.
5
Teaching a course in foreign language is certainly more practical a task while teaching a
course in history or anthropology is a task more theoretical in nature. Methods and techniques
that may be employed in teaching these two courses differ accordingly. Nonetheless, given the
fundamental dissimilarities between Thai and Russian cultures, in the context of Russian Studies
program offered in Thailand these methods and techniques would substantially overlap. After all,
it is unfeasible to develop knowledge of Russian cinema or literature without understanding – at
least to some extent – the language of the movies and literary works studied. Thus, implementing
the above principles, Thai students of Russian program should use Russian language in other
major-related courses, whether it is Russian Political History or Russian Modern Literature.
Where a course is offered by a Thai-speaking instructor, implementing this principle becomes an
impossibility.
Using Thai to teach Russian non-language courses closely related to the language is also
unadvisable because it would discourage students to use Russian. Living in an environment
where no Russian is spoken and communicating exclusively in their native language are not an
5
Ana Schwartz, Pey-Chewn Duo, Marc Djamou, “Curriculum Standards in Foreign Languages,” in
Northeast Conference on the Teaching of Foreign Languages Curriculum Standards: National and
Pennsylvania Perspectives, 1999, pp. 27-28 available at
http://works.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1008&context=ana_schwartz
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effective stimulus for mastering Russian. However, where most of major-related courses are
delivered in Thai, this stimulus will reduce even further.
It follows from this preposition that non-language courses in Russian Studies should be
taught by instructors who have proficiency in Russian. Ideally, certain courses – at least on the
graduate level – may indeed be taught in Russian. However, the ideal is sometimes far from the
reality, and presently there are very few Russian-speaking Thai instructors capable of doing this.
Given this deficiency which in the course of time will hopefully be cured, English appears as a
solution to the problem. After all, both Russian and English belong to the Indo-European
language group and, being much closer to each other than they are to Thai, share a substantial
part of their lexical stock. Furthermore, the interplay of Russian and English cultures, both being
European and Christian, has been also very significant. Suffice it to say that certain aspects of
Russian literature cannot be understood without making a reference to English literature, the
works of Shakespeare and Byron, for example.
In some instances using English as the primary academic language of Russian Studies
Program may be even more practicable than using Russian. For example in the context of
international college aiming to prepare students for carriers in international affairs, teaching
Russian Studies in English will have a dual benefit, thus killing two birds with one stone: Not
only will this reduce students’ dependence and reliance on Thai, it will also help them to develop
proficiency in what has become the language of international communication.
Lastly, using English as the language of instruction will allow experts in Russian Studies
from all over the world to teach in the program, thus making it more reputable and increasing
competitiveness of the students.
These theoretical premises are at the core of the Russian Studies Program being
developed at Srinakharinwirot. All the courses to be offered in the program will be taught in
English, and we will now proceed to the discussion of a suggested curriculum for the program.
A Sample Curriculum of Russian Studies Program (4 Years, 8 Semesters)
LANGUAGE: 1st-8th semester. Russian will be continuously taught in each of the eight
semesters of the program, comprising at least 40% of the entire course load. Language courses
will encompass grammar, conversation, writing, and reading. Conversation and reading ought to
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be taught based on literary, newspaper/magazine, and business texts. Special emphasis will be
made on learning the language through movies.
GEOGRAPHY: 1st semester. A one-semester course will introduce students to physical
geography of the main countries and historical parts of the East European region, Central Asia,
and Russian Asia. It will also cover the economic and political geography of Russian and
neighboring countries and discuss the recent historical changes and their repercussions in
regional politics.
INTRODUCTION TO POLITICAL SYSTEM: 1st semester. In this class, the students
will learn about the political institutions, recent political and social transformations in Russia.
FINE ARTS HISTORY (MUSIC, ARCHITECTURE, PAINTING): 1st, 2nd semesters.
This course will be split into two parts, one covering the topic until the beginning of the 20th
century, and another – thereafter. The course will give an overview of the major trends and
transformations in the Russian architecture, painting and music. It will explore the best samples
of the Russian architecture and examine how it was influenced by artistic styles of Byzantine,
Italy, France and other European countries. In music, it will concentrate on the original Russian
contributions to music—specifically, Tchaikovsky, Rimsky-Korsakov, Stravinsky, Prokofiev,
and Shostakovich; theatre (Stanislavsky), painting (Malevich, Kandinsky, Chagall), and ballet
(Petipa, Diaghilev). The course will also examine the interplay of ideology and fine arts in the
Soviet period.
ANTROPOLOGY: 1st, 2nd semesters. This course will introduce students to Russia’s
mainstream ethnic culture, explaining how Russian people act, what they do, and how they think.
In addition to this, students will learn to appreciate Russia’s multi-ethnic cultural diversity (the
country is populated by over 150 ethnic groups).
POLITICAL HISTORY: 3rd, 4th semesters. This class we cover all of the critical events
of the Russian history including the adoption of Christianity, disintegration of the Kievan Rus,
unification under the dominance of Moscow, reforms of Peter the Great, the evolution of Russia
into an empire of international significance, the collapse of monarchy in February 1917, the Civil
War and the establishment of the Communists-run Soviet Union, the Stalin era, World War II,
the Cold War, and the collapse of the Soviet Union. An attempt will be made to identify patterns
of Russian history and find roots of the country’s present historic developments in the events of
the past.
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INTELLECTUAL HISTORY: 4th semester. This class will provide students with an
opportunity to understand the intellectual history of Russia. It will discuss the main trends in the
Russian Orthodox Church and monastic life and the secular ideas such as Russian religious
philosophy, Russian Marxism and Leninism, mystical ideas and contributions of various
intellectuals, scientists and ideologues.
LITERATURE: 5th and 6th semesters. While literature is a key element in understanding
Russian culture, studying literature assumes certain proficiency in the language. Therefore, this
course may be offered in the 3rd year of studies the earliest. The course will concentrate on the
works of the Russian classical literature, and students will read the excerpts from Pushkin, Gogol,
Turgenev, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy, Gorky and Chekhov This class will also provide an overview of
the literary scene and artistic schools of the 20th century such as Symbolism, Futurism, Acmeism,
Social Realism, and Post-Modernism.
CINEMA: 6th semester. As study of literature, this course requires proficiency in Russian
on at least a high intermediate level and will be based on in-class video demonstrations. Works
of Eisenstein, Tarkovsky, Parajanov and other film-makers that have made a significant impact
on the world cinema will be examined in detail.
ECONOMICS: 7th and 8th semesters. Economics-related courses should be also taught to
seniors but for a different reason: these courses require familiarity with fundamentals of business
administration, marketing, and finance, which first and second year students are unlikely to have.
These courses will overview the history of the transition to a free market and the unique features
of Russian economy, focusing on the major industries such as energy, oil and gas, banking,
military equipment manufacturing, etc.
LAW: 8th semester. This course will examine legal systems implemented both in the
present-day Russia and the Soviet Union, comparing them with other major European legal
systems and identifying their major features and the origin. Readings from Russian laws and
legal texts will be done.
The curriculum breakdown by semesters would be as follows:
FIRST YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER
Elementary Russian (Introductory Course-I)
Anthropology (I)
Geography
Introduction to Political System
FIRST YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER
Elementary Russian (Introductory Course-II)
Russian & European Art (Music, Architecture, Painting) (pre-XX cent.)
Anthropology (II)
SECOND YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER
Elementary Russian: Conversation (I)
Elementary Russian: Grammar (I)
Russian & European Art (Music, Architecture, Painting) (XX c.)
Political History of Russia (until 1917)
SECOND YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER
Elementary Russian: Conversation (II)
Elementary Russian: Grammar (II)
Intellectual History
Political History of Russia (since 1917)
THIRD YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER
Intermediate Russian: Conversation (I)
Intermediate Russian: Grammar and Reading (I)
Russian Literature (pre-XX cent)
THIRD YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER
Intermediate Russian: Conversation (II)
Intermediate Russian: Grammar and Reading (II)
Russian Cinema
Russian Literature (XX cent)
FORTH YEAR, FIRST SEMESTER
Advanced Russian through Movies and TV Programs
Advanced Russian: Newspaper Readings
Russian Economy (I)
FORTH YEAR, SECOND SEMESTER
Advanced Russian: Essay
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300
Business Russian
Russian & European Legal System
Russian Economy (II)
Of course, the above curriculum is tentative and is subject to modifications and revisions.
Practical Implications of Comprehensive Russian Studies Program
The suggested English-language curriculum focuses both on traditional and
contemporary Russia and the entire post-Soviet space. This curriculum reflects the increasing
international role of Russia — from its foreign policy and presence in international organizations
to its importance in the world economy; the rapid domestic political, economic and social
changes associated with Russia’s recent development; the importance of relations with Russia for
Thailand; and Russia’s cultural heritage. The program being developed at Srinakharinwirot will
also allow students to understand the impact of historical and present-day Russian culture upon
politics, culture and religions in the Far East, Southeast Asia and in the world political scene.
While the courses will be offered mainly in the form of a lecture, other teaching forms
including seminars, workshops and individual projects will be widely used.
This program will also help students to study American, European, Russian and Asian
businesses within the context of cultural, economic, political, and historical, and educational
contrasts. It will place a special emphasis on the development of cross-cultural competence in
doing business and networking in Russia for students’ future career pursuits. The Russian Studies
Program will be interdisciplinary and intend to give students interested in Russia a broad
foundation in Russian language, culture, and history, and an opportunity to focus on the religious,
sociological and philosophical world view and the economic structure of Russia and neighboring
regions.
A degree in Russian Studies will be a valuable asset to students’ career pursuits, as many
Russian companies have established their presence in Thailand, the flow of tourists between the
two countries is constantly growing, and both governments are determined to continue
strengthening mutual cooperation and friendly relations.
Furthermore, a B.A. in Russian Studies is an effective preparatory tool for those who
seek to pursue graduate-level studies in law, international business, international relations,
political science, economics, or public administration.
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Conclusion
Presently, no university in Thailand has an English-language comprehensive program in
Russian Studies that would provide in-depth and complex knowledge of the Russian-speaking
space, its culture, economy, and its place in the world historical process. The existing Russian
Studies programs are characterized by the overuse of Thai as the language of instruction, limiting
students’ ability to develop proficiency in Russian. Employing English as the language of
instruction will reduce students’ dependency on Thai and increase their professional
competitiveness.
The curriculum to be offered at Srinakharinwirot may set standards for a Russian Studies
program. Establishing such a program will foster interests of the Kingdom’s academic
community and contribute to the further development of Thai-Russian relations.
Bio-data
Dr. Leonard (Leo) Storchevoy holds a Master’s Degree in Oriental Studies from St.
Petersburg State University, Russia, and a Juris Doctors Degree from the Florida State
University, USA. Currently serving as Visiting Professor of Russian Studies at Srinakharinwirot
University, Bangkok, he has published a number of scholarly articles and essays on Chinese
literature and philosophy and Russian literature and language. He has also authored a collection
of short stories and two books of poems in Russian. He has taught English in Thailand, Russia
and the US, Russian in the US, and Hebrew in Moldova.
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TEE Implementation in Korea
Guiboke Seong
Inha University
Introduction
Teaching English in English (TEE) or teaching English through English (TETE) refers to
the instructional option that teachers of English use English, the target language and the subject
matter, as the medium of instruction in the classroom. TEE was first introduced in Korea in late
1990s as part of the efforts that Korean Ministry of Education made to implement the principles
of Communicative Language Teaching approaches reflected in the 7th national curriculum. The
traditional grammar translation methods and structural curricula in old times failed to improve
students’ communicative competence and the need for reform rose. TEE is nowadays one of the
most debated issues in English education in Korea. More than ever, the present administration is
strongly encouraging elementary and secondary school teachers to use English in the classroom.
Advantages and Difficulties of Implementing TEE
Implementing TEE in Korea has brought up a number of issues. There are problems and
difficulties along with advantages and merits. “English only” policy may have its roots in the
Direct Method that insisted “target language only” in the classroom (Brown, 2007). Using the
target language only in the classroom, especially in the EFL context, provides students with more
opportunities to receive target language input from the teacher (e.g., S-Y. Kim, 2002; Moon &
Lee, 2002). It also creates communicative contexts in the classroom where students and the
teacher interact in the target language as the teacher triggers the authentic communication in the
target language (e.g., D-K. Kim, 2001; E-J. Kim, 2003). This second greatest advantage of TEE
is closely related to the acquisitional benefits of output proposed by Swain early on (e.g., Swain,
1985, 1995). These strengths can complement the communicative weaknesses of grammar
translation methods that have prevailed in the previous era in Korea.
Problems and difficulties, however, have also been discussed. Most Korean English
teachers as nonnative English-speaking teachers report pressure coming from their lack of target
language proficiency (e.g., S-Y. Kim, 2002; Nemtchivona, 2005). Even with years of training
and expertise in teaching of English as a foreign language, still many Korean teachers of English
feel that they are inadequate just because they are not confident in speaking. This is a huge initial
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barrier for English teachers who want to start TEE. Researchers also have reported students’
voices complaining understanding problems in the English-only classroom (e.g., E-J. Kim, 2002).
If the students do not fully understand what the teacher says, their attention, motivation and
interest in class will decrease. There are other sociopolitical problems and worries brought up by
people with regard to TEE.
Suggestions and Approaches to the Problems
Surveys, interviews and practices conducted for the past several years by the researcher
working with pre-service and in-service teachers have yielded some practical solutions and
suggestions to some of these difficulties. For starters, intensive classroom English training can be
useful. Secondly, a variety of teacher talk accommodation skills and discourse strategies are
highly beneficial in improving comprehensibility of teacher talk for the students. The teacher talk
accommodation strategies include salient techniques such as slowing down, overarticulation,
pausing, pitch and loudness, and effective nonverbal communication devices such as gestures
and facial expressions. Student’s comprehensibility can greatly increase by teachers’ rephrasing,
grammatical and lexical simplification, and proper use of corrective feedback and error
correction methods. The quality and quantity of classroom interaction can increase through
appropriate moves of questioning techniques in each situation, (student response) elicitation
strategies, classroom conversation repair and code-switching models. Other teaching methods
involving examples, objects, patterns, and graphic organizers, using visual aids, multimedia, and
technologies in class can also be helpful in the TEE classroom. In any case increasing students’
intrinsic motivation by fun, challenging communicative activities, lowering anxiety level in class
through humor and compliments in class, encouraging student participation through sufficient
amount of group work and pair work can elicit a number of positive affective and pedagogical
responses from the students. For the mid to low level groups in the TEE classroom training for
different code-switching options and models will be helpful in saving class time, delivering
accurate messages, and to decrease the anxiety level in the classroom.
Conclusion
Some still say that TEE is not practical in an EFL context, but based on the voices from
the teacher-training programs and from the actual classrooms, the advantages seem greater than
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its difficulties. It is happening now even in the preschool level in the private sector in Korea. In
order for this to be implemented successfully in Korea and in any other countries where English
is learned and taught as a foreign language, preparations and prerequisites on multiple levels are
to precede. Once its justifications have been set and understood by those involved such as
teachers, students and parents, and proper methods and training are applied and practiced in the
classroom, TEE may not be such a hard policy to implement in the EFL classroom. Some
research findings have already begun reporting the good news that teachers feel less anxiety and
grow more positive attitudes toward TEE as time goes by and that students feel more
comfortable in the TEE class as they get used to it and as they realize the effects of it (e.g., S-Y.
Kim, 2002; Hwang, 2002).
References
Brown, H. D. (2007). Teaching by principles (3rd ed.). White Plains, NY: Pearson Education.
Hwang, J. (2002). L2 learners’ anxiety and motivation in an English-only content-based class.
English Teaching, 57(1), 193-211.
Kim, D-K. (2001). CLT and TETE for non-native teachers: A reading comprehension approach.
Journal of the Applied Linguistics Association of Korea, 17(2), 55-72.
Kim, E-J. (2002). Voices of learner from English-medium lectures. Journal of the Applied
Linguistics Association of Korea, 18(1), 145-163.
Kim, E-J. (2003). A comparative study of academic oral interaction in English-medium lectures
and Korean-medium lectures. English Teaching, 58(3), 3-20.
Kim, S-A. (2002). A critical reflection on the ‘Teaching English through English’ classes in the
Korean context. English Teaching, 57(4), 315-346.
Kim, S-Y. (2002). Teachers’ perceptions about teaching English through English. English
Teaching, 57(1), 131-148.
Moon, Y-I., & Lee, K-S. (2002). Study on middle school English teachers’ perceptions on TETE.
English Language Teaching, 14(2), 299-324.
Nemtchivona, E. (2005). Host teachers’ evaluation of nonnative English teaching trainees: A
perspective from the classroom. TESOL Quarterly, 39(2), 235-262.
Swain, M. (1985). Communicative competence: Some roles of comprehensible input and
comprehensible output in its development. In S. Gass & C. Madden (Eds.), Input in
second language acquisition (pp. 235-253). Rowly, MA: Newbury House.
Swain, M. (1995). Three functions of output in second language learning. In G. Cook & B.
Seidlhofer (Eds.), Principle and practice in applied linguistics: Studies in honour of H. G.
Widdowson (pp. 125-144). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
305
Role of Emotional Intelligence in Teaching Russian as a Foreign
Language
Jawaharlal Nehru University
Abstract
The growing interest in learning Russian is seen nowadays as many of the Asian
companies are interested to have joint venture with Russian counterparts. Russian
teaching around the world is well known even during the Soviet era. So learning Russian
is nothing new to the world and to the Asians in particular. However, based on the
changing times and needs the methodology has to be worked upon. The old materials
have to be renovated and anew teaching methodology built. Teaching methodology for
Russian for non native speakers is studied and includes inter-disciplinary study. World is
seeing in these times an intensive study being undertaken in the field of Neurosciences.
Can this be used in the language study? Can this be used to improvise on the existing
teaching methodology for Russian as a foreign language in the region where it is not
spoken? Whether emotional intelligence is to be considered a factor that can bring the
change in an effective teaching? If it does, then is there a possibility to increase the EQ of
the beginners-learners? These are the issues that this paper revolves around in search for
an effective teaching methodology to match the pace of the globe.
Keywords: emotional intelligence, learning Russian, classroom fear
Introduction
This paper on Emotional Intelligence reminds us about the teachings of Bhagavad
Gita, when Lord Krishna explains Arjuna how anger leads to delusion creating confusion
of memory that results in the loss of intelligence and one falls down into the materialistic
world due to this very anger.
Krodhad bhavati sammohah sammohat smriti-vibhramah।
Smriti-bhramsad buddhi-naso buddhi-nasat pranasyati ।।
(Bhagavad Gita, Chapter2, 63rd Sloka)
This reference from the scriptures here talks about the link between the emotions
and intelligence. In another verse:
dambo darpo bhi manascha krodhah parusyam eva cha ।
ajnanam cabhijatasya partha sampadam asurim ।।
(Bhagavad Gita, Chapter16, 4th Sloka)
which means that "Arrogance, pride, anger, conceit, harshness and ignorance are of
demoniac nature". It states about the destructive character of emotions.
306
These verses give us an idea that emotions were definitely talked about and that
too in connection with intelligence and that makes us curious even more to get a deeper
insight about it. The paper deals with one of the types of emotions, the fear which is the
negative emotions that develop in the learners of a foreign language, here, Russian.
The increasing demand for a good Russian knowing expert in Asia is rapidly
increasing with the tie ups in the economic, financial and oil and gas sectors. More and
more students are coming forward from places where English is not a working language.
For communication Russian, as well as English are necessary to be mastered as the job
requirements in most of the corporate is English due to globalization. The globalization
has facilitated us in using new technology and this is proving a very effective tool to
motivate learning among the new generation and to build up confidence in the beginnerslearners who come from remote places and who think that the others from the city are
more superior. This inferiority complex in some would lead to a fear and this hinders an
active participation in the class. In a language class active participation is an important
requirement. When we talk about fear in a classroom, the learner fears the following:
1. of being spotted by the teacher
2. of being asked a question
3. of your answer being wrong
4. of your idea being wrong
5. of not doing the days home work
6. of low grade spoiling the image when attempting to answer without any
preparation
7. of writing in the new language for fear of the spelling or the grammar
mistakes
8. of poor performance in the tests
9. of not being the centre of ridicule of the class or the teacher.
Such fears are far too many and to these add on the foreign language anxiety
when learning a new language. One waits to run away from it as fear and fright mostly
leads to the flight. Fighting back this fear has to be learnt by the learner. Fear to meet
your professors at the university is common. This, results in running away from any
situations related to fear. The teacher asks: “did you all understand today’s class?” The
307
class is silent. In a foreign language classroom, one is insisted to speak in that language
that is learnt. Many a time the learner struggles to frame a question in that language and
is silent spectator most of the time. A teacher finds tough to balance the attention of the
learners’ as a quick one gets bored with a repetition and a slow learner lags behind if it is
not repeated.
This needs a solution and one should see how this fear can be eliminated and see
if there are any solutions in the related sciences. One has also to look for solutions that
can make this slow learner adapt to quick learning. To our help comes the concept of
Emotional Intelligence, the recent brain mapping and neuroscience and the recent studies
highlighting the functions of brain and the nervous system.
Emotional Intelligence and Learning
The concept of Emotional intelligence deals with controlling emotions that
facilitates the learner to perform better while learning any skill. The same when applied
to language learning will have the capacity to enhance the thinking ability of the learner
that facilitates the teacher in imparting language skills like listening, reading, thinking,
speaking and writing. The various elements of Emotional Intelligence like Self-awareness,
Self-regulation, Motivation, Empathy and Social skills forming the five basic emotional
and social competencies are widely used in the corporate world for personality
development and enhancing administrative skills and of late have been a subject of
interest in the academic performance. This concept should have the capacity to eliminate
the emotion of fear that retards in a learner the learning potential and causing a negative
impact in ones learning.
Self-awareness gives us self-confidence. Motivation guides us towards goals and
removes frustrations to quicken the progress. Self-regulation facilitates in pursuing goals.
Empathy makes us understand others feelings and cultivates rapport with a broad
diversity of people. Social skills can be used to persuade others, negotiate and settle
disputes, for cooperation and teamwork.
The emotional regulation in relation to speech activities is discussed under the
1
division “Speech and emotion” by Vitt, N.V. in his article (1985) where he concludes
1
Vitt. N. V. (1985). Emotionalnaya regulatsiya rechemyslitelnykh protsessov. In Ushakova, T. N. (Ed.).
Psikhologicheskiye i psikho-fizicheskiye isledovaniya rechi (pp. 123-136). Moscow: Nayka.
308
that the results of his experiments confirm the possibility for a study of practical and
effective aspects of emotional regulation.
Learning a language in a non-native environment also involves the same elements
of emotional intelligence: motivation, self confidence, self-regulation and empathy.
Intellectual abilities like verbal fluency the ultimate goal when learning a foreign
language is one of the components of IQ.
Emotional intelligence on the other hand measured by EQ enhances the verbal
fluency and so it’s a value which is an indirect factor influencing IQ. The emotional
intelligence is described by Mayer and Salovey in their article as:
… the capacity to reason about emotions, and of emotions to enhance
thinking. It includes the abilities to accurately perceive emotions, to access
and generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and
emotional knowledge, and to reflectively regulate emotions so as to promote
emotional and intellectual growth. (Mayer & Salovey, 1997)
2
As a definition to what is ‘Emotional Intelligence’, which is the basic idea of
Mayer and Salovey is reflected by Daniel Goleman as:
Emotional Intelligence’ is to manage one’s feelings or emotions, infact,
reign over them and express oneself effectively thus enabling to achieve the
goal. (Golema, 1999, p.7)
The concept of Emotional intelligence is further elucidated by Goleman as:
… the capacity for recognizing our own feelings and those of others, for
motivating ourselves and for managing emotions well in ourselves and in
our relationships. It describes abilities distinct from but complimentary to
the academic intelligence or the cognitive capacities, the IQ. (Goleman,
1999, p.375)
2
Retrieved on 2.10.2008 p. 197
http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EI%20Assets/Reprints...EI%20Proper/EI2004MayerSaloveyCa
rusotarget.pdf
309
Mayer and Salovey had developed further on their theory and came out with a
four branch model of emotional intelligence describing four areas of capacities or skills
that collectively describe many areas of emotional intelligence. To elaborate, they used
this model to define emotional intelligence as involving the abilities to:
•
perceive emotions accurately in oneself and others
•
use emotions to facilitate thinking
•
understand emotional meanings, and
•
manage emotions
Of these managing emotions is the ultimate step to excel in any field. A description given
by Mayer and Salovey about the one who is high on EI hints us on what to expect as end
result of enhancing one’s EQ:
An individual high on EI can be identified as in the same reference is one
who can perceive emotions better, use them to think, understand what they
mean and likewise manage emotions better than others. Solving emotional
problems needs less cognitive effort for this individual. Such a one is rated
high on verbal, social and other intelligences specially when scored higher
in understanding emotions of EI. The person is more open and agreeable
than others and is drawn towards such occupation such as teaching and
counseling more than clerical or administrative tasks. A high EI person is
more likely to have sentimental attachment to ones home and social
interactions if scored high on emotional management. Such a person is
proficient in describing motivational goals, aims and missions. (Mayer &
Salovey, 1997, p. 210)
3
Discussion
The main aspects of concern in a non-native environment of language learning are
to sustain the learner’s motivation throughout; to eliminate fear and to boldly open up the
voice firstly to practice in the class and to clear the doubts. Thus the aspects of emotional
intelligence for sustaining motivation of the foreign language learner and the managing
fear of different types are the main priorities that are to be discussed initially.
3
Ibid page 210
310
Motivation
Talking first about motivation goals in a foreign language classroom, the
beginner-learner has to be helped to sustain it. The following was tried on the beginnerlearner:
1. As to keep the spirit high of the beginner learner, as a supplement to a text
about Moscow city, the class was shown photographs of a recent visit of the teacher in
front of ones own university, a photograph of the Moscow state university and also the
river Moskva. This immediately got the whole class on their toes with unanimous
curiosity to see more photographs. This is the positive point that can be used from visual
aids to create surprises. The stress was forgotten by the class and everyone participated
actively.
2. To teach Practical Russian a story titled ‘Sokolniki’, named after the
famous royal park, a power point presentation showing the park in autumn and winter
and also how it looks during the New Year celebrations was made. This boosted the
interest and motivation of the class. The story started with a sad woman sitting on the
bench in the ‘Sokolniki Park’. Thus emotional responses were aroused in the learners and
they were motivated. This particular class was taken in the open with a feel of nature. A
learner angry with a low grade as a result of the sessional test held the class before and
one who was not at all interested also joined this class and responded well in the next
sessional. This also increased confidence to open up themselves and the second day the
other half of the text was read by some and they came forwarded to narrate it. The group
was sitting close to each other and they felt free as they were not facing the teacher or the
blackboard. Thus outdoor lessons should be chosen in the initial classes to make them get
acquainted with one another and also feel free to ask their doubts especially in a foreign
language classroom in non native surroundings.
Teachers should note that they should adopt ‘approach emotions’ like happiness
and surprise to evoke the desire to approach the stimulus object or situation.
Managing Fear
Talking about recognizing emotions, the studies mention about amygdala as the
seat of fear and aggression and is known for its involvement to facilitate attention by
emotion. Inclination to act is a component of some emotional responses and here we see
311
this factor of emotions and motivation converging. In a classroom we have seen earlier
that, different emotions like happiness, fear was considered as each learner has to achieve
a different goal to keep oneself motivated. The learner has to at times shell out more
energy to keep one’s emotions balanced and also find a way to do that. If this
management of emotions is taught to the learner, the energy is saved and diverted
towards learning. Let us consider managing the emotion, fear.
Problem1: The general fear of the learner seeing a new teacher persists in
everyone. When a new teacher inculcates the fear factor in the class, the result is divided
between some doing the task given by the teacher and the others not understanding
anything as they waste energy building up this fear.
Solution: Use of internet chatroom for a practical exercise. Chat is possible with
native speakers where the learners can use the skills that are learnt so far. This helps in
developing interpersonal skills on one hand and the other is that they don’t see the person
directly so the fear factor can be handled easily. Once speaking to the native on chat they
get the feeling that they can express in front of the teacher too thus paving way to learn
more new concepts. They start planning what is to be done in the chat room today what
more should I ask. There can be exercises making them narrate the chat today and this
improves ones spoken skills along with the emotional quotient rise as the fear of speaking
is removed.
Problem2: For example, a learner fears to do grammar exercises to learn some
new concept.
Solution:
Step 1: A short humorous story or anecdote or a ‘chastushka’ – the
limerick can be taught.
Step 2: As a practice, a coloured story board can be given where the
learner finds and writes the new concepts that is taught. Or a step more to this, they can
be shown the short animation film or a movie with the task to find out the new concept of
grammar in it.
Memory and Fear
Memory plays a major role in learning a language. One has to have sufficient
vocabulary to speak in a language and as a foreign language learner one finds it difficult
312
to memorize the vast mountain of words used to express in different situations. Often the
beginner-learner fails to recollect the words and fear creeps in what ever memorized
before. Added to this memorizing task to build the vocabulary, Russian has a complicated
system of verbs and the changing word-endings have to be constantly kept in mind. This
poses a threat as a learner does not have time at one’s disposal. The fear factor creeps in
and spoils the show and the performance of the learner is at stake.
The growing research in neuroscience is supplying us information with its
neuroimaging and brain mapping about the specialized structures in the brain that are
involved in the perception of emotions and also about the neural network. The recent
findings about neurons extending its network when new things are learnt while the old
4
neurons wither away after passing on the information for storage connects us to the idea
put forth by Zimnyaya (1985) about the memory and that in the process of forming
communicative skills one has to rely upon the learner’s memory mechanism. The
operational memory while reading and listening ensures the retention of information that
enters during the speech process then moving towards the thought process and its arrival
in the long term memory. It is also stated here that when we speak and write the operative
memory helps in short term retention of speech units removed from the long term
5
memory to be further used for generating speech utterances. In the teaching methods of
Russian as a foreign language, emotional memory is taken as the basis for innovation
method. The Baddeley’s conceptualization of working memory model would be highly
influential in this method. The phonological loop can be used for articulatory processing
for learning some of the phonetic and grammar rules.
Discussion
In a classroom, different learners have different potentials. They chose a
convenient mode to learn a concept. Here comes the neuroscience helpful study. Learning
by-heart helps in long time storage.
4
Miller, Greg. New Neurons Make Room for New Memories. Retrieved on 15th Nov 2009
http://sciencenow.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/citation/2009/1112/1
5
Kapitonova, T. I., Moskovkin L.V. (2006) Methodika obucheniye ruskomu yazyku kak inostrannomu na
etape preduzovskai podgotovki. (pp. 147-150). SPb.: Zlatavust.
313
1. One set of learners can do this and increase the production of new neurons
by constant listening and repeating the foreign language speech.
2. By some others this can be done by looking at the material to be learnt for
sometime and then repeating within in the mind, i.e., attracting attention of the learner to
look at the coloured models.
When it is learnt and the information is in the permanent memory, the fear factor
reduces. This can be experimented with the Russian verb conjugation used in a sentence
pattern:
Infinitive: Читать [chitat’] to read
Sing.
Plur.
1st Person
Я
читаю
2nd Person
Ты
читаешь [Ty chitayesh]
3rd Person
Он/она читает [on/ona chitayet] Они читают [oni chitayut]
[Ya chitayu]
Мы читаем [My chitayem]
Вы читаете [Vy chitayete]
Read the verb given above to yourself and then immediately close your eyes and
try to remember the endings silently. After a few seconds, repeat them aloud. This helps
in memorizing anything fast. This can be extended to other verb groups with different
types of conjugation.
Infinitive: говорить
Я говорю
Мы говорим
Ты говоришь
Вы говорите
Он/она говорит
Они говорят
Also, this type of exercises can be further extended to sentence pattern like I
speak Russian thus enabling to build up the information further. This is important in
foreign language learning thus connecting it to the new findings of neuroscience. The
coloured patterns through audio-visual aid as shown above with the verb conjugation
brings in the attention of the learner to that what is spoken in the classroom and his
concentration is built steadily. The phonetic phenomenon of Russian consonants, where
314
the voiced reduces to voiceless depending on the positions in a word, can also be learnt in
the same way as described above.
код – кот ; луг – лук ; год – пот ; дуб – суп; бог - дох;
The blue coloured letters are used for sounds that become voiceless owing to their
position at the end of the word and the red coloured voiceless consonants retain their
character of sound. This phonological loop with the colour combination can be used to
attract learner’s attention. The operational memory and the permanent memory
development can be thus improved by different ways which in turn helps us to eliminate
the fear factor.
Putting the above suggestions in a nutshell, the following can be drawn as a
conclusion: the fear in the learner which is the main problem that hinders a learner can be
controlled by attracting attention through various means like colours, repetitions, and the
chatroom experiences.
Conclusion
Thus the task of building up emotional quotient in a foreign language classroom
can be merged along with the language exercises needed for the foreign language
learning. Thus the learner learns to recognize, understand, use emotions to facilitate
thinking and manage it along with the language rules eliminating the fear and the foreign
language anxiety for a better the performance. The use of emotional intelligence in
classroom would thus ease the task of the difficult teaching of a foreign language in a
non-native environment.
What is to be seen in further research is to find an apt tool to measure the
emotional intelligence quotient at the start of the language course and after using the
above described mixed model to train the learner to raise the emotional quotient as well
as the language skills. This can benefit both the teacher to reduce the strain of teaching
different learners with different aptitudes and also the performance of the classroom at
large would be enhanced. Thus the role of emotional intelligence in teaching a foreign
language should be considered for a further serious study.
Thus a learner has to realize that one can drive the mind freely once the fear is
overcome. The importance of self realization the component of emotional intelligence is
315
seen in this verse that conveys that the individual is the traveler in the chariot of material
body and the intelligence is the driver who drives the mind pulled by the senses. Thus the
self is the enjoyer or sufferer in a relation between mind and senses.
"Cancalam Hi Manah Krsna Pramathi Balavaddrdham Tasyaham
Nigraham Manye Vayoriva Suduskaram"
(Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 6, Verse 21)
References
Boyatzis, R. E., Goleman, D., & Rhee, K. (2000). Clustering competence in emotional
intelligence: Insights from the Emotional Competence Inventory (ECI). In R. BarOn and J.D.A. Parker (Eds.), Handbook of emotional intelligence (pp. 343-362).
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Edward, E. S., & Kosslyn, S. M. (2007). Cognitive Psychology: Mind and brain. New
Delhi: Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd.
Freud, S. (2003). Jokes and their relation to the unconscious, Book 6. New Delhi:
Shrijee’s Book International.
Goleman, D. (1997). Emotional intelligence: Why it can matter more than IQ. New York:
Bantam Books.
Kapitonova, T. I., & Moskovkin L. V. (2006) Methodika obucheniye ruskomu yazyku kak
inostrannomu na etape preduzovskai podgotovki (pp. 147-150). SPb.: Zlatavust.
Krylova, A. A. (Ed). (1987). Tutorial for general and experimental psychology.
Leningrad University: Leningrad.
Mayer, J. D., Salovey, P., & Caruso, D. R. (2004). Emotional intelligence: Theory,
findings, and implications. In Psychological Inquiry, 12(3), 197-215. Retrieved on
2.10.2008,
from http://www.unh.edu/emotional_intelligence/EI%20Assets/Reprints...EI%20
Proper/EI2004MayerSaloveyCarusotarget.pdf
Pradhan, R. K. (2008). Emotional intelligence (perspectives in organizations). New Delhi:
Academic Excellence.
Thagard, P. (2006). Mind: Introduction to cognitive science. New Delhi:
Prentice-hall of India Pvt Ltd.
316
Bio-data
A research scholar pursuing Ph.D. in Russian at JNU with the topic “Emotional
Intelligence in Teaching Methodology of Russian in India,” also teaches Russian
at JNU. Teaching foreign language in a non native environment is the interest of
study. The M.Phil. dissertation highlighted the divergent and the convergent types
of punch lines of the Russian anecdotes and its role in teaching Russian in India.
Working experience in scientific Translation and Interpretation in Russian,
English, and Tamil is due to the interest in languages and as a graduate in science.
Also conversant in Telugu and Hindi and has a diploma in French.
317
Socio-Structural Changes and their Impact on
Russian Language Structure
Ajoy Kumar Karnati
Jawaharlal Nehru University
Abstract
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, lots of changes are taking place in the social
structure of the present Russian Federation. These changes brought along with them a
plethora of new expressions, new realities and new vocabulary into their society. When a
social system changes and people’s sphere of activities expand, they tend to mend their
language in order to understand the new social realities. Thus the language, being a
dynamic reflective tool of politico-economic aspects of society, incorporates in it new
concepts and new tendencies, concerning its users. Thus the modern Russian language is
undergoing a number of drastic changes, which are being reflected in its lexical,
syntactical and morphological structure. Apart from the collapse of Soviet Socialist
system, globalization and use of internet have opened the gates for Russian language
users to face lots of new world realities, which were not prevalent to their earlier system.
Thus the use of neologisms, especially English words has become a norm not only in
Russian mass-media, but also in modern Russian literature. Due to this, semantic,
stylistics, syntactic and structural changes are occurring in the Russian language.
Observing the changes in the language as used in the current Russian literature,
newspapers and Internet news portals, this paper analyzes various linguistic processes
that are taking place in the modern Russian language. It also raises the issue of how the
teacher in Asia has to cope with the fast changes occurring in the language.
Keywords: Russian language, globalization, Americanisation
Introduction
This paper is an analytical study on socio-structural changes and their impact on
Russian language structure. The reason behind such a study is due to the gaining
importance of Russian language in the present global scenario. As per 2005 estimations
the Russian language is spoken by 275,000,000 people and it occupies 5th rank in the
world. Moreover, lots of books on science and technology are published in the Russian
language.
If criticism is ignored about the Soviet Era and we look at the positive results it
has given to the world, we see their dedication to any field of study. During Soviet era
scientists, engineers, doctors, teachers and other experts were able to concentrate on their
research, because their government was taking care of their housing, education and
medical facilities. Till now, many of those books are not translated and a lot of work
318
needs to be done in this field. So, there is the need to train more and more Russian
speakers and experts to do this job.
Another question may also arise: why do Asians have to learn this language? A
major part of Russian Federation is in Asian content, starting from Vladivostok up to the
Ural Mountains, which is considered a border between Asia and Europe. Besides, all five
former Central Asian Republics use Russian language as one of the official languages.
In the background of globalisation, thanks to the development of information
technology and international trade relations, day by day the world is becoming like a
global village. Initially, only the inter-government relations were developed between
countries. For instance, during the visit of King Chulalongkorn (Rama V) to Russia on
1
July 2-10, 1897 the diplomatic relations between Russia and Siam were formalised .
Nowadays, people to people relations in the international trade have become a
2
norm. More than 100 thousand Russians visit Thailand annually . Besides, the trade
turnover between these two countries was ‘$1 billion’ in 2004, thus making Thailand
3
number one trade partner of Russia in Southeast Asia .
Based on the abovementioned factors, one can say that there is a need to learn the
Russian language. However, in order to improve the teaching methodology, we have to
study the latest tendencies, changes and linguistic processes that are taking place in the
Russian language.
Language as a dynamic tool of communication keeps changing constantly. Not a
single living language, which is spoken and written, can remain unchanged. It gets
developed along with the society, it is connected with. The same thing has been
happening with the Russian language. During a course of time it was subjected to many
evolutionary and at times revolutionary changes and reforms.
Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, lots of changes are taking place in the
social structure of the present Russian Federation. These changes brought along with
them a plethora of new expressions, new realities and new vocabulary into their society.
1
Retrieved on 25/11/2009 http://www.thailand.mid.ru/history.html
2
Retrieved on 25/11/2009 http://www.thailand.mid.ru/speeches1.html
3
Ibid
319
When a social system changes and people’s sphere of activities expand, they tend to
mend their language in order to understand the new social realities. Thus the language,
being a dynamic reflective tool of politico-economic aspects of society, incorporates in it
new concepts and new tendencies, concerning its users.
