182-340 - International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral

Transcription

International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(3), April 2014
Title
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Comparison Of Executive Functions And Difficulties In Emotional Regulation In
Addicts With High And Low Borderline Personality Traits
Authors
Mansour Bayrami1, Reza Mohammadzade
Ghan2, bagher Sardary3, yunes Gasem
Baklu4, Ghasem Mohammadyari4, Elahe Afi2,
Yazdan movahedee5
page
1-11
1
Comparison of attachment styles and coping strategies among incarcerated
criminals and normal people
Majid Mahmood Aliloo1, Sajjad Vakilee
Abasaliloo*2, Reza Mohammadzadeh Ghan2,
Ayat Alah Fathi3, Soheila Azizzadeh4, Farhad
Ghadiri Sourman Abadoi2, Amir Abolfazl
Azizpour Shamlou5
12-18
2
Processing Emotional Quotient in Bilingual & Monolingual students(Case Study:
Female high school students in Shahr-e-Ray)
Hendeh Majdi¹, Dr.Zahra Arzjani*Maedeh Ismail
Pour²
19-23
The relationship between perceived parenting styles and attitude towards
friendship with the opposite sex
Zahra akbari1, Marzieh rezaee2 and Hadi
bahramiehsan3
24-30
3
4
The effectiveness of Cognitive behavior therapy with focuses on Religious
Beliefs in Reduction Damages caused by Marital Infidelity
(A single subject study)
Saiedeh Safari1 , Kourosh Namdari2 ,
Mandana Sepanta3 ,Samire
Dehghani1,Tahere Maanavi1, Ayoub
Kamali1, Ahmad Abedi2
31-43
5
The Role of Motivational Orientations and Language Learning Strategies in
Discriminating Between Successful and Unsuccessful English Learners
Fatemeh Bagheria, Seyed Ali Hosseini Almadanib,
Ameneh Moazedianc, Mostafa Bahmanid
44-51
The effectiveness of training in the media literacy skills of high school students
Abbas Taghizadeh*1, Ali Asghar Kia2, Seyyed Reza
Naghibolsadat3, Rahman Saeedi4
52-59
Treatment of Depression in a 9- year- old girl (Case report)
Fatemeh Khalili Kermani 1, Seyed Jalal Younesi 2,
Mohammad Reza Mohammadi 3
60-68
Mental rehabilitation based on William Cook’s comprehensive storytelling
method on decreasing children’s behavioral problems.
Fatemeh Khalili Kermani1, Seyed Jalal Younesi2
69-77
Seyed Jalal Younesi1, Fatemeh Khalili Kermani 2
78-86
Faranak Ghafoori Asl
87-94
Faranak Ghafouri Asl
95-101
6
7
8
9
(Case report)
Efficiency of Webster-Stratton method in play on developing children’s
self- efficiency
10
The relationship between type D personality and social support with general
health among Kharazmi University students
11
Study of transsexual people views on social support they need in Iran
12
13
The relationship between mental health and life quality among the cardio-
SoheilaMas’oudi1,FariborzJabbariFard2,
102-108
vascular patients
AhmadAmiri3, Abotaleb Saeidi4RaziyehMirzaeiyan5
The Role of Coping Styles and Resiliency in Predicting Homesickness
Hana Pezeshki, Karim Babayi Nadinloei, Nader
Hajloo
109-115
The impact of differential reinforcement of other behaviors (DRO) on of
aggression reduction on mentally retarded children
Goli Mehr Alian*1, Bagher Ghobari Bonab2, Fariborz
Bagheri3
116-121
Comparison of Anxiety Level between Parents of Mentally Retarded Children and
Normal Children
Hossein Mehrabi
122-125
FarshadMoradi1, RezaShahriyarii2,
ShirzadBakhshi3, Jahangir Bakhshi4
126-133
Investigation of students' attitudes toward some effective factors on social
vitality in Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences
Timor Malekpor 1, Marzie Raeisi 2,3, Masoome
134-138
An investigation on the effect of positive and negative emotions induction on
perceived supervisor support in Isfahan Navab Safavi health center
Elham Agherian , Maryam Mardani , Zeynab Ghafari
14
15
16
The Relationship between Organizational Intelligence and job stress
17
Alidosti*4, Razieh Mirzaeian5.
18
139-146
19
The Relationship between the Personality Types and Learning Styles of the
High school Students: the Moderating Role of Gender and Major
Mohammad Hosein Mohebi Nooredinvand
147-157
Effectiveness of life skills training in the mental health of divorced women under
the support of welfare organization of Kordestan Province
Habib Allah Ebrahimi Bakht*1, Hojjat Andouzi2
158-163
Burnout and the Effect of job Attitudes on it
Mojtaba Gharibi1 Elham Erfani Adab2* Zahra
Akbari3
164-169
Meta-analysis of the researchers in the realm of learning strategies and
comprehension
Elham Erfani Adab1*, Javad Mesrabadi2, Zahra
Akbari3
170-176
Analysis of scientific and technological progresses and their impacts on rural
youth with emphasis on IT
Maria morad1*(Corresponding Author), GHodratolla
Heidari 2, Mohammad Nazari3
177-181
The effect of educational intervention designed based on the theory of planned
behavior on responsibility state for health, spiritual health, and interpersonal
relationships in high school girl students in the second year in the Tabriz city,
Iran
Mahnaz Solhi1, Afsaneh Rezazadeh*2, Kamal Azam3
182-192
20
21
22
23
24
25
The study of children's street labor and its social traumas in sanandaj, Iran
Chimangol Salimi1, Sattar Sayedi2, Farhad Emam
Jomeh3,Mohsen Masoomi4
193-204
Pathology of Creativity in higher education (case study: Islamic Azad University
arak Branch)
chimangol salimi1, Sattar sayedi2
205-210
26
27
28
A comparative study of Social Anxiety in adolescents with Body Dysmorphic
Disorder and healthy group
Neda Esnaashari*1
211-215
Comparison of gender role orientation of students with internal and external
religious orientation
Zahra Akbari1 Marzie Rezaee2 Rogayye Sadat
Mirjalili3
216-219
The relationship between aggression and emotional intelligence in students PNU
city Bukan
Salah Sherifian
220-223
Salah Sherifian
224-227
Investigating the Structural Model (Based on Five Personal Factors of NEO and
the Studies' Approaches) in Order to Predict the University Students’
Achievement
Somayeh Tourani1, Ali Delavar2
228-233
The Influence of Teaching Problem-solving Skill on Marital Satisfaction of
Mothers Whose Children Suffer from Learning Disorders
Mehdi Khodabakhshi 1, Seyyedeh Zahra Emadi 2,
Marziyeh NouriFard 3
234-241
Relationship between attachment styles and social trust among the college
students studying in Bu Ali Sina University of Hamedan City
Maryam Abdolahi Moghadam*1, Abolghasem
Yaghobi2, Galavizh Alizadeh3
242-246
The Effectiveness of the Treatment Program on Reading, and Feeling Toward
Reading in Dyslexia Student
Zeinab Mihandoost
247-255
Studying the Intentional Organizational Forgetting and its Dimensions in
University of Sistan and Baluchestan
Mohammad Mahmoudvand1 Abdulwahab
Pourghaz2
256-260
Male and female students’ religiosity and its relationship with anger management
Seyed Reza Balaghat1, Mohammad Mahmoudvand2
261-266
The Relative of Demographic Factors with Behavioral Disorders of
Bahman Akbari1, Zahra Pasandideh2, Mahnaz
Ghiasi3
267-276
Masoumeh Sharafi*1, Shahram Mami2, Sattar
Kaikhavani3, Kourosh Sayeh Miri3
277-284
29
30
ationship between goal orientation within the creative aspects of male and female
students in city high schools Bukan
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
Schools Students in Rasht Primary
38
The effectiveness of group psychotherapy based on the choice theory in the
marital satisfaction and quality of life of married women
39
289-296
Qualitative evaluation of the role of family structure and history of family
violence on the severity of adolescents’ delinquency in Ilam
Nabi Allah Gholami*1, Sakineh Soltan2,i Morteza
Alizadeh3
40
297-304
Mediating Role of Emotional Intelligence in the Relationship between Family
Communication and Life Satisfaction among Women Managers in Shiraz four
Educational Districts Area
Fatemeh Darenjani Shirazi1Masoumeh Fallahi2
Ali Akbar Khubiyari3
41
305-311
Contemplation on National University Entrance Exam (Konkoor) in Iran
Seyyed Ali khaleghinezhad1Farzad
Hakimzadeh2Hassan Maleki3
42
Quality of life role in dormitory students’ self-esteem
Abdolnaser Kor1, Zeynab Mohammadali Pour2,
Nilofar Esmaeeli3, Zakie Karbakhsh Ravari4
312-319
The role of identity styles and spiritual intelligence in the prediction of
psychological well-being of students
Hossein Hosseini*1.Dr. Jahangir karami2, Dr
Khodamorad momani 2
320-326
Comparison of the personality traits in homosexual and heterosexual boys
Maryam Mirza Abolhasan*1, Mojtaba Balkaneh2,
Atefeh Abdolmanafi3, Elaheh Hejazi4 Mohammad Ali
Besharat4
327-332
Comparison of brain behavioral systems between runaway and normal girls
kamrani Fakoor, Shahrbanoo MD1 Rasool zadeh
Tabatabaei, Kazem PhD2
333-340
43
44
45
46
The effectiveness of mindfulness-based cognitive therapy (MBCT) in the
symptoms’ reduction of patients with social phobia
Soleiman Jafari Fard*1, Mojtaba
Toghyani2, Meghdad Taleb Zadeh1,
Salman Zareei3
341-350
47
Religious Orientation and Identity States in Addicted and Non-addicted
Individuals
351-358
Majid Mahmoudalilou 1, Azra Mohammadpanah
Ardakan2, Nasrin Fatemi3
48
MinaDarab*1, FatemeBahrami2, Ahmad
Ahmadi3, Rezvansadat Jazayeri4
359-362
The effectiveness of interference based on the quality of life therapy in happiness of
girls in dysfunctional families
Mahmoud Sadeghi*1, Zohreh Raeisi2, Hamid
Kazemi3
363-367
The relationship between family communication patterns and social self-efficacy
in students
Marzieh Hasanzadeh * 1, Mehrazar cheraghi2
,Dariush Esfandiari Bayat3
368-375
The effectivenessof marital burnout counseling modelbased onIslam in the
marital burnout
49
50
51
Family therapy on a mentally-retarded child with precocious puberty
Mohammad Khodayarifard1, Farnaz
Holekian2
376-381
Neda Esnaashari*1, Alireza Bakhshayesh2,
Seyed Alireza Afshani3
382-389
(Case report)
52
Causal model of Perfectionism & Religious Beliefs role in Body Dysmorphic &
Social Anxiety Disorders
53
Challenges of Leisure and Management of sport Activities and Social Damages
Mohammad Hossein Mirsoleymani1, Abolfazl
390-393
Mirsoleymani2
54
Faculty Members' viewpoints about Curriculum Design based on Blended
Learning approach
Ali Akbar Ajam1, Mohammad Akbari Boorng2, Javad
Farzanfar3
394-402
Determining the position of emotional education in the prevention of risky
Mohammad Reza Yusefzadeh Chosary1, Morteza
Shahmoradi2, Ebrahim Soheili3
403-407
behaviors
The relationship between attachment quality and depression symptoms in
Iranian school children (preventive approach)
Romina Manani *1, Samaneh Moein 2, Fatemeh
Bahrami 3, Ahmad Abedi 4
408-415
Content analysis method and its applications in communication sciences
Mousa Kazemzade 1, Dr. Aziz Javanpvr Heravi 2
416-424
The relationship between life skills, mental health and academic achievement of
students
Kheirolnesa Shirdel*1, Omolbanin Bagher Nezhad 2
425-430
Analyzing the relationship between lifestyle and death anxiety in the elderly
living in retirement homes
Elham Zamanshoar1, Iman Yusefzade2, Soheyla
Aminizade3, and Masume Eshaghi4
431-436
Mojtaba Gharibi1, Elham Erfani Adab*2, Davoud
Rajabi Moghadam3
437-447
A Study on the Relationship between Educational Level of Parents and High Risk
Behaviors among Yazd University Students
Golnar Dehghan Dehnavi1, Mehraban Parsamehr2
and Samaneh Naseri3
448-457
The Effect of Role Playing Method of Teaching on Social Studies Students'
Quality of Life in School, Achievement Motivation and Academic Achievement
Hossein momeni mahmouei, Abdoul hamid jamshir2
458-467
Depression, Anxiety, Stress and Coping Styles in campus-girl students
Morteza abbasi1*, Zeinab Mohammad Ali Pour2,
Nasrin Sabzfroosh3
468-471
55
56
57
58
59
60
The relationship between workaholism, organizational commitment and burnout
among judges and attorneys of ministry of justice in Tehran province
61
62
63
64
The impact of self-learning strategy on improving children's mathematical
concepts
Roghayyeh NourZadeh*1, Bahram Mirzaeeyan2
472-481
The effectiveness of Mindfulness-Base Stress Reduction (MBSR) on
psychological symptoms and test anxiety in University Entrance girls
Hosseini, S. F., Hosseini., S. M1., Tekyei Maroof, A.,
Hatami, F1., Tabatabai Eynaki, S. K.,
482-489
Investigating the Relationship between Parents’ Metacognitive Skills and
Addiction among Young People
1Ali Khademi.Ph.d.2Maryam valipour*.3Simin
Neishabouri
490-495
The effect upon the hyperactive preschool children learning education activities
Salah Sherifian
496-497
Theoretical approaches to child poverty: from Uni-dimensional approach to
multidimensional approaches
Mehdi Nosratabadi1 ,Maryam Sharifian Sani2
498-511
Damaging Factors Of Counseling Activities In Schools
Loghman Ebrahimi1, Kiiumars Farahbakhsh2,
Maasumeh Esmaaili3, Hossien Salimi Bejestani4
512-524
Persuasive impact of cognitive and emotional messages on individuals with
different personal characteristics
Nasim Soheili*1, Loghman Ebrahimi2, somayeh
taghdarreh3
525-529
Effectiveness of premarital skills in increasing communication and problemsolving skills between the Devotee’s and martyr’s daughters in Lahijan city
Nesa Gholami*1, Fatemeh Karimi2, Shahnam
Abolghasemi3
530-537
The relationship between early maladaptive schemas, self-esteem and
narcissistic personality type
MoozhganJabbarzadeh*1, Ali Issazadegan2, Ali
Khadmi3
538-546
Comparison of metacognitive beliefs and depression in addicted, smoking and
normal individuals in Yasouj City
Mehdi Tayyebi Sough1, Zeinab Tayyebi Sough2,
Allah Morad Tayyebi Sough3, Maryam Ansari4
547-554
Congruency Evaluation of Humanities Curriculum Content with Islamic Lifestyle
Indicators as suggested by Supreme Leader Sayyed Ali Khamenei.
Mohammadnoor Rahmani1, Mehdi Mohammadi2,
Reza Naseri Jahromi3, Hadi Rahmani4
555-569
A Compression of Human Sciences Students' Perception from Congruence
Curriculum Content with Lifestyle Indicators from View Point of Supreme Leader
Sayyed Ali Khamenei
Mohammadnoor Rahmani1, Mehdi Mohammadi2,
Reza Naseri Jahromi3, Hadi Rahmani4
570-575
Comparison of Behavioral Disorders Prevalence Rate In Children With Employed
And Unemployed Mothers
Ali Ghaedniay Jahromi1, Mohammad Hatami2, Shiva
Farmani Shahreza3, Mohammad Darharaj4
576-581
Relationship between casual attributions and academic achievement of college
students
Mohammad Rahmanpour*1, Maryam Sadat Seyyed
Sharifi2, Hasan Rahmanpour3 Hossein Rahmani
Pour4
582-591
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
Effectiveness of life skills training in social and educational self-esteem of female
students studying in the fifth grade of elementary school
Maryam Sadat Seyyed Sharifi Kakhaki*1,
Mohammad Rahmanpour2, Hasan Rahmanpour3
592-599
The Effect of Training Meta-Cognitive Strategies on Students’ Procrastination
Ali Sheykholeslami*1, Nastaran Seyedesmaili
Ghomi2, Somayeh Taleghan Mansournejhad3
600-604
Comparing the Components of Anxiety and Aggression by Using Draw-A-Person
Test in Educable Intellectually Disable and Normal Children
Ali Sheykholeslami*1, Nastaran Seyedesmaili
Ghomi2
605-609
Effectiveness of group cognitive-behavioral therapy in the decrease of nurses’
emotional problems
Maryam Sharifi*1, Jafar Sharifi2, Jamal Soureh3, DR.
Asghar Jafari4, Dr.Mohammad ghamari5
610-616
An analysis of the relationship among achievement motivation, general selfefficacy & job performance
Jabbari fard, Fariborz*; Mas’oudi,Sohaila.;
Mousavi,sayedHasan. ; babadi masumeh
617-624
The Role of Emotional Intelligence (EI) and Love Style on Predicting Marital
Satisfaction of Married Students
, Karim Babaei nadinluei1, Hana pezeshki,2 ,Nader
hajloo3
625-630
Story Telling Role in Cognitive Therapy
Galavizh Alizadeh*1, Rasoul Kord Noghabi2, Najmeh
Nazari3, Arezoo Nejatiyan4
631-643
Comparison of Post-Traumatic Syndrome Disorder (PTSD) in War-affected and
Fire-damaged People
Rasoul Khodakarami1, Hossein Ebrahimi
Moghadam2, Mohammad Babaraeisi3, Seyed
Mostafa Biniaz4, Mojtaba Farshchi5
644-647
Effectiveness of group therapy based on metacognitive model of detached
mindfulness techniques training in reducing marital burnout and increasing
marital happiness in married women
Mina Darab*1, Somayeh Jabery2, Maryam
Fatehizadeh3, Rezvan Sadat Jazayeri4
648-653
The role of social support in the prediction of role overload and job performance
in employed women
Ali Mohammad Nazari1, Zeinab Rezaei*2, Amir
Habibi3, Neda Smaeeli Far4, Masoumeh Nikroo4
654-660
The performance pathology of primary schools’ parents and teachers
association
Hasel Hoseinpur1, Ahmad Ebrahimi2, Alireza
Hoseinpur*3, and Hasan Qalavandi 4
661-671
Evaluation and comparison of intellectual capital and organizational learning in
higher education (case study: University of Urmia)
Ahmad Ebrahimi*1, Hasan Ghalavandi2, and Alireza
Hoseinpur 2
672-682
Family and Its Role in High-risk Behavior of Substance Use
Ezatollah Ghadampour1, Roghayeh Alaei Khoraem2,
Sara Alaei Khoraem3
683-688
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
(Case Study: Perspectives of managers, teachers and parents-teachers
association members of Piranshahr)
89
90
91
Prediction of depression on the basis of intolerance of ambiguity in cardiac
patients
Jamal Sooreh*1, Batool Ahadi2, Mohammad
Narimani3
689-692
92
Victimization and the ways to prevent it
Ali Reza Shekarbaigi1 Seyed Mohammad
Sadegh Mousavi2
693-700
Comparison of the effectiveness of the Whittal method and thought stopping in
decreasing Perfectionism and Intolerance of ambiguity of the patients with
Obsessive Disorder
Rezaei, Hajar. MA1 Ghamari Givi Hossein, Ph.d2
Sooreh, Jamal. MA3 khadijeh.rezai4
701-706
A Survey of the relation between sensory over-responsivity and social maturity
of autism children
Mahdis Maghsudloo1 , Mahbube Abbasian2,
Maryam Abasian3
707-714
Prediction of Life Satisfaction based on Spiritual Intelligence and Optimism in
Diabetic Patients
Samira Rahmani Javanmard 1*, Saeid Rajabi 2,
Tahereh Pouladi 3
715-721
Effectiveness of psychotherapy based on the quality of life improvement, marital
satisfaction and conflict resolution skills in conflicting couples
Mojtaba Farshchi1, Mohammad babaraeisi2, Rasoul
Khodakarami3, Soroush Mohammadi Kalhori4,
Vahid Hatami Kasvaee5, Zahra Rounagh6
722-728
Determining the Efficacy of Teaching Living Skills (Anger Management, Selfassertion, and Problem Solving) on the Mental Health of the Girls under
Coverage of Tonekabon Welfare Department aging between 14-20 years.
Khadije Shurmaj 1, Peyman Shiri2, Mohammad
Babaraeisi 3, sahar sajedi 4, Mohammad Haji
Mohammad Ali Shirazi5, Elmira dehghani 6
729-734
The Effectiveness of Behavioral Therapy on Reduction of Social Disorders of
Educable Mentally Retarded Elementary Students in Saveh, Iran
Seyedeh Asefe Hojjatol Eslami1, Mohammad
babaraeisi 2, Mohammad Haji Mohammad ali Shirazi
3, Elmira Dehghani 4 ,Peyman shiri 5
735-740
Examine the effect of positive thinking training on intimacy and sexual
satisfaction of housewives
Fatemeh nasirnejhad1,Mansour tork2,Arezoo
lashani3,Amin dehghan4
741-746
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
International Journal of Psychology and Behavioral Research. Special issue Vol 1(3), 182-192, 2014
Available online at http:// www. ijpbrjournal.com
ISSN 2322-4002 ©2014 Victor Quest Publications
The effect of educational intervention designed based on the theory
of planned behavior on responsibility state for health, spiritual health,
and interpersonal relationships in high school girl students in the
second year in the Tabriz city, Iran
Mahnaz Solhi1, Afsaneh Rezazadeh*2, Kamal Azam3
PhD, Associate Professor of Health Education. Department of Health Services and Health Education,
School of Health, Iran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
MSc., Health Education, Department of Education and Health Promotion, School of Health, Tehran
University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
PhD, Assistant Professor of Biostatistics, School of Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences,
Tehran, Iran
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effect of educational intervention designed based on the theory
of planned behavior on spiritual health, responsibility for health, and interpersonal relations in
second year high school girl students in Tabriz city. In this quasi-experimental study, the type of
controlled trial, 340 students were selected by cluster sampling and divided randomly into two
groups, case and control (177 and 163 in the intervention and control group, respectively).A selfmade questionnaire based on standard questionnaires of health promotion and lifestyle II
(HPLPII), spiritual health standards, and concepts of the theory of planned behavior (attitudes,
subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention) was used (Palutzian &
Ellison). The intervention was designed in 5 sessions during 60-75 minutes by implementing
sensitization, lecture, group discussion, role playing, SMS, giving pamphlets, individual
counseling, and competition. The data was collected in the pre-intervention, one, and three
months after intervention, and analyzed using SPSS version15, as well Chi-square, independent
and dependent t-test, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon and Repeated Measurements tests. Regarding
concepts related to the theory of planned behavior, no significant differences were seen before
the intervention (base line), but after the educational program, the variables increased
significantly in the intervention group (p<0.0001).
Keywords: theory of planned behavior, responsibility for health, spiritual health, interpersonal
relationship, high-school girl students.
Introduction
Health promoting behaviors are one of the best ways by which people can maintain their health.
These behaviors lead to promotion of healthy lifestyles (Morovati, 2004), a balanced life in which a person
consciously chooses healthy behaviors (Li et al, 2008). Choosing a healthy lifestyle causes significant
effects on births and deaths in the long term, and reduces the negative impacts of chronic diseases and
the incidence of undesirable events on the health (Lee, 2005). Health promoting behaviors requires a
positive approach to life and a means to increase well-being and self – actualization (Wang, 2009). The
health promoting lifestyle consists of six dimensions, such as physical activities, nutrition, spiritual health,
interpersonal relationships, responsibility for health, and stress management (Wei et al, 2012).
Individuals' responsibility towards their health is one of the most important elements that make a healthy
lifestyle. To protect and promote health and preventing diseases, people perform actions and activities
like proper diet, sleep and activity, exercise, control of body weight, avoiding smoking and alcohol,
immunization against diseases that considered as the lifestyle because they are responsible for their
health (Phipps,2003).
Spirituality is an essential component of health. In recent years some physicians, psychologists,
health education experts, and other specialists have recognized spirituality due to its significant impact on
many aspects of health care (Hsiao, 2010). Spiritual health is considered an important aspect of human
health, and provides a coordinated and integrated relationship between internal forces, and will be
determine by characteristics such as stability in life, peace, feeling a close relationship with self, God,
society, and the environment, appropriateness and consistency of purpose in life (Omidvari,2008 &
Chavkin,2005 ). It includes two elements: religious element reflects relationship with God or the infinite
power, and existential elements states our relationships with others, the environment, and the individual's
sense about issues for example who is, what and why do, and where belongs (Jafari et al, 2010).
According to health education programs, spiritual health is appropriate channels to change individuals'
behaviors (Omidvari, 2008). Studies showed the inverse relation between spiritual health and alone,
hopelessness, alcohol and drug abuse, and improving ability for managing stress (Hammermeister &
Peterson, 2001, Tuck, 2006).
Interpersonal relationships are an important component of any person's life from birth until death.
Development of human potential capabilities for reaching the prosperity and de facto can not be obtained
except with interpersonal relationships (Irandokht&karimi,2010). Giving importance to interpersonal
relationships and improving it can have considerable results. Learn of the proper interpersonal
relationships is an important key to develop mental health, personality, identity formation, job efficiency,
quality of life, and self-actualization. People who have poorer communication skills are less accepted by
others, and face with short and long term problems (Sajedei et al, 2009).a
From global perspective, teenagers and their health are vital issues (Blum and Nelson-Mmari, 2004).
Adolescents' health, especially among teenage girls, is the goals and policies of member countries of the
World Health Organization because those play an important role in the next generation and health
promotion of community, and constitute the foundation of family and community health (Chavkin and
Chesler, 2005). Attitudes and behaviors formed in adolescences often determine healthy lifestyle habits in
adulthood (Hallal et al, 2006).
Behaviors promoting health like other behaviors can be taught. It seems that teaching them should begin
in schools, which is a suitable environment for teaching and encouraging health promotion behaviors in
adolescent students. One of the most important periods of human life is adolescence which associated
with many evolutionary changes. Teenagers should be prepared to enter the adult stage. On the other
hand, the total changes made during this period influence on teenagers' behaviors and lifestyle (Saffari et
al, 2011). Therefore, adolescence is an important period to strengthen individual's responsibility for health
protection and making decision about it (Croll et al, 2001).
Currently, in most communities and health systems health education, especially health education for
schools, has been emphasized as a basic strategy in health promotion of community because lifestyle is
the most effective factor on public health (Nazari, 2008). The use of behavior change models and theories
likely increases the effect of health education programs and help to identify the individual characteristics
and the surrounding environment, which affect behaviors (Glanz & et al, 2008). Effectiveness of
educational programs depends greatly on the proper use of theories and models used in health
education. Therefore, it is necessary to use the theories and models of behavior change by health
education and promotion specialists (Armitage, 2001). The conceptual framework used in this study
includes the structures of planned behavior theory. The planned behavior theory, proposed by Fishben
and Ajezn in 1987, predicts the occurrence of specific behavior based on individuals' intention to doing a
particular behavior. The intention is affected by attitude toward the behavior (positive or negative
evaluation of performing a behavior), subjective norms (perceived social pressure by persons for
performing or not the desired behavior), and perceived behavioral control (degree of understanding ease
or difficulty of adopting a behavior). Contribution of each factor in predicting the behavior is not fixed, but
can be different depending on the population studied and the type of behavior (Sharma and Romas,
2011).
