See the full Table of Contents

Contents
List of Activities xiii
Preface xv
About the Author xx
Chapter 1
A Child Learns to Read 1 Process and Product
in the classroom 2
What Is Reading? 2
Theories of Reading Acquisition 3
Nonstage Theory n Stage Theory
Cueing Systems 4
The Grapho-Phonological System n The Syntactic (Sound Stream of Language) System n The Semantic System n The Pragmatic System
The Reading Process 6
Skills Used in the Reading Process n Characteristics of the Reading Process
The Reading Product 10
Summary 11
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 13
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 13
Chapter 2
A Quest for Balance 15
Moving Forward
in the classroom 16
Introduction 16
The History of Early Literacy 16
Approaches to Teaching Reading 21
Phonics Instruction and the Transmission Model n Holistic Instruction and the Transactional
Model n A Quest for Balance: Toward a Comprehensive Approach
Balance and Teaching to Standards 29
The Impact of Technology on Literature 31
v
vi C o n t e n t s
Summary 31
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 32
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 33
Chapter 3
Emergent Literacy 35
From Birth to Conventional Literacy
in the classroom 36
Introduction 36
Language Acquisition: An Overview 36
Prebirth n Infancy n The Holographic Stage n The Telegraphic Stage n Preschool to Fluency n Primary School
Literacy’s Beginnings 39
Reading Is Enjoyable n Books Should Be Handled in Special Ways n Book Sharing
and Story Sharing Involve a Routine n Illustrations Represent Real Things n Printed
Words Have Meaning
Reading Readiness: A Retrospective 41
Overview of Emergent Literacy 42
Use of the Term “Emergent Literacy” n Key Components of Emergent Literacy
Influences on Children’s Literacy Development 46
Continuing Literacy Development n Understanding of Literacy Concepts n Developing
Cognitive Skills n The Role of Teachers, Early Childhood Educators, Parents, and Caregivers
Guidelines for Setting Up a Balanced, Comprehensive Literacy Program
from Birth to Primary Years 51
Positive Practices to Foster Emergent Literacy 52
Developing Concepts About Print n Providing Direct and Vicarious Experiences n Interactive
Story Writing n Reading Aloud to Children: The Importance of Print and Books n Using Drama
Box: Selecting a big book to read aloud 58
Box: Classic read-alouds for young readers 59
Summary 61
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 62
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 62
Chapter 4
Phonemic Awareness 65
The Sounds of Our Language
in the classroom 66
Introduction 66
The Importance of Phonemic Awareness 67
The Components of Phonemic Awareness 68
Developing Phonemic Awareness 68
General Guidelines n From Research to Practice n Other Phonemic Awareness Activities
Box: The hierarchy of phonemic awareness competence 69
Box: Helping non-English speakers 72
Recommendations for Teaching Phonemic Awareness 78
Summary 79
C o n t e n t s questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 80
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 80
Chapter 5
Phonics, Sight Vocabulary, and Fluency 83
Why and How
in the classroom 84
Introduction 84
Why Phonics Instruction? 84
Beginning Phonics Instruction 86
Approaches to Sounding Out Words 88
A Sequence for Teaching Phonics 89
Teaching Sight Vocabulary Words 89
A Model Phonics Program 92
Phonemic Awareness n Useful Phonics Generalizations n Whole-Part-Whole Instructional Sequence
n Coaching n Minilessons n Application of Phonics Skills n Use of Different Types of Literature
n Teachable Moments
General Suggestions for Phonics Instruction 95
Case Example: Mrs. Rodgers teaches a phonics lesson 97
Reading Fluency: Making Decoding Automatic Through Oral Reading 100
Why Is Fluency Important? n A Brief History of Fluency Instruction n What Can Be Done to
Improve Fluency? n Interactive Reading with E-Books
Summary 108
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 109
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 109
Chapter 6
Spelling 111
Developing Letter–Sound Correspondence
in the classroom 112
Learning and Applying Spelling Skills 112
The Stages of Spelling Development 113
Gentry’s Stages n Bear, Invernizzi, Templeton, and Johnston’s Stages
Observing Experimental Spelling 117
Case Example: Tommy’s perspective on experimental spelling 119
Understanding Our Alphabetic System 120
An Effective Spelling Program 121
Early Phonetic/Early Letter Name Stage n Phonetic/Late Letter-Name and Within-Word
Stage n Transitional/ Syllables and Affixes Spelling Stage n A Typical Week’s Study Plan
Box: Ideas for meaningful spelling lists 123
Contract Spelling 127
Strategies for English Learners 127
Practices to Avoid 129
Summary 130
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 131
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 131
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viii C o n t e n t s
Chapter 7
Acquiring Word Meanings 133
The Building Blocks of Literacy
in the classroom 134
Introduction 134
Why Acquiring a Meaning Vocabulary Is Important 134
Principles of Effective Vocabulary Development 134
Box: Teacher behaviors that enhance vocabulary learning 136
Motivating Children to Read Independently n Listening to the Teacher Read n Other