Methodology
The material taken to be analyzed is from modern Russian literature, current
newspapers and websites. The analytical method was used to study the lexical and
syntactic structures of Russian in comparison with that of English.
Discussion
In this background, the modern Russian language is undergoing a number of
drastic changes, which are being reflected in its lexical and syntactical structure. Apart
from the collapse of Soviet Socialist system, globalisation and use of internet have
opened the gates for Russian language users to face lots of new world realities, which
were not prevalent to their earlier system. The Russian language of mass-media and
internet, which was under the government control earlier, got freedom and the use of
borrowing words is increased tremendously. Thus the use of neologisms, especially
English words has become a norm not only in Russian mass-media, but also in modern
Russian literature. This phenomenon is prevalent in all the fields, like politics, economics,
etc.
For example, real estate business was an entirely new aspect for the Russian
economic system, as the land was earlier fully owned by the government. In the new
Russian socio-economic system, the importance of real estate agent or realtor has become
so important that there are four versions of this word to express the same
meaning,“риэлтор, риелтор, риэлтер и риелтер”, and three words for the word ‘creator’
4
(which is important in the field of advertisements), “криэйтор, криейтор и креатор ”.
In view of globalisation, Americanisation and internet, semantic, stylistics,
syntactic and structural changes are occurring in the Russian language. With the influx of
new words into the language, structural changes firstly begin at the lexical level. In the
4
Retrieved on 26/11/2009 http://www.strana-oz.ru/?numid=23&article=1032
320
later stage, when these words are used in sentences, their morphological properties come
into picture. Either they are used as per the existing Russian syntactic structure or they
may lead to change the syntactic structure.
Globalisation brought the following words into the Russian language: дилер dealer, менеджер - manager, маркетинг - marketing, импичмент - impeachment,
брифинг - briefing Баррель (нефти) — Barrel of oil, Менеджмент (management) Ланч
– lunch, lunch is connected with any business.
The English word reception has three versions in Russian: Рисепшн - reception,
рецептная [reptsetnaya], рецепция [retseptsiya], from these words, the second version
reptsetnaya is nearest to the original Russian word приёмная [priyomnaya], which shows
that there are some attempts of russianization are taking place with this word.
In order to attract more and more foreign tourists, the Russian government and
society are trying to borrow new terms into Russian language out of compulsion. In new
social conditions, Russian speakers started using the following words in their day to day
life: Супермаркет ( supermarket), Паркинг (parking), Кондиция [konditsiya],
(condition), Перманентный [permanentnyi] (permanent). Besides, words pertaining to
domestic appliances, like
миксер – mixer, тостер – toaster,
ростер – roaster, шейкер – shaker have
taken over Russian household. Many gerundive forms of English words are used in
Russian as noun forms: Консалтинг - (consulting), боулинг - bowling, роуминг roaming, лифтинг - lifting
Thanks to the development of internet and information technology not only a
large number of English words are being used in this field, but also many original
Russian words obtained new meanings, which may be called semantic neologisms.
Website is borrowed as just сайт – site, файл – file, регистратор [registrator] Тэг (tag) Интерактив (interaction) Проприетарный – [proprietarnyi] - (proprietary),
Дигитальная [digitalnaya] - (digital) Опция [optsiya] – (option) Сигнатура [signature]
for (signature), as this word is a sensitive, Russian speakers generally use its original
word подпись [podpis’] in day to day life.
Nevertheless, use of these borrowed words in Russian may not always affect its
structure. However, when set phrases, like realty show, mass-media, vanish cream and
321
others can create problems in morphological and syntactical structure of the Russian
language, as determining gender and number of this kind of words is not easy.
Immediately, after the collapse of the Soviet Union the Russian mass media,
including electronic and print media began to use borrowed English words at a rapid pace.
As a result of this uncontrolled usage, there are two or more versions of Russian words to
express one English word, words like realtor or creator having three or more versions in
the Russian language.
As per the Russian syntactic rules, the predicate must be used in agreement with
gender and number of the subject, moreover, the object is governed by the predicate. For
example, in a simple sentence «Я читаю книгу” (Ya chitayu knigu) meaning “I am
reading a book”, the predicate читаю is used in agreement with the first person singular
and the object книга changes as per the accusative case, required by the predicate
читать (to read).
However, when borrowed words are used in Russian sentences, these rules are not
always strictly followed. For example:
a) ‘....... почти 10% безналичных расчетов российских
5
граждан происходит через интернет’ [pochti 10% beznalichnykh
racschyof rossiskikh grazhdan prokhodit cherez internet] - (almost 10% of
cashless payments by Russian citizen is done through the internet).
b) ‘35% латвийских интернет-пользователей в течение последнего
полугода покупали или заказывали товары или услуги через интернет’
6
[35% latviiskikh internet-polzovatelei v techenie poclednego polugoda
pokupali ili zakazali tovary ili uslugi cherez internet] - (During last half
year, 35% Latvian internet users have purchased or ordered goods or
services through the internet).
5
6
Retrieved on 26/11/2009 http://www.e-commerce.ru/analytics/statistics/issue188/stat619.html
Retrieved on 26/11/2009 http://www.e-commerce.ru/News/2008/06/19/news14317.html
322
In the above given sentences a) and b) the subject is in the plural form of genitive
case, however, in the first sentence the predicate is used in singular form and in the
second it is used in the plural form, which is against the standard Russian syntax.
Russian speakers say that there are two types of Russian languages: one is literary,
another is abusive type. However, there had always been a barrier between the written
form and colloquial forms of the language, which was strictly guarded by the state and it
apparatus. During last one and half decades, in the absence of any state control over the
use of the language, Russian writers, poets, journalists, TV anchors, internet users started
writing and talking whatever they feel like. As a result, the barriers between the literary
language and colloquial language are disappearing and it is leading to the mixture of
language styles. Following is a bit of conversation, taken from well known Russian postmodernist Viktor Pelevin’s novel called «Generation «П»
Ханин: …………….. Пойдёшь ко мне в штат? [Khanin: .. Poidyosh ko
mne v shtat?] -(Will you go with me to the United States?)
………………
………………
Татарский: Кем? [Tatarsky: kem] – (What am I going to do?)
Ханин: Креиэйтором. [Khanin: kreitorom] – (to work as a creator)
Татарский: Это творцом?... Если перевести? [Tatarsky: eto
tvortsom?.... esli perevesti] (You mean to say should I work as a tvorets, if it
is translated?)
Ханин: Творцы нам тут на х** не нужны, …… Криэйтором, Вава
криэйтором.7 [Khanin: tvortsy nam tun na khui ne nezhny, ..... kreitorom,
Vava kreitorom] (We don’t need any tvortsy; we need creator, Vava none
other than creator.)
In this excerpt, the Russian word tvorets is accurate equivalent of English word
creator, however, the employer of Vava (affectionate nick name for Vladimir) Khanin is
not interested recruiting tvorets and he wants to recruit creator. Through this character,
7
Пелевин, Виктор. (1999). «Generation «П», роман. Москва: ВАГРИУС. (стр.91). [Pelevin,
Viktor. «Generation «П», Novel. Moscow: VAGRIUS. (p. 91).]
323
the writer is using Russian abusive word, which was not at all acceptable in the standard
literary language.
In English, it is quite possible to use one single word as a noun, adjective and
even as a verb, e.g. “Don’t question me”, This is a question paper, This was not my
question, in these three sentences, the word question is playing different syntactic roles,
like predicate, adjective and noun. It is possible in English because the form of the word
remains same in all the sentences. The same thing is not possible in Russian, as the forms
of verb, adjective and noun are different. Moreover, in the Russian sentence, an adjective
has to be used in agreement with gender and number of the noun and its ending be
changed accordingly. However, while using borrowed English words in sentences, these
norms are floated. Let us see in the following example:
Как отмечает RB.ru, на первом этапе в ‘онлайн-справочной’ можно
будет найти информацию о более чем 100 федеральных услугах
8
[kak
otmechaet RB.ru, na pervom etape v online-spravochnoi mozhno budet naiti
informatsiyu o bolee chem. 100 federalnykh uslugakh] – (it has been
mentioned by RB.ru, in the first stage, one can find about more than 100
federal services in the online directory)
In the above sentence, online is used in the same format, as in English, though it
can also be used in the form of an adjective онлайновый [onlainovyi] in agreement
with spravochnoi. This is another example, where morphological and syntactical norms
are not followed. In another expression, Войти в почту [voiti v pochtu] – (to enter email inbox or account), which is widely used in most of Russian websites and search
engines, instead of preposition ‘na’ the preposition ‘v’ is used, because this ‘pochta’ (email box or account ) is different from the general post office. Thus in the internet,
certain original Russian words are being used in different meaning, making them
semantic neologisms.
It is known that in the typological classification of languages, Russian is a
synthetic language, whereas English is an analytical language. For example, Russian
8
Retrieved on 15/12/2009 http://www.smi.ru/09/12/15/909750561.html
324
sentence «Девушка говорит другу» (devushka govorit drugu) will be expressed in
English as “A girl is talking to her boy friend”, which means to convey a three-word
simple Russian sentence, one has to use eight words in English. As there are no articles in
Russian, just the word “Девушка” (a girl) conveys that it is one girl, in the same
way говорит (is talking) conveys present tence form of the verb to talk with third person
singular and другу (to a boy friend) the nominative form друг is used here in the form of
dative case. While systemic linguists, like Boduen-de-Kurtene, Potebnya, G.P. Melnikov
and others call it as an internal form, founder of Russian linguistics Vinogradov named it
as predicativeness, without which it is not possible to form a sentence in Russian
language.
However, recently it is observed that the features of analytical languages, in
particular that of English, are being used in Russian sentence formation. For example,
9
“… потеряла всякий интерес к обладателю электронного секонд-хенда. [...
poteryala vsyakyi interes k obladatelyu electronnogo second-handa] (she) has lost the all
interest in the owner of electronic second-hand (device).” Here, the phrase second-handa
is used in the form of genitive case, but only the second part of the phrase is changed and
the first part remained as such.
All these examples show that under the influence of borrowed English words,
structural changes are taking place in the Russian language. However, it is observed
recently that a kind of stability is settling down in news paper language, where borrowed
words are used as per Russian morphological and syntactical norms. For example:
....... по итогам I полугодия 2008 г. в добывающих отраслях пошла
стагнация, а часть обрабатывающей промышленности и вовсе начала
показывать спад10 [..po itogam I polegodiya 2008 g. V dobyvayuschikh
otraslyakh poshla stagnatsia, a chact’ obrabatyvayushei promyshlennosti i
vovse nachala pokazyvat’ spad]. As per the results of the first half year of
9
Маркеев, Олег. (2005). Русская Фантастика: Дигитал. Москва: РИПОЛ классик, (стр. 9).
[Markeev, Oleg. (2005). Russian Fantasy: Digital. Moscow : RIPOL classic. (p.9)]
10
Московский Комсомолец, 21-27 января 2009 г. Стр.11 (moskovskii komsomolets, 21-27th
January 2009 p.11)
325
2008 the stagnation is set in mining industry, and a part of processing
industry started showing downfall.
...... Россия, будучи включенной в мировые финансовые процессы,
испытывает на себе последствия мирового коллапса, ..... 11 [rossiya,
buduchi vklyuchennoi v mirovye finansovye protsessy, ispytyvaet na sebe
posledstviya mirovogo kollapsa] – Russia, being a part of world is financial
processes, is experimenting the impact of world collapse on itself.
In both of these sentences, the words stagnatsiya (stagnation) and kollaps
(collapse) are used within the parameters of Russian syntactical structure by adopting and
changing them accordingly.
Conclusion
As we have seen various linguistic processes are taking place in the modern
Russian language. Each language has its own beauty, when it is used in its original and
proper form. Language should be flexible to adopt itself to the new realities. It should be
in a position to incorporate in it the new expressions and adopt them in accordance with
its own structure.
In order to modify or improve the teaching methodology and technology, a
teacher has to follow and study latest trends the in language. There are some positive as
well as negative aspects are the influx of words from English and other foreign languages
to Russian language. Firstly, neologisms can make vocabulary rich and they can help
Russian speakers to understand the new realities and expressions. At the same time, there
is a danger of damaging the original beauty of the language and the Russian original
words can become archaic in the long term.
Standard literary language may get demeaned if no proper parameters are taken
by the government and educated people. All the Russian speakers have to impose on
themselves a kind of self-censorship, in order to safeguard high quality of styles. The
government and mass-media representatives have to take certain measures with the help
of people to formulate certain standard normative language and maintain the same in
11
Московский Комсомолец, 21-27 января 2009 г. Стр.10 (moskovskii komsomolets, 21-27th
January 2009 p.10)
326
electronic as well as print media. As teachers it is our responsibility to follow various
linguistic processes, that taking place in the language we teach and make required
adjustments to improve and amend teaching methodology.
References
Маркеев, Олег. (2005). Русская Фантастика: Дигитал. Москва: РИПОЛ классик
[Markeev, Oleg. (2005). Russian Fantasy: Digital. Moscow: RIPOL classic.]
Московский Комсомолец, 21-27 января 2009 г. (moskovskii komsomolets, 21-27th
January 2009).
Пелевин, Виктор. (1999). «Generation «П», роман. Москва: ВАГРИУС. [Pelevin,
Viktor. «Generation «П», Novel. Moscow: VAGRIUS.]
Bio-data
Mr. AJOY KUMAR KARNATI - Assistant Professor at the Centre of Russian Studies,
JNU, New Delhi
A Russian Philologist from Russian Peoples’ Friendship University, Moscow, under the
guidance of Prof. Melnikov G.P., the propagator of systemic linguistics and a specialist in
typology, had done research on typological comparative study between Russian and
Telugu. Currently teaching Russian syntax, stylistics and linguistics, has been guiding
many Indian Postgraduate students learning Russian. The computer savvy had brought
awareness amongst students about computers and Internet taking them to the Russian
world in non native surroundings. A keen observer of languages is interested in the
changing Russian language due to globalization.
327
Colonial Literary Historiography: A Case Study from Kerala
Sreenath Muraleedharan K
Abstract
South Asia has been a rich source of contemporary knowledge domains. Nevertheless, a
large chunk of it still remains unnoticed and therefore, unexplored, thanks to the varied
colonial experiences spread over this part of the world. Kerala, southern tip of India, is an
interesting case in point, particularly because of the multiple colonial experiences it
underwent over different junctures of history. This paper attempts to look at the literary
representation of colonial history in Varttamānappusttakam, an eighteenth century work
written in Malayalam, the language of Kerala. Written by Paremakkal Thoma Kathanar, a
native Christian priest, it is a document of religious history of the native Christian
community of Kerala, which underwent religious tyranny under Portuguese colonialism.
Hailed as one of the first travelogues from India in the contemporary sense of the genre,
the work is an excellent instance of literary historiography of an era of the colonial
transfer of power from the Portuguese to the Dutch. The paper addresses the issues
pertaining to colonial history through a reverse gaze — Europe and South America from
the Asian perspective — as it is evident from its literary representation.
Keywords: Portuguese Colonialism, travel writing, literary historiography, Kerala
Christianity
South Asia has been a rich source of contemporary knowledge domains.
Nevertheless, a large chunk of it still remains unnoticed, and therefore, unexplored,
thanks to the varied colonial experiences spread over this part of the world. Nevertheless,
it is the very heterogeneity of these experiences which makes it interesting. Moreover,
colonialism has ever been a two-way process wherein the colonizer and the colonized
play an equally participatory role. Kerala, southern tip of India, is an interesting case in
point, particularly because of the multiple colonial experiences it underwent over
different junctures of history. This paper attempts to look at the literary representation of
colonial history in Varttamānappusttakam, an eighteenth century work written in
Malayalam, the language mainly spoken in Kerala. One may also notice that eighteenth
century is a crucial juncture in history with many learned societies emerging all over
Europe. Even more interesting is their spread around — a significant Jewish diaspora in
Kochi, is an interesting case in point.
328
Written by Paremakkal Thoma Kathanar, a native Christian priest,
Varttamānappusttakam is a document of religious history of the native Christian
community of Kerala, which underwent religious tyranny under Portuguese colonialism.
Varttamānappusttakam is the result of a travel with an altogether distinct purpose. It was
not one at leisure, to discover or to colonise. Rather, it was a journey of an envoy sent by
Malabar Christians to the Pope to report and to seek solution for the tyrannical religious
administration of the Portuguese which suffocated the native believers. A team of twenty
two, headed by Malpan Joseph Kariyatti, a priest, started from Alangad to Rome on 7th
May 1778. Apart from him, there was Kathanar, the author, also a priest.
Here, a brief about the history of Christianity in its colonial background in Kerala
seems relevant. The origin of the religion itself, however, is shrouded in mystery, due to
inadequate documentation in Malabar. Most works subscribe to the legend of St.
1
Thomas which claims a western ancestry. However, with a bunch of converts among the
earliest Christians, there is evidence of a community by fourth century on the Malabar
2
Coast (Dempsey 5). In conformation with the legend of Thomas of Cana, another view
1
The folk songs of Native Christians like the Rabban Pattu, Veeradyan Pattu and Margam kali
pattu of 16th century which celebrate the legend, say that the saint, one of the disciples of Jesus
Christ, reached Maliankara near Cranganore or Muziris, the capital of the Cheras in 52 A. D,
founded seven and a half churches at Cranganore, Quilon, Niranam where members of four
Brahmin families — Pattamukku, Thayyil, Mangi and Madattalaan — accepted faith from him,
Nilakkal, a prosperous trade centre, Kokkamangalam, a centre of Nambutiris (or Brahmins, the
highest caste), Kottakkavu (Paravoor) by converting a temple (as per tradition), Palayur, a
Brahmin centre and Jew market, by transforming a temple, and Tiruvitamkod and converted a
number of native upper caste people including Brahmins and Jews into Christianity. He also
ordained priests from four Nambutiri families — Pakalomattom, Sankarapuri, Kalli and
Kaliankal. Muziris, an important entrance to ancient India, was not only a trade centre of
Egyptians, Greeks and Romans, but also the first refugee point for Judaism, Islam and
Christianity. However, there were popular belief systems even before sixteenth century regarding
the saint’s arrival which established the Persian connection of an ‘authentic’ Christianity and
many Syriac and Mediterranean records since 4th century support that St. Thomas preached
gospel in Malabar. Some scholars write off the possibility of the presence of the saint in 4th
century; but the presence of Christianity around the period is generally agreed.
2
As per the tradition, which critics like A. M. Mundadan uphold, the Patriarch of Antioch send a
bishop, some padres and seventy two Christian families from Bagdad, Nineveh and Jerusalem led
by Thomas of Cana, a rich Armenian merchant of Palestine, to Malabar who settled in
Cranganore in 345 A. D and were given royal welcome and later, considerable support by
Cheraman Perumal. Their cordial relation with the royalty earned them comfortable social status
and Thomas Cana is believed to have converted many into Christianity. The tradition, which
emphasizes the East Native connection of Malabar Christians, is supported by the ‘Knai
329
of the advent of Christianity in Malabar, which, however, claims an eastern ancestry,
Susan Bayly’s sociological analysis maintains that the Persian (East Native) Christians
brought the St. Thomas tradition to South India (244-245). According to her, native
3
Christians, who are also called Nazranis or St. Thomas Christians, are their descendants
who followed Persian rites. The settlers, although intermarried with the natives and
emerged as an enriched ethnic race, continued their Persian connection which probably
began in 4th century itself, by having a bishop from either Persia or Mesopotamia for
certain exclusive religious rites. It is possible that it was through this practice that Syriac
became the liturgical language of the community. Although under the ritualistic
jurisdiction of East-Native Chaldean Patriarch, the Malabar Church remained in its own
specific native cultural milieu, following native system of governance under Jātikku
Karttavyan, a term which literally means ‘leader of the community’. Under a
decentralised administrative system, the native Christians enjoyed high societal status,
interacted with other religions, especially, Hindus.
With the advent of western Christianity and colonial authority of the Portuguese
4
by 1498 , this synergy of local culture and Christian faith among the native Christians
was dismantled. The padroado right of Portugal, a Catholic country, was corollary to the
apparent economic interests of Rome, which had already assimilated Egypt and Syria by
B. C. 30 and where Church had reached the pinnacle of centralised administration by
twelfth and thirteenth centuries, in the eastern countries for which Persian Empire was the
5
only obstacle. Vasco da Gama’s visit on 20th May 1498 in the wake of Reformation thus
signifies a maze of colonial interests including the western aim to unify Christian
Thomman Copper Plates’ given by Cheraman Perumal, many of which, however, are missing
since the Portuguese rule.
3
There is also an observation that native Christians were called nazranis or ‘Followers of the
Nazarene’ (Jesus of Nazareth), the name given to Christians in Judea in the first century, only
before the Native period. We have a contemporary revelation that they were first identified as
Christians by Arabs and the word ‘nazrani’ is a word for ‘Christian’ in Arabic.
4
Portuguese, a strong power of Medieval Europe, sent its first adventurer to South India. Joao
Peres de Covilhao, who was also a diplomat and linguist, reached Crangannore on the Malabar
Coast in 1487 itself and a bit later, in Calicut. Later Vasco da Gama reached the shores of Calicut
on 17th May 1498 discovering a new sea- route from Europe, paving way for the rise of European
imperialism and multi-layered exploitation of the flourishing nations of the East.
5
Portuguese historians differ on the date of his arrival at Calicut. Apart from the date given
above, there are assumptions made on May 17th, May 18th, July 18th and August 26th.
330
countries. He also had intentions both to establish Portuguese authority in the Arabian
Sea and propagate Latin Catholicism. The ruptures among the local rulers which upset
political and economic stability made it easier to establish their domination by 16th
century. In late 16th century, several sects of missionaries like Franciscans, Jesuits,
Dominicans, Augustinians and Carmelites established their principal residences there. On
3rd November 1534 the diocese of Goa was found and on 4th February 1558 it was made
an archdiocese under which the diocese of Cochin was found.
6
Once they established their domination on the west coast and the Inquisition was
set up at Goa, the proselytizing attempts of the Portuguese were let loose on both native
Christians and people of other religions. We see the natives facing a double jeopardy —
political and religious — under the clutches of the Portuguese. Bent Smidt Hansen (1986)
sums it up succinctly: “Apart from Christians arriving in India in pre-Portuguese times,
later missionaries — irrespective of their personal attitude — came under the aegis of
some colonial umbrella” (p. 237). The Pope made Alexis de Menezes, the Portuguese
bishop of Goa to investigate about the doctrinal differences of Malabar Christians. The
latter latinised many native Christians, made the Raja of Cochin announce in all Churches
to obey Roman orders in exchange of some annual sum and with his support, presided
over Udayampēroor Sunnahadōss (Synod of Diamper) in 1599 which formally separated
St. Thomas Christians from its Syrian connections and brought under padroado. As an
outcome of the Synod, many Syrian texts which were documents of history were burnt.
The event is the first of its kind in the history of Malabar Christians which marked the
intervention of foreign religious power to its own space and resulted in great schisms
within their Church. Jesuit bishops were immediately appointed lessening the importance
of Jātikku Karttavyan. About half a century later, nazranis who wanted to retain their
Syrian allegiance, took Koonankurissu Satyam (Coonan Cross Oath) in 1653 with the
help of the Dutch. Pope, then free from the setbacks of Reformation, wanted direct
religious administration of Malabar and send a Carmelite mission under Joseph Maria
Sebastiani in 1656 to enquire about the situation after the Oath, which, however, brought
6
Inquisition actually meant the disciplinary measures undertaken by Pope Gregory IX of Rome
to suppress the activities against the faith of the Church, denying even the right to prove
innocence to the accused. There was even an official release in 1179 regarding this.
331
back some to their faith. This was Pope’s first step towards bringing Malabar Christians
to his control (this power was later known as propaganda) from padroado/Patronage
(power of exclusive religious administration) of the Portuguese. Those who went back to
the Syrian Church under Mar Thoma, the then Jātikku Karttavyan, were called
puthiyakoorukār (those in new sect). Although Joseph was appointed Vicar Apostolic of
Malabar in 1659, he was ordered to leave Malabar coasts when the Dutch captured
7
Cochin in 1663 . He left, but not before appointing Parambil Chandi, a relative of Mar
Thoma as bishop. Those who thus stayed back with the Catholic faith under Parambil
Chandi were called pazhayakoorukār (those in old sect). The antagonism between Jesuits
and Carmelites affected Malabar Church very badly. Interestingly, both Padroado and
Propaganda united to cut off nazranis’ affiliations with the East-Native or Chaldean
Church. Nevertheless, nazranis who were against the Portuguese under twelve priests
made the Arch-deacon the Metropolita and named him Mar Thoma I. In 1772, Mar
Yohannan and Mar Gregorios, who were sent by the Dutch, enthroned Mar Thoma VI as
bishop under the title Gregorios I and this was the birth of Orthodox or Jacobite Church.
We find the nazranis struggling hard to keep their identity under Jesuits in 17th century
and bearing deep wounds from the Carmelites under the propaganda in 18th century.
Despite co-operation in general relations, Thomas Christians never wanted the
Portuguese influence in matters of their religion, faith and social condition. Unlike the
7
Captain John Nieuhof, the Dutch envoy who was in Malabar between 1653 and 1670, came to
meet the king of Purakkāt to establish trade relations with his country and observed that the
latter’s palace was near a village of St. Thomas Christians who enjoyed high privileges and the
king spoke fluent Portuguese. He adds that St. Thomas Christians have been there since ancient
times and the Jesuits were given many rights at the cost of others who were not permitted to build
temples, mosques and synagogues near churches. The Jesuits were, according to his account, also
allowed to absorb those who like to join Christian community. He found the offices of
Augustinians, Franciscans and Jesuits at Cochin, a big educational institution of Jesuits with an
attached library, two big churches of Franciscans and Portuguese Arch-bishops each and another
educational institution where St. Thomas Christians were taught Native at Cranganore. He too
acknowledges that it was the fisher folk of the coasts who underwent much neglect and
exploitation who were mostly converted to Christianity by the Portuguese and this led to a
tremendous increase in the members of the religion after the arrival of the Portuguese. Similarly,
Jean Baltista Tavanier, a French merchant of jewels, was in Malabar between 1662 and 1663. He
writes about witnessing the battle between the Portuguese and the Dutch in 1663 at Cochin,
which put an end to the Portuguese domination.
332
hierarchical religious administration of Europe, Churches in Malabar were independent
before the Portuguese advent.
In fact, Varttamānappusttakam echoes the tyrannical administration of foreign
missionaries based at Varappuzha. Dr. Plorence, a native bishop died at Varappuzha in
1773. Although both Latins and Syrians of old adherent Catholics (pazhayakūru
kattōlikkar) came to attend his cremation, missionaries of Varappuzha allowed only the
former to attend the ceremony. This hurt the pride of the Syrians and some like Mar
Divianiasios, a Jacobite bishop, felt it desirable to have a native bishop as the head of the
Kerala Catholic Church to eschew the tensions between native Christians and Portuguese
Jesuits and their followers. He wrote to Francis Sales who was the Vicar Apostolic of
Varappuzha and Joseph Kariyatti of Alangad seminary, expressing his desire for
unification. The former turned down the idea and the latter replied favourably at Niranam
volunteering to meet the Pope at Rome. In a Synod at Angamaly, the Archdeacon of the
native Christians asked Kariyatti to visit the Pope and Portuguese queen for negotiations
and this led to the latter’s journey accompanied by Kathanar, the author of
Varttamānappusttakam. It could be said that the acceptance of Mar Thoma VI and the
need to have a native bishop of Syrian rites to resist Latin domination were the major
reasons for the journey. Kariyatti and Kathanar left for Europe from Chennapattanam on
14th October 1778 carrying an application from Mar Thoma VI, the bishop of
puthiyakooru to accept the suzerainty of Pope. Although they managed to get the
acceptance of Mar Thoma VI and his sect in Catholic Church, Rome removed padroado
completely in 1838 and Parambil Chandi’s followers came under propaganda. Thus, the
journey was ultimately a failure.
Vartamānapustakam, it could be argued, documents the resistance of Christian
community in Malabar against the colonial imperialism which manifested itself largely
through ecclesiastic hegemony. The foreign missionaries were so cruel and contemptuous
to those who refused to conform to their authority and Kathanar turns emotional with
feelings of racial pride and love for freedom. His description of ‘The Urban University
for the Propagation of the Faith’, Rome, for example, is interesting:
333
This College is meant only for the young men who come from the countries
of non-Christians and heretics. For the Romans and for those who are from
the countries of catholic kings there is no admission here. There are six
places for the Indians. Since we had gone to Rome from Malabar to treat
about the question of faith, the Pope entrusted our case to this
Congregation, but this Congregation for reasons of self-interest and pride
settled the question as was said above disregarding justice and the glory of
God. (Podipara, 1971, p. 173)
Nevertheless, this religious assertion of native Christians needs deeper scrutiny.
One should also be sensitised to the ‘love-hate relationship’ of the negotiation between
east and west. Even though colonization as a concept takes proper shape in the late
nineteenth century, the native resistance described in the text could be viewed more as a
significant struggle not in the name of faith, but in the name of religious practice.
Resistance to Latin domination is rather exterior expression of their assertion of native
8
identity which is clearly visible in Kathanar’s narrative. The latent politics of Portuguese
invasion involves struggle within the colony not for political independence but for
freedom to exercise one’s own rite. The position of Kathanar who, by and large, falls into
the native-foreign/Latin dichotomy is interesting. He wanted to meet the Pope and was
not for a religious break-up. The inherent tensions involved in the struggle highlights the
question of ethnicity and identity formation rather than anything else.
In his introduction to Varttamānappusttakam, Thomas Moothedan mentions a
manuscript which some treat as the second part of the text, wherein various documents of
the Syrian Church from 1709 to 1838 are arranged chronologically. His edition has
included a section which deals with those parts in the manuscript connected to Kathanar,
including the history of Malabar Church. However, it is the English translation by Placid
J Podipara which gives an exclusive focus on the colonial history. We find a clear
instance of history being narrativised to an extent of recreating past in it. The very title,
Varthamanappusthakam: An Account of the history of the Malabar Church between the
years 1773 and 1786 with special emphasis on the events connected with the journey
8
This assertion is quite manifested in Milan documents.
334
from Malabar to Rome via Lisbon and back undertaken by Malpan Mar Joseph Cariattil
and Cathanar Thomma Paremakkal, is clearly indicative of the translator’s predilection.
His introduction begins with the definition of the term Varttamānappusttakam. The
aspect of travel seems subdued in his introduction to the translation and that of
community and its history is emphasised. This is made evident in the very first paragraph:
The author, Cathanar Thomman Paremmakkal, was intimately connected
with the events narrated in the book … The book contains his personal
experiences, his intuitions into persons and happenings, his far sighted
judgements and suggestions — all in terms of his disinterested love for his
Church and community. The whole account is inspired by the history of the
Thomas Christians, especially by the reminiscences of their ancient
ecclesiastical constitution, rights and privileges. (p. 1)
There are six parts to his eponymous introduction: ‘History’, ‘The Author’, ‘The
Book’, ‘The Vicissitudes of the Book’, ‘The Translation’ and ‘Mar Thomas VI and His
Church’. The first part, named ‘History’, basically gives an idea about early Christian
population of Kerala, the later advent of the Portuguese and the consequent religious and
political upheavals leading to the journey. Ending the first part, Podipara writes: “The
details given above are very necessary for understanding the contents of the book” (p. 19).
The conviction of the translator once again makes its presence felt in the beginning of
‘The Portuguese’: “It is not worth-while dealing with what the pre-XVI-century travellers
and itinerant missionaries have spoken or written about the Thomas Christians. We
cannot make any connected and objective history from them. In this brief sketch,
therefore, we leave them out and pass on to the Portuguese period” (p. 5). Moreover, in
most prints of Varttamānappusttakam, first thirteen chapters deal with its historical
background, followed by the description of the travel. And one finds the narration
significantly coloured by the identity assertion and racial pride. For instance, in his
Reflection after chapter XLI titled On how Padre John of St. Margaret went to Rome and
became the Vicar Apostolic, Kathanar writes: “We all know what mission work Padre
John had done in Malabar… Did he ever pacify quarrels in the Malabar Church through
his tactfulness and prudence?” (Podipara, 1971, pp. 122-123).
335
In conclusion, Varttamānappusttakam, which is considered one of the first
travelogues from India in the contemporary sense of the genre, is an excellent instance of
literary historiography as it records an era of the colonial transfer of power from the
Portuguese to the Dutch in Kerala. Kathanar’s narrative is historical and literary — and
therefore forms — a piece of ‘metahistory,’ as Hayden White would call the historical
narratives of nineteenth century. White holds that all historical explanations are rhetorical
9
and poetic by nature and challenges the very objectivity they claim. Kathanar’s work
documents the early colonial history of Kerala history which began in 15th century and
the issues pertaining to it through a reverse gaze — Europe and South America from the
Asian perspective — as it is evident from its literary representation. Historians, by and
large, follow the dominant historiographical trends and thereby fall into the common trap
of evading the specificities of the context. Varttamānappusttakam has a special place in
literary historiography as an eighteenth century narrative which challenged the watertight compartmentalisation of a particular genre.
References
Bayly, S. (1992). Saints, Goddesses and Kings: Muslims and Christians in South Indian
society 1700 - 1900. Cambridge: CUP.
Dempsey, C. G. (2001). Kerala Christian Sainthood: Collisions of culture and worldview
in South India. New Delhi: OUP.
Desai, A. R. (1948). Social background of Indian nationalism. Bombay: Popular
Prakashan Pvt. Ltd.
Hansen, B. S. (1986). Indigenization of worship: A concern among South Indian
Christians. In A. Parpola & B. S. Hansen (Eds.), South Asian religion and society.
London: Scandinavian Institute of Asian Studies.
Joseph, P. M. (1984). Malayalathile Parakeeya Padangal. Thiruvananthapuram: Kerala
Bhasha Institute.
Moothedan, T. (Ed.). (1977). Varthamanappusthakam (Travelogue of Dr. Joseph
Kariyatty to Rome, 1778-1786). Thevara: Janatha Services.
Podipara, P. J. (1971). Tr. The Varthamanappusthakam. Rome: Pontifical Institute of
Oriental Studies.
Rao, V. N., Shulman, D., & Subrahmanyam, S. (2001). Textures of time, writing history
in South India 1600-1800. Delhi: Permanent Black.
Visvanathan, S. (1993). The Christians of Kerala: History, belief and ritual among the
Yakoba. Madras: OUP.
Zachariah, S. (Ed.). (1978). Milan Rekhakal: Two historical documents (A. D. 1632,
1645). Changanacherry: Published by the author.
9
White, Hayden. Metahistory: The Historical Imagination in Nineteenth-century Europe.
Baltimore: John Hopkins University Press, 1973, p. ix.
336
Plotting History – The Interdependent Development of Siamese and
Cambodian Chronicles
Jan R. Dressler
University of Hamburg
Abstract
The national histories of Siam and Cambodia rely heavily on information extracted from
royal chronicles, which paradoxically tend to become increasingly elaborate, longwinded
and faulty the more time has elapsed between the events they claim to describe and the
date of their composition. The turn of the 18th to the 19th century saw an upsurge of
historical writing at the royal courts of Siam and Cambodia, caused by heavy losses
brought about by the destruction of Ayutthaya in 1767 A.D. and the endemic instability
of the Cambodian polity. During this process fictitious elements were inserted to fill gaps
in the records and to meet current political needs. Since 1795 Siamese chronicles depict
Cambodian royalty as unreliable, ungrateful and insidious vassals who have to be
reminded of their due obligations from time to time, whereas Cambodian chronicle
traditions counter this trait in Siamese historiography by following its general outline,
while putting emphasis on differences in detail. Only few lines are devoted by Siam’s
most reliable historical source to events during the late 16th century, the constant mutual
raids for labour force and the struggle for regional supremacy. By contrast, the latest
Cambodian chronicle traditions concede dozens of closely printed pages to the same
period of time. This paper does not focus on distinguishing fact from fiction in the
accounts of the bilateral relationship, but on the process of transmission of historical
narratives. The late 16th century was chosen to demonstrate how different Siamese and
Cambodian chronicle traditions might have influenced each other. By following this line
of approach I want to underline the chronicles’ quality as a valuable key to their own
times and contexts.
Keywords: historiography, royal chronicles, Siamese-Cambodian
Introduction
A quick glance at the shelves of Bangkok’s bookstores reveals that many
vernacular language publications occupy themselves with the portrayal of great kings,
queens and battles by synthesising royal chronicles, an effort which sometimes is called
the literate pursuit of “local knowledge”. Since the beginning of western scholarship on
Southeast Asian history, scientists rely heavily on royal chronicles due to the lack of
alternative sources too, even though their dubious nature was repeatedly emphasized.
Today the attitude towards royal historiography still ranges from overall rejection up to
uninhibited und uncritical use of the same as basis for popular history.
337
On the tide of western colonialism French scientists in particular occupied
themselves with the study of the Cambodian protectorate. Numerous publications
devoted to Cambodian history are based on indigenous sources, such as stone inscriptions,
manuscripts and oral traditions. After the pioneering work of the German anthropologist
Adolf Bastian, Moura, Garnier, Leclère, Maspero, Aymonier, Coedès and many more
made studies on the royal chronicles of Cambodia accessible to the public.
Among the recent approaches to the problematic nature of the royal chronicles as
historical sources, I would like to point out two names for their influence on this study,
Michael Vickery and Nidhi Eoseewong. In 1977, Vickery put forward the theory that
parts of the Siamese and Cambodian chronicles pertaining to early history were fictitious.
In the absence of indigenous sources at the time of the chronicles’ composition, these
ephemeral centuries might have been filled by copying later historical plots and
transposing them into the distant past. In terms of interpretation, Nidhi proposed a
different approach by emphasizing the importance of external circumstances for the
understanding of the chronicles’ composition in general and their style and content in
particular. Both authors stress the fact that Siamese and Cambodian dynastic histories
were not primarily intended to provide historical data about past events only. One main
objective was to define the countries’ stance vis-à-vis their regional neighbours by
accommodating the present situation with a remote, sometimes unpleasant past, e.g., the
loss of Ayutthaya (Nidhi, 2005, p. 291).
Chronicle Traditions of Siam and Cambodia
The development of Cambodian and Siamese chronicle traditions and their
filiations has been the subject of scholarly attention since the 19th century, and will
1
therefore be summarized in brief only. As this paper does not focus on categorizing
historical sources, but on the events these sources claim to relate, different sources which
offer information in a framework of reigns have been subsumed under the label of
“chronicle”. For this study the scope of analysis has been limited to historical narratives
on the Siamese-Cambodia relations comprising the period from about 1570 to 1620 A.D.
1
Detailed analysis can be found in Vickery (1979), Mak Phoeun (1981) and Khin Sok (1988).
338
Significantly enough the eldest Siamese source that resembles a chronicle has
survived in the Dutch translation of the 1640s and was authored by Jeremias van Vliet, a
Dutch trade representative. From the beginning until the reign of King Maha Chakrapat,
the beginning of the period of interest to this study, this Dutch adaption of a Siamese
chronicle shows great similarity to the account of Ayutthian history to be found in the
Sangitiyavamsa of Phra Phonnarat, written in 1789 (Vickery, 1976; Coedès, 1914).
A very short and concise document, popularly known as the Luang Prasoet
chronicle, is believed to date back to the 1680s and enjoys a good reputation among
historians. Apart from a few fragmentary remains of historical works dating back to
Ayutthian times, the only further tradition of Siamese chronicles undoubtedly antedating
the restorative efforts of the Thonburi and Bangkok period is represented by the Yodaya
2
Yazawin , also known as the “Testimonies of the Inhabitants of the Old Capital” and its
descendants.
A portion of a chronicle probably dating from the Ayutthaya period has been
incorporated into the later Chakraphatdiphong version of the Siamese chronicles, but it
deals with the period from the end of King Narai’s reign to the reign of King Thai Sa, and
is therefore of little interest to this study (Nidhi, 2005, p. 288).
The only surviving detailed and complete versions of Siamese chronicles date
back to the Thonburi and Bangkok period. The first example of this ultimate tradition is
the so called Phan Chanthanumat version, dating from the First Reign (1795). For the
period under consideration all later versions lean heavily on the narrative plotted down in
this early version. During the same reign supreme patriarch Phra Phonnarat adjusted the
chronicle’s text to heed to the sensitiveness of the court. His editorial efforts are
preserved best in the British Museum version and the one printed for the first time by Dr.
Dan Bradley in 1864. The last major representative of this line of descent is the Royal
Autograph version, revised in 1855 by King Rama 4th himself.
The eldest surviving example of Cambodian historiography is the so called Ang
Eng fragment, part of a chronicle presented to the Siamese court in the name of King Ang
2
An English translation from the Burmese original has been published by Tun Aung Chain in
2005.
339
Eng in 1796. It relates events starting from the middle the 14th to the 15th century A.D.,
and has been preserved in its Thai translation only.
A fragment of the “Chronicle of Lovek”, presented to King Rama 1st in 1808,
represents the first elaborate version of the Cambodian chronicles. Together with larger
portions of probably the same original source, kept in the collection of the EFEO, this
fragment belongs to a particular chronicle tradition, which only shares its true dates with
few subsequent versions. In the same reign of King Ang Chan (r. 1796-1834), another
chronicle tradition was established in 1818 by a writer called Nong. This chronicle is by
far the best known, due to its early French and Thai translations, many extant versions
and its reputation as a concise but overall reliable source, giving coherent dates in accord
with external evidence, a reputation it shares with the Luang Prasoet chronicle.
During the long reign of Norodom 1st (r. 1860-1904), many chronicles of the
Nong type were copied and updated but did not receive official status. They subsequently
served as a point of departure for succeeding versions, such as the Nopparot Chronicle,
edited and expanded in 1878.
However, most French sources of the late 19th and early 20th century agree on the
outstanding influence played by the venerable monks Tien and Pan, supreme patriarch of
Cambodia and head of the Cambodian Thammayut order respectively. Like most Khmer
monks of their time interested in attaining higher education, both had studied Pali in
Bangkok before their promotion to exalted positions in the Sangha hierarchy (Edwards,
2008, p. 111; Hansen, 2008, p. 80-88). During the 19th century Siamese scholarship and
religious tradition were considered highly superior to their Cambodian counterpart. The
erudite Pan for example had re-ordained in 1849 as a Thammayut monk with the future
King Rama 4th, an ardent writer of historical works himself (Bastian, 1866, p. 488), as his
preceptor (Lingat, 1933, p. 102; Hansen, 2008, p. 86). In 1854, Pan was sent to Cambodia
to build up a Cambodian branch of the Thammayut order and on the occasion brought
back an extensive collection of manuscripts (Hansen, 2008, p. 88). The writings of Pan
were incorporated into the work of Moura (1883); later Tien and Pan, together with King
Norodom’s favourite poet, are reputed to have co-authored the chronicle which forms the
basis of Leclère’s publication of 1914 (Coedès, 1914, p. 22). Until 1934 those
preliminary works contributed to and developed into the last officially approved and
340
palace sanctioned tradition, popularly known as the Thiounn or VJ chronicle (Mak
Phoeun 1981; Khin Sok 1988).
The last chronicle tradition of unofficial nature, dating back to 1941, is known as
the Wat Dik Vil version. Parts of this work of debatable merit, marked by nationalistic
overtones, a diffuse style and inclusion of hearsay evidence, was combined with pieces
form the VJ chronicle and published in 1969 by Eng Suth under the title of Ekkasan
Mahaburut Khamen.
3
Examples of Siamese Influence on the Late Cambodian Chronicles
The influence of Siamese chronicles on the development of the Cambodian annals
can generally be categorized into three types: the transfer of isolated information such as
names or dates, the rough adaption of narrative plots and the verbal adoption of complete
phrases or passages. Compiling representative samples is problematic and inevitably
arbitrary due to the enormous discrepancy in length and detail between different sources.
To facilitate a comparison, it was necessary to leave out of the tables certain narratives,
such as conflicts between Pegu and Ayutthaya from the Siamese chronicle, as well as
armed skirmishes between Khmer and Lao armies from the Cambodian source.
Table 1 offers a synopsis of accounts concerning the Siamese-Cambodian
relationship before their alteration and expansion by court chroniclers in the reigns of
Rama 1st and Norodom 1st. Examples of episodes adopted verbatim by Cambodian
annalists from the restored Siamese chronicles are given in ensuing tables. To minimize a
potential bias on the part of the author the samples reproduce translations published by
others. In spite of the garbled transliteration students of the region will easily recognize
similarities among geographical names and court nomenclature.
3
This publication has received some attention in Thailand among academia interested in
Cambodian history, and has found its way into several publications, such as Bunrueang Katmaa
(2000) and Suchit Wongthet (Ed.) (2001). I want to thank Ajarn Bunrueang of the Rajabhat
University in Surin for making his translation available to me. For a critical assessment of this
chronicle’s peculiar features see Khin Sok, 1988, p. 30/31.
Table 1: Bilateral Relations as Related in Early Siamese and Cambodian Chronicles
Luang Prasoet (about 1680)
1570: King of Cambodia leads his troops
towards Ayutthaya, where a Cambodian
Phraya, Champathirat, is killed on his
elephant. Afterwards the siege is lifted.
1575: King of Cambodia leads a fleet to
attack Ayutthaya. The invaders are
expelled; take many people from the
southern cities as captives.
1578: A Cambodian offensive against
Phetburi fails. A second offensive later is
successful in taking Phetburi.
1582: King of Cambodia sends his army to
capture people in the eastern provinces of
Siam.
1593: King of Siam leads his army to seize
Lovek. Phraya Sri Suphan is captured.
1603: The Siamese Uparat is able to seize
the Khom [Khmer] country.
341
4
Nopparot (1878)
1570: King of Cambodia sends an army to
conquer Korat; many people are taken
captive.
1580: King of Cambodia conquers the area
of Ayutthaya and takes many captives.
1591: Two magicians, disguised as monks,
are sent to Lovek to make the King of
Cambodia burn those Buddha images that
protect the capital city.
1593: Naresuan leads 300.000 men to
Cambodia. The King of Cambodia and his
entourage flee by boat to Sri Santhor.
Naresuan captures Sri Suphan, his family
and retainers.
1595: Chey Chetta, who resides in
Choeung Prey, expels the Siamese forces
from Udong.
1601: Phra Thevikasat demands the return
of Sri Suphan from Ayutthaya. Naresuan
sends the prince back by fleet, but retains
Chey Chetta, the son of Sattha, as hostage.
1602: Sri Suphan overcomes the rebellious
former regent.
1618: Sri Suphan abdicates in favour of his
son Chey Chetta, who resides at Udong and
marries a Nguyen princess.
1621: The King of Cambodia defeats the
King of Siam and his army.
1622: The Siamese Uparat leads a fleet to
Cambodia, but returns before giving a
battle.
The concise accounts of the Siamese-Cambodian relationship given in the Luang
Prasoet and Nopparot chronicles do not show any signs of direct borrowing and generally
agree on true dates as far as they can be confirmed by external evidence (such as the fall
4
Wyatt (Ed.), 2000, p. 76-190; กรมศิลปากร, 1970, p. 88-101.
342
of Lovek in 1593). Several dozens of pages are taken up by the description of the same
events mentioned in Table 1 in the restored Ayutthaya chronicles as well as in the late
Cambodian versions.
Table 2: Erection of a Border Stone between the Siamese and Cambodian Kingdoms
Phonnarat
5
VJ
The King of Kampucha deputed Prince
Thalaha, Phraya Tham Decho, Phraya
Chakkrarat, Phra Si Phuri Pricha, high
ranking nobles and generals, Buddhist
monks and Brahman professors […] to
come to pour the lustral water.
Sa Majesté Brah Paramindaraja envoya
Samtec Cau Hva Dalha, l’Ukna Dhamma
Teja, l’Ukna Cakra Ratana, Brah Sri Bhuri
Prija, Brah Raja Vara Nukula, Luon
Rajamatya, Min Sneha Bhirama, et
beaucoup de Ghun, de Min.
For chief ministers he deputed Chaopraya
Chakri, the Chaopraya Sukhothai, Phraya
Thepnarong Lüchai, Phra Ponlathep, Phra
Sri Phuri Pricha and various khun and mün.
Quand au Seigneur de la ville de Sri
Ayudhaya, il envoya Bana Cakri, Bana
Bhimukha Mantri, Bana Debva Runna Run
L Jai, Brah Buhulla Debva et plusieurs
Ghun et Min.
For Buddhist monks there were their
holinesses, the patriarchs of the forest
dwellers and the village dwellers, and the
Reverend Teacher Sadam, the Reverend
Teacher Chawiang and twenty monks.
Du coté des religieux: Samtec Brah
Sangharaja Gama Vasi, Aranna Rasi, le
noble Guru de droit et de gauche, et une
communauté de vingt moines.
On Thursday, eighth day of the waxing
moon of the twelfth month, was endowed
with an auspicious moment, they imbedded
the inscription in its stone base. Then, after
the lustral water had been poured out on
top of the great earth so that, as a divine
witness, it would cause the royal alliance
and district inscription of the two sides to
endure until the end of the kalpa, they had
the rite of ordination held in that place for
six monks.
Le jeudi, huitième jour de la lune croissante
du mois du Kattika, était un jour propice,
ils se réunirent pour placer les bornes et
graver sur la pierre de l’endroit précis. Puis
les moines des deux parties versèrent l’eau
favorable sur les bornes-limites servant de
témoins, afin que la noble amitié royale et
les limites des deux noble pays durent
jusqu’à la fin du monde. Puis on éleva six
moines novices au rang de bhikkhu.
5
Wyatt (Ed.), 2000, p. 101-102; Khin Sok, 1988, p. 174-175.
Table 3: The Humiliation of the Cambodian Prince Sri Suphan
343
6
Phonnarat
VJ
When they reached the vicinity of Pho Sam
Ton, they saw the Prince Si Suphannamathirat’s barge together with the boats of
all the Khmer military officers, moored on
the western bank of the river. Prince Si
Suphannamathirat, however, did not kneel
but sat and watched the procession. The
Kings were enraged, had heir barges halted
and commanded Luang Phichai Burinsa to
cut off the heads of the Lao prisoners who
had been captured and impale them at
Prince Si Suphannamathirat’s barge.
Quand à l’auguste Narendrasura qui
rentrait avec son armée dans la noble ville,
il rencontra le bateau royal. Arrivé à la
hauteur du noble véhicule de l’auguste
Maha Uparaja, lequel se tenait assis sur
une chaise, les jambes pendantes, et
regardant l’armée siamoise sans (montrer
aucune) soumission. L’auguste
Narendrasura qui avait vu cette attitude se
fâcha et ordonna à Luon Bijaya Surindra
de trancher la tête d’un prisonnier Man
capturé dans l’armée et d’exposer cette tête
à la coté du bateau, sous le regard de
l’auguste Maha Uparaja.
The King presented him with a golden
pedestalled tray and an insignificant
quantity of foreign style wearing apparel,
and on all the Khmer army officers the
King bestowed clothing as appropriate.
Le roi du Siam récompensa
convenablement les généraux et les soldats
khmers. Il offrit à Maha Uparaja un noble
grand plat d’or et des décorations.
Table 4: Successful Siamese Offensive against Lovek
Phonnarat
7
Moura
In 945, a year of the goat, fifth of the
decade,
En 945 de l'ère Culla, année de la Chèvre,
cinquième de la décade,
King Naresuan, after the completion of the
Royal War Enlistment Ceremony, ordered
an army conscripted and prepared of only
one hundred thousand fully armed picked
troops, eight hundred war elephants and
fifteen hundred horses, and designated the
first month for the campaign to attack the
Capital of Kamphuchathibodi.
Le roi de Siam prépara une nouvelle
grande expédition contre le Cambodge. Il
réunit cent mille hommes, huit cents
éléphants et quinze cents chevaux; on leva
dix mille hommes dans la province de
Korat que Phnhéa-pey-borey conduisit à
Angcor, en suivant les routes passant par
les ponts antiques en pierre connus sous le
nom de Spéan-tup et Spéan-trêng.
6
7
Wyatt (Ed.), 2000, p. 111; Khin Sok, 1988, p. 183.
Wyatt (Ed.), 2000, p. 142-143; Khin Sok, 1988, p. 349-350, n. 797-798; Moura, 1883, p. 51-52.
344
It was ordered that an army of ten thousand
from the City of Nakhon Ratcha Sima be
conscripted to descend in the attack by way
of Taphan Saeng, to seize Siam Rat, to
attack along the eastern banks and encamp
at Kaphong Sawai.
C'est avec ces dix mille hommes, qui
furent embarqués dans deux cent
cinquante jonques ou pirogues, que l'on
attaqua la province de Compong-soai par
les affluents du grand lac qui traversent
cette province.
And it was ordered that an army of two
hundred and fifty boats from the cities of the
south be conscripted. Phraya Phetburi was
appointed its commanding general to
conscript two hundred transport boats,
loaded with rice and capable of transporting
two thousand cartloads, from the city of
Nakhon Si Thammarat, the city of
Phatthalung, the city of Songkhla and the
city of Chaiya. The fleet and the transport
force together consisted of twenty thousand
men fully armed with weapons of all kinds
[…] to attack and seize the city of Pasak as
one army.
Le roi de la ville de Sri Ayudhya ordonna
de rassembler dans les provinces du Sud
deux cent-cinquante bateaux. Il chargea le
Bana Bejapuri, chef de l'armée, de
rassembler deux cents bateaux dans les
provinces de Nagara Sriy Dhammaraja, de
Bak’ Dhlun, de San Khla et de Chaiya.
Ces bateaux étaient chargés de transporter
deux mille charrettes de riz. Cependant,
vingt mille soldats furent envoyés pour
attaquer la province de Pasak.
It was ordered that the army of the Cham
volunteers and the army of the city of
Canthabun take charge of one hundred and
fifty war boats and ten thousand fighting
men and rowers fully armed with weapons great guns and small, bullets and saltpetre.
Phraya Ratcha Wangsan was appointed their
commanding general to attack by way of the
mouth of the river and Phutthaimat.
Le roi chargea l'armée de l'Asaccam et
celle de la province de Candapuri dont le
Bana Vansan, était chef de dix mille
soldats avec cent cinquante bateaux de
guerre, d'attaquer les provinces de Bam et
de Panday Mas.
And fleets of all these provincial cities were
directed to set out on the fifth day of the
waxing moon in the first month, the same
day that the main army would.
Les deux armées de terre et de mer
partirent pour le Cambodge au mois de
Migasira.
Interpretation
It has been alleged that due to the lack of indigenous records Cambodian annalists
of the late 19th century could have been influenced by Siamese chronicle traditions
(Briggs, 1951, p. 253; Mak Phoeun, 1981, p. 21). A memorandum of King Norodom 1st
sent to King Rama 4th suggests that literary transfers of even greater extend might have
had a precedent - the letter dated December 1st, 1863, states:
345
Your humble servant [Norodom 1st] has informed the army commander
Phraya Rajaworanukul about the fact that the chronicles of the kingdom of
Cambodia were completely destroyed during the unrest that had beset the
country recently. Phraya Rajaworanukul replied that he had brought a copy
of the Cambodian chronicle from Bangkok, so that Your humble servant and
the Cambodian nobility would be able to examine if there was more
goodness to be found in Bangkok, or with the Vietnamese lords. […] I have
ordered to write down the chronicle of Cambodia and to attach it to the
draft of the treaty.
8
Later, in 1869, King Norodom 1st ordered the re-establishment of the country’s
chronicles, an effort resulting in a number of fragmentary pieces closely resembling the
earlier Nong tradition of 1818, on the basis of the copy the royal court of Udong had
recently received back from Bangkok. Around 1860, Henri Mouhot, who had travelled
widely in Cambodia, Siam and Laos, described the capital city of Udong as consisting of
more or less one road and estimated its population of approximately twelve thousand
souls (Mouhot, 1872, p. 126). In a community as small and fragile historical records are
in danger to disappear easily, whether by neglect or violence as in the aforementioned
case.
Nidhi argues that in its final decades the Ayutthian kingdom might have lost
interest in Cambodia. To support this assertion he cites the Chakraphatdiphong version of
the Siamese chronicles, which offers the account of an unsuccessful attack on Cambodia
in 1719 and does not add any further information on a later Siamese involvement with
Cambodian affairs. Only during the Thonburi and early Bangkok period when Cambodia
moved into focus of Siamese rulers’ attention again it became of vital interest to “prove”
a traditional relationship of Cambodian subordination by inserting passages concerning
Cambodian vassalage to Ayutthaya (Nidhi, 2005, p. 312). The incorporation of entries
from the Luang Prasoet chronicle into the restored versions dating to 1795 onwards
demonstrates that this source and its information on Cambodia were indeed available.
8
สํานักนายกรัฐมนตรี, 1962, p. 111-112.
346
The Yodaya Yazawin, antedating the re-establishment of Siamese chronicles as well, and
probably illustrating the state of historical knowledge shortly after 1767, offers no
information on campaigns against Cambodia at all for the era is question, although giving
a long list of cities and states conquered by Naresuan, of which the capture of Lovek
should have been a major entry. It is likely that most details concerning SiameseCambodian relations in the elaborate versions, such as the Phan Chanthanumat, British
Museum, Phonnarat and Royal Autograph version, are fictitious. The famous episode of
King Naresuan washing his feet in the blood of the Cambodian king for example has
9
been accepted as a forgery altogether by Western and Thai scholarship alike .
Somewhat in agreement with early Siamese sources, the Cambodian chronicles up to
1878 suggest the bilateral relationship to have been marked by repeated Cambodian raids
for manpower in Siamese territories until Ayutthaya is finally able to conquer Lovek
1593. After some years of internal unrest Cambodia recovers under King Sri Suphan and
withstands major assaults on its independence in the following reigns (Table 1).
Judging from the information given in the samples (Tables 2 - 4) it is possible to
discern that the Cambodian chronicles underwent a serious overhaul during the reign of
King Norodom 1st – unfortunately to the worse. Comparing the Cambodian versions the
reader is struck by the change of the plot from the Nopparot version of 1878 to the
version compiled by the monk Pan, at first identifiable in the publication of Jean Moura
(1883). The restored Siamese chronicles and the VJ tradition paint a much more colourful
picture of the historical plot, including the formation of a mutual defensive pact (Table 2)
and its invocation, the humiliation of the aiding prince (Table 3), ensuing punitive actions
and the fall of Lovek (Table 4). Even though they do not always totally agree on the turn
of events, some rather insignificant details and whole passages correspond with each
other so closely that the authors of the late Cambodian versions (represented by the
publications of Moura, Leclère, Khin Sok, Mak Phoeun) likely lifted those information
from a single, Siamese source and did not draw upon own genuine historical records only.
As it was Pan who had access to the highest circles of Siamese royalty and monks,
who provided Moura, Leclère and Aymonier with documents representing preliminary
9
A collection of articles examining different aspects of King Naresuan’s campaigns against
Lovek was edited by Suchit Wongthet in 2001.
347
developmental stages of the VJ tradition (Moura, 1883, p. 4; Aymonier, 1880, p. 155),
and who later sat in a royally appointed commission in charge of composing and editing
historical documents (Coedès, 1918, p. 22), it is rather safe to assume that it was Pan who,
for the first time, weaved information and whole passages taken from the restored
Siamese versions into the Cambodian chronicle, which served all subsequent versions as
a basis. In its last stage of development (VJ version) the number of episodes adopted
verbatim from the Siamese chronicles further increased considerably. This latest product
of traditional Cambodian historiography enjoys a great popularity though, partly due to
the many fancy details unknown until its publication, partly because French translations
(Mak Phoeun, 1981; Khin Sok, 1988) make it accessible to a Western audience as well.
However, I hope that it has become evident by the information juxtaposed in the
tables that for the period under consideration neither the restored Siamese versions nor
the chronicles of the VJ tradition (Moura, Leclère, Khin Sok, Mak Phoeun) offer
ultimately reliable information.
References
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กรมศิลปากร. (1970). ราชพงษาวดารกรุงกัมพูชา. กรุงเทพฯ: แพรพิทยา.
บุญเรือง คัชมาย. (2000). พระราชพงศาวดารเขมร (ฉบับคัดลอกจากคัมภีรใบลาน): ภาค 1. สุรนิ ทร:
อาศรมภูมิปญญา สถาบันราชภัฏสุรนิ ทร.
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คณะรัฐมนตรี กระทรวงมหาดไทย กรมศิลปากร ฯลฯ. กรุงเทพฯ.
สุจติ ต วงษเทศ (Ed.). (2001). พระนเรศวรตีเมืองละแวก แตไมไดฆา พระยาละแวก. กรุงเทพฯ: มติชน.
English
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Française d’Extrême-Orient, 14(1), 1–31.
Coedès, G. (1918). Essai de Classification des Documents Historiques Cambodgiens
Conservés à la Bibliothèque de l’École Française d’Extreme-Orient. Bulletin de
l’École Française d’Extrême-Orient, 18, 1–28.
Edwards, P. (2008). Cambodge: The cultivation of a Nation, 1860-1945. Chiang Mai:
Silkworm Books.
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1860 - 1930. Chiang Mai: Silkworm Books.
Khin, S. (1988). Chroniques Royales du Cambodge - De Bana Yat à la Prise de Lanvaek
- de 1417 à 1595. Paris: Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient.
Leclère, A. (1914). Histoire du Cambodge Depuis le 1er Siècle de Notre Ere. Paris:
Geuthner.
Lingat, R. (1933). History of Wat Pavaraniveca. JSS, 26(1), 73–102.
Mak, P. (1980). L’Introduction de la Chronique Royale au Cambodge du Lettré Nong.
Bulletin de l’Ecole Française d’Extrême-Orient, 67, 135–145.
Mak, P. (1981). Chroniques Royales du Cambodge, de 1594 à 1677. Paris: Ecole
Française d'Extrême-Orient.
Mak, P. (1995). Histoire du Cambodge: De la Fin du XVIe Siècle au Début du XVIIIe.
Paris: Presses de l'Ecole Française d'Extrême-Orient.
Mouhot, H. (1872). Voyage dans les Royaumes de Siam, de Cambodge, de Laos et autres
parties centrales de l'Indo-Chine. Paris: Hachette.
Moura, J. (1883). Le Royaume du Cambodge. Paris: Leroux.
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Thailand: Silkworm Books.
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of Cambodian history. France-Asie, 22(2), 189–203.
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Heinemann Educational Books.
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Yangon: Myanmar Historical Commission.
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JSS, 64(2), 207–236.
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Fourteenth to Sixteenth Centuries (Dissertation). Yale University, New Haven,
Connecticut.
Vickery, M. (1979). The Composition and Transmission of the Ayudhya and Cambodia
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by Richard D. Cushman. Bangkok: The Siam Society.
349
Translation of Idioms in Children Literatures into
Thai by Soommana Boonyarattawech
Sayamon Sornsuwannasri
Mahidol University
Abstract
The objectives of this qualitative research are to study idioms classification in The Lion,
the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader in The Chronicles of
Narnia written by C.S. Lewis; and to analyze the techniques of translating English idioms
into Thai in the Thai translation version by Soommana Boonyarattawech. According to
the findings, there are 9 devices of idioms, as classified by Seidl and McMordie (1988),
used. The techniques employed by the translator include free translation, equivalent
translation, omission, and literal translation. It is also found that the technique most
frequently used is the free translation, which is target-oriented, and the technique least
frequently used is literal translation, which reflects differences between idioms used in
both languages.
Keywords: translation, idioms, children literature, The Chronicles of Narnia
1. Introduction
Idioms used in literary works are quite important in creative writing. Idioms are
considered as beauty of a language, and displays identities of meaning of word and
culture of a nation. Meaning of each idiom cannot be exposed in each word of an idiom.
Each idiom has unique meaning which is not derived from the meanings of every word in
an idiom. Therefore, idioms are always used in literary works to imply some meanings, to
spice language used, and to affect readers’ emotion rather than direct narration.
When translating foreign idioms embedded with cultural and linguistic
differences, translator might face many problems. It is because each society has its own
language and culture which are difficult to understand for non-native. Thus studying
idioms in any languages is significant for learners to understand way of thought, belief,
and culture which are rooted in natives’ minds. It corresponds with sociologists’ approval
for a long time that if a study of any nation will be conducted, collecting idioms word
spoken by those people should be a part of studying too (Rattanakul, 1997).
Therefore, this thesis was conducted to study idioms, and idioms translation with
an aim to gain knowledge and understanding of diverse languages and cultures from
different countries. These are an important basis for translators who have to translate
idioms from a language into another language with equivalent meanings.
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2. Objectives of the Study
2.1 To collect and classify types of English idioms The Lion, the Witch and the
Wardrobe and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader in The Chronicles of Narnia
2.2 To study translation strategies for conveying the meaning of English idioms
into Thai
3. Methodology
This study is a qualitative research. The researcher studied types of English
idioms appearing in The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Voyage of the Dawn
Treader written by C.S. Lewis. Afterward, the researcher studied the Thai versions of the
two books translated by Soommana Boonyarattawech to analyze the translation strategies
used for conveying the English idioms into Thai. The steps were as following:
3.1. Data Selection
The researcher chose children literatures for analyzing the translation strategies.
The children literatures possess good qualities in terms of language used, entertainment,
and virtue according to Intarakamhaeng (1974) who stated characteristics of qualified
children literatures. The children literatures The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and
The Voyage of the Dawn Treader reflect all the qualifications as following:
3.1.1. Qualified Language
The two children literatures have language simply, smoothly, and naturally used.
The figurative language is clear and easy to understand. The idioms used are also suitable
for young adults. In other words, the language is not too easy or too difficult to
understand. Each character uses proper and suitable words in relation to each own status.
3.1.2. Entertainment Value
The story is categorized in fantasy and adventure. Therefore, it can satisfy the
creative wants of children. On the other hand, the main characters in the books are in the
same age of target readers and attract children to feel as they are those characters. There
are settings which are unlike our world including talking beasts and fairy animals. There
are many difficult situations which the main characters have to handle with as well. The
story can catch the attention of the children to follow through. The story ends happily,
while leaving the children feel happy as well.
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3.1.3. Qualified Way of Thought
Because the two children literatures are in fantasy and imaginative category,
readers attentively follow through the stories. Children will gain ability to concentrate
and, it will help them to be ready to learn other new things. In addition, the ending of the
two books’ stories shows that righteousness can overcome badness by making efforts to
get through difficulties. They teach virtue and refine children’s mind to focus of
righteousness and good deeds.
However, the children literatures “The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe” and
“The Voyage of the Dawn Treader” are only 2 among 7 books in The Chronicles of
Narnia. The researcher chose the two books from this series with consideration of
popularity among readers. The popularity has been reflected through more frequent
stories adaptation from the two books into play in many kinds of media than other books
in the same series.
3.2. Data Studying
The researcher read The Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Voyage of the
Dawn Treader in English version to understand the whole story and English idioms.
Afterward, the researcher read the Thai version translated by Soommana
Boonyarattawech to study the strategies used for conveying English idioms meanings
into Thai version.
3.3. Studying Concepts and Theories for Analyzing
The researcher studied many scholars’ concepts and theories involving idioms
translation in children literatures. The concepts and theories employed include general
translation theories, concept of children literatures, children literatures translation,
meaning of idiom, idiom categories of Seidl and McMordie (1988), and idioms
translation strategies. The researcher also reviewed a number of researches about
translation, English idiom characteristics, and methods for conveying English idioms
meaning to Thai language.
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3.4. Data Collecting
The researcher read source texts in the two books, collected, categorized and
compared all English idioms with the translated version. Then the researcher analyzed
methods used by the translator for conveying English idioms meaning to Thai version.
3.5. Data Analysis
In this process, the study is divided into 2 parts; English idioms categorization,
and analysis of idiom translation from English into Thai. The details are as following:
3.5.1. Analyzing idioms collected from the two books in order to categorize
them according to Seidl and McMordie (1988) who categorized idioms by word usage in
each one.
3.5.2. Analyzing idioms translation from English into Thai, detecting the
translator’s strategies, and analyzing cultural terms in each idiom.
4. Findings
4.1. Idiom Categories
According to Seidl and McMordie (1988), there are nine categories of idioms: (1)
Key Words with Idiomatic Uses; (2) Idioms with Key Words from Special Categories; (3)
Idioms from Special Subjects; (4) Idioms with Nouns and Adjectives; (5) Idiomatic Pairs;
(6) Idioms with Prepositions; (7) Phrasal Verbs; (8) Verbal Idioms; and (9) Idioms with
Comparisons. This research found that all the idioms used in the two English books could
be categorized into the above-mentioned categories.
4.1.1. Key Words with Idiomatic Uses
‘Key words,’ here, describes adjectives and nouns which are parts of idioms.
There are 40 idioms found in this category, such as ‘to go bad,’ and ‘by the way.’
4.1.2. Idioms with Key Words from Special Categories
‘Key words,’ here, are nouns that are categorized into special groups, such as (1)
Animals; (2) Colours; (3) Numbers; (4) Parts of the Body; and (5) Time, for example,
‘chicken-hearted,’ ‘black and blue,’ ‘one by one,’ ‘to cry one’s eyes out,’ and ‘from time
to time.’ There are 27 idioms found in this category.
353
4.1.3. Idioms from Special Subjects
‘Special subjects,’ here, relate to health and illness. There are only 2 idioms found
in this category, which are ‘to catch a cold’ and ‘to drink one’s health.’
4.1.4. Idioms with Nouns and Adjectives
Idioms in this category are noun phrases and can be divided into two subcategories, namely (1) Nouns Phrases; and (2) Adjective + Noun, for example, ‘a drug in
the market,’ and ‘a broken man.’ There are 6 idioms found in this category.
4.1.5. Idiomatic Pairs
Idioms in this category can be divided into two sub-categories, namely (1) Pairs
of Adverbs; and (2) Identical Pairs, for example, ‘now and then,’ and ‘on and on.’ There
are 6 idioms found in this category.
4.1.6. Idioms with Prepositions
All idioms in this category are led by prepositions. There are 8 idioms found in
this category, such as ‘at will,’ and ‘for a song.’
4.1.7. Phrasal Verbs
A phrasal verb is a kind of idiom. Each phrasal verb consists of a verb +
preposition or adverb. The meaning of the combination may bear no relationship to the
meaning of the individual words. There are 104 idioms found in this category, such as ‘to
bring up,’ and ‘to find out.’
4.1.8. Verbal Idioms
A verbal idiom begins with a verb or the verb to be and is followed by an adverb
or noun(s). The meaning of the combination also bears no relation to the meaning of the
individual words. There are 45 idioms found in this category, for example, ‘to catch
somebody napping,’ and ‘to turn tail.’
4.1.9. Idioms with Comparisons
Idioms in this category can be divided into two sub-categories, namely (1)
Comparisons with as…as; and (2) Comparison with like. There are 6 idioms found in this
category, for example, ‘as bold as brass,’ and ‘to talk like a book.’
U
U
U
U
U
U
4.2. Idioms Translation Strategies
The researcher studied idioms translation strategies in the children literatures The
Lion, the Witch and the Wardrobe and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader translated by
354
Soommana Boonyarattawech, and found out that there are 4 strategies of idioms
translation. I would like to present them consecutively according to the frequency of the
translation strategies applied in the books.
4.2.1. Free Translation
This type of translation strategy requires a translator to interpret or clearly
understand the meaning of each idiom at the first place. If the translator cannot find an
equivalent idiom for a translated version, the translator would opt for the free translation
strategy so that the readers can understand the meaning of idioms as much as possible.
The free translation strategy includes interpreting, assuming, and adding more
explanation due to context in the original text. Here is an example of this translation
strategy:
Example 1
Idiom: Talk the hind leg off a donkey
But long before Eustace was tired of trying to explain, the slaver simply said,
“Well, I’ve had enough of this jabber. The Mouse is a fair treat but this one would talk
the hind leg off a donkey. Off we go, mates.”
ยูซตาสพยายามอธิบายยังไมทันเหนื่อย พอคาทาสก็ขัดขึ้นกลางคันวา “เอาละ ขาฟงแกพลามมา
มากพอแลว ไอหนูตัวนี้สิเขาทาดี สวนไอนี่พูดเพอเจอ พวกเราไปกันไดแลว”
The idiom “to talk the hind leg off a donkey” means to talk incessantly (Siefring, 2004,
p.286). The translator uses Thai word “พูดเพอเจอ”, which literally means to talk nonsense.
The term is used by the translator due to the conclusion from the context. However, using
the Thai word to display the meaning of the English idiom doesn’t give readers a flavor
of language as played in the original text. There are some Thai idioms with the equivalent
meaning. For example, they are “พูดเปนตอยหอย” (to talk like hitting clam shells), or “พูด
คลองเปนลองน้ํา” (to talk like water flows), etc.
4.2.2. Equivalent Translation
If meaning of an English idiom is as same as a meaning of a Thai idiom, the
translator will use Thai idiom to express the meaning of the English idiom. This strategy
is called equivalent translation. Here is an example:
Example 2
355
Idiom: Chicken-hearted
“… Your Majesty must work by a show of more power than you really have, and
by the terror of the King’s name. It must not come to plain battle. Gumpas is a chickenhearted man and can be overawed.”
“... ฝาบาทตองใชวิธีแสดงแสนยานุภาพใหมากกวาที่ทรงมีอยู รวมทั้งบารมีแหงพระนามของ
ฝาบาทเอง ตองไมมีการลงมือตอสูกันอยางเด็ดขาด พระเจาคะ กัมปสเปนฅนขลาด ใจปลาซิวอยูแลว จะ
ขูใหกลัวไดงาย”
The idiom “chicken-hearted” means timid, lacking courage; which has the same meaning
of a Thai idiom ”ใจปลาซิว” (Siw fish’s heart), Siw is a name of a small fish which is
vulnerable and easy to die if being taken out of water. Therefore, Thai people compare a
Siw fish to a coward person. The original version compares a heart of a coward person to
a heart of a chicken, because a baby chicken is a coward animal, and easy to be
frightened. When it hears noise or be in a least danger, it will run back to its mother to
hide. Thus, westerners compare the nature of baby chicken to coward or alarmed person.
This example displays an equivalent translation strategy. Although the meanings of
individual words in both English and Thai idioms are different because English idiom
talks about a chicken heart and Thai idiom talks about a Siw fish’s heart, the true
meanings of idioms in both languages are the same.
4.2.3. Omission
This strategy is a way the translator omits or does not translate idioms in the
original texts. According to Baker (2005), a translator can avoid translating an idiom
appearing in original version if its meaning is verbose for a translated sentence, or a
translator cannot find an equivalent word or idiom. Here is an example of this translation
strategy:
Example 3
U
U
Idiom: Every mother’s son
“What I say,” continued the first voice, “is, get down to the shore between them
and their boat, and let every mother’s son look to his weapons. Catch’em when they try
to put to sea.”
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“ที่ขาจะบอกใหทํา” เสียงแรกพูดตอ “ก็คือ---ลงไปที่หาดทราย ระหวางพวกมันกับเรือบตของ
พวกมัน แลวเตรียมอาวุธใหพรอม จับพวกมันขณะกําลังจะนําเรือบตออก”
The idiom “every mother’s son” means everyone (Longman Dictionary of English
Idioms, 1984, p. 306). In this situation, the leader of Duffers is telling his followers to
prepare themselves to catch the group of King Caspian while the group is about to get on
a boat. The idiom “every mother’s son” said by the leader to his followers. He is ordering
all his followers to prepare their weapons to confront with the group of King Caspian. In
the translated version, the translator did not keep the meaning of this idiom. The sentence
in this example is a command. Therefore, it is assumed that the word referring to the
command receivers is not necessary. The context in this situation also tells readers whom
the speaker talks to, so the translator chose to use this translation strategy.
4.2.4. Literal Translation
This strategy is a way a translator keeps every meaning of words in an idiom, and
lets readers interpret the hidden meaning of the idiom. Here is an example of this
translation strategy:
Example 4
Idiom: Be on the tip of one’s tongue
The Duffers were also very pleased with their new name of Monopods, which
seemed to them a magnificent name though they never got it right. “That’s what we are,”
they bellowed, “Moneypuds, Pomonods, Poddymons. Just what it was on the tips of our
tongues to call ourselves.”
พวกดัฟเฟอรยังพอใจชื่อใหมของตนที่เรียก ‘โมโนพ็อด’ อีกดวย สําหรับพวกนี้แลว ดูหรูหรา
ทีเดียว แมจะเรียกไมเคยถูกสักที “พวกเรานะ เรียกวายังงี้---” พวกเขาตะโกนบอกแกกัน “มันนี่พัด---โพ
โมน็อด---พ็อดดีมอน---มันอยูตรงปลายลิ้นนี่เองนะ ชื่อเรียกพวกเรานี่ ”
The idiom “be on the tips of one’s tongue” means be on the point of remembering or
recalling something but not able to do so (Seidl & McMordie, 1988, p.230). The
translator keeps the literal meaning of the idiom in the translated version and displays it
as this phrase: “อยูตรงปลายลิ้น”. However, there is also another Thai idiom having the
357
same meaning like the English idiom. It is “ติดอยูที่ริมฝปาก” (be stuck on one’s lips). The
translator chose to use literal translation instead of equivalent translation. It is assumed
that the translator thinks that the readers can understand the meaning of the translated
idiom because there is the word “tongue” which is an organ to speak as same as the word
“lips” in the Thai idiom which refers to an organ for speaking as well.
4.3. Table of Frequency of Strategies Used for Translating English into Thai
The researcher collected all idioms appearing in the original versions. It was
found that there are 259 idioms in total. They are used in the books for 585 times in
frequency. The translator used many idioms translation strategies for the Thai versions.
The researcher will display the frequency of the translation strategies from the most to the
least frequency.
Translation Strategies
Frequency (Times)
Percent
Free translation
489
83.59
Equivalent translation
38
06.50
Omission
38
06.50
Literal Translation
20
03.42
585
100
Total
5. Conclusion
There are 259 English idioms in the children literatures The Lion, the Witch and
the Wardrobe and The Voyage of the Dawn Treader in total appeared for 585 times. In
the translated versions, the translator used free translation strategy the most, 489 times in
frequency or 83.59 %. This strategy was applied by the translator when trying to simplify
the meanings of idioms. The translator presented them in summary or gave more
explanation due to contexts. The translation strategy which has less frequency is
equivalent translation. It was used for 38 times, or 06.50 %. For this strategy, the
translator had to understand the meanings of English idioms very well before comparing
them to Thai idioms and choosing the equivalent idioms in the translated versions. The
358
equivalent idioms might have the same meanings of individual vocabularies as in English
idioms or might not. The other strategy which has equal frequency as the equivalent
translation is omission. It was used for 38 times, or 06.50 %. The translator used this
strategy when there was no equivalent word in Thai or the meaning of English idiom
would make the Thai versions too long. The last strategy is literal translation which was
used the least, 20 times in frequency, or 03.42%. The strategy kept direct meanings of
individual words in an idiom. However, the difference between English and Thai
languages shows that there are not many opportunities to have the same words usage in
an idiom and express the same meaning. Therefore, this strategy is occurred for the least
frequency.
References
English
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Routledge.
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Seidl, J., & McMordie, W. (1988). English idioms (5th ed.). Oxford: Oxford University
Press.
Strazny, P. (2005). Encyclopedia of linguistics (Vol.1, A-L). New York: Fitzroy
Dearborn.
Thai
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Boonsiri Suwanpetch. (1987). Dictionary of Thai idioms. Bangkok: O.A. Printing House.
รัชนี ซอโสตถิกุล. (2537). สํานวนอังกฤษ-สํานวนไทย (พิมพครั้งที่ 5). กรุงเทพฯ: จุฬาลงกรณ
มหาวิทยาลัย.
Ratchanee Sorsotthikul. (1994). English idioms-Thai idioms (5thed.). Bangkok:
Chulalongkorn University Press. (in Thai).
รัญจวน อินทรกําแหง. (2517). วรรณกรรมสําหรับเด็กและวัยรุน (พิมพครั้งที่ 2). กรุงเทพฯ: สํานักพิมพ
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วิจติ รมาตรา, ขุน (สงา กาญจนาคพันธุ). (2543). สํานวนไทย. กรุงเทพฯ: โรงเรียนภาษาและวัฒนธรรม
สมาคมสงเสริมเทคโนโลยี (ไทย-ญี่ปุน).
Wichitmarttra, Khun (Sa-nga Kanchanakphan). (2000). Thai idioms. Bangkok: School of
Languages and Cultures of Technology Promotion Association (Thailand-Japan).
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สุมนา บุณยะรัตเวช. (2547). ผจญภัยโพนทะเล. กรุงเทพฯ: สํานักพิมพผีเสื้อ.
Soommana Boonyarattawech. (2004). The voyage of the dawn treader. Bangkok:
Butterfly Book House. (in Thai).
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Soommana Boonyarattawech. (2006). The lion, the witch and the wardrobe. Bangkok:
Butterfly Book House. (in Thai).
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Suriya Rattanakul. (1997). Selected articles about Thai language. Bangkok:
Sahathammik Co. Ltd. (in Thai).
360
The Study of the Predictors for Communicative Ability of Thai Massage
Therapists at Ao Nang Beach, Krabi
Nisakan Boonyasoot
King Mongkut’s University of Technology North Bangkok
Abstract
The purposes of this study were to examine the main communication factors used when
Thai massage therapists communicate with foreign clients, the solutions used when the
misunderstanding of communication occurs, the relationship between each of common
factors and the communicative ability, and the extent to which the common factors
individually predict communicative ability levels. The study was conducted with 30
massage therapists working at Ao Nang beach and 30 foreign clients using the massage
service. The sample was selected by using the purposive sampling method. The main
research instruments included (1) the communicative ability questionnaire to collect data
on the massage therapists’ attitudes towards their communicative ability; (2) the
communicative ability band dispensed to the clients to evaluate the massage therapists’
communicative competence and; (3) the semi-structured interview for collecting data on
the solutions of misunderstanding of communication. Quantitative data were analyzed via
Pearson product – moment coefficients and Multiple Regression analysis and qualitative
data were analyzed through content analysis. Results show that when communicating
with the foreign clients, (1) most of the massage therapists used the interactional
competence as the communication factors at the highest level (mean = 21.20, SD = 4.58);
(2) body language and hand gesture, are applied in the situation that the misunderstanding
of communication occurs; (3) the phonological competence has the highest correlation
with communicative ability perceived by the foreign clients (r = 0.341) and; (4) The
multiple regression analysis reveals that, though the bivariate correlation analysis
indicates that each independent variable has no statistically significant relationship with
the communicative ability, only Phonological Competence is the significant predictor,
accounting for 36.6% of the communicative ability. It is recommended that the future
researcher should extend to investigate other subjects from various careers to gain a
better comparison of the English language ability of service industry from the different
areas.
Keywords: communicative ability of Thai massage therapists
Background
Krabi is located on the south at the shore of the Andaman Sea. Many activities are
provided such as diving and snorkeling, rock climbing, sea kayaking, spa, and Thai
traditional massage. Many tourists, after finishing activities, come to relax themselves at
the massage huts at Ao Nang beach. The massage therapists here are all Thai people, so
they have to communicate with the foreign clients in English since they meet at the first
time.
361
Communication is the process people use to be in contact with others by
conveying information between a sender and a receiver and they can understand
information in the same way. According to Carey (1989), it may be understood as a
symbolic process where reality is produced, maintained, repaired, and transformed and it
occurs between individuals (Scollon, 1995). With the different uses of language by
various people in the world, there is a high possibility of misunderstanding,
miscommunication, and mismanagement that can cause problems. Therefore, it is
essential for people in service area to be efficient in communicating in English in order to
avoid misunderstanding and misinterpretations and to create positive atmosphere between
Thai people and foreign tourists.
Therefore, the researcher investigated the extent to which the common factors
individually could predict the communicative ability levels. The predictors could provide
useful information in communicating in English to develop or improve ability of Thai
people.
Objectives of the Study
Objectives of the study are divided into 4 categories: the study aims to examine
the main communication factors used when Thai massage therapists communicate in
English with foreign clients, the solutions used when the misunderstanding of
communication occurs, the relationship between each of common factors and the
communicative ability and the extent to which the common factors individually predict
communicative ability levels.
Research Questions
1. What are the main communication factors used when massage therapists
communicate in English with foreign clients?
2. When the misunderstanding of communication occurs, what are their
solutions?
3. Is there the relationship between each of the communication factors and
the communicative ability?
362
4. To what extent can the factors individually or in combination predict the
communicative ability of the massage therapists?
Statement of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between each independent
variable and the communicative ability at the .05 level. (H1: r ≠o).
Hypothesis 2: The independent variables can individually or in combination
significantly predict the communicative ability at the .05 level. (H2: at least one B ≠ 0).
Definitions of Terms
1. Communicative ability: the English ability of Thai massage therapists in
communicating perceived by foreign clients according to the communicative ability
rating scale form developed from Standard of English for Spa Therapists/Masseuses.
2. Standard: the rating scale adapted from Standards of English for Spa
Therapists/Masseuses developed by The English Language Development Center (ELDC,
2005).
3. Communication factors: the factors influencing the communicative ability
including background, experience, knowledge, and culture.
4. Thai massage therapists: Thai people who provide Thai traditional
massage to the tourists on Ao Nang Beach area, Krabi.
5. Foreign clients: the foreigners whose nationalities were Australian,
American, British, Spanish.
Significance of the Study
Significance of the study are as follow: the important communication factors used
in the massage therapists’ communicating with foreign clients will be reported so that it
can help develop the therapists’ communication ability, the solutions reported can be
used as suggestions for the massage therapist to get through their communication
problems, the study can illustrate the relationship between the communication factors and
communicative ability, and the studied communication factors can help predict the
therapists’ communicative ability.
363
Literature Review
The review of literature in this study is presented as follows:
Related Theories:
Communicative competence theories by Canale and Swain (1980). The theory
refers to a learner’s L2 ability. The theoretical framework of communicative competence
offered here minimally involves four areas of knowledge and skill: grammatical
competence, sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence, and strategic
competence
Aspects of Communicative Competence by SIL International (1999). The
communicative competence can be divided into eights aspects: phonology and
orthography, grammar, vocabulary, discourse (textual), functions, variations,
interactional skills, and cultural framework.
Standard of English for Occupations (ELDC, 2005). It is developed as a tool in
developing the standards of English for many occupations.
Related Studies:
Monthienvichienchai et al.’s (2002) Cultural Awareness, Communication
Apprehension, and Communication Competence: a Case Study of Saint John’s
International School. The research was designed to study whether cultural awareness and
communication understanding have an impact on the communication ability of the
participants in the international school context. The findings illustrated cultural
awareness had positive effect and more cultural awareness leads to more communicative
competence as predicted.
Almeida (2002) investigated the students’ perceptions of their communication
competence. Statistical information confirmed that there were connections between
negative evaluations of perceived communication competence and conceptualizations of
communication competence as a primarily physical activity. Statistical support was also
found between negative associations of perceived communication competence and
descriptions of social alienation.
Roloff & Kellerman (1984) also examined an interpersonal communication
competency. The finding of the study indicated that the four topics, interaction
involvement, attentiveness, self-monitoring, and competency, employed in this research
364
were significantly different in terms of the participants’ social knowledge and their
interpersonal awareness is significantly and positively correlated to communication
competency.
Chittangwattana (2003) investigated language learning strategies used by tour
guides in order to develop their English oral communication competence. The finding of
the study indicated that cognitive, metacognitive, social/affective strategies were used by
Thai tour at a moderate frequency level. The social/affective strategies were used more
frequently. There was a significant difference in the exclusive use of metacognitive
strategies by Thai tour guides according to years of their work experience at a 0.05
probability level.
Sugawara & Peterson (1994) examined whether or not the difference in
communication patterns could cause misunderstanding in communicative interactions
between the Japanese and the Americans. The finding indicated that English, for Japanese,
was the main problem in communication. Most of them strongly agree that Japanese
sojourners should try to understand and adopt the American lifestyle while living in the
United States. The majority of Americans stated that they would hold a culture and
communication, not on English training program for the Japanese if they were asked to.
They also suggested that the Japanese should talk with the American in the workplace
more often in order to improve the relations between them.Research Methodology
Setting
Ao Nang Beach, Krabi from July 4-8, 2009
Population and Sample
1. Population: At Ao Nang Beach, Krabi, There were approximately 300
Thai massage therapists while the members of foreign clients in a day were
approximately 1,000.
2. Sample: Sampling technique used was purposive sampling method. 30
Thai massage therapists and 30 foreign clients, as a well designed method for analysis,
participate in this study (Isaac & Michael, 1995).
365
Instruments
1. Semi–structured interview based on the aspects of communicative
competence
2. The communicative ability questionnaire asking about the communicative
factors used when they communicate with their clients
3. Communicative ability band adapted the Standards of English for Spa
Therapists/Masseuses (ELDC, 2005).
Data Analysis
To answer the research questions, the following data analysis procedures were
employed. For research question 1: The data obtained from the questionnaire were
analyzed by arithmetic mean ( X ) and standard deviation (SD). For research question 2:
The data obtained from the semi-structured interview were analyzed by Content Analysis,
frequency and percentage were reported. For research question 3: The data obtained from
the questionnaire and the communicative ability band were analyzed by means of
descriptive statistics ( X and s.d.) and Pearson product – moment coefficients. Finally,
for research question 4: The data obtained from the questionnaire and the communicative
ability band were analyzed by Multiple Regression analysis since this is a technique for
the modeling and analysis of numerical data.
Findings
The findings obtained from data analysis are as following:
Research question 1: All massage therapists were asked to respond to the
Communicative Ability Questionnaires to find out the factor they use in communicating
with foreign clients. The findings from the questionnaire are as follows:
Table 1: Descriptive Statistic of Communicative Competence
Communicative Competence
Phonological Competence
Grammatical Competence
Lexical Competence
Discourse Competence
Functional Competence
Sociolinguistic Competence
Interactional Competence
Cultural Competence
Mean
9.10
14.53
12.30
6.37
6.90
14.57
21.10
11.40
SD
1.84
3.60
3.62
2.04
1.98
3.90
4.58
2.90
366
From table 1, it can be seen that most of the massage therapists used the
Interactional Competence as their communication factors at the highest level (mean =
21.20, SD = 4.58) when they communicate with the foreign clients.
Research question 2: Both massage therapists and foreign clients were randomly
selected to have an interview. The questions mainly asked about their solutions for the
communication or the communication misunderstands. The content analysis was used.
Most of massage therapists try to emphasize and repeat the conversation until they
understand to each other. Hand gesture is also used in the situation. For foreign clients,
most foreign clients try to emphasize and clarify the sentences. If the massage therapists
still do not understand the purposes of the speaking, they will try to say in another ways
or use the different words. One of the foreign clients mentioned that hand gesture was
also used to explain thing.
Research question 3: The foreign clients were asked to evaluate the massage
therapists’ communicative ability by using the Communicative Ability Band. The
findings are as follows:
Table 2: The Correlation Coefficients of All Communicative Factors and the
Communicative Ability
PHONO GRAM
LEX
DISCOR FUNCTI
PHONO
1
.298
.512**
.411*
.448*
GRAM
.298
1
.318
.301
.397**
LEX
.512**
.318
1
.852**
.647**
DISCOR
.411*
.301
.852**
1
.695**
FUNCTI
448*
.397* .647**
.695**
1
SOCI
.051
.261
.516**
.598**
.542**
INTER
-.071
.162
.556**
.719**
.502**
CULTUR
-.059
.349
.389*
.552**
.400*
**. Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed).
SOCI
-.051
.261
.516**
.598**
.542*
1
.859**
.515**
*. Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Note: PHONO
GRAM
LEX
DISCOR
FUNCTI
SOCI
INTER
CULTUR
SCORE
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
Phonological competence
Grammatical competence
Lexical competence
Discourse competence
Functional competence
Sociolinguistic competence
Interactional competence
Cultural competence
Communicative ability
INTER
-.071
.162
.556**
.719**
.502**
.859**
1
.734**
CULTUR
-.059
.349
.389*
.552**
.400*
.515*
.734**
1
SCORE
.341
.165
-.104
-.188
-.201
.325
-.303
-.099
367
In terms of the correlation among the communicative factors and the
communicative ability score, the highest correlation coefficient is 0.341 (the phonological
competence and communicative ability score). That is to say, although the phonological
competence has the low positive correlation with the communicative ability, it has the
highest correlation with communicative ability perceived by the foreign clients (r =
0.341). However, the lowest correlation found is the intercultural competence (r = -.303).
Research question 4: The finding for this question was used to test with
Hypothesis 2. (Hypothesis 2: The independent variables can individually or in
combination significantly predict the communicative ability at the .05 level. (H2: at least
one B ≠ 0)).
A multiple regression analysis was employed to assess the second hypothesis.
This was used to examine whether all the independent variables have the potentials to be
the predictors for communicative competence score of the therapists. Accordingly, the
standard or simultaneous regression method was employed. In the SPSS term, the ‘enter’
method is used and all independent variables are entered into the regression into the
regression at the same time. Table 3 shows the model summary produced by the SPSS
program.
Table 3: Model Summary of the Multiple Regression Analysis
Model
1
R
.605a
R Square
.366
Adjusted R Square
.124
Std. Error of the Estimate
11.62538
a Predictors: (Constant), CULTUR, PHONO, GRAM, SOCI, FUNCTI, LEX, DISCOR, INTER
b Dependent Variable: SCORE
The R coefficient of .605 is shown in Table 3, indicating that the relationship
between communicative ability score and the independent variable is positive at the
moderate level. The R-Square is 0.366 which means that the independent variables can
explain 36.6% of the variance in the SCORE. The standard error of the estimate is
11.62538
The Table 4 illustrates the coefficients of the regression model.
368
Table 4: Coefficients of the Regression Model
Model
1
Unstandardized
Coefficients
B
Std. Error
(Constant)
30.373
PHONO
12.464
GRAM
3.178
LEX
-.451
DISCOR
-5.816
FUNCTI
-4.619
SOCI
-1.699
INTER
1.998
CULTUR
2.458
a Dependent Variable: SCORE
Standardized
Coefficients
Beta
t
sig
.617
.184
-.044
-.319
-.367
-.133
.123
.191
1.536
2.362
.831
-.122
-.709
-1.333
-.314
.210
.609
.139
.028
.415
.904
.486
.197
.756
.836
.549
19.771
5.278
3.824
3.715
8.200
3.464
5.405
9.536
4.033
The unstandardized coefficient B is the increase or decrease in the dependent
variable when an independent variable increases by one unit and the other independent
variables are held constant. The plus or minus sign of B indicates the direction of the
amount change in the dependent variable. The t-test is used to calculate the significance
level of each individual B coefficient. Phonological competence is the only predictor
variable that the t-value is statistically significant at the .05 level (B = 12.464, t = 2.362, p
= 0.028).
The regression equation used to predict the SCORE can then be written as:
SCORE = 30.373 + 12.464 (PHONO)
According to the above equation, phonological competence could be used to
predict communicative ability. With a unit increase in phonological competence, the
communicative ability will increase by 12.464 with the standard error of 5.278. As a
result, Hypothesis 2 which states that the independent variables can individually or in
combination significantly predict the communicative ability at the .05 level. (H2: at least
one B ≠ 0) is accepted.
Summary of the findings
Research question 1: From the findings of this study, it illustrates that,
interactional competence is the main communicative factor that massage therapists used
when communicating with foreign clients.
369
Research question 2: From the finding of this study, both foreign clients and the
massage therapists tend to emphasize and clarify the conversations between them. Body
language and hand gesture are applied in the situation.
Research question 3: The finding for this question is tested by Hypothesis1.
Hypothesis 1 states that there is no significant relationship between each independent
variables and the communicative ability at the .05 level. However, Pearson correlation
coefficients indicate a positive and low relationship between the dependent
(communicative ability) and independent variables (communication factors). The
strongest relationship is found at the phonological competence having the highest
correlation with communicative ability perceived by the foreign clients (r = .341).
Therefore, Hypothesis 1 is accepted.
Research question 4: The finding for this question is tested by Hypothesis2. For
Hypothesis 2, it is stated that the independent variables can individually or in
combination significantly predict the communicative ability at the .05 level. The multiple
regression analysis reveals that, though the bivariate correlation analysis indicates that
each independent variable has no statistically significant relationship with the
communicative ability, only Phonological Competence is the significant predictor,
accounting for 36.6% of the communicative ability. The overall academic achievement
and formal content study are excluded from the prediction equation. The correlation
analysis indicates that the other variables are not included because their effect on the
variance of the communicative ability is shared largely by phonological competence.
Adding them in the regression model does not significantly improve the predictability of
the regression equation. The multiple regression analysis, therefore, suggests the
prediction equation as:
Communicative competence = 30.373 + 12.464 (Phonological competence)
In conclusion, Hypothesis 2 is accepted as there is one independent variable
which is phonological competence that can be a significant predictor of communicative
ability.
370
Discussion
Interactional competence is the main communicative factor the massage therapists
use in communication. For this competence, recognizing how to invest and manage
conversations and negotiate meaning with other people are included. It also includes
knowing what kinds of body language, eye contact, and proximity to other people are
suitable and acting accordingly.
1. Both foreign clients and massage therapists tend to emphasize and clarify the
conversations. Body language and hand gestures are applied in the situations.
3. Phonological competence, from the findings, has the highest relationship with
communicative ability perceived by the foreign clients towards the massage therapists.
4. The predictor of the communicative ability, as found from the finding of research
question 3, is the phonological competence. Up to 36.6% of the communicative ability
phonological is the only significant predictor. It is better for the massage therapists to
improve their phonology such as accent, tones of voice, and pitch. The more they have
the good pronunciation, the better the foreign clients understand their communications.
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Sino-US English Teaching, 4(9), 39-45.
Bio-data
Ms.Nisakan Boonyasoot received BA in English from the Faculty of Humanities
from Kasetsart University in 2006. After graduation, she has continued to study MA in
English for Business and Industry Communication at King Mongkut’s University of
Technology North Bangkok in 2007. During 2006-2009, she had worked at My House
Family Recreation Club Ltd. Partnership as an Administration Officer. Her areas of
interest are communicative ability, intercultural communication, and teaching English as
an international language.
373
Recreating the World:
Intertextuality in Austen’s Sense and Sensibility
Fatemeh Gholipour Fereydouni
University of Malaya
Abstract
Intertextuality indicates that all texts invoke and rework other texts in a rich and everevolving cultural mosaic. This narrative and architectural bricolage is regarded as a
central feature of postmodernism. Adaptations and appropriations can vary in how
explicitly they state their intertextual purpose. Many adaptations are interpretations or rereadings of the source text; so the impact depends on the form and art of the Film. In this
respect, T. S. Eliot sought to rethink notions of originality and value. Of course he was
not advocating blind adherence to precursor texts or ages. He suggests that meaning
stems from the relationships between texts, relationships which encourage contrast and
comparison. Film adaptations demonstrate that there is much more to the medium of film
than an empty repetition of the conventional representations of an age, as it uses the
1
strictures of the historical era to shed light on the new adaptations. Film versions of
Sense and Sensibility show that the art-form can embrace more than one content and that
there can be important differences among these film versions. It is not just these adapted
films which are subjects for adaptation and intertextuality. Likewise, Austen’s novels
were also influenced by other writers and the most important influences were general
rather than specific. In this paper, the writer compares two cinematic versions of the
novel namely the 1995 version (directed by Ang Lee) and the 2008 version (directed by
John Alexander) and demonstrates that appropriations and adaptations are not just mere
imitations but rather recreations and innovations in art.
Keywords: intertextuality, Jane Austen, adaptation, appropriation
Intertextuality, which is most associated with Julia Kristeva, indicates that all
texts invoke and rework other texts in a rich and ever-evolving cultural mosaic. This
2
narrative and architectural bricolage , is regarded as a central feature of postmodernism
(Sanders, 2006).
1
2
Stricture an adverse criticism
Bricolage in a literary context, a collage or collection of different allusions, quotations, and
references in the context of a new creative work. Often associated with the work of structural
anthropologists such as Claude Levi-Strauss who studied the transformations of myth (2001
[1978]) and with postmodernism (Barry 1995: 83). The term derives from the French for Do-itYourself (DIY).
374
Adaptations and appropriations can vary in how explicitly they state their
intertextual purpose. Many adaptations are interpretations or re-readings of the source
text; so in discourse of film adaptations the impact depends on the form and art of the
Film. Sometimes an adaptation will involve a director’s personal vision, and it may or
may not involve cultural relocation or updating of some form; it is seen specifically in the
2008 version of Sense and Sensibility. In this respect, what is often inescapable is the
creative import of the author that cannot be as easily dismissed as Roland Barthes’s or
Michel Foucault’s influential theories of the “death of the author” might suggest (Barthes,
1998; Foucault, 1979). Film versions of Sense and Sensibility show that the art-form can
embrace more than one content.
It is not just these adapted films which are subjects for adaptation and
intertextuality. Even Austen’s novels are under the influence of other writers, and some
adapted parts can be found in creative fiction of Jane Austen. The most important
influences were general rather than specific. There were the moral writers of the
eighteenth century, whose works were read and discussed by members of her family
(Pinion, 1976).
Richardson was among those who influenced Jane Austen. It has been argued that
the Steel sisters in Sense and Sensibility began as caricatures of the Selby sisters in ‘Sir
Charles Granidson’. ‘The Richardsons’ are introduced as friends of the Steels in the novel
(SS XXXVIII). Even more interesting is that when Nancy admits listening at the door to
a conversation between her sister and Edward, more or less recalling the Richardsonian
heroine who could spy through a key-hole (Duncan, 1964).
It is said that even may be the name of the horse, Queen Mab, which Willoughby
gave it to Marianne (SS XII), is suggestive and alludes to Act I, scene 4 of Romeo and
Juliet by Shakespeare:
…, O, then, I see Queen Mab hath been with you.
She is the fairies’ midwife…
Form and Content
The relationship between form and content is a perennial issue in aesthetics.
Although rather unfashionable in strictly literary criticism, these are essential terms in
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film criticism. In this comparison of form and content we had better take a look at the
style first.
This was the first of Jane Austen’s novels completed in 1796 with the name of
Elinor and Marianne. Then she wrote the second version and changed the name into
Sense and Sensibility with the epistolary style in some passages (Pinion, 1976). For
example, the opening of Chapter XXIV conveys an epistolary rather than a
conversational tone. In Elinor and Marianne and her other earlier works, Austen had
focused attention on the various viewpoints of her principal characters in this way. The
result was the growth of psychological insight which affected the technique of their
presentation and I believe that we can explore Jane Austen and her Sense and Sensibility
in her writing and especially through the words of her characters, as many of her letters
emphasize that. In fact she held up the mirror to the society and families in different
classes (of course, mainly middle and upper classes) to reflect some realities of her own
era.
In this novel, Austen clearly intends to vindicate Elinor's sense and self-restraint,
and on the simplest level, the novel may be read as a parody of the full-blown
romanticism and sensibility that was fashionable around the 1790s. Marianne indulges in
romantic sensibility when she leaves Norland; here the melancholy of the hypersensitive
Marianne Dashwood is probably a detached transmutation of Jane Austen’s emotional
mood when she was at Steventon and heard that her parents had decided to retire to Bath
(Pinion, 1976). It was a great shock for her (from her letter to Cassandra); Elinor remarks,
in a manner reminiscent of Dr Johnson that everyone does not share her passion for dead
leaves and prudent she’s firm, out of self-centeredness (Pinion, 1976). Marianne’s story
is another version of a young lady’s entrance into the world. In reading the novel and the
description of Willoughby in it, the reader is driven to imagine Willoughby as if he can
charm and captivate the reader as much as Marianne. The handsome charming
Willoughby has been guilty of unprincipled conduct; he has abandoned the girl he
seduced, and gives up Marianne as well, with whom he is in love, to enter a mercenary
marriage. Edward Ferrars is plain but sincere; in his youth he had become indiscreetly
engaged to Lucy Steele; he has realized his mistake, but remains honourably committed
to the engagement despite his love for Elinor.
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In comparing the novel and its two film versions, it is worthy to mention that
adaptation studies are not about making polarized value judgments, but about analyzing
process, ideology, and methodology. Regarding this view, Deborah Cartmell argues for
three categories of adaptation: transposition, commentary, analogue (Sanders, 2006).
In the two film versions, Sense and Sensibility, Dir. Ang Lee 1995, and 2008
version Dir. John Alexander, there is much fidelity in most parts of the adaptation of the
novel. Cartmell’s second category, commentary, is explicit in the films. They are the
commentary of adaptation since the process of adaptation starts to move away from
3
simple proximation towards something more culturally and socially loaded (Sanders,
2006). In fact, by means of alteration and addition, the directors insert their comments
and beliefs, so that it causes variety and creative differences arise not only in comparison
to the novel but between the various film versions. Actually here the formalist insistence
is confirmed. They argue that poetic and prosaic language are not confined to the literary
genres of poetry and prose, they could also be applied to cinema (Hills, 1998). In this
respect we see historically, cinema emerges within the culture of consumption and work
on consumerism can restore the question of gender to the now dominant concept of
postmodernism. Many characteristics of postmodern society − fragmentation over
coherence, style over history, surface over depth, and consumption over production −
have traditionally been associated with women’s condition (Hills, 1998).This theory has
been indicated in some parts of these two adapted films from the canonical novel. Related
to this view of the formalist, Dudley Andrew (1984) asserted “the choices of the mode of
adaptation suggest a great deal about the cinema’s sense of its role and aspirations from
decade to decade” (p. 467). It is visible in various adaptations from Austen’s novels in
different historical and social periods.
In discussing adaptation of Austen’s novels, scholars tend to ignore the technique
and the casting of stars for reasons that are not far to seek. The former requires familiarity
with the history and development of camera, lighting techniques, and sound; the latter
displaces the discussion from sociological and psychological interpretations dear to much
of the above literary scholarly commentary (Braudy, 2004). A careful and pragmatic
3
Proximation Genette’s phrase (1997 [1982]: 304) for an updating or the cultural relocation of a
text to bring it into greater proximity to the cultural and temporal context of readers or audiences.
377
comparison of three of the post-1995 film adaptations of Jane Austen's novels with the
film adaptations made between 1971 and 1995 reveals the post-1995 films differ not so
much in historical accuracy, but in the use the post-1995 films make of sophisticated
camera and sound work, alluring well-known stars, and publicity, they are known in the
trade as "high profile" films. These are the really measurable differences between the pre1995 films since 1971 and post-1995 films. This is a filmmaker’s presentation of the
authentic.
This process is the essential framework specifically for the followers of consumer
4
culture theory (Hills, 1998). In order to use this theory, auteurism has a salient role to
play in the works of directors and screen writers. In this way they can reveal their art in
making an impressive work for different spectators, such as the new generation and those
unfamiliar with literature as well as people familiar with literature.
Sight and Sound
In Sense and Sensibility, the 1995 version, directed by Ang Lee, Emma
Thompson as its screenwriter is faithful to the novel and serves to clarify the narrative,
and therefore the form. She effectively highlights one central subtext of the book, the
pursuit of money. Thompson focuses on that theme and keeps it ever present, that is, Mr.
Dashwood's dying plea to his son to help his sisters to the very end where Brandon tosses
six pence coins in the air at his wedding to Marianne.
Thompson also quite cleverly refines the discourse of the three main love stories.
Edward and Elinor are completely verbal; their exchanges are rational discussions.
Willoughby, of course, emotes wildly, and his relationship with Marianne is expressed in
every Romantic cliché in the book, including his emergence from the mist on a white
horse. Marianne's relationship with Brandon, however, is almost exclusively expressed in
subtle, sensual terms involving music.
As to form and content, there should be a relation in musical form and expressive
content in the novel. In other words, film music is a genre in which aesthetic concerns of
4
Auteurism an auteur (usually a director) exercises creative control over his or her works and
has a strong style. In the film industry this creative style is called auteurism.
378
form collide with the immediate demands of content in particularly ways. In his essay
Robynn J. Stilwell asserts that there is interplay of form and content (Stilwell, 2000).
Most of the music in the film is suggestive and almost all of it provided by
Marianne. This is important in establishing Marianne's personality as she wallows in selfpity after her father's death by playing sad tunes on her pianoforte. The heart of the
cinematic art is in the scene in which Edward comes upon Elinor crying and watching
Marianne play a tune which Elinor identifies as "my father's favourite." The tune
Marianne plays is appropriately representative of Classical musical style (Stilwell, 2000).
Here music has another function, too. Actually music-making illustrates one of
the primary occupations of the female gentry in the Regency period. Music- making,
however, was not merely an entertainment; it was an "accomplishment" meant to bring
lustre to the man to whom the female was attached, her father or her husband as well as
providing a socially accepted opportunity for close interaction with the opposite sex
(Sales, 1996). Mrs. Jennings's encouragement for Marianne and Brandon to play duets is
not about music-making at all, but is about match making. And in a scene when Colonel
Brandon for the first time comes and visits Mrs. Dashwood and her daughters, Marianne
is playing the piano and singing and here the camera shows the face of the impressed
Colonel Brandon. Of course it can intensify the romantic attraction of the characters and
the audience.
Ang Lee infuses the film with some variety and wit. In this respect I should note a
suggestive scene in which Colonel Brandon’s helpful and reliable personality is
emphasized. The scene pictures Marianne’s struggling to cut a bush, at this time Colonel
Brandon comes and gives her a knife to cut it with ease. This is part of the creativity of
film to give weight to a character in visual terms.
Some key parts have been altered in this version. For instance, the genteel
families and their dialogues of Mrs. Ferrars’ party, especially Mrs. Ferrars words about
marriage signify the then social mores. Another instance is Willoughby’s coming to
Elinor to confess his real feelings and his conflict of money and love. This is not treated
in the film. Moreover, the only alteration that violates the spirit of the novel is Elinor's
collapse into hysterical tears of relief when she discovers that Edward is free; Austen's
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Elinor would never give in to such self-indulgence in front of everyone. In the novel she
runs out of the room before giving way to tears (Chapter XLVIII).
In Sense and Sensibility, the 2008 version, directed by John Alexander, the film
begins with a shocking erotic introduction. The BBC adaptation of Sense and Sensibility
has been criticized by the Jane Austen Society for being too raunchy. Fans of the 19thcentury author accused screenwriter Andrew Davies of ‘degrading fine English literature’
by including racy sex scenes in his new version. “In Jane Austen's novels the sex is not
explicit. It is there but it is an undercurrent” In reply Davies said: “The sex is just there if
you read the book carefully enough and people can read it in all sorts of ways. She (Jane
Austen) does not foreground it but, as we all know, the fundamental motives of life and
her novels are sex, love and money. It is as much about sex and money as social
conventions” (www.imdb.com). Actually these remarks deserve contemplation in view of
the reader-response theory.
The character that is in the role of Edward Ferrars is appropriate, specifically in
conveying his manner and shyness:
He was not handsome, and his manners required intimacy to make them
pleasing. He was too diffident to do justice to himself; but when his natural
shyness was overcome; his behaviour gave every indication of an open,
affectionate heart. (Chapter III)
But in the film he is handsome. By casting good-looking actors, unlike the
description in the novel, the director may have intended to embellish the characters in
order to impress spectators. This is also true for Colonel Brandon, too. Colonel Brandon
in this version is attractive and impressive. In the novel he is not handsome and smart, but
his behaviour is gentlemanlike. His appearance, expression, hair style, clothes, and his
rivalry with Willoughby provoke romantic feeling and draw the female gaze. It is
pleasant for the audience, specifically for the female spectators. This is a dramatic
departure from the novel.
The alterations in this version are less than in the 1995 version, but there are some
additions which contribute largely to the narrative parts of the novel. There is some
filmmaker auteurism in other parts. This is shown in the scene where Colonel Brandon is
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feeding a bird which indicates his helpful and generous personality and supportive feeling
combined with an impressive romantic spirit.
Making the scene of first meeting of Colonel Brandon and Marianne is significant
in representation of creativity in intertextuality. In the 1995 version, Colonel Brandon
comes to visit the Middletons while Marianne is singing and playing the piano
(considered as personal attractions in the social mores), whereas in the 2008 version they
meet each other in the dining room with Colonel Brandon looking significantly at
Marianne. This maybe because of Marianne’s resemblance to Eliza, his first beloved
whom we learn about later in the story.
The music in the 2008 version is not as suggestive as in the 1995 version. In this
version music conveys the mood and spirit of the film but it is not classical spirit.
Actually it is like the sound track of modern movies with contemporary stories; only in a
few parts it has classical melodies.
Overview of Two Film Versions
Perhaps the most faithful version of the book to date is this 2008 version. It
includes all the major and minor characters from the novel and with a 3-hour running
time, there is enough space to cover scenes that were missing from the 1995 version as
well as develop the characters and their relationships with each other. As in the novel,
Elinor is introduced as a prudent and self-possessed girl. The film very closely and
beautifully introduces her to us with much fidelity. We see her sense and prudence before
other people, but releasing her sensibility in her loneliness in scene of beating the carpet
in the yard and in her father’s room when she sees his book and his handwriting after his
death. When she comes to hear of the engagement of Lucy and Edward, she does not say
anything to anybody, even Marianne and then later we see her alone in a cave and crying.
Generally the shaping of the plots and the filling of the gaps of the novel in both
versions are admirable. For example, from Chapter XXXIX to XLII (around thirty pages),
there is no word about Marianne, as if she has not been there for a long time, totally
ignored in this part of the novel, whereas in the films we do not have this feeling.
In comparing these two film versions of the novel, it can be said that the 2008
version has recreated Sense and Sensibility in such a way that Austen speaks frankly to
381
her readers without censoring herself. And the filmmaker has done this by adding
romantic scenes and creating some parts without departing from the essential plot.
If we assume that an adaptation is a created work with a literary frame, we should
obviously expect alterations, and additions, to make some parts of the novel colourful or
colourless (in film adaptation from novel) according to the filmmaker’s reading response
(reading response theory), the expectations of society and spectators’ culture (consumer
culture theory), and the expectations of women readers (feminist and cine-feminist
theory). Sometimes sociological and political analyses of novel are the aim of a
filmmaker. Here, by drawing on varied information within this scope, the director makes
a movie that gives the audience new insights about the novel (e.g., Kite Runner by
Khaled Hosseini. The film gives us more political and historical details of Afganistan). In
a sociological approach to film, people’s identification is taken into consideration while
at the same time such identification can be involved in complicated circumstances with
technological intervention. The main subject of adaptations from Austen’s novels can be
seen as performing their cultural work in speaking to, genuine social conflicts between
women’s economic dependence and their desire for autonomy, between heterosexual and
maternal ideology and sexual self-definition (Monaghan, 1981). These adaptations thus
link the focus on depictions of women in sociological criticism with the cine-feminists
concern with the figure of the women. It is related to the Austen’s novels in which she
reflects the figure of Regency woman and their problems and contemporary social mores.
The theme of money and the usual exclusion of the women through inheritance
laws are chiefly emphasized in the 1995 version, whether in dialogue or in form of the
plot. When Willoughby is at Mrs. Dashwood’s home and chats to Marianne, we see
Elinor and her mother getting worried while calculating their living expense. So Elinor
says, “we should economize.”
At the very end of the film, where Brandon tosses six pence coins in the air at his
wedding to Marianne, Thompson is making a reference here to an English rural tradition.
But it does more than lend local colour, in a film predominantly concerned with the
acquisition of money through marital alliance.
Marriage of wealthy girls or from a rich family was different from middle class
girls; they were noticeable for their wealth and family. This attitude has been drawn
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beautifully by Austen in the novel (Mrs. Ferrars’ opinion on her son’s marriage). Mrs.
Ferrars at first reasonably endeavoured to dissuade him from marrying Miss Dashwood,
by every argument in her power, told him that in marrying Miss Morton he would have a
woman of higher rank and larger fortune; and enforced the assertion, by observing that
Miss Morton was the daughter of a nobleman with thirty thousand pounds, while Miss
Dashwood was only the daughter of a private gentleman (Chapter XXXIII).
Now the important question is how a film can draw these salient social
significations out of the narrative. The answer is clearly to be found in the fusion of
literature, social background and film art, as it has been applied in the 1995 and 2008
versions to show the importance of money in that society.
Austen’s stories are about the reality of women’s lives, which, for women in the
Regency period, meant living in a straightjacket of propriety. She was interested in how
the education of her day shaped both men and women’s personalities, and, while her tone
is comic − not strident like Wollstonecraft’s − the picture she presents is not a pretty one.
She silently lets out her cry of protest against deprivation of women of their rights.
In reading A Vindication of the Rights of Woman, Mary Wollstonecraft compared
these women to members of the feathered race, birds confined to cages that have nothing
to do. To be a middle class lady is, according to Wollstonecraft, to sacrifice health,
liberty, and virtue for whatever prestige, pleasure, and power a husband can provide. She
believes the social benefits likely to result from educational parity between men and
women. Unlike emotional and dependent women, who are always shirking their domestic
duties and indulging their carnal desires, rational and independent women tend to be
“observant daughters” “affectionate sisters” “faithful wives” and “reasonable
mothers”(Wollstonecraft, 1975). Most parts of these ideas have been depicted in Austen’s
novels through her characters and their words. The male gaze's defining characteristic is
that the viewing audience are forced to regard the action and characters of a text from the
perspective of a heterosexual man; the camera lingers on the curves of a woman's body,
and events occurring to women are presented mostly in the context of a man's reacting to
said events.
The male gaze denies women human agency (Hills, 1998), relegating them to the
status of objects, hence, the woman reader and the woman viewer must experience the
383
text's narrative secondarily, by identifying with a man's perspective, the male gaze. In
fact through the use of various film techniques, such as shot reverse shot, the viewer is
led to align herself with the point of view of a male protagonist. Notably, women
function as objects of this gaze far more often than as proxies for the spectator. Therefore,
in fidelity to Austen’s novels considering this matter on film has vital role, since Austen
is a woman writer and naturally narrates her characters physically and mentally with a
womanly point of view and more important, the existence of a feminine consciousness is
suggested in her novels.
What makes the Austen-Wollstonecraft connection so fascinating is that it helps
situate Austen in the context of early feminism, or to use the proper scholarly term, protofeminism. Literary critics have been debating this question since 1975 when Marilyn
Butler published the first book that looked at Austen in the context of her times, Jane
Austen and the War of Ideas. Butler concluded that Austen was a conservative
propagandist because all of her heroines got married; thus, Butler argued that Austen was
implicitly endorsing the established social order.
Thus by translating Sense and Sensibility into a film, Austen is given a rebirth.
Those who are already familiar with Austen will get a chance to make a comparative
study of the literary work with the cinematic one; on the other hand, they will be
motivated to go back to the novel, read it again with a critical eye and grasp the subtleties
of the novel. As for those who are not familiar with the novel, they are encouraged to
read it for the first time and make a judgment between the two works.
Moreover, by this comparison, it becomes clear that adaptation and literature are
not separable and that adaptation cannot be considered just as simple imitation; it both
appears to require and to perpetuate the existence of a canon, although it may contribute
to its ongoing reformulation and expansion.
References
Alexander, J. (Director). (2008). Sense & sensibility (with Miss Austen regrets) (BBC TV
2008) [Motion picture]. UK: BBB Warner.
Andrew, J. D. (1984). Concepts in film theory (Galaxy Books). New York: Oxford
University Press.
Arnheim, R. (2006). Film as art (2nd ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
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Braudy, L. (2008). Film theory and criticism (7th ed.). New York: Oxford University
Press.
Brown, J. P. (1979). Jane Austen's novels: Social change and literary form. Cambridge:
Harvard University Press.
Hills, J. (1998). The Oxford guide to film studies. New York: Oxford University Press.
Iser, W. (1978). The Implied reader: Patterns of communication in prose fiction from
Bunyan to Beckett (2nd ed.). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lee, A. (Director). (1995). Sense & sensibility (special edition) [Motion picture]. UK:
Sony Pictures.
Monaghan, D. (1981). Jane Austen in a social context. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Mulvey, L. (1989). Visual and other pleasures (theories of representation and
difference). Bloomington: Indiana University Press.
Pinion, F. B. (1976). A Jane Austen companion: A critical survey and reference book,
(literary companions) (Revised ed.). New York: Macmillan Publishing Company.
Sales, R. (1996). Jane Austen and representations of regency England (1st ed.). New
York: Routledge.
Sanders, J. (2005). Adaptation and appropriation (the new critical idiom) (1st ed.). New
York: Routledge.
Stilwell, R. J. (2000). Sense & sensibility: Form, function, and genre in the film score.
Acta Musicologica, 72(2), 219-240.
385
Lost in the Realm of the Imagination:
Hamlet and the Reader
Ismail Salami
University of Malaya
Abstract
The baffling diversity of responses to Hamlet tainted by philosophy, psychology, religion,
politics, history and ethics only conduces to the ever-increasing complications of the play.
If we presume that the play is the story of a man who could not make up his mind and
seek to describe the indescribable, we are just following the path of the critics who have
laboured in vain to justify the motivations of the titular hero. Hamlet is in fact the mental
product of a writer who could not make up his mind as to how to construct a world
logically palpable to the mind of the audience. The reader’s wandering viewpoint is
caught up in and transcended by the object it is to apprehend (Iser, 1978). Yet, in Hamlet,
the imagination runs wild and travels far beyond the text to an extent where the reader
perceives things, which stand not within but utterly without the text. In reading the play,
the reader finds in himself hidden meanings and relates them to the play. A text evokes
questions from the reader and invites him/her to provide answers and partly controls the
responses. In the process of reading Hamlet, the reader’s imagination fails to grasp the
logic of events. Therefore, instead of relating the events to his world, the reader relates
his own world to the text. As a result, the world perceived by the reader is not Hamlet’s
but the reader’s. In other words, every reader brings his own world to the play. The
reader can easily detach himself from the text and let his imagination run loose because
the play is too vague for him to comprehend. Eventually, the reality achieved by the
reader in the course of reading the play is only the reality, which dwells in the innermost
recesses of his mind. The present study shows how Shakespeare seeks to arrest the mind
of the audience/reader in the play but instead lets it run wild to reconstruct a palpable
world of its own in the impalpable world of the text.
Keywords: Hamlet, reader response, imagination, text, reader
Contradictions induce the reader to collaborate in the composition of the text,
turning his imagination into a crucible. Shakespeare consciously manipulates the reader’s
mind in an effort to mould it like his own. The reader gradually becomes Hamlet, thinks
like Hamlet and feels like him. In brief, the reader becomes immersed in the character of
Hamlet only to find himself reflected in him. Shakespeare invites the reader to fashion his
own text. He gives ostensible hints as to how Hamlet should be decoded, while at the
same time he contradicts himself. These contradictions compel the reader to keep
changing his own approach to the work with the result that the more he reads the play, the
deeper he finds himself entrenched in contradictions and ambiguities. Thus pinioned by
386
the contradictory clues in the text, the reader feels urged to delve in his own imagination,
reassemble the work that the author initially structured, and produce different responses
to and interpretations of the text. On the other hand, the reader brings his own baggage of
knowledge and preconceptions to the text which may stand in contradiction with what he
finds in the text. As Iser (1978) has said,
Part of the baggage that the reader brings to the text includes the repertoire
of familiar literary patterns and recurrent literary themes and allusions to
familiar social and historical contexts that, however, inevitably conflict with
certain textual elements that defamiliarise what the reader thought he
recognized, leading to a distrust of the expectations aroused and a
reconsideration of seemingly straightforward discrepancies that are
unwilling to accommodate themselves to these patterns.
Consequently, the meanings he arrives at actually spring from his understanding
of his own perceptions spurred by the interplay of the text and his imagination. In reading
Hamlet, the reader’s imagination is fully engaged, resulting in a plethora of individual
cognitive responses, which may be as contradictory as the play itself. In this respect,
Hamlet is to be considered a unique work of literature in which Shakespeare seeks to
arrest the mind of the audience but instead lets it run wild to reconstruct a palpable world
in the impalpable world of the text. In fact, the reader makes sense of the text
provisionally. Consequently, the reality achieved by the reader in the course of reading
the play is only the reality stimulated by the text but extrapolated from the innermost
recesses of his mind. The contradictory depiction of the Ghost which in reality sets the
wheels of the tragedy into motion can be seen as part of Shakespeare’s grand strategy to
manipulate the imagination of the reader.
Indeed, the Ghost is as equally puzzling a character as Hamlet in the play. A lot of
critical subtlety has been expended on determining the mysterious nature of the Ghost
with the result that it has proved to be ambiguous to every critical eye. We first come to
know a silent Ghost who turns a deaf ear to Horatio’s enthusiastic requests: “Speak to
me… speak to me... O Speak…”(Act I, Scene I). Does the Ghost condescend to answer a
commoner? In fact, the Ghost’s refusal to speak piques the curiosity of the reader as to
387
what knowledge it intends to impart although Horatio in earlier lines says, “This bodes
some strange eruption to our state” (Act I, Scene I). Furthermore, the Ghost’s evasion of
verbal communication adds even more to the appalling quality of what it is to reveal. In
his encounter with Hamlet, the Ghost first beckons and then with courteous action wafts
him on. These very specific gestures are not accidental but are part of the strategy of
engaging the workings of the reader’s imagination – in this case by substituting
movement for oratory. The impregnated silence of the Ghost is then translated into
forcible attention in its early words: “Mark me!” (Act I, Scene I). It would be facile to
suggest that these two words only function as the Ghost’s opening speech.
Quite deliberately, the Bard casts the Ghost in full armour to convey a foreboding
sign of a disaster looming over the land. The armour and the martial appearance of the
Ghost make indirect reference to some military conflict. It is only a few lines earlier that
Horatio established narrative links between past and present events telling the story of the
armour: Old Hamlet wore the armour when he defeated old Fortinbras in single combat
which terminated with the cession of piece of land to Denmark. The reader cannot help
wondering: Does this armour forebode some plans by young Fortinbras to attack
Denmark and regain the lost land? Isn't it strange that the play should start with the Ghost
wearing this particular armour? Whatever the connection is, it somehow fails to have the
desired impact. Why should it be so? At this point, the Ghost proves to be a harbinger of
some impending tragic event in the reader’s mind.
The reader is then alerted by the Ghost’s revelation to real evil lurking in the
society. His attention is therefore directed to Claudius who we learned from the Ghost in
his interview with Hamlet poured the juice of cursed hebenon in the porches of his ears,
killed him and usurped his throne. So, “something is rotten in the State of Denmark (I. 4.
90)” and Hamlet has been called upon to right the wrong.
Beginning with the words ‘I am thy father’s spirit (I. 5. 9)’, the Ghost recreates a
link between Hamlet and the memory of a father he has lost. The use of the words ‘day’
and ‘night’, ‘to walk the night’ and ‘to fast in fires’ is an indication of repeated death and
rebirth and a device engineered by the Bard to create a sense of sympathy in the reader.
The effect of the Ghost’s discourse with Hamlet is so powerful that few readers will find
themselves capable of seeing the Ghost as a ‘goblin damned’. Instead, they see a soul in
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torment asking for the eradication of evil personified in the character of Claudius. For
some critics, the Ghost, however, emerges as a saved Christian soul temporarily
sufferings the fires of purgatory. Conversely, the reader barely finds a saved Christian
soul for it is, as it says, ‘confined to fast in fires, Till the foul crimes done in my days of
nature, Are burnt and purged away (I. 5. 11-12).’ It is still in the process of purgation and
his description of the purgatory surely indicates the degree of his sinfulness. Besides, he
asks for revenge, which is an unchristian act unless we alter our perspective on that issue.
The ungodliness of the act becomes known when the Ghost demands that Hamlet use any
inconceivable means to exact revenge with no fear of compunction: ‘But, howsoever thou
pursuest this act,/Taint not thy mind…’ (I. 5. 85-86).
If revenge is to be exacted on Claudius, why does the Ghost enjoin Hamlet not to
contemplate taking revenge on his mother who may have had a hand in killing him? Is
she not equally guilty? What the reader fails to understand is why the Ghost should think
Hamlet may consider taking revenge on his mother. The admiration the Old Hamlet used
to have for Gertrude must have been replaced by hate for she has betrayed him as we
later learn she has committed adultery when Senior Hamlet was still alive. Therefore, the
Ghost’s ostensibly undead love for the queen cannot possibly account for his request. By
what the Ghost narrates, the reader finds himself in relation to a king who has been bereft
of his throne, a father bereft of his son, a husband bereft of his wife and more importantly,
a man bereft of his right to live. All these qualities amount to a strengthened degree of
sympathy for the Ghost and hatred for Claudius. Perceptibly, the reader cannot help but
notice the contrast between a Ghost who first appears in full armour and one who is now
reduced to a helpless avenger. So far, the Bard has set the stage for a large-scale tragedy
of revenge.
If we see Hamlet set within the fabric of the Christian belief, we will encounter
some contradiction in the play. The abode of the Ghost is widely believed to be a
Catholic purgatory where the souls burn in fire to have their sins cleansed. Among such
critics is Dover Wilson (1951) who says that the Ghost is a “the linchpin of Hamlet;
remove it and the play falls to pieces” and that he comes from purgatory and is the only
non-protestant in the play. True enough, the Ghost is of paramount importance in the
play because he sets the plot in motion. Yet, his claim that he is the only non-protestant in
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the play is partly true because Claudius has been shown in his reasonings to be a nonprotestant and Horatio is apparently a Roman stoic. As for Hamlet, he is just as plainly a
Protestant.
Besides, an attentive reader can notice the dichotomy of heaven and hell, with no
room for purgatory, as espoused by Hamlet as part of the protestant belief in relation to
the Ghost:
Be thou a spirit of health, or goblin damned,
Bring with thee airs from heaven or blasts from hell,
Be thy intents wicked or charitable,
Thou com'st in such a questionable shape
That I will speak to thee. (I. 4. l39-44)
‘A spirit of health’ is one, which comes from heaven with charitable intentions,
and ‘goblin damned’ is one, which comes from Hell with wicket intentions. For Hamlet,
there is nothing in between, e.g. purgatory.
On the other hand, if the Ghost is taken to be a Catholic, why does Hamlet, who
so adores him, turn out to be a protestant? On the other hand, if we assume with Wilson
that the Ghost is a Catholic, why does he fly in the face of the very principles on which
Christianity is built, e.g. the injunction to revenge? The idea that the Ghost comes from
purgatory is enunciated by the Ghost itself:
I am thy father's spirit
Doomed for a certain time to walk the night,
And for the day confined to fast in fires,
Till the foul crimes done in my days of nature
Are burnt and purged away.’ (I. 5. 9-13)
He declares that the cause of his punishment is that he died unshriven:
Cut off even in the blossoms of my sin,
Unhousel'd, disappointed, unanel'd,
No reck'ning made, but sent to my account
With all my imperfections on my head. (I.5.75-9)
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In an adroit way, the Bard later elucidates that the Ghost may have been the devil,
and subverts the imagination of the reader.
The spirit that I have seen
May be the devil: and the devil hath power
To assume a pleasing shape. (II. 2. 601-603)
He further suggests that the Ghost may have been the product of Hamlet’s
imagination.
Yea, and perhaps
Out of my weakness and my melancholy,
As he is very potent with such spirits,
Abuses me to damn me. (II. 2. 600-604)
Thus, the imagination of the reader is subverted and liberated again to form
another mental image of the truth of the drama and replace it with the one he has already
articulated in his mind. In other words, the reader’s world keeps forming and reforming
because of the hiatuses in the text. As Wolfgang Iser (1978) has pointed out,
Hiatuses in the flow of sentences (where sequences that are anticipatory or
retrospective cannot be established) do not lead to frustration but rather
provide points of perplexity, unexpected twists and turns that are essential
to the literary experience. It is at moments like these that the reader's
freedom is greatest to exercise his own "faculty for establishing
connections--for filling in gaps left by the text itself."
Initially, the Bard suspends disbelief in the existence of the Ghost. When the
reader believes the Ghost, his belief is again shaken off into disbelief or doubt. To bring
about this effect, Shakespeare draws on contradictions, thereby providing a wider scope
for imagination. The reader’s mind thus becomes a crucible to be receptive to varying
responses and interpretations. While reading Hamlet, the reader faces various questions
and the answers that he arrives at are so contradictory that one answer only adds to more
perplexity of mind. The parts when put together barely constitute a logical entirety, a fact
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which justifies the varying though contradictory responses in different readers. When
confronted with a question, the reader finds his own answer irrespective of its logical
relation to the text of the play. Indeed, the text, as Iser (1978) says, becomes an arena for
the full engagement of the reader’s imagination. Our response to literature determines our
interpretation of it, and therefore an inevitable polysemy beyond the realm of the text.
The multivalent possibilities of interpreting the Ghost can only account for our
response moulded by our perceptions of the world. What allows for such varying
possibilities is the unleashing of the reader’s imagination by aid of structural and
philosophical contradictions. In general, the Ghost may be seen in the light of three
different approaches: the Ghost as an evil force, the Ghost as a messenger of good will
and the Ghost as the figment of Hamlet’s imagination.
The Ghost as an Evil Force
There is wide speculation that the Ghost is an evil force driving the hero to
bloodshed in an unchristian fashion. Paradoxically, the Ghost can be seen as equally good
or evil in the light of Christian belief. Hamlet’s reference to the Ghost as ‘The spirit that I
have seen/May be the devil’ led the celebrated critic G. Wilson Knight to induce that it
was the devil who took Hamlet on the path of bloodshed and destruction. In his essay
‘The Embassy of Death’ he argues that the Ghost is conceived throughout the play as a
portent not kind but sinister. He views Hamlet as being possessed by a demon who plays
havoc on himself and others.
Similarly, Eleanor Prosser (1967) vehemently embarked on substantiating her
view that the Ghost was a malignant force, the devil. According to Prosser, ‘Both
Protestants and Catholics agreed that a soul could not return from heaven or hell. By
banishing purgatory, the Reformation thus eliminated the possibility that the soul of the
dead return to earth.’ Then she added that ‘since a Ghost cannot be a human soul, it could
be only a good or an evil spirit, an angel or a devil.’ Then she tended to conclude that
‘the Ghost is probably malignant.’ When Horatio, Prosser argues, invokes the Ghost to
speak, it is forced to leave when Heaven is invoked. Honigmann (2002) argues that it
seems just as plausible that the Ghost, ‘being so majestical’, resents being charged by a
mere commoner or that it takes offence because told that it usurps the fair and warlike
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form of buried Denmark. It is also equally plausible that Horatio is not the recipient of
the message the Ghost needs to convey. After all, Hamlet is the only character in the play
who is capable of communicating with the Ghost although the Ghost is only visible to a
few others. This is a widely held belief. Others also share this view that the Ghost is
startled at the name of Heaven or that ‘it started like a guilty thing upon a fearful
summons.’ Such a response could be evoked from any reader and I believe Shakespeare
was well aware of such a possible response. So in order to give more credibility to his
Ghost and avert such a response from his audience/reader, he made Hamlet say, “There
are more things in heaven and earth, Horatio,/Than are dreamt of in your philosophy” (II.
1. 174-5).” Here, the Bard consciously controls his audience’s/reader’s response. The
idea that he inspires is that the reader should believe in the existence of the Ghost and
that it can return to the earth. Although we come to believe that a Ghost is real and that it
can return to earth, Shakespeare later in the play contradicts himself when Hamlet says,
“The undiscover'd country from whose bourn/No traveller returns.” Was Shakespeare
aware of such a contradiction? Indeed he was. The degree of certainty we achieved as to
the existence of the Ghost is now relegated to the category of uncertainty and doubt. The
reader who by now has come to believe what he has been told about the Ghost comes to
question the real nature of the Ghost. This technique of usurping and liberating the
reader’s imagination is effectively utilized only to evoke response after response. Thus
rendering himself an unreliable source of reference, Shakespeare provides a much greater
scope for imagination. Now that the reader finds himself at a loss to trust the text or the
author, he uses his imagination to the fullest to create a palpable world in the impalpable
world of the text.
The Ghost as the Figment of Hamlet’s Imagination
To view the Ghost as the figment of Hamlet’s imagination has some force as it
may be vaguely inferred from Hamlet’s words:
The spirit that I have seen
May be the devil: May be the devil: and the devil hath power
To assume a pleasing shape; yea, and perhaps
Out of my weakness and my melancholy,
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As he is very potent with such spirits,
Abuses me to damn me: (II. 2. 600-605)
The tendency to psychoanalyze the Ghost was begotten in the twentieth century
and the first critic to make such a claim was W.W. Greg who contended that the Ghost
was the product of Hamlet’s imagination.
Further, we have seen that it is impossible to regard the narrative of the Ghost as a
genuine revelation, but that, on the contrary, it bears internal evidence of being but a
figment of Hamlet's brain, and, moreover, that this hypothesis resolves most of the
difficulties that have been thought inherent in the play. It is tempting to advance a step
further, and to argue that Shakespeare not only constructed his play on the basis of an
hallucination on the part of his hero, but that he intended the Ghost to be an illusion
throughout.
The Ghost of Hamlet’s father has actually appeared twice and the sentinels who
have to their horror seen the Ghost stalk away have asked Horatio to speak to the Ghost
for they believe he is capable of speaking to the Ghost because he is a learned man.
Shakespeare takes labour in inculcating the notion that the reader will have to believe the
existence of the Ghost upon the testimony and approval of Horatio. In other words,
Horatio serves as a witness of events and as an intermediary between the writer and the
reader. A fact generally ignored by the readers/audience is that the Ghost is visible to the
sentinels, Horatio and Hamlet while he is invisible to the rest of others in the play. There
is no clear justification for this contradiction unless we assume that the world is made of
contradictions and so is the play. At all events, Hamlet is not the only one to see it.
Indeed, three other trustworthy witnesses attest to its reality even before Hamlet
encounters it.
The Ghost as Messenger of Good Will
To a casual reader, the Ghost may appear only as a king who has been deprived of
his throne and wife and who has come back to earth to demand revenge. However, on a
larger scale, we should focus on the long conversation of the Ghost with Hamlet and find
out for ourselves what may have remained blurred and obscure to others.
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An active reader would be quick to discern the religious overtones in the Ghost’s
speech:
'Tis given out that, sleeping in my orchard,
A serpent stung me; so the whole ear of Denmark
Is by a forged process of my death
Rankly abused: but know, thou noble youth,
The serpent that did sting thy father's life
Now wears his crown. (I. 5. 35-40)
In these lines, which constitute the focal point of the Ghost’s discourse, the reader
is encouraged to form a mental image of what has really happened by combining and
analyzing the components in the Ghost’s message. An active reader like Martin Lings
(1966) will interpret the orchard as the garden of paradise where man was tempted by the
devil that appeared in the shape of a serpent. The biblical image is further strengthened in
the mind of the reader in the lines that follow: ‘Thus was I, sleeping, by a brother's
hand/Of life, of crown, of queen, at once dispatch'd’ (I. 5. 74-75).
The sin of fratricide is the first fruit of the Fall, which is to be interpreted as a
murder, the slaying or making mortal of man by the serpent and the forbidden fruit as the
poison.
Given the lucid biblical allusion, we tend to see Senior Hamlet as the archetypal
Adam who ‘has been robbed by the devil (Claudius) of his birthright’ and view the
Ghost’s injunction to revenge as the only one way to regain what is lost. In the light of
this interpretation, we may say that Hamlet is assigned a divine mission, which is to
redeem the lost honour of Adam represented by Great Hamlet. In terms of this
assumption, therefore, we can be confident that the Ghost is not a devil but rather a
messenger who has been sent to deliver a horrid report of the things past.
There is another point, which is to be taken into serious consideration. The Ghost
is omniscient: he reveals two crucial actions that occurred before the play begins:
Claudius poisoned him and Gertrude committed adultery with Claudius. However,
Hamlet’s father was poisoned while he was sleeping, and the adultery must have been
concealed from him while he was alive, so how then did “he” find out about them? We
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may say that we are in the presence of a convention that grants full knowledge to the
Ghosts. Yet, I believe Shakespeare made his Ghost an omniscient because he intended to
give him a prophet-like presence in order to provide the reader with an otherworldly
atmosphere as well as a larger scope for imagination. This can be inferred from Hamlet’s
‘O my prophetic soul!’ speech. Therefore, it is quite naïve to think that the Ghost calls on
Hamlet to take revenge on his murderer in order to satisfy his egoistic aspirations. The
ambiguous nature of the ghost evokes ambiguous responses in the readers. Thus,
contradictory responses ensue.
By using contradictions, Shakespeare affords the reader the greatest altitude to
exercise his own faculty for establishing connections for filling in the gaps left in the text.
The gaps or the unwritten parts stimulate the reader’s creative participation by suggesting
certain outlines that the reader can shade in and animate. Whatever response is evoked in
reading the text is surely the product of the convergence of the reader and the text.
However, the number of responses evoked from the text is in direct proportion to the
number of the gaps and contradictions in the text. The more gaps and contradictions there
are, the more responses there will be. Yet, there is a danger of misreading the text in the
presence of copious contradictions. In Hamlet, contradictions are legion. So imagination
runs wild and at times travels beyond the realm of the text. Once Eliot (1997) wrote,
“And probably more people have thought Hamlet a work of art because they found it
interesting, than have found it interesting because it is a work of art. It is the "Mona Lisa"
of literature.” Readers have found Hamlet interesting because they have found it a
reflection of their thoughts, a mirror of their desires. As Hazlitt (2008) once wrote on
Hamlet, “Hamlet is a name: his speeches and sayings but the idle coinage of the poet's
brain. What then, are they not real? They are as real as our own thoughts. Their reality is
in the reader's mind. It is we who are Hamlet.” Iser (1978) argues that,
The participation of the reader could not be stimulated if everything were
laid out in front of him. This means that the formulated text must shade off,
through allusions and suggestions, into a text that is unformulated though
nonetheless intended. Only in this way can the reader’s imagination be
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given the scope it needs; the written text furnishes it with indications which
enable it to conjure up what the text does not reveal.
Aesthetically speaking, Hamlet is a great work of literature because it has
engaged and continues to engage the imagination of the reader as s/he realizes how to
connect his world to the world of the text and create a palpable world in the world of the
text.
References
Eliot, T. S. (1997). The sacred wood and major early essays. New York: Dover
Publications.
Hazlitt, W. (2008). Hazlitt on English literature: An introduction to the appreciation of
literature. Albany, NY: Bibliolife.
Honigmann, E. A. (2002). Shakespeare: Seven tragedies revisited: The dramatist's
manipulation of response. New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Iser, W. (1980). The act of reading: A theory of aesthetic response. Baltimore: The Johns
Hopkins University Press.
Iser, W. (1978). The implied reader: Patterns of communication in prose fiction from
Bunyan to Beckett. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press.
Lings, M. (1966). Shakespeare in the light of Sacred Art. London: George Allen &
Unwin Ltd.
Knight, G. W. (2001). The wheel of fire. New York: Routledge.
Prosser, E. (1967). Hamlet and revenge. Stanford, California: Stanford Univ Press.
Wilson, J. D. (1951). What happens in Hamlet. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
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The Many Languages of India:
From Chutnification to Sacred Games in Indian Writing in English
Annette Gomis
University of Zaragoza
Since the last quarter of the 20th century, South Asian writing has increasingly
received greater acclaim all over the world. The success of the Indian writing represents
an enormous boost to the reputation of its authors outside the borders of the sub-continent,
not to mention their bank accounts. The majority of these writers do not live much, if at
all, in India and thus form part of the Indian diaspora with all the feelings of alienation
attached to living in another culture. Their sense of alienation does not spring only from
their relationship with the host country, for the situation of diasporic writers is often
viewed with ambivalence in the communities from which they have departed, and India is
no exception. Indeed, the status of diasporic writers within the nation is frequently
contested. For an exiled or expatriate writer in general, the relationship with the country
of origin is often not easy. Their plight is well expressed by the Pakistani writer, Zulfikar
Ghose, when, he stated, “[b]eing and not-being are states similar to belonging to a land
and being an exile from it” (p. 15). Moreover, what one identifies with may not be clear
cut and will vary according to where one is. In India, the assumption that a single shared
sense of India exists, a unifying idea and concept is deceptive and thus defining what is
“home” is problematic. Uma Chaudhuri reveals why this may happen when she writes:
India’s history, both pre-British and post- repeatedly seems to have
embodied the archetype (if there is such a thing) of mixture. The gigantic
landmass so lavishly endowed with borders, has tempted successive waves
of “outsiders” to enter it, and then, like some fabulous crucible out of
ancient alchemy, it has collected and contained the turbulent results of these
historical visitations. (p. 26)
Diversity then is a fundamental characteristic of India and one of the
manifestations of the diversity that is India is the existence of a great many languages.
The enrichment to culture of a multilingual society is what this paper attempts to explore
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while also focusing on the problematic status of English for present-day Indian letters. A
major source of disagreement concerns the very fact of writing in English and it is a
problem present in all once-colonized nations. Anne Donadey (2000) conveys the
dilemma as follows:
The question of the language of writing is overdetermined in the context of
anti- and postcolonial literatures. If postcolonial authors write in [..] the
language of yesterdays’ enemy, even writers with a clearly anti-colonial
agenda are regularly accused, at worst of betrayal, at best of not being able
to reach their intended audience. (p. 27)
It is pertinent here to remind ourselves that India after the US and the UK is the thirdlargest producer of the English-language books.
Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children published in 1981, for example, was the
work that set off the fashion for South Asian or Indian writing all over the world. It
captured the admiration of readers and critics alike with its startling use of magical
realism that had been preceded notably by Gabriel García Márquez’s One Hundred Years
of Solitude in 1967. Another of the most innovative aspects of Rushdie’s novel was his
endeavor to capture the spirit of Indian culture with all its multiplicity and diversity and
which moved him to attempt to destroy the natural rhythms of the English language and,
as Chatterjee (2004) puts it, to ‘dislocate the English and let other things into it’ (p. 253).
The novel incorporates a number of Hindi, Urdu and Hindustani words, phrases and
expressions. Rushdie’s influence in this respect is attested by the fact that since then
progressively more works written in English by Indian authors have incorporated
semantic items from the diverse languages of India.
In her Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children: A Book of Readings (2003), Meenakshi
Mukherjee pointed out Rushdie’s ‘linguistic risks,’ which she cited as “getting away with
the use of the mongrel street language of cities, daring to translate idioms and puns
mediated by no apology, no footnote, no glossary” (p. 10). She praised the novel as ‘‘the
quintessential fictional embodiment of the postmodern celebration of de-centring and
hybridity” (p. 9). Mukherjee’s opinion is interesting for this paper because earlier she had
been engaged in a controversy over the question of authenticity with Vikram Chandra,
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which he elaborated upon in his contentious article entitled “The Cult of Authenticity:
India’s Cultural Commissars Worship ‘Indianness’ Instead of Art” (2000). Mukherjee
had taken issue with what she saw as Chandra’s use of Indian terms to signal Indianness
to the West. Her Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children: A Book of Readings was published three
years later so perhaps her praise of Rushdie for doing just what she had criticized in
Chandra signifies a change in her position. However, the question of language is not the
only charge laid against Indian writers who have achieved success outside the country.
For a number of years it became common in India to criticize diasporic writers who write
in English on two further counts. Vijay Tendulkar, one of India’s foremost playwrights,
said, in an interview reported on the internet shortly before his death in 2008, that:
Half-a-dozen writers staying abroad and writing in English don’t affect this
country as such. Let them do their business as others do. The point is […] if
you are not rooted in this reality then writing about this reality is either
sheer nostalgia or fiction. You may be able to impress the Booker Prize
people but you cannot impress us. The poor Indian writers writing in
regional languages are impressed not by the book but by the money they
earn. They endure the jealousy because of the money not the quality of
writing.
As these words reveal diaspora writers are seen as necessarily divorced from the
realities of the country of their origins. This can be illustrated by the case of the Parsi
writer, Rohinton Mistry, who was born in Bombay but has lived in Canada since 1975. A
Fine Balance, perhaps his most successful novel, won numerous literary prizes and was
short-listed for the Booker prize, but nonetheless received negative criticism in India. His
bleak portrayal of the inexorable decline of two tailors was criticized as the view of a
Parsi who had long left Bombay and was unable to understand caste. Furthermore, since
diasporic authors are deemed to be out of touch with the “Real India” it is assumed that
their intended audience is the lucrative predominantly Western one. The author who has
left India necessarily views Indian culture in a different light, one that is informed by the
contact with and experience in other lands. Multiculturalism becomes the mark that
distinguishes diasporic Indian writing, a result of the alienation suffered from both
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cultures, Indian and Western, and their struggle to bridge the gap between the two. In
“The Culture of Authenticity,” Chandra pointed out the paradoxical quality of the lovehate relationship with the West when he wrote:
[t]he absolute necessity of Western recognition, or even any foreign
recognition, as an imprimatur of quality, and a simultaneous belief in the
corrupting power of such recognition. Indian, in-house awards are all very
well, but only an award from somebody in Singapore or London can mark
you as a world-class player; but winning such an award also means, without
doubt, that you must have sold out, that you’ve gone far from “Real India.”
So, “regional writers” are luckily isolated from the dread forces of
globalization, their virtue kept intact, and yet the lack of recognition for
“regional writers” by those very forces is the wellspring of much anger. (p.
193)
Underlying the dispute engendered is the undeniable fact that works written in
English are automatically open to an enormous potential readership. The market is hybrid
– for an English-speaking but Indian public at home and for a much broader but still
Anglophone readership abroad. For “regional writers,” to be able to tap into this audience
requires translation. This is recognized and frequently called for in India, but only a
fraction of the literature produced there is ever translated into English and can thus reach
a wider reading public. It may be said that English occupies an ambivalent space
somewhere on a continuum between native and alien. The question of writing in English
as opposed to “regional writing” hence is a vexed one. However, it appears to me that to
write in English should not be considered a betrayal of one’s culture nor seen as selling
out to the imperialism of globalization. To be multilingual is to be able to see the world
from a variety of standpoints, to understand that there is more than one way of saying and
therefore of being. The ability to be conversant and also literate in a number of languages
may be equated with the phenomenon of love. Love is unbounded in the sense that loving
a new child does not detract from the love felt for its older siblings. Similarly, to view
writing in English as detrimental to “regional writing” betrays an essential unease or, as
Chandra put it, “an insecurity of self” towards the perceptibly more powerful language, in
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world terms at least. Yet to be fair, there is no doubt of the preeminence of English in so
many ways and situations. The fact that this meeting on the Asian languages, society and
culture conducted in English is no paradox. The use of English does not lessen the
significance of the topic but lays it open to a wider audience and participation. Not to
recognize that English is a passport towards economic and social well-being in India is as
short-sighted and divorced from reality as to expect globalization to retreat.
So having established that India is a multilingual country with a somewhat
fractious relationship with the hegemony of English in literature, it is time to examine
Vikram Chandra’s Sacred Games in the light of it as a novel that works towards refuting
the criticism that the diasporic novel in English silences vernacular literatures in India.
This is a sprawling 900-odd page novel that relates in alternating chapters the rise
and ultimate suicide of a gangster don, Gaitonde and the story of the Sikh police
inspector Sartaj, who is trying to unravel the implications of his demise. Much of the
action takes place with the backdrop of the underworld of Bombay. However, this is not a
classic detective novel (a genre little cultivated in India and not accorded canonical status
anywhere), and yet one that, as Chandra notes, is the only truly modern form of narrative
that has been created. The detective novel is a post-Enlightenment form that typically
starts with a corpse or an unexplained case and which the detective solves by studying
clues and through reasoning and deduction. Since the reader learns early on of Gaitonde’s
suicide, what Chandra in effect does is to activate the conventions of the genre only to
deconstruct them. In Sacred Games, Gaitonde and Sartaj hardly ever meet and this
highlights the fact that they are largely unaware of the numerous layers of history and
events that take place around them and how they themselves fit into the whole picture.
The metaphor of the picture is likewise significant since the structure of the novel also
contains six chapters interspersed that are entitled Insets, some of them lengthy, and
whose appearance in the novel is based on the Hindu and Buddhist idea of the mandala.
Only towards the end of the book are they seen to be relevant to the central narrative of
the mobster and the policeman. It is not unintentional that all these insets take place in
and relate to different parts of India. Indeed the characters in Bombay who populate the
book converge on the city from all parts of the Indian sub-continent and speak their
various and varied languages.
402
‘You speak Bengali?’
‘A little, a little. Their Bengali has quite a lot of Urdu in it, you know.’
‘And what other languages do you speak?’
‘Gujarati, saab. Marathi, some Sindhi. You grow up in this Mumbai, you
pick up a little of everything.’ (Chandra, 2007, p. 227)
The upwardly mobile Gaitonde who originated from Bihar and who makes his
millions from crime underlines how important he believed the acquisition of English to
be to his success and the reality of failure for those who do not or cannot learn it. It is
clear that Mumbai is a conglomerate of speakers of different languages but that to really
get on in this multilingual city English is needed.
It was humiliating, but necessary. I knew that much of the real business of
the country was done in English. People like me, my boys, we used English,
there were certain words we used with fluency in our sentences, without
hesitation. ‘Bole to vho edkum danger aadmi hai!’ and ‘Yaar, abhi ek
matter ko settle karna hai,’ and ‘Us side se wire de, chuttiya’. But unless
you could rattle off whole sentences without having to stop and struggle and
go back and build them bit by bitter bit, unless you could make jokes, there
were whole parts of your own life that were invisible to you yourself, gone
from you. You could live in a Marathi world, or a Hindu colony, or a Tamil
lane, but what were those hoardings speaking, those towering messages that
threw their sharp-edged shadows over your home? When you bought an
expensive new shampoo ‘Made with American Know-how’, what was that it
said in red on the label? […] There were many like me, born far from
English, who were content to live in ignorance. Most were too lazy, too
afraid to ask how, why, what. But I had to know. So I took English, I
wrestled with it and made it give itself to me, piece by piece. It was difficult
but I was persistent. (Chandra, 2007, pp. 245-6)
This is Gaitonde’s appreciation but as the novel is written in English this aspect of
the language issue is not as apparent to the reader as is the inclusion of a plethora of
unitalicized terms, phrases and snatches of dialogue in various Indian languages within
403
the text. The editorial policy in the different English-speaking countries in which the
novel is published has been diverse. While the US edition contains a glossary at the back,
the UK one has nothing. However, Chandra meets his non-Indian or non-Indophile
Anglophone readers halfway by putting a glossary on his official website. The online
glossary for Sacred Games includes terms in English as well as in 10 Indian languages
(Hindi, Marathi, Gujarati, Punjabi, Urdu, Sanskrit, Konkani, Bengali, Kashmiri and
Malayalam) plus Arabic and an indeterminate “Bombay slang”.
In his New Yorker review of the novel, Pankaj Mishra (2007), no doubt with a
wink at “The Cult of Authenticity”, brands the use of many untranslated words and
phrases as a “research-heavy attempt at authenticity”(p. 118). In his review, Mishra
quotes a significant passage from the novel:
They learned the language, and then the walk, and they pretended to be
something, and then they became it. And so for American dollars, we said
choklete, not dalda like the rest of our world; for British pounds, lalten, not
peetal; for heroin and brown sugar, gulal, not atta; for police, iftekar, not
nau-number; a job gone wrong was ghanta, not fachchad; and a girl so
impossibly ripe and round and tight that it hurt to look at her was not a
chabbis, but a churi. (p. 118)
From the point of view of the reader who has little or no knowledge of India and
the Indian context, this is one of the less opaque passages loaded with Indian language
items, since a translation into English of the alternative terms is offered. Conversely the
great majority are never explained leaving the reader to become engaged in an exercise of
deduction in the same way as when foreign language learners confronted a text in the
second language. The reader may decide to check all the unknown words or to overlook
them or to check only those that occur with a certain frequency and are deemed vital in
order to properly understand the text. Chandra enables his American readers to make this
decision by providing the glossary. However, the readers of the glossary-free editions are
forced to make a conscious effort to try to guess the meanings since there is such an
abundance of them.
404
The political stance behind the writer’s option not to translate or provide a
glossary was theorized by Ashcroft, Griffiths and Tiffin (1989) in The Empire Writes
Back. “Ultimately, the choice of leaving words untranslated in post-colonial texts is a
political one because while translation is not inadmissable in itself, glossing gives the
translated word and the ‘receptor culture’ the higher status” (p. 66). That this clearly is
Chandra’s intention is attested by his active collaboration in the glossaries that were
included in the translations into Spanish of his two previous works, Red Earth and
Pouring Rain and Love and Longing in Bombay. Spanish is not a controversial language
for India.
Vikram Chandra’s wholesale inclusion of untranslated words and phrases in
Indian languages within the English text of a best-selling novel has a twofold impact
upon the reader. In the first place it illustrates the multilingual reality of the Bombay he
portrays. For the uninitiated to India and notably for a predominantly monolingual
American readership of the melting pot, the interspersion of these language items is
startling and creates awareness of an approach to the blending of different languages that
is non-confrontational. Moreover, by making no concessions to the reader with either
translation or glossary and reflecting the co-existence of languages in the conduct of daily
affairs in India, Chandra is, in effect, privileging the Indian languages within his English
text. In a high profile book for a western readership, Asian languages within it engender a
shift from the margins towards the centre.
References
Ashcroft, B., Griffiths, G., & Tiffin, H. (1989). The empire writes back. London:
Routledge.
Chandra, V. (2000). The cult of authenticity: India’s cultural commissars worship
“Indianness” instead of art. Miscelanea: A Journal of English and American
Studies, 22, 175-200.
Chandra, V. (2007). Sacred games. London: Faber and Faber.
Chatterjee, S. K. (2004) “Chutnification”: The dynamics of language in Midnight’s
Children, Salman Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children: A reader’s companion. New
Delhi: Asia Book Club.
Chaudhuri, U. (1990). Writing the Raj away. Turnstile Press, 2(1), 26-35.
Donadey, A. (2000). The multilingual strategies of postcolonial literature: Asia Djebar’s
Algerian Palimpsest. World Literature Today, 74(1), 27-36.
Ghose, Z. (1991). Going home. TSAR, 9(2), 15-22.
405
Mishra, P. (2007, January 15). Bombay Noir. [Review of the book Sacred games]. The
New Yorker. Retrieved from
http://www.newyorker.com/arts/critics/books/2007/01/15/070115crbo_books_mis
hra?currentPage=all
Mukherjee, M. (2003). ‘Introduction’, Rushdie’s Midnight’s Children: A book of
readings. New Delhi: Pencraft International.
Tendulkar, V. (2008). Vijay Tendulkar: An artist and an activist. Retrieved from
http://infochangeindia.org/200805197143/Human-Rights/Changemaker/VijayTendulkar-An-artist-and-an-activist.html
406
Merlinda Bobis’s The Solemn Lantern Maker:
The Asian Conspiracy or the Power of the Small (Filipino)
Story to Impinge on the Big (Western) Politics
M. Dolores Herrero
University of Zaragoza
Abstract
Merlinda Bobis was born in the Philippines but now lives in Australia, which turns her
into a “translated” woman, carried across different cultures and consequently endowed
with a privileged perspective. This allows her to bridge the gap, or else bring to the fore,
the discontinuities that separate one world from another. Her second novel, The Solemn
Lantern Maker, is an interesting combination of opposites. It portrays the powerless and
the powerful, Third-World poverty and white Western affluence, the holy and the profane,
the magical and the seedy. The title refers to a traumatized mute 10-year-old boy who
lives with his crippled mother in the slums of Manila. One day, when trying to sell his
colourful wares, he accidentally becomes involved in the life of a grieving American
tourist caught up in the murder of a controversial journalist. In a post-9/11 climate, this
event will soon be wrongly interpreted as a terrorist conspiracy. My paper will try to
show that Bobis’s novel succeeds in illustrating how the small story of an insignificant
Third-World child can impinge on the powerful world of international politics, and how
the love and care that this child offers to an unknown distressed westerner eventually
manages to play the miracle of transforming the latter’s life, thus making it clear that
Asian cultures can contribute to rendering the invisible visible, and effecting unexpected
changes in an apparently indifferent globalized world. With her latest novel, Merlinda
Bobis has once again contributed to enriching the cultural panorama of Australia, and by
far of the whole Western world. By accommodating other traditions and symbolic
structures, such as those provided by Bobis, mainstream Australian/ Western literature is,
no doubt, becoming rather more appealing, multicultural and complex than it used to be
in the past.
Keywords: Asian-Australian literature; post 9/11 climate; globalization and terror;
the ethics of alterity; small (Third World) stories vs. big (First World)
politics; Merlinda Bobis
Merlinda Bobis was born in the Philippines but now lives in Australia, which
turns her into a “translated” woman, carried across different cultures and consequently
endowed with a privileged perspective. This allows her to bridge the gap, or else bring to
the fore, the discontinuities that separate one world from another. Her second novel, The
Solemn Lantern Maker, is an interesting combination of opposites. It portrays the
powerless and the powerful, Third-World poverty and white Western affluence, the holy
407
and the profane. At a busy intersection in Manila, the magical and the seedy collide:
twinkling lanterns and poverty, Christmas carols and prostitution, dreams of friendship
and the global war on terror, utmost generosity and rampant political corruption.
This paper will try to show that Bobis’s novel succeeds in illustrating how the
small story of an insignificant Third-World child can impinge on the powerful world of
international politics, and how the love and care that this child offers to an unknown
distressed westerner eventually manages to play the miracle of transforming the latter’s
life, thus making it clear that Asian cultures can contribute to rendering the invisible
visible, and effecting unexpected changes in an apparently indifferent globalized world.
The title of the novel refers to a traumatized mute 10-year-old boy called Noland,
who lives with his crippled mother in the slums of Manila. One day, when trying to sell
his colourful wares with the help of his older friend Elvis, Noland accidentally becomes
involved in the life of Cate Burns, a grieving American tourist caught up in the murder of
Germinio de Vera, a controversial Filipino journalist “famous for his daring exposés on
corruption and extra-judicial killings” (Bobis, 2008, p. 32). Cate gets out of her taxi in
order to see the boys’ lanterns better, and Noland is fascinated by this American woman,
whom he immediately identifies with an angel, similar to the ones he found in the public
dump, and with which he has decorated the ceiling and walls of the tiny hut in which he
and his mother are now living. Suddenly, a Pizza Hut motorcycle approaches the
journalist’s car, shoots him dead and quickly revs past, hitting the woman, who collapses.
Noland’s reaction is immediate and unpremeditated. He will do anything to save her. The
lack of commas and full stops in the excerpt that tries to reproduce Noland’s thoughts
while trying to rescue his blonde angel clearly points to his agitated state of panic and
confusion.
She’s shot too she’s shot and Noland is rushing to her rushing with his cart
of lanterns picking her up where did he get his strength lifting her into the
cart with Elvis pushing her from the screaming the shocked ‘Jingle Bells’
the silenced cars the halted buying and selling and the man bleeding at the
wheel wondering why the star is growing smaller dimmer and where does
this thought come from? (p. 14)
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The TV newsreel City Flash takes it for granted that this journalist has been killed
for exposing the links and friendship of an influential Senator, Senator GB (“Good Boy”
Buracher), with a famous Jueteng King, the godfather of illegal gambling. Germinio de
Vera was trying to find out whether the Senator’s latest election campaign had been
funded by this personage, and had even considered the possibility that the senator might
be Jueteng King himself. The euphemism used on the media to mean “killed” is
“salvaged”. Here lies the terrible paradox: “Salvaged doesn’t mean ‘saved’ in this part of
the world, which has turned an English word inside out to reveal the dark interior, the
deadly heart” (p. 52), in other words, “the political machinations of a rotten system” (p.
137). However, as soon as the news spread that an American tourist who happened to be
on the scene of the crime is missing, the journalist’s murder is all of a sudden sidelined
by an obsessive fixation on that American and on the spectre of terrorism against the US.
In a post-9/11 climate, the American woman’s disappearance is soon wrongly
interpreted as a terrorist conspiracy. As is stated in the novel, “after 9/11 any American
gets hurt or gets sneezed at in a foreign country and ‘terrorism’ rears its ugly head” (p.
76). The previous American hostage crises in Mindanao bring about all kinds of terrorist
speculations about the abduction and possible shooting of this American woman by
members of the dreaded kidnap-extortionists known as Abu Sayyaf. Abu Sayyaf is
regarded as the enemy to fight because they are said to have strong links with several alQaeda cells, whose main target is to carve out an Islamic state from the predominantly
Catholic Philippines. This would do away with the American supremacy and control in
this strategic region. This foreboding, together with the traumatic memories of the 9/11
attacks, have led the American authorities to grow “acutely sensitive to any untoward
actions against [their] citizens” (p. 138), and to demand unconditional support on the part
of the Philippine government which, in order to ingratiate themselves with the Americans,
don’t hesitate to insist on the long history of friendship between the two governments,
their current bilateral relations, and the joint exercises of the Philippine and the United
States military in their common fight against terrorism. To put it differently, the
Philippine authorities are most willing to give priority to a lost American, more than its
own citizens. That is why they take a combat helicopter on a city tour, and even think of
effecting what they euphemistically name as ‘relocation’, which basically means
409
demolishing the poor intersection where, they suspect, the potential kidnappers might be
hiding.
The Solemn Lantern Maker can, therefore, be seen as a denunciation of the
pernicious impact that 11 September 2001 is having on global politics and the world’s
collective unconscious, which at present seems to revolve around one single but crucial
idea: we cannot control our lives, nor the obscure mechanisms that rule the complex
world we live in, and there is no escape from the caprice of injustice and death. Whereas
many authors have written about the feeling that the big shock given by the events of 11
September 2001 has rendered literary productions futile, others, such as Merlinda Bobis,
have felt compelled to respond precisely because of the events’ symbolic nature and
tragic dimension and consequences, both on a global and on a local scale. Neo-colonial
interests, information technology and widespread mechanization have led to a blurring of
boundaries between East and West, the private and the public, the physical and the
psychological, perception and representation. The result is, according to Mark Seltzer
(1998), a traumatic space of socialization, a pathological public sphere, which is
“everywhere crossed by the vague and shifting lines between the singularity of the
subject, on the one side, and collective forms of representation, exhibition, and
witnessing, on the other” (pp. 17-18).
However dark this scenario may be, The Solemn Lantern Maker shows that small
stories can nonetheless affect and humanize the realm of big politics. The love and care
that this child, and subsequently also his mother, offer to an unknown westerner will
eventually make the American tourist forget about their own problems for a while so as
to worry about the future of the two dispossessed and helpless people who rescued her.
Cate Burns’s post-traumatic stress disorder is not only due to the shooting that she
witnessed, but also to the miscarriage that this assault inevitably brought about and, over
and above everything, to her American partner’s selfishness and unwillingness to let her
have that baby, which led her to fly to the Philippines on her own in a desperate attempt
to keep some distance between them. Noland’s affection and generosity eventually bring
about the miracle of getting together people who, although belonging in different and
apparently confronted worlds, can nonetheless transcend all their differences in order to
care for one another, and thus love what, according to Germinio de Vera, “makes us
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human” (p. 181), namely, the capacity to open ourselves up to the other and to “fabricate
stories” (p. 182) that can help us cope with the hardships of life and make communication
possible. After all, we are all human. As Filipino journalist Eugene Costa retorts to his
American counterpart: “There are good and bad Catholics, or Christians if you will, and
there are good and bad Muslims. There’s violence and kindness on both sides, on any
side –it’s just people” (p. 168). It is only when we become aware of this fundamental fact
that peaceful cooperation and a better world can somehow be possible. On the contrary,
widespread refusal to see things with the eyes of the others can only lead to blind
confrontation, injustice and unjustified violence. This negative disposition, Amin
Maalouf (2000) has argued:
...encourages people to adopt an attitude that is partial, sectarian,
intolerant, domineering, sometimes suicidal, and frequently even changes
them into killers or supporters of killers. Their view of the world is biased
and distorted. Those who belong to the same community as we do are
‘ours’ [...] As for the others, those on the opposite side, we never try to put
ourselves in their place, we take good care not to ask ourselves whether on
some point or other they might not be entirely in the wrong, and we won’t
let our hearts be softened by their complaints, their sufferings or the
injustices that have been inflicted on them. The only thing that counts is the
point of view of ‘our’ side; a point of view that is often that of the most
militant, the most demagogic and the most fanatical members of the
community. (pp. 30-31)
This is, no doubt, the attitude shown by the American authorities as represented
by the American consul in Manila and, by extension, by the Philippine government,
which has chosen to overrule all kinds of local protests in order to uphold at all costs the
Philippine-American friendship and the drawdown of ten million US dollars for military
assistance. It might therefore be argued that one of the issues that The Solemn Lantern
Maker puts forward is that no excuse whatsoever can free individuals of their obligation
to be ethical, that is, to engage in an open-ended dialogue with the world and the others,
to open themselves to the experience of alterity that will let them cling to love and make
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the most of the redemptive resilience of their spiritual dimension. By inviting the reader
to meditate on the experience of otherness and the need to endorse a dialogical ethical
model, the novel subtly echoes some of the most well-known current discourses on
narrative ethics. Emmanuel Levinas is, without doubt, one of the main philosophical
figures of the turn to ethics that has characterized literary criticism for the last two
decades. His theories, mainly as put forward in Totality and Infinity (1961) and
Otherwise Than Being or Beyond Essence (1974), have time and again been used by
critics concerned with defining and advocating a postmodern post-foundational ethics.
This ethics clearly asserts that it is possible to make ethical claims without relying on
normative codes, categorical imperatives or universal moral principles because “there are
no categories or concepts knowable prior to what becomes the decisive ethical moment in
Levinas’ philosophy: the encounter with the singular, irreducible Other” (Kotte, 2001, p.
71). According to Levinas, ethical responsibility is prompted by the encounter with the
Other, or the face, as he also names it. For him, the Other is always radically different
and resists being transformed or appropriated. Yet, our encounters with the Other are
often ruled by our attempts to assimilate it and transform it in terms of our categories of
understanding. To put it differently, we strive to reduce the Other to the Same, which
turns this ethical moment par excellence into a rather unethical imposition. This has been,
according to Andrew Gibson (1999), the characteristic mode and ultimate sin of Western
philosophy and politics, which have systematically tried to “speak of and therefore
master the other as whole, to reduce the other to the terms of the same” (p. 65). Change
and modernity have systematically been associated with the West. This has led most
westerners, and Americans in particular, this novel seems to claim, to regard their
civilization as ultimately superior, and thus wholly entitled to preserve itself, even at the
cost of destroying the others, and to impose its own norms and categories upon all the
other cultures, which cannot in turn help experiencing ambivalent feelings towards this
imposed and ever-growing westernization/ modernization process. As Amin Maalouf
(2000) has put it:
For the rest of the world’s inhabitants, all those born in the failed cultures
[…] For the Chinese, Africans, Japanese, Indians and American Indians, as
for Greeks, Russians, Iranians, Arabs, Jews and Turks, modernisation has
412
constantly meant the abandoning of part of themselves. Even though it has
sometimes been embraced with enthusiasm, is has never been adopted
without a certain bitterness, without a feeling of humiliation and defection.
Without a piercing doubt about the dangers of assimilation. Without a
profound identity crisis. (p. 72)
Maalouf’s words can be said to wonderfully illustrate and testify to the Philippine
government’s servile attitude. Just as The Solemn Lantern Maker abounds in characters
who refuse to open themselves up to the other (the blind American and Philippine
authorities, corrupted Senator GB who only thinks of making money at the expense of the
poor and dispossessed), Bobis’s novel is also full of destitute characters who, like Noland,
his mother Nena and his friend Elvis, desperately try to cope with exploitation, sadness,
absences, loneliness, bad memories, humiliation and silences. They all share the same
difficulty to remember their traumatic past, cope with their heart-breaking present and
hope for a better future. Noland has remained mute for six years, and it is only right at the
end of the novel that the reason for this is revealed. His muteness is the outcome of the
trauma that he suffered when he saw how his parents were brutally subdued by the
military. His father had hacked his landlord to death for having mercilessly evicted and
erased him and his family from the land that they had been cultivating for generations,
and was shot dead while escaping. The name he chose for his son paradoxically
prophesied their dark fate: Noland/ No-land. Nena, Noland’s mother, is another trauma
victim. The night “the uniforms” came to their home looking for her husband, they
brutally hit her in the legs, turning her into a lame and crippled woman for the rest of her
life. Noland could only cover his ears, pretending he was not there: His mother is crying
louder, pleading, no, please, no [...] then the crashing and thumping and she’s shrieking,
‘My legs, my legs’, the pitch so sharp it cuts through his chest. Then silence” (p. 200). As
regards Elvis, he is a street boy condemned to work for Bobby Cool, the pimp who taught
him how to prostitute himself in exchange for some money, clothes and food. His
eventual death at the hands of the police, who want to believe that he was the mastermind
behind the American woman’s abduction and kidnapping, cannot but be taken by the
reader, not only as a tragedy, but also as a relief. Death puts an end to the violence and
413
sexual vexations that he would have had to keep on suffering, and also prevents Bobby
from abusing Noland in a similar way.
Merlinda Bobis’s novel becomes a valid vehicle to denounce all these thorny
questions. In a time in which the mass media seem to be omnipresent, it is ironic that a
form as old as the novel is the one medium that can actually make us imagine what it
might be like to live as another does. Literature, and culture by extension, is a powerful
constituent and vehicle at the core of possible transformations, given that it mediates and
transfers ideas, values and intellectual refinement between generations and between
civilizations. Culture is, therefore, both a preserving and a transforming force. As Ada
Aharoni (2002) stated:
Culture is a key factor in promoting genuine peace. If a peace culture
system instils recognition of the ‘other’, respect for its identity and culture,
as well as a commitment to solving conflicts and differences by peaceful
means, then the chances for peace will be greatly enhanced. By contrast, if
the cultural and educational system instils self-centeredness, rejection and
hatred of the ‘other’, of its identity and of its culture, and calls for and
justifies the resort to violence to solve conflict –then sustainability may be
endangered. […] There is therefore a crucial need for reform at an
international scale, concerning culture, literature and the arts, that can
undermine and replace the culture of violence terror and crime.
(unnumbered pages)
It is lack of dialogue and understanding that can –and will eventually– bring about
ever-increasing violence and ultimate destruction. To quote Maalouf’s warning words
again:
When new facts emerge we need to reconsider our attitudes and habits. […]
in the age of globalisation and of the ever-accelerating intermingling of
elements in which we are all caught up, a new concept of identity is needed,
and needed urgently. We cannot be satisfied with forcing billions of
bewildered human beings to choose between excessive assertion of their
identity and the loss of their identity altogether, between fundamentalism
414
and disintegration. But that is the logical consequence of the prevailing
attitude on the subject. If our contemporaries […] cannot reconcile their
need for identity with an open and unprejudiced tolerance of other cultures
[…] then we shall be bringing into being legions of the lost and hordes of
bloodthirsty madmen. (pp. 34-35)
Just as Noland’s first hand-made lantern made him come alive again, after having
been whimpering into space and wetting his pants for years, his drawings of angels allow
him to tell what he cannot possibly say: “What he can’t say, he thinks hard. What he
thinks hard, he tells in comic strips: stars and angels framed in hundreds of little story
boxes strung together since he found his first angel, four years after he lost his speech” (p.
25). Yet, no matter how many different drawings he may produce, “[i]t’s really only one
story” (p. 25): the story of his belated trauma and desperate need to believe in angels, in
salvation. For Noland, a star has five lights. That is why his main star has five points.
Each of the star’s points is encircled, and in each circle is a pasted figure: his mother, his
father, Elvis, the American woman and Noland himself. In other words, the people who
make up what he regards as his family, his main source of happiness and affection. The
ending of the novel is a desperate call for hope:
How to draw a Christmas fairy tale? It’s time to help. We begin right here.
We look closely at the boy and the mother. We draw wings on him, on her,
we let them fly through the locked window, to the canopy of fairy light, to a
woman on a hospital bed. We make sure she too sprouts wings, make sure
they fly together, glide over bodies in a morgue to finally find the other boy
who needs his own pair. We make him test them, make him join the flight
back to that hill where the man with open eyes sees four winged creatures
descending –we hesitate, but we take our chance and draw his own pair,
flawed but taking off with them back to the sky, all five points of light. (p.
207)
Following Noland’s example, Asian cultures, The Solemn Lantern Maker seems
to claim, can undoubtedly contribute to disclosing and denouncing issues that had so far
remained hidden or silenced, thus paving the way for transnational justice and
415
understanding in an ever-increasing globalized world. With her latest novel, Merlinda
Bobis has once again contributed to enriching the cultural panorama of Australia, and by
extension that of the whole Western world. By accommodating other traditions and
symbolic structures such as those provided by Bobis, mainstream Australian/ Western
literature is undoubtedly becoming more appealing, multicultural and complex than it
used to be in the past.
References
Aharoni, A. (2002). Peace culture, literature and media required for sustainable global
development. Plenary lecture at the IPRA General Conference held in South
Korea, Kyung Hee University, July 1-5, 2002, unnumbered pages.
Bobis, M. (2008). The solemn lantern maker. Pier: Murdoch Books.
Gibson, A. (1999). Postmodernity, ethics and the novel: From Leavis to Levinas. London:
Routledge.
Kotte, C. (2001). Ethical dimensions in British historiographic metafiction: Julian
Barnes,Grahm Swift,Penelope Lively. Trier: Wissenschaflicher Verlag Trier.
Levinas, E. (1969) [1961]. Totality and infinity. Trans. A. Lingis. Pittsburgh,
PA:Duquesne UP.
--------- (1981) [1974]. Otherwise than being or beyond essence. Trans. A. Lingis. Boston,
MA: Martinus Nijhoff.
Maalouf, A. (2000) [1996]. In the name of identity: Violence and the need to belong.
Harmondsworth: Penguin Books.
Seltzer, M. (1998). Serial killers: Death and life in America’s wound culture. Routledge:
New York.
416
English in India the Case of Toru Dutti
Mohan Ramanan
Abstract
The paper studies the first Indian English woman poet, Toru Dutt, in the context of the
introduction of English education in India. The paper describes the various moments in
the discourse of English in India such as the founding of Hindu College in 1817, the
famous Minute on Indian Education by Lord Macaulay in 1835, the passing of the Indian
Education Act in the same year, Wood’s Dispatch of 1854 and the founding of the
metropolitan Universities in various parts of India. The paper assumes that English is not
just a language but an ideology, that its introduction into India was also part of the
colonial design to control the thought processes of the colonized Indians. Against this
background, the paper places Toru Dutt’s career in perspective, and by attending to some
of her better known poems explores the nature of a modern Indian identity, the manner in
which class, caste and gender intersects with national identity and the idea of the Indian
nation. In this exploration, critical concepts like the notion of the third space,
inbetweenness and hybridity are employed where relevant.
Keywords: English, ideology, language, minute on Indian education, Hindu
College, Bhadralok, Lakshman, The Casuarina Tree, The Lotus, The
middle way, inbetweenness, hybridity
In this paper, the career and work of Toru Dutt, India’s first woman poet who
wrote primarily in English, is employed as a synechdochic trope for the exploration of the
impact of English education on a non-English speaking community. English colonial rule
in India ensured the introduction of English as a medium of instruction. It was not only a
language but also an ideology, or to use Sara Suleri’s (1993) phrase it was the rhetoric of
English India. The English used language as a tool for colonial purposes. Lord Macaulay,
in his famous Minute on Indian Education, spoke of the impact of this education where a
class of natives would be produced who would be brown in the colour of their skin but
English in thought and sensibility. This was a way of ensuring colonial subjugation
because what was involved was nothing less than the destruction of the deepest sense of
Being of the native population. Capture that, and it was believed you had captured the
people. While there is much to regret in this episode in India’s history it is also true that
the process of modernization in India was to a large extent facilitated by the introduction
of English education. Thus a discussion of India’s first Indian English woman poet
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assumes significance as a case study to speculate on ideas of nationhood and identity, and
the intersection of class, caste and gender questions in the discourse of nationalism. This
paper attempts to throw some light on these related issues.
Toru Dutt is India’s first woman poet writing in English. She initiated an
important tradition of Womens’ writing in the English language in India. Notable writers
of that tradition are Sarojini Naidu, Attia Hosain, Kamala Markandaya, Nayantara Sahgal,
Shashi Deshpande, Arundhati Roy and Eunice de Souza, to name only a few from a
growing body of writing by Indian women. Toru Dutt’s significance is due to the fact that
she is a woman attempting to write in a predominantly male society in a language not her
own and for an audience which was clearly international, a sizeable part of it being
English educated readers in the Bengal Presidency of the latter half of the Nineteenth
Century. English came to India with the British whose embassy at the court of the
Mughal Emperor Jahangir in the Seventeenth Century hardly gave any indications of the
great Indian Empire they were to build and consolidate in about a hundred years. There
were a few Indians who wrote in English in the Eighteenth Century. Early in the
Nineteenth Century the Kavali Brothers from the South of India wrote their memoirs,
diaries and travel accounts in English though they were also proficient in their native
Telugu (Iyengar, 1957). An important moment was the entry of missionaries from
England who until then were kept out by the managers of the East India Company. The
managers felt that conversion activities might endanger trade and commercial expansion
which was their main aim. But with the turn of the Nineteenth Century the opinion in
England, particularly among groups like the Clapham Sect, (Zachary Macaulay, a
prominent member of the group was Lord Macaulay’s father) was in favour of sending
missionaries to India (Bearce, 1957). This was also part of the larger discourse of
Utilitarianism which saw India as a site for experiments in Utilitarian principles (Stokes,
1959). They came and set up schools and hospitals and gave instruction in English to the
natives who came under their sway (Viswanathan, 1989). They were responsible for
creating a climate of opinion in favour of English education and among those who were
very strongly impressed by this emphasis was Raja Rammohan Roy, the Father, as he is
called, of the Indian Renaissance. The influence of Enlightenment values,(Roy’s Brahmo
Samaj could be read as an Indian version of Unitarian theology) the principles of the
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French Revolution and of Utilitarian philosophy and the felt need to substitute what was
considered a brutal and brutalizing native system of education were sufficient inducement
for Roy and the Bhadralok (Elite) of Bengal to promote English Education. This he
eloquently pleaded for in a letter to Lord Amherst, the Secretary for Education in the
British Government (Ramanan, 2004). He pleaded for the introduction of English and the
replacement of Sanskrit and Persian by a language which was for him the embodiment of
modernity.
English in India
The founding of Hindu College in Calcutta in 1817 was an important moment in
the introduction of English education in India. Rammohan was part of the managing
committee of the College. The effort here was to induce the children of the Bhadralok
elite of Calcutta into getting a modern education in English. English was both a language
and an ideology because the other part of the purpose of establishing this College was to
infuse ideas of modernity which presumably English embodied. Thus a radical Don at
Hindu College called Henry Derozio discussed with his upper class pupils, with whom he
was on terms of unusual intimacy, given the Indian context, the principles of the French
Revolution and encouraged them to scoff at traditional Hindu pieties besides plying them
with wine and getting them to eat meat. This resulted in Derozio losing his job and very
soon he had drunk and fornicated his way to an early death. But Derozio is important
because he used the English language well and wrote fiery poetry. Two of his poems are
famous. One is “To the Students of Hindu College” (Gokak, 1970) and the other is “The
Harp of India” (Gokak, 1970). In one poem he looks at his pupils as the hope of the
future. They will change things in the country and set it on its way to modernity. He
compares them to a blooming flower whose petals open in spring. In the other poem he
speaks of the ancient glories of India which have sadly been sidelined because of defeat
but if the pupils he is teaching will perform their task well there is no reason why the
ancient music which was once heard in India cannot be revived. But the crucial point is
that it will not be simply the unproblematic ancient Indian music anymore. It will
necessarily be infused with the spirit of Enlightenment thought and modern values and
will reinterpret India in modern terms.
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With Hindu College coming into its own the stage was set for the next stage in the
Englishing of India. This took the form of a calculated assault on Persian and Sanskrit
and the Indian Bhashas (native languages). Lord Macaulay spoke of his conviction that
one shelf of English literature was equal if not superior to all the literature of India and
the Orient—an astounding claim, breathtaking in its arrogance and ignorance. But history
is with the powerful and Macaulay was on the right side of history. His Minute on Indian
Education was calculated to bring into ridicule both the Orientalists and the
Vernacularists and English carried the day. English education would civilize the native,
make him an ardent champion of British values and create a class of brown Sahibs—they
would be deridingly called Babus by the British—who would be English in thought and
feeling but brown in colour and consequently never attain to a status of equality with the
colonial power. This is what we would today call the comprador class, helpers of British
rule. The best among them manned the civil services and even today in free India and in a
globalized economy the Babus carry the day and rule the roost. The merely English
knowing clerical staff with their funny accents and funnier locutions would be the butt of
jokes in English society. They were the Babus (a classic example is Hurree Shankar
Mukherjee in Kipling’s Kim (1907) to be carefully distinguished from the Sahibs – the
privileged members of the ruling class (Spears, 1991).
With the passing of the Indian Education Act of 1835 the country as Bernard
Cohn (1996) has pointed out in another context was now in the grip of English whose
command was insisted upon for preferment or advancement in Government service. Very
soon the command of language became the language of command and Sahibs and Civil
Servants used it to keep a nation under control. When the Mutiny of 1857 broke out the
East India Company lost its former status as defacto ruler of the country. The Queen and
her Ministers would rule and as part of the programme of education of the Indian people,
the big Metropolitan Universities were founded in Delhi, Bombay, Calcutta and Madras.
In what is well known as Wood’s Dispatch, a case was made out for the education of
natives in English who would be a clerical class. There were also many colleges under
these Universities—St Stephens in Delhi, Madras Christian College in Madras and
Bethune College in Calcutta—this last, the first college for women. In Aligarh College
which had the distinguished Sir Walter Raleigh as Principal, an English Curriculum was
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formed and taught. Significantly as Gauri Visvanathan (1989) has pointed out this is
where the English literary canon was first organized. Indeed, English Studies as we know
it today was founded and initiated in India and then became part of the Oxford and
Cambridge curriculum. That should tell us a great deal of the way English literature and
studies in English had a polemical edge because they became fit vehicles for the
dissemination of English values in India. The Universities did a lot to create a body of
bureaucrats who would serve the British Raj in India. They did it with lethal efficiency
and today we find ourselves both admiring and resentful of this tradition—resentful
because we feel that our Bhashas (native languages) have been ignored, admiring because
when all is said and done English has become a part of our speech patterns and most of us
are bilingual and English is quite clearly an advantage for the country in its quest for
modernity and a place in the globalized economy. Also, the Arnoldian’s idea of culture as
embodied in the best that has been thought and said in the world was applied to English
literature and philosophy and Nineteenth Century India found herself internalizing
English as a repository of culture.
Toru Dutt
It is in this context that we must read Toru Dutt’s career and her work. She was
born in 1856 and spent her early years in the sheltered home of the well known Dutt
family of Calcutta. Her father converted them all to Christianity and the family suddenly
found itself alienated from Bhadralok (elitist upper class) Calcutta society which in spite
of its advancement and openness to modernity was suspicious of religious conversion. In
some way knowing English, speaking it and the adoption of Christianity were often seen
as synonymous. That incidentally is Gora’s position initially and Panu Babu’s constant
position Tagore’s Gora (1909), a novel where the ideological, religious, cultural and
linguistic tensions of 19th Century Calcutta are dramatized. Toru Dutt and her family left
for France and England in 1869 and remained abroad for four years. During this stint
Toru learnt French and wrote much. Her versions of French literature were published in
1875 as A Sheaf Gleaned from French Fields. The poems in this volume are considered
of a very high standard. Indeed, one could argue that if Toru had written nothing else,
these poems would secure her reputation. But she wrote other things. She had started
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learning Sanskrit while still abroad as a desire to get back to her roots was a natural result
of the alienation a racially and ethnically different person like her must have experienced
in Britain. She wrote a novel in French, Le Journal de Mademoiselle d’ Arvers and
another in English– Bianca-Or the Young Spanish Maiden and several versions from the
Sanskrit.
In 1874 the family returned to India and then began the most exciting phase of her
poetic career. This Indian dimension is of relevance to us when we are discussing the
languages, society and cultures of Asia. Indian culture in our modern period is
indissolubly linked with English. Our writers are all bilingual like Toru and a poet like
A.K. Ramanujan has shown how his external forms come from his professional
disciplines of Linguistics and Anthropology while his internal forms derive from his
native provenance of Sanskrit, Kannada and Tamil (Mehrotra, 1992). It is difficult to say
where one begins and where the other leaves off. This palimpsest is the paradigmatic
basis for the rich writing in English which at least in the last two decades, particularly
after Salman Rushdie published Midnight’s Children (1980), has attained a global
reputation. Toru Dutt is an initiator of this tradition.
The Dutt family continued to be ignored by the elite of Calcutta society, because
not only had they become Christians but they had also crossed the Black waters which
was taboo. But Toru was undeterred. She retreated to the family seat at Bagmauree (she
even has a charming sonnet to this place) in the outskirts of Calcutta and there she and
her father embarked on a remarkable search for India – an India which was prior to
Christianity and colonial English influence. Toru learnt her native Bengali and pursued
her Sanskrit studies and immersed herself in the exploration of ancient India and its
folklore. She produced a number of remarkable poems. I shall touch on three—“The
Lotus”, “The Casauarina Tree”, and “Laxman” (Gokak, 1970). The Lotus” reads as
follows:
Love came to Flora asking for a flower
That would of flowers be undisputed queen
The lily and the rose, long, long, had been
Rivals for that high honour ‘The rose can never tower
Like the pale lily with her Juno mien’—
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‘But is the lily lovelier?’ Thus between
Flower factions rang the strife in Psyche’s bower,
‘Give me a flower delicious as the rose
And stately as the lily in her pride’
‘But of what colour?’ ‘Rose-red’, Love first chose,
Then prayed, -- ‘No-lily-white,-- or, both provide’
And Flora gave the Lotus, ‘rose-red’ dyed,
And ‘lily-white’, queenliest flower that blows.
“The Lotus” is about the flower factions approaching Love and asking for a flower,
which would be undisputed queen. The Rose and the Lily are old rivals for the honour
and poets have sung the glories of both. The flower factions in Psyche’s bower quarrel
about the relative merits of the two flowers. The Rose faction want it to be declared the
winner because the flower is red and healthy and clearly more beautiful than the Lily
while the partisans of the Lily say that it is tall and fair and has the nobility of Juno. Love
asks for a flower, which would have the deliciousness of the Rose and the stateliness of
the Lily. After much discussion the compromise formula arrived at is that the Lotus
should be declared the queen of flowers because it has the redness of the Rose and the
whiteness of the Lily. It is a charming Petrarchan sonnet and the first thing that strikes us
in the poem is the question of colour and by association ethnicity. That Toru had suffered
as a convert in Calcutta we have noted but she also suffered alienation in the West,
particularly in Britain, on account of the colour of her skin. Toru was acutely conscious
of her colour and in this poem uses the English language to distance herself from both the
colonizer (the British) and the colonized (the Native Indians). I say this because that is
the way to understand the rejection of the colours associated with the West—pink (rosered) and white (lily-white). But the choice of the Lotus is pregnant with symbolism
because what Toru is doing is to internalize the West (English culture) by accepting the
need for whiteness and redness. These valorized colours in her scheme of things are
necessary if India is to become Modern. And this in a way puts paid to the Brown or
Black which the colonized would represent. However, Toru has a consolation to offer the
colonized native Indian. Her wide exposure to Indian things after her return from abroad
makes her a partisan of things Indian but it comes with a rider, a cost. One can now only
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be hybridized or occupy an inbetween space or third space as Homi Bhabha would have
it (Bhabha, 1994). The Lotus, as everyone knows, is India’s national flower. It is an
iconic representation of the Bhagavad Gita ideal of detached existence. The Lotus
usually thrives in slimy ponds and rivers. It is in the river but not of it. Likewise, the Gita
exhorts man to live in the world because one cannot but live in the world, but one must
not be of it. Action is enjoined on all of us but it must be detached action where the action
will not affect the agent’s equanimity. Therefore, the Hindu is enjoined to act
dispassionately and with perfection as the ideal but is enjoined never to be enamoured of
the fruits of action. Further, our Gods and Goddesses are shown standing on the Lotus,
thereby testifying to the wonderful balance the Gods have and the Lotus’s own capacity
to bear a load with no effect on it. Also, when we refer to the dead, we symbolically say
that so and so has attained to the Lotus feet of the Lord. All these associations, I argue,
are to be seen in Toru’s poem. But the crucial point is that while she invokes a very
Indian idea the colour dimension is western and alerts us to the hybridity of all cultural
constructs. Toru does not want to fritter away the gains of English education and its
attendant implications for modernity. The choice of the Lotus is thus both traditional and
modern. This is typical of the pattern of thought of many Indian intellectuals of the
Nineteenth century when the advent of English, a foreign language in India, generated
fierce arguments about Tradition and Modernity. There is at the centre of their thinking,
as Amit Choudhury in his Picador Anthology (2005) has pointed out, both rejection and
recovery of Tradition. In other words, the Lotus is not just a flower in Toru’s scheme of
things but has an enormous weight of educational significance because it stands for
Tradition, but a usable tradition, coloured by modern thought.
This is precisely Toru’s point in “Laxman”. There we see a Sita, a character
from the Ramayana who is traditionally depicted as docile, comely, submissive and
obedient, commanding a male character, Laxman, to do what she wants. But in Toru Dutt
this is revised in a kind of nascent feminist fashion. In this Toru is of the same mind as
her contemporary women writers in India-Pandita Ramabai, the Christian convert from a
high class Hindu Brahmin family, a Rasasundari Devi who overcame patriarchal
prejudice to emerge as the first woman autobiographer of India and Kripabai Sattianathan,
the first woman novelist of India, like Pandita Ramabai, a convert to Christianity from
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Brahminism. Toru is clearly depicting a Sita who is frank and outspoken and we see
Laxman, the otherwise great warrior, accepting her viewpoint. This is a radical
reinterpretation of the Epic story and not calculated to please the orthodox and the
conservatives of Toru’s times. But for us with our contemporary views, Toru’s poem
comes through as a breath of fresh air. The lesson we must derive from this poem is that
the business of internalizing modernity is directly connected with reading and writing in
the English language and if Toru decided on a radical interpretation of the Ramayana
story, it is to a large extent because of the modern ideas she imbibed from her contact
with English Literature. She is after all a child of the Bengal Renaissance.
It remains for me to talk of the third of her poems I have chosen for analysis. It is
called “The Casuarina Tree”. It is a domestic poem if I may call it that. The context is the
alienation, how a sensitive soul feels at being rejected by her peers in Calcutta and the
palpable racial otherness she experienced in England .The response is a withdrawal into
herself and this poem which has strong Keatsian overtones is in the classic tradition of
Romantic-Victorian English poetry. The poem begins with a reference to the tree
wrapped up by a python like creeper. This tree is different because it survives the grip of
the creeper.
But gallantly
The giant wears the scarf, and flowers are hung
In crimson clusters all the boughs among
Whereon all day are gathered bird and bee;
And oft at nights the garden overflows
With one sweet song that seems to have no close,
Sung darkling from our tree, while men repose.
The poet likes resting her eyes on this tree first thing in the morning and occasionally
sees a baboon sitting statue--like watching the sunrise while its puny offspring leap and
play about. Sometimes the kokilas sing and the cows go to the pond with water lilies in
them. It is not the magnificence of the tree which makes it dear to the soul of the poet, but
because “Beneath it we have played; though years may roll”. She addresses her sweet
425
companions—a reference to her siblings all of whom are dead now—whom she loves
with a love intense and exclaims:
For your sakes shall the tree be ever dear!
Blent with your images, it shall arise
In memory, till the hot tears blind mine eyes!
She dramatically brings in her present situation by referring to her sojourn in unknown
lands. She explains how in France and Italy’s “ classic shore” when the waters of the sea
kissed the land she had heard the present lament of the tree, “ an eerie speech” and in
those shores felt the same sensations she feels now:
And every time the music rose, before
Mine inner vision rose a form sublime,
Thy form, O Tree, as in my happier prime
I saw thee, in my own loved native clime.
This well crafted, beautifully worded poem draws to a satisfactory close with the poet in
typical Romantic fashion and with self-reflexivity speaking of why this poem needed to
be written:
Therefore I fain would consecrate a lay
Unto thy honour, Tree, beloved of those
Who now in blessed sleep for aye repose,
Dearer than life to me, alas! were they!
Mayest thou be numbered when my days are done
With deathless trees—like those in Borrowdale,
Under whose awful branches lingered pale
“Fear, trembling Hope, and Death, the skeleton,
And Time the shadow”; and though weak the verse
That would thy beauty fain, oh fain rehearse,
May love defend thee from Oblivion’s curse.
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The reference to Borrowdale is to the place where her siblings one by one were buried.
The remembrance of things past, the dictional perfection of the poem, the apt handling of
syntax and the obvious allusions to Keats and the overall romantic sensibility the poem
displays—all of these exemplify the point this paper has been making. It is an example of
an Indian writer in English internalizing the structures of thought and feeling which
English represents but at the same time retaining an Indian sensibility which is clothed in
Western forms. It is, for all its western frames of reference, an Indian poem. It is modern
in that the poet attempts to understand her present Indian condition in terms of her
memories of a past spent abroad. The contrast allows us to see the dramatic present which
is Bagmauree clearly and with acuteness.
Conclusion
This paper has argued that Toru Dutt eminently exemplifies the linguistic
complexity of India at a point when English was being introduced as the medium of
instruction and being used for colonial purposes. Toru was, therefore, acting out without
self-consciousness the problem of writing about Indian matters in an idiom not native to
her. That she did this is a testimony to the way Indians have internalized the English
language. While we are in the throes of a debate about English in India and the status of
various languages of Indian origin it will be salutary to remember that Toru negotiated a
way, which I call the middle way- that is she wrote in English but used English as a cloak
to convey an Indian sensibility. Perhaps in our globalized context we in India have no
other choice.
References
Bearce, G. D. (1961). British attitudes towards India: 1784-1858. London: OUP.
Bhabha, H. K. (1994). The location of culture. London and New York: Routledge.
Chaudhuri, A. (2004). Picador book of modern Indian literature. New York: Vintage.
Cohn, B. (1996). Colonialism and its forms of knowledge: The British in India. Princeton:
Princeton UP.
Gokak, V. K. (1970). The golden treasury of Indo-Anglian verse (1828-1965). Delhi:
SahityaAkademi.
Iyengar, K. R. S. (1961). Indian writing in English. New Delhi: Sterling Publishers Pvt.,
Ltd.
Mehrotra, A. (1992). Oxford India anthology of twelve modern Indian poets. New Delhi:
OUP.
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Ramanan, M. (Ed.). (2004). Nineteenth century Indian English prose. New Delhi: Sahitya
Akademi.
Spear, P. (1991). The Nabobs. Calcutta: Rupa & Co.
Stokes, E. (1959). The English utilitarians in India. Oxford: OUP.
Suleri, S. (1993). The rhetoric of English India. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Viswanathan, G. (1989). Masks of conquest: Literary study and British rule in India.
Delhi: OUP.
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Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya: A Reflection of Some Indian Concepts
Navin Wannawetch
Abstract
This article aims to study Indian concepts from Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya, which is a
forgotten Sanskrit literature in the realm of world literature. Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya
composed by Sūryadāsa is a fantastic literature on account of the ability to collect two
stories in one stanza; i.e., the story of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, the well known Indian heroes,
goes parallel together, in Vilomacitra, which is a complex palindrome. Even though
Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya is a short poem, it reflects some Indian concepts through the eyes
of Sūryadāsa as well, including (1) Viśiṣṭa Advaita, (2) experiences of heroes, and (3) a
reflection of the sun and moon in Rāma and Kṛṣṇa. Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya is
undoubtedly regarded as the invaluable archive of insight that leads us to realize the
greatness of Indian thoughts.
Keywords: poetic wordplay, Sanskrit literature
Introduction
India has been the home of world civilization since ancient time. The best
evidence which can prove this statement is Sanskrit literature. Many Sanskrit literatures
have existed since the Aryan, Indian ancestors, had no scripts to use for writing. The
clearest example is Ṛgveda, one of sacred scriptures of Hindu people, that has been
recited by Brahmins from generation to generation. Those scriptures are known as ‘living
manuscripts’. Afterward, the Indians used Devanāgarī script for writing Sanskrit and
there was a linguistic change that caused the language to become ‘dead or extinct’ by
Pāṇini. However, Sanskrit literary composition has continued. Sanskrit literature contains
values in terms of history, culture and arts of poetry.
The well known Sanskrit literatures include Ṛgveda, the great two epics
Mahābhārata and Rāmāyaṇa, and the other works of Kālidāsa. Nowadays, Sanskrit
students always have a chance to survey and read them. It is good because they are
Sanskrit masterpieces. However, it may cause them to overlook the other Sanskrit
literatures.
Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya (RKV) is one of the overlooked Sanskrit literatures.
There are two reasons for that oversight. In the first place, RKV was composed in the
form of Vilomacitra, a kind of Sanskrit wordplays that makes Devanāgarī scripts readable
429
both forward (left-to-right, which is called ‘anuloma’) and backward (right-to-left, which
is called ‘pratiloma’). This wordplay is similar to palindrome, but is more complicated
because it can make two stories in one stanza. This writing style is difficult to read
because of the fact that poet has to attempt much more to succeed Vilomacitra. The other
reason is that RKV is categorized as Citrakāvya; i.e., literature composed with wordplay.
Some Sanskrit authorities hold it is not worth reading because in Citrakāvya wordplay
plays a very significant role in composition until the composer ignores expression of
emotion.
Though RKV is seemingly hard to read and has been ignored in view of some
authorities, it cannot be refused that RKV is kept in existence as an indication of its
poetic creativity. The researcher has been interested in this poem and studied it in his
thesis “Vilomacitra in RKV”. The thesis aims to find the reason why wordplay like
Vilomacitra is possible in Sanskrit. It is a study about form and language. It will be a
study of Indian concepts behind RKV in order to make everyone realize the value of this
poem. This article aims to prove that poetic wordplay is always based on some
assumptions.
Objective
This paper intends to study some Indian concepts behind the composition of RKV
so as to realize the importance of RKV’s content.
Literature Review
Mintkowski (2004) studied the composition of Sūryadāsa’s work in the article On
Sūryadāsa and the Invention of Bidirectional Poetry (Vilomakāvya). It was proposed that
Sūryadāsa composed RKV on the basis of Arabic script, which contains the way of
writing from right to left. As a result of being a court poet in the Mughal Dynasty,
Sūryadāsa, may have had a chance to become familiar with Arabic culture. Arabic script
is possibly the source of using Vilomacitra in writing the whole story.
Christopher Mintkowski's article is the only research paper that focuses on RKV
because of the above-mentioned points. It is likely no one has studied this poem with
regards to the reflection of Indian concepts.
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Background of RKV
Vilomacitra is a kind of Sanskrit wordplay that causes Devanāgarī, a script able to
be read forward and backward with the requirement of a reversed order of every syllable
in the passage with a completely new sense controlled by the writer. Poets have used
Vilomacitra among other Sanskrit wordplay. Sanskrit literatures that contain Vilomacitra
in this form are Kirātārjunīya, Śiśupālavadha, Devīśataka, and Īśvaraśataka. Sanskrit
literature composed with Vilomacitra in all stanzas did not appear until in the late 16th
A.D. Sūryadāsa or Sūryapaṇḍita, a poet and an astronomer, composed RKV.
Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya was regarded as the first Vilomakāvya.
Apart from being the first Vilomakāvya, the Vilomacitra in RKV is different from
the Vilomacitra that appears in other Sanskrit literatures. The important difference is that
Sūryadāsa used Vilomacitra to narrate two stories in one stanza. Vilomacitra in Sanskrit
literature, before RKV, is not like this because Vilomacitra is wordplay amongst others.
When compared with RKV, Vilomacitra in many Sanskrit literatures has been used in
narration of only one story while Vilomacitra in RKV leads to the appearance of two
stories.
The following examples show the differences between Vilomacitra in
Śiśupālavadha and Vilomacitra in RKV.
वारणागगभीरा सा सारा ऽभीगगणारवा
का�रता�रवधा सेना नासेधा व�रता�रका ॥४४॥
Vāraṇāgagabhīrā sā sārā ‘bhīgagaṇāravā/
Kāritārivadhā senā nāsedhā varitārikā// Śiśupālavadha //44//
The mighty army, whose elephants are immobile and hard to catch, whose
noise of the glorious beings is loud, is free from holding back. They choose
their enemies themselves and destroy one another.
तं भूसुतामु��मुदारहासं वन्द यतो भव्यभव दया�ीः।
�ीयादवं भव्यभतोयदेव संहारदामु��मुतासुभूतम ्॥१॥
Taṃ bhūsutamuktimudārahāsaṃ vande yato bhavyabhavaṃ dayāśrīḥ/
Śrīyādavaṃ bhavyabhatoyadevaṃ saṃhāradāmuktimutāsubhūtaṃ//RKV1//
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1. (I salute to the Rāma) who is generous, splendid, liberates the daughter of
the earth and possesses a deep sound of laughter and pure reincarnations.
2. (I salute to the Kṛṣṇa) the great Yadava, who is the breath of being, the
god of the sun and moon, emancipates a horrible demon.
It is clear that Vilomacitra in RKV is divided into the stories of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa
while the meaning of the stanza in Śiśupālavadha is the description of the army in the
same story.
If categorized in the scope of kāvya, RKV is regarded as Khaṇḍakāvya, a kind of
short poem in the genre of Stotra, which focuses on the expression of ‘Bhakti’
(faithfulness) and Vedanta philosophy. Considered in the scope of Citrakāvya a poem
composed with Sanskrit wordplay, RKV is regarded as Dvisandhana or literature that can
narrate two stories in each stanza. The work of Sūryadāsa contains only 36 stanzas. The
stories of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa in RKV do not render continuity of the content, possibly due
to the fact that the two stories are well known to the Indian. Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya,
therefore, may be considered too difficult to read for those who are not Sanskrit experts
because of being applied Sanskrit for wordplay by the writer and for ones who have not
known the stories before, specifically speaking, who were not the Indian in the age of
Sūryadāsa at least.
Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya: A Reflection of Indian Concepts
Though RKV is a short poem and seemingly not attractive through the eyes of
others, it shows Sūryadāsa’s poetic creativity and generates valuable insight from
expression of Indian concepts.
Indian concepts in this article refer to the ideas used to understand the world and
life of the Indian. From RKV, we can study Indian concepts through the eyes of
Sūryadāsa. The following concepts are (1) Viśiṣṭa Advaita, (2) experiences of heroes, and
(3) a reflection of the sun and moon in Rāma and Kṛṣṇa.
1. Viśiṣṭa Advaita
Advaita Vedanta or non-dualism is a philosophical concept of Śaṅkarācārya, the
famous Indian philosopher in C.8. The assumption is that everything is derived from
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Brahman, which is stable, unchangeable, with perfect essence. Many varieties perceived
by human is just illusion (Māyā). Only Brahman is the truth and eternity. Śaṅkarācārya’s
idea is from his interpretation of Upaniṣad and Brahmasūtra of Bādarāyaṇa (Hamilton,
2001, p. 125-127). In the 11th century Rāmānuja added Bhakti (faithfulness), the Advaita
notion, then evolved to be Viśiṣṭa Advaita ‘Special Advaita’ which is pervasive in the
Vaiṣṇava cult (Hamilton, 2001, p. 131).
Stotra is a kind of Khaṇḍakāvya. The Khaṇḍakāvya is a short poem that existed in
the time of Vedantic pervasion in India, which is different from the Khaṇḍakāvya
involving love and nature, which is the old form of Khaṇḍakāvya. RKV is considered
Stotra. Some verses in RKV show the concept of Advaita Vedanta conspicuously such as
in the verses No. 2 and 3.
िचरं �वरं िचनर िचरं �वरं िचः साकारता सत्यसतारक सा।
साकारता सत्यसतारक सा िचरं �वरं िचनर िचरं �वरं िचः॥२॥
Ciraṃ viraṃcir na ciraṃ viraṃciḥ sākāratā satyasatārakā sā/
Sākāratā satyasatārakā sā ciraṃ viraṃcir na ciraṃ viraṃciḥ //2//
1. The age of the god Brahma is not longer than Rāma who possesses
beauty endowed with the eternal Brahman.
2. The age of the god Brahma is not longer than Kṛṣṇa who possesses the
dark figure like the starless sky.
तामसीत्यसि सत्यसीमत माययाक्षमसमक्षया
माययाक्षमसमक्षय तामसीत्यसि सत्यसीमता३॥
Tāmasītyasati satyasīmatā māyayākṣamasamakṣayāyamā/
Māyayākṣamasamakṣayāyamā tāmasītyasati satyasīmatā //3//
1.
The realm of existence in non-existence occurs from illusion. Freedom
from the realm occurs from uncertainty of the illusion that is evident to
the eyes of one who is enlightened.
2.
(similar to 1)
Verse no. 2 indicates eternity of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, who are reincarnations of Viṣṇu,
with the descriptions ‘endowed with the truth of Brahman’ and ‘(as dark as) starless sky’.
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The fact that Rāma is endowed with Brahman, the eternal spirit, points to the eternity that
is longer than age of Brahma, god of creation, because Brahman cannot be measured and
is in the situation of being over age. The description of Kṛṣṇa connects to the eternity that
is longer than Brahma as well, because according to the Indian belief about genesis,
everything no matter how Brahma, the god of creation in Hindu myth, creates the world,
darkness always exists.
It should be noted that in some verses of Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya, the statement of
Bhakti appears, such as in verses 4 and 19, pratiloma part.
Sevā nityaṃ kṛṣṇanodyā vidhātre pāpāvidyākāratāghnī patākā//4//
Bhakti presented to Kṛṣṇa at all times can ruin the ignorance that is evil
deed of the doer and appears like a flag that brings Kṛṣṇa in front of their
eyes.
Tyāgī vidyāto ‘smi satyānurodhī dīno ‘vijñā pātrapadyāvasānā//19//
I give the sacred knowledge to ones who are desperate and dedicated
themselves to the knowledge. Their ignorance then is unrooted thoroughly
by the way of Bhakti.
1
Sūryadāsa possibly believed in Viśiṣṭa Advaita of Rāmānuja, which is pervasive in
ones who are Vaiṣṇava, due to the fact that RKV’s content is about reincarnations of
Viṣṇu. Sūryadāsa then may be one of the Vaiṣṇavas.
Rāma and Kṛṣṇa are the reincarnations of the same Viṣṇu. Two heroes then mean
the one. This concept conforms to the meaning of Advaita translated literary that ‘no
duality’. The unity of both Rāma and Kṛṣṇa emphasizes unity of the plot. The concept of
Viśiṣṭa Advaita situates behind the plot of RKV.
2. Experience of Heroes
Rāmāyaṇa and the story of Kṛṣṇa are different from each other in detail. It should
be noted that the plot of RKV indicates similarity of their experiences. The two heroes
have to depart from their abodes and slay demons in the same way. Rāma departs from
11
The saying of Krishna.
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Ayodhyā, Kṛṣṇa departs from Gokula. Rāma wanders to slay Rāvaṇa at Laṅkā, Kṛṣṇa
wanders to slay Kaṃsa at Mathurā. Their demons are also in the same kind of demon; i.e.
Rākṣasa.
Sometimes situations that happened in their lives can be written in the same verse.
Sūryadāsa may think that their lives are not different to each other as we can see from the
verses no. 7, 8, and 31.
लम्बाधरो �यलम्बनास त्व या�ह या�ह क्षरमागताज
ज्ञाताग रक �ह या �ह या त्व सेना बलं य� रुरो बालम ्॥७॥
Lambādharoru trayalambanāse tvaṃ yāhi yāhi kṣaramāgatājñā/
Jñātāgamā rakṣa hi yā hi yā tvaṃ senā balaṃ yatra rurodha bālam//7//
1.
(Hey Tāṭakā) whose shins and nose are as long as the three worlds. You
who took the assignment from Rāvaṇa, Go, Go towards Rāma who is a
human.
2.
(You, Pūtanā) the expert in magics, Lead the army in the place where
Kṛṣṇa is protected.
लङ्कायन िनत्यगम धवाशा साकं तयानुन्नयमानुकारा
राकानुमा यन्नन यातकंसा शावाधमागत् िननाय कालम ्॥८॥
Laṅkāyanā nityagamā dhavāśā sākaṃ tayānunnayamānukārā/
Rākānumā yannanu yātakaṃsā śāvādhamāgatya nināya kālam//8//
1.
(Śūrpanakhā), who is desirous of husband, wanders in Laṅkā. She
always goes to anywhere with Tāṭakā like Yama the god of death who
goes to anywhere himself according to his desire.
2.
(Pūtanā) the lowest class of the Rākṣasa demon, transformed herself to
be a beautiful maiden. When Kaṃsa had gone, she took Kṛṣṇa away.
शङ्कावज्ञानु�वनुज्ञा याने न�ामु�मु�ाननेया।
याने न�ामु�मु�ाननेया शङ्कावज्ञानु�वनुज्ञावक३१॥
Śaṅkāvajñānuttvanujñāvakāśaṃ yāne nadyāmugramudyānaneyā/
Yāne nadyāmugramudyānaneyā śaṅkāvajñānuttvanujñāvakāśam//31//
1.
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Desperate (Sītā) was brought to the garden near a river. When Rāma
commanded me to go for her, then I removed (Sītā’s) fear (of demons)
and indifference (of gardeners to take care of her also).
2.
2
(A gopī) was brought to the garden near a river desperately. When
Kṛṣṇa commanded me to go for her, then I removed her fear (of
seperation) and indifference (of Kṛṣṇa).
3
Verses 7 and 8 show that a man, whoever that is, established to be a hero
according to Indian concept has to confront the female demon. Rāma has a chance to
confront Tāṭakā and Śūrpanakhā before Rāvaṇa whereas Kṛṣṇa confronts Pūtanā, a
female demon sent by Kaṃsa, before he reaches Kaṃsa himself. The proper nouns in this
verse are omitted because the stories of the two heroes are well known. In this case,
Sanskrit helps to render this similarity as well.
Not only the meaning of the verse 31 is similar in each story, but also the sound of
the verse is the same, which highlights Sūryadāsa’s intention and attempt to make the
similarity of situation, setting, and character.
The mentioned conformity reveals that according to Indian concepts through the
eyes of Sūryadāsa those who are Indian heroes have to meet with the same incidents.
Attempts to connect the same experiences of the heroes is likely to be similar to motif
study in folklore subjects at. The study by the poet exactly happened. But the author
result doesn't have the form like present day research papers.
3. A Reflection of the Sun and Moon in R ām a and K ṛṣṇa
The Indians noticed a long time ago that the rising and setting of the sun and
moon cause the order of time as can be seen in Nāndī, the prologue of the play
Abhijñānaśākuntalaṃ, stating that ‘ye dve kālaṃ vidhatta’ ‘those two which regulate
time’. The orbit of the sun produces the day and of the moon produces the night.
One of the Indian's belief is both the sun and the moon contribute to the great two
dynasties including solar and lunar races. This belief is likely to be from the concrete fact
2
The saying of Hanumat to Rāma
3
The saying of Uddhava , A companion of Kṛṣṇa
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that both the sun and moon shine to the earth. The word ‘rājā’ ‘king’ in Sanskrit is
derived from the root ‘rāj’ ‘to shine’. Shining then is analogous to sovereignty of the king.
The kings thus are held as offsprings of the sun and moon. Solar and lunar races of kings
occurred in this way.
The concept of solar and lunar races happened in the age of the Itihāsa and
Purāṇa compositions. This assumption is clearer from Amarakośa, one of the important
Sanskrit lexicographies written by Amarasiṃha. Solar and lunar races are described as
one of five characteristics required in the Purāṇa.
It is known that Rāma is the king of the solar race and Kṛṣṇa, the lunar one. The
stories of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa have a symbolic meaning of the sun and moon taking the orbit
alternately in the every stanza. So, knowledge about nature of the sun and moon can lead
us to understand Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya much better.
Why does Rāmāyaṇa appear before the story of Kṛṣṇa in every stanza? Perhaps it
is due to the Indian legend that Rāma is the 7th reincarnation of Viṣṇu while Kṛṣṇa is the
8th. Viṣṇu then reincarnates as Rāma before Kṛṣṇa. Therefore, Sūryadāsa determined
Rāmāyaṇa's story goes before the story of Kṛṣṇa. Also, when considered with the nature
of the sun and moon, we may suppose that priority of the Rāmāyaṇa story reflects
counting the day with the solar orbit. When we count one day, we start with sunrise,
sunset, and the rising and setting of the moon respectively. The day comes before the
night. The Rāmāyaṇa story then comes before the story of Kṛṣṇa.
When it comes to the chronological order of Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya, the
chronological order of Rāmāyaṇa is clearer than Kṛṣṇa's. Anyone who reads RKV can
follow the Rāmāyaṇa step by step while the story of Kṛṣṇa seems harder to follow
because it does not conform to the widely known chronological order. For example,
Kṛṣṇa’s stealing milk comes after his lifting up the mountain Govardhana. According to
the legend, his stealing milk comes before the other event. The differently composed
chronological orders of the two stories may reflect the characteristics of the sun and
moon that is manifest themselves to the eyes of human beings. The sun always shines
clearly and appears on time. While the moon has to depend on sunlight, so it cannot shine
equal to the sun. When hidden by clouds, the sky is moonless. Sometimes it appears as
full moon or else the crescent. Clarity of the story then is to be seen from Rāmāyaṇa. On
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the other hand, being ‘not clear’ can be regarded in the chronological order of Kṛṣṇa in
RKV, and even in his notorious story in the Itihāsa and Purāṇa compositions.
Sūryadāsa had the intention to show Rāma and Kṛṣṇa as a reflection of the sun
and moon, due to the fact that he was astronomer. He had learned about astronomy
enough to compare the sun and moon with Rāma and Kṛṣṇa and composed RKV in the
end.
Conclusion
All in all, Indian concepts in Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvya, as I considered, include (1)
Viśiṣṭa Advaita, (2) expression of heroes, and (3) a reflection of the sun and moon in
Rāma and Kṛṣṇa. RKV is to be regarded as worth reading for everybody who long for
understanding the valuable Indian concepts due to the poetic creativity, which are helpful
in Indological study.
References
Apte, V. S. (2003). The practical Sanskrit-English dictionary. Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass.
Daivajñaśrīsūryakavi. (1988). Rāmakṛṣṇavilomakāvyam. Kāvyamālā (Vol. 11). Varanasi:
Chowkhamba Bharati Academy.
Hamilton, S. (2001). Indian philosophy: A very short introduction. New York: Oxford
University Press.
Mintkowski, C. (2004). On Sūryadāsa and the invention of bidirectional poetry
(Vilomakāvya). Journal of the American Oriental Society, 124(2), 325-333.
Monier, W., & Monier, Sir. (2005). A Sanskrit English dictionary. Delhi: Motilal
Banarsidass.
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Kamanita in Thai Version: Didactic Literature of Buddhist Humanism
Wanna Numun
Abstract
Kamanita in Thai Version by Sathirakoses and Nagapradip illustrates its main theme that
ordinary people’s means to peace of mind must be based on their determination to
develop wisdom to the point of being able to rid themselves of a passionate love. The
authors use the plot that contrasts Kamanita’s and Vasitthi’s expectation for consummate
love with Vasitthi subsequent spiritual freedom after learning to transform a passionate
love into a compassionate love and guiding Kamanita to do likewise. Moreover, this
novel emphasizes that one can achieve enlightenment only through training his/her own
mind until gaining wisdom to solve problems properly. This self-reliance principle of
Buddhist Humanism is portrayed in the contrast of the existence in heaven of Kamanita
and Vasitthi as divinities free of all attachments and characterized by celestial wisdom
and peace with the struggling in rounds of existences of deities characterized by
ignorance and attachments to illusions of magical power and status.
Keywords: Buddhist Humanism, rounds of existences
Introduction
Of all Thai literature which is based on Buddhism, Kamanita is one of those
extolled for their excellence in euphony and stylistics. The book has been acclaimed so
highly that many Thai people misunderstand that it is an original Thai classic literary
work. In fact, Kamanita in Thai version (1930) is the interpretative translation of
Sathirakoses and Nagapradip from the English version The Pilgrim Kamanita by John E.
Logie, which in turn was translated from the German novel of Karl Adolph Gjellerup, a
Danish writer who received the 1917 Nobel Prize in literature.
Since Kamanita is a translated work, it is noticeable that researchers have often
focused on analyzing its language usage. Likewise, its plot that is related to Buddhism
has often led to an investigation of its origin and a comparison with Buddhist Scriptures.
Its content concerning love has also led to the interpretation of the work as “a romantic
Buddhist literature” (Yamnudda, 2000, p. 74). The translation version’s title in particular
has caused confusion about its thematic concepts. Sathirakoses once remarked that
although there were people who recognized the value of the work and selected it as a text
for secondary school students between 1930s – 1960s, the Ministry of Education “asked
[me] for a permission to change its title from Kamanita to Vasitthi” because “it thought
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that the book is about carnality” (“Preface” On the Occasion of 100th Anniversary of
Sathirakoses and Nagapradip).
Although many scholars of literary studies know that Kamanita is a Buddhist
literary work, they have been more interested in just one part of the plotline which is the
attachment to love and carnality or “kama” in Thai. None have investigated how the
whole plotline conveys Lord Buddha’s teaching about the Noble Truth. As for the
melodious language and witty use of literary techniques, few have analyzed how they
affect the presentation of such teaching. Therefore, these overlooked issues about the
ultimate goal of the book and the mean to achieve it should receive a serious examination
to offer an overall view of the work.
Purpose
This study aims to search for the major imports of the Thai version Kamanitta by
linking them with the Buddhist riddles implied in the symbolic comparison of
Sathirakoses and Nagapradip.
Review of Literature
A survey of analyses of Kamanita found that there are 2 trends:
1.
The Studies of the Translation Quality with an Emphasis on Stylistics
Due to the euphuism and impressive style of Sathirakoses and Nagapradip in
Kamanita despite the fact that it is only a translated work, scholars of literary studies
have focused their analyses on comparing it with its original English version. Hongskul
(1979) indicates in “The Kamanita text” that the literary arts of Sathirakoses and
Nagapradip, particularly in their choice of diction, is so wonderful that readers who have
no previous information that it is a translation may misunderstand that the English
version is the translation of the Thai version. In Somlim’s thesis entitled “Poetic Diction
in the Kamanita” (1989), the author delineates how the two translators’ crafts have
rendered their work “a poetic prose” distinguished in its word choice for proper rhyming
and cadence as well as its figurative language for desired descriptions. As for textual
comparison of the Thai translation with the English original, Chongsatitvatana (1989)
indicates in “Sathirakoses and Translation: Translation of Kamanita” that the scholar
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employs an “equivalent” translation method in adding, altering, and deleting certain
passages in order to have a work which blends well with Buddhist background of Thai
culture, hence an elaborate literary masterpiece.
The above acclaims are certainly indisputable; nevertheless, all these studies have
stopped short at the aesthetic values. None have pointed out how the translators’
additions imply the religious messages.
2. Textual Analyses to Trace its Origin when Compared with Buddhist Scriptures
A number of literary studies researchers have focused on tracing the origin of
Kamanita by comparing it with Buddhist scriptures because of the following factors: a
connection between the plot of Kamanita with the last period of Lord Buddha’s life,
references to his teachings, inclusion of characters in Buddhist history, as well as the
exposition and the closing of the novel with citations from the Sutra in accordance with
the convention of Buddhist literature. M.R. Sawatdikun (1943) points out in his study
“Kamanita”: From Which Sutra Is It?” that in addition to passages from the Sutra, there
are also quotations from Lord Buddha’s teaching and Chataka. Besides, it is possible that
some passages are influenced by Sanskrit literature. Leela (1979) concludes in “Letter
from a Traveler: A Reading of Kamanita: A Contemplation on Truth, Love, and a Quest”
that the translators have a profound knowledge about Buddhism and rare craftsmanship in
creating an intriguing plot based on the religion. He adds that the kind of romance used in
the plot of this story is not different from that of familiar Buddhist literature. In his article
entitled“Kamanita” (2000) Yamnadda, who studies the Thai translated version as
“romantic Buddhist literature” asserts that Kamanita is not based on Sutra although it
begins and ends with statements that sound like Sutra. According to the critic, the
translators add to the original plot “some materials from Hindu philosophy in the Veda
period, Theravada philosophy, and Mahayana Sutra” (p. 175).
Discussion
Doubtless research about origins of a work is useful but a concentration on merely
finding facts in a fiction may confuse us because “literary values are not the same thing
as depth and accuracy in social sciences” (Nagavajara, 1987, p. 31) and the negligence of
the mission of literature in sharing human experience is a barrier to appreciation of
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literary values (Chitchamnong, 2000, p. 4). Therefore, this research tries to focus on an
analysis of the translators’ art in creating an intricate connection between characterization,
plot, and theme. It shows how the true selves of the two principal characters are
transformed to evolve along the development of the plot and gradually attain the ultimate
truth of Buddhism through the great scholars’ use of religious riddles, contrast, and
parallelism.
The findings will be presented in the discussion of the two leading characters,
their conflicts, and the thematic resolution as follows:
1. Kamanita and Vasitthi: Different Kinds of Self, Different Kinds of Love
1.1. Kamanita: Life Led by Kama
The word Kamanita consists of kama and nita, meaning “to be led by love or lust.”
When this signifier which the authors intend to link with the character’s behavior is
considered closely, Kamanita’s lustful identity becomes more obvious. In other words,
his identity is designated by both the name and the behavior. It is noticeable that sensual
desires dominate Kamanita’s life from the beginning. Firstly, he feels so satiated by the
gratification derived from frequent rendez-vous with Vasitthi on the terrace the asoka
trees that he is entrapped in carnal pleasure and concludes that those who want to escape
from this world, who want to avoid rebirth are stupid. As such, Kamanita is blinded by
love. The true ignorant person is Kamanita, not those who want to be free from rounds of
existences.
Kamanita is not only infatuated with Vasitthi; the bodily desires plague him so
much that “he is listless…tearful and loses all appetites” (Sathirakoses & Nagapradip,
1985, p. 119). Kamanita’s inebriety with sensual craving (Kama-tanha) is further
aggravated in his meddling with harlots to counter his disappointment with Vasitthi’s
marriage to Satagira. This solution to his incapability in confronting painful reality as part
of life cannot help him relieve from sufferings effectively.
Afterwards when Kamanita gets married and becomes a wealthy merchant, he
shifts his attachment to the hoarded properties. At this stage he is so much dominated by
craving for existence (Bhava-tanha) that he mistakes Angulimala’s approach as an
attempted robbery and murder. Not until he feels cornered and terrified to death does
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Kamanita learn to cast off his clinging to his status quo and begin to contemplate on the
true nature of life. Upon reaching the stage of craving for self-annihilation (Vibhavatanha), he realizes that he is just “like a rotten fruit . . .with only skin left” (Ibid., p. 174).
Knowing that not a single kind of property can make anyone truly happy or wise, he says
to his opponent, “Come, Angulimala. Burn down all these buildings and articles! Even
my body…cut it to pieces. Don’t spare your sword! This shell is the most vicious enemy
of its own. It’s only enmeshed in endless lust and greed” (Ibid., p. 175). When
Angulimala leaves Kamanita’s belongings untouched and tells him about the reversal in
his own behavior, Kamanita starts to ponder on his existence more earnestly.
Kamanita’s behavior does not demonstrate only the transformation process
concerning yearnings; his “pilgrimage” as a result of disappointment with Angulimala’s
refusal to destroy his body and belongings also shows his progress towards the state of
detachment (Viraka). This development is in accordance with the Buddhist principle of
self-reliance. Kamanita begins to perceive that one should not attach to anything or wait
for help from external force. Instead, everyone should try to be self-reliant and improve
on one’s insight until “being convicted that the ultimate goal can achieve only through
one’s own practice” (Ibid., p. 214). However, because Kamanita’s aim at this point is not
the enlightenment because he simply wants to meet Vasitthi again in heaven as they hope
in taking oath, his “pilgrimage” displays both his entanglement in sensual pleasure and
ignorance. This character’s physical journey exemplifies the observation of Hakuin, a
Zen scholar, that we human beings are often “unaware that truth is as close as next to us
and therefore travel afar to the never-land to search for it” (Chantrasanti, 2003, p. 97).
This remark of Mahayana identifies human beings’ recovery of self-awareness as their
first mission in relieving anxiety from feeling tied up or lost. Because Kamanita’s search
takes him away from truth and wisdom, he is fatally charged by a mad bull on his way to
pay a visit to Lord Buddha for a clarification about heaven. The parallel between
Kamanita and the brute to signify futile physical strength and spiritual blindness is
certainly one of the most vivid images in this book.
1.2. Vasitthi: Ideal Love, Sacrifice, Honesty, and Wisdom
The meaning of “Vasitthi” designates her as a descendant of an intelligent pundit.
Her distinct character is a combination of beauty and virtue. Not only is she so beautiful
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that Kamanita falls in love with her at first sight, she also has charming manners due to
good upbringing. She reciprocates his love with reservation. What is more interesting is
her attitude towards love which reflects her wisdom and refined feeling. She says, “A true
love must endure the poison of life and must be willing to take the most bitter taste so
that so that we can sacrifice for those we love to live on” (Sathirakoses & Nagapradip,
1985, p. 63).
Vasitthi’s acceptance of sufferings in love shows that she understands life well. In
requesting Kamanita to leave with the city’s royal guests in order not to be attacked again,
she exhibits remarkable firmness and courage. This initial willingness to bear the sorrows
in separation in order to lighten the worries of her beloved reveals the sacrificial trait that
eventually transforms her love for him into compassion.
Vasitthi faithfully waits for Kamanita for years. Her courage and strong
determination in telling the truth to her parents about her feeling with no regard to
threatening punishment and her resolute decision to end her life rather than marrying
Satagira as arranged affirm her strength and virtues. Finally, she simply marries Satagira
against her will because she is led to believe that Kamanita is already dead so an
agreement to her parents’ wish is a sign of gratitude. Vasitthi’s virtues stand out at the
critical moment when she finds out from Angulimala that Kamanita is still alive. Her
inner conflicts between the contemplation on murder to revenge herself on Satagira and
her apprehension about a consequent sin prove that basically she is not a vicious person
at all.
Vasitthi’s sacrifice and good judgment are further illustrated in her decision to
end all relationship with Kamanita. She does not want to ruin the family of the man she
loves or to hurt the feelings of his two wives. However, her discreet actions signify that
mental maturity is not enough to attain salvation (Mokkhadhamma). The four noble
sentiments for proper conduct (Brahmavihara) are also necessary. Such a discovery is a
result of Vasitthi’s perseverance in studying Dhamma under Lord Buddha’s guidance for
over half a year and she becomes a Buddhist nun until she has “an insight” about her
grief.
Vasitthi’s recognition of truth is the result of learning according to the Buddhist
belief that humans can refine themselves and can be taught. More importantly, they
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“must rely on themselves and must persevere in whatever they do rather than waiting for
luck to strike” (Phra Brahmagunabhorn, 2006, p. 214). Vasitthi’s discovery that “the
more one is engaged in love, the more sorrowful one becomes” (Sathirakoses &
Nagapradip, 1985, p. 421) reflects an intellectual development according to humanism.
Even though on her deathbed she cannot yet completely rid herself of the feelings of love
and nostalgia, she no longer aims for a love consummation with Kamanita in heaven. At
this point her goal is freedom from “inner enemy” or all desires. Obviously, Vasitthi’s
insight significantly grows in the last part of her life.
2.
Shackles of Carnal and Love VS Freedom from Lust
It is indisputable that Kamanita portrays Kamanita’s and Vasitthi’s attachments to
love to emphasize different desires and consequences. Although both are sorrowful about
separation, their reactions at the end of their lives are not the same. While Kamanita aims
to consummate love in heaven, Vasitthi is convinced that love is not the aim of her life.
When this conflict between entrapment in illusions and spiritual liberation is investigated
carefully, the scene about Lord Buddha’s death emerges as a most significant passage.
The description of the sorrow of nature which the two scholars add in the Thai translation
is not only to create impressive personifications according to Thai literary conventions or
to “try to fulfill the requirement for literary beauty” (Chongsatitvatana, 1989, p. 28). In
fact, the lack of stability in all things signifies their entanglement in sufferings which is a
common characteristic when clinging to illusions. What is more interesting is the contrast
between nature’s sorrow in witnessing the decomposition of Lord Buddha’s physical
body and its delight in perceiving his total freedom as a result of Nirvana. Together, both
reactions convey the truth based on the Three Signs of Beings (Tilakkhana). That is, all
things physical—even Lord Buddha as an individual—are subjected to the natural rules
of mutability, sufferings, and non-self before breaking free from the rounds of existences
and eventually attaining Nirvana. The fact that we often miss the message in the concerted
demonstration of nature is echoed in the observation of Phra Dhammapitaka (2003) that the
Three Signs of Beings which are the basic characteristics of everything disclose
themselves in natural phenomena all the time.
Like most people, Kamanita fails to recognize this fact. Therefore, his feeling for
Vasitthi which chains him to the “hope” of meeting with her again in heaven leads him to
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reincarnate there. As for Vasitthi, her vow of love takes her there as well. The couple’s
love has an attracting force. When they smell the fragrance of the coral blossom in
heaven “they recall their oath that whenever they are born, regardless of being happy or
sorrowful, their love will be equal and the same” (Sathirakoses & Nagapradip, 1985, p.
283). An analysis of this situation demonstrates that while their stable loves have enough
force to bring them together in every reincarnation, the sentiments are also like shackles
which prevent them from leaving the rounds of existence permanently. This confusion
about love is dramatized in Kamanita’s argument with Lord Buddha, “It’s natural that
humans think about happiness and pleasure and try to seek them. If there is nothing to
motivate them to hope, they simply won’t try. . . and when they try, they must have hopes.
But now I must try to seek hopelessness! What’s the trouble?” (Ibid., p. 206)
Consequently, Kamanita’s pilgrimage is not a pilgrimage in its true sense. It is not
a journey to learn about truth or to understand life. Instead, it is to satiate himself with
consummate love with Vasitthi in heaven as “a reward for his perseverance” (Ibid., p.
205). It is not surprising that he cannot understand the state of selflessness. Worse yet, he
cannot accept the truth about the natural world or the exposition about disintegration of
celestial flowers which Vasitthi quotes from Lord Buddha’s: “Death inevitably follows
birth; everything decays till nothing remains just as gardens in the human world and
flowers in heaven deteriorate.” To this Kamanita responds, “Who is that person whose
statement has ruined my hope?” (Ibid., p. 292). With a strong wish to be with Vasitthi
eternally, Kamanita asks her to join him in concentrating their minds so that they will be
born as twin gods in the higher heaven of Brahmas and to be successfully free from the
world of the mortals.
Nevertheless, disintegration is unavoidable even in the heaven of Brahma, as
described in this statement: “Now Kamanita seems to find the Brahma god not as radiant
as before” (Ibid., p. 385). Vasitthi then quotes Lord Buddha to explain that “High up
above till the wonderful brightness of heaven there are repetitive beginnings of beings
and endings. You should know that whatever is stored in the future--even the radiance of
the Great Brahma--can extinguish” (Ibid., p. 386). With his typical attitude, Kamanita
retorts that “the exposition is only to ruin the hope of the world”. Yet the “hope” that
Kamanita clings to is only an illusion that blinds him from perceiving the true nature of
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all things. He fails to understand that the decay of celestial flowers or the Brahma god is
not an “abnormal” state, that in fact it is a normal state in accordance with the rule of
mutability. According to Buddhism, these deities’ births are founded on their
accumulated merits only; they are not immortal. For example, when the existence of an
Indra god terminates, another who has enough merits will take his position. In short,
everything including deities reincarnate again and again in rounds of existences
(Rungruangsri, 1980, p. 132, 136).
On the contrary, Vasitthi is “perceptive” about the truths of beings ever since she
is a female monk in the human world, so she is not worried about decays in heaven and
the higher heaven of Brahma. Therefore, she says to Kamanita that her ambition to
reincarnate in the blissful world is now superseded by a worthier wish for a world which
can only be perceived with eye-consciousness (Sathirakoses & Nagapradip, 1985, p. 363).
Her eye-consciousness focuses on finding ways to “set oneself free” according to
Lord Buddha’s teaching that is “to get rid of all states which are beginning, cravings, and
delusions” (Ibid., p. 362). As for Vasitthi, “the terrible grief and frustration as a result of
disappointment in love can no longer affect her” (Ibid., p. 363). Her very goal is Nirvana.
She speaks to Kamanita at the moment the higher heaven of Brahma is about to dissolve
as follows, “There’s a place where there’s no ending. . .Neither in this world nor the next
world. It isn’t located anywhere, in any direction. It has nothing for us to cling to. It’s
called Nirvana. It’s something too profound to perceive merely through imagination or
rationalization, something extremely minute. It’s characterized by total tranquility and
extinction. It quenches you of all formative processes, defilements, and cravings” (Ibid.,
p. 446).
Vasitthi’s abstinence from profane pleasure which results in her mindfulness and
holy happiness testifies Buddhist philosophy and humanist principles that ordinary people
can learn to develop themselves until they reach the sublime state of consciousness and
wisdom.
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3. Thematic Solution: Nirvana Attainable through Self-Direction with Good Friends’
Compassionate Assistance
The novel Kamanita shows that love is an important element of living. Generally
in everyday life, it is like a shackle. Nevertheless, this work also delineates its positive
aspect. That is, if it is a sincere, constant true love, it can transmit merits to all involved.
Kamanita’s ascendance to heaven is an illustration of this point, as he expresses his
gratitude in the following wish for Vasitthi, “Now that her love has guided me here, may
all auspices be fallen unto her” (Ibid., p. 445). As for Vasitthi, her sincere love takes her
to heaven, but more importantly it was her discovery of Dhamma as a cure-all that really
puts her in the state of being in heaven. Her ascendance is not the result of merely her
own contemplation on disappointment with love and on the true nature of life sufferings.
Actually, thanks to Lord Buddha’s kind preaching about the causes and the dissolutions
of sufferings does Vasitthi start to have the Eye of Wisdom. She learns from him that
“Nobody can avoid sufferings as long as he allows anxieties to grow, allows cravings to
continue…Until then sufferings still pile up” (Ibid., p. 362).
In the Brahma world, Vasitthi concentrates her consciousness so steadfastly that
she can show to Kamanita the image of Lord Buddha, who guides her spiritually. At this
point, “while gazing at the image, she acquires the ultimate knowledge, losing all desires
and regrets” (Ibid., p. 447) before “vanishing” into the state of Nirvana (Ibid., p. 448).
Evidently, “knowledge” is the qualification that emphasizes the significance of insight,
which can rid us of ignorance and attachments to the impermanent.
The mental image of Lord Buddha that Vasitthi induces for Kamanita is not only
a sign of her love and compassion. She offers this as “a legacy of wisdom” with a
scrupulous intention to force him to contemplate on the truth about life. He finally
realizes that “Vasitthi completely disappears into the state where there is not a seed for a
rebirth” (Ibid., p. 456). Kamanita knows that he can concentrate on his consciousness in
order to reincarnate as the Great Brahma, but he poses these critical questions: “Since
there’s no longer the beautiful and virtuous Vasitthi, what good is there in this existence?
What use is it since the life of the Great Bhrama will pass away as well?” Then Kamanita
“affixes his mind onto the mental image of Lord Buddha with a purpose to find a mean to
448
the end of all sufferings” (Ibid., p. 456). This passage shows that the development of
Kamanita’s wisdom is partly a result of the good intention and compassion of Vasitthi,
who wants to point out the path to Nirvana to Kamanita. His ability in perceiving truth
about life also demonstrates his development in wisdom up to the extent that he can free
himself from all desires. Kamanita’s success exemplifies the principle in humanism that
“humans can fully develop their potential both physically and spiritually” (Nagavajara et
al., 1996, p. 3) and the Buddhist precept that victory over ignorance is a religious conduct
for virtues in the footsteps of a Buddha-to-be (Bodhisatta).
Sathirakoses and Nagapradip express their conviction in self-determination and
the value of friendship by depicting the two main characters’ transcendental process
meticulously. Moreover, they draw parallels between Vasitthi’s and Kamanita’s
experiences. They have to go through their conflicts and courses of life before finding
solutions appropriate to their own nature, but both benefit from friendship and compassion
of fellow human beings. The guidance that Vasitthi applies for Kamanita is based on the
Lord Buddha’s benevolent model she previously absorbs during conferences with him. In
this particular use of parallelism, the two Thai scholars reveal their profound
understanding of both Buddhism and humanism in their true sense. They effectively
highlight a universal trait of both philosophies that is sometimes de-emphasized or
misunderstood. Instead of emphasizing selfishness or arrogance, both Buddhism and
humanism assert the crucial proposition that whereas every individual must depend on
himself, none of them should ignore fellow human beings or societies around them.
Sathirakoses’s and Nagapradip’s insight can be substantiated with their details in
Buddhist stories about Enlightenment-beings (Bodhisatta) who resolve to attain
enlightenment for the help of their fellow beings and the statement proclaimed in
Amsterdam Declaration 2002 of Humanism that “It stands for the building of a more
humane society through an ethic based on human and other natural values in the spirit of
reason and free inquiry through human capabilities” (International Humanist and Ethical
Union, 2008). Therefore, the Thai translation Kamanita is not simply a romance with
Buddhist background and “decorative” quotations. Because the Thai learned men pose
this conduct guideline in the forefront for readers’ consideration, the book is didactic in
the broadest sense. The acquired knowledge that mankind, let alone a single individual,
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cannot be the center of the universe can help the audience see the interconnection
between all things, man included, in the universe and the importance of cooperation in
saving this universe.
Sathirakoses’s and Nagapradip’s emphasis on the thematic aspect of the work is
notable. A textual analysis of Kamanita’s last phase of self-annihilation alone is sufficient
to see how the two translators-authors achieve their goal through literary devices.
Contrastive technique is the most obvious one. Sathirakoses and Nagapradip
highlight Kamanita’s spiritual growth by contrasting the elation of his fellow deities with
his repulsion for it. Headed by the Great Brahma himself, these ignorant Brahmas
joyously welcome the new day of the higher World of Brahma. This phenomenon
reminds Kamanita that they are still enmeshed in pleasures of the rounds of existences
and unaware of the Noble Truth. Therefore, to reach the state of Nirvana, he has to
escape this illusory state of immortality.
In addition, Sathirakoses and Nagapradip use a paradox to describe the states of
these beings. The sharp contrast between the brightness of the first day of the new world
and the dwindling brightness of the star of deity Kamanita until it is completely
extinguished signifies that the “extinction” of Kamanita is in fact his “enlightenment”
which is brighter than the Great Brahma’s radiance that cannot shine enough to reveal a
way out of the miserable world although it is so powerful as to set a blaze on ten million
worlds. The Great Brahma’s ignorance is stressed in his failure to find out why the star
Kamanita does not absorb his transmitted rays. The great god’s ignorance and arrogance
is evident in the question he poses to himself, “Is there another radiance brighter than
mine?” (Sathirakoses & Nagapradip, 1985, pp. 458-459)
Furthermore, Sathirakoses and Nagapradip use symbolic comparison in their
religious riddles to convey the concept about Nirvana. The “sudden disappearance” of
Vasitthi illustrates the complete abolition of physical existence in her salvation
(Anupadisesa-nibbana), which inspires Kamanita to contemplate on the bondage caused
by attachments and desires until he is insightful enough to recognize the Truth.
Sathirakoses and Nagapradip compare Kamanita’s total quench of burning desires right
before his deliverance as “a flame in a lamp that extinguishes because it has used up the
last drop of oil” (Ibid., p. 459). This portrayal makes concrete the meaning in the root
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word of “Nirvana”, which refers to the demolition of impurities, cravings, and sufferings
(Wilaiwong, 1990). It is possible that through visualization, the reader can initially guide
towards Nirvana as Kamanita is.
As such, it can be said that the translators-authors’ stylistics enhance the theme in
the work as much as their characterization of Kamanita and Vasitthi.
Conclusion
The Thai version of Kamanita is distinct from other Buddhist literary works in
having a good balance of didactic and aesthetic values. The translators-authors can
successfully portray that the sufferings from carnal desires can be used as a mean to
salvation as long as humans learn to benefit from them and know when to desert them for
higher Truth. It shows that even compassionate for each other is powerful enough to lead
spiritual wisdom as shown in the case of Kamanita and Vasitthi in their pledge and their
fulfillment, such kind of love is still too base for one seeking spiritual freedom. Not until
Kamanita and Vasitthi learn from their own weaknesses and miseries do they understand
the genuine state of all beings and attain Nirvana. They perceive through their
perseverance and Eye of Wisdom that “an invitation of sufferings and understanding of
them form the foundation of enlightenment” (Sriaraya, 2000, p. 16). The instance
exemplifying miseries as a prerequisite for salvation is seen in the contrast between
Brahma deities’ ignorant joys and self-annihilated Kamanita’s pity on the situation. The
contrast between the characters of Kamanita and Vasitthi as well as their different paces
in reaching their goals exhibits both Buddhism’s and Humanism’s democratic principle
in accessing Nirvana and self-reliance philosophy at the same time. On the other hand,
the parallel between Vasitthi and Kamanita in receiving guidance from Lord Buddha and
Vasitthi indicates that a good friend’s assistance is vital for a spiritual quest.
Such an intricate plot, together with the translators-authors well chosen images of
bondage, emptiness, selflessness, and total eradication of burning desires attests the
stature of Kamanita as a Thai classic literary work of great weight.
451
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Chong Charoen.
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Silapakorn University, Bangkok, Thailand.
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Bangkok: Chulalongkorn University.
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An Analysis of Figures of Speech in the Isan Mahachat Sermon
Dipti Mahanta
Mahachulalongkornrajavidyalya University, Khonkaen Campus
Abstract
The sermon text can be regarded as a literary text comprising of distinct compositional
form, meticulously selected diction and unique thematic content. The core essence of the
Vessantara Jataka, known as Mahachat Sermon and used in thet laeh or sung-sermon
form, lies in revealing the selfless character of the bodhisattva – the epitome of
compassion, charity and self-sacrifice. This sermon is deployed by practitioner monks as
a tool for stimulating the mind of lay devotees to listen to the story with devotional
attentiveness and then apply its moral values in day to day life. In order to delineate the
story well and render the narration effective, practitioner monks have played a major role
in devising different techniques, one of which is using figures of speech. From a close
textual and thematic analysis of the text “Phimpha Laeh Mahachat 13 Kantha (Samnuan
Isan)” composed in the Isan language by the highly acclaimed sung-sermon practitioner
monk, Ven. Phrakhru Sutasarapimol (Phramaha Phimpha Dhammadino) it has been
found that figures of speech are profusely used in the narration of the entire story. In this
paper we examine them by citing examples from the original text in English translation.
All the figures of speech that are used have a reinforcing effect on the narration of the
story. Providing emphasis, freshness of expression, vividness and conceptual clarity, the
use of figures of speech has rendered great vitality to the story and has positively affected
the proliferation, preservation and continuation of the tradition of the Mahachat sermon
as a whole.
The sermon text can be regarded as a literary text that comprises of such pure
literary elements as compositional form, art of using language and content. Here we shall
1
analyse the composite literary elements in the Isan version of Vessantara Jataka known
1
Of the 550 Buddhist stories (Jatakas) illustrating the previous lives of the Buddha, the
Vessantara Jataka known as Mahachat in Thai (meaning Great Birth) is the most popular in
Thailand and has since long been delineated in both poetry and pictorial arts. In the Mahachat
sermon, the core action is Prince Vessantara’s perfection of the meritorious act of charity or dana,
which began with his generous act of donating the magical rain-giving white elephant to the
drought-stricken denizens of the city of Kalinga, an act that outraged his own subjects and
resulted in his banishment from the kingdom by his father, King Sanjaya. His exile expedited the
next phase of generous acts that unrolled initially with whole-hearted donation of all his earthly
and palatial belongings to suppliants from every stratum of society and eventually culminated
with the giving away of his two little beloved children to the glutton Brahmin Chuchok and his
wife to the deity Indra, disguised as a human. This particular Jataka tale which represents the
penultimate birth of the Buddha as the Bodhisattva, before being finally born as Gotama Buddha,
is extremely popular all throughout Thailand. In Isan, or Northeast Thailand monks who have a
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as Mahachat Sermon as used in thet laeh 2 or sung-sermon form. The analysis will focus
49F
on the different figures of speech used in the text. The Isan Mahachat Sermon has been
composed by many sung-sermon practitioner monks, both in the lyric and prosaic forms.
We have used the text “Phimpha Laeh Mahachat 13 Kantha (Isan version)” พิมพา แหล
มหาชาติ ๑๓ กัณฑ (สํานวนอีสาน) 3, which is in the lyric form, for analysis.
50F
Figure of speech is the use of a word that diverges from its normal meaning, or
phrase with a specialized meaning not based on the literal meaning of the words in it.
Figures of speech often provide emphasis, freshness of expression, or clarity. Many
different types of figures of speech, both of the tropes type, i.e., related to general
meaning of words such as simile, metaphor, hyperbole, paradox, proverb, didactic
interpolation, irony, symbol, imagery, foreshadowing, satire, and pathos; and schemes
type , i.e., related to form or shape such as alliteration, assonance, internal rhyme, and
onomatopoeia, are found in the text. We shall examine each of these in brief citing
4
examples from the original text in translation . The English translation is aimed at
51F
facilitating easy comprehension; however, no attempt is being made to present the
translation in rhyme form. Each line of verse in the original Isan text contains nine or
eleven syllables or words – four, five or six words in the first halfline (hemistich) and
five or six words in the second half-line. The half lines on the page are written with space
in between, so is the spacing in the translated version although the actual number of
high ranging voice train themselves to delineate the entire story (in 13 sections) in a unique recital
style infused with distinct rhythms. As performer-narrators, sung-sermon practitioner monks
follow the story along each of the thirteen sections known as kantha that totals to one thousand
verses or katha expanding over time and space.
2
Thet Laeh is a form of applied sermon in which some sort of rhythm is used during actual
delivering of the sermon and so in English we have named it ‘sung-sermon’ in order to
distinguish it from other sermons that are delivered in a plain manner without any rhythm. Details
of the origin of Thet Laeh can be found in the research monograph “A critical study of the
Buddhist Sung-sermon from Isan” by the present writer.
3
Dhammadino, Phimpha. (2005). Phimpha Laeh Mahachat 13 Kantha (Isan version) พิมพา แหล
มหาชาติ ๑๓ กัณฑ (สํานวนอีสาน), Khonkaen: Klangnanatham Company, Ltd.
4
Although a monosyllabic language, the acoustic tonal beauty of Isan is aesthetically well
expressed during an actual rhythmic recital session of the Mahachat sermon by any expert sungsermon practitioner monk. I regret my inability to capture the beauty of the language in my
translation. It will require years of dedicated effort, I have miles to go……….
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syllables could not be maintained in exactitude since Isan and English are structurally
very different.
Simile
In a simile a comparison between two distinctly different things is indicated by
the word “like” or “as”. There are numerous similes in the text most of which are used to
depict the feminine beauty as personified in the character of Pusati, the celestial consort
of the deity Indra, who upon reaching the end of her meritorious deeds, descends to the
earthly realm to be born as the mother of the Boddhisatva Vessantara, the future Buddha.
The similes are associated with the delineation of sensuousness and human physical
perfections which is believed to have roots in kammic perfection. The newborn baby of
Pusati inherits her physical perfection as depicted in one of the quotes below. It is to be
noted that the use of similes stirs the imagination and thus helps in creating beautiful
images in the mind of the reader or listener, but the most important point is that the
similes help bring forth a contrastive picture, for despite all her grace and beauty a
celestial maiden had to face the consequence of her volitional deeds and no devine
intervention could prevent or change the course of her actions. All her consort could do
was to endow her with the ten devine blessings. When one realizes this point one would
have no desire to lavish in the sensuality expressed through the similes and would rather
commiserate with any folly, whether human or divine, that can bring an end to good
kammic existence. Below are a few examples from section one and two of the text.
The second blessing May she possess superb beauty her eyeballs dark blue
Like the eye of the deer
the cornea of her eyes
never be turbid
(Sec. I. lines 39-40, p. 6)
Third blessing Let her eyebrows be arched
just like the bow (Sec. I. line 43, p. 6)
Seventh blessing May her breasts be splendid perpetually like a flower in bud
(Sec. I. line 59, p. 7)
Eight blessing Her coiffure black and neat
like the wings of carpenter bee
(Sec. I. line 63, p. 7)
Superb child
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pretty as though painted
Spotless beauty bore no mark of dirt
as if moulded clean in an
oven
Hair pitch black resembling the spirogyra possessor of great merits
(Sec. II. lines 24-26, p. 13)
Metaphor
In a metaphor a word which in standard (or literal) usage denotes one kind of
thing, quality, or action is applied to another, in the form of a statement of identity
instead of comparison. Most metaphors in the text are associated with the depiction of
parental, filial as well as spousal relationship. A few metaphors are also used to depict the
upheavals of life in the context of which existence is stated as the ocean (of suffering).
The two children are the eyes and the heart
Two little gems
(Sec.
XII. lines 34, p. 119)
mother has come where thou both are (Sec. IX. lines 31, p. 83)
Green, so green is the cotton leaf
dead in the midst of the forest
O’ the moon, the moon up in the sky
so distant is my beloved from me
(Sec. IX. Part II lines 42-43, p. 94)
Make good deeds until tired
next life would assist to cross over the ocean
(Sec. II. lines 40, p. 14)
Hyperbole
The figure of speech called hyperbole (Greek for “overshooting”) is bold
overstatement, or extravagant exaggeration of fact, used either for serious or comic effect.
In the Mahachat sermon text, hyperbole is used for serious and not comic effect,
especially to draw attention to the act of merit-accumulation that involves diligent effort
over a vast stretch of time. Similar to the implied meaning of the English proverb “Rome
was not built in a day”, merits cannot be accrued without consistency and lack of effort.
There is no short-cut, no play of any unseen force or luck, no miraculous way leading to
the accumulation of merits. Merits need to be built up consistently, continuously and with
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diligence as the life of the Bodhisattva illustrates and as vividly depicted in the following
instance of hyperbole.
People surrounded
swarmed in to view the
newborn
Appropriate are the merits accumulated
a thousand eons of time span
Reckoned a merit treasury
enormous and bountiful
Make good deeds until fully tired
next life would assist to cross
over the ocean
Fulfill to the utmost
build up tremendous power
(Sec. II. lines 37-41, p. 13)
Paradox
Paradox is the juxtaposition of apparently contradictory ideas to point out some
underlying truths. While through the use of hyperbole the significance of the act of
accumulation of merit is highlighted, the use of paradox throws light on the oppositional
force of evil action as well as other paradoxical truths like the truth of ‘being’ which is
embedded in suffering (dukkha), impermanence (anicca), complexities, death and decay
and the truth of ‘truth’ that can be misconstrued. The Newtonian Law – every action has
an opposite and equal reaction – may not hold true in the sphere of Buddhist Law of
Kamma as the first of the following instance of paradox suggests.
This is it accrue goodness
more than a hundred thousand times
An evil action done just once
can destroy all goodness (Sec. II. lines 73-74, p. 16)
Why this world
has such difference in thinking
As is said
sees the evil as good
Different mind different opinion
differ in hundred thousand ways
(Sec. II. lines 78-80, p. 16)
Green, so green is the cotton leaf
dead in the midst of the forest
(Sec. IX. Part II lines 42-43, p. 94)
Flee from the tiger to land at the crocodile’s jaw
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fortune or misfortune
damn it
When the dog is chased to the cul-de-sac
fears it not to confront in
self-defense
(Sec. VII. lines 28-29, pp. 58-59)
Proverb
A proverb is a succinct or pithy expression of what is commonly observed and
believed to be true. Proverbs are interspersed all throughout the text. Most proverbs are
centered upon the concept of Kamma and the three characteristics of existence (tilakhana)
that Buddhism emphasizes namely, impermanence (anicca), suffering (dukkha) and nonself (anatta).
This is it accrue goodness
more than a hundred thousand times
An evil action done just once
can destroy all goodness (Sec. II. lines 73-74, p. 16)
Everything depends on individual action O’ dear
acted upon differently
(Sec. II. line 98, p. 17)
All actions in this life
encountered through and through from the start
Every home
doth receive whether in slow pace or variance
The wise
have said so –
Whosoever is born
beget senility, pain and death
Be it man or woman
each will come upon his or her portion of kamma
all the same (Sec. III. lines 49-52, p. 24)
The results of our actions that have reached us
will come to an end soon
(Sec. VIII. lines 189, p. 73)
Accidentally encounter
the common condition of the world
Happiness and sorrow
comes in tandem just think of it (Sec. XII. lines 27-28, p. 119)
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Didactic Interpolation
Closely related to proverbs are numerous didactic interpolations interspersed
throughout the Mahachat sermon text. The reason why we have categorized proverbs and
didactic interpolations separately is that proverbs hold universal truths same as didactic
interpolation, but there is no direct emphasis on the practice of these truths. Whereas in
didactic interpolations this emphasis is obvious and the Mahachat sung-sermon
practitioner monks would devote enough time in the course of delivering the sermon to
clarify and repetitiously stress them so as to inspire and encourage the laity to put into
real practice in life. The repeated words and phrases in the original Isan version are
maintained in our translation below.
All listeners, brethren dear
father and mother reflect upon this
Consider deeply about charity
all generous deeds you have done
Did you gain mental benefits from them
I welcome you to introspect it
Have your meritorious acts made you happy
smile and happy always
Observe it see it
when you donate and distribute
Your mind becomes delightful
beget felicity through and
through
Whenever you donate
it is a great benefit
Meritorious action is reckoned thus
welcome you to continue the effort
Accumulate merit gradually
little by little it will increase
When you die this shall be your asset
gain great merits
Everyone has to die
nobody can live forever
All beings in the vast world
none can escape from death
But when you transmigrate
to another realm
Everything would depend on your action
good and bad all depends on your
action solely
Whoever has done good deeds
has goodness accumulated
When dead these actions will lead to heaven
ascend to heaven and reside there
Whoever has done evil deeds
these actions will let you
Fall into hell
full of suffering and lamentation
All virtuous people
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men and women engage in
generous action
Accumulate morality and generosity
the reward you gain is certain
Accrue good deeds there would be no suffering the world will extol in your praise
Welcome you all do good
people will admire you
Deviate from all evil actions
it will reduce your value
Make you devoid of value in yourself
only good and evil exist in this
world
All other animals
like herds of cattle
And herds
of elephants
All decay and decompose
but their skin tusks bones
Still have some value
can be sold and bought
When people die all’s over
just cremate the body
Nothing remains
that could be sold or bought
Like the poetry that has taught
Thai poet has ever composed
I leave this to you all laity
for you to consider and reflect
upon –
“Bull, oxen, buffalo, elephant
that are old and unworthy of any
work
Their tusks, horns
still bear importance and value in
body
But when humans die
the whole body is valueless
Only good and evil actions persist
to adorn the world.”
The entire human populace
when dead and decomposed
Goodness and evil still exist
permanent in essence
Offer this message to each of you
read and investigate this poetic
truth
(Sec. I. lines 80-118, pp. 8-10)
Do good leaving behind its trace
regardless of whether praised or not
Heaping up of evil
if praised as good pay no heed to it
(Sec. II. lines 83-84, p. 16)
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Endure, just endure until the end
O’ young beauty don’t gripe
Veridically none can escape
one’s own volitional action
(Sec. IV. lines 50-51, p. 32)
Do no bad action
all kinds of evil
Let only the good manifest
and merit be accumulated
Make the mind empty
resplendent bright and pure
(Sec. X. lines 15-20, pp. 98-99)
Irony
Irony is a mode of speech in which the real meaning is exactly the opposite of that
which is literally conveyed. Irony plays a crucial role in the Mahachat Sermon text.
Ironies function at various levels – situational, dramatic and verbal.
Situational irony is when the author creates a surprise that is the perfect opposite
of what one would expect, often creating either humor or an eerie feeling. In the
illustration below the truth of power politics and victimization in real life situation is
being stressed in an ironical manner. In the instance of a wise man deceiving a foolish
man the irony is not just superficially suggested about the ‘folly’ of the foolish, but the
‘wisdom’ of the wise for it can lead to such a mean action as deceit.
The clever raises his victorious thumb
while the fools fall victim to him
“the virtuous country buffon
is worth not the city elite”
(Sec. VI. lines 80-81, p. 54)
Dramatic irony is when the reader/listener knows something important about the
story that one or more characters in the story do not know. For example, in the Matsi
section, the drama comes from the fact that the listeners/readers know that the royal
offsprings, Kanha and Chali were given away as slaves to the glutton Chuchok by their
father Vessantara during the day time when their mother Masti went to collect fruits in
the forest. By divine intervention three animals hindered Masti and prevented her from
returning home on that crucial moment in the life of the Bodhisatva when he perfects the
penultimate stage in the process of fulfillment of the perfection of dana. The trial was set
in when the time arrived for giving away his own children. But the mother was quite
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ignorant of the tragic event of the day, so when she reached home very late in the evening,
she at first thought that her children were hiding. She incessantly looked for them
everywhere before eventually growing frantic and panicky failing to find them. If the
listeners/readers were as oblivious as Masti, there would be virtually no point to the story
and they would not commiserate with her pathetic plight and perhaps even would not
understand the circumstantial difficulties that crossed the path of the Bodhisattva in his
endeavour to achieve complete fulfillment of the perfection of dana or charity.
When the sun set
she arrived home
“Two little gems
mother has come where thou both are”
She wondered about her children
where they could be
Every evening she goes to fetch them
from their playing ground
Right and left
in every direction she looked
Which ever way she turned
nothing but emptiness
Tired and lonely
the heart throbbing
When she reached the fence
she left her fruit basket there
Then looked around
but it was all empty and quiet
“Do not be kidding at me
don’t hide from me, dear children”
She tried to seek
and call them
Walking to and fro
she sought for them everywhere
Sad and depressed
not even a shadow could be traced
Could the children be kidding
away from her in hiding?
(Sec. IX. lines 31-45, pp. 82-83)
Verbal irony is when the narrator or a character says the opposite of what he
actually means. Verbal irony helps accent the true feeling for/against the situation. For
example, Vessantara trusted and loved his wife Masti and so deliberately avoided
disclosing the bitter truth of giving away the children as slaves to the greedy Brahmin. He
feared that since she was already tired in the evening from the day’s routine task of
collecting fruits from the forest for her children, the sad news would mentally devastate
her and so on her face he blamed and bitterly cursed her as being intentionally late in
returning to the hermitage that evening. The readers/listeners know the truth that Matsi
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was hindered by ferocious animals on her way back home. Through the use of verbal
irony (as expressed in the words of the Bodhisattva), sung-sermon monks depict the
pathetic situation in resemblance to the life of an ordinary couple so as to arouse the
feeling of sympathy for Matsi in the hearts of the listeners. Since it is easy to react and
respond to familiar situations, most female listeners can instantly internalize the suffering
of Masti as a mother, a wife and a woman. Her suffering at this particular situation is
similar to any other woman confronting feminine subjugation and victimization within
the institution of marriage.
People say that women
have many an artfulness to lure and deceit
They do and
utter many wiles
If we know what they are up to
showers of praises be gotten
Today you did venture
to the forest
Sought no friend
to accompany
Who will agree with you
when you are in the forest?
You have forgotten your children
and involved in promiscuous acts
If I were the king
as before
I would have slit your throat
to cause you die
But now have come to build up
merits and practice meditation
So I do forgive you
it’s the first time for you to deviate
Next time do not cry
do not pretend
You pretend to shed tears bringing forth saliva in your mouth as doth the ancient
word presaged
You ask about the kids
who else but you yourself do know
I know not about them
don’t you ever ask me
You are shameless
full of pretention and wiles
That’s the feminine desultory way
sinuous wiles at various levels
You related to many
least sincere with any
You have played a deceitful game
flirting and deceiving many
Don’t tell a lie that you are ill
and ask for chicken soup
No pain no sickness
who can help you
If I seek you another spouse
anew
Your sickness will dissipate
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you will ask for no medication
(Sec. IX. lines 57-79, pp. 82-83)
Symbol
A symbol is a word, picture, or idea that stands for something other than itself. It
is used as an expressive way to depict an idea. The symbol generally conveys an
emotional response far beyond what the word, idea, or image itself dictates. The
following example shows the symbolic way of expressing conditional truths, especially
about spousal loyalty and dependency.
The lion flees from the mountain because the mountain has no cave, the fish
flees the river for the river has no mud, a pupil flees from his teacher
because the teacher lacks wisdom, the bird flees the tree because it has no
branches and twigs, the elephant flees the forest because there’s no rai and
bong bamboo, the swan flees the pond because there blooms no lotus, a wife
absconds her husband because he is incapable to support her. (Sec. IX.
(Discourse form) p. 84)
Imagery
This is when the author invokes sensory details. Often, this is simply to draw a
reader more deeply into a story by helping the reader visualize what is being described.
However, imagery may also symbolize important ideas in a story. Like the imagery of a
nightmare, barren landscape and ferocious animals obstructing Matsi all in the context of
when she lost her two lovely children. Foreshadowing or when the author drops clues
about what is to come in a story, which builds tension and the reader’s suspense has
functional connection to the context in which the following imageries are introduced.
Seven months ago
in the pavilion happily resided the queen
That night was the beginning
the ominous dream presaging
Sleepless and fidgeted
worried until fatigued
As the dawn crept in
so errie a dream she dreamt
What was it
she knew no way to solve it
Dreamt of a man
who brandished a sword strong and sharp
464
Wearing the red China rose
on his ears, his sinewy muscles all raised
So dreadfully terrific was it all
as if the sinful evil nearing
She begged for her life
but cared he not the least
Severed her two hands off instead
with blood splattering all over
(Sec. VIII. lines 6-16, p. 68)
Feeble in body and hungry
as though got a cramp and swooned
She looked around the rows of trees
with a heart so weak and fragile
Walked to the deep
wide wild jungle
Stepped towards the fruits
the place where she ever sojourned
Erstwhile laden with ripen fruits
verdure and prolific
All disappeared
gone was everything from there
Holding basket and spade
sought yet another tree
Hoping to secure
but turned utterly hopeless when she saw it
Nothing eatable
all decay and rotten
So pitiful a plight of Queen Masti
a broken heart and a pensive mood
(Sec. VIII. lines 57-66, p. 71)
Satire
The use of satire comes in various forms such as irony, sarcasm, ridicule, or the
like, in order to expose, denounce, or deride vice, folly, etc. Through satire human folly
and vice are held up to scorn, derision, or ridicule as in the following example that
illustrates the vice of gluttony through the character of the greedy old Brahmin named
Chuchok, who takes away the two lovely children of the Bodhisattva to turn them into
slaves serving his young and beautiful wife. But on his way back home from the forest
hermitage, he loses the way and eventually arrives at the palace, where Prince
Vessantara’s parents recognize their grandchildren and lavish the old man with gifts of
enormous treasures and delicious food. The greedy old man, however, fails to make use
of any of the gifts and dies from overeating.
He is looking back and forth, turning around; seeing many things to eat he
laughs greedily. The naked old man hurries to take many pieces of fish into
his mouth, then he takes a piece of bacon and then chicken into his mouth,
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he is really relishing and he continues to devour the fruits such as monkey
apple, coconut and continues to drink up the soup from seven pots, after that
the dessert and then water. When he finished he went to sleep on his bed but
he could not move his belly and was at unease nearly dead, crying and
moaning with suffering as if had been ill for years. (Sec. XI. (Discourse form)
pp.112-113)
Pathos
Pathos in Greek meant the passions, or deep feeling generally; in modern
criticism, however, it is attributed to a scene or passage designed to evoke the feelings of
tenderness, pity, or sympathetic sorrow from the audience. Within the context of the
Vessantara story there are numerous scenes that depict pathetic universal situation such
as a mother’s sorrowful longing for her lost children, grandparents’ bemoaning over the
loss of grandchildren, the suffering of innocent children at the hands of cruel and selfish
people etc. Sung-sermon practitioner monks exploit pathos to a considerably great degree
especially in rendering the section “Masti”.
Masti so tired
and hapless
Sad and distressed
she cried hopelessly
When the evening set in
darkness loomed all over
The three animals disappeared
making the way for her to go home
In her hurry she tripped
on a stone and tumbled
In her mind she thought
of only her two children
They had waited
for her for so long
She walked just thinking of them
sometimes in hurrying steps
(Sec. IX. lines 23-30, p. 82)
Alliteration
Alliteration (samphat akson) is the repetition of consonant sounds at the
beginning of words, i.e., a series of words that begin with the same letter or sound alike.
Alliteration is used to create emphasis, to add beauty to the writing style, and
occasionally to aid in shaping the mood.
466
Alliteration is used frequently in the text by Ven Ajarn Phimpha. He often mixes
identical initial consonants in a line, or verse, with other initials which are similar. This
use of both same and similar initials in alliterative lines is part of the definition of
alliteration provided by Viravong, “…words which use the same consonants or which
have sounds which are very much alike placed next to each other in a row within one
line.”
5
6
This definition as observed by Carol J. Compton specifically limits alliteration to
position of occurrence. Yet alliteration can be found both within lines and across lines in
our material.
Alliteration within a line:
เทียมดั่งปุนแปลงปน
เปงประเทศเขตแควน
สาวสวรรคก้ําเกิ่ง
แดนใตกะซาเซ็ง
Thiam-dung-poon-pleng-pun
Perng-phra-thaet-khaet-khwaen
Likened to the creation
The entire country far and near
sao-sawan-kam-kaerng
daen-tai-ka-cha-chaeng
of celestial maidens
ceaselessly talked about her
(Sec. II. lines 7-8, p.12)
จั่งวาคิ้วคาดโคง
งามโกกลอมกัน
Jung-wa-khieu-khad-khong
Eyebrows so well arched
ngam-ko-klom-kan
splendidly proportionate all over
(Sec. II. line 12, p.12)
ลอกแลกแลน
ลมลิ้นเลื่อนไหล
Lok-laek-laen
Furtively run about
lom-lin-luean-lai
muttering flirtatious words
(Sec. X. line 74, p. 85)
5
6
Viravong, Sila. (1970). Santhalaksana waiyaakon lao phaak si, Vientianne: Ministry of Education, p. 13.
Compton, J. Carol. (1979). Courting Poetry in Laos: A Textual and Linguistic Analysis, Special Report
No. 18, Northern Illinois University, p. 159.
467
Alliteration across adjacent lines:
เทียมดั่งปุนแปลงปน
เปงประเทศเขตแควน
สาวสวรรคก้ําเกิ่ง
แดนใตกะซาเซ็ง
Thiam-dung-poon-pleng-pun
Perng-phra-thaet-khaet-khuean
Likened to the creation
The entire country far and near
sao-sawan-kam-kaerng
daen-tai-ka-cha-chaeng
of celestial maidens
ceaselessly talked about her
(Sec. II. line 7-8, p.12)
งามดั่งเดือนวันเพ็ญ
สองดวงตางามเยีย่ ม
เลิศวิไลในหลา
องคพระภูคาดโกง
Ngam-dung-dieun-wan-phen
Song-duang-ta-ngam-yiam
Beautiful as the full moon
Her two eyes full of glowing beauty
lers-wi-lai-nai-la
ong-phra-phu-khad-khong
superbly gorgeous in the entire world
eyelids well curved
(Sec. II. lines 10-11, p.12)
Assonance
Assosance (samphat sara) is the repetition of vowel sounds, most commonly
within a short passage of verse. For the most part, the assonance in our material is found
within lines: occasionally it may also be found across adjacent lines.
Assonance within lines:
บืนสลนเสลือกลม
โซมโซโกงโกย
Buen-salon-saluea-klom
Push ahead in a vain attempt
chom-cho-kong-koi
physically decrepit and tiring
(Sec. VII. line 67, p. 61)
ลอกแลกแลน
ลมลิน้ เลือ่ นไหล
Lok-laek-laen
Furtively run about
lom-lin-luean-lai
muttering flirtatious words
(Sec. X. line 74, p. 85)
Assonance and alliteration may not only be found in individual lines, but often
they are used together within the same line.
เถาวัลยเกี้ยว
เปนมะหลิ่งติ่งตอน
เกลียวยอยยอยหยอน
ยวมยัว้ ทัว่ แดน
Thawol-kiaew
Pen-ma-ling-ting-ton
kliaew-yoi-yoi-yon
yuom-yuao-thua-daen
468
The vine
Creeping up and down
its strands and hanging branches swinging
dangling all over
(Sec. VII. line 84, pp. 61-62)
สัตวในดงแดนนี้
ทั้งงัวควายชางมา
หมูมีชะนีปา
หมาเมนมัง่ เมย
Sat-nai-dong-daen-nii
Thang-ngua-khuwai-chang-maa
Animals in this territory
Even cow, buffalo, elephant, horse,
moo-mii-cha-nii-paa
ma-men-mung-maeu
swine, gibbon
dog, porcupine, deer abound
(Sec. VII. lines 110-111, p. 63)
Onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia comprises of words that sound like their meaning. Although
onomatopoeic words can be found throughout the text, the greatest number is used in the
eleventh section entitled Maharaja to match with the scene in which the royal procession
takes places. In the end of the Maharaja section, King Sanjay and Queen Pusati of Siphi
along with the royal grandchildren and hundred and thousands of royal escorts, courtiers
and devoted subjects march in a procession to receive Prince Vessantara and his royal
consort Masti at their forest hermitage in order to welcome them back to the kingdom.
The onomatopoeic words depict the sounds of different musical instruments like the
beating of the giant drum หมุงๆ (mung mung), ฆอง (khong) and the sound of the footsteps
of hundreds of people marching forward in unison ยาบๆ (yub yub) เยือ้ ง (yiang), ยาบๆ (yub
yub) ยวย (yuoi) เพียบๆ (phiyab phiyab) เพี้ยง (phiyang). The sound of each onomatopoeic
word resonating with other rhyming words (alliteration and assonance) that form external
and internal rhymes, create an extremely colourful picture, the effect of which remains
for long in the mind of the listeners.
Conclusion
All the figures of speech that have been discussed here have a reinforcing effect
on the narration of the story. The core essence of the Mahachat sermon lies in revealing
the selfless character of the bodhisattva, who is the epitome of compassion, charity and
self-sacrifice. This sermon is used by practitioner monks as a tool for stimulating the
mind of lay devotees to listen to the story with devotional attentiveness and then apply its
469
moral values – loving-kindness, compassion, generosity, charity, self-sacrifice, honesty,
moral courage and determination – into real life situation and practice. In order to
delineate the story well and render the narration effective, practitioner monks have played
a major role in devising different techniques, one of which is using figures of speech. The
use of figures of speech has rendered great vitality to the story and has positively affected
the proliferation, preservation and continuation of the tradition of the Mahachat sermon
as a whole.
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An Analysis of Main Characters’ Self-Empowerment in the Selected
Works of Maya Angelou
Kingdao Donjerm
Abstract
The purpose of this study is to analyze the self-empowerment, and explore the causes of
oppression, of the main characters in I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings and The Heart of
a Woman by Maya Angelou. This study was done by closely investigating how they
empowered themselves while living under various types of oppression. In these two
works, the author illustrates the life of African American women who struggled in order
to escape from an oppressive world. It is found that the causes of oppression which
prevented them from reaching happiness and freedom were racism, a patriarchal system
and economic exploitation. The main characters used three strategies to empower
themselves, asking questions, experimenting and realization. By using these three
strategies, the characters were able to achieve real happiness and freedom in their lives.
Keywords: self-empowerment, Maya Angelou
Many female characters in literature are remarkable. It is interesting to explore the
strategies that they employ to deal with problems during rough times in their lives. Maya
Angelou is an author who can illustrate the hard life-experience of black women through
her characters in various impressive ways. Moreover, she also gives a broader vision of
the black woman in American society to audiences outside of black culture and society.
From the two works the readers come to understand that she is a loud speaker, echoing
the voice of women to the world.
Most authors create their works based on their own experiences, education and
the social influences in their lives. Thus, it is possible to say that reading a literary work
is reading about life. Literature develops our mindset, our knowledge, and connects
things in society together. It is one of the most important mediums that helps readers
understand and see what was and is going on in the real world. And Maya Angelou is one
of the talented authors who has a sharp eye to see through things surrounding their life
and portray it on paper in inspiring ways.
The aim of this study is to understand the strategies that the main characters in the
two autobiographical novels of Maya Angelou, use to challenge their lives by focusing on
their characteristics. The protagonists of the two selected works represent Maya Angelou
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in two different stages of life. In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, the researcher
investigates the strategies the author used to empower herself in her childhood while in
The Heart of a Woman, the researcher explores the strategies the author used to empower
herself in adulthood. These two novels are perfect stories to help the reader understand
her empowering development. In I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, the story is based on
the life of Angelou in her childhood. It focuses on the essence of her struggles to
overcome the restrictions that were placed upon her in hostile environments. The second
work, The Heart of a Woman, a most remarkable and inspiring novel, focuses on her
adult life, which includes her son, the civil rights movement, her marriage, and her
writing, portrayed in a manner both as a single parent and a writer. This study also aims
to understand the oppression that keeps her from obtaining happiness.
From investigating the main characters, the researcher determined that they used
three strategies to empower themselves: asking questions, experimenting and realization.
Asking questions is the first strategy that the main characters use to empower
themselves. It is the first step to achieving power, and information is power, so when
someone wants to solve a problem, they should get as much information as they can by
asking questions. Some people choose to walk on the path most traveled because they
think it is safe, some are too lazy to think in different ways. They don't pay attention to
signs, circumstances and experiences in their life. The main characters in the selected
novels are not these kinds of people. They have a curious mind, a desire to understand
everything they encounter in their lives, honesty to their answers and are ready to accept

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