A biodiversity assessment of the Rewa head, Guyana

Transcription

Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London NW1 4RY
www.zsl.org
Registered Charity no. 208728
Biodiversity of the Rewa Head
B
ZSL Conservation Report No.10
A Biodiversity Assessment
of the Rewa Head, Guyana
July 2009
Rob Pickles
Niall McCann
Ashley Holland
Published by: The Zoological Society of London, Regents Park, London, NW1 4RY
Copyright:
© Zoological Society of London and contributors 2009.
All rights reserved. The use and reproduction of any part of this
publication is welcomed for non-commercial purposes only,
provided that the source is acknowledged.
ISSN:
1744-3997
Citation:
R. Pickles, N. McCann, A. Holland (2009)
A Biodiversity Assessment of the Rewa Head, Guyana.
ZSL Conservation Report No. 10. The Zoological Society of London,
London.
Key Words: Guyana, Rewa, biodiversity, threatened species, conservation, giant
otter, logging, mining, ecosystem services
Front cover:
Jaguar photographed in the Rewa Head © Gordon Duncan 2004
Page layout:
[email protected]
The Zoological Society of London (ZSL), founded in 1826, is a world-renowned
centre of excellence for conservation science and applied conservation (registered
charity in England and Wales number 2087282). Our mission is to promote and
achieve the worldwide conservation of animals and their habitats. This is realised
by carrying out field conservation and research in over 80 countries across the
globe and through education and awareness at our two zoos, ZSL London Zoo and
ZSL Whipsnade Zoo, inspiring people to take conservation action.
The aim of this Conservation Report series is to inform people of the work that
ZSL and its partners do in field conservation. Results of work carried out in field projects
are often only reported in unpublished technical reports. This series seeks to bring
this grey literature into a more accessible form to help guide conservation
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The primary audience for these reports is ZSL’s conservation partners. These
include government departments, private sector actors and conservation
organisations. In some cases this type of report will also be useful for local
communities. This series will be published in English and other languages as
appropriate. Because only a limited number of hard copies will be produced,
electronic versions of all these reports will be available through the ZSL library.
(https://library.zsl.org)
A Biodiversity Assessment
of the Rewa Head, Guyana
July 2009
R.S.A. Pickles
N.P. McCann
A.P. Holland
Contents
Executive Summary
Acknowledgements
Team
Introduction
Background to the expedition
The Guianan Shield
Situation of the Rewa Head
Human occupancy and visits above Corona Falls
The Expedition
Chapter 1. Mammal Species Diversity and Relative Abundance
Flagship Species: The Giant Otter
Camera Trapping Survey
Observations
Chapter 2. Bird Species Diversity and Relative Abundance
Mist Netting Survey
Drift Spot Count Survey
Chapter 3. Reptile Species Diversity
Chapter 4. The Future State of the Rewa Head:
Identification of Stakeholders
Chapter 5. Conservation
Conservation Recommendations
References Appendix 1. Mammalian Diversity
Appendix 2. Avian Diversity and Relative Abundance
Appendix 3. Reptilian Diversity
Appendix 4. EPA permission to conduct biodiversity research
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Figure 1. Jaguar (Panthera onca) Photograph taken by Gordan Duncan in 2004. During that six
week trip the water level was exceptionally low and 10 jaguar were observed.
Figure 2. Goliath bird-eating spider (Theraphosa blondii), one of the giants of Guyana’s interior.
Gordon Duncan.
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Executive Summary
The reason for the expedition
This report lays out the findings of a six week expedition above Corona Falls to
the split between the East and West River Rewa in Guyana’s Upper Takutu-Upper
Essequibo Region, documenting the fauna observed along 60 river miles. The Rewa
flows between the Conservation International Upper Essequibo Concession and
the proposed Kanuku Mountains Protected Area, feeding the biologically important
Rupununi Basin. Yet despite the Rewa Head appearing to be preserved in a pristine
state it has not been explored scientifically to assess its conservation value. The
initial focus of the expedition was the endangered giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis),
but alongside the giant otter research we set up a line of camera traps and mist-net
stations as well as conducting drift surveys to record the riparian and forest fauna.
Major Findings
A line of camera traps positioned in the 25 miles immediately above Corona Falls
recorded a total of 17 mammal species, including puma (Puma concolor), margay
(Leopardus wiediii), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and Brazilian tapir
(Tapirus terrestris). In total, 33 mammal species were recorded during the course
of the expedition including all 8 of Guyana’s monkey species. Mist netting and
drift spot counts yielded a total of 187 bird species from 47 families. With the
inclusion of Smithsonian Institution data from 2006, the species list for the Rewa
Head rises to 251. These include 10 Guianan Shield endemics, two species of which
had particularly small ranges: Todd’s antwren (Herpsilochmus stictocephalus) and
the little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus); as well as the rare and charismatic
harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis). We also saw
evidence of the threatened bush dog (Speothos venaticus), yellow-footed tortoise
(Geochelone denticulata) and giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus). In total, 50%
of Guyana’s threatened species were observed above or immediately below Corona
Falls. Goliath bird-eating spider (Theraphosa blondii) was recorded in the Rewa Head
and of particular note, 5 green anacondas (Eunectes murinus) over 15ft long were
encountered. One individual measured was found to be 18’2”. Wildlife, particularly
game species, was found to be naïve, with tapir, paca and black curassow allowing
us to approach within several metres without fleeing.
Birds:
251 species
Mammals:
33 species
Threatened fauna:
14 species
The results of this brief survey reveal the Rewa Head to be biologically rich and an
important region for threatened lowland rainforest and riparian fauna. It is also the
headwater of an important tributary feeding the Essequibo. The Rewa Head is currently
under no protection and although the government has recently outlawed small-scale
gold mining from the river, the area does constitute a logging concession which
may well be developed in the coming years. Due to the ease with which charismatic
rainforest fauna such as tapir, anaconda and harpy eagle can be seen; there is the
potential for developing a modest, regulated tourist industry with the villages of
Rewa and Yupukari. The infrastructure already in place in these villages could play an
important role in establishing programmes of scientific investigation in the area for
exploring the biodiversity of the Guianan Shield ecoregion as well as the distribution
and biology of endangered species.
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Acknowledgements
Many thanks go to Diane McTurk for help and advice, allowing us to stay in Karanambu
while analysing our data and collecting samples from her Rupununi otters. Thanks
to Margaret Chan-a-sue for logistical support in Georgetown and to Peter Taylor
for sound advice, tireless energy and for pointing us in the right direction. We are
extremely grateful to Graham Watkins for criticism and advice and to Nicole Duplaix,
for introducing us to the Rewa to begin with. This expedition was funded through
generous grants from the Linnaean Society’s Percy Sladen Memorial Foundation, ZSL’s
Daisy Balogh Travel Award and through NERC expedition funds. The majority of the
expedition costs were self-financed.
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Team
Rob Pickles. BSc Zoology
Rob and Niall first worked together on giant otters in a Royal Geographical Society
funded expedition to Bolivia in 2003. Following on from this in 2006 Rob began a
PhD investigating the population genetics of the giant otter at the Institute of Zoology,
Zoological Society of London (ZSL) and the Durrell Institute of Conservation and
Ecology (DICE) at the University of Kent. He is now in his third year of study.
Niall McCann. BSc Zoology
After finishing his degree in zoology at Bristol University, Niall worked as a research
assistant on ZSL’s jackal project in Namibia and is about to embark on a PhD studying the
population connectivity of Baird’s tapir in Honduras based at the University of Cardiff.
Ashley Holland
Ash has worked with both the Smithsonian Institute and the BBC and was the local expert
and naturalist as well as providing the logistical support to get up to the survey area.
He has explored the Rewa Head on several occasions and worked with Conservation
International during their Rapid Assessment Programme to the Eastern Kanukus after
working at Karanambu Ranch for many years and is currently the manager of the black
caiman research project in Yupukari.
Kevin Alvin
Kevin is a resident of Katoka village and knows the river well, working with the
Smithsonian Institution mist netting and with the BBC in the filming of ‘Lost land of the
Jaguar’ and ‘Planet Earth’ series. He has worked with Ash for over five years.
Ryol Merriman
Ryol is a resident of Yupukari and has been working with Ash for over 10 years and has
visited the Rewa Head on several occasions, working with the Smithsonian and BBC.
Fernando Li
Nando is the manager of the black caiman project at Yupukari, funded by the Rupununi
Learners Foundation. It is a long-term ecological study looking at the ecological role
the species plays as well as sustainable resource use by local villages.
Doris Merriman
Doris was the expedition cook
Figure 3. Ryol and Doris Merriman and bowman ‘Nando Li.
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Introduction
Background to the expedition
The expedition was initially conceived as a sampling trip to collect faecal samples from
the giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) to obtain DNA for use in a phylogeographical
study being carried out by Rob Pickles at the Zoological Society of London and the
University of Kent. The Rewa Head was purported to have evaded the depredations of
hunters during the trade in giant otter fur and due to its isolated nature has witnessed
little human impact over the centuries. It was recommended by Nicole Duplaix who
conducted the first study on giant otters in the 1970s in Suriname. Due to the unexplored
and unprotected status of the Rewa Head, it was decided to maximize the time spent
above Corona Falls by conducting coincidental biodiversity studies, namely camera
trapping, mist-netting and spot-count transects.
The Guianan Shield
Figure 4. The Guianan Shield straddles five countries in northern South America and its streams feed
three drainage basins. High degrees of endemism and species diversity coupled with the largest tract
of unbroken tropical forest anywhere in the world makes this an extremely important eco-region.
Guyana is located in the northern part of the Guianan Shield, a vast Precambrian craton
uplifted during the formation of the Andes in the Oligocene, 3.5 million years ago. The
craton formation has determined the hydrology of the region, resulting in a watershed
across its back which splits the flow of streams north-south. Across this 250 million
hectares of northern South America lies the largest tract of pristine forest anywhere in
the tropics. The Guianan Shield contains some of the most carbon-rich forests in South
America and represents an important carbon dioxide sink in the fight against climate
change (Saatchi et al 2007). Added to this, the Shield possesses extremely high levels
of biodiversity and endemism as a result of Pleistocene refugia. Over 20,000 species of
vascular plants are found in the Guiana Shield, 35% of which are endemic. Similarly 975
bird species are found in this eco region, of which 15% are endemic (Ellenbroek 1996).
Lying between 1 and 9 degrees north of the Equator with a coast in the Carribean,
Guyana receives most of its weather patterns from the Caribbean Intertropical
Convergence Zone (ICZ) with a seasonality driven by a rainy season arriving in early
May lasting until mid-August, followed by another short rainy season in December. Its
forests are hot and humid with between 2000-4000mm of rain annually.
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Unlike its larger neighbour to the south, Guyana has never had government-led drives to open
up the interior of the country and so the forests have remained largely intact. While at 215,000
km2 it is similar in land mass to Great Britain, its population is only 870,000 strong with a
population density of 3.5 per km2, 90% of whom live in a strip of land around the industrialised
northern cities of Georgetown, Bartica and Linden. Land cover remains 76% rainforest and
while some cattle ranching occurs in the natural Rupununi savannahs and small-scale gardens
are cultivated by Amerindian communities, there is very little agriculture in the interior.