Factors in Vocabulary Development
Types of Vocabulary Instruction 138
Explicit Instruction in Meaning Vocabulary n Strategies to Enhance Independent
Meaning Vocabulary Growth
Strategies for English Learners 150
Activate the Schema of the Learners n Focus on Understanding n Scaffold Vocabulary
Usage n Use Multisensory and Multimedia Approaches n Provide Opportunities to Share
Home Language n Focus on the Functional Use of Language
Modifying Traditional Approaches 153
Summary 154
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 155
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 155
Chapter 8
Reading Comprehension 157
Making Sense of Print
in the classroom 158
What Is Comprehension? 158
An Ideal Climate for Critical Thinking 158
Knowledge n Think Time n Praise
Reading Strategies for Comprehending 160
Making Predictions n Tuning in to Prior Knowledge n Visualizing n Making
Connections n Monitoring Understanding n Generalizing n Evaluating n Asking and Answering Questions
Instructional Activities for Teaching Comprehension 163
Components of a Successful Comprehension Program 173
Provide a Large Block of Time for Actual Text Reading n Provide Explicit Instruction in
Comprehension Strategies n Provide Opportunities for Reading in a Social Setting n Provide Children with Plenty of Children’s Literature n Provide Opportunities for Personal
Response to Text n Consider the Language and Culture of All Learners
Case Example: Jane Waskeiwitz teaches visualizing 175
Box: Improving comprehension for English learners 178
Box: Selecting multicultural children’s literature for kindergarten
through grade 4 179
Summary 180
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 180
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 181
C o n t e n t s Chapter 9
Writing-Reading Connections 183
Reciprocal Paths to Literacy
in the classroom 184
Introduction 184
Writing Goals for Early Readers 184
Writers’ Workshop and the Writing Process 185
Prewriting (Exploring the Topic) n Drafting (Putting Ideas Down on Paper) n Sharing (Getting
Feedback) n Revising (Taking Another Look) n Editing (Making Corrections) n Publishing
(Polishing for Presentation)
Writing Structures 192
Story Frames n Literacy Scaffolds
Journal Writing 194
Dialogue Journals n Reading Response Journals n Learning Logs
The Language Experience Approach 197
Steps in the LEA n Variations on the Basic LEA
Online Experiences for Literacy and Learning 202
Other Motivators for Emergent Writers 204
Book Making n Computer Composing n Motivational Activities
Summary 207
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 208
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 208
Chapter 10
Informational Text in the Classroom 209
Reading and Writing to Learn
in the classroom 210
Why Informational Text Is Important 210
Why Informational Text Is Challenging 212
Principles of Using Informational Text 212
Teach Previewing n Establish an Authentic Context and Purpose for Reading n Use in
Conjunction with Other Forms of Text
Teaching Children to Read Informational Text 216
Teacher Think-Alouds n Explicit Instruction of Organizational Patterns n Minilessons n Other Instructional Strategies for Informational Books
Writing Informational Text 222
Structuring Informational Writing n Instructional Strategies for Expository Writing
Summary 226
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 227
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 227
Chapter 11
Large and Small Group Reading Strategies 229
Creating a Literate Community
in the classroom 230
Introduction 230
ix
x C o n t e n t s
Shared Reading 230
Purposes for Shared Reading n Procedures for Shared Reading
Guided Reading 234
Case Example: A shared reading experience in Mr. Jimenez’s classroom 235
Purposes for Guided Reading n Leveled Texts n Procedures for Guided Reading
Grouping for Instruction 243
Skill, or Ability, Groups n Literature Circles n Pairs (Buddy Reading) n Peer-Editing
Groups n Cooperative Groups
Box: More about literature circles 244
Other Practices for Group Reading 245
Masking n
Music n
Multimedia Packages n
Pocket Charts n
Word Walls n Cloze Activities
Box: Linking literacy and lyrics 248
Making Text Accessible for All Learners 248
Selective Pairing n Recorded Books n Online Books n Echo Reading n Building
Background n Delaying Independent Reading n Encouraging a Variety of Responses
Summary 250
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 251
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 251
Chapter 12
Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom Exploring Today’s Resources
in the classroom 254
Introduction 254
Visual Literacy 255
Viewing n Visually Representing
Technology Applications for Literacy Learning 259
Writing Electronically
Case Example: Mrs. Pfeifer’s class writes electronically 261
Creating Multimodal/Hypermedia Projects n Online Reading and Researching n Communicating and Collaborating in Online Communities n Interactive Reading:
E-Books n Choosing Technology Applications
Enhancing Instruction Through Technology 272
Technology and the English Learner 273
Summary 275
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 276
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 276
Chapter 13
Informing Instruction 277
Assessment of Early Literacy Development
in the classroom 278
Introduction 278
Why Assess? 278
Principles of Assessment 279
253
C o n t e n t s The Core of Assessment Should Be Daily Observation n Children Should Be Actively Engaged in
the Assessment Process n Assessment Should Take Many Different Forms n Assessment Must
Avoid Cultural Bias
Types of Assessment 281
Skills-Based Assessment n Curriculum-Based Assessment n Process-Oriented Assessment
Formal Assessment Procedures 284
Achievement Tests
Box: An assessment program 285
Criterion-Referenced Tests n Diagnostic Reading Tests
Informal Assessment Procedures 288
Informal Reading Inventory n Running Record
Other Informal Assessment Procedures 291
Anecdotal Notes n Sight Words n Cloze Tests
Box: Observable behaviors for anecdotal notes 294
Writing Folders n Interest and Attitude Inventory n Story Retelling
Box: Assessing phonemic awareness 296
Assessing Phonemic Awareness n Assessing Phonics Skills
Box: Phonics assessment inventory 297
Assessing Fluency n Assessing Writing and Vocabulary
Response to Intervention: Blending Assessment and Intervention 301
Case Example: RTI in action: Literacy success for Landon 303
Compiling and Summarizing Assessment Information 305
Portfolios n Group Profiles
Using Assessment to Inform Instruction 306
Case Example: From diagnosis to intervention to avid reader: Chelsea’s journey 309
Summary 310
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 312
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 312
Chapter 14
Home as Partner 313
The Shared Connection
in the classroom 314
Introduction 314
Research on Home Literacy 315
Understanding Differences in Home Practices 316
Helping Parents Who Cannot Read 317
Communicating with Parents 319
Conferences
Box: Guidelines for effective parent–teacher conferences 320
Parent Workshops n Other Communication with Parents
Reading Aloud To and With Children 324
Other Suggestions for Parents 325
Box: Reading aloud to infants and toddlers 326
Family Literacy Programs 326
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xii C o n t e n t s
Troubleshooting 327
Flexible Scheduling n Home Visits n Common Language
Summary 329
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 329
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 330
Chapter 15
The Early Literacy Classroom 331
Orchestrating a Comprehensive Program
in the classroom 332
Introduction 332
A Classroom Climate Conducive to Literacy 333
Print Saturation n Demonstrations n High Expectations n Teacher Feedback
Organizing the Classroom Environment 336
Room Arrangement n Literacy Materials
Devising an Instructional Plan 339
Case Example: A day in Mrs. Ramon’s classroom 340
Summary 344
questions for Journal Writing and Discussion 344
suggestions for Projects and Field Activities 345
AppendixA
Children’s Literature References 347
Appendix B
Teacher References for Early Literacy 355
Appendix C
Websites for Early Literacy 359
Appendix D
Commercial Assessment Instruments 365
AppendixE
Informal Checklists and Assessment Devices 367
AppendixF
Rimes and Common Words Containing Them 403
Appendix G
Fry’s List of “Instant Words” 405
Appendix H
Phonics Terms and Orthography Chart 407
AppendixI
Fry Readability Graph 411
Glossary 413
References 423
Author Index 441
Subject Index 445
List of Activities
Chapter 4
Phonemic Awareness
Rhyming 74
Word Beginnings (Onsets) 74
Comparing and Contrasting Sounds 75
Blending Sounds 76
Substituting Sounds 77
Segmenting Sounds 77
Manipulating Phonemes 77
Chapter 5
Phonics, Sight Vocabulary, and Fluency
See the Case Example “Mrs. Rodgers Teaches a Phonics Lesson” (pp. 97–100) for phonics activities
Oral recitation 104
Repeated readings 105
Model fluent reading 105
Readers theater 105
Choral reading 107
Chapter 6
Spelling
See the section “An Effective Spelling Program” (pp. 121–127) for spelling activities
Spelling in Parts 124
Chapter 7
Acquiring Word Meanings
A Word Map 139
A Semantic Map 141
Context-Relationship Procedure 141
Semantic Gradient 142
Camouflage 142
Possible Sentences 143
Using the Context Think-Aloud 144
Contextual Redefinition 145
Word Hunts 146
xiii
xiv L i s t
of Activities
Class Dictionary 147
Learning New Words 148
Reader-Selected Vocabulary Procedures (RSVP) 149
Word Aerobics 150
Chapter 8
Reading Comprehension
Directed Reading–Thinking Activity (DRTA) 164
Structured Listening Activity (SLA) 164
Dyad Reading 165
Story Prediction 166
Think-Aloud 167
Think-Aloud Mysteries 167
Reciprocal Teaching 168
The Knowledge Chart (also called K-W-L) 169
Experience-Text Relationship (ETR) 170
Question-Answer Relationships (QARs) 171
Chapter 9
Writing-Reading Connections
A Simple Literacy Scaffold 193
A Phonics Minilesson Based on a Language Experience 201
Animal Crackers 205
Imagine What Happens! 206
Balloon Sensitivity 207
Wishing on a Star 207
Chapter 10
Informational Text in the Classroom
Expectation Grid 213
Making Predictions from Artifacts 217
Retelling Informational Texts 221
Using Expository Frames 223
Writing Persuasive Pieces 225
Chapter 12
Literacy and Technology in a Balanced Classroom
Movie Making 258
Digital Storytelling 262
Website Exploration 265
WebQuest 266
Chapter 14
Home as Partner
Questioning 321
Parent Think-Aloud 322
Dyad Reading 322