This theory was applied in researches on the effect of education plan for reducing smoking in high
school students, dietary supplements “multivitamin” for women, and the physical activity in school
students (Mohammadizeidi, 2001; Pawlak,2008; solhi, 2012 ). Since studies on understanding
adolescents'
lifestyle,
especially
about
responsibility
for
health,
spiritual health, and interpersonal relations, is low in female school students in Iran, this study aimed to
determine the effect of educational intervention designed based on the theory of planned behavior to
spiritual health, responsibility for health, and interpersonal relations in the second year high school girl
students in Tabriz city.
183
Method
This was a quasi-experimental, the type of controlled trial, study. First, coordination and permission
from education officials and informed consent from the girl students was done. According to the total
number of high school girl students in second year (N=4626,) and 5 education regions in Tabriz city, the
sampling method was considered the multi-stage cluster. In each region, two high schools (as
intervention and control groups) were randomly selected from a girl high school list. From each school,
one class was randomly selected, of course to the extent that samples were completed. The sample size
was then calculated by the following formula:
(Confidence: 95%, Power: 80%, Mean difference: 8)
n=
The minimum required sample was 100 for each of case and control groups. Considering classes (a
sampling unit), finally, in this study, with considering additional samples for prevention of sample loss, 340
students (177 people in the intervention group and 163 people in the control group) participated. Both
students were randomly selected and divided in case and control groups. The students in case and
control groups were not associated with together. In this study, inclusion criteria were high school girl
students in second year voluntary participated, and exclusion criteria included high school girl students in
second year not participated and want to change their residence in the next four months (during the
study).
A self-made questionnaire, as a data collection tool, based on concepts of the theory of planned
behavior, standard questionnaires of health promotion and lifestyle II (HPLPII), and spiritual health
standards (Palutzian and Ellison) was used, and completed by the girl students after the purpose of this
study and confidentiality of information was explained to the students. The questionnaire included 10
questions on demographic information (education region, field of Study, number of children, birth order,
father's education, mother's education, father's occupation, mother's occupation, father's age, mother's
age), 35 questions on attitude, 9 questions on subjective norms, 10 questions on perceived behavioral
control, 9 questions on behavioral intention, and 15 questions on behavior or performance (responsibility,
spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships). The scale of questions on structures of planned behavior
theory (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, and behavioral intention) was the likert
scale (5 states: completely agree, agree, no opinion, disagree, and completely disagree), and the scale of
behavior questions was two choices (yes/no). Scoring questions on structures of planned behavior
theory as the likert scale was minimum and maximum scores, which respectively 35-175 in attitude, 9-49
in subjective norms, 10-50 in perceived behavioral control, 9-45 in behavioral intention, and 0-15 in the
behavior or performance. In this study, classification of scores was conducted using the quartile so that
scores lower than the first quartile were the poor category, scores between the first and third quartiles
were the moderate category, and scores higher than third quartile were the high category. Therefore,
about attitude it was considered scores below 128 as poor, 128 to 146 as moderate, and over 148 as
high; for subjective norms categories were below 30 as poor, 30 to 36 as moderate, and over 36 as high;
regarding perceived behavioral control categories were below 37 as poor, 37 to 44 as moderate, and over
44 as high; about behavioral intention categories were below 32 as poor, 32 to 39 as moderate, and over
39 as high; and for the behavior or performance categories were below 6 as poor, 6 to 9 as moderate,
and over 9 as high. These structures were directly measured. The validity of experiment was obtained
from panel of 12 experts of health education and religious science, by which correction was applied in the
questionnaire. Reliability was obtained through Cronbach's alpha test, test-retest, and a Pilot study on 30
high school girl students in the second year and completing questionnaires twice with an interval of two
weeks. The correlation values of Cronbach's alpha test were as follows:Attitude: 0.9, subjective norms:
0.92, perceived behavioral control: 0.87, behavioral intention: 0.88, behavior: 0.98.Correlation values of
questions on the structures of planned behavior theory were as follows: Attitude: r=o.84, subjective
norms: r=0.85, perceived behavioral control: r=0.84, behavioral intention: r=0.84, behavior: r=0.98. In this
questionnaire, the mean ratio of reliability was as follows: Attitude: 0.94, subjective norms: 0.94,
perceived behavioral control: 0.74, behavioral intention: 0.89, behavior: 0.86. The ratio index of validity
was CVI˃0.79. The time required to complete the questionnaire by students was 15-20 minutes.
After collecting the data into two groups, the educational intervention was started based on the
results of analyzing the data and theory of planned behavior. The educational program consisted of five
sessions from 60 to 75 minutes based on the theory of planned behavior with the educational booklet.
The intervention, educational program, was carried out using sensitization, lecture, group discussion, role
playing, SMS, giving pamphlets, individual counseling and competition. Considering professional ethics,
the educational booklet was given to the school students at the end of study. During the intervention, the
students should be active in educational programs. To assess the stability of intervention effects, data
was collected in the pre-intervention, one, and three months after intervention. Data was analyzed using
184
SPSS version 15, as well Chi-square, independent and dependent t-test, Mann-Whitney U, Wilcoxon, and
Repeated Measurements tests.
Results
The mean father's age was respectively 45.9±5.64 and 45.86±6.09 in intervention and control
groups, and the mean mother's age was respectively 39.99±5.11 and 40.06±4.75 in intervention and
control groups. The independent t-test showed there was no significant difference of means between two
groups. The frequency of demographic characteristics is showed in Table 1. The Chi-square test indicted
no significant difference between the intervention and control groups according to demographic
characteristics (p>0.05).
Table 2 shows information about the structures of planned behavior theory in the pre-intervention,
one, and three months after intervention. Intervention and control groups have same conditions before
intervention, but after it changes were seen in the intervention group. To analyze the structures of
planned behavior theory in both groups, the analysis pattern of repeat test of observations was used, and
in the intervention groups regarding attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral
intention, and behavior there were significant relations. The independent t-test showed that the mean
scores of attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention, and behavior in
the intervention group increased in the pre-intervention, one, and three months after intervention, and
significant differences were seen between two groups (p<0.0001).
As can be seen in tables 3 and 4, the linear regression (backward) model showed of structures with
significant correlation (attitudes, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention)
entered to the model, subjective norms had not a significant association according to one month after
educational intervention , then this variable was exclude from the model. Other structures (attitudes,
perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention) can predict 37% of behavior changes in responsibility
for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships one month after educational intervention
2
(R =0.37). However, three months after educational intervention structures like attitude and subjective
norms were able to predict 25% of changes in responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and
2
interpersonal relationships(R =0.25).
Table 1: Comparison of demographic variables between the two groups
demographic variable
educational
region
field of study
father's
education
mother's
education
father's
occupation
185
intervention group
1
2
3
4
5
Mathematical
Physics
Experimental
Humanities
Illiterate
Primary
Guidance
Diploma
Academic
Illiterate
Primary
Guidance
Diploma
Academic
Worker
Free
Employee
Other
control group
31
31
25
35
55
52
17.5
17.5
14.1
19.8
31.1
29.4
26
23
29
37
48
52
16.0
14.1
17.8
22.7
29.7
31.9
66
59
9
42
40
58
27
16
57
35
53
16
15
88
23
49
37.3
33.3
5.1
23.9
22.7
33.0
15.3
9.0
32.2
19.8
29.9
9.0
8.6
5.3
13.1
28.0
60
51
9
33
47
50
24
13
43
42
55
10
6
80
25
50
36.8
31.3
5.5
20.2
28.8
30.7
14.7
8.0
26.4
25.8
33.7
6.1
3.7
49.7
15.5
31.1
χ2 test
P- value*
0.75
0.86
0.74
0.46
0.28
mother's
occupation
birth order
Housekeeper
Other
1
2
3
4
5 and above
number of children
1
2
3
4
5 and above
166
8
87
44
24
13
9
94.3
4.45
49.2
24.9
13.6
7.3
5.17.3
150
12
67
54
20
15
6
92.67.4
41.4
33.3
12.3
9.3
3.7
9.2
0.82
13
73
55
22
14
7.3
41.2
31.1
12.4
7.9
15
75
44
21
8
46.0
27.0
12.9
4.9
0.64
0.39
Table2: Comparison of the mean scores of structures of planned behavior theory in the pre-intervention,
one, and three months after intervention by intervention and control groups.
pre-intervention
stage and
group
one month after
intervention
three months
after intervention
variable
attitude
subjective
norms
T-test
(P value)
standard
deviation
155.17
16.63
134.68
15.85
P<0.0001
136.89
135.70
0.39
intervention
control
32.83
32.25
0.33
5.84
5.09
38.29
38.16
31.72
31.28
P<0.0001
38.16
4.68
31.28
5.52
P<0.0001
intervention
control
40.65
40.34
5.05
4.23
43.72
36.66
45.03
38.18
0.55
4.63
5.77
5.48
6.03
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
intervention
control
34.94
35.30
0.50
5.26
4.53
39.18
4.23
34.47
6.07
P<0.0001
39.18
4.23
34.47
6.07
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
intervention
control
7.57
7.54
0.80
2.64
2.76
10.60
2.92
7.19
2.97
P<0.0001
10.60
2.92
7.19
2.97
P<0.0001
P<0.0001
T-test
(P value)
behavior
mean
intervention
control
T-test
(P value)
behavioral
intention
standard
deviation
149.66
12.89
134.49
17.04
P<0.0001
mean
T-test
(P value)
perceived
behavioral
control
mean
group
T-test
(P value)
standard
deviation
13.93
11.86
test of within
subjects
Repeated
Measurments
P -value
Table3: Linear regression (backward) model between structures of planned behavior theory and
responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships one month after intervention.
Model 1
attitude
186
R2
0.373
B
- 8.284
Beta
Sin.
0.203
0.036
subjective norms
perceived
behavioral control
behavioral
intention
Model 2
0.366
0.109
0.190
0.155
0.058
0.219
0.008
0.235
0.221
0.013
0.024
0.230
0.006
- 8.738
attitude
perceived
behavioral control
behavioral
intention
Independent variable: behavior
Table4: Linear regression (backward) test between structures of planned behavior theory and
responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships 3 months after intervention
Model 1
R2
0.25
B
- 3.997
attitude
subjective norms
perceived
behavioral control
behavioral
intention
Model 2
0.25
0.249
Sin.
0.24
0.26
0.49
0.041
0.014
0.543
0.0006
0.936
0.242
0.259
0.050
0.027
0.013
0.528
0.264
0.267
0.011
0.010
- 3.965
attitude
subjective norms
perceived
behavioral control
Model 3
attitude
subjective norms
Independent variable: behavior
Beta
- 3.801
Diagram1: Graphics analysis of the structures of planned behavior theory in two groups.
Discussion
In this study, the impact of educational interventions in the framework of planned behavior theory was
first assessed in high schools in the Tabriz city. Based on the theory, changes occur in cognitive - social
determinants. To evaluate the effect of intervention, changes in the structures of theory were compared in
both groups. Results indicated that the intervention has been successful in changing the mean scores of
attitude, subjective norms, perceived behavioral control, behavioral intention, and the performance.
Results related to the mean scores of attitude showed a significant increase in the score of attitude of
students' intervention group toward responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal
relationships after completing the educational program while such an increase was not seen in the control
group. The study “The effect of educational program based on the planned behavior theory on AIDS
preventive behaviors in adolescents” (Pakpour Hajiagha et al, 2012), and another study stated that about
taking snacks (Karimi, 2009), the intervention has been successful in changing attitude. Overall,
educational programs are effective to promote positive attitudes in school students in health promoting
behaviors in the intervention group. When a student decides to increase health-promoting behaviors, will
found stronger belief than the behavior. Subjective norms, as the second determinant of behavioral
intention, are affected by individual's normative beliefs and motivation. If a person understands that
important
individuals
confirm or deny the desired behavior, he/she more likely will adopt the behavior (Downs and Hausenblas,
2005). When a student decides to increase health-promoting behaviors, more likely believes that
important individuals confirm or deny the desired behavior. In this study, key and important individuals
were family, friends, classmates, teachers, and school health teachers that have emphasized on the
healthy lifestyle to strengthen responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships.
Following the educational intervention, subjective norms effectively increased in the intervention group
compared to base line and the control group. According to significant results obtained in three months
after intervention, average scores of subjective norms reduced in the control group compared to before
and one month after educational program. Other studies also showed similar findings (Armitage, 2005
and Kyrychenko, 2006). Therefore, to design promoting interventions, family, friends, classmates,
teachers, and school health teachers should be used for the adolescents. The perceived behavioral
control is a degree of individual's sense about how performing or not a behavior is intentional. If the
behavior is not completely intentional, even when an individual was strongly influenced by individual's
attitudes, and subjective norms, the individual may not do the behavior due to some conditions. If a
person has strong control over factors contributing to the adoption of behavior, this person will perceive
the high level of control over the behavior. Increasing sense of control will cause to more attempt, and
adopt the behavior according to behavioral intention (Armitage, 2001).
The mean score of students' perceived behavioral control had a significant increase in the
intervention group after the intervention compared to before the intervention and the control group while
considering that the mean score decreased from 40.35 to 38.18 in the control group three months after
the intervention, a significant association about perceived behavioral control was seen in the control
group before and after intervention (p<.0001). Other studies also determined that perceived behavioral
control increased after intervention in the intervention compared to the control group (Armitage, 2001 and
Parrott, 2008). It seems that educational programs for increasing behavioral control by students about
health promoting behaviors can usefully improve responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and
interpersonal relationships among them.
Intention plays an important role in the theory of planned behavior. Intention contains motivational
factors influencing the behavior, and shows that people with what intensity perform the behavior (Glanz et
al, 2008). In the present study, behavioral intention after intervention increased significantly in the
intervention group. Kinsler (2006) et al indicated that the educational intervention based on the theory of
planned behavior increases individuals' intention to perform the behavior. Regarding students 'behavior,
there was not a significant difference before the intervention between two groups according to
responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships, but after intervention
behaviors such as responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships improved
in the intervention group. (Hortz et al,2006) in a study on the physical activity as health promoting
behavior declared that physical activity classes cause to increase the levels of physical activity outside of
school in students. Our findings showed that structures like attitudes, perceived behavioral control, and
behavioral intention can predict 37% of behavior changes in responsibility for the health, spiritual health,
and interpersonal relationships one month after educational intervention. However, 3 months after
educational intervention structures like attitude and subjective norms were able to predict 25% of changes
in responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships. Godin and Kok applied the
theory of planned behavior in 7 items such as addiction, driving, eating, exercise, AIDS, and dental
health, and indicated that perceived behavioral control was the most important predictor of intention, and
subjective norms had no role in this issue (Godin and Kok, 1996). Several meta-analysis studies reported
subjective norms as the weakest determinants of intention (Armitage, 2001; Shepherd, 1996). Differences
in results can be attributed to the type of audiences and studies.
Conclusion
Our findings showed a significant difference between structures of the planned behavior theory and
increasing responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships in the intervention
group after intervention. Therefore, the educational intervention based on this theory had positive impacts
on promoting responsibility for the health, spiritual health, and interpersonal relationships in the students.
It is also recommended to conduct educational courses promoting responsibility for the health, spiritual
health, and interpersonal relationships associated with other health educational programs for example
healthy lifestyle promoting behaviors in the schools by health teachers or others based on planned
behavior theory in other students.
Limitations
This study was only carried out on in high school girl students in the second year in the Tabriz city, which
not included boy school students. Also, there were time limits for increasing the number of educational
sessions. Self-reporting is other limitation in the study.
Acknowledgments
This article was obtained from Master's thesis and the research project approved by research center of
Health Research Based on Community Participation and Research Council of Tehran University of
Medical Sciences, number 21243. We thanks the education office in Tabriz, students participated, and
Zahra Kouhi and Mortaza Rezazadeh.
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192
The study of children's street labor and its social traumas in
sanandaj, Iran
Chimangol Salimi1, Sattar Sayedi2, Farhad Emam Jomeh3,Mohsen Masoomi4
1. Department of Sociology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, sanandaj, Iran
2. Department of Psychology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, sanandaj, Iran
3. Department of Sociology, arak Branch, Islamic Azad University, arak, Iran
4. Department of English, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, sanandaj, Iran
Abstract
children's Labor is the story of poor and needy people who are forced to start working from their early
ages due to their economical and cultural poverty. They experience a harsh situation in life. Today's
children, are tomorrow's young and adolescences and the society's asset. Their healthy body and soul
ensures a healthy society in the future of the country. The present research aims to study children's street
labor and its social trauma in sanandaj city, in west of Iran. this study has been done in survey method on
100 street children sanandaj city between 5-15 years old (the statistic sample is equal to statistical
population), the functional tool here is researcher-made questionnaire, the reliability of which is 95% as
gained through coronbach’s alfa. Also 5 experts have checked and approved the questionnaire's face
validity. Research method is survey and half-structured interviews and participant observation have been
implemented.the analysis of the research hypotheses done through Spss18 software, indicates that the
relationship between the variables of family's economic and cultural poverty, their literacy and the rate of
the urge for children's street labor has statistically significant meaning at the level of 0/05. But, between
variables of not having parents and immigration and the urge for children's street labor . poverty
(economical and cultural) can be considered as the most important factor in causing children's street
labor and social traumas in sanandaj city.
Key words: children, work in street, social traumas, sanandaj
Introduction
Child labor is the story of the poor and the miserable, who enter the labor market in their development
prime, due to poor economic situation, culture, and . . ., and encounter inappropriate life conditions,
making them vulnerable to physical and mental traumas; these are the people who are in urgent need for
protection in all areas.
Child labor or street children as a phenomenon is a social trauma targeting not only a considerable
number of children and adolescents, who are the society’s capital for the future by exposing them to
various traumas, but also the society by creating numerous societal damages. Children constitute the
future generation of a society, and all cultural and social sub-systems are prone to imbalanced situation, if
neglected. Street children suffer from intense physical and mental illnesses and have a desperate
prospect towards future, and a great number of them are apt to be trapped in delinquency, theft,
addiction, and various criminal gangs (Sharifi, 2004).
The term Working children can be applied to those children who are compelled to work on streets, in
formal or informal workplaces to survive, due to their family problems, whether they return home or stay
on streets (rabbani and mardani, 2003). According to a UNICEF report 1-3 percent of Iranian children
(ageing 6 to 14) work and do not attend school (Kalantari and Kyani, 2005).
Street children phenomenon as a problem is steadily increasing alongside urbanization, poverty, and
other societal problems (Ray, Mishra, Biswas, & Kumar, 1999). Working
and street children
phenomenon, regretful as it is, emerged as a social reality in the second half of 20th century in many
countries. This phenomenon stems from urbanization, migration, and outskirt residences (sheykhi, 2004).
Child labor is an immense phenomenon all over the world, and pertains to torturous demanding and
intensely exploitative acts, which offends children rights overtly (Rabbani and Mardani, 2003). These
children are forced to resort to begging, theft, prostitution, and drug deals (Haley et al, 2004). An
investigation done by Ahmad-khaniha, Torkman-nejad, and hussenini-moghaddam (2004) showed a
significance relationship between the depression demonstrated in street children and having an
unemployed father and being the income source for the family. 20.9% out of 55.5% of these children were
sexually abused by strangers. Sexual abuse has been demonstrated in various investigations over and
over again ( for example, Wutoh et al, 2006; Rew et al, 2001; Noell et al, 2001; Ataei et al, 2009). Also
affliction to various physical and mental diseases ( Zare’-shahabadi et al, 2009), drug addiction (Ataei et
al, 2009), psycho-physical and emotional disorders, and immense verbal and physical conflicts
(khodabakhshi-koulaei, 2004 and 2003) are epidemic among them.
Low levels of literacy among children, increasing dominance of family dimension, and parents’ illiteracy
and divorce have an extensive impact on pushing children into streets and many other associated
problems (Aderinto, 2000). Families’ low income, illiteracy, lack of professional skills regarding parents,
and multi-childrenism, are among the main factors which make children work (Arami and noei-teymoori,
2001). In his investigation conducted in “bouyer-ahmad”, Amiri (2003) has mentioned family’s low income
and poverty, parents’ illiteracy, migration to cities, multi-childrenism, parents’ addiction, and parents’
violence as the main factors which make children work. According to a W.T.O. report (1996), there is a
vigorous relationship between child labor and poverty, illiteracy, paternal orphanage, family size, and
parents’ occupation in four countries (Ghana, India, Indonesia, Senegal). The results from Zare’shahabadi et al’s study (2009) demonstrated a significant relationship between father’s employment
status and family’s income and child labor, and that child labor increases as father’s unemployment
increases, and in families with the mother staying at home as a housewife, child labor increases.
Nevertheless, they found no relationship between parentage type and child labor. Ghasem-zade’s study
(2000) showed that boys constitute the greatest population in child labor, and that the number of migrant
children is the greatest.
Lack of parentage in its sociological sense threatens all social structures as an immense social crisis in all
industrial countries; and the problem of lack of parentage is assumed to be one of the most important
social concerns in our country[Iran], regarding the characteristics of our society (sheykhi, 2004). Malparentage and single-parentage affect child labor phenomenon more vigorously than family size does
(Tienda, 1979).
Various factors affects street labor children emergence in different areas and countries. For example,
economic poverty in United Stated (Densley and Joss, 2000), lack of parentage and lack of family in Sun
Paolo (Pancharoen and Thisyakorn, 2003), social abnormalities and sex trafficking in Thailand and
Eastern Asia (Marozzi, 1998) can be mentioned.
Population development, rural and urban migration, unemployment, poverty, and social traumas are
among the factors mentioned which help create this phenomenon The problem is more conspicuous in
countries in which there is an unfair wealth distribution, and these children are supposed to be the
scapegoats of the economic violence (Scanlon et al, 1998). Fluctuant economic status is a characteristic
194
specific to modern societies, and poverty and unemployment increases in crises. As the extent of social
traumas have been compared to economic indicators in many scientific researches, the results
demonstrate that social traumas are not connected to economic crises only, but urbanization and
mechanical trends of city life and norm-conflicts are effective factors in the emergence of anti-social
diseases.
The results from Ghasem-zade’s survey (2003) indicate an increase in street children labor and various
problems associated with it, and recommend a necessity to plan for a decrease in this traumatic
phenomenon for children and society. Furthermore, the findings from Husseini’s investigation (2005)
indicate such factors as the deficiency observed in social institutions like family and school, economic
poverty associated with street children families and their disability in adjusting their life styles with those of
large cities, population and traumatic nature of outskirts, lack of adequate supervision on the part of
responsible organizations, and inaccurate patterns regarding interaction between citizens and street
children, altogether conspire to keep street children phenomenon (mainly child labor on streets) stay
there yet as an extremely problematic issue in many large cities in Iran.
Findings, on one hand, indicate a tendency towards change in government policies regarding street
children, from collecting them to engrossing them by responsible centers, and making a distinction
between street labor children and street children, and on the other hand, they indicate carelessness about
fundamental causes, continuous state trend in collecting system, inability existing in government system
for ensuring children of the benevolence of the centers, inability in providing services to the children
involved in street labor, and supporting children after they leave the centers (vameghi, 2005).
A survey conducted by Türkmen, Okyay, Ata, Okuyanoğlu (2004) in Turkey, indicated that these children
mainly had an experience of street conflicts, accidents, and hurts and injuries caused by quarrels.
Furthermore, kalantari, Rabbani, and Sedaghat’s findings (2004), indicate that outlawry is a serious social
trauma, and that a greater number of outlaws belong to economically poor classes in urban communities.
Socio-economic poverty, cultural poverty and . . . provide an encouraging atmosphere for outlaws and
subsequent justification, and prove the way for individuals to act in personal and out-of norm ways.
The problem regarding social traumas is of great significance in terms of the cost, time, and energy spent
by the government to resolve them. Correction and rehabilitation centers, prisons, recuperation and
apprenticeship centers, law enforcement, child and adolescent courts, and their relevant costs are all
redundant burdens imposed on the state budget. Prohibitive measures regarding this crucial issue can be
a fundamental and on time step to step turn in preventing the escalating of the number of delinquency
adolescents and youngsters. A great proportion of this budget can be allocated to education and scientific
and practical trainings for such individual; this is turn will create a happier and more prosperous life for
them. Therefore, aiming at identifying the phenomenon of street labor children, and understanding its
causes along with children’s pathological dimensions and providing a healthy condition in family and
social environment, this study has been carried out to analyze this problem. The definition provided by
sociology scholars regarding the social problem is taken into consideration here: a situation in the society
for which there is an urgent and inevitable request, on the part of public opinion, to be resolved, improved,
modified, or changed, and this is also applicable to the case of child labor and the associated traumas
regarding either psychological and physical or delinquency and deviational dimensions. It can be claimed
that the phenomenon of Street labor children can be asserted as a social problem in the city under
investigation, whose citizens and authorities suffer associated consequences and demand a solution,
modification, or change regarding the situation. In effect, the major problem stated in this study is that:
which factors cause street child labor in the city of sanandaj? How much child labor is under the influence
of economic factors, cultural poverty, parent’s literacy status, migration, and lack of parentage?
Hypotheses of the study:
Major hypotheses
1. There is a relationship between economic poverty and children’s tendency to work in sanandaj urban
community.
195
2. There is a relationship between cultural poverty and child labor in sanandaj urban community.
Minor hypothesis
1. There is a relationship between family’s economic poverty and children’s tendency to work in sanandaj
urban community.
2. There is a relationship between parents’ literacy status and children’s tendency to work in sanandaj
urban community.
3. There is a relationship between family migration and children’s tendency to work in sanandaj urban
community.
4. There is a relationship between parentage type and children’s tendency to work in sanandaj urban
community.
5. There is a relationship between parents’ cultural poverty and their social status defects and child labor
in sanandaj urban community.
6. There is a relationship between social traumas associated with such children and their working in
sanandaj urban community.
Research Methodology
Survey method has been manipulated to scrutinize the relationship between child labor and the
independent variables presented in this study. Child labor is dependent variable and parents’ education
level, economic and cultural poverty, immigration and orphanage are independent variable.
Population and sampling:
Children of 5-15 years old who are engaged in mock jobs during summer in the city of sanandaj constitute
the research population. The selected sample include a limited number of the mass population who are
representing the characteristics of the society. Due to the fact that no formal census data regarding street
labor children was provided by responsible organizations, and there was no access to census data
regarding street child labor, the sample was selected on a non-contingent sampling basis through finding
children engaged in working on the streets of sanandaj during the research time span. The sample was
equal to the population, and 100 working children were investigated.
Research concepts
labor Children: working children can be applied to those individuals who are compelled to work on streets,
or in formal or informal workplace to survive due to their family problems, whether they return to their
homes or stay on the streets.
Street labor children: according to the definition provided by UNICEF the term street children include all
those under 18 who live their lives through begging, wrongdoing, and engagement in mock seasonal jobs
on streets and are mostly homeless as well; i.e. they have no home for sleep, personal cleansing, and
residing in.
Literacy rate: by parents’ literacy rate, we mean parents’ illiteracy and elementary and junior high school
education as well.
Economic poverty: by economic poverty, we mean income shortage observed in families which compel
the underage to physical labor to earn a living for the family.
196
Cultural poverty: parent’s inaccessibility to educational facilities, employment, or social status is of
concern. Among the related dimensions are inaccurate local and ethnic cultural conviction regarding
children’s educations and compelling them to work.
Migration: by migration, we mean to move from a region and resettle in another with the hope of finding a
job and earning a living to pursue the continuous trend of life.
Lack of parentage: adoption by people other than child’s real parents is meant.
Data collection instruments
A “researcher-made questionnaire” is utilized to collect the data needed for conducting the study. halfstructured interviews and participant observation are included in the questionnaire, and the questions
contained fall in two categories.
1. Demographic questions concerning sex, age, . . ..
2. Hypothesis testing questions which are utilized to understand the correlation between independent and
dependent variables, and scale-based questions are in accordance with Likert scale.
The contributions provided by 5 reverend scholars were utilized to determine instrument narration; also
cronbach’s alpha coefficient was used to determine instrument reliability (the results are illustrated in the
following table). The instrument enjoys the necessary reliability, since cronbach’s alpha coefficient is
higher than the standard amount 0.7.
scale
Economic
poverty
Parents’
literacy
migration
Cultural
poverty
Social traumas
Number of items
8
2
2
5
4
Cronbach’s alpha
.89
.93
.84
.94
.86
Data analysis method
This research is descriptive and diagnostic due to its application-oriented objective, since the researchers
intend to describe the factors influential in creation and the widely-spread expansion of child labor
phenomenon in sanandaj urban community. “Descriptive and inferential” statistics were utilized to analyze
the data. Descriptive statistics were utilized to describe ethnographic variables of the research, and the
variables representing research hypotheses, in terms of percentage and amplitude in graphs and tables.
X2 test was utilized in order to determine the relationship between economic factors, cultural poverty, and
parents’ educational level on one hand, and child labor on the other. Due to yanking measurement scale,
“Mann-Witney nonparametric” test was utilized to measure the relationship between migration and child
labor engagement. Lastly, “Kruskal-wallis nonparametric” test was utilized to scrutinize the relationship
between parentage type and child labor engagement.
Findings
The paper study was conducted in order to investigate street child labor and the associated social
traumas in the city of sanandaj. 100 percent of the participants to the questionnaire were male. 2 percent
of the participants to the questionnaire were up to 6 years old, 8 percent were 7 to 10, 30 percent were 11
to 13, and the remaining 60 percent were 13 to 15. 14 percent of the participants were illiterate, 58
percent had elementary, and 28 percent had junior high school literacy.
First hypothesis: the relationship between economic poverty and a tendency towards child labor.
197
Chi square test was utilized to investigate the aforesaid question. Test results are shown in table(1).
Table1.Results from X2 test to measure the relationship between economic poverty and a
tendency towards child labor
Hours spent
working in 24
hours
residential
place type
local district
Afford a living
Compelling to
work due to
income
shortage
Income
sufficient to
X2
16.4
111.14
125.36
77.44
70.56
df
4
2
3
1
1
sig
.003
.000
.000
.000
.000
According to table (1) Chi square amounts for the items parents’ income sufficient for a living, compelling
to work due to income shortage, residential place type, local district, hours spent working by children in 24
hours, were 111.14, 125.36, 77.44, 70.56, and 16.4 respectively. Also, degree of freedom for parents’
income sufficient for a living, Compelling to work due to income shortage, residential place type, local
district, and Hours spent working in 24 hours were 2,3,1,1, and 4 respectively. The test’s significance
level was .000 for parent’s income sufficient for a living, Compelling to work due to income shortage,
residential place type, and local district, and .003 for hours spent working by children.
Due to the fact that test’s significance level was lower than standard level (5 percent) for the five
variables, it can be argued that a statistically significance relationship exists between economic poverty
and child labor engagement.
Second hypothesis: the relationship between parent’s education and a tendency towards child labor.
Chi square test was utilized to investigate the aforesaid question. The results are illustrated in table(2).
Table2. Results from X2 test to measure the relationship between parent’s education and a
tendency toward child labor
Father’s education level
Mother’s education level
Hours spent working
X2
29.6
23.4
16.4
df
3
1
4
sig
.000
.000
.003
According to table (2) Chi square statistic amounts for the father’s education level 29.6, mother’s
education level 23.4, and hours spent working 16.4. Also, degree of freedom for the father’s education
level 3, mother’s education level 1, and hours spent working was 4. The test’s significance level was .000
for father’s education level, mother’s education level, and .003 for hours spent working.
Due to the fact that test’s significance level was lower than standard level(5 percent) for the three
variables, it can be argued that a statistically significance relationship exists between parent’s education
and child labor engagement.
Third hypothesis: the relationship between migration and a tendency towards child labor.
198
Mann-whitney nonparametric test was utilized to investigate the aforesaid question due to the comparison
made on employment rate of the two sample groups, namely migrant and non-migrant groups, this test
was used. The results are illustrated in table (3).
Table3. The results Mann-Whitney test to measure the relationship between migration and a
Rankings
Hours spent
working
migration
number
Mean ranking
Total rankings
Yes
80
50.63
4050
No
20
50
1000
Total
100
Test statistic
Hours spent working
Mann- Whitney test
790
Wilcoxon test
1000
Z statistic
.089
significance level
.929
The results obtained from Mann-Whitney test indicates that the mean ranking for the variable hours spent
working for migrants is 50.63, and 50 for non-migrants. Since the significance level of this test in the
lower table is higher than standard level (.929), it can be argued that migration has no impact on child
labor engagement.
Fourth hypothesis: the relationship between parentage type and a tendency towards child labor.
Kruskal-wallis nonparametric test was utilized to investigate the stated problem. This test was used to
compare the job engagement associated with three sample groups; first group supervised by both father
and mother, second group supervised by father only, and third group supervised by mother only. The
results are illustrated in table (4).
Table4. Results from Kruskal-Wallis test to measure the relationship parentage type and a
Rankings
Hours spent working
199
Parentage
Number
Mean ranking
Real father and mother
74
49.57
father only
12
51.33
mother only
14
Total
100
54.71
Test statistic
Hours spent working
Chi square
.406
df
2
sig
.816
The results obtained from Kruskal-wallis test indicates that the mean ranking for the variable hours spent
working for those who had their own real parent, those who had father only, and those who had mother
only, were 49.57, 51.33, 54.71 respectively. Since the significance level for this test in the lower table
is(.816) and is higher than standard level of 5 percent, it can be argued that parentage type had no
impact on child labor engagement.
Fifth hypothesis: the relationship between cultural poverty and a tendency towards child labor.
Chi square test and the obtained results are illustrated in table (5).
Table5. Results from X2 test to measure the relationship between cultural poverty and a tendency
toward child labor
hours
spent
workin
g in 24
hours
mother
employ
ment
father
employ
ment
accessi
bility to
educatio
n
facilities
approval
to
pursue
educatio
n
impact
attitudes
of
acquaint
ances
had on
pursuing
educatio
n
parents
respect
frequen
cy of
immoral
diction
within
the
family
family
health
care
X2
16.4
116.4
44.24
26
15.44
90.08
84
58.16
52.88
df
4
2
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
sig
.003
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
According to the table, the Chi square statistic amount is 116.41 for mother employment, 44.24 for father
employment, and 26 for the item accessibility to education facilities, 15.44 for the item parents approval to
pursue education, 90.08 for the item the impact attitudes of acquaintances had on pursuing education, 84
for the item parents respect, 58.16 for the item frequency of immoral diction within the family, 52.88 for
the item family health care, and 16.4 for the hours spent working in 24 hours. Significance level for the
test for the hours spent working in 24 hours is .003, and .000 for the other variables.
Sixth hypothesis: the relationship between a tendency towards child labor and social traumas.
200
Since the test’s significance level for all five variables is lower than the standard level 5 percent, it can be
argued that there is a statistically significance relationship between cultural poverty and child labor
engagement. X2 test was utilized to investigated the stated problem. The obtained results are illustrated in
table (6).
Table6. Results from X2 test to measure a tendency toward child labor and social traumas
hours spent
working in 24
hours
Familiarity with
drugs
Illegal act
suggestions
Street
disturbance
Immoral
suggestions
Chi square
16.4
93.2
179.5
118.5
52.8
df
4
4
4
4
4
sig
.003
.000
.000
.000
.000
According to table(6) X2 statistic amount is 93.2 for Familiarity with drugs, 179.5 for illegal act
suggestions, 118.5 for the item Street disturbance, 52.8 for the item immoral suggestions, and 16.4 for
the hours spent working in 24 hours. Degree of freedom for all items is 4. significance level for hours
spent working in 24 hours is .003, and .000 for the remaining variables.
Since the significance level is lower than 5 percent for all 5 variables, it can be argued that no statistically
significance relationship exists between child labor engagement and social traumas.
Conclusion and Discussion
Considering the present situation in Iran regarding street children, gradual understandings about them,
and numerous studies conducted, it is quite obvious that “street labor” children or “on street” children
constitute a great proportion of the Iranian street children (Jangholy, 2004; Rameshk, 2003). Based on
this ground, the present study investigates the children’s street labor, which is crucially significant in
earning a living for the families to improve the undesirable economic status, and the associated social
traumas, in the city of sanandaj. The results from research data analysis is consistent with Densley and
Joss (2000), Arami and Noei-teymouri(2001), Ataei et al(2009), Amiri(2003), W.T.O.(1990) findings, and
indicated a significant relationship between economic poverty and these children’s engagement in work.
This finding is also congruent with the obtained results in Pakistan (Towe et al, 2009) and Nigeria (Olley,
2006). Therefore, if poverty is assumed as a vigorous factor in creating street children, welfare
improvement and poverty decreasing programs regarding problematic groups will prove to be of primary
significance in directing the objective set by the responsible organizations regarding prohibiting familydriven child labor and preventing street child creation(vameghi, 2005); since an increase in the parents’
income has been indicated to have a positive impact on increasing the number of school-going children
and decreasing dropouts (husseini, 2005).
The second hypothesis of the research indicates a statistically significant relationship existing between
parent’s education level and child labor engagement. The results show that the majority of parents of
these children were either illiterate or had the least education levels, and low level of education is in
relation with economic poverty and accounts for these children dropouts and their ultimate illiteracy. This
finding is consistent with the results from the researches conducted by W.T.O.(1990); Aderinto (2000);
Ahmad-khaniha, Torkman-nejad, and Husseini-moghaddam(2002); Ghasem-Zadeh(2003); Amiri(2003);
and Zare’-shahabadi et al(2009). The first and second hypothesis being vigorously consistent with
previous studies indicate that the two factors of poverty and parents’ low levels of education can be
201
among the significant and perhaps predicative factors in creating street child labor not only in sanandaj
but also in other places; although more extensive studies are required for this issue to be proved.
The third hypothesis show no relationship between migration and a tendency towards child labor in the
city of sanandaj; this is presumably in contradiction with the finding of researches conducted by Ahmadkhaniha, Torkman-nejad, and Husseini-moghaddam(2002); Husseini ( 2005); and Zare’-shahabadi et
al(2009), which indicate 80%, 87.5%, 84.3% of these children respectively as migrants. This contradiction
is possibly due to making no distinction between migration and immigration in the aforementioned
studies.
The fourth hypothesis is consistent with previously conducted researches (e.g. Pancharoen and
Thisyakorn, 2003; Ghasem-Zadeh, 2003; Fallah et al, 1998) which state that most of these children live
with their own parents, but not consistent with Zare’-shahabadi et al(2009) findings and in contradiction
with Tienda (1979) findings which assert that parentage type has no impact on child labor engagement.
This finding indicates that in spite of the common perspectives about lack of parentage concerning these
children, majority of them live with their own families, and the only purpose associated with their working
is helping their families to earn a living.
The fifth hypothesis is also confirmed, showing a relationship existing between cultural poverty and a
tendency towards child labor; due to the fact that the majority of these children possess parents with lowlevel jobs, are faced with inadequate facilities concerning education, and live on the outskirts. This finding
is significant in the sense that the issue of cultural variations in different regions is likely to pose various
factors and causes as influencing child labor tendency. For example, migration in one region or city,
divorce, violence, quarrels, and family rejection in another, low levels of education and professional skills
in the other, and . . . might be important.
Findings also indicate a relationship between a tendency towards child labor and social trauma. This
finding is also in line with Scalon et al(1998) regarding Latin American street children. Factors such as
great number of hours spent working, illegal and immoral acts proposed to these children, the grounds
layed for these children being acquainted with wrongdoing, destruction, street conflicts, outlawry, and not
observing others’ rights, addiction, stealthy, . . . altogether lay the ground for social traumas, which
demand serious consideration of the authorities, state organizations, and N.G.O.s to prevent its being
expanded in the whole state generally and sanandaj specifically.
As an overall conclusion, it can be stated that poverty is the most important factor influential in street child
labor tendency in sanandaj which demand planning and solution finding on the part of responsible
organizations and provincial authorities in order to provide required protections and preventions regarding
this phenomenon.
In effect, putting an end to poverty is a precondition to putting an end to street child labor, thus, it is
recommended that; A) the function of each one of different dimensions of poverty such as economic,
social, cultural, ideological, and . . ., and the associated traumas regarding street child labor to be
investigated thoroughly in order to further scrutinize this very factor and conduct future complementary
studies; B) the function of NGOs, local unions, charity foundations, organizations responsible for these
children, mass media, and the sponsors to the families of these children, in preventing these children’s
ingaging in street labor to be analyzed and C) the diverse dimensions of social traumas associated with
this phenomenon to be exclusively investigated, as well.
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204
Pathology of Creativity in higher education (case study: Islamic Azad
University arak Branch)
chimangol salimi1, Sattar sayedi2
1.Department of sociology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, sanandaj, Iran
2. Department of Psychology, Sanandaj Branch, Islamic Azad University, sanandaj, Iran
Abstract
There is a growing need for creative and innovative people in organizations to maintain their viability and
competitiveness in today's world full of changes and turbulences, especially at universities at the
forefront of change, creativity and innovation. The present study was conducted to pathology of creativity
in higher education. A descriptive survey research was carried out. The population included all the
students at the faculty of Humanities (8604 people), Islamic Azad University of Arak. A systematic
random sampling method based on the formula of Kokran was done to select 372 respondents. Data
collection was performed by a five-part Likert scale questionnaire. The findings suggest that educational
programs and school resources are not introduced in order to create creativity. Content and curriculum
content do not draw a clear picture of students and do not make them reflect. Educational space do not
make students express their views easily and new ideas & plans are not much appreciated. Finally, the
research work is neglected and no attention is paid to the concordance between practical experience and
theoretical concepts on the ground.
Key words: higher education, teaching resources, teaching methods, research strategies, evaluation
methods.
introduction
Increasing variety of heterogeneous states, mutual relations among countries, erosion of natural
resources, increasing speed of variables and other different criteria, made creativity an inevitable principle
for survive in today’s modern world ( Wali, 2002). The most common definition of creativity is presented
by Gilford, an American scientist. He defines creativity as an equivalent with divergent thinking ( a method
used to generate creative ideas by exploring many possible solutions) in comparison with convergent
thinking (ability to give the "correct" answer) ( Gholampoor, 2002). Creativity is a product of using novel
approaches for solving problems. in a modern definition we can define creativity as a novel problem
solving approach different from ordinary minds. It implies that independent thinking is an essential part of
creativity, having problem and use different problem solving methods. So every aspects which prevent
mankind from novel thinking and prevent him from having different perspective are challenging the
principle of activating the “creative mind”. ( Abootorabian, 2002).
Creativity is a common ability…….. but its evolution needs nurturing, which we could be nurtured in
educational centers from primary schools to higher education levels in universities. It is clear that in a
scientific system the three parts play important roles 1) Professor 2) student and 3) Educational content,
which have mutual relations with each other, and is called the Educational triangle (Figure1). But in
addition to those above mentioned parts, two other factors are necessary for the evolution of the process
of creativity, which are: 1) organizational elements and 2) other social, economical, political, cultural
which in an intersystem model are
called
“cultural
environment”(
cultural
Rafipoor, 2006).
From viewpoint of researchers and
scientists, creativity is an aspect
which is exists in all human, and could
be activated by encouragement, but
the shortage of inventions in
educational systems of the society,
implies that there are some elements
exist which preclude the process of
creativity ( Abootorabian, 2006).
economical
Social
student
political
Educati
onal
content
Organizational
Professor
In order to provide the context for
creativity there should be 3 factors
exist: 1) Physical elements: facilities
through which person could exhibit his
Figure1. Educational triangle
abilities.
2)
Rational
elements:
stimulating contexts for motivating
person for try to reach his goal. 3)
Emotional elements: providing a
context in which the person feels
secure toward a proper reaction to
physical and rational motivational
factors ( Karimi, 2009). Every society
needs to have a comprehensive and precise view of the future and if we want to create a positive view of
our future, our creativity should be nurtured( Torens, adapted from Ghasemzadeh, 1996).
In today’s modern world, educating creative staffs in organizations is a necessity for survive in the
competitive world, and universities are mainly responsible for creating opportunities for nurturing
creativity. This present study investigates the pathology of creativity in higher education systems.
Method
Participants and research design
This is a descriptive-survey research. Statistical population of the research are 8604 students of Islamic
Azad University, Arak branch who were elected by random-systematic method and by applying Cochran
formula sample size, 372 university students were elected as a sample size for the present study.
Instrument
With regard the aim of the study an standardized questionnaire was needed to concur with our aims, but
unfortunately such a questionnaire wasn’t existed; so by using related resources and primary interviews
with some of the students of the statistical population and also by using comments of university
professors of humanity science college in Islamic azad university Arak branch, a 15 item questionnaire
based on likert scale was prepared in which 4 dimensions of educational content, teaching methodology,
classroom atmosphere, research facilities and exam tests design were evaluated. In order to determine
the validity and feasibility of the questionnaire, professors comments were considered and were applied
in designing and editing the questionnaire and in order to determine the reliability of the questionnaire, the
cronbach alpha coefficient were applied in which the coefficient of 0/82 was assessed. After ensuring the
pragmatism of the questionnaire, it was administered among students, after it finished, its data were
collected.
Procedure
206
First of all answering guidelines were added at to the first of the questionnaire, then administered among
students in different time intervals in group mode without time limitation for filling, then they were gathered
and their accuracy frequency based on 5degrees dimension were estimated.
Result
In this section research findings are stated based on aims of the study and research questions.

First aim (evaluation of the congruency of the educational content and teaching syllabus design in
university in order to create creativity opportunities) which are addressed in the following 4
questions:
Table1. Educational content and books
first hypothesis research question
1- responsibility of educational resources
toward social and life issues
2- the role of educational content in
creativity
3- the role of educational contents in
creating a positive future image for student
4- congruency of educational content and
research.
Very
much
6.7
much
little
29
No
comment
12.6
37.9
Very
little
13.7
4.3
36
11
28.5
20.2
9.4
30.9
5.9
38.4
15.3
16.1
21
18.3
36.3
8.3
The above table shows that in 51/06 percent of the answers the respondents state that congruency of
educational contents in reaction to social and life issues are at its lowest state. In response to question
number 2, 48/07 percent of the respondents state that the contents of books have a very low effect on
their efficiency of thinking, and 53/07 percent state that taught contents have an inefficient role in creating
a comprehensive image of their future. 44/06 percent of the students state that educational contents have
a very low congruency with teaching and life experience.

Second aim (evaluation of the effect of the teaching and educational atmosphere on creativity)
which is studied under the following three questions.
Table 2. professors teaching methodology and class atmosphere
second hypothesis research questions
1- how you are motivated by your
professors teaching methodology?
2- To some extent classroom atmosphere
has a relaxing atmosphere?
3- to some extent classroom atmosphere
motivate your creativity and curiosity?
Very
much
3.2
much
little
21.2
No
comment
5.6
31.2
Very
little
38.7
1.6
18
11
53.8
15.6
1.1
23.1
13.7
32.8
29
From table 2, it could be inferred that 69/09 percent of the students believe that professors teaching
methodology don’t motivate them. 69 percent of the respondents state that classroom doesn’t have a
relaxing atmosphere. 61/08 percent state that the classroom atmosphere doesn’t motivate their curiosity.

207
Third aim(evaluation of the efficacy of research activities on creativity) which is examined under
the following three questions:
Table3. Research activities
third hypothesis research questions
1- how you were equipped with research
facilities
2- how authorities assist you in your
research process
3- to some extent university authorities
signify research activities?
Very
much
3.8
much
little
8.9
No
comment
9.4
43.3
Very
little
34.7
3
15.6
11.6
42.2
30.4
2.4
30.6
14.8
39.2
12.9
In general 78 percent of the students believe that university’s research facilities are insufficient. 72/06
percent state that the relation between research center authorities and university students are low. 52/01
percent state that university authorities put low importance for research activities.

Fourth aim (evaluation of the effect of exam tests on creativity) which is investigated under the
following 5 questions:
Table 4. professors evaluation methods
fourth hypothesis research questions
1. do students answers to the tests are
accompanied with logic?
2. Do they have different perspective toward
exam and classroom contents?
3. How your interpretation affects your
responding to tests?
4. Do the exam questions satisfy your
curiosity?
5. To some extent professors pay attention
to class activities?
Very
much
1.1
much
little
22
No
comment
25.8
40.6
Very
little
10.5
16.7
18.8
20.4
30.6
13.4
11
15.6
1.6
18
53.8
7
24.7
13.7
28
26.6
12.9
23.9
9.9
33.9
19.4
From this table we can conclude that 51/01 percent of the students believe that creative thinking plays a
nuance role in responding exam questions, however 23/01 percent believe that creative thinking plays an
important role. In responding to question number2, 43/09 percent of the students believe that exam tests
don’t affect their viewpoint toward classroom learnings. In responding to question number3, 71/08 percent
believe that responding to tests don’t need analysis and creative thinking and 54/06 percent believe that
classroom learnt skills have no relation with creative thinking. And 53/03 percent believe that professors
don’t pay attention to classroom activities.
Results and Discussion
This present study investigates the pathology of creativity in higher education. In this study factors like
concurrency of educational contents with introduced syllabus design for teaching in university in order to
provide creativity opportunities, effect of teaching and classroom atmosphere on creativity, the effect of
research projects on creativity and effects of exam tests design on creativity were analyzed. In this
section we discuss the results of the study.
Evaluating the concurrency of educational contents with introduced curriculums for teaching in
universities and their effects on creativity. From results of table number 1 it could be inferred that
educational contents in universities aren’t compatible with social and personal life experiences of
students, educational contents don’t have a significant role in providing context for creating thinking,
educational contents don’t play an important role in future planning for students and professors also don’t
208
combine research activities with homework and most of the students believe that taught contents don’t
motivate their creative thinking, therefore it seems that universities need a curriculum reform.
Educational stereotyping from formal levels to informal one, whether in academic, broadcasting, or press
manner, nurture stereotype minds rather innovative and creative minds. There is a need to provide a
situation in which creative generations nurtured besides the status quo and activate the idea of “a need
for creativity”. In such a condition natural need gravity of “abilities of creativity and innovation” besides
desire for higher education and scattered information would be activated and since modern facilities are
provided for the new generation, they will determined to be successful ( Abootorabian 2004)
Evaluating the level of concurrency of professors teaching styles with dominant atmosphere of classroom
for providing creative thinking opportunities. From table number 2 it could be inferred that teaching
strategy of professors doesn’t have significant effect on motivating students, classroom atmosphere
which is full of ridiculous manners and anxious from asking questions, then couldn’t encourage students
curiosity and professors’ teaching strategies and classroom atmosphere couldn’t improve students’
creativity, then their teaching strategy should be reformed. Woods( 1990) believe that classroom
atmosphere, teaching strategies, student motivation and curiosity mood are considered as crucial factors
for nurturing creativity and knowledge processing. Creativity nurturing is an inevitable factor which should
be considered, so beyond doubt teachers have the main role in this field.
Evaluating the level of concurrency of research activities in providing situations for creativity. From results
of table number 3 it could be inferred that universities aren’t equipped with modern and proper research
facilities, and if research facilities are existed, their application by students are at lowest rate ad there is a
weak relationship between research center authorities and students, and university authorities don’t pay
attention to students research activities and they don’t provide conditions to try to encourage students to
reinforce their creativity via doing research activities.
Evaluating the level of concurrency of exam test design and its effect on students’ creativity. From table
number 4 it could be inferred that exam tests are at the first level of educational hierarchy, in another
words most of the tests are mnemonic, and these type of tests won't motivate students’ ability to analysis
and judgment assessments therefore won’t motivate their creative abilities. Exam tests won’t challenge
students with a different structure of thinking, their answers are clear and don’t need analysis therefore
won’t motivate their curiosity and professors also use summative evaluation at final exams and doesn’t
have research activities and formative assessments, so based on these mentioned findings we are sure
to say exam questions and assessments won’t motivate students’ creativity.
Important points in nurturing creative thinking in educational institutes are 1) design these institutes based
on actual needs of learners 2) planning various subjects and flexible curriculum 3) emphasis on
associative concepts and creating diverse viewpoints 4) focus on mutual learning in teaching activities
(Nozar, 2009). But from the above results it could be inferred that combining research activities with
theoretical contents aren’t considered as important factors, educational contents, professor’s teaching
strategy, classroom atmosphere and design of exam tests don’t relate to creativity factors and it is
necessary for our higher educational organization to consider these points more than before. As Kraft
(2000) states higher educational organization have to be reformed but before this reform took place it is
necessary to basically change in viewpoint toward higher education state, in another word it is necessary
university shouldn’t be considered as graduation institutes rather they should be considered as
educational institutes in which creativity and innovation are their main purposes.
References
Abootorabian, M. (2004) educating creative generation in Iran (first Ed.) Volume1, Tehran, Omidvar
Printing Office, pp 1-69.
Craft. A.(2000). Creativity across the primary curriculum Framing and developing practice. London:
Newfetter Lane.
Gholampoor,A. (2001) Creativity and innovation in educational institutes, quarterly of management in
Education, 7th period, no 5.
Karimi, A. ( 2007) inspecting the effects of common standings toward market on encouraging university
students of Arak branch for higher education ( MA thesis), Islamic Azad university Arak branch,
p65.
209
Pal Torrence, E. ( 1996) Aptitudes and Creativity skills and their Evaluation Methods, Dr. Hasan
Ghasemzadeh, volume 1, Tehran, Donyaye No, pp 1-93.
Rafipoor, F. ( 2004) Scientific development obstacles in Iran and their solution, second publication,
Tehran, Heidari printing office, pp 20-3.
Shafiei, N( 2009) innovation and cultural innovation, cultural journal of Islamic Azad university, period 11,
no 33, pp 1-11.
Vali, A ( 2000) Creativity and its Improvement, Tehran, presented article in the first conference of creative
studies, p6.
Woods. P.(1990). Teacher skills and strategies. Lewes: Falmer Press.
210
A comparative study of Social Anxiety in adolescents with Body
Dysmorphic Disorder and healthy group
1
Neda Esnaashari*
1. M.A. in Educational Psychology, Yazd University, Yazd, Iran
Abstract
Adolescence characterized by changes in physical, psychological and emotional features and
over concerns of some adolescents on aspects of appearance may lead to Body Dysmorphic
Disorder (BDD). Following the changes of puberty, incidence of social anxiety in adolescents is
undeniable and it’s severity as a disorder supposed to be higher in adolescent with BDD than in
healthy adolescents. According to the importance of social anxiety in adolescents, the purpose of
this study was comparing social anxiety in adolescents with BDD and healthy group. Statistical
population was all the Yazd female high school students that 371 teenage girl (14-18 years) were
selected by cluster sampling and answered to Watson & Friend social anxiety questionnaire and
Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale for BDD. Method of this study was causal-comparative
and data were analyzed by independent-samples t test. Findings have shown that adolescents
with BDD had more social anxiety than healthy group (t= -3.28, p<0.001). It should be noted that
adolescents with BDD had a significant difference with adolescents of healthy group in fear of
negative evaluation and social avoidance and caught higher scores (respectively t= -2.150 & t= 3.40). BDD in adolescents has been less noticed in psychological treatment and if this disorder be
untreated and social anxiety caused by stabilize on individual, later in adulthood also faced to
many problems in social relationships. Isolation, withdrawal & lack of confidence are the most
predictable consequences of this disorder.
Keywords: adolescent, social anxiety, body dysmorphic disorder, social avoidance
Introduction
One of the issues that got importance nowadays is seeking beauty that is almost arising from changes
in cultures, values and media & cyberspace advertising (Thornton & et al., 2013). Attention to the
appearance and being physically fit was in each period of time and desirable, but sometimes this
attention takes the form of hypersensitivity that is not normal anymore and become a disorder and
affected the personal and social performance. This disorder is called Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD).
Patients with BDD are suffering from a deep ugliness feeling of aspect of their appearance, despite being
normal or nearly normal (Fang & hofmann, 2010) and this preoccupation cause significant distress and
interfering with daily functioning.
BDD prevalence is estimated 1.7% to 2.4% of the population (Buhlmann & et al., 2010; Koran & et al.,
2008). Receivable data suggest that the most common age of onset of BDD is between 15 to 20 years
old. In research of Bjornsson & et al. (2013), the disorder average age of onset was 16/7 and a bit more
women are affected than men.
BDD is often associated with other psychiatric disorders. One study found that more than 90% of
patients with BDD have experienced a major depressive disorder in their lifetime; about 70% had anxiety
disorder and 30% were diagnosed with psychotic disorder (Borda & et al., 2011; Harth & Hermes, 2007).
Adolescents with BDD often have trouble concentrating on their assignments, in social activities are
experiencing social isolation and also in some cases depression and thoughts of suicide may occur
(Rudiger & et al., 2007).
Social Anxiety Disorder (SAD) is one of the most common mental disorders and in DSM-IV, social
anxiety disorder was defined as “intense and persistent fear of social or performance situations where a
person may be embarrassed” (American Psychiatric Association, 1994: 411). Epidemiological studies
reported the lifetime prevalence of this disorder 7% to 12% of the population in Western countries
(Kessler & et al., 2005). Most people with BDD have social anxiety, which is the result of their BDD. As a
combination of several studies results, can be stated that among people who suffered from BDD 12% to
68/8% had also SAD and among people who suffered from SAD 4.8% to 12% had also BDD (Gunstad &
Phillips, 2003; Menezes & et al., 2005; Coles & et al., 2006).
Also in Pinto & Phillips (2005) study, social anxiety was significantly correlated with BDD severity (r=
0.33, p= 0.002). Fang & et al. (2013) proposed that some cognitive models consider the similar cognitive
factors in BDD and SAD and in similar research Fang & et al. (2011) found that rejection sensitivity
significantly mediates the association between BDD & SAD. Fang & hofmann (2010) paid to a review
study about the relationship between BDD and SAD, and results showed that fear of negative evaluation
that exist in BDD patients is the main characteristic of SAD; also showed that improvement in SAD has
been significantly correlated with the improvement in BDD. The purpose of this study was comparing
social anxiety in adolescents with BDD and healthy group.
Method
Method of this study was causal-comparative and statistical population were all the Yazd female high
school students (N= 10737) in the 2012-2013 school year that 371 teenage girl (14-18 years) were
selected by using Cochran formula7 and cluster sampling. Among Yazd female high school (district 1 &
2), 4 schools were selected randomly and from each school 3 grades (first, second & third) were selected
randomly. Adolescents answered to Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale-Body Dysmorphic Disorder
(Y-BOCS-BDD) and Social Avoidance & Distress-Fear of Negative Evaluation questionnaire (SAD-FNE).
Data was analyzed by using independent-samples t test.
- Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale-Body Dysmorphic Disorder (Y-BOCS-BDD)
It is a self-evaluation tool with 12 questions that measures the severity of body dysmorphic disorder.
Phillips & Diaz (1997) in a factor analysis on 125 outpatients diagnosed with BDD found that Y-BOCSBDD has a hierarchical structure with 2 factors and 2 additional questions. These factors include: 1obsessions, 2- compulsions and 3- the additional 2 questions in the field of insight and avoidance.
Respondents rate their agreement with each of the Likert scale that ranges from “completely disagree” to
“strongly agree” (0 to 4). Cut-off point is 20. In generally, studies have shown that this questionnaire has
good reliability and validity (Phillips & et al., 2005; Phillips & Diaze, 1997). In this study to assess
reliability, Cronbach’s alpha was used and 0.86 was obtained, that indicating the reliability of the test is
high.
- Social Avoidance & Distress-Fear of Negative Evaluation questionnaire (SAD-FNE)
This questionnaire was made by Watson and Friend (1969) to evaluate individuals who become
anxious when compare themselves with others in social situations and maybe become concern about
others evaluation. This instrument contains 58 items and 2 subscales of social avoidance and fear of
negative evaluation that first 28 items related to social avoidance and next 30 items relating to the fear of
negative evaluation. Continuum answers are ranked on the spectrum of right and wrong, and
respectively, scores of 0 & 1 is assigned to each answer (Askari & et al., 2009). Mehrabizade Honarmand
& et al. (1999) reported its structural validity 0.85 and reliability of the questionnaire by Cronbach’s alpha
7
212
.
=
was 0.92 and by retest was 0.89. In current study, to determine the reliability of the whole questionnaire
Cronbach’s alpha was 0.86. Cronbach’s alpha for social avoidance was 0.81 and for fear of negative
evaluation was 0.82 that indicated the high reliability of the scale.
Results
Table 1. The prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder among adolescents
Group
Frequency
Percent
Valid percent
Cumulative percent
Healthy
219
59
59
59
With BDD
152
41
41
100
Total
371
100
100
According to the results of table 1, 219 students which is equivalent to 59% of the sample are healthy
and do not have clinical problem and in front 152 of students that equivalent to 41% of the sample are
with BDD. High prevalence of this disorder among adolescent’s group warns the necessity of attention to
it.
Table 2. The prevalence of social anxiety disorder among adolescents
Group
Frequency
Percent
Valid percent
Cumulative percent
Weak
41
11.1
11.1
11.1
Medium
285
76.8
76.8
87.9
Severe
45
12.1
12.1
100
Total
371
100
100
Table 2 showed that 11.1% of students have weak social anxiety disorder and greatest percentage of
students 76.8% suffer from medium social anxiety and finally 12.1% of the sample have severe social
anxiety. Overall, this indicates that majority of students are experiencing medium social anxiety.
Table 3. Descriptive statistics of social anxiety in adolescent’s healthy group and with BDD
group
variable
Social anxiety
N
Mean
Std. deviation
Std. error mean deviation
Healthy group
219
28.78
9.44
0.638
With BDD group
152
31.97
8.81
0.715
Table 4. Independent samples t test for difference in social anxiety of adolescent’s healthy group
and with BDD group
Levine’s test for
equality of variances
t-test for equality of means
Social anxiety
F
213
Sig.
t
df
Sig. (2tailed)
Mean
difference
95% confidence
interval of the
difference
Equal variances assumed
Equal variances not assumed
2.58
0.109
Lower
Upper
-3.28
369
0.001
-3.19
-5.09
-1.28
-3.32
338.66
0.001
-3.19
-5.07
-1.30
In order to test the hypothesis based on difference in social anxiety of adolescent’s healthy group and with
BDD group independent samples t test was used. The mean and standard deviation of social anxiety in healthy
adolescents are 28.78 & 9.44 respectively and in BDD group are 31.97 & 8.81. The mean difference is -3.19 that is
significant at p<0.01 level. Therefore the hypothesis is confirmed and indicates that social anxiety is significantly
higher in adolescents with BDD. According to Levin’s test that was not significant, the assumption of equal variances
confirmed (p>0.05).
Discussion
Results of t test to assess the hypothesis was significant at p<0.01. So it indicates that social anxiety is
significantly higher in adolescents with BDD. This finding was agreed with the results of Fang & Hofmann’s research
(2010). Fear of negative evaluation that there are in people with BDD was introduced the main characteristic of
SAD. Also Gunstad & Phillips (2003), Menezes & et al. (2005), and Coles & et al. (2006) stated that
among people, who suffered from BDD, 12% to 68.8% had also SAD and among people, who suffered
from SAD, 4.8% to 12% had also BDD and it shows that social anxiety disorder is more common in
people with body dysmorphic disorder.
In explaining these findings can be stated that higher social anxiety in adolescents with BDD is a
consequence of body dysmorphic disorder. Actually body dysmorphic disorder leads to greater sensitivity
to the presence in the community and sufferers are experiencing unwanted anxiety when are in public
exposure. But in adolescents without body dysmorphic disorder that may experience social anxiety cause
of any reason, BDD does not exist simultaneously and perceived anxiety would be far less.
There are common features in both disorders, such as interpersonal sensitivity that raises the risk. In
body dysmorphic disorder, there is high sensitivity towards other’s evaluation and most of these
individuals seeking confirmation from others. When don’t receive this confirmation, they avoid from
situations that are likely to be evaluated negatively and if they have to present in such situations would
experience anxiety. Severity of body dysmorphic disorder is associated with the severity of social anxiety
disorder and somehow body dysmorphic disorder is a positive predictor of social anxiety disorder.
Individuals with these disorders required concurrent therapeutic attention and treatment started from body
dysmorphic disorder and leads to improvement and reduces the symptoms of social anxiety disorder.
Assess the prevalence of body dysmorphic disorder in different cultural and geographical areas is
recommended in order to identify the contributing cultural factors in prevalence variability. The major
limitation of this study is that the sample is limited to female students. Due to almost the same prevalence
rate in both sexes, suggested doing the similar research in male adolescents to increase the range of
generalizability of the findings. We would like to thank all participants that willingly attended, Yazd
education organization that gave permission to conduct research in their schools and other ones who
were helping us without any expectation in this research.
References
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215
Comparison of gender role orientation of students with internal and
external religious orientation
Zahra Akbari1 Marzie Rezaee2 Rogayye Sadat Mirjalili3
1-MA from the University of Tehran in Family Counseling
2-MA from the University of Tehran in School Counseling
3-PHD student in clinical psychology from Tarbiat Modares University
Abstract
Introduction: A religion with intrinsic origin has been comprehensive, principled, organized and
internalized but a religion with external origin is an external matter and a tool that satisfies the
needs, such as comfort, companionship, and security related to your account, to justify it and
even its place. The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between gender role
and religious orientation in high school students.
Method: The study sample consisted of all high school students in the city of Kermanshah. To
implement the study, 196 students (117 girls and 79 boys) were selected by cluster sampling
method. In this study, Allport’s religious orientation questionnaire (1950) and Bam’s Gender roles
(1971) were used. The design of the study was causal-comparitive.
Results: A single-factor ANOVA showed that people with different orientations of gender roles,
show significant differences in levels of extrinsic religiosity. Scheffe test results showed that
people with masculine orientation exhibited significantly (sig = 0,032) more extrinsic religiosity
than those with feminine orientation. The results of t-test (t = 4.48, sig = 0.014) showed that boys
were significantly more extrinsic religiosity than the girls.
Results: According to the process of cloning and the formation of gender roles in the family and
school, a model of educating gender characteristics of the two sexes to children will help them
tend to an internalized value system and internal religion orientation in adolescence period which
can be considered as the evolution of religious beliefs period. And this trend can maintain their
mental health.
Keywords: gender role, religious orientation
Introduction
Allport describes religion as a unifying philosophy of life and considers it as one of the important potential
factors mental health. He believes that a religious value system provides the best context for a healthy
personality (Allport, 1950; quoting from Troddy, 1996). In the range of personality and social psychology,
he has divided people’s orientation into two types of intrinsic and extrinsic religious orientations. Intrinsic
religious orientation, describes a situation in which religion is considered as a main goal and a dominant
motivation and the person tries to live sincerely according to his belief and faith (Watson et al, 2002).
Extrinsic religious orientation describes a situation in which religion is considered as a tool to achieve
other goals (Watson, 2002). People who have an intrinsic orientation toward religion have been described
as people who are deeply committed to their faith and the influence of religion is evident in every aspect
of their lives while external religiosity is determined by a more limited use of religion to achieve a set of
benefits (Maltebi and Dey, 2003; James and Woles, 2003). Gender role is a broad concept that It can be
said from one aspect that most of the responsibilities and duties of the family are defined by it because
gender role defines the concept of femininity and masculinity in a society (Seif, 1370). If the sex is
biologically determined, the gender roles are constructed by culture and society (Woodhill and Samuels,
2003). Acceptance of stereotypical gender characteristics is one of the dimensions of gender roles, which
means the orientation toward the acceptance or rejection of beliefs and stereotypes about sexual
orientation (gender opposing) among women and men. Noting that the assumptions underlying the model
is that masculinity and femininity are two separate and independent aspects (not two poles of a
continuum), so depending on orientation scores in both masculine and feminine, the four personality
types are possible: masculine type, feminine type, indifferent type and finally androgyneity sexual type
(Najjarian and Khodarahimi, 1998). Internal research suggests that there is no significant difference
between the two sexes in religiosity (Arian, 1999; Jalilvand, 2001; Hadianfar, 2001). However, some
studies showed women are more religious than men and this difference has been reported significant
(Najafi et al, 1998; Janbozorgi 1998; Pargament 1999; Gamari 2010; Khodapanahi and Khaninzade
2000; Agajani 2001).
With regard to the above, the purpose of this study is to answer this question: Is there any significant
difference between students’ religious orientations based on their gender roles?
Method
Participants and design of the study
The present study has been done using causal-comparative method. The study sample consisted of all
high school students in the city of Kermanshah. To implement the study, 196 students (117 girls and 79
boys) were selected by cluster sampling method.
Tools
Allport Religious Orientation Scale: Allport and Ross developed this scale to measure intrinsic and
extrinsic orientation of religion in 1967. The questionnaire contains 20 items, 11 of which related to
religious orientation and 9 of which related to extrinsic religious orientation. Grading for the extrinsic
orientation is as follows: totally disagree (5), almost disagree (4), almost agree (2) strongly agree (1).
Grading for internal orientation also was as follows: strongly agree (5), almost agree (4), almost disagree
(2) totally disagree (1). According to Allport's study, the correlation between the items of extrinsic religious
orientation was -0.21 (Allport and Ross, 1967). Rodrigurz and Henderson (2010), reported Cronbach's
alpha coefficient of external orientation / 84. and they reported cronbach’s alpha coefficient of Internal
orientation as / 86. Also the questionnaire was validated by Janbozorgi (1998) using Cronbach's alpha
and it was reported / 74.
Bam’s Sex Role Inventory (BSRI): BSRI’s long form (60-point) contains 20 stereotypical female
characters, 20 stereotypical male and 20 stereotypical neutral characters (Abdi, 2001). The questionnaire
offers an independent assessment of masculinity, femininity and androgynous and diffuse nature. The
median score on the questionnaire was reported 4.9 (Kamse, 2004). Cronbach's alpha coefficient in
masculinity aspect was 0.86 and in femininity dimension it was 0/80 (Bam, 1978).
Procedure
To conduct the research, researchers went to the selected high schools and after randomly selecting a
few classes they distributed the questioner among the students of each class. Then they asked the
participants to read each question carefully and mark their selected option.
Results: The results of frequency and percentage of subjects in terms of gender and orientation of gender
role are shown in table 1. According to Table 1, the largest frequency of gender orientation in girls is
related to androgynous orientation (37%) and neutral orientation (37%) and the minimum frequency is of
masculine orientation (7.6 percent). In males, the largest frequency is of androgynous orientation (32
percent) and the minimum frequency is related to feminine orientation (1 percent).
Table 1: Frequency of subjects by gender and gender role orientation
217
Masculine
orientation
Feminine
orientation
Androgynous
orientation
Neutral
orientation
Total
Groups
Freque
ncy
Perce
nt
Freque
ncy
Perce
nt
Frequen
cy
Perce
nt
Frequen
cy
Perce
nt
Frequen
cy
Perce
nt
Female
15
7.6
28
14.1
37
18.7
37
18.7
117
59.1
Male
16
8.1
2
1
32
16.2
31
15.7
79
40.9
Total
frequen
cy
31
15.7
30
15.1
69
34.9
68
34.4
198
100
Results of single-factor ANOVA to examine differences in intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity in people with
feminine gender role, masculine, androgynous and neutral orientations are shown in table 2. According to
Table 2, those people with different orientations of gender roles show no significant difference in levels of
extrinsic religiosity. Scheffe test results showed that people with masculine orientation show significantly
(sig = 0.032) more external religiosity than those with feminine orientation. Also single-factor ANOVA
showed that people with different orientations of gender roles showed a significant difference in the level
of 0/01 in the amount of internal religiosity. Scheffe test results on the effect of gender role orientation on
intrinsic religiosity showed that individuals with androgynous orientation showed significantly more
internal religiosity than those with masculine orientation (sig = 0.05) and those with neutral orientation (sig
= 0.02).
Table 2: Single-factor ANOVA to examine differences in intrinsic and extrinsic religiosity in people with
feminine, masculine, androgynous and neutral gender role orientation
Source
SS
MS
Df
F
SIG
External
religiosity
Intergroup
406.45
135.48
3
3.39
0.019
In group
7755.87
39.98
194
Internal
religiosity
Intergroup
468.98
153.33
3
6.07
0.001
In group
4999.38
25.77
194
The results of independent t-test (t = 4.48, sig = 0.014) showed that boys were significantly more likely
than the girls to show external religiosity.
Conclusion and discussion: The present study aimed to compare the religious orientation of high school
students (15 to 18 years) in terms of their gender roles. The results showed that students with different
gender role orientations had different religious orientations. People with masculine orientation showed
significantly more external religiosity than those with feminine orientation. In explaining these findings, it
can be said that since external religious orientation describes a situation in which religion is used as a tool
to achieve other objectives and advantages, and on the other hand the people with masculine gender role
have attributes such as leadership, competitiveness and dominance, these features create conditions that
require the person to set some goals in his individual and social life and use all existing facilities including
religion to achieve these goals. Other finding of the study suggests that individuals with androgynous
orientation showed significantly more internal religiosity than those with masculine and neutral orientation.
People with androgynous gender orientation have features such as high levels of existence prove,
integrity, confidence, consistency, perfection of personality and mental health more than their counterpart
218
groups with masculine and feminine roles (Wolf and Statiz, 1999). According to the Bergyn et al study
(1988), individuals with internal religious orientation, that is the people who believe religion is rooted in
their nature, have more positive mental health than those with external religious orientation. Given the
above mentioned studies’ findings, the present study’s findings can be partly explained. It also showed
that boys were significantly more likely than the girls to show external religiosity. Sharifi (2002) found that
religiosity mean score in the mentioned sample was more than the mean score of female students in
religiosity. Unlike the results of this study, some research studies showed that women are more religious
than men (Pargament 1999; Gamari 2010; Agajani 2001; Khodapanahi and Khaninzade 2000;
Janbozorgi 1998). Being androgynous makes liberation from gender role stereotypes possible and it
allows people to express their trends opposing their real gender. Due to the replication process and the
formation of gender roles in the family and school, feeding and breeding of dual role features in kids will
help them in adolescence period, the period of religious beliefs evolution, to tend toward an internalized
value system and an internal religious orientation. Then this trend will help maintain their mental health.
Among the limitations of the present study was that the sample consisted only of students. So it seems
that the generalization of findings to other community members, we should observe caution, since there is
the possibility that the religious orientation differ with respect to demographic factors.
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219
The relationship between aggression and emotional intelligence in
students PNU city Bukan
Salah Sherifian
MS in Psychology
Center for Creativity and Talent Development, Bukan, Iran
Abstract
Aggression as an emotion of anger is one of the most important problems in adolescents'
relationships with others. Research has shown emotional intelligence can help to manage
emotions . The present study aimed to investigate the relationship between the aggressive and
emotional intelligence in students PNU city Bukan done..
This study was conducted in a sample garment and , for this purpose , each of the forty
participants were given a sample of the Aggression Questionnaire and emotional intelligence .
And finally, to analyze and describe data, descriptive statistics (mean and standard deviation )
and inferential statistics (Pearson correlation coefficient ) and spss program was in use..
The results showed that there is a negative relationship between aggression and emotional
intelligence , p = ..330 Amachvn much larger than . 05. p = 's not to say there is a linear
relationship between these two variables.
I think emotional intelligence can be expected to provide a way to increase greatly reducing
physical aggression , especially aggression and hostility have an influence.
Keywords: aggression , emotional intelligence , anger , teens.
Introduction
Shvndkh teens see every day at school due to conflict, fighting and aggressive behavior are disciplined
response Baks parents, schools can face. Harnessing the power of teens Prkhashgrmmvla not
Rftarkhvdra customs and morality of a society in which they live violate it.-1998) (Journal of Psychology,
21, sixth year, Spring 2002).
A deliberate act of aggression that is aimed at physical or psychological harm or suffering to be done
Gyrdv may be Yaklamy body. It is possible to achieve aggressive goals, succeed or not.
There are two forms of aggression: A - aggressive hostile action Azahsas aggressive anger that comes
from suffering, is its purpose. B - aggressive means: there is this kind Qsdvnyt harming another person
harm, but as a means to achieve ends other than pain occurs. For example, a professional football game,
the player will usually do anything to prevent the striker has failed to oppose the motion of the ball carrier
(Aronson, translated Shkrkn 2007). Aggressive and passive mode with its own characteristics, make the
subject exciting. In 1990 an article was published by Mayer and Salvvy to introduce some kind of
intelligence, emotional intelligence, which it called. In general there are two approaches to the definition of
emotional intelligence, the ability of traditional approaches such as conventional approaches and a
combination of approaches, such as the approach of Meyer and Salvvy Goleman and Bar -.It seems that
there is a relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression (Improvement, 2009).
to the timely and proper manner, to manage their emotions (happiness Magazine, February 2009).
Method:
Methodology in this sense as a branch of science, logic, thinking it's the fan. So here's methodology
includes a number of methods to achieve specific goals (immigrant, 2007).
Methods: A field study in which a correlation between the variables being studied. The study also
examined the relationship between emotional intelligence and aggression.
The population in this study consisted of all students in PNU city Bukan academic year is 91-92.
Sample: The sample consisted of 40 students of PNU city Bukan that have been selected using the
sample
Research Tools:
A test of emotional intelligence: emotional intelligence test used in this study by Bradbry Vgryvz (2004)
made by Genji (2005) was translated and edited. This test consists of 28 based on 6-point Likert scale
would be Grading. The four components of self-awareness, self-management, social awareness and
relationship management measures and a total score of emotional intelligence will be achieved. Scores
greater than 80 indicate high emotional intelligence score below 60 indicates a low emotional intelligence.
The Genji (2005) the validity of emotional intelligence components, respectively, 73 .. 78 .. 76 .. 76 ..
Was. The test group of 284 people Other (115 boys, 139 girls) once implemented and reliability
coefficients using Cronbach's alpha, 88.0, and reliable in the study on a sample of 40 people is done
through alpha 4 . 85 is obtained.
(B) aggression test: 29 questions for the questionnaire measures four aspects of aggression. Physical
aggression (or questions, 5, 9, 13, 17, 21, 24, 26, 28), verbal aggression (items 2, 6, 10, 14, 18) Anger
(Questions 3, 7, 11, 15, 19, 22, 29) and hostility (items 4, 8, 12, 16, 20,23,25,27) Aggression
Questionnaire hostility questionnaire before refining replication thirty years ago by Arnold. HTML. Boss
prepared and has wide application. Aggression Questionnaire, many of which are derived from the same
Treasury 52-item questionnaire hostility using principal component factor analysis and confirmatory factor
analysis are selected. The total score of the questionnaire questions, the general level of aggression
subscale scores and measures of aggression in its various manifestations show.
Norms: The mean (standard deviation) Aggression Questionnaire subscales for a sample of 612 male
undergraduate students from each of the following: physical aggression = 3.24 (7.7), verbal aggression =
2.15 (9.3), Anger = 17 (6.5), hostility = 2.21 (5.5), the mean scores of the sample group 8.77 and
standard deviation 5.16, and the mean (standard deviation) subscales of the questionnaire to a sample of
641 patients. Female students are: physical aggression = 9.17 (6.6), verbal aggression = 13 (9.3), Rage =
7.16 (8.5) and hostility = 2.20 (3.6= 66.25 (5.7), verbal aggression = 61.14 (96.3), Rage = 19.88 (73.6)
and hostility = 23.5, (5.96) and the mean total score of 6 . 83 and standard deviation 6.17, respectively.
Scoring: Score Questions 24 and 29 are reversed. subscale score is obtained by summing the subscale
scores of questions. overall score is the total score for all questions and range from 29 to 145 's. scores
above symptoms are more aggressive.
Credit: Aggression Questionnaire has good internal consistency. The alpha coefficients for the subscales
of physical aggression, verbal, anger and hostility were 85.0, 72.0, 83.0 and 77.0 and the alpha
coefficient of the questionnaire scores 89.0. "Aggression Questionnaire" with a stable tool with good testretest reliability after a 9-week test-retest correlation times, 80.0, 76.0, 72.0 and 72.0 for the subscales of
physical and verbal aggression, anger and hostility, and 80 . 0 for a total score of the questionnaire.
221
Migrant and non-migrant pilot results above the first year of secondary school students in Bojnoord shows
the alpha coefficients for the subscales of physical aggression, verbal, and hostility were 73.0, 58.0, 76.0
and 64.0 and the coefficient Alpha Questionnaire scores 76.13 is. And reliability in the present study,
Cronbach's alpha in a sample of 40 to 85.0 is obtained.
Methods of data collection:
between variables were examined.
Analysis of data:
For the analysis of data from the central index (mean and standard deviation) and dispersion index
(Pearson correlation coefficient), and finally to test the hypothesis feed their correlation spss program has
been used.
Research findings:
For the study, the average dimensions of aggression and aggression to be achieved:
1 - Verbal Aggression (2.14) 2 - physical aggression (95.25) 3 - Anger (400.18) 4 - Hostility (95.21) and
total aggression (42.80) 0
In general it can be said that the sample has the lowest average verbal aggression and physical
aggression Dbrrsy Moore has the highest average and the average of these samples is moderate
aggression.
Average EI and its dimensions to be that self-aware 65.81, self-management 22.71, Social Awareness
32.79 management relationship 52.78 and the intelligence of their overall 82.77 is that we can say that
the mean IQ of the sample at low but with a slightly higher IQ, they can be turned into a strength.
The results of testing hypotheses is as follows:
Hypothesis 1: There is a significant relationship between aggression and emotional intelligence.
According to this hypothesis, the expected significant degree (05.0> p) and calculated degrees
significant, sig = 0.330 (p <..330), the grade obtained significantly greater than the level expected in thus
can not be said to be a linear relationship between two variables, although there is a negative correlation
between the degree of correlation is moderate (according to Table 1).
Hypothesis 2: There is a significant relationship between aggression and self-aware.
After testing the hypothesis of a positive relationship between aggression and self-observed, but the
correlation is weak and the level of significance was calculated as (sig = ..418) the expected level of
significance (p =. . 05) is greater (p < . . 418) can not be said to be a linear relationship between two
variables.
Hypothesis 3: There is a significant relationship between aggression and self-management.
can be said to be a significant relationship between these two variables, there is no exact linear
relationship and correlation exist between them.
Hypothesis 4: There is a significant relationship between aggression and social awareness.
Expected based on the degree of significance (p = ..05) the amount equal to the calculated degrees
significant sig =. - Is.
Hypothesis 5: The relationship between aggression and management, there is significant relationship.
222
After testing this hypothesis against a negative relationship (28..-) is obtained. And the degree of
significance calculated that hypothesis (sig = ..893) and significantly higher than the expected rate ((p =. .
05 is the (p <. . 863) There is no significant relation between these two variables .
The university's schools is Haamvzsh to reduce aggression and improve the scientific quality of the result.
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223
The relationship between goal orientation within the creative aspects of male and
female students in city high schools Bukan
Salah Sherifian
MS in Psychology
Center for Creativity and Talent Development, Bukan, Iran
Abstract
and even , revolution and new development in the different aspects of his life have created a
foundation dedicated to human society . Target behavior ( target behavior ) can be categorized
into two types : mastery and performance tracking . Objective of seeking to dominate the learning
as much as possible to achieve progress , regardless of the performance of others, is orientation .
Research descriptive – correlation.
In this study, predictor variables objective criteria to measure the creativity of it is formed. To
evaluate and measure the variables of the quesƟonnaire , creaƟvity Abedi (2002 ) and goal
orientaƟon Vmk Gregory EllioƩ (2001 ) has been used. The populaƟon consisted of all students in high
school boys and girls in school year 2013-2014 is Bokan city . , For selected community sample
questionnaires , ¬ multistage cluster sampling method was used.
Results showed a significant relationship between objective measures of creative direction there. The
findings showed that the students boys and girls in terms of dimensions, significant differences were
aimed at making creative direction.
Keywords : creativity , goal orientation , students Bokan.
Introduction
Even the revolution and brought about new development in various aspects of life and his own foundation
dedicated to human society.hair, star, Saadi and Hafiz to today's youth annually with inventions and
innovations, the world will be surprised. Ramytvan All these developments are born creative mind,
curious and features as its predecessor, but also has no experience Sasyr (Hosseini, 1997).
According to Eysenck believed, Arnold and Miley, creativity is a mental process that leads to problem
solving, idea-making, conceptualizing, creating artistic forms, theories and products that are innovative
and unique. Weber's cultural psychology, creativity is the capacity to see new relationships, creating
unusual ideas and away from traditional patterns of thinking. Sylamy same desire and talent to create a
culture of creativity in psychology has cast in all subjects at all ages, there is potentially a social
environment - cultural continuity is directly and closely. Conditions appropriate to the natural tendency to
self-realization. (Karimi, Joseph, 2001).
Creativity, ability to think about something new and unusual way and also offer unique solutions to
problems. Guilford, between "convergent thinking" thought correct answer to the questions presented and
the features required in conventional tests of intelligence and "divergent thinking" offers a variety of
responses to the question of creativity is one of the basic features, a distinction is made. ( Desert, 2005).
Transcending human action role-taking needs. Transcending modes of the creature creator and the
creator of his former life to man's man of action (thought, art, material goods Vmanndanha) goes beyond
the nature of the verb be Thus the goal of having the feeling of freedom and enlightenment
Target behavior (target behavior) can be categorized into two types: mastery and performance tracking.
Objective of seeking to dominate the learning as much as possible to achieve progress, regardless of the
performance of others, is orientation. Performance goal orientation, the main aim of social comparison
and competition, higher performance than others on a task-focused (Kyle, Mydlsvn and Mydgly, 2002).
The objective function is often separated into two types. Functional approach (functional approach) and
away from performance (avoidance), who is a target of the performance approach (approach) is to
achieve good judgment and good looks are motivated, while someone who avoids an objective function is
looking to avoid unfavorable judgments of others and they are excited. In some cases, people have
multiple goals. For example, they want to improve their knowledge or skills, gain a positive view of others
to their side and they are not to do anything embarrassing (Ndrmn and Meier, 1,994th;, and the Heidi
Harakvdych, 2002).
Any conduct a series of activities and incentives for individuals to predict their needs must be identified.
Vlatham Locke quotes from Rio (2002) identified four main reasons how the goal leads to better
performance of the express as below.
-Objectives, individual attention to the task at hand, he said
-Goals, efforts to employ
-Objectives, greater endurance and perseverance, they will continue the effort to achieve the goal
- 4goals, strategies Taz·hand incentive to expand. In other words, the creation of new measures to
improve the performance targets are encouraging.
However, we have selected a target type, the aim is to motivate us to achieve it. These goals are merely
a stimulus for learning a specific task in specific circumstances.
The research model is based on the orientation of the target is located, is: learning goal orientation
(mastery) goal orientation and performance goal orientation to avoid defeat. Accordance with the model
"mastery or learning goal orientation." Students seeking to gain mastery over issues Jdydnd and
understanding are emphasized.Dvyk, 1978). Msyvlytpzyrnd such people fail in doing something else, do
not deny their own responsibility (Syfrt 19, 1996) and satisfaction are more educated (Jakasynsky and
Nichols, 1984 and 1987. (
The "performance goal orientation" Students are trying to mine the ability to compare and emphasize the
point that people on how they are judged. They are trying to portray themselves as intelligent rather
inefficient and incompetent. Then avoidance of challenging tasks they are faced with the difficult tasks,
they show little persistence, thus preventing detection by abstaining from intellectual incompetence are
challenging tasks. Leaving behind others to obtain their goals of success or effort is considered low.
Threatening failures because they are regarded as evidence of incompetence and a tendency toward
lower self-regulatory activities (Ames, 1984; Ames and Archer, 1988)., And a positive attitude are a small
class (Ames and Archer, 1988), and strategies learning, rarely followed by extrinsic rewards such as
grades are high (Pntrych and Garcia, 1991) and its focus on others and failure, but failure avoidance
orientation, the individual is merely a lesson education does not fail (Elliott and Harkyvych, 1997).
.(1996In summary, the successful students of the school authority to apply learning strategies
(Zimmerman, 1989, in Zimmerman and Martinez Pons, 1988).greater responsibility for their own learning,
which is the decision-making progress, provide direction for their learning
Therefore, given the importance of the process of education, the study examines this issue, the goal
orientation dimensions of creativity among students, high school boys and girls in the city of Bukan
relationship?
225
Method
Research is a descriptive - correlation. Predictor variables in this study for the purpose of making
creativity Dimension Vmtghyyr it has established criteria
Variables in the form of a conceptual model and describes how to assess and measure the variables
To evaluate and measure the variables of the questionnaire, creativity Abedi (2002) and goal orientation
Vmk Gregory Elliott (2001) has been used
Study and field data measurement tool is the questionnaire. Methods of descriptive - correlation
Creativity Questionnaire
This tool attempts Abedi (2002) to measure the amount of creativity and organization is prepared. The
questionnaire consisted of 60 questions that its investment grade Likert scale of three scores (creativity,
low = 1, medium = 2, high = 3). Sum of the four component scores, the total score of creativity constitute
triable. Hddaksr 180 minimum score for each individual case is 60. These four components of the test
fluid creativity (22 female) initiative (Article 16) Flexibility (11 female) Vbst (11 articles) measures
Goal orientation questionnaire
This questionnaire aims to measure the orientation of the tetrahedron based on Vmk Eliot Gregory (2001)
has been prepared Vmshtml the twelve items. Questions 1,7,9 performance goal orientation - an
approach frequently asked questions, 2,8,12 mastery - approach, mastery questions 3,5,10 - 4,6,11
Vsvalhay functional avoidance - avoidance measure to take. Against Each item Likert scale of 5 totally
agree (scored 5) to Kamlamkhalfm (score 1) holds.
Maroon Vkhyr (2007) and barley and Delaware Poor (2007) to determine the validity and reliability of the
scale, Cronbach Arvsh factor analysis was used.
Population, sampling method and sample size
The population consisted of all students in high school boys and girls in school year 93-92 is Bokan city.,
For selected community sample questionnaires, ¬ multistage cluster sampling method was used
Methods and tools for data analysis
Qui Results: Results showed a significant relationship between objective measures of creative direction
there. The findings showed that the students boys and girls in terms of dimensions, significant differences
were aimed at making creative direction.
Resources
Karimi, Joseph (2001) Educational Psychology, Tehran, Arasbaran
Soleimani, Afshin (2002) creative class, Tehran, the PTO
Wilderness, E. (2005) Educational Psychology, Tehran, edited
226
Hosseini, Afzal, MS (1997), closed nature of creativity and its educational practices, master's thesis,
University of Tehran
Feizi, T., B. (2009) Principles of organization and management, Antsharpyam light
Rio, John Marshall. (2002) Motivation and Emotion (translated by S. Mohammadi, Y.), Tehran, edit.
Original publication date 2002 (
Mabyl balance. M. (1998) The flourishing of creativity in children (Translated by M. Hassan Qasim and
Parvin Azimi Tehran, Nobahar .. (not in the original release date (
Ames, C (1992). Classroom: Goals, Structure and Students Motivation Journal of Educational
Psychology. 80 (3) ,260-267
Deweck, C.and Legget, E. (1998). A Social Cognitive Approach to Motivation and personality.
Psycholoical Review.95 ,256-273
Diner, C.I.and Dweck, C.S. (1978). An Analysis of Learned Helplessness: Continuous Change in
Performance, Strategy, and Achievement Cognitions Following Failure. Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology.36 ,451-462
Jakacincki, C.M.and Nicholls, J.G. (1987). Competence and Affect in Task Involvement and Ego
Involment: The Impact of Social Comparison Information. Journal of Educational Psychology.79 ,107-114
Butler, D.and Winne, P. (1995). Feed Back and Self-Regulated Learning: A Theoretical Synthesis.Review
of Educational Research.65 ,245-281
Archer, J. (1994). AchievementGoals as a Measure of Motivation in University Students.Contemporary
Educational Psychology.19 ,430-446
Elliot, A. J and church m. a (1997) A hierarchical model of approach
and avoidance achievement motivation. Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 72 (1): 218-232
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framework. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 80 (3)
519-501
227
Investigating the Structural Model (Based on Five Personal Factors of
NEO and the Studies' Approaches) in Order to Predict the University
Students’ Achievement
Somayeh Tourani1, Ali Delavar2
1. M.A in Psychometrics, Allameh Tabatabaee University
2. Professor in Psychometrics, AllamehTabatabaee University
Abstract
The aim of the present study is to investigate the role of personality traits and studies'
approaches in the students’ achievement. 340 students of Islamic Azad University in
different majors participated in this study. In order to collect data for the personality traits,
(NEO- FFI) was applied and for study approaches the summarized Study Process
Questionnaire (SPQ) was applied. The students' average of passed courses was also used
as a scale of educational achievement. Direct, indirect and general characteristic traits
effects and study approaches in the students’ achievement were investigated by the path
analysis method by SPSS and LISREL software. The results were indicated in the frame of
a model (based on theoretical framework and literature review). The results indicate that
personal variances of neuroticism, extraversion, openness and conscientiousness have
significant effects on educational achievement. Totally, in investigated models, the
speculative variances could predict 21 percent of educational achievement variance.
Keywords: educational achievement, Neo personality Factors, Study approaches, Structural
model.
Introduction
Higher education is one of the important organizations and people have a great responsibility in more richness of
the society’s spiritual and scientific investments regarding the great duty of education. One of the necessary
strategies for optimizing the country’s education is paying attention to the effective factors on the students’
educational achievement. Educational achievement variable is multi-dimensional and is influenced by different
factors. Generally, by recognizing the effective factors on educational achievement and discovering the
educational structural models, appropriate educational programs can be designed and performed for providing
the grounds for learners to achieve their goals and directing them towards them.
Cognitive abilities are broadly considered as key anticipations of educational achievement (Barton and
Nelson, 2004). Non-cognitive factors, similar to individual differences, are assumed to play an important key role
in the students’ learning which includes personal characteristics and study approaches (Barton and Nelson,
2004). Casta and Mac Rey, by applying statistic technique of factorial analysis, found that five general aspects
can be entered in individual differences of personal characteristics (Garoosi Foroush, 2002). Neuroticism (N),
shows the person’s general tendency towards experiencing negative emotions like fear, unhappiness,
clumsiness, anger, feelings of guilt, hatred and low self-confidence. While extroversion (E) is attributed to the
person’s tendency to positivism, loving people, preferring big groups and seminars, assertiveness and being
active. Acceptance is relevant to the person’s tendency towards curiosity, love of art, diversity-seeking and
wisdom, kindness and generosity, And the conscientiousness shows the person’s tendency toward discipline,
confidence and dependency, self-regulation, development, rationality and calmness. Marten and Saljoo (1976)
recognized the studies’ approaches and showed that they are good predictors for educational achievement
(Bernardo, 2003). The students’ learning can be divided into three general approaches: deep approach, surface
approach and development-oriented approach. Applying these concepts in different conditions led Marton and
Saljoo’s efforts to designing different models and questionnaires which measures the students’ approaches (Daff
et al. 2004). Although, there are differences between these models, generally all of them recognize three
fundamental approaches in learning the subjects. Deep approach includes real conception of the learned issues.
Surface approach includes reproduction of the learned issues in order to get access to the least requirements
and development- oriented approach which emphasizes taking the strategies which increases the person’s score
to its highest possible rate and focuses on the tendency for success and reaching to the highest educational
degree (Daff, et al. 2004). It merits mentioning that in Bigz, Camber and Long’s research (2001) with the purpose
of revision in the study approaches questionnaire – assessing the learning approaches- the factorial analysis
gave an acceptable assessment of the questionnaires’ two factorial constructions. In other words, developmentoriented learning approach was omitted from SPQ factorial construction. So, in the present research, regarding
the results of Bigz, et al. study (2001) the two factorial constructions of deep and surface learning approaches
were applied and development-oriented study approach was ignored.
In recent researches it is emphasized that personal factors, especially in higher levels of formal education
plays a significant role in anticipating educational performance (Permusic and Farenham, 2003). Besides, in
some studies it is shown that the relationship between psychometric intelligence and educational performance,
especially in academic environments is less than the expected level. So, it seems that as the predictor's ability of
relevant measures to cognitive abilities in higher levels of formal education lessens the ratio of personal variables
increases (Farenham, et al. 2003). Makendi (1998) indicates that neuroticism can make a positive or negative
effect on education. Dizet, (2003); Mesgara and Markwart, Bramly and Maroild (1997), on the one hand showed
the negative significant relationship between neuroticism and educational achievement and on the other hand, a
positive relationship between conscientiousness and openness with educational achievement. A lot of
researches have been conducted regarding the study approaches and educational achievement (Dizet, 2003;
Sedler Smith, 1997; Dizet and Martin Sen, 2003; Bernardo, 2003).
In the results of different studies, there is an emphasis on the positive relationship between deep approach
and educational achievement and a negative one between surface approach and educational achievement. So,
deep approach is applied by the aim of the issues’ real conception and the relevant strategies with this approach
include is making connection between ideas and applying the evidences and the superior motivation is the
interest to the new ideas. In contrast, the surface approach points to reproduction of the issues by applying the
strategy of parrot learning and the main motivation in this approach is fear of failure. A lot of researches have
been conducted on the relationship between personality traits and the study approach. Barton and Nelson (2004)
,in a study under the name of the relationship between the study approaches, educational achievement and
personality among the freshmen of psychology found that personality traits can predict the study approaches. So,
the conscientiousness and agreeableness are good predictors of the deep approach. In another study Dizet
(2003) collected data from Norwegian bachelor students. He found that extroverted personality traits, openness
and conscientiousness have a positive significant effect on the deep approach and emotional stability's
personality traits, extroversion and conscientiousness have a negative significant relationship with the surface
approach. Similar studies are a lot in speculative contexts (Dramind and Stodard, 1992; Riding and Wigli, 1997;
Daff, et al, 2004, Zang; 2000). It should also be mentioned that in the present research, the applied model in
Dizet’s research was selected to predict the probability of the existence of the relationship between personality
traits and the study approaches with educational achievement by consideration of the findings and researches.
The model was assessed, after investigating the statistics’ pre-assumption and calculating the assessment’s
coefficients.
Method
The method of the present research was descriptive and correlative. In order to study the role of personality
traits and the study approaches in the students' educational achievement, the path analysis method was applied.
This is one of the analysis methods of non-experimental multi variance researches by which the role and effect of
the observed variables can be tested.
The population of the research was all bachelor students of Karaj Islamic Azad University in the school year
2009-2010. 340 students (190 girls and 150 boys) were selected by multi-stepped clustered sampling method.
The students in different majors of human sciences, empirical sciences, technology and engineering participated
in this study. The mentioned students are those who have passed about 100 credits of their total courses.
Two questionnaires of NEO-FFI and SPQ were distributed between them after the required preparations
and then it was collected. After filling out the questionnaires by the students, data were gathered and were
registered in SPSS through which statistic equations were facilitated (calculating the scores of each measure,
omitting some outliers, calculating descriptive scales and investigating the statistic pre-assumptions). Then, the
229
models’ assessment scales were calculated and investigated in order to provide and analyze data by the LISREL
software.
Research Tools
1- NEO Five Factors Inventory (NEO- FFI)
This questionnaire is designed by Casta and Mac Rey (1997) and is a 60 question tool of personality
assessment with Likert spectrum which includes 5 sub-measures of: neuroticism, agreeableness, extroversion,
openness and conscientiousness. Each one of these sub-measures included 12 questions, which were
answered by five options (totally disagree, disagree, no idea, agree, and totally agree). This questionnaire was
scored by Likert method with scores of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 and some questions were answered reversely. "NEOFFI" is made as a short form of "NEO-PIR" and because of its fame it is executed many times and its validity and
reliability has been tested by different researchers. In the present research, questionnaire’s reliability coefficient is
calculated by Cronbach alpha test and its coefficients ware calculated 0.74 for neurotic behavior, 0.63 for
extroversion, 0.68 for openness, 0.54 for agreeableness, and 0.60 for the conscientiousness.
2- Study Process Questionnaire (SPQ)
Bigez et al (2001), suggested the revised two factorial form “study process questionnaire” for teachers’ use
in assessing the students’ learning approaches. The revised tools only assess the deep and surface approaches
by applying 20 questions by Likert’s five measuring tools (always, most of the times, sometimes, rarely, and
never). Each approach is also made up of two aspects: motivation and development. The final form of the
mentioned questionnaire is studied many times by applying reliability assessment methods and confirmative
factorial analysis. In the present study, questionnaire's reliability coefficient was investigated by Cronbach alpha
method and 0.85 and 0.86 were obtained for deep and surface leaning approaches respectively. The total mean
of the passed courses was applied as a measure of educational achievement.
Research findings
After calculation and investigation of descriptive scales (mean, standard deviation, the minimum score and
the maximum) the required statistics’ pre-assumptions like the normality of the hypothesis and the linearity of the
variables’ distribution were investigated as the hypotheses of the applied path analysis method. The relevant
findings of descriptive statistics are presented in table 1.
Table 1.Statistical characteristic of research variables:
Variables
Mean
SD
Min
Max
Educational achievement
Neuroticism
Extraversion
Personality
Openness
Traits
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Study
Deep approach
Approaches Surface approach
16.24
32.86
40.10
40.55
42.04
44.10
32.08
24.95
1.60
9.93
8.60
5.19
5.85
8.82
8.46
8.75
12
12
16
26
25
16
14
10
19.01
59
58
53
53
60
48
50
After calculation of descriptive scales (table 1) and hypothesis normality by applying statistic test of (K-S)
(Kolmogorov- Smirnov) and the linearity the distribution of the points were investigated on direction of variables’
axis and the results showed that both statistical pre-assumptions are provided for applying the path analysis
method. In other words, distribution of research variables is normal and the relationship between dependent and
independent variables' was linear. The first step in the path analysis method is investigating correlation
coefficients between the studied variables in correlative matrix. Table 2 presents correlation matrix between
coming variances in the research.
Table 2.results of testing correlation between research variables:
230
Extraversion
Variables
Neuroticism
Neuroticism
1
Extraversion
-0.62**
1
Openness
-0.32**
0.42**
Openness
1
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
Deep
Approach
Surface
Approach
Educational
Achievement
Agreeableness
-0.45**
0.42**
0.26**
1
Conscientiousness
-0.50**
0.51**
0.27**
0.50**
1
Deep approach
-0.50**
0.54**
0.46**
0.30**
0.47**
1
Surface approach
0.38**
-0.27**
-0.19**
-0.18**
-0.36**
-0.30**
1
Educational
-0.39**
0.37**
0.25**
0.18**
0.35**
0.40**
-0.20**
1
Achievement
**Significant Correlation in (0.01) Level
As table 2 shows, personality traits in 0.01 levels have a significant relationship with educational achievement.
Besides, the studies' approaches in 0.01 levels had a significant relationship with educational achievement and
the important point in this table is because of relationships between research variables.
Since the aim of this study was to investigate the predictive role of personality aspects, the study approaches
and determining the extent of direct and indirect effects of these variances on educational achievement, the path
analysis model was applied.
In this research figure 1 presents the path coefficients and direct effects of exterior variables (personality traits)
and independent interior variables (the study approaches) on dependent interior variable (educational
achievement). All drawn paths in figure 1 are the paths whose coefficient is significant in t > 2 in the level of
P<0.05. Meaningless paths are omitted from the model to get access to a more concrete model. Besides, the
adjusted variable was omitted from the model because of having no significant relationship with the dependent
variable.
Neuroticism
0.27
Surface
approach
0.81
-0.22
Extraversion
-0.25
Educational
achievemen
0.22
-0.18
Openness
0.26
0.27
0.20
Conscientio
usness
0.79
Deep
approach
0.58
Figure 1: Structural Model
As figure 1 show, from among exterior variables (personality traits) only neuroticism with path coefficient of 0.25 has a significant effect on educational achievement. Among exterior variables (personality traits) only
neuroticism and the conscientiousness with path coefficients of 0.27 and -0.22 respectively, had significant effect
on the independent interior variable (the surface approach). Among exterior variables (personality traits) only
neuroticism, extroversion, openness and conscientiousness with path coefficients of -0.18, 0.22, 0.26, 0.20
respectively, have significant effect on independent interior variable (the deep approach). Besides, the effect of
independent interior variable (the deep approach) on dependent interior variable (educational achievement) was
0.27 which is a significant effect.
The effect of independent interior and exterior variables on educational achievement showed that, this
model could explain 21 percent of educational achievement variance. Besides, the explained independent interior
variance (the surface approach) was 18 percent by exterior variances (personality traits) and explained
independent interior variance (the deep approach) were 42 percent by exterior variables (personality traits).
After assessing the parameters, the model was measured. based on what Eursegooc and Sourbom (1993)
(Kabiri, 2004) explained, when a model is assessed by a model production, from among the total assessment
statistics four scales of GFT, AGFI, RMSEA and Chi-squar (χ2) are more important. The statistic amount of χ2
measures the extent of difference in observed and assessed matrix. Meaninglessness in this statistic shows the
model assessment. Since the value of χ2 (6.15) with freedom degree of 7 and (P = 0.52) is not significant, the
model’s assessment is acceptable. The amount of GFI and AGFI scales are respectively 1 and 0.96. When the
amounts of these two scales are closer to (1), the model assessment is more complete. The amount of RMSEA
231
scale was calculated (0.0001), and by considering the remains and errors, its low amount proves the reliability of
the model's assessment.
Discussion and Conclusion
In the present research, after investigating and assessing the model by applying the path analysis method, it
was determined that from among the personality traits, conscientiousness, extroversion and admittance have
positive and significant effect on surface learning approach, neuroticism has a negative significant effect on deep
learning approach, neuroticism has a positive significant effect and conscientiousness has a negative significant
effect on surface learning approach. The results of the present research about the significant effect of personality
traits with the study approaches are concordant with the findings of Dizet (2003), Barton and Nelson (2004) and
Daff, et al. (2004). Purposefulness and decisiveness are the most important characteristics of people with high
conscientiousness score. So, it is obvious that they are not adequately motivated for what they want to learn and
their goal is deep learning (Zang, 2003). Casta and Mac Rey (1997) have applied the factors like qualification,
discipline, responsibility and effort to successfully assess this factor.
In Casta and Mac Rey’s view (1997) qualification is connected with the person’s liability. A qualified person
strengthens the preparation and qualification of doing affairs in them. Discipline emphasizes arrangement and
conscientiousness on commitment towards principals, and it seems that the main core of duty has a close
relationship with the study’s deep approach. In Casta and Mac Rey’s view (1997) openness is identified as
consciousness structure. In other words, openness includes, motivation, need for change, recognition, emotional
and conceptual condition. So, what Casta and Mac Rey (1997) showed is understandable, that is, the positive
effect of openness on the deep approach. Zang (2003), emphasizes that the students with high emotional
instability and low self-confidence (high neuroticism) always avoid making mistakes. So, they feel more confident
in doing the assignments which only needs reproduction of the learned subjects. Neurotic people face problems
when doing complex assignments. Anxiety is one of the characteristics of neurotic people which decreases the
processing of complex data. The necessity of applying the deep approach is the same process of complex
information. Complexity increases anxiety and the neurotic person applies the deep approach to avoid anxiety. In
the present study, among the personal characteristics, only the neurotic factor shows negative significant effect
on the students’ achievement.
The deep approach also showed a positive significant effect on the students’ achievement. The results of
this are concordant with the results of Daff, et al. (2004) and Dizet (2003). Akreman and Higestad (1997) believe
that anxiety justifies the negative relationship between neurotic factor and students’ achievement. So, the stress
of exam and fear of failure negatively affect the educational performance of neurotic people (Farenham, et
al.2005). The result of the present study based on lack of significant relationship between extroversion and
achievement are concordant with the results of Barton and Nelson (2004) and Permusic and Farenham (2003).
These researchers, by applying multiple regression analysis method, found that extroversion cannot predict
achievement. Besides, in a research conducted by Rafati, et al. (2005) to investigate the relationship between
educational achievement and extroversion- introversion, the results showed that there is no significant
relationship between extroversion and educational achievement. Generally Antiostel and Sanches Marin et al.
(2001) believe that if there is any difference in introverts and extroverts’ educational performance, it can be
attributed to their higher attention and regular habits (Farenham, et al. 2005). A large number of studies
investigated the relationship between the study approaches and educational achievement (Biggez, 1988;
Whatkingz and Hatti, 1981; Sedler, Smith and Tung 1998; quoted by Zang 2003). The deep approach is applied
with the subject’s real concept and the useful strategies with that approach include communication with ideas and
using that evidence and the superior motivation is interest to new ideas. The results of the present research
concords with Barton and Nelson (2004) and Alen Bernardo studies (2003) about the effect of the study’s deep
approach on educational achievement. Certainly, the learners who apply the deep approach seek for deep
meanings in the subjects. These learners are critics and rational and try to make a connection between what they
learn and what they have learnt. Such learners act independently. The mentioned characteristics are good issues
for critical thinking, and critical thinking is also the pivotal characteristic of the study’s deep approach. Generally it
can be pointed that the present research is concordant with Dizet’s findings, and on the one hand it supports the
relationship between personality traits and the studies' approaches and on the other hand, it supports the
relationship between the studies' approaches and educational achievement.
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The Influence of Teaching Problem-solving Skill on Marital
Satisfaction of Mothers Whose Children Suffer from Learning
Disorders
Mehdi Khodabakhshi 1, Seyyedeh Zahra Emadi 2, Marziyeh NouriFard 3
1-Master degree student of general psychology, psychologist of Sar-allah consultancy clinic center in
Arak, Iran
2-Master degree student of clinical psychology,
3- Master degree student of industrial and organizational psychology
Abstract
problem-solving is a cognitive-behavioral process in which individuals discover effective
copingstrategies to deal with problematic situations in their lives.the present research tries to
investigate the influence of teaching problem-solving skill on marital satisfaction in mothers who
have children who suffer from learning disorders. statistical population of the research included
all mothers whose child or children suffered from learning disorders in Arak City. They were 120
people in number and sample size was 30 people who were picked by means of simple random
sampling. 15 people were put into control group and 15 people were put into experiment group.
Both groups received a pretest by meansof Enrich’s marital satisfaction questionnaire and then,
experiment group received 8 sessions of problem-solving skills. Each session took 90 minutes.
After teaching course ended, both groups received a posttest on marital satisfaction using
Enrich’s questionnaire.SPSS software was used to analyze data in pretest and posttest.
Descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation) ad inferential statistics (covariance analysis)
were used for data analysis. Results showed that elimination of the points of variables like
personality subjects, marital relationship, solution of conflict, sexual relationships, and marital
satisfaction in pretest as covariance variable, the main influence of teaching variable is significant
in the posttest.Further, results showed that elimination of the effect of variables like financial
management, children marriage, family and friends, and religious orientation in pretest (as
covariance variable) does not make the main influence of teaching variable significant in the
posttest.
therefore, it can be said that teaching problem-solving was effective in marital satisfaction of
mothers whose children suffered from learning disorders.
Keywords: problem-solving skill, marital satisfaction, learning disorders
Introduction:
Social harms have had an increasing trend in the lastdecade all over the world. Worrying statistics in this
area have made experts to look for solutions for social problems. Investigations show that much social
harms resulted from absence of socio-psychological skills which are necessary for confrontation with life
problems. Psychologists believe that many disorders and harms have roots in individuals' inability to
analyze personal problems correctly, lack of sense of control, and competency in confronting with
problems and difficult situations. Family is the most effective and important entity in a society. It is the
commonest social unit and social normality and abnormalities depend on family health and all social
harms are affected by family. People face many problems across their lives and they should find solutions
for their problems (NavvabiNejad, 2007). Problem-solving skill in social life can be very helpful in
confronting with problems. People who do not have problem-solving solution may be directed towards
ineffective solutions like drug abuse or criminal acts or leaving school in order to solve their problems
(KaramiChangizi, 2010). In the past two decades, creative thinking and solving problems in natural and
real situations have received a lot of attention. Practical problem-solving can be effective in solving
everyday problems and such solutions can be effective in individuals’ well-being (Metalido, 2008).
Problem-solving plays an important role in relationships between tense events of life (negative events of
life) and health. Effective problem-solving has influence on reducing stress and inappropriate and
ineffective approach to solving a problem may increase health (Bell and Dozerilla, 2009). Problem-solving
skill is a behavioral-cognitive process which is used by individuals to discover and identify effective coping
strategies in problematic situations (Kesidi and Lang, 1996). In general, problem-solving is an initiativebehavioral-cognitive process which is used as a coping strategy to solve problems. In other words,
problem-solving is an important coping strategy which increases personal and social abilities and reduces
psychological problems (Dozerilla and Sheidi, 1992). Black and Hersen (1995, as quoted from Kahrazei,
2001) believe that successful adaptation to social environment requires a combination of problem-solving
techniques. Defective skills of problem-solving may result in various disorders like depression, problems
in marriage and raising children. Today, problem-solving techniques are taught in order to help solve
different demographic problems.
Families of mentally-retarded children should tolerate their abnormal child and simultaneously take
responsibility for daily care of their child. A person who has not confronted with a problem should be
aware of problem-solving skills in order to be able to deal with the problem in his life (Crussel, Aiden and
Tezer, 2010). Parents’ stress has relationship with children inability intensity and their behavioral
problems. Mothers of children who have problems experience more stress than fathers. This can be
attributed to the fact that mothers are more involved in children problems and experience more pressures
(Hastingz, 2003). Therefore, the stress which is formed as a result of having and caring for such children
might affect marital relationships adversely within families. Such children have specific problems like need
to specific education, high costs of treatment and high emotional need therefore; stress which comes to
existence as a result of emotional problems may have negative emotional and psychological effects on
marital satisfaction. Therefore, maintaining friendly and emotional relationships within family environment
is very important for such families and requires specific skills and techniques Monadi, 2006). Problemsolving skills may help parents confront with problems more effectively and solve life problems with the
least stress and this can finally lead to satisfaction.
Many studies have been conducted in this regard. Some of these studies are presented in the following
sentences for short. Borghandan (1996) conducted a research in the field of effectiveness of teaching
problem-solving skills in groups on general health and marital satisfaction of Ahwaz City employees.
Results showed that teaching problem-solving improves general health and increases marital satisfaction
in experiment group in comparison with control group. Aslani (2004) investigated the role of
communications skills in family performance. His research sample contained 16 couples of married
students in Tehran University. Results showed that teaching communication skills increases family
performance. FatehiZadeh (2005) conducted a research to investigate the role of social skills in marital
satisfaction. He concluded that there is significant correlation between communicational-behavioral
variables and problem-solving skill and marital satisfaction. Trener et al (2008) conducted a research on
teaching life skills like problem-solving and effective communication in teenagers. They showed that
teaching was effective in increasing the skills. Hanson and Lend Ballend (2006) investigated the
effectiveness of teaching communicational skills and solving conflict to couples who had problems in
marital interactions. Results showed that teaching communicational skills and problem-solving improves
marital relationships and reduces conflicts. Wit Kin (1983) conducted a research and compared couples'
effective communication, problem-solving and marital satisfaction after holding skill workshops. Results
showed that couples who received workshop training had an increase in their non-verbal messages. Elliot
et al (1999) investigated the effect of teaching problem-solving skill on students' performance. Results
showed that there is relationship between the two variables. Boulter and Wampler (1999, as quoted from
Berghandan, 2009) investigated 16 studies concerning treatment of couples through teaching
communicational competencies. Results showed that teaching communicational skills improved couples
communications considerably. Johnson et al (2005) investigated the influence of teaching conflict-solving
skills and controlling emotional responses on marital conflicts. They showed that problem-solving,
application of emotion and feeling, controlling negative emotion and their mutual influences have
important role in reducing conflicts and increasing marital satisfaction. Razavi and Delkoks (2006),
asquoted from Mir Kheshti (1996) investigated 92 English couples who had received 4 months of life skills
training. They found that after training, the couples reported more friendship and better sexual behavior.
Falofield, Lipken and Hall (2004) investigated 25 women and 30 men who had marital problems. They
received 3 months of training on communication skills and decision-making and problem-solving. Results
of the research showed that their marital satisfaction increased after training (as quoted from Safar
235
Zadeh, 2004). Gilcherest, Shinke and Maxwell (2005), as quoted from Johari (2007), investigated 13
couples and found that teaching life skills contributes to improvement of self-efficacy, problem-solving
skill, establishment of friendly relationship and controlling individual emotions. It seems that lack of
familiarity with problem-solving skill causes many problems in marital life of couples and teaching this skill
can be effective in marital satisfaction of couples. High ability to solve problems can help mothers of
exceptional and mentally-retarded children to have better marital life. Considering the above discussion,
the present research tries to investigate the effectiveness of teaching problem-solving skill on marital
satisfaction of mothers of mentally-retarded children in Arak City.
The main question of the research is: whether teaching problem-solving skill influences on marital
satisfaction of such children or not?
Research hypotheses
Method
The present research is an experimental study. Semi-experimental design with pretest-post test format
and control group was used. Statistical population of the research included all mothers who had
mentally-retarded children in Arak City Education Organization. They were 120 people in number. 30
people were selected as sample size. Each group should be at least 15 people because the present
research is a semi-experimental (Delavar, 2001). 15 people were put into experiment group and 15
people were put into control group. After preparing the list of mothers' names and random selection of
them, they were put randomly in control and experiment group. Then, research goal was explained for
them and Enrich's marital satisfaction questionnaire was given to both groups for conducting a pretest.
They were asked to express their ideas clearly. After conducting pretest, experiment group received 8 90minute sessions of training problem-solving skill in one and a half months through cognitive-behavioral
techniques. Half of each session time belonged to providing theoretical bases and the other half was
allocated to group discussion and practical exercises. After training course, Enrich's marital satisfaction
questionnaire was implemented on the respondents in posttest step.
Research instrument: Enrich's marital satisfaction questionnaire was used for data collection.
This questionnaire is designed to evaluate marital satisfaction. It also concerns changes which take place
during human life and is also sensitive to changes which happen in families. Each part of this
questionnaire concerns an important area of life. This instrument also can be used as a diagnosing
instrument for couples who look for marital consultancy and look for strengthening their marital
relationship.
This questionnaire has 11 subscales:
1. Marital satisfaction; 2. Personality issues; 3.Marital relationship; 4.Conflict-solving; 5.Financial
management;
6. Leisure time activities; 7.Sexual relationship; 8.Children and child-raising; 9.Friends and relatives,
10.Justice-searching roles; 11.Religious orientation.
The main form of this questionnaire contained closed-answer questions and 12 subscales and short form
of this questionnaire contains 47 questions ad 9 subscales.
Reliability and validity:
Correlation coefficnet of Enrichs questionnaire with family satisfaction dimensions range from 41% to
60% and correlation coefficient between the questionnaire and satisfaction with life dimensions range
from 32% to 41% which shows construct validity. All subscales of this questionnaire differentiate satisfied
and dissatisfied couples and this shows that the questionnaire is of acceptable validity (Sanayee, 2000).
Results:
Table 1 reports experiment group's variables mean and standard deviation in the studied sample. Table 2
also shows control group's standard deviation and mean. Table 3 presents variances equality test and
table 4 indicates covariance analysis for effects of teaching problem-solving skill on variables with
controlling marital satisfaction variable.
Table 1.pretest and posttest mean and standard deviation for experiment group variables
Results
Table 1.pretest and posttest mean and standard deviation for experiment group variables.
variables
Pretest
Posttest
Personality issues
236
Mean
SD
Mean
SD
21
4.5
24
3
Marital relationship
20.1
4.5
24
3.5
Conflict-solving
13.5
¼
15.5
2.8
Financial management
15.7
4.5
18.3
4.5
Leisure time
16.2
4.2
18.3
3
Sexual relationships
14.8
4
19.5
9.1
Marriage and children
15.2
3.3
17
4
Family and friends
16.8
3.2
18,1
3
Religious orientation
16
1.4
17.7
3.2
total
14.3
36.4
172.4
23.9
Table 2.mean and standard deviation of control group variables in posttest and pretest
Variables
posttest
Mean
SD
mean
SD
Personality issues
18.8
5
17.6
6.5
21
5.8
18.3
7
Conflict-solving
17
4.5
15.9
4.6
Financial
management
16.5
4.6
16.4
4.8
Leisure time
18
4.5
15.5
5
Sexual
relationships
20
3.2
18.5
4.4
15.7
4
15.1
5
Family and friends
18
3.8
18.5
3.5
Religious
orientation
15
5.5
16.5
6.4
total
161
34.9
151.3
37.1
Marriage
children
237
Pretest
and
Table 3.equality of variances test
F
df 1
df 2
Sig
0.39
1
28
0.5
3.5
1
28
0.1
Conflict-solving
1.2
1
28
0.3
Financial
management
0.5.
1
28
0.5
Leisure time
6
1
28
0.05
Sexual
relationships
2.2
1
28
0.2
0.01
1
28
0.9
Family and friends
0.5
1
28
0.6
Religious
orientation
4.7
1
28
0.01
total
3.1
1
28
0.08
Personality issues
Marriage
children
and
Table 4.covariance analysis for effects of teaching problem-solving skill on variables with controlling
marital satisfaction variable in pretest
Control source
Ss
df
Ms
Covariance (pretest personality issues
points)
204.9
1
204.9
Main influence (treatment)
89
1
90
Remaining error
467
27
17.19
Covariance (pretest marital relationship
points)
470.9
1
470.9
205
1
205
Remaining error
440
27
16.22
210
1
210
153
1
153
Covariance
points)
(pretest
conflict-solving
238
F
Sig
eta
5.15
0.03
0.16
12.44
0.01
0.32
13.9
0.01
0.345
Remaining error
290.24
27
10.75
206.7
1
206.7
43.07
1
43.07
Remaining error
362.7
27
13.48
Covariance (pretest leisure time points)
249
1
249
199.77
1
199.77
Remaining error
262
27
9.5
Covariance (pretest sexual relationships
points)
5.33
1
5.33
26
1
26
Remaining error
305
27
12.36
222
1
222
14.9
1
14.9
Remaining error
311
27
10.60
Covariance (pretest family and friends
points)
64.7
1
64.7
6
1
6
Remaining error
223
27
75.3
Covariance (pretest religious orientation
points)
75.9
1
75.9
7.15
1
7.15
Remaining error
455
27
12.8
Covariance (pretest marital satisfaction
points)
20279
1
20279
5838
1
5838
Remaining error
3910
27
142
Covariance
(pretest
management points)
Covariance (pretest
children points)
financial
marriage
and
3.24
0.08
0.11
10.45
0.001
0.43
9.28
0.142
0.07
9.27
0.26
0.04
0.71
0.404
0.02
0.41
0.52
0.01
40.20
0.000
0.59
As it can be seen in table 4, it can be concluded that elimination of the effect of the points of personality
issues, marital relationship, conflict-solving, sexual relationships, and marital satisfaction of pretest as
covariance variable, the main influence of teaching variable of posttest is significant.
239
Further, results showed that after elimination of the influence of the points of financial management,
marriage and children, family and friends, and religious orientation of pretest as covariance variable , the
main influence of teaching variable in posttest is not significant.
Discussion
Considering the results of the present research, teaching problem-solving skill influences increasing
personality issues, marital relationship, conflict-solving, leisure time and sexual relationships and marital
satisfaction of mothers. Further, results showed that teaching problem-solving skill does not have
significant influence on financial management, marriage and child-raising, family and friends and religious
orientation. Therefore, it can be said that teaching problem-solving skill was effective in marital
satisfaction of mothers. Results of the present research match the results of studes conducted by Hanson
and lend Boland (2006), Aslani (2004), Berghandan (1998), Wit Kin (1983), Boulter and Wampler (1999,
as quoted from Berghandan, 2009), Johnson et al (2005) and Razavi&Delcoax (2006). Teaching
problem-solving skills seems to be necessary for preventing from psychological and physical and social
destruction of individuals and families. Couples should be taught under experienced experts.
Furthermore, authorities and insiders should try to spread group teaching of life skills because studies
show that group teaching increases motivation. Participants of these workshops and courses receive
feedback from each other, motivate mutual relationships, practice commitment and responsibility, learn
social relationships and reduce social harms and fears. Moreover, educational programmers are advised
to plan in macro level in order to hold life skills training workshops before marriage for couples. In-service
education can also be planned for teachers and thereby increase their knowledge about application of the
influence of life skills. Implementation of instructional workshops by experts, managers and educational
planners can be very helpful in schools in order to familiarize students with life skills.
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241
Relationship between attachment styles and social trust among the
college students studying in Bu Ali Sina University of Hamedan City
Maryam Abdolahi Moghadam*1, Abolghasem Yaghobi2, Galavizh Alizadeh3
1-Phd student of educational psychology, Bu Ali Sina University, Hamedan City, Iran
2- Associate Professor, Bu Ali Sina University, Hamedan City, Iran
3- Phd student of educational psychology, Bu Ali Sina University, Hamedan City, Iran
Abstract
Scientific interactions follow the pattern of informal relationship in academic
environments and the fundamental foundation is social trust that must be laid in such
relationships. Hence, the research purpose is to investigate the relationship between
attachment styles and social trust among the students studying in Bu Ali Sina University
of Hamedan City. The research sample included 200 university students (90 male
students and 110 female students) who were selected through multi-stratified cluster
sampling and filled out the attachment styles and social trust questionnaires. The data
were analyzed using Pearson correlation and t-test by SPSS19. Results indicated that
there is significant positive relationship between secure attachment style, ambivalent
attachment style and social trust of students. However, no significant relationship was
observed between male and female students. Overall, results indicated that secure
attachment style should be strengthened in adults to enhance their social trust.
Keywords: attachment style, social trust, college students
Introduction
One of the most fundamental issues of today’s society and very crucial aspects of human life is
the social trust. This concept is related to many of the variables which is desirable for humans. In a
personal level, individuals who believe that other people are more trustworthy are more probable to be
optimistic about the future, more altruistic and more active in social participations, more hopeful of
changing their lives and happier (Soroush, 2011). In a social level, less problems and more welfare are
experienced in both cities and countries in which people trust each other more.
Trust means individual’s good opinion of other people of the society that can facilitate his/her
social relationship with others (Allah Yar Ahmadi, 2013). For want of a better word, trust is the individual’s
tendency for acceptance and risking in a social setting that is based on this hypothesis that others will
behave supportively and predictably. Most the primary viewpoints of social trust infer that we learn the
basic trust in living with our parents not in later stages of life and in mutual relationship with others
(Yoslaner, 2000; cited in Ghadimi, 2007). In fact, trust is influenced by individuals’ primary learning in
close relationship with their parents. Here, the concept of attachment can be advanced.
Attachment is the quality of the relationship with significant others or stable emotional ties with
parents and peers (Nelis & Rae, 2008). Bowlby (1980) states that infant’s experience with his/her care
giver leads to the growth of functional models from self and others in relationships. These models are
exhibited in emotional behaviors and states that can continue throughout adulthood and form the
expectations in terms of future relationship (Wearden et al, 2008). In this relationship, a triple model of
attachment styles has been introduced that includes secure attachment style, avoidant insecure
attachment style and ambivalent insecure attachment style (Stroebe et al, 2006).
Secure attached individuals have more trustful beliefs of others (Laible, 2007). Therefore, secure
and insecure attachment styles are influential on the nature of social trust. In secure individuals, the threat
appraisal brings the care givers’ positive interactions’ thoughts and feelings into mind. In insecure
individuals, the threat appraisal can trigger negative, painful and cold feelings that were experienced
during childhood (Kesidy & Shiver, 2008). According to the theory of attachment, the child shapes his/her
mental models of self and others based on the responses that mother or primary care givers have
provided for the child during the early years of life and these models act as a guide in relationship with
intimate others in later years of life (Tagay & Karates, 2012).
In previous studies on social trust, components such as social relationships, security and social
acceptance were significantly correlated with social trust (Abbas Zadeh, 2004 and Salehi Amir, 2008).
The results of the research by Amiri et al (2011) on the relationship between attachment styles and social
skills have indicated that there is significant and positive relationship between secure attachment style
and social skills. Moreover, significant and negative relationship was reported between insecure-avoidant
attachment style, insecure-ambivalent attachment style and social skills. Moreover, the results of the
research by Oglman & Seven (2012) on the relationship between attachment styles and peers’
relationship indicated that attachment styles have significant predictive effects on the variables of
relationship with peers. According to the theory of attachment and its related studies (Shiver & Hazen,
1998; Micolinser and Shiver, 2003, cited in Ayrez et al, 2007), the function of attachment system is of
crucial importance in the perception of individual differences in social behavior, including assistance,
helping others and providing welfare (Ayrez et al, 2007) that are reflected in all the components of social
trust.
With regard to the aforementioned literature, the importance of social trust and its significance
and status is crystal clear in academic interactions. Scientific interactions follow the pattern of informal
relationship in academic environments and the fundamental foundation is social trust that must be laid in
such relationships
Method and materials
The research sample included 200 university students (90 male students and 110 female
students) in the age range of 20 to 30 who were selected through multi-stratified cluster sampling and
filled out the attachment styles and social trust questionnaires. The research tools included two
questionnaires that are described as following:
Attachment styles questionnaire was designed and developed by Shiver & Hazen (1987) (cited in
Mir Hashemi and Nikkhou, 2007). This questionnaire encompasses three descriptive phrases about
individual’s feelings about intimate relationship with others, each of which is indicative of three attachment
styles (secure, avoidant and ambivalent). Each subject should select one of the descriptions that best
describes his/her feelings in intimate and close relationships. The content validity of this questionnaire is
acceptable and all the contents of the items are congruent with structural concepts of attachment theory
and its interactive expansion in adults’ relationships. The test-retest reliability of the questionnaire in a
one-month time interval equaled .82 which is acceptable (Mirhashemi and Nikkhou, 2007).
Social trust questionnaire is a 25-item questionnaire that was designed and developed by Saffari
Niya and Sharif (2010) based on the five components of trust, cooperative tendencies, clarity, honesty
and assurance. The reliability of the total questionnaire using Cronbach alpha was equal to .954. The
Cronbach alpha for the five components equaled .971, .971, .969, and .967, respectively. Results with
regard to the validity of the questionnaire and analysis of the main components indicated that there exists
only one factor that explains 52.92 percent of the variance and this factor is the first question.
243
Results and findings
The mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficient have been reported in table 1.
Moreover, the mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficients and significance level of the
subscales of attachment styles have been demonstrated in table 2.
Table 1- Mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficients of the variables
variables
mean
Social trust
Attachment
style
*P<.05
95.35
36.67
Standard
deviation
7.27
6.93
1
2
3
.273
-
-
**P<.01
As observed in table 1, there exists significant and positive correlation between social trust and
attachment style (r=.273, P<.001). Therefore, the first hypothesis is confirmed.
Table 2- Mean, standard deviation and correlation coefficients of the subscales of attachment style
Variables
mean
1
2
95.35
14.24
Standard
deviation
7.27
3.10
Social trust
Secure
attachment
style
Avoidant
attachment
style
Ambivalent
attachment
style
*P<.05
3
4
.12
-
10.91
3.33
.01
-.39**
-
11.52
4.64
.30**
.11
.34
-
**P<.01
As observed in table 2, no significant correlation is observed between social trust and avoidant
attachment style (r=.01, P>.05). However, significant relationship is observed between social trust and
secure attachment style (r=.20, P>.05). Furthermore, social trust and ambivalent attachment style are
significantly and positively correlated to one another (r=.30, P<.01).
The results of independent t-test for determining the difference between the girls and boys on the
studied variables have been presented in table 3.
Table 3- Comparison of social trust and attachment style in male and female college students
variable
Social trust
Attachment style
mean
Standard deviation
girls
boys
girls
boys
95.47
37.07
95.16
36.06
7.69
7.25
6.61
6.40
t
Degree of
freedom
Level
of
significance
.1
.29
198
198
.31
.77
As observed in table 3, no significant between-group difference is observed in the two variables
of social trust (t=.1 and P<.31) and attachment style (t=.29 and P<.77). Based on the comparison of the
244
two groups, it can be concluded that girls score higher on social trust and attachment style and therefore,
the research hypothesis is rejected.
Discussion and conclusion
The research purpose was to investigate the relationship between attachment styles and social
trust among the students studying in Bu Ali Sina University of Hamedan City. The results of the present
research indicated the significant correlation between social trust and attachment styles. This finding is in
line with the results of the research carried out by Ogelman and Seven (2012) and Ayrez et al (2007).
However, no significant between-group difference was observed and girls only scored higher on avoidant
attachment styles. Therefore, the component of trust is predictable by the secure or insecure attachment
styles in them.
Trusting others is feelings of security in establishing relationship with others and more positive
and secure attachment style will be reflected in the future relationships of adults as positive reflections. In
the present research, ambivalent attachment style was also found to be positively correlated to trust. This
finding is consistent with the results of the research by Amiri et al (2011). Feelings of doubt and
dubiousness (ambivalence) can be attributed to the nature of trusting and cultural differences of students
that influence their viewpoints based on their schemas and cultural norms. Therefore, social trust is
formed in the process of socialization, learnt during childhood and continues to exist throughout life. In
addition, personal experiences of adulthood are effective in its formation and special attention should be
devoted to strengthening secure attachment style in the interpersonal relationships of students. It’s
recommended that this research be carried out on larger and more diverse samples and other important
factors on social trust be investigated. For want of a better word, it’s proposed that the status of trusting in
the framework of cultural differences (Kurdish, Turkish and Lor) and the methods of social trust based on
its components be investigated in each culture.
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of Social Welfare. 4(15).
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styles and social skills of students in Allameh Tabatabai University. Proceeding of the first
Congress of Social Psychology. Iran: Tehran.
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Differences. 44: 1246–1257.
246
The Effectiveness of the Treatment Program on Reading, and Feeling
Toward Reading in Dyslexia Student
Zeinab Mihandoost
Associate Professor of Psychology, Department of Psychology, Ilam Branch, Islamic AZAD University,
ILAM, IRAN
Abstract
This research dealt with the effects of the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling System
on reading self-concept, reading motivation, reading attitude and reading skills. The study
included 64 students with dyslexia. Half of them were studying in grade four and the others were
in grade five in a public elementary school in Ilam, Iran. The subjects were randomly assigned
equally to two groups, namely the control and the experimental groups with each group
consisting of 32 dyslexic students. The Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling system was
used as the research intervention for the experimental group. The scales for reading attitude,
reading self-concept, reading motivation, and reading skills were employed for the measurement
of the respective items, namely reading attitude, reading self-concept, reading motivation and
reading skills. Pre and post-scores were analyzed using repeated measure ANOVA and multipart
analysis of variance. The results indicated significant differences for reading self-concept,
reading attitude, reading motivation and reading skills between the control and experimental
groups after the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling System. It was found that the
experimental group in this study after the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling system
positively developed reading self-concepts, reading attitude, reading motivation, and reading
skills. This implies the need for teachers to pay particular attention to the students with dyslexia
in the classroom when designing activities that promote reading self-concept, reading attitude,
reading motivation and reading skills enhancement. Teachers should devise appropriate
strategies in order to make reading more interesting and rewarding for the students with dyslexia.
This study supports the importance of the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling system
in academic performance. It suggests that reading success can be achieved if the affective needs
of students with dyslexia are taken into consideration when reading instruction is given to such
students.
Keyword: Reading, treatment, dyslexia, attitude, self-concept, motivation
Introduction
Dyslexia has probably always been present during the history of humankind, even before writing systems
were developed. It is possible to imagine a caveman who is unable to understand the paintings in a cave
depicting predators, venturing outside only to be devoured by a beast. The primary reference of the term
dyslexia occurred in 1872 by a physician called R.Berlin of Stuttgart, Germany. He used the term to
describe the case of an adult with acquired dyslexia, that is, loss of reading ability due to a brain lesion.
Nevertheless, the history of developmental dyslexia began more than one hundred years ago in Britain,
and after that the main core of the study of dyslexia moved from Britain to the United States (Pisecco,
Wristers, Swank, Silva, & Baker, 2001). The majority of students with learning disability encounter
problems in one or several basic skills. Dyslexia is one of the common issues among students with
learning disability. Researches indicated that throughout the world, the majority of people (80 percent)
with learning disability have dyslexia (Lerner, 2006; Shaywitz, 2003).
Dyslexic students’ failure causes them to be less motivated toward reading. These students embrace
more negative self-concepts (Chapman, Tunmer, & Prochnow, 2000), feel more helpless (Valas, 1999),
and avoid reading behaviors (Salonen, Lepola, & Niemi, 1998) more frequently than other students.
Studies since a few examples have shown that dyslexic students have problems related to motivation,
attitude, self-concept and reading skills. Motivation is the powers that energizes and straight one’s drive
to complete aims. Students need to have a strong desire to learn in school because many aspects of
academic learning require persistent, hard work over a long period of time. Students with learning
disability may appear to be unmotivated, while their lack of motivation may actually result from chronic
academic failure (McGrady, Learner, & Boscardin, 2001). Moreover, the process of losing motivation
often begins when they start to first doubt their own intellectual ability. Then, they start to judge their
efforts in trying to gain achievements as futile, eventually asking themselves the question of “why try if
you know you are going to fail?”. Therefore, after encountering repeated failures in the classroom, these
students begin to develop negative attitudes about school learning. Consequently, they have fewer
opportunities to experience personal control over their learning outcomes and eventually begin to doubt
that they are in control of their academic destinies (McGrady et al., 2001; Schmid & Evans, 1998).
The elementary schools in Ilam, Iran, are facing a serious problem related to a number of dyslexic
students who are unable to apply reading skills. This problem is not addressed in usual classrooms by
means of basic readers, straight phonics, and whole words (Dyslexia Research Institute, 2003). Students
diagnosed with dyslexia need quality intervention programs that are intentionally designed to meet their
specific needs. In this study, students are receiving an intervention program based on a Persian version
of the Barton Reading and Spelling System. This program systematically teaches letter-sounds, letter
words identification, fluency, and understanding phrases and it attempts to reduce the reading problems
in students with dyslexia.
Earlier studies indicated that the reading problem is directly related to negative attitudes toward reading,
low reading self-concept and low motivation toward reading (Bender & Wall, 1994; Elbaum & Vaughn,
2001; Hogg & Vaughan, 2002; Bender & Wall, 1994). However, students with dyslexia may not have the
essential reading words, and they may not employ phrases. Objective: To determine the effectiveness of
the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling System in improving reading skills, reading selfconcept, reading attitude and reading self-concept of the students with dyslexia in the elementary
schools.
Research Question: Does the Persian adapted Barton Reading and Spelling System improve reading
skills, reading self-concept, reading attitude and reading self-concept of the students with dyslexia in the
elementary schools?
Hypothesis: There is a statistically significant difference in reading skills, reading self-concept, reading
attitude and reading self-concept of students with dyslexia before and after the Persian adapted Barton
Reading and Spelling System in the experimental group.
Significance of the study: The results of this research will provide significant and important information for
dyslexic students, teachers, parents, and learning disability centers, the Ministry of Education and experts
in education as well as speech and language pathologists.
Parents and teachers should be communicating about the dyslexic child’s progress, and as such the
Barton Program being implemented should be used both at home and in school. By teaching the child at
home in the same way they are being taught in school, they will have a greater chance of success when it
comes to reading. The consistent use of this program will make them more familiar to the child, increasing
the chance that the child will use them when trying to read. The Barton approach helps students to learn
through the use of all their senses, thus the student’s learning skills (read, spell and write) can be
improved. Learning disability centers could play the main and important role for evaluation of dyslexic
students referred to them. Therefore, a general view could be planned by analyzing and interpreting the
reading and writing errors of the dyslexic students and through awareness of the kinds of dyslexia
involved. The Ministry of Education and experts in the field of education could use the results of the
current survey to plan teaching strategies, especially in training of reading for dyslexic students in
elementary schools while teachers can help dyslexic students if they are familiar with their characteristics
of these dyslexic students. Speech and language pathologists: Based on this research, the findings can
be useful for speech and language pathologists as well because these students could be categorized
according to the different characteristics in their reading and the analysis of the weak or strong points of
their performance and consequently, it can help to guide these people in developing the appropriate plan
for the therapeutic program.
Research Design
This study employed experimental design with pretest-posttest control group. This design includes two
independent groups of participants. The experimental group receives intervention program between the
pretest and posttest. Control group also receives the pretest and posttest but does not receive the
intervention program. The pretest and posttest are given to the participants in the experimental and
control groups at the same time intervals. Based this design if the pretest affected the performances of
participants on the posttest, researcher would expect to find a difference between pretest and posttest
scores in both groups. The same could be said for the effects of any other events, unrelated to treatment
that might occur between the pretest and posttest administrations: they would be expected to affect the
two groups similarly. If researcher found a difference between the pretest and posttest scores in the
experimental group then would be justified in concluding that treatment (Bordens & Abbott, 2011).
248
Threats to internal validity
The threats to internal validity are monitored by this design which acts as follows:
1. History: There is possibility for many incidents to happen between O1 and O2 apart from x to cause the
differences in the results. If the time lapse between O1 and O2, becomes longer, it is more probable that
history will turn into a threat. The control procedure is that the shared history incidents that possibly
played a significant role in the O1 and O2 effects in experimental group could also give rise to the O1 and
O2 effects in control group. In this research, the solution to history is the randomization of experimental
occasions (i.e., balanced in terms of experimenter, time of day, week, and so on).
2. Maturation: Between O1 and O2, students have possibly grown up or the internal conditions have
probably altered and so the resulting differences would be related to these changes as opposed to x, and
will equally become known in both the intervention and control groups.
3. Testing: The impact of the pretest might affect the results of the posttest and it will equally become
known in both the intervention and control groups.
4. Mortality: The differences between O1 and O2 might be related to the rate of dropouts from a certain
experimental group, which will result in inequality in the groups. There is an equal rate of mortality in both
groups. The contribution of mortality to the results of the experiment cannot be definitely determined
because even in the occurrence of mortality, the possibility of complex interactions makes the effects of
dropout rates different in both groups. However, both groups should have similar conditions.
Population: In this study, the students of the fourth and fifth grades with dyslexia, at first, were identified
by using a questionnaire called the “Dyslexia Screening Instrument” or DSI, and two 100-word passages
from their textbooks with 10 comprehension questions were selected and assigned to the students to
read aloud. Their marks were then scrutinized in the first semester, and it was found that their marks were
lower than their counterparts. To examine their IQ, Raven’s Progress Matrix test was performed, and the
students with an average IQ higher than 90 made up the population of this research. Researcher
assessing IQ in students with dyslexia because she must be sure this students have normal or above
normal IQ and they are not slow learner. Finally 138 dyslexic students in the fourth and fifth grades in
elementary school in Ilam, Iran were selected. The population included 40 male and 38 female fifth
grades students, and 37 male and 22 female fourth grade students. Their age ranged from 10 to 12
years.
Sample size: In this study researcher employed both random selection and random assignment. It is
possible to have both random selection and assignment in a study. This research investigated the
population of students at the fourth and fifth grade in Ilam, Iran. Ilam city has 138 dyslexic students in the
fourth and fifth grades. The procedure of sampling followed four steps as elaborated below. In the first
step, the researcher randomly listed the dyslexic students in Ilam, Iran. In the second step each student in
the list was coded from 1 to 138. In the third step, using a table of sample size, 64 dyslexic students were
selected as the study’s sample. That is random selection. Therefore, the study investigated 64 dyslexic
students which were randomly assign into two groups. That is random assignment. The experimental
group consisted of 32 dyslexic students who qualified to participate in the Persian adapted Barton
Reading and Spelling System. The control group also consisted of 32 dyslexic students.
Procedures: The students with dyslexia were identified on February, 2010 with Dyslexia Screening
Instrument, 100-word passages from their textbooks with 10 comprehension questions and their marks
were scrutinized in the first semester. After that employed pilot study for determine reliability in Persian
version of reading attitude, reading self-concept, reading motivation and reading scales. Pilot study
comes out from 1st to 10th March, 2010. Following determine reliability for Persian version of scales,
researcher utilized pretest for experimental and control groups. The next step after determine pretest,
students participate in intervention program one-to-one. In this study students received intervention
program by four bachelor psychology as a tutors. Tutors received two weeks Persian adapted Barton
Reading and Spelling System. Students were taken from class on an individual basis for approximately
45 minutes three times a week during 12 weeks intervention program. Students completed the
intervention program, on Jun, 2010. After completed intervention program both experimental and control
groups received the posttest that similar to the pretest, this was conducted one-to-one by the researcher.
The researcher who collected the data was a female psychology doctoral student and she had two
assistants.
249
Data collection: Before data collection was carried out, a permission letter was forwarded to the
educational office in Ilam province, Iran. After that, the Reading Attitude, Reading Self-Concept, Reading
Motivation, Reading Fluency, Reading Comprehension and Letter-Word Identification were administered
before and after the study. The pretest and posttest occurred during the school year. The researcher
administered the test individually. The testing location was in a small room located next to the students’
classroom. The posttest was administered after the end of the 12 week intervention program. The
posttest employed for experimental and control groups and were administered the same conditions as the
pretest.
Instruments: Nine instruments were utilized in this research. They are as follows: 1) the Dyslexia
Screening Instrument (DSI), 2) Letter-Word Identification, 3) Reading Fluency, 4) Passage
Comprehension, 5) Attitude, 6) Self-concept, 7) Motivation 8) Raven’s Progressive Matrices, and 9)
Reading Text.
Barton Intervention Program: Based on the Barton Reading and Spelling System and Barton website, the
researcher devised a Persian version of Barton Reading and Spelling System. She also kept on
corresponding with Susan Barton via e-mail ([email protected]). The next step after making the
Persian version of the Barton Reading and Spelling System was to send it to three professors of Persian
literature to make the necessary corrections based on the Persian alphabet. Finally, the Persian version
of the Barton Reading and Spelling System was ready to use in the elementary schools. Following the
Barton Reading and Spelling System (2000) and Barton’s website (http://www.bartonreading.com), the
researcher describes the Barton Reading and Spelling System. The Barton Reading and Spelling System
(BRSS) is a program which has been inspired by an Orton-Gillingham simultaneously multisensory, clear,
and organized phonics program. Every one of these components is defined on Barton’s website. With the
use of the students’ visual, auditory, tactile, and kinesthetic senses, the BRSS employs simultaneous
multisensory instruction in the learning process. In the Barton Reading and Spelling program, the teacher
teaches the rules of the written language one by one to the students until they learn both the reading skill
and the spelling of the words. After one rule is taught, the second one follows. So it can be said that the
BRSS follows a direct and clear education. It is a cumulative and systematic program. That is to say, first,
the teachers present the rules which are basic to make the ground for the written language and then upon
these rules they add more rules. This continues until the students can automatically and fluently apply the
rules in spelling and reading. Before new rules are given, the old ones are reviewed to be reinforced in
the students. The purpose of this cumulative and systematic process is to assist the students in
understanding the notion that every one of these rules is logically justifiable in the English language. The
Barton program utilizes two items. The first one is the synthetic phonics. Here, based on the individual
sounds and letters, the student builds words. The second one is analytic phonics. This refers to the
process in which a student is taught to break down the longer words into its component letters and
sounds.In addition, the teacher continuously applies diagnostic training in order to evaluate the student’s
knowledge of the rules and ability in the application of the rules. In this process, the student gets involved
in a dialog where he or she has to explain how a word is spelled and pronounced and why a certain rule
is applied The role of the teacher in the situations where the student makes a mistake is to help him or
her work out to find the problem and try to solve it.
Results: Based on Mann and Prem (2001), the basic assumptions of repeated measure ANOVA are: The
variance of the populations are equal (this is determined by Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of variance).
In this study, based on Table 1 Levene’s Test of Homogeneity of variance is assumed. Also, the groups
or samples drawn from different populations are random and independent. In this study, groups and
samples are randomly assigned. In the repeated measure ANOVA, if the observed significance level is
equal or greater than .05 levels, then the researcher cannot reject the H0, or H0 is true. This means that
the researcher does not have significant evidence to suspect that the variances are unequal. This implies
that the variances are the same. In addition, in this study based on Table 1, repeated measure ANOVA is
the appropriate inferential statistic for comparing the means of the population or groups.
Table 1: Levene's test of Homogeneity of Variances
Pretest
df1
250
df2
F
Posttest
df1
p
df2
F
p
Reading Self-Concept
1
59
.15
.70
1
59
.11
.47
Reading Attitude
1
59
.10
.15
1
59
.35
.44
Motivation toward Reading
1
59
.15
.70
1
59
.003
.96
Reading Comprehension
1
59
.20
.66
1
59
.2.38
.13
phonic
1
59
.04
.84
1
59
1.02
.32
Reading Fluency
1
59
.51
.48
1
59
.2.10
.15
Table 1 illustrated that Levene's test of Homogeneity of Variances. This table showed that the two groups
did not differ on either the pretest, or the posttest score. Therefore the homogeneity of variances
assumption was met on pretest and posttest scores.
As previously described, the first hypothesis was “There is a significant difference in overall reading selfconcept between the experimental and the control groups.” The repeated measures ANOVA was
performed to find a significant treatment effect for the reading self-concept. The summary of analysis for
repeated measure ANOVA are presented in below.
Table 2: Mean and SD of Reading Self-Concept for Control and Experimental Groups
Pretest
M (SD)
Conditions
Posttest
M (SD)
n
Control Group
83.63(13.71)
86.63 (26.06)
30
Experimental Group
82.65(14.21)
104.06(13.12)
31
Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation of reading self-concept for the experimental and control
groups. In addition Table 2 demonstrated the increase from pretest (M=82.64, SD=14.21) to post-test
(M=104.06, SD=13.12) in reading self-concept scores for experimental group but not for the control
group.
Table 3: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Reading Self-Concept
Between Subjects
Group (G)
Error
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
1030.52
11002.06
1
59
1030.52
186.48
5.53
.05
.10
Within Subjects
Test (T)
4545.6
1
4545.6
18.65
.001
.24
TxG
2586.26
1
2586.26 10.61
.001
.15
Error
14376.77
59
243.67
Table 3 shows the results of repeated measure ANOVA for reading self-concept. The between subjects
data in Table 3 shows significant difference between the control and experimental groups, F (1, 59) =
5.53, p = .05. The within subjects data in Table 3 shows a significant difference between the two testing
periods, F (1, 59) = 18.65, p= .001. There is a medium effect size (η = .24). Based on Gravetter and
Wallnau (2009), ŋ=.01 shows small effect, ŋ=.09 medium effect and ŋ=.25 large effect. Table 3 also
shows significant interaction between the test period and group, F (1, 59) = 10.61, p = .001.
As previously described, the second hypothesis was “There is a significant difference in overall reading
attitude between the experimental and the control groups.” The repeated measure ANOVA was
performed to examine the treatment effect for the reading attitude. The summaries of analysis for
repeated measure ANOVA are illustrated in below.
Table 4: Mean and SD of Reading Attitude for Control and Experimental Groups
Conditions
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
Control Group
47.67 (7.56)
48.07 (12.26)
30
Experimental Group
47.26 (6.99)
67.52 (5.03)
31
Table 4 shows the mean and standard deviation of reading attitude for the experimental and control
groups. As illustrated in Table 4 an increase from pretest (M=47.26, SD=6.99) to post-test (M=67.52,
SD=5.03) in reading attitude for experimental group but not for the control group.
Table 5: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Reading Attitude
Between Subjects
Group (G)
Error
Within Subjects
Test (T)
251
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
1381.87
1
1381.87
43.41
.001
.42
1878.32
59
1878.32
3253.14
1
3253.14
42.79
.001
.42
GxT
3006.06
1
3006.06
39.54
.001
.40
Error
4485.57
59
76.03
Table 5 shows the results of repeated measure ANOVA for reading attitude. The between subjects data
in Table 5 shows significant difference between the control and experimental groups, F (1, 59) = 43.41, p
= .001. The within subjects data in Table 5 shows a significant difference between the two testing periods,
F (1, 59) = 42.79, p= .001. There is a large effect size (η = .42). According to Gravetter and Wallnau
(2009), ŋ=.01 small effect, ŋ=.09 medium effect and ŋ=.25 large effect. Table 5 also shows significant
interaction between the test period and group, F (1, 59) = 39.54, p = .001.
As previously described, the third hypothesis was “There is a significant difference in overall motivation
toward reading between the experimental and the control groups.” The repeated measure ANOVA was
employed to compare the intervention program on dyslexic students’ motivation toward reading.
Table 6: Mean and SD of Motivation toward Reading for Control and Experimental Groups
Conditions
Control Group
Experimental Group
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
120.37 (14.78)
120 (16.62)
121.43 (16.96)
148.52 (16.57)
30
31
Table 6 shows the mean and standard deviation of motivation toward reading for the experimental and
control groups. As shows in Table 6, there was an increase from pretest (M=120, SD=16.62) to post-test
(M=148.52, SD=16.57) in motivation toward reading for the experimental group but not for the control
group.
Table 7: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Motivation toward Reading
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
Between Subjects
Group (G)
Error
Within Subjects
2720.45
9857.61
1
59
2720.45
167.08
16.28
.001
.22
Test (T)
GxT
Error
6671.16
5743.69
11500.8
1
1
59
6671.16
5743.69
194.93
34.22
29.47
.001
.001
.37
.33
Table 7 shows the results of repeated measure ANOVA for motivation toward reading. The between
subjects data in Table 7 shows significant difference between the control and experimental groups, F (1,
59) = 16.28, p = .001. The within subjects data in Table 7 shows a significant difference between the two
testing periods, F (1, 59) = 34.22, p= .001. There is a large effect size (η = .37). According to Gravetter
and Wallnau (2009), ŋ=.01 shows small effect, ŋ=.09 shows medium effect and ŋ=.25 shows large effect.
Table 7 also shows significant interaction between the test period and group, F (1, 59) = 29.47, p = .001.
Multivariate analysis of variance and repeated measures ANOVA were used to distinguish the differences
for the mean scores of the reading skills (comprehension, phonics, and fluency). Hypothesis number four
was “There is a significant difference in overall reading skills (comprehension, phonic, fluency) between
the experimental and the control groups”. For this hypothesis, multivariate analysis of variance was
employed, and also in this study repeated measure ANOVA was used to analyses the three constructions
in reading skills which are comprehension, phonic, and fluency. The results of a Multivariate analysis of
variance are illustrated in below.
Table 8: Mean and SD of Reading Skills for Control and Experimental Groups
Conditions
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
Control Group
40.51 (10.38)
41.25 (10.94)
30
Experimental Group
40.68 (9.82)
49.32 (8.48)
31
Table 8 shows the mean and standard deviation of reading skills for the experimental and control groups.
As shows in Table 8, there was an increase from pretest (M=40.68, SD=9.82) to post-test (M=49.32,
SD=8.48) in reading skills for the experimental group but not for the control group.
252
Table 9: Pretest Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Reading Skills
Test
value
F
p
Pillai's
.001
.02
.99
Wilks'
.998
.02
.99
Hotelling's
.001
.02
.99
Roy's
.001
.02
.99
Table 9 shows the multivariate analysis of variance which shows no significant difference in reading skills
before the Persian Adapted Barton program.
Table 10: Posttest Multivariate Analysis of Variance for Reading Skills
Test
value
F
p
Pillai's
971
6.31
.001
Wilks'
.029
6.31
.001
Hotelling's
33.21
6.31
.001
Roy's
33.21
6.31
.001
Table 10 shows the multivariate analysis of variance after the Persian Adapted Barton Program. This
table also shows a significant treatment effect for the reading skills (Phonic, fluency and comprehension).
Table 11: Mean and SD of Reading Comprehension for Control and Experimental Groups
Conditions
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
Control Group
27.07 (8.70)
27.67 (9.12)
30
Experimental Group
27.23 (9.57)
34.35 (7.26)
31
Table 11 shows the mean and standard deviation of reading comprehension for the experimental and
control groups. Furthermore, Table 11 demonstrated an increase from pretest (M=27.23, SD=9.57) to
post-test (M=34.35, SD=7.26) in reading comprehension for the experimental group but not for the control
group.
Table 12: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Reading Comprehension
Between Subjects
Group (G)
Error
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
178.70
4152.35
1
59
178.70
70.38
2.54
.12
.04
Within Subject
Test (T)
455.38
1
455.38
41.06
.001
.41
GxT
324.95
1
324.95
29.30
.001
.33
Error
654.34
59
11.09
Table 12 shows the results of repeated measure ANOVA for reading comprehension which is a construct
for reading skills. The between subjects data in Table 12 shows no significant difference between the
control and the experimental groups, F (1, 59) = 2.54, p = .12. The within subjects data in Table 12 shows
a significant difference between the two testing periods, F (1, 59) = 41.06, p= .001. There is a large effect
size (η = .41). According to Gravetter and Wallnau (2009), ŋ=.01 shows small effect, ŋ=.09 shows
medium effect and ŋ=.25 shows large effect. Table 12 also shows significant interaction between the test
period and group, F (1, 59) = 29.30, p = .001.
Table 13: Mean and SD of Phonic for Experimental and Control Groups
Conditions
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
Control Group
42.47 (10.88)
42.77 (10.96)
30
Experimental Group
42.26 (9.92)
53.61 (9.38)
31
Table 13 shows the mean and standard deviation of phonic for the experimental and control groups. As
well, Table 13 illustrated the increase in mean scores from pretest (M=42.26, SD=9.92) to post-test
(M=53.61, SD=9.38) in phonic for experimental group but not for the control group.
253
Table 14: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Phonic
Between Subject
Group (G)
Error
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
431.30
5876.71
1
59
431.30
99.61
4.33
.05
.07
Within Subjects
Test
1035.47
1
1035.47
79.89
.001
.58
GxT
931.6
1
931.6
71.87
.001
.55
Error
764.7
59
12.96
Table 14 shows the results of repeated measure ANOVA for phonic which is a construct for reading
skills. The between subjects data in Table 4.15 shows significant difference between the control and
experimental groups, F (1, 59) = 4.33, p = .05. The within subjects data in Table 4.15 shows a significant
difference between the two testing periods, F (1, 59) = 79.89, p = .001. There is a large effect size (η =.
58). According to Gravetter and Wallnau (2009), ŋ=.01 shows small effect, ŋ=.09 shows medium effect
and ŋ=.25 shows large effect. Table 14 also shows significant interaction between the test period and
group, F (1, 59) = 71.87, p = .001.
Table 15: Mean and SD of Reading Fluency for Control and Experimental
Groups
Conditions
Control Group
Pretest
Posttest
M (SD)
M (SD)
n
52.03 (11.56)
53.33 (12.73)
30
Experimental Group
52.58 (9.82)
59.68 (8.81)
31
Table 15 shows the mean and standard deviation of reading fluency for the experimental and control
groups. Also this table indicates an increase from pretest (M=52.58, SD=9.82) to post-test (M=59.67,
SD=8.81) for reading fluency in the experimental group but not for the control group.
Table 16: Repeated Measure ANOVA for Reading Fluency
Between Subjects
Group (G)
Error
Within Subject
SS
df
MS
F
p
ŋ
181.01
6615.73
1
59
181.01
112.13
1.61
.21
.03
Test (T)
537.46
1
537.46
55.2
.001
.48
GxT
256.15
1
256.15
26.31
.001
.31
Error
574.51
59
9.74
Table 16 shows the repeated measure ANOVA for reading fluency. The between subjects data in Table
16 shows no significant difference between the control and experimental groups, F (1, 59) = 1.61, p = .21.
But the within subjects data in Table 16 shows a significant difference between the two testing periods, F
(1, 59) = 55.2, p = .001. There is a large effect size (η =. 48).
Discussion
The research results show that the Persian Adapted Barton program improved the reading skills,
motivation toward reading, reading attitude and reading self-concept of students with dyslexia. The
students in the experimental group who received the Persian Adapted Barton Program showed better
performance in reading attitude, reading self-concept, motivation toward reading and reading skills
compared to the control group. With regard to reading skills, the students who had problems earlier could
read better now. The control group did not improve which in motivation toward reading, reading attitude,
reading self-concept and reading skills. The result revealed that the Persian Adapted Barton Program
helped the dyslexic students in their reading skills. Upon completion of the Persian Adapted Barton
Program, there were statistically significant increases in the dependent variables from pretest to posttest
for the experimental group. Scores on reading self-concept, reading attitude, motivation toward reading
and reading skills measures reflected statistically significant increase for students in the experimental
group. All interaction effects were statistically significant and Groups x Test interaction effect sizes were
254
moderate for the experimental group. Phonic had the highest effect size (.55) and self-concept had the
lowest (.15). Students in the experimental group increased their knowledge of reading skills and also
increased positive reading self-concept, reading attitude, and motivation toward reading. This study
illustrated that dyslexic students can significantly improve their reading self-concept, reading attitude,
motivation toward reading and reading skills if they participate in the intervention program. The first
research hypothesis is: There is a significant difference in overall reading self-concept between the
experimental and the control groups. The first research hypothesis is accepted at p =.001. In this study, it
is shown that the employment of the Persian Adapted Barton Program improved the reading self-concept
of the students with dyslexia in the experimental group after the intervention program. The main purpose
of this research is to investigate the reading skills of the fourth and fifth grade dyslexic students. One of
the limitations of this study is the use of only one intervention program, while other intervention programs
could also be applied to teach dyslexic students. Finally, it is concluded that the Persian Adapted Barton
Program is a suitable program for students with dyslexia in Iran. In this study, the obtained results
indicate that the Persian Adapted Barton Program is successful in improving reading skills in dyslexic
students. The main objective of this research is the provision of an educational method based on the
Persian Adapted Barton Program for the improvement of reading skills, motivation toward reading,
reading attitude, and reading self-concept in dyslexic students in Ilam, Iran. It can be concluded that the
intervention program was a suitable method for helping students with dyslexia.
References
Bordens, K. S., & Abbott, B. B. (2011). Research design and methods. A process Approach (Vol. 8). New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Chapman, W., Tunmer, E., & Prochnow, E. (2000). Study about reading skills, self-concept and progrss in
school self-concept. Journal of Educational Psychology, 92, 703-708.
Lerner, J. (2006). Learning disability and related disorder, characteristic and teaching strategy. Boston:
Houghton Mifflin
Mann, V., & Prem, S. (2001). Introductory Statistics (4 ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
McGrady, H., Learner, J., & Boscardin, M. (2001). The educational lives of students with disability.
Boston: Allyn and Bacon.
Pisecco, S., Wristers, K., Swank, P., Silva, P. A., & Baker, D. B. (2001). The effect of academic selfconcept on ADHD and antisocial behavior in students. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 34(5),
450-452.
Salonen, P., Lepola, J., & Niemi, P. (1998). The development of first grad reading skills as a function of
pre-school motivation orientation and phonemic awarencess. European Journal of Psychology of
Education, 13, 155-174.
Schmid, R., & Evans, W. (1998). Curriculum and instruction for students with emotional and behavioral
disorder. Reston, VA: Council for children with Behvioral Disorders.
Shaywitz, S. (2003). Overcoming dyslexia: A new science based program for reading problem. New York:
Alfred A Knopf.
Valas, H. (1999). Students with learning disability and less achieving student: peer acceptance,
loneliness, self-esteem and depression. Social Psychology of Education, 3, 173-192.
255
Studying the Intentional Organizational Forgetting and its Dimensions
in University of Sistan and Baluchestan
1
Mohammad Mahmoudvand Abdulwahab Pourghaz
2
1-MA of Educational Management, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
2- University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
Abstract
The present research has been conducted to study intentional organizational forgetting and its
dimensions in University of Sistan And Baluchestan. Method: the research method was surveyapplied type. Its statistical population includes all directors of educational and non-educational
departments of University of Sistan And Baluchestan which was 89 persons. Since the sampling
method was of census type, total statistical population (89 persons) was studied. Research
instrument included researcher-made questionnaire with 14 questions and 5-choice Likert scale
adapted from components of intentional organizational forgetting pattern provided by Holan,
Philips, and Lawrence(2004) . Validity of the questionnaire was of content type and its reliability
has been estimated using Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha. For statistical analysis of data,
descriptive statistics and inferential statistics including one- Sample T Test, independent t-test
and one-way ANOVA were used. Results of one- Sample T Test showed that all of the studied
directors of University of Sistan and Baluchestan have mean of intentional organizational
forgetting which is higher than medium level. It means that directors of the university have high
intentional organizational forgetting. Results of independent t-test showed that there was
significant difference between female directors and male directors in organizational forgetting. In
other words, male directors apply more intentional organizational forgetting than the female
directors. But results of independent t-test didn’t show Any significant difference between
intentional organizational forgetting and education and also results of f test didn’t show
significant difference between intentional organizational forgetting and records of directors.
Results: all of the studied directors in University of Sistan and Baluchestan have mean of
intentional organizational forgetting which is higher than medium level. It means that directors of
the university have high intentional organizational forgetting.
Keywords: organizational forgetting, Learning bleaching, bad habits avoidance
Introduction
Organizational forgetting is an important and vital phenomenon which has not been perceived
well. Organizational forgetting was first discovered in a research on forgetting in psychology and is
defined as process of giving up, substituting and decline of knowledge with emphasis on change of
knowledge (Holan and Philips, 2004: 426). Organizational forgetting has potential to add new and
important dimension to our understanding of organizational knowledge. According to Holan and Philips,
2004, organizational forgetting is ability to exclude out of date and inefficient knowledge intentionally and
is regarded as an important part of knowledge in organizations (quoted from Haji Azizi et al., 2009: 329).
Like organizational learning, organizational forgetting is not only an important form of learning but
also complements learning (Jiang and Fu, 2010:2). Different researchers and scientists have emphasized
on importance of organizational forgetting and all have mentioned that organizational forgetting is very
important vital phenomenon (Salvador, and Casanova, 1993; Bowker, 1997; Holan and Philips, 2004;
Miller, 2004; Holan et al., 2004; Zeng, and Chen, C.(2010), Casey and Olivera, 2011; Smith, and Lyles,
2011). Holan and Philips( 2004) believe that organizations not only learn but also forget(quoted from
Rabie and Moshabaki , 2009: 194). In fact , we always emphasize on learning and knowledge protection
in organization but our ability to forget is important as well (Dipper , 2005: the same source ). In other
words, organizational forgetting is as important as organizational learning. According to Holan and
Philips(2004: 1611) , forgetting is an important management concern in today’s changing world.
Types of Organizational Forgetting From The Viewpoint of Holan , Philips and Lawrence
Holan , Philips and Lawrence(2004: 49) divide organizational forgetting into two general classes ;
unintentional forgetting and intentional forgetting . Since the most important type of organizational
forgetting is its intentionality from the strategic viewpoint, intentional organizational forgetting is
considered in this research. Figure 1 clearly shows types of organizational forgetting.
Figure 1- Types of organizational forgetting from the viewpoint of Holan , Philips and Lawrence(2004)
Knowledge storage
Decay of memory
Learning bleaching
Knowledge source
Inability to understand
Bad habits avoidance
Newly innovated
Intentional
Types of forgetting
Unintentional
Research questions
What situations do directors of University of Sistan and Baluchestan have in organizational
forgetting? Is there difference in organizational forgetting in terms of demographic characteristics of
people (gender , education , management record )?
Research method
Decision about the research method depends on the goals of the research and nature of the
studied problem. Considering the research question, the present study is a survey research and can be
regarded as the applied research in terms of goal. In this research, statistical population includes all the
educational and non-educational directors (deans of faculties and educational vice-chancellors) of
University of Sistan And Baluchestan which is totally 89 persons. Sampling method in this research was
census method. To determine the sample size, the sample size was determined 73 persons for
population of 89 persons. The sample size is close to the population size. Therefore, total statistical
population was studied but some of the uncompleted questionnaires (4 copies) were put aside.
Information was analyzed based on 85 questionnaires relating to 73 male directors and 12 female
directors.
In this research, organizational forgetting questionnaire which included 14 questions and
components of intentional organizational forgetting pattern presented by Holan, Philips and Lawrence
(2004)were used . This questionnaire with 14 questions has Likert 5-choice scale (from I fully agree to I
fully disagree). To determine validity of the questionnaire, content validity method was used in the present
research. To calculate and determine reliability of this questionnaire, Cronbach's Coefficient Alpha was
257
used. Its reliability was 0.86. It is necessary to note that data analysis has been done with spss software ,
version 17.
Research findings
Table 1- Results of one- Sample T Test relating to Intentional Organizational Forgetting and its
Dimensions
sig
df
t
0.00
84
9.92
0.00
0.00
84
84
9.91
8.75
TESTVALUE
Standard
Deviation
42
8.79
21
4.52
21
4.84
MEAN
Variables
51.47
Organizational
Forgetting
25.87
Learning
bleaching
25.60
Bad habits
avoidance
Results of the above lower case Table indicate that mean of the organizational forgetting of the
studied sample is equal to 51.47 which is larger than mean of test (42). This difference is significant with
t=9.92 and df=84 and sig=0.00 in level of 99%. Therefore, it can be said that directors of University of
Sistan And Baluchestan have mean of intentional organizational forgetting which is higher than medium
level. Mean of Learning bleaching as one of the dimensions of intentional forgetting is equal to 25.87
which is larger than mean of test (21) and this difference is significant with t=9.91 and df=84 and sig=0.00
in level of 99%. it can be said that directors of University of Sistan And Baluchestan have mean of
Learning bleaching above medium level when applying intentional organizational forgetting and also
mean of bad habits avoidance as another dimension of intentional forgetting is equal to 25.60 which is
larger than mean of the test (21) and this difference is significant with t=8.75 and df=84 and sig=0.00 in
level of 99%. It can be said that directors of University of Sistan and Baluchestan have mean of bad
habits avoidance above medium level when applying intentional organizational forgetting.
Table 2- Results of t-test relating to organizational forgetting in terms of directors’ gender
Significance
level
Degree of
freedom
0.00
83
t
2.78
Standard
Deviation
9.05
Mean
Number
Gender
Variables
45.16
12
Female
52.50
73
Male
Organizational
forgetting
8.37
Table 3- Results of t-test relating to organizational forgetting in terms of directors’ education
Significance
level
Degree of
freedom
0.99
83
t
0.007
Standard
Deviation
8.38
8.86
258
Mean
Number
Education
Variables
51.50
4
51.46
81
Bachelor’s
degree
Organizational
forgetting
Master’s
degree
above
Table 4- Results of one-way ANOVA relating to organizational forgetting in terms of directors’ record
SIG
F
0.70
0.46
Mean
Squares
Sum Of
Squares
36.47
109.43
78.91
6391.74
DF
Intergroup
Variable
3
Intragroup
Organizational
forgetting
81
Discussion and Conclusion
Main goal of the present research is to study intentional organizational forgetting and its
dimensions among directors of University of Sistan And Baluchestan. Results of this study using oneSample T Test showed that all studied directors of University of Sistan And Baluchestan have mean of
intentional organizational forgetting and its dimensions which is higher than medium level (Learning
bleaching and bad habits avoidance). It means that directors of the university have high intentional
organizational forgetting. Findings of this research are in line with results of research by Smith, E.M and
Lyles,(2011), Miller (2004), Zeng, and Chen(2010) , Holan and Philips(2004) , Agon et al.(2007) and
Philips et al. (2004).
Results of independent t-test showed that there was significant difference between female and
male directors in intentional organizational forgetting. In other words, male directors apply more
intentional organizational forgetting than female directors but results of independent t-test didn’t show
significant difference in intentional organizational forgetting in terms of education and also results of f test
didn’t show significant difference between intentional organizational forgetting and record of directors.
References
Bowker C,1997. Lest we remember: organizational forgetting and the production of knowledge. Accting
and MGMT and info Tech; 3; 113- 138
Casey J, Olivera f, 2011. Reflections on organizational memory and forgetting. Journal of management
inquiry; 1; 1- 6
Holan P, Philips N, 2004. Organizational forgetting as strateg. Sage publications; 2; 423-433
Holan P, Philips N, 2004. Remembrance of things past? The dynamics of organizational forgetting.
Management science; 50; 1603- 1613
Holan P, Philips N, Lawrence T, 2004. Managing organizational forgetting. Mit sloan management review;
45; 45-51
HajiAzizi N, Esmati M , Moradi S, 2009. Organizational forgetting: New Approach in Knowledge
Management. Journal of Information Sciences and Technology; 60; 317-330
259
Jiang Y, Fu q, 2010. Management of organizational forgetting in constraction of organizational absorptive
capacity. E-product E-service and E-Entertainment; 3; 1-6
Miller G, 2004. Learning to forget and forgetting to learn. Development and in organizations;18; 26- 29
Smith E, Lyles M, 2011. In praise of organizational forgetting. Journal of management inquiry; 1; 1-6
Salvador C, Casanova G, 1993. Organizational forgetting and information systems Scand. J MGMT; 9;
29-44
Zeng J, Chen C, 2010. The relationship between intentional organizational forgetting and organizational
innovation: the mediating effect of organizational learning capability. Advanced management
science;7; 47-53
260
Male and female students’ religiosity and its relationship with anger
management
Seyed Reza Balaghat1, Mohammad Mahmoudvand2
1- University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
2-MA of Educational Management, University of Sistan and Baluchestan, Zahedan, Iran
Abstract
During the preceding decades, spiritual and religious issues have generated intense and
considerable controversy, specifically in educational and psychological realms. The
present research aimed to investigate male and female students’ religiosity and its
relationship with anger management. Hence, the research employed a descriptivecorrelational method. The statistical population included all the second-grade, junior
high school students of the first borough in Zahendan, out of which sample of 354 was
selected. The research tools included a 90-item religiosity assessment questionnaire
designed and developed by Azarbaijani (2006) and an 8-items questionnaire of anger
management by Hajati et al (200). The questionnaires’ content validity of and reliability
were assessed using Cronbach alpha. One group t-test, Pearson correlation coefficient,
enter regression test and t-test were used to analyze the data. Results of Pearson
regression analysis indicated that, there exists significant relationship between
religiosity and students’ anger management (r=.29). Independent-t test indicated no
significant difference of anger management among male and female students.
Furthermore, results of regression analysis indicated that religiosity can predict 0.08 of
the anger management among the students. Overall, religiosity and anger management
are of crucial importance in students.
Keywords: anger management, religiosity
Introduction
Aggressive behaviors and belligerent manner has always been prevalent in human societies. A
quick glance at the demonstrated statistics of articles and other scientific resources demonstrate that
murder and committing suicide is quite rife and pervasive (Ross, 1997). From childhood to adulthood, the
most observed quantity of aggressive behaviors is seen during the adolescence (Walker and Roberts,
2001). Being confronted with various psychological and social problems is due to the lack of the ability to
manage aggression, emotions and aggressive behaviors in this period.
Lack of emotional control and disruptive behavior inhibition of some students have resulted in
violation of the customs and ethics of society. These violent behaviors may lead to others’ harassment
causing parents’ and school officials’ conflict with them and getting expelled from school. Aggressive
behaviors are some of the observed issues in students and adolescents which will ultimately result in
irreparable personal and social damages. Therefore, it can be stated that, uninhibited aggression
endangers individuals’ adjustment and health. Based on the aforementioned reasons, taking into account
the factors which can prevent the occurrence of such issues in adolescents and assist them in this realm
is of crucial importance.
In the preceding decades, theological, spiritual and religious issues have received close and
serious attention. Experts, particularly in psychology emphasize on the miraculous role of religion and
spiritual values in responding to the developmental needs of human and treatment of psychological and
mental disorders and strains. With regard to what was mentioned and the importance of the subject, the
present research aims to investigate male and female students’ religiosity and its relationship with anger
management. The research attempts to provide an answer to this question, whether or not there is
significant relationship between students’ religiosity and their aggression.
Apparently, carrying out this kind of research leads us in perceiving the importance of religiosity
in anger control and inhibition. Additionally, the results derived from this research can be applied as an
applied and practical factor in solving the existing problems among the students of the country. Religion
exists in its particular form in each culture (Wulff, 1997). Religion is a unifying principle that allows
humans to overcome their selfish desires (Rad and Moniri, 2009). According to Davis (1964) religion is a
moral force that compels the individuals to behave in accordance with social values. On this basis,
religiosity is to accept fully or relatively, the beliefs, ethics and religious practices in a way that the
religious person knows himself/herself as to be expected to comply with and abide by that (Heshmat
Yaghmayi, 2001).
A religious person is somehow related to a source that impacts on human life and the natural
affaires. Najafi (2003) contends that religiosity and spirituality strongly influence identity formation of
adolescents and contributes to the integrity of their character. Aggression is one the other variable that
has been addressed in this study. Aggression stands amongst the most important family problems in the
past century which has created many problems for the adolescents and their families (Lisa, 2003) and is
a negative phenomenological state that comes with inner emotions, physiological and cognitive deficits.
Taylor, Novaco& Gillmer (2002) define aggression as both a gratifying and destructive emotion.
From O'Neill's viewpoint (2006), anger is an emotional state or internal feeling evoked by of
physiological arousal, cognition and malice-related thoughts. Anger is considered as a response to
mental stress. People who have difficulty dealing with anger management do not have the required
psychological resources for coping with stress. They must learn how to effectively cope with stress and to
manage it (Finch, 1994).
Anger management is related to the decrease of aggression levels and increase of social and
emotional adequacy and competence (Hendern, 1998). In general, the adverse effects of aggression
influence the individual both internally and externally. Inability to control anger not only brings about
personal distress, impaired general health and interpersonal relationships but also has detrimental
impacts of aggressive conflicts and behavior. Research shows that adolescents can learn to manage and
control emotions such as anger (Nicholson, 2003).
Research conducted in this area also shows the importance of religion and spiritual matters in
controlling anger and aggression. Pour Gholami et al (2011) in their study titled relationship between
religion and students’ anger management stated the importance of religion in people's lives and
concluded that there exists significant and positive relationship between religiosity and controlling anger.
Watson (1995) stated the importance of spirituality in his research and investigated the relationship
between internal control and religion. He concluded that there is significant relationship between internal
control and religiosity (Hashemian et al, 2008). He also investigated the effectiveness of anger
management skills in personal and social adjustment of students and asserts that anger management
training has increased individual and social performance of students. Mirkouhi and Khormayi (2004)
assessed the relationship between students’ mental health with emphasis on the effectiveness of
religiosity on the adolescents’ health. He concluded that religiosity is an important contributing factor in
determining general health. Benson (1973) points out that there is significant relationship between
religiosity and locus of control.
Mohammadi and Honarmand (2006) carried out a study titled the relationship between religious
attitude and locus of control that, and assert that there is significant and positive relationship between
religious attitudes and internal locus of control among female individuals. Maleki et al (2011) in their
262
research titled the effectiveness of anger management in students’ aggression concluded that group
anger management training is effective in students’ aggressive behaviors. Asgari et al (2009) investigated
the religious faith and beliefs and its impact on students’ mental health and assert that religious faith and
beliefs can significantly improve the students’ mental health.
The research questions were as following:
1- What is the state of students in terms of religiosity?
2- Is there any significant relationship between students’ anger management and religiosity?
3- Is there any significant difference between male and female students’ anger control?
4- What is the extent to which religiosity can predict students’ anger control?
The research attempts to investigate the relationship between religiosity and students’ anger
control through describing, recording, analyzing and interpreting the existing situation (Best, 1990).
Therefore, we employed a descriptive-correlational method. The statistical population included all the
second-grade students of the first borough in Zahendan (N=4383), out of which sample of 354 was
selected. From among the collected questionnaires, 31 copies were eliminated due to incompletion. The
data analysis was based on 323 copies which were gathered from 242 male students and 81 female
students.
The research tools included a 90-item religiosity assessment questionnaire designed and
developed by Azarbaijani (2006). It’s scored on 5-point Likert scale from too little to too much.
The other data gathering tool was the 8-items questionnaire of anger management by Hajati et al
(200). The content validity was used to assess the validity of the data. Therefore, some of the experts and
specialist were asked to give their opinions on the research questionnaires. The reliability of religiosity
questionnaire and anger management questionnaire were equal to .78 and .86, respectively. The results
were analyzed using SPSS19. One group t-test, Pearson correlation coefficient, enter regression test and
t-test were used to analyze the data.
The research first question: What is the state of students in terms of religiosity?
Table 1- Results of t-test in terms of students’ religiosity
Variable
Mean
SD
Test-Value
T
Df
Sig
Religiosity
288.57
42.70
225
26.75
322
0.00
Results of table 1 indicated that the mean of religiosity in the research sample was equal to 2888.57
which is lower than the test value and this difference is significant at 99% with t=26.75, df=322 and
significance level of 0.00. Therefore, it can be concluded that the religiosity level of second-grade junior
high school students of the first borough of Zahedan city is above average. Therefore, the students have
high religiosity level.
The research second question: Is there any significant relationship between students’ anger management
and religiosity?
263
Table 2- Pearson correlation coefficient between religiosity and students’ anger management
Variables
Number
R
Level of sig.
Religiosity
323
.29
0.00
Anger management
323
Table 2 indicates that correlation coefficient of religiosity and anger management is equal to r=.29
which is significant at 99%. That is to say that, there is significant, positive relationship between the
second-grade junior high school students and their religiosity.
Research fourth question: Is there any significant difference between male and female students’
anger control?
Table 3- independent t-test in terms of anger management based on students’’ gender
Variable
anger management
Gender
Female
Male
Number
81
242
Mean
29.06
28.20
SD
11.74
11.98
T
-.57
Df
321
Level Of Sig.
.56
In terms of students’ anger management and as it can be observed in table 3, the mean and
standard deviation of female students equal 29.06 and 11.74, respectively. Moreover, the mean and
standard deviation of male students are equal to 28.20 and 11.98, respectively. However, this difference
is not significant with t to be equal to -.57, and degree of freedom of 321 at 95%. Therefore, it can be
inferred that, there exists no significant difference between male and female junior high school students in
terms of anger management.
Research fourth question: What is the extent to which religiosity can predict students’ anger control
Table 4- regression of religiosity and anger management
Variable
Religiosity
R
.29
R2
.08
F
30.03
standard B
.29
T
1.12
Level of sig.
0.00
Durbin-Watson
1.90
Results of table 4, indicates that religiosity can predict the variable of anger management. The
determination coefficient is equal to .08 between the criterion and predictor variables which demonstrates
that .08 percent of anger management (criterion variable) can be explained through religiosity. The
relationship between religiosity and students’ relationship is significant at .99 with estimated Beta of .29.
One of the most widespread issues among adolescent individuals is lack of anger management
and exhibiting aggressive behaviors which have given rise to a multitude of social and educational
problems and have endangered adolescents’ physical and mental health. Aggression is the predictor of
substance abuse, alcohol assumption, low adjustment at school, academic failure, depression and other
disorders among the students.
Evidently, there is crucial necessity for a factor such as religion with attitude toward the
miraculous role of mysticism and spiritual values in responding to human’s developmental needs and
264
treatment of physical and mental disorders and strains. On this basis, the research purpose was to
investigate the level of religiosity and its relationship with second-grade, junior-high school students’
anger management. Results of t-test indicated that second-grade, junior high school students of Zahedan
City rate high on religiosity. This result was in line with the research results carried out by Asgari et al
(2009). Moreover, the results of Pearson correlation coefficient indicated the significant and positive
relationship between religiosity and students’ anger management. Results of this study are congruent
with studies carried out by Pour Gholami et al (2011), Watson (1995), Mir Kouhi and Khormayi (2004) and
Mohammadi and Honarmand (2006).
However results do not support the results of Benson’s study (1973). T-test indicated no
significant difference in terms of anger management among male and female individuals. This finding is
not in line with the study done by Gholami et al (2011). Moreover, regression analysis indicated that
religiosity can predict the variable of anger management. The determination coefficient of 0.08 between
the two variables indicates that .08 percent of anger management (criterion variable) can be explained
through religiosity. The relationship between religiosity and students’ relationship is significant at .99 with
estimated Beta of .29. This finding is consistent with a study done by Mir Kouhi and Khormayi (2004).
As a result of this study, it is hoped that this will spur future research to focus more the
career path. It’s also recommended that counselors, psychologist and students carry out
studies in spirituality and religiosity which are very important concepts. Moreover, it’s hoped
that, the accurate and practical methods (formal an informal) of enhancing the religiosity and
spirituality are implemented in academic counseling centers. It’s also suggested that, school
authorities conduct anger management skills training to prevent the occurrence of aggressive
behaviors which give rise to physical, psychological and social devastation.
References
Asgari P, Sigaroudi E, Heidari A, Yousefian F, Marashiyan F, 2009. Effect of teaching scientific life of the
Prophet on religious thought, religious beliefs and mental health of female high school students
in Ahwaz, knowledge and Research in Applied Psychology. 40: 14-25.
Azhdari Fard P S, Ghazi Gh, Nourani Pour 2010. Relationship between the effect of mysticism and
spirituality training on students’ mental health. New Journal of Science Education. 5(2): 106126.
Benson, P. (1973). God image as a function of self-steem and locus of control. Journal for the
Scientific Study of Religion.Vol.12, pp,297-310.
Davis K, 1964. Human society, New York: Macmillan.
Finch M, 1994. Cognitive- Behavior procedures with children and adolescents
Hashemian F, Shafi Abadi A, Soudani M 2008. Effectiveness of anger management skills training in the
social and individual adjustment of students studying in the first grade of high schools located in
Mahshahr Province. Journal of Knowledge and Research in Psychology. Islamic Azad
University. Khorasegan Branch (Isfahan). 35: 1-14
Hendern R, 1998. Impulse Control disorders in adolescents. American review.
Heshmat Yaghmayi M T, 2001. Factors affecting adolescents’ religiosity. MA thesis. Tehran Allameh
Tabatabai University.
Lisa R, 2003. Anger in adolescents, Nursing Research. 2(1): 2-11.
Maleki S, Fallahi Khoshknab M, Rahgui A, Rahgozar M, 2011. Effectiveness of group anger management
skills training in male student aged 12 to 15 years old. Journal of Nursing and Midwifery, Tehran
University of Medical Sciences. 24(69): 35-26.
Mir Kouhi M, Khormayi E, 2004. Relationship between religiosity and mental health in adolescents.
Journal of Behavioral Sciences. 3(3): 116-131.
Mohammadi S D, Honarmand M, 2006. Relationship between locus of control, gender and religious
attitude. 9(3, 4):47-64.
Nicholson S, 2003. Anger management revolution studies distribution, company inc.
O’Neill H, 2006. Managing anger (2nd. Ed.), John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
Pour Gholami F, Farashbandi R, Zarei H, Fatehi Y 2011. Relationship between religiosity and agressio
control among the pre-university students of Farashband Province (Fars). Proceedings of
National Conference on Youth Pathology. 12-1.
Rad F, Moniri R, 2009. Comparative study of psychological and social factors associated with the level of
student religiosity. Sociology. 1(2): 31-51.
Ross A, 1997. Personality psychology theories and processes. Tehran: Ravan.
265
Taylor G J, Novaco R W, Gillmer B 2002. Cognitive behavioral treatment of anger intensity among
offenders with intellectual disabilities, Journal of Applied Research in Intellectual Disabilities.
15(1): 151-165.
Walker C D, Roberts M C, 2001. Handbook of clinical child psychology, 3rd ed. London: Wiley, pp: 393.
Watson P J, Milliron J T, Morris R J, Hood R, 1995. Locus of control within a religious ideological
surrounding. Journal of Psychology and Christianity.14: 234-239.
Wulff D M, 1997. Psychology of Religion: Classic and Contemporary Views. New York: John Wiley.