Situation of the Rewa Head
Figure 5. Location of the Rewa Head and extent surveyed by this expedition.
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The Rewa Head is located in Southern Guyana, in Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo
Administrative Region. It takes its water from tributaries feeding from the Kanuku
Mountains in the South and drains north into the Rupununi and Essequibo before
flowing into the Atlantic. The Rewa is termed a ‘blackwater river’ due to the humic, yet
relatively sediment-free waters. Following the Rewa upstream from where it is met by
the Kwitaro, the lowland rainforest vegetation type continues up above Corona Falls.
Above here the river is fractured by a series of cataracts and falls which prevent the
colonisation of the headwaters by fish common in the Lower Rewa, such as arapaima
(Arapaima gigas), lukanani (Cichla ocellaris) and arawana (Osteoglossum bicirrhosum).
Likewise the black caiman (Melanosuchus niger), spectacled caiman (Caiman yacare)
and giant Amazonian river turtle (Podocnemis expansa) are not found above Corona
Falls. Above the falls the only fish species of human value are haimara (Hoplias aimara)
and black piranhas (Serrasalmus rhombeus). A series of narrow tributaries flow into
the Rewa along its meandering path above the falls. Some, such as Louis Creek and
Kubrar Creek, can be followed for 6 miles or so, before fallen trunks block passage.
Some of the names of the creeks, camps and falls used here are old and date back to
the balatta bleeders, though most are names given by Ashley Holland and his guides
from previous trips. Continuing upstream, the river narrows to 20ft wide by N2° 45.358’
W58° 37.415’ and shortly after, at N2° 45’ W58° 33’ the vegetation becomes scrubby
riparian bush with dense bamboo groves, cecropia and guava, continuing with patchy
forest to N2° 42’ where dense forest once again predominates.
Human occupancy and visits above Corona Falls
The Rewa has historically been inhabited by Amerindians. Evidence can be seen in
the petroglyphs found on the falls, predominantly Corona, where geometric designs
along with grooves purported to be for sharpening hand-axes can still be seen. Those
responsible for the artwork have long since disappeared, leaving the forests above the
falls empty of people.
Figure 6. Hand-axe sharpening grooves and geometric designs below Corona Falls on the River
Rewa testify to the fact that there were once indigenous people inhabiting this area.
8
The first outsiders to begin exploitation of the region were the balata bleeders in the
early 20th Century, who even ventured up as far as the East-West Split in order to tap
the low-grade latex from the trees. The bleeders cut paths through the forest which
are still recorded in the 1970 aerial survey. The petrochemical industry spelled the end
for the balata industry and the last few bleeders likely ventured above Corona Falls in
the 1960s. The gold found in the alluvial sand of the Rewa Head has been a lure in the
past and several small mining operations worked the river above the falls in the early
1990’s. Low gold prices coupled with the expense and extreme logistical difficulty
of portaging dredging equipment over the falls led to the eventual abandonment of
these claims after a few years. The rotting equipment used during the dredging can
still be found in the forest.
Figure 7. Old compressor used by dredgers to compress air for the divers to breathe. Abandoned
and now rotting in the forest.
Since the last venture there have not yet been any further dredging operations anywhere
along the Rewa and the forests have never been explored for commercial timber.
Macushi Amerindians from Rewa Village hold garden plots in the fertile alluvial soil
of the Lower Rewa and Wapishanan Amerindians from Shea in the shouth savannahs
travel to the Kwitaro to farm by the river there. The river and the forests here are
extremely important to the Amerindians and people travel as much as 75 miles from
their village to work a plot of land or fish and collect turle eggs at certain times of the
year. However the villagers do not travel above Corona Falls and consequently, since
the decline of the balata industry and the dredgers above the falls, the wildlife has
ceased to be exposed to hunting pressure and is allowed to flourish.
Our expedition in January 2009 followed on from a Conservation International (CI)
Rapid Assessment Programme in the Eastern Kanuku Mountains and Lower Kwitaro
River in 2001 and a Smithsonian Institution bird specimen collecting expedition to
the Rewa, collecting from two sites, one below Corona Falls in the Lower Rewa and
the other above the falls. In 2007 the BBC carried out an expedition to the Upper
Essequibo and spent several days above Corona Falls. filming wildlife. Ashley Holland
has explored the Rewa Head several times with Gordan Duncan. Duane de Freitas has
also led several trips above the falls for birdwatchers and tourists.
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The Expedition
The expedition ran from the 31st December 2008 to the 31st January 2009. Niall and
Rob met with Ash and the rest of the team at Annai on the 31st and proceeded up the
Rupununi before heading up the Rewa. The next few days were spent motoring up to
Corona Falls, the juncture between the Lower Rewa and Rewa Head, arriving there on
the 3rd January. The next three days were spent portaging over the string of falls and
cataracts, before motoring on up to the split between East and West Rewa, setting
up the camera trap grid as we went. In this way we worked our way up as far up the
Rewa as was navigationally feasible, before slowly working our way back down the
river, surveying as we went. We took two 7m heavy duty aluminium boats with 15hp
outboard engines owned by Ashley Holland and carried 150 gallons of fuel for the trip,
leaving caches above and below Corona Falls for the return journey. We carried three
GPS units: two Garmin E-Trex and a Garmin GPSmap 60Cx for work under the canopy.
General positioning was conducted using Guyana Survey maps printed at the Survey
Department of Guyana, Georgetown.
Figure 8. Portaging the boats over a cataract upstream of Bamboo Falls.
First base was at the East-West Split at N2° 37.752’ W58° 37.152’, from which we
explored the West branch of the Rewa up to 2°37’ before a series of fallen trees blocked
passage. Three days were spent at “Split Camp” from the 10th to the 13th January. From
there we travelled downstream to “Tayra Camp” at N2° 45.358’ W58° 37.415’, erecting
the second netting site, conducting drift transects and searching for sign of giant otter
until the 16th. The following camp was at N2° 53.697’ W58° 35.225’, known as “Onca
Camp”. We remained here until the 19th, surveying and netting before moving further
downstream to “Monkey Ladder Camp” at N2° 59.773’ W58° 35.971’. While here we
explored Louis Creek up to N2° 58.381’ W58° 32.799’. We were severely hampered
by inclement weather, experiencing two torrential downpours which lasted for 36hrs
and resulted in the river level rising by 10ft. The final camp above Corona Falls was at
“Powis Camp”, below Powis Falls at N3° 07.901’ W58° 37.896’. We remained at Powis
until the 27th January surveying and netting, before collecting up the string of camera
traps and portaging our gear back over Bamboo and Corona Falls. The night of the
27th we stayed at a campsite below Corona Falls, before departing the following day,
motoring the next three days back down the Rewa and Rupununi, reaching Karanambu
on the 31st of January. In total we spent 22 days above Corona Falls. This report is a
presentation of the wildlife encountered during that time.
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Chapter 1. Mammalian Species Diversity and Relative Abundance
The study of mammalian diversity and relative abundance was principally based on a
line of camera traps erected in the 25 miles of river immediately upstream of Corona
Falls. The species list presented in the appendix is a combination of observations
recorded through camera trapping, sightings made while on drift transects and
opportunistically as well as indirect evidence such as scats, footprints and burrows.
Our reference was Emmons and Feer (1997) Neotropical Rainforest Mammals however
we have used the most recent taxonomic revisions including the Guianan red howler
monkey, (Alouatta macconnelli) and red-backed bearded saki (Chiropotes chiropotes).
Principal Findings
• 33 species of mammal recorded including all 8 of Guyana’s primates and 5
species of felid.
• Healthy population of endangered giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) with 5
groups recorded above the falls, equating to one group every 12 miles. Four
groups were recorded below the falls.
• 17 species of medium to large mammal recorded in camera traps including
puma (Puma concolor), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga tridactyla) and margay
(Leopardus wiedii).
• Indirect evidence for the presence of bush dog (Speothos venaticus) and giant
armadillo (Priodontes maximus).
• High abundance of Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) with 5 encountered on
the river and approximately 2.5 tapir roads crossing the river every mile. The
animals encountered appeared naïve, due to the absence of hunting.
Flagship species: The Giant Otter
The highly charismatic giant otter (Pteronura brasiliensis) was the main focus of the
expedition, as we were there to collect faecal samples for genetic analysis. The giant
otter population is in the process of recovering from a hunting-mediated population
crash in the last century which drove the species down to an estimated 3000 individuals
range-wide (Carter & Rosas 1997). While no official estimate of pre-hunting population
size exists, judging by skin export figures (Carlos et al 1985, Schenck 1996), it could
easily have been as high as 50,000. Since placing the giant otter in CITES Appendix
1, the removal of an international market in giant otter skins has seen numbers rise.
However, it remains under threat particularly through habitat degradation, mercury
poisoning, and direct conflict with fishermen (Harris et al 2005, Groenendijk et al 2005).
Throughout the population crash the Guianan Shield remained a stronghold for the
species, a low human population density coupled with an interior which had yet to be
opened up led to the giant otter surviving in this region while in other parts of South
America it suffered local extirpation.
The work of Diane McTurk and Karanambu Ranch fomented the impression of
this charismatic predator in the public’s eye, creating an irrevocable association
between Guyana and the giant otter that has since been strengthened by recent BBC
documentaries in the region. Southern Guyana remains one of the top sites in South
America to see giant otters and as such the species acts as a huge draw to many of
the eco-tourists that venture to the Rupununi ensuring that there is also an economical
interest in the survival of the species.
Rob Pickles’ PhD is an investigation into the phylogeography of the giant otter,
using mitochondrial DNA to analyse patterns of relatedness between populations
determining whether there has been any divergence according to drainage basin,
or whether palaeoclimatic events may have been responsible. It also investigates
the degree of gene flow between populations which has important implications for
effective management of the species.
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Figure 9a. Territorial display by a group of giant otters above Corona Falls. Termed ‘periscoping’
the behaviour is accompanied by a cacophony of wails and snorts often backed up by a mock
charge. For the biologist, periscoping allows pictures to be taken of the unique throat patterns
allowing identification of individuals.
Figure 9b. Inquisitive adult male giant otter approaching the boat. While some individuals are
remarkably fearless and will approach to within several yards of the boat, the mood of the group
is determined by the breeding female. If she feels threatened the group will normally periscope
and disappear.
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Method
In surveying the Rewa for signs of giant otters we followed the guidelines of the
IUCN/SSC Otter Specialist Group (Groenendijk et al 2005). The river was searched for
sign during drifts downstream, looking out for evidence of holts, latrines or scratch
walls or for the groups themselves. The position of these was recorded using GPS
to delineate group territories. Group sizes were obtained by directly counting all
individuals when a group was encountered in the river. We used two Canon EOS
400D cameras with 300mm and 500mm lenses to capture throat markings and a Sony
Handycam mini DV. Giant otters have a unique throat pattern which can be used to
identify individuals, preventing the same group being counted twice. When an active
site was located, any faecal deposits evident were collected and stored in ethanol for
subsequent genetic analysis.
Results
In the 65 miles of Rewa Head explored above Corona Falls, we found evidence of
5 groups with an estimated population size of 35 animals and collected 17 faecal
samples. Due to the unseasonably heavy rains experienced it proved more difficult
than anticipated to locate and observe groups. The narrow streams feeding the Rewa
were full, resulting in groups spending much of their time hunting in these difficult
to access creeks. We found that groups frequently had latrines at the confluence of
a forest stream and the main river. Although we did not survey the Lower Rewa for
giant otters, we did encounter 4 groups and collected 13 faecal samples from them.
We also observed the neotropical otter (Lontra longicaudis) in the Rewa Head on four
occasions and encountered two sprainting sites.
While there currently appears to be no direct threat to the giant otter’s survival in the
Rewa and the population appears healthy, in informal discussions with fishermen it is
apparent that they view the giant otter as a competitor. Work in Bolivia, by BecceraCardona (2006) has shown that in rivers there, there is only a small overlap in fish
species and size selection by fishermen and giant otters, however the more generalist
nature of the Guyanese fishermen would inevitably lead to a degree of competition.
This competition is generally tolerated, with actual killing of otters by villagers being
rare. However food shortages in unproductive years might exacerbate antagonistic
feeling towards giant otters leading to conflict.
In the Lower Rewa evidence that the river might be mined for gold or diamonds was
recorded. We found claims staked in April 2008 spread over 20 river miles. As this
report was being prepared the Guyanese Government revoked all claims in the Lower
Rewa and has put a moratorium on mining throughout both the Rewa Head and Lower
Rewa. The giant otter is a top predator in its food chain and is thus extremely sensitive
to mercury bioaccumulation. Mercury concentration has been shown to cause a range
of neurological disorders, impaired reproduction and immunocompetency (Klenavic et
al 2008, Fonseca et al 2005).
Camera Trapping Survey
In this study we used the Reconyx RC55 camera trap due to its fast ‘wake-up’ time and
rate of image capture, able to record 1 frame per second. This enables a more accurate
estimate to be made of animals travelling in groups. The use of digital technology
proved essential in the high humidity of the forest and despite torrential rains, no
camera was lost to mould. 2GB Extreme III CF cards were used and proved ample
to contain all images captured. The traps were triggered by a PIR motion sensor and
were mounted with an infrared LED illuminator. Camera setup was as follows. Image
quality: medium; Firing delay: no delay; Firing sensitivity: extremely high.
13
Method
Twelve Reconyx RC55 camera
traps were set up along the
Rewa above Corona Falls. Each
trap was fixed to a tree or stake
approximately 50cm above the
ground. The traps were set up in
pairs, with one on the river bank
itself facing inland and its partner
150 metres perpendicular to the
river bank facing a direction
estimated to best increase the
likelihood of capture. Each camera
was considered a separate
sampling site for determining the
Relative Abundance Index (RAI).
Figure 10. Rapidity with which all 17 species of mammal The pairs were arranged 5 miles
apart and left for a maximum of
recorded in the camera traps were captured.
22 days before collection. While
game trails were not sought for
in the placement of the traps, local judgment was employed in their positioning
in order to prevent focusing on dead ground. Due to the strict adherence of the
5mile/150m rule, we ensured that to some extent the placement of the traps was
randomised and took in a variety of micro-habitats from dense scrubby marshland
to hill tops to open riparian bush.
Figure 11. Layout of the string of camera traps along the river.
Results
In total, 5227 camera trap hours were accumulated resulting in 214 triggering events.
Of these, discounting false triggerings due to movement of leaves by wind or in cases
where animals had passed too rapidly to be captured, 167 individual animals could
be identified from 16 species of mammal, 5 species of bird: Black curassow (Crax
alector), grey-winged trumpeter, (Psophia crepitans), grey-fronted dove, (Leptotila
rufaxilla), great tinamou (Tinamus major) and cinereous tinamou (Crypturellus
cinereus); and one species of reptile: the jungle runner (Ameiva ameiva). From the
raw images of animals in which individual identification or sexing was impossible,
we filtered the data based on the assumption that multiple firing episodes taken
at the same site in the same 24 hour period constituted the same animal or group.
Number of individuals was then estimated from this as 157. Number of estimated
individuals for each species was then divided by this total to obtain the Relative
Abundance Index (RAI).
14
Table 1. Species diversity and relative abundance index of mammals recorded in the camera traps.
Common Name
Red-rumped Agouti
Paca
Green Acouchy
Collared Peccary
Brazilian Tapir
Nine-banded Long-nosed
Armadillo
Red Brocket Deer
Ocelot
Common Grey Four-eyed
Oppossom
Common Oppossom
Jaguarundi
Margay
Puma
Spiny Rat sp
Guianan Squirrel
Giant Anteater
Tayra
Latin Name
Number
of firings
Estimated
number of
individuals
Relative
Abundance
(%)
Dasyprocta cristata
Agouti paca
Myoprocta exilis
Tayassu tajacu
Tapirus terrestris
42
18
27
2
9
28
17
15
9
9
25.2
15.3
13.5
8.1
8.1
Dasypus novemcinctus
9
9
8.1
Mazama americana
Leopardus pardalis
4
4
4
4
3.6
3.6
Philander opossum
3
3
2.7
Didelphis marsupialis
Puma yagouaroundi
Leopardus wiedi
Puma concolor
Proechimys sp
Sciurus aestuans
Myrmecophaga tridactyla
Eira barbara
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
1.8
0.9
0.9
0.9
131
111
100
17
Discussion
The frequency of triggerings were not evenly distributed throughout the line of traps, but it
appeared that several traps were set up in areas that were ‘dead ground’ with the worst site
(3.1) only firing three times, with only one triggering event yielding species identification
shots, while others were in ‘hot spots’. Traps 4.2 and 6.1 proved the most successful, both
recording 11 species from 30 and 39 triggering events respectively. Trap 4.2 was actually
set up on a hill, 150m from the river’s edge and proved to be an extremely successful spot.
All traps except one continued to work well despite the torrential downpours and high
humidity experienced during the expedition, battery power was between 60-80% when
the traps were recovered after 22 days and the 2GB CF cards were between 1-40% full. To
a certain extent, the lack of triggerings made in the poorer sites might reflect inaccurate
set up. Judging the exact angle at which to point the trap in order to both capture small
rodents passing in the foreground and anything passing in the background was not always
successful. We recommend using a laser pen for setting up as this can help to achieve the
perfect angle. While the company Moultrie have a camera trap on the market with this
function built in, the lack of the ability to have constant firing function, coupled with a
slower wake-up time meant we rejected that model for this study.
There appeared to be no difference in species capture success depending on the
placement of camera traps whether at the river’s edge, or set 150m inland. The bank
traps captured a total of 17 species in 79 triggerings, whereas the inland traps captured
19 species in 91 triggerings. Four species were exclusively caught in the river edge
traps (Guianan squirrel (Sciurus aestuans), ocelot (Leoprardus pardalis), puma (Puma
concolor), and jungle runner (Ameiva ameiva) whereas 6 were caught only by the
inland traps (red brocket deer (Mazama americana), giant anteater (Myrmecophaga
tridactyla), tayra (Eira barbara), margay (Leopardus weidii), common opossum
(Didelphis marsupialis) and grey-winged trumpeter (Psophia crepitans)).
One reason for setting up the traps in a paired string was to test the hypothesis that
felids follow watercourses and so will be more likely to be captured near to the river
bank. While our data are not numerous enough to make meaningful statements, out of
the 10 cats photographed, 7 of them were captured by the river’s edge traps.
15
16
Figure 12. Male puma (Puma concolor) filmed captured following a female (tail just visible on far right).
Figure 13. Herd of collared Peccary (Tayassu tajacu).
Figure 14. Inquisitive female Brazilian tapir
(Tapirus terrestris).
Figure 15. Tayra (Eira Barbara).
Figure 16. Rainforest dwelling giant anteater
(Mymecophaga tridactyla).
Figure 17. Margay (Leopardus wiedii).
Figure 18. Ocelot (Leopardus pardalis).
Figure 19. Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi).
The data reveal a typical situation of high numbers of prey species to predators. Redrumped agouti (Dasyprocta cristata), paca (Agouti paca) and green acouchy (Myoprocta
exilis) were the most abundant, comprising 25.2%, 15.3% and 13.5% respectively of
mammals recorded. Surprisingly no jaguars (Panthera onca) were recorded despite
a known high density from previous expeditions. The reason for this is unclear
although may be related to the unseasonably high water levels experienced during
the expedition, meaning game would be more dispersed throughout the forest and
less focussed on the river. In comparing our results with those from Pobawau Creek
and Cacique Mountains camera trapping sites set up by CI in the Eastern Kanukus RAP,
it is interesting to note that white-lipped and collared peccaries (Tayassu pecari and
T.tajacu) were the most abundant species recorded there, whereas they recorded no
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris), which is the fifth most abundant species recorded in
the Rewa Head camera traps.
When looking at the effectiveness of identifying medium to large mammalian species in
a short period of time using camera traps, table 1 reveals that of the 17 species observed
this way, all were recorded after only 12 days of camera trapping. It appears therefore that
in order to record more species requires either a much longer sampling period, or a much
broader camera network. This would also give more robust RAI figures.
Observations
We found a high diversity of primates, with all of Guyana’s 8 species recorded. Of
particular importance were the Guianan Shield endemics, the black spider monkey (Ateles
paniscus) classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN, the Guianan saki (Pithecia pithecia)
and, the Guianan red howler monkey (Alouatta macconnelli), recently upgraded to full
species, of which over 7 groups were recorded during drift transects.
Figure 20. Fresh bush dog (Speothos venaticus) print at the entrance to a paca den on the
riverbank. Rare and elusive animals, bush dog are an indicator of undisturbed habitat.
Fresh footprints of bush dog (Speothos venaticus) seen investigating the burrow
of a paca along the banks of a tributary feeding the Rewa are firm evidence for the
presence of this unusual canid in the Rewa Head. The bush dog is an elusive and
poorly understood animal, with most data on its behaviour and diet derived from
anecdotes. In one study on diet in the Brazilian Pantanal, de Souza Lima et al (2009)
recorded that the predominant prey found in faeces was the nine-banded long-nosed
armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus), which appears abundant in the Rewa Head.
Although its range is large and it is found throughout Amazonia, it is considered to
17
occur in low densities throughout that extent. The IUCN red list classifies the species
as ‘Near Threatened’ being likely to suffer a 10% decline over the following decade due
to habitat degradation (Zuercher et al 2008).
Several burrows of the giant armadillo (Priodontes maximus) were found in the Rewa
Head. This species is classified as ‘Vulnerable’ by the IUCN.
Figure 21. Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestrisi) photographed 10ft from boat.
Brazilian tapir (Tapirus terrestris) appeared to be abundant in the Rewa Head. During
drift surveys we observed 5 in total on the banks or in the river. As with curassow
and paca, the tapirs we encountered appeared remarkably nonchalant about our
presence, allowing us to approach to within several yards without causing alarm.
To give a rough guide to the density of these animals in the Rewa Head, along a 40
mile stretch of river, while conducting drift transects over several days, we recorded
97 fresh tapir roads, equating to approximately 2.5 fresh roads every river mile. This
coupled with the fact that they were the fifth most numerous species in the camera
traps suggests a strong, healthy population.
Table 2. Comparison of diversity of mammalian orders in three survey sites in Guyana.
Site
Iwokrama
Rewa Head
Eastern Kanukus
Reference
Lim and Ergsrtom
2004
Pickles, McCann, Holland
2009
Montambault and Missa
2002
37 + 49
22
8
7
4
5
8
1
4
15
2
4
8
10
1
2
5
11
9
8
16
1
5
9
44
32
59
Survey duration
(days)
Marsupialis
Xenarthra
Primates
Carnivora
Perissodactyla
Artiodactyla
Rodentia
18
Figure 22. Pale-throated three-toed sloth (Dasypus tridactylus) photographed at the river’s edge.
Jaguar were glimpsed twice above the falls and their presence was noted in fresh
scratch patches and scats left near camp. However, due to the high level of the river
following several torrential downpours, there was a lack of exposed rocks where
they have been filmed basking on previous trips. During a 6 week trip above Corona
Falls in 2004 for instance, Ashley Holland and Gordon Duncan filmed 10 jaguars at
extremely close proximity. Jaguarundi (Puma yagouaroundi) was seen once. From
sightings and camera trap evidence we recorded five of the six species of felid known
to exist in Guyana, and given the nature of the habitat and lack of disturbance, it is
likely that the oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus) will exist in the area as well. The cryptic
pale-throated three-toed sloth (Bradypus tridactylus) was also seen on drift surveys,
three were recorded in the duration of the expedition.
In total we recorded the presence of 33 species of non-volant mammal, including
2 marsupials, 4 xenarthrans, 8 primates, 10 carnivores, 1 perrissodactyl, 2 artiodactyls,
and 6 rodents, equating to 35% of Guyana’s total non-volant, non-marine mammalian
fauna. Guyana’s total mammalian species count is 225, 121 of which are bats and
8 are marine cetaceans. In comparing the results of our survey in the Rewa Head with
those from other surveys in Guyana such as Iwokrama and the Eastern Kanukus, one
should note that no small-mammal trapping took place during our expedition and we
only present in our species list animals recorded during the course of the expedition.
19
Chapter 2. Bird Species Diversity and Relative Abundance
Avian diversity and relative abundance was measured by conducting a series of spot
counts drifting downstream along 60 miles of the Rewa Head, and through mist netting
at camps set roughly 12 miles apart along from the East-West Split to Powis Falls.
For reference we used Steven Hilty’s Birds of Venezuela in conjunction with Robin Restall’s
Birds of Northern South America and the Smithsonian Institution’s A Field Checklist of
the Birds of Guyana. In English names we have chosen to follow Hilty’s nomenclature.
Principal Findings
• 187 species recorded through drift spot counts and mist netting. This rises to
251 with the inclusion of the Smithsonian Institution’s 2006 data.
• 10 Guianan Shield Endemics.
• Confirmed presence of threatened harpy and crested eagle.
• High diversity of raptors with 12 species recorded.
Mist Netting Survey
We conducted mist net surveys at 5 points along the 60 miles of river on which we
were focussing our research. We used three 40ft standard BTO NR nets with a mesh
size of 3cm. These proved fine enough to capture small birds such as antbirds and
hummingbirds, and strong enough to capture species up to the size of a pigeon.
Figure 23. Ash and Rob identifying a plain-brown woodcreeper (Dendrocincla fuliginosa).
Method
The nets were erected 50-200m from camp in a variety of habitats such as near vine
tangles, tree falls and along the river edge in order to catch unobtrusive species which
would not have been recorded during a drift transect. The nets were erected at 6am
and taken down at 5:30pm during surveys and were checked every hour. Five netting
sites were used from the East-West Rewa split down to Powis Falls covering a variety
of habitats from open, scrubby bush, to palm thickets and dense forest. Ashley Holland
has been identifying birds in the Rewa for several years and he, Ryol Merriman and
Kevin Alvin had worked previously with the Smithsonian Institution during their
collecting expedition in 2006 and were adept at removing and identifying birds in the
nets, being familiar with the majority of species caught.
20
Figure 24. A White-plumed Antbird (Pithys
albifrons).
Figure 25. Blue-crowned Motmot (Motmotus
motmota).
Figure 26a. Rufous-belled antwren (Myrmotherula guttata) and Figure 26b. brown-bellied
antwren (Myrmotherula gutturalis), two Guianan Shield endemics.
Figure 27. Rufous-throated antbird (Gymnopithys
rufigula).
Figure 28. Pygmy kingfisher, (Chloroceryle
aenea).
Figure 29. Variegated antpitta (Grallaria varia).
Figure 30. Red-necked woodpecker (Campephilus
rubricollis)
21
Results
In total 420 mist net hours were accumulated (140 hours per net) at the five netting
sites. 91 birds were caught, resulting in 41 different species being identified. Four birds
were unidentified; two of which were likely to have been female long-winged antbirds
(Myrmotherula longipennis). Twenty-three of the species caught in mist nets were not
observed during the drift transects.
The most frequently caught family was the Thamnophilidae with 15 of all species
and 27% of total number of individuals caught, followed by the Dendrocolaptidae (5
species) and Trochilidae (4 species). The most common species encountered in the
nets was the wedge-billed woodcreeper (Glyphorynchus spirurus).
Drift Spot Count Survey
Method
In conducting drift spot count surveys, we divided the river from the East-West Split at
N2° 37.740’ W58° 37.040’ down to Corona Falls at N3° 10.579’ W58° 40.433’, into 5 mile
stretches. Each stretch was surveyed once by drifting downstream with three spotters in a
boat, taking turns at inputting the data, resulting in a single surveyed transect of 60 miles.
We used a portable mp3 player containing the vocalisations of the birds of Venezuela to
identify calls and song. We kept to mid-river when it was narrow enough to cover both
banks, but when the river widened to over 40m we kept within 15m of one bank. To
standardise the surveys we attempted to maintain a steady speed of around 2 miles per
hour, by paddling through slower stretches though the speed invariably depended on the
volume of water flowing. Following heavy rains transect duration was shorter by at least
half an hour due to the increased flow. Occasionally it was necessary to break up a stretch,
such as when portaging. When this occurred we halted the count until the obstacle had
been passed. Spot counts were carried out in the morning, when animal activity was
greatest. However, due to the logistics of moving camp, several times we had to carry on
with conducting the surveys into the afternoon, when activity generally declined.
Results
We recorded over 4000 birds
during the transects, resulting in
the identification of 158 species
through both visual observation
and vocalisations. Through the
combination of sightings made
on drift transects, mist-netting,
opportunistic
sightings
and
vocalisations, we positively identified
187 species from 48 different
families. The most diverse family
observed was the Tyrannidae
(34 species) closely followed by
Thamnophilidae (31 species), then
Accipitridae (11 species), Psittacidae
(11 species), Ardeidae (10 species)
and Trochilidae and Thraupidae (9
species). The most abundant family
was the Hirudinidae comprising
20%
of
total
observations,
followed by the Apodidae, with
Figure 31. Crimson topaz (Topaza pella). In total nine
16%, Psittacidae with 10% then
species of hummingbird were recorded in the Rewa.
Icteridae with 5%.
Discussion
In August 2006 Ashley Holland led a Smithsonian Institution collecting expedition to the
Rewa, coordinated by Chris Milensky and Brian Schmidt. They set up two mist netting
sites, one above Corona Falls at Louis Creek (2 58’ 17” N, 58 35’ 37” W) and the other
below. Above the falls they erected 20 nets and netted for 10 days. Combining our data
22
with the Smithsonian’s gives a more complete picture of the region’s avifauna as they were
there in the wet August, while we were there in January, entering the dry season. In the
species list we present our observations together with those of the Smithsonian Institute
for direct comparison. This brings the total number of bird species seen in the Rewa to 250
and number of families to 53, equating to 31% of all Guyana’s bird species (796).
The difference in season is most apparent in the presence of migratory species such as
the Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and the relative abundance of frugivorous species such
as the Psittacidae which were no doubt more noticeable in January due to congregations
forming on fruiting trees. Likewise, whereas the Smithsonian recorded the family Ictericidae
as Uncommon, we often encountered large flocks of yellow-rumped cacique (Cacicus
cela), red-rumped cacique (Cacicus haemorrhous) and crested oropendola (Psarocolius
decumanus) as they were nesting, leading us to surmise that they were Common in the area.
Of chief interest in the sightings are 10 Guianan Shield endemics, the Guianan toucanet
(Selenidera culik), green aracari (Pteroglossus viridis), black nunbird (Monasa atra),
rufous-throated antbird (Gymnopithys rufigula), brown-bellied antwren (Myrmotherula
gutturalis), rufous-belled antwren (Myrmotherula guttata), caica parrot (pionopsitta caica)
and black curassow (Crax alector). Two species recorded have particularly small ranges
within the Guianan Shield ecoregion, Todd’s antwren (Herpsilochmus stictocephalus)
and little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus). This expedition also confirms the presence
of the awesome harpy eagle (Harpia harpyja) and crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis)
in the Rewa Head. A potential sighting of a dusky purpletuft (Idopleura fusca) is worth
mentioning, although further confirmation is required that they are found in this area.
The species’ current known range in Guyana is restricted to Iwokrama Reserve, which
would make the discovery of a second population extremely important.
The presence of harpy and
crested eagle, with good
observations made reflects the
pristine nature of the habitat
of the Rewa Head, with large
mature kapok trees (Ceiba
pentandra) providing nesting
sites and a high abundance
of primate, sloth and cracid
prey to sustain the population.
Shortly after our expedition
Duane de Freitas reported
10 harpy sightings in the
Rewa Head, including several
pairs, suggesting that these
birds are breeding above
Figure 32. The crested eagle (Morphnus guianensis), classed as the falls. The abundance and
naivety of cracids, both black
‘’near threatened” in the IUCN Red List.
curassow (Crax alector) and
blue-throated piping-guan (Pipile cumanensis), favoured game birds, illustrates the fact
that hunting does not take place in the area. The high diversity of raptors recorded is of
particular interest, six of which were not recorded by the Smithsonian Institute during their
collecting expedition in 2006, and again points to a pristine habitat rich in prey.
When seen in the context of Conservation International’s 2001 Rapid Assessment Program
to the Eastern Kanukus and Lower Kwitaro (Montambau and Missa 2003), our findings
become more relevant. CI recorded a total of 264 species in the Lower Kwitaro, Eastern
Kanukus after combining data from their 2001 RAP with that of Davis Finchs survey in
1998. Of the combined 250 species from ZSL’s 2009 expedition and the Smithsonian’s 2006
expedition, 68 were not recorded in the Eastern Kanukus and Lower Kwitaro, these are
predominantly Ardeidae (6 species), Accipitridae (6 species), Thamnophilidae (8 species),
Tyrranidae (13 species) and Thraupidae (8 species). This might reflect habitat differences
due to the range from dense rainforest to scrub and bush patches further up the Rewa
Head, habitat preferred by species such as the little hermit (Phaethornis longuemareus).
23
Chapter 3. Reptile Species Diversity
No specific herpetological studies took place, however several observations made
during drift transects or through chance encounters are worth recording.
Firstly the complete absence of black caiman (Melanosuchus niger) and spectacled
caiman (Caiman yacare) in the Rewa Head is interesting and is likely to be due to Corona
Falls acting as a dispersal barrier. The contrastingly high numbers of Schneider’s dwarf
caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) above the falls may be due to their preference for cool,
fast flowing forest streams rather than ecological release from competition with other
crocodilians. Magnussun et al (1987) considered there to be resource partitioning between
dwarf and spectacled caiman as a result of differing habitats and prey selectivity which
precludes competition from occurring. However, Medem (1971) reported that following
hunting for skins of black and spectacled caiman from rivers in Colombia, the un-hunted
dwarf caiman (due to the low value of its skin) expanded its range, so perhaps competition
does play a role in explaining the pattern seen. Below Corona Falls we observed both black
and spectacled caiman but no dwarf caiman. The species is known to exist in the Lower
Rewa, but at much lower densities (Holland unpublished data) and is rare downstream of
the Kwitaro mouth.
Figure 33. Schneider’s dwarf caiman (Paleosuchus trigonatus) in typical head-up resting pose.
With regards to Testudines, most conspicuous in its absence was the giant Amazonian
Turtle (Podocnemis expansa), classified as ‘Lower risk/conservation dependent’ and
yellow-spotted sidenecked turtle (Podocnemis unifilis), classified as ‘Vulnerable’, both
of which were recorded in the Lower Rewa up to Corona Falls, yet as with the spectacled
and black caiman, absent from the Rewa Head. Another Testudine of particular note
encountered on a hill in dense forest in the Rewa Head was the yellow-footed tortoise
(Geochelone denticulata) described as ‘Vulnerable’ in IUCN Red List reports.
We encountered 6 green anacondas (Eunectes murinus) in the Rewa Head during the
expedition. Five of them were basking on the river bank while the sixth was actively
swimming. In order to ascertain our size estimates were correct, we captured a large
anaconda and measured it, taking three measurements from nose tip to tail tip using a
length of string and assumed the mean measurement to be accurate. Our estimated length
of 17ft proved close, but short by 1’2”. The snake’s total length was 18’2”. Unfortunately no
weight was taken, but the animal’s girth at its thickest point was 27”. The other anacondas
seen were estimated as 8ft, 15ft, 16ft and two at 17ft. The presence of these very large
snakes in the area is extremely interesting as in the longest-running study on anacondas in
the world, in the Venezuelan Llanos, Jesus Rivas captured over 900 animals yet recorded
few specimens growing larger than 16’ long. There is undoubtedly a good prey base for
the anacondas in the Rewa Head, with capybara and dwarf caiman plentiful.
24
Figure 34. Yellow-footed tortoise (Geochelone denticulata).
Figure 35. The team measuring a large anaconda. Total
length was determined as 18’2”.
25
Chapter 4. The Future state of the Rewa Head:
Identification of stake holders
Tour operators and village communities
Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas both take tourists up the Rewa, running around 3
trips per year to the Lower Rewa and 1-2 trips per year above Corona Falls. Approximately
15 local guides are employed for these trips. This low level ecotourism is sustainable
and not detrimental to the Rewa Head. Integrating this tourism with the Amerindian
villages of Rewa and Yupukari has led to the construction of several purpose-built
lodges for tourists to stay in resulting in a trickle down of revenue into the villages. In
terms of livelihood the Lower Rewa is also an important source of fish and game and
villagers also hold small garden plots in the fertile alluvial soil there.
The Guyanan Nation
In terms of ecosystem services, the protection of Guyana’s headwaters must be
considered as the Rewa is an important limb of the Essequibo drainage. We experienced
firsthand the effect a downpour in the Kanukus immediately has on the river level,
which in turn has a knock-on effect on levels in the Rupununi and subsequently, the
Essequibo. The terrifying fact that 90% of Guyanese live in a narrow coastal region
including Georgetown, which lies 0.5-1m below sea level points to flooding representing
a constant and immediate risk. The pattern of weather seasonality in Guyana appears
to be changing, with shorter dry seasons and prolonged, heavier wet seasons. In 2005
heavy flooding wracked Georgetown affecting over 200,000 people, with open sewerage
presenting a huge public health problem. Preserving the forests of the Essequibo’s
headwaters should be seen as one way of minimising run-off and preventing devastating
flooding from occurring. The covering of dense forest acts to dampen the rush of water
into the rivers and help prevent flooding further downstream.
Small-scale gold dredging
While the substrate under the forests either side of the Rewa reportedly does not
contain gold bearing rock, being chiefly composed of sandy loam and so unlikely to
offer a lucrative large-scale mining opportunity, the accumulation of gold particles and
also diamonds brought down the Rewa from the Kanuku Mountains will have led to
fluvial or ‘placer’ deposits suitable for mining using small two-man dredges. The Rewa
constitutes a succession of mining claims and while travelling to the Rewa Head, we
Figure 36. Use of a hollow tree trunk as a holt by giant otters coincides with the placement of a
gold mine claim board.
26
recorded claim boards over 20 river miles registered under the name of ‘DWIGHT’
Licence number 3748 1-50 claimed in April 2008. Poignantly, one claim board (pictured)
was found to have been erected beside a giant otter holt.
Mineral mining including dredging for gold and diamonds is a central aspect
of the Guyanese economy. In 2008, Guyana’s total export receipts amounted to
US$798.4million. The largest export was gold, with earnings of US$203.7million.
Second largest was sugar (US$133.4million) and third largest bauxite, with earnings
of US$131.1million. As such the importance of mining to the economy of Guyana
cannot be underestimated. It is important that areas of land are identified that should
be ring-fenced from mining due to their ecological significance. Equally important is
that mining practices are improved to minimise the damage done to any environment
where mining operations are carried out.
Gold dredging is typically carried out by 2-4 men and a small pontoon-mounted
dredge, with a diver operating a nozzle to suck up sediment from the riverbed and the
sediment then being processed on the river bank. Unfortunately the use of mercury for
amalgamating the gold particles is still widespread in South America. As a result of the
process of extraction, mercury is lost into the watercourses where, due to biochemical
interactions, it can be converted into the highly toxic methylmercury and absorbed by
aquatic life six times easier than the inorganic form (Committee on the Toxicological
Effects of Methylmercury 2000). The toxic effect of mercury, as a result of bioaccumulation,
has been well documented and can lead to neurological and organ failure and impaired
reproduction. Klenavic et al. (2008) found that in wild mink (Mustela vison) and North
American river otters (Lontra canadensis) high mercury concentration was associated
with higher parasite burden, suggesting the animals were immunocompromised.
The dredging itself erodes river banks and results in large sediment plumes in the
watercourse, leading to smothering of benthic river fauna and flora.
In 2005 The Geology and Mines Commission released the Mining (Amendment)
Regulations that aim to improve the environmental practices of all mining operations.
As part of that amendment a dredge operator can be fined US$350 for mercury
seepage and the operation shut down. Since November 2008, an Environmental
Bond of US$480 must be paid before operations begin and at the UN meeting of
Environmental Ministers in Nairobi in late February 2009, Guyana became a signatory
in a legally binding treaty aimed at slashing the use of mercury in mining.
Currently, for small-scale river dredging operations, a river mile is extremely cheap to
buy, working out at US$20 per mile for the first year and US$10 each succeeding year.
Including the associated costs of mining permits and licences, to buy the claims for
the entire Rewa Head would amount to little more than US$1400 for the first year and
US$1050 for each successive year.
Oil Drilling
The Canadian company Groundstar Resources Ltd has been exploring the Rupununi
and Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo District for oil and gas reserves since 2005,
holding the right to exploration and extraction of oil and natural gas in 780,000ha
of land, part of which includes the Rewa (Source: GGMC Official Gazzette). In March
2008 the company entered into a farm-in agreement with Canacol Energy Ltd under
the terms of which Canacol stumps up the initial exploratory costs in return for a
55% interest stake in the block. Groundstar currently has 3 prospects it is looking
to exploit containing an estimated 55billion barrels of oil and drilling is expected to
begin this year following exploratory wells being sunk at the Rewa and Karanambu
prospects. As yet however, there is no absolute certainty that it will be commercially
viable to extract the oil (Source: www.scandoil.com, www.rigzone.com).
Groundstar has apparently begun community consultation and environmental impact
management. As with the issue of logging, the presiding concern is the development
of roads and the bringing in of workers to the area. It must be recognised that there are
benefits to the community from the drilling in terms of local employment in Rewa Village
27
itself and the access road which will make it easier for villagers to travel to Lethem, the
nearest town. However it is of prime concern that the development of the wells should be
monitored by an objective assessor to ensure that environmental standards are kept.
Logging
Simon and Shock International LLC (SSI) is a US based timber company specializing in
expensive tropical hardwoods for high-end markets. In January 2008 the company bought
up 400,000 hectares of logging concessions in the headwaters of the Rewa and Essequibo
rivers with the intention of extracting species such as greenheart (Chlorocardium
rodiei) and purpleheart (Peltogyne sp). The western section of the logging concession
incorporates the entirety of the Rewa Head and includes the right banks of the Kwitaro
and Lower Rewa. The 80,000ha Conservation International concession nestles between
the East and West logging concessions in the Upper Essequibo.
As part of a US$45 million project, SSI announced its intention to build a state-of-the-art
saw mill in Linden, northern Guyana. This mill is purported to be the most technologically
advanced in the world, recovering an estimated 75% of timber from logs as opposed to
30-40% which is typical in Neotropical mills. This is achieved using a network of lasers
and computer-guided saws to make the cuts which optimise output. The aim of the mill,
as explained by Kelly Simon, CEO of Simon and Shock, is to completely eliminate waste.
Sawdust will be used to fire the kilns and ash will be given to farmers as fertiliser. SSI
state that the new laser-guided milling technology at the Linden saw mill will result in
half the number of trees needed to be felled to produce the same volume of timber (SSI
figures 2007). Although doubts have been expressed over the efficacy of the new mill
with tropical hardwoods and the recovery estimates claimed.
In discussions with Kelly Simon, a suite of measures designed to minimise the impact
of logging were mentioned and the company is evidently keen to portray itself as one
of the most sustainable and least environmentally damaging logging firms operating
in South America. At the practical level, measures such as positioning the saw mill in
Linden in the industrialised north, rather than in the forest itself will negate the need for
workers to stay in the forest and prevent a creep in of small-scale exploiters. Foresters
are apparently to be recruited from Annai and bussed in by morning and out by
evening, while Brinks Security on the road entering the concession will check workers
for weapons and game and will have the power to arrest poachers. The use of narrow
forwarders and cable skidders will minimise damage to the ground and surrounding
trees when logs are removed. SSI have stated that they will leave a set-back of 200yds
from streams to protect the drainages, six times the proscribed distance, and intend to
leave ‘biodiversity banks,’ islands of forest within the concession which will be left to
act as reservoirs and fail-safes for biodiversity.
If all measures are carried out as stated, the impact on the forest ecosystem will be
minimised to a degree. However, there are important considerations to take. Namely,
working and making a profit out of 400,000 hectares of forest would require a large work
force, likely larger than the small village of Annai could supply. This would necessitate
bringing in workers, perhaps settling them in Annai. Feeding these workers protein
will then become an issue, and it will be extremely difficult to prevent any poaching
at all from occurring. While armed security at a checkpoint on the road will prevent
vehicles from entering, poachers on foot would simply be able to hike around the
checkpoint. Logging the concession will necessitate creating a network of roads to
bring the forest machinery in and the logs out. Due to the nature of the Parishara area,
the most likely access point to the concession, the roads will have to be substantial.
One estimate suggests they will need to be 10-15ft high. Furthermore transporting
the logs to Linden would most likely be carried out using double trailered road trains
with a gross weight of 110 tons which local sources have pointed out, would require
55 bridges to be rebuilt at an estimated cost of US$1 million per bridge. The Lethem
to Georgetown road would also have to be widened to incorporate the size of these
trucks. That coupled with the 400 miles of road needed to traverse between the SSI
concession and the Linden saw mill may well make the venture uneconomical.
28
Figure 37. The area leased to Groundstar Resources for oil drilling totals 780,000ha of land and
includes two prospects, one near Karanambu lands and the other near Rewa village. (Source:
Takutu Basin: Groundstar PPL www.groundstarresources.com/country.html)
Simon and Shock International has been leased 400,000ha of land including the entirety of the Rewa
Head. (Source: Forest Resources Information Unit, Guyana Forestry Commission).
29
While outwardly selective logging can appear to cause minimal environmental
degradation, un-detectable from fly-overs, the removal of large economic species will
alter the canopy structure and the reduction in leaf-fall from such key trees has been
shown by Villela et al (2006) in the eastern Brazilian forests to cause a reduction in
nutrient cycling. If poorly managed, skidding out logs can damage trees and saplings
and the compacted furrows caused by logging machinery can alter surface run-off,
leading to erosion. The construction of the roads and bridges as well as the skidding
trails will without doubt impact negatively on sensitive species such as bush dog
(Speothos venaticus) as well as ground nesting birds such as tinamous (Tinamidae).
The economic impact of SSI’s acquisition of the Upper Rewa-Essequibo concessions
should not be underestimated. The company has stated that it is pumping $45million
into this project and so one can expect that when logging begins, the returns are
significant. Under the terms of the agreement with the Guyanese government,
all timber extracted from the forests will not leave Guyana, but will be worked incountry, allowing the nation to maximise the revenue from its forests. The villagers
of Annai and a workforce in Linden will benefit from the project through employment.
However, whether the governmental income from logging the concession exceeds
that of receiving payments from REDD to hold on to the concession intact has been
challenged by Rhett Butler (see Butler 2008) who reports that in fiscal terms the forests
could be worth more to Guyana standing.
Figure 38. In the dry season huge sandy beaches are exposed in the Lower Rewa, providing a nesting
ground for giant South American river turtles (Podocnemis expansa). The superabundance of eggs laid
in these sand banks is a boon which many forest species time their breeding cycle to coincide with.
30
Chapter 5. Conservation value of the Rewa Head
In the 22 days spent above Corona Falls we recorded the presence of 33 species of
mammal, equating to 35% of all non-volant mammal species in Guyana. The combined
ZSL/SI figure of 250 bird species represents 31% of Guyana’s total bird species count.
Of those, 11 were found to be Guianan Shield endemics. Following further surveying
of the area including the use of small-mammal traps these figures are certain to rise.
These initial findings strongly suggest that the Rewa Head is a region of outstanding
biological richness and deserves international recognition.
Of Guyana’s 28 non-marine species of mammal, bird and reptile classified as
‘conservation dependent’ or worse, we recorded 10 present in the Rewa Head (2 birds,
8 mammals, 1 reptile) and 3 were found to exist in the Lower Rewa up to Corona Falls
(black caiman, Melanosuchus niger; Giant South American river turtle, Podocnemis
expansa and the yellow-spotted side-necked turtle, Podocnemis unifilis). Other species
such as the blue-cheeked Amazon (Amazona dufresniana), oncilla (Leopardus tigrinus)
and white-lipped peccary (Tayassu peccary) are highly likely to be found in the Rewa
Head following further surveying.
Table 5. Threatened species of Guyana (IUCN Red List 2008). Yellow highlight indicates presence
above Corona Falls, orange indicates presence below Corona Falls.
Mammals
Common Name
Black Spider Monkey
Oncilla
Margay
Giant Anteater
Venezuelan Fish-eating Rat
Jaguar
Giant Armadillo
Giant Otter
Bush Dog
Brazilian Tapir
White-lipped Peccary
Spectral Bat
Latin name
Ateles paniscus
Leopardus tigrinus
Leopardus wiedii
Neusticomys venezuelae
Panthera onca
Priodontes maximus
Pteronura brasiliensis
Speothos venaticus
Tapirus terrestris
Tayassu pecari
Vampyrum spectrum
Status
Vulnerable
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Vulnerable
Endangered
Near Threatened
Vulnerable
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Birds
Common Name
Blue-cheeked Amazon
Sun Parakeet
Red Siskin
Rio Branco Antbird
Olive-sided Flycatcher
Harpy Eagle
Crested Eagle
Orinoco Goose
Great-billed Seed-finch
Bearded Tachuri
Hoary-throated Spinetail
Buff-breasted Sandpiper
Latin name
Amazona dufresniana
Aratinga solstitialis
Carduelis cucullata
Cercomacra carbonaria
Contopus cooperi
Harpia harpyja
Morphnus guianensis
Neochen jubata
Oryzoborus maximiliani
Polystictus pectoralis
Synallaxis kollari
Tryngites subruficollis
Status
Near threatened
Endangered
Endangered
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Near Threatened
Endangered
Near Threatened
Reptiles
Common Name
Yellow-footed tortoise
Latin name
Geochelone denticulata
Black Caiman
Melanosuchus niger
Giant South American Turtle
Podocnemis expansa
Yellow-spotted Sideneck Turtle
Podocnemis unifilis
Status
Vulnerable
LowerRisk/conservation
dependent
LowerRisk/conservation
dependent
Vulnerable
31
From our brief visit to the Rewa Head it is clear that the region is biologically rich, containing
both Guianan Shield endemics and threatened species, with a naivety in wild animals not
seen in hunted areas. A direct comparison of our results with those from the CI RAP to
the Eastern Kanukus in 2001 highlights the fact that there are important species which we
recorded in the Rewa Head which have not yet been recorded in the Eastern Kanukus.
In Conservation International’s 2001 Eastern Kanukus RAP (Montambaut and Missa
2002), they proposed creating a “corridor of conservation” extending from the Western
Kanukus across Southern Guyana to the Suriname border. Since then the Kanuku
Mountains Protected Area has been proposed and is now in the planning stages and
CI has leased up 80,000ha of logging concession in the Upper Essequibo.
The Rewa Head and the Lower Rewa are both important in terms of their biodiversity.
The isolated nature and natural protection afforded the Rewa Head by the string of falls
and cataracts makes the place appealing when considering preserving the area in law.
The area is worth recognising for the outstanding wildlife viewing for dedicated birdwatchers and adventurous eco-tourists. Since Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas
have been taking paying customers up the Rewa, the villagers of Rewa and Yupukari
have been benefitting from a supplementary income, from paid guides to managing
tourist lodges. The reason the guests go out to the interior, and to the Rewa in particular,
is specifically to view wildlife which elsewhere has been pushed out or made shy
through development and hunting. It is the extraordinary naivety of species such as
tapir and jaguar and the ease with which they are seen that is the Rewa Head’s chief
selling point.
A crucial recommendation of this report is that further scientific studies be carried
out in the area. The authors have contacted the conservation organisation Operation
Wallace about the potential of establishing a yearly expedition to the Rupununi.
Operation Wallacea organise a series of biological and social science expeditions
that operate in remote locations across the world. These expeditions are designed
with specific wildlife conservation aims in mind - from identifying areas needing
protection, through to implementing and assessing conservation management
programmes. Operation Wallacea work very closely with the indigenous peoples
inhabiting all of their study sites and are particularly concerned that it is the local
inhabitants who benefit from their presence there. The data extracted during these
expeditions are published in peer reviewed journals as well as in popular science
magazines. The publication of data from the biodiversity rich Rupununi region will
in turn encourage further scientific teams, film crews and eco-tourists to visit the
area, which will bring yet more funds into the local communities. We consider the
establishment of regular expeditions to designated research stations around Region
9 as highly important in the future sustainability of the area and the broadening of
incomes within local villages.
As well as the benefits to the local communities to be afforded through well managed
tourism and scientific studies, the Lower Rewa is also extremely important from a
livelihoods perspective. Fish, turtle eggs and game are all taken from this stretch.
Therefore there is a vested interest to maintain that source of protein. The fact that
no-one apart from Ashley Holland and Duane de Freitas go above Corona Falls may
mean that the area acts as a huge source population for many game species which
then disperse to the Lower Rewa where they are hunted.
These two facets of the area: well-managed eco-tourism bringing financial income to
the local villages and the maintenance of a hunting base can be employed to benefit
the Amerindian People as well as the wildlife and natural resources themselves.
32
Figure 39. A relict leviathan, the anaconda’s future above Corona Falls is uncertain.
33
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36
Appendix I
Mammalian Diversity
In the table the evidence is described as S sighting, V vocalisation or I indirect evidence
such as footprints, scats or burrows.
ZSL Expedition 2009
Evidence
English Name
Scientific Name
Opossums
Didelphiae
Common Grey Four-eyed Opossum
Philander opossum
Common Opossum
Didelphis marsupialis
C
Sloths
Edentata
Pale-throated Three-toed Sloth
Bradypus tridactylus
S
Anteaters
Myrmecophagidae
Giant Anteater
C
Armadillos
Dasypodidae
Nine-banded Long-nosed Armadillo
Dasypus novemcinctus
Giant Armadillo
Priodontes maximus
I
Marmosets and Tamarins
Callitrichidae
Golden-handed Tamarin
Seguinus midas
S
Monkeys
Cebidae
Brown Capuchin
Cebus apella
S
Wedge-capped Capuchin
Cebus olivaceus
S
Common Squirrel Monkey
Saimiri sciureus
S
Guianan Red Howler Monkey
Alouatta macconnelli
Guianan Saki
Pithecia pithecia
S
Red-backed Bearded Saki
Chiropotes chiropotes
S
Black Spider Monkey
Ateles paniscus
Dogs
Canidae
Bush Dog
Speothos venaticus
I
Racoon Family
Procyonidae
South American Coati
Nasua nasua
S
Mustelids
Mustelidae
Giant Otter
Pteronura brasiliensis
S,I
Neotropical Otter
Lontra longicaudis
S,I
Tayra
Eira barbara
C
S,C
C,I
S,V
S,V
37
38
Cats
Felidae
Jaguar
Panthera onca
S,C,I
Puma
Puma concolor
C
Ocelot
Leopardus pardalis
C
Margay
Leopardus wiedi
C
Jaguarundi
Felis Jaguarundi
S,C
Deer
Cervidae
Red Brocket Deer
Mazama americana
C
Peccaries
Tayassuidae
Collared Peccary
Tayassu tajacu
Tapirs
Tapiridae
Brazilian Tapir
Tapirus terrestris
Squirrels
Sciuridae
Guianan Squirrel
Sciurus aestuans
C
Capybaras
Hydrochaeridae
Capybara
Hydrochaeris hydrochaeris
Paca
Agoutidae
Paca
Agouti paca
Agoutis and Acouchys
Dasyproctidae
Red-rumped Agouti
Dasyprocta cristata
Green Acouchy
Myoprocta exilis
Spiny rats
Echimyidae
Spiny tree rat
Lonchothrix emiliae
S,C,I
S,C,I
S,I
S,C,I
S,C,I
C
S
Appendix II
Avian Diversity and Relative Abundance
In ascertaining the abundance of each species we followed the Smithsonian’s guide:
C Common; more than 20 individuals encountered daily in prime habitat and season
F
Fairly common; 5-20 individuals encountered daily in prime habitat and season
U Uncommon; present in small numbers (fewer than 5 individuals per day); not
encountered daily even in prime habitat and season
S Scarce; only occasionally encountered in small numbers even in prime habitat
and season
In the table the evidence of the bird is described as S Sighting, V vocalisation, C
Camera Trap or M mist net. In many cases the vocalisation is more diagnostic than
a brief sighting and playback was successfully used on a number of occasions to
identify birds, in particular cryptic understory species such as Todd’s Antwren and the
Helmeted Pygmy tyrant.
ZSL
Smithsonian
Expedition Expedition
Aug 2006
Jan 2009
English Name
Scientific Name
Tinamous
Tinamidae
Great Tinamou
Tinamus major
S
F
V, C
Cinereous Tinamou
Crypturellus cinereus
U
S
V, C
Variegated Tinamou
Crypturellus variegatus
S
F
V
Anhingas
Anhingidae
Anhinga
Anhinga anhinga
F
F
S
Cormorants
S
S
S
Herons
Phalacrocoracidae
Phalacrocorax
brasiliensis
Ardeidae
Zigzag Heron
Zebrilus undualtus
S
Rufescent Tiger-Heron
Tigrisoma lineatum
U
U
S
Fasciated Tiger-Heron
Tigrisoma fasciatum
S
U
S
Cocoi Heron
Ardea cocoi
F
F
S
Little Blue Heron
Egretta caerulea
S
S
Cattle Egret
Bubulcus ibis
S
Great Egret
Aredea alba
S
S
Agami Heron
Agamia agami
S
S
Striated Heron
Butorides striatus
U
U
S
Capped Heron
Pilherodias pileatus
S
U
S
Storks
Ciconiidae
Wood Stork
Mycteria americana
S
S
Ibises
F
C
S
Vultures
Threskiornithidae
Mesembrinibis
cayennensis
Cathartidae
Black Vulture
Coragyps atratus
U
U
S
Turkey Vulture
Greater Yellow-headed
Vulture
King Vulture
Cathartes aura
S
S
Cathartes melanbrotus
F
F
S
Sarcoramphus papa
F
F
S
Neotropical Cormorant
Green Ibis
Evidence
39
Hawks, Eagles
Accipitridae
Swallow-tailed Kite
Elanoides forficatus
F
S
S
Double-toothed Kite
Harpagus bidentatus
S
Grey-headed kite
Leptodon cayanensis
S
S
Plumbeous Kite
Ictinia plumbea
S
S
S
Great Black-Hawk
Buteogallus urubitinga
U
U
S
White Hawk
Leucopternis albicollis
U
S
Roadside Hawk
Buteo magnirostris
S
U
S
Short-tailed Hawk
Buteo brachyurus
S
S
Tiny Hawk
Accipiter superciliosus
S
S
Harpy Eagle
Harpia harpyja
S
S
Ornate Hawk Eagle
Spizaetus ornatus
S
S
Ospreys
Pandionidae
Osprey
Pandion haliaetus
S
Falcons, Caracaras
Falconidae
Lined Forest-Falcon
U
S
S
Black Caracara
Micrastur gilvicollis
Micrastur
semitorquatus
Daptrius ater
U
U
S
Red-throated Caracara
Ibycter americanus
U
F
S,V
Bat Falcon
Falco rufigularis
U
F
S
Curassows, Guans
Cracidae
Little Chachalaca
Ortalis motmot
F
U
S,V
Black Curassow
Crax alector
F
U
S,V,C
Blue-throated Piping-Guan
Pipile cumanensis
U
F
S,V
Quails
U
Rails
Odontophoridae
Odontophorus
gujanensis
Rallidae
Grey-necked Wood-Rail
Aramides cajanea
S
S
V
Sungrebes
Heliornithidae
Sungrebe
Heliornis fulica
S
U
S
Sunbitterns
Eurypygidae
Sunbittern
Eurypyga helias
S
U
S
Trumpeters
Psophidae
Grey-winged Trumpeter
Psophia crepitans
S
U
S,V,C
Sandpipers
Scolopacidae
Spotted Sandpiper
Actitis macularia
U
F
S
Pigeons, Doves
Columbidae
Plumbeous Pigeon
Columba plumbea
F
C
V,S
Ruddy Pigeon
Columba subvinacea
F
C
V,S
Grey-fronted Dove
Leptotila rufaxilla
F
U
V,S,M,C
Ruddy Quail-Dove
Geotrygon montana
F
Parrots
Psittacidae
Painted Parakeet
Pyrrhura picta
C
C
S
Blue-and-Gold Macaw
Ara ararauna
F
U
S
Red-and-green Macaw
Ara chloropterus
F
F
S
Collared Forest-Falcon
Marbled Wood-Quail
40
S
Scarlet Macaw
Blue-headed parrot
Ara macao
Brotogeris
chrysopterus
Pionus menstruus
F
U
S
C
C
S
C
S
Caica Parrot
Pionopsitta caica
F
C
S
Orange-winged Parrot
Amazona amazonica
C
U
S
Yellow-crowned Parrot
Amazona ochrocephala
U
Mealy Parrot
Amazona farinosa
F
S
Red-fan Parrot
Deroptyus accipitrinus
F
F
S
Cuckoos
Cuculidae
Squirrel Cuckoo
Piaya cayana
U
F
S
Little Cuckoo
Piaya minuta
S
S
Greater Ani
Crotophaga major
S
U
S
Golden-winged Parakeet
Typical Owls
Strigidae
Tawny-bellied Screech-Owl
Otus watsoni
U
Spectacled Owl
Pulsatrix perspicillata
S
U
V
Amazonian Pygmy-Owl
Glaucidium hardyii
F
Nighthawks, Nightjars
U
U
S
F
S
F
U
S
Potoos
Caprimulgidae
Lurocalis
semitorquatus
Nyctidromus albicollis
Caprimulgus
nigrescens
Nyctibiidae
Great Potoo
Nyctibius grandis
S
S
Swifts
Apodidae
Band-rumped Swift
Chaetura spinicauda
C
C
S
Grey-rumped Swift
Chaetura cinereiventris
C
S
Hummingbirds
Trochilidae
Phaethornis
superciliosus
Phaethornis bourcieri
U
U
S,M
U
F
S
S,M
S
S
S,M
U
Short-tailed Nighthawk
Common Pauraque
Blackish Nightjar
Eastern Long-tailed Hermit
Straight-billed Hermit
Reddish Hermit
White-necked Jacobin
Phaethornis ruber
Phaethornis
longuemareus
Campylopterus
largipennis
Florisuga mellivora
Fork-tailed Woodnymph
Thalurania furcata
S
U
M
Crimson Topaz
Topaza pella
S
S
S
Black-eared Fairy
Heliothryx aurita
S
Trogons
Trogonidae
White-tailed Trogon
Trogon viridis
F
F
S,V
Violaceous Trogon
Trogon violaceus
S
U
S,V
Collared Trogon
Trogon collaris
F
Masked Trogon
Trogon personatus
U
Black-tailed Trogon
Trogon melanurus
S
S
Motmots
Momotidae
Blue-crowned Motmot
Momotus momota
F
F
S, V
Little hermit
Gray-breasted Sabrewing
41
Kingfishers
Alcedinidae
Ringed Kingfisher
Ceryle torquata
U
C
S
Amazon Kingfisher
F
C
S,M
F
U
S
Green-and-Rufous Kingfisher
Chloroceryle amazona
Chloroceryle
americana
Chloroceryle inda
S
U
S
Pygmy Kingfisher
Chloroceryle aenea
S
S
S,M
Puffbirds
S
S
Collared Puffbird
Bucconidae
Notharchus
macrorhyncus
Bucco capensis
S
U
S
White-chested Puffbird
Malacoptila fusca
U
Black Nunbird
Monasa atra
F
F
S
Swallow-wing Puffbird
Chelidoptera tenebrosa
C
C
S
Jacamars
Galbulidae
Green-tailed Jacamar
Galbula galbula
F
U
S, V
Yellow-billed Jacamar
Galbula albirostris
S
F
S,M
Paradise Jacamar
Galbula dea
S
U
S
Great Jacamar
Jacamerops aurea
S
U
S,M
Brown jacamar
Brachygalba lugubris
F
S, V
Green Kingfisher
Guianan puffbird
Barbets, Toucans
Ramphastidae
Green Aracari
Pteroglossus viridis
S
S
Black-necked Aracari
Pteroglossus aracari
S
U
S
Guianan Toucanet
Selenidera culik
S
U
S
Channel-billed Toucan
Ramphastos vitellinus
F
C
S, V
White-throated Toucan
Ramphastos tucanus
C
C
S, V
Woodpeckers
Picidae
Lineated Woodpecker
Dryocopus lineatus
S
S
S
Golden-collared Woodpecker
Veniliornis cassini
U
Yellow-throated Woodpecker
Piculus flavigula
F
Chestnut Woodpecker
Celeus elegans
S
F
S
Waved Woodpecker
Celeus undatus
S
S
S
Cream-colored Woodpecker
Celeus flavus
Campephilus
rubricollis
Campephilus
melanoleucos
Furnariidae
U
S
F
S,M
U
F
S
Philydor pyrrhodes
S
Philydor erythrocercus
F
Automolus
ochrolaemus
F
Automolus rufipileatus
U
V
Xenops minutus
U
Dendrocolaptidae
Dendrocincla
fuliginosa
Glyphorynchus
spirurus
S
F
M
F
C
M
Red-necked Woodpecker
Crimson-crested Woodpecker
Ovenbirds
Cinnamon-rumped Foliagegleaner
Rufous-rumped Foliagegleaner
Buff-throated Foliage-gleaner
Chestnut-crowned Foliagegleaner
Plain Xenops
Woodcreepers
Plain-brown Woodcreeper
Wedge-billed Woodcreeper
42
Amazonian Barred
Woodcreeper
Dendrocolaptes certhia
S
S
M
S
S
M
C
S
U
M
U
Typical Antbirds
Xiphocolaptes
promeropirhynchus
Xiphorhynchus
pardalotus
Xiphorhynchus picus
Xiphorhynchus
guttatus
Campylorhamphus
procurvoides
Thamnophilidae
Fasciated Antshrike
Cymbilaimus lineatus
S
F
M
Black-throated Antshrike
Frederikena viridis
U
M
Great Antshrike
Taraba major
S
V
Mouse-colored Antshrike
Thamnophilus murinus
Thamnophilus
punctatus
Pygiptila stellaris
Thamnomanes
ardesiacus
Thamnomanes caesius
Myrmotherula
brachyura
Myrmotherula
surinamensis
Myrmotherula guttata
Myrmotherula
gutturalis
Myrmotherula
menetriesii
Myrmotherula
longipennis
Herpsilochmus
sticturus
Herpsilochmus
stictocephalus
Microrhopias quixensis
U
F
M
U
U
F
S
F
M
S
F
V
C
C
V
U
U
M
S
U
M
S
M
U
C
M
F
F
M
F
F
V
S
S
U
C
M
U
F
M
U
M
F
F
M
U
F
V
F
F
S,V
Strong-billed Woodcreeper
Chestnut-rumped
Woodcreeper
Straight-billed Woodcreeper
Buff-throated Woodcreeper
Curve-billed Scythebill
Guianan Slaty-Antshrike
Spot-winged Antshrike
Dusky-throated Antshrike
Cinereous Antshrike
Pygmy Antwren
Guianan Streaked Antwren
Rufous-bellied Antwren
Brown-bellied Antwren
Grey Antwren
Long-winged Antwren
Spot-tailed Antwren
Todd’s Antwren
Dot-winged Antwren
Ash-winged Antwren
Black-headed Antbird
Terenura spodioptila
Cercomacra
cinerascens
Cercomacra tyrannina
Myrmoborus
myotherinus
Hypocnemis cantator
Hypocnemoides
melanopogon
Percnostola rufifrons
Scale-backed Antbird
Hylophylax poecilinota
S
F
M
Spot-backed Antbird
Hylophylax naevia
S
F
V,M
Ferruginous-backed Antbird
Myrmeciza ferruginea
S
M
Wing-banded Antbird
Myrmornis torquata
S
U
M
White-plumed Antbird
Pithys albifrons
S
F
M
Rufous-throated Antbird
Gymnopithys rufigula
S
F
M
Silvered Antbird
Sclateria naevia
S
M
Ground Antbirds
Formicariidae
Black-faced Antthrush
Formicarius analis
U
U
S,V
Grey Antbird
Dusky Antbird
White-browed Antbird
Warbling Antbird
Black-chinned Antbird
43
Rufous-capped Antthrush
Formicarius colma
S
M
Spotted Antpitta
U
F
V
F
F
V
Variegated Antpitta
Hylopezus macularius
Myrmothera
campanisona
Grallaria varia
S
V,M
Gnateaters
Conopophagidae
Chestnut-belted Gnateater
Conopophaga aurita
U
Tyrant Flycatchers
Tyrannidae
Yellow-crowned Tyrannulet
Tyrannulus elatus
F
Forest Elaenia
Myiopagis gaimardii
F
U
V,M
McConnell’s Flycatcher
Mionectes macconnelli
U
Piratic Flycatcher
Legatus leucophaius
S
S
Ochre-bellied Flycatcher
Mionectes oleagineus
S
U
M
Thrush-like Antpitta
Short-crested Flycatcher
Miarchus ferox
S
S,V
Long-tailed Tyrant
Colonia colonus
S
S
Drab Water Tyrant
Ochthornis littoralis
F
S
Slender-footed Tyrannulet
Zimmerius gracilipes
S
Double-banded Pygmy-Tyrant
Lophotriccus vitiosus
F
Helmeted Pygmy-Tyrant
Lophotriccus galeatus
U
U
V
Short-tailed Pygmy-Tyrant
Myiornis ecuadatus
F
V
Painted Tody-Flycatcher
Todirostrum pictum
U
Common Tody-Flycatcher
Todirostrum cinereum
S
V
Ringed Antpipit
Corythopis torquata
U
Yellow-margined Flycatcher
Tolmomyias assimilis
F
Golden-crowned Spadebill
F
F
M
S
S
U
Sulphur-rumped Flycatcher
Platyrinchus coronatus
Platyrinchus
platyrhynchos
Platyrinchus saturatus
Onychorhynchus
coronatus
Myiobius barbatus
U
Bright-rumped Attila
Attila spadiceus
S
U
V
Cinnamon Attila
Attila cinnamomeus
S
V
Grayish Mourner
U
U
F
S
U
F
S
F
U
S
Lesser Kiskadee
Rhytipterna simplex
Myiozetetes
luteiventris
Myiozetetes
cayanensis
Conopias parva
Tyrannus
melancholicus
Pitangus lictor
U
S
Thrush-like Schiffornis
Schiffornis turdinus
S
F
S
Screaming Piha
Lipaugus vociferans
C
F
S,V
Cinereous Mourner
U
U
Pink-throated Becard
Laniocera hypopyrra
Pachyramphus
marginatus
Pachyramphus minor
S
Cotingas
Cotingidae
Pompadour Cotinga
Xipholena punicea
White-crested Spadebill
Cinnamon-crested Spadebill
Royal Flycatcher
Dusky-chested Flycatcher
Rusty-margined Flycatcher
Yellow-throated Flycatcher
Tropical Kingbird
Black-capped Becard
44
S
S
S
S
U
S,V
Guianan Red Cotinga
Perissocephalus
tricolor
Phoenicircus carnifex
S
S
Spangled Cotinga
Cotinga cayana
S
S
Purple-throated Fruitcrow
Querula purpurata
S
S
Tityras
Tityridae
Black-tailed Tityra
Tityra cayana
S
S
Dusky Purpletuft ?
Iodopleura fusca
S
S
Manakins
Pipridae
White-crowned Manakin
Pipra pipra
S
F
M
Golden-headed Manakin
Pipra erythrocephala
F
Tiny Tyrant-Manakin
Tyranneutes virescens
U
U
S,V
White-bearded Manakin
Manacus manacus
S
S,V
Vireos
Vireonidae
Red-eyed Vireo
F
Rufous-browed Peppershrike
Vireo olivaceus
Hylophilus
muscicapinus
Hylophilus
ochraceiceps
Cyclarhis gujanensis
U
S, V
Slatey-capped Shrike-Vireo
Vireolaneus leucotis
U
S, V
Swallows
Hirundinidae
White-winged Swallow
Tachycineta albiventer
C
F
S
White-banded Swallow
Atticora fasciata
C
C
S
Grey-breasted martin
Progne chalybea
S
S
Wrens
Troglodytidae
White-breasted Wood-Wren
Henicorhina leucosticta
S
Capuchinbird
Buff-cheeked Greenlet
Tawny-crowned Greenlet
Coraya Wren
Thryothorus coraya
U
U
S,V
Buff-breasted Wren
Thryothorus leucotis
F
U
S,V
Wing-banded Wren
Microcerculus bambla
S
Musician Wren
Cyphorhinus arada
S
S
V
Gnatwrens, Gnatcatchers
S
Thrushes
Sylviidae
Ramphocaenus
melanurus
Turdidae
White-necked Thrush
Turdus albicollis
U
Cocoa Thrush
Turdus fumigatus
S
V
Wood Warblers
Parulidae
River Warbler
Phaeothlypis rivularis
S
Bananaquits
Coerebidae
Bananaquit
Coereba flaveola
S
U
S
Tanagers
Thraupidae
Fulvous Shrike-Tanager
?
U
Hepatic Tanager
Lanio fulvus
Tachyphonus
surinamus
Piranga flava
Silver-beaked Tanager
Ramphocelus carbo
F
U
S
Blue-gray Tanager
Thraupis episcopus
Turquoise Tanager
Tangara mexicana
S
U
S
Long-billed Gnatwren
Fulvous-crested Tanager
45
Opal-rumped Tanager
Tangara velia
S
S
Blue Dacnis
Dacnis cayana
S
Swallow Tanager
Tersina viridis
U
S
Emberizine Finches
Emberizinae
Red-capped Cardinal
Paroaria gularis
U
Grosbeaks, Saltators
Cardinalinae
Slate-colored Grosbeak
Pitylus grossus
U
F
S, V
Greyish Saltator
S
S
V
F
S
U
S, V
Finches
Saltator coerulescens
Caryothraustes
canadensis
Cyanocompsa
cyanoides
Fringilidae
Violaceous Euphonia
Euphonia violacea
S
S
New World Blackbirds
Icteridae
Giant Cowbird
Scaphidura oryzivora
F
S
Shiny Cowbird
Molothrus bonariensis
U
S
Yellow-rumped Cacique
Cacicus cela
C
U
S,V
Red-rumped Cacique
Cacicus haemorrhous
Psarocolius
decumanus
Psarocolius viridis
C
S,V
C
U
S,V
U
U
S,V
Yellow-green Grosbeak
Blue-black Grosbeak
Crested Oropendola
Green Oropendola
46
Appendix III
Reptilian Diversity
In the table the evidence is described as S sighting, V vocalisation or I indirect evidence
such as footprints, scats or burrows.
English Name
Scientific Name
ZSL Expedition 2009 Evidence
Boas
Boidae
Green Anaconda
Eunectes murinus
S
Amazon Tree Boa
Corrallus hortulanus
S
Colubrids
Colubridae
Red Fire Snake
Chironius scurrulus
S
Green Parrot Snake
Lephtophis ahaetulla
S
Iguanas
Iguanidae
Hump-headed Iguana
Urascodon superciliosus
S
Green Iguana
Iguana iguana
S
Neotropical Ground Lizards
Tropiduridae
Collared Tree Lizard
Plica plica
S
Whiptail Lizards
Teiidae
Jungle Runner
Ameiva ameiva
S
Gold Tegu
Tupinambis teguixin
S,I
Aligators and Caimans
Alligatoridae
Schneider’s Dwarf Caiman
Palaeosuchus trigonatus
S
Tortoises
Testudinidae
Yellow-footed Tortoise
Geochelone denticulata
S
47
Appendix IV
EPA permission to conduct biodiversity research
48
49

A biodiversity assessment of the Rewa head, Guyana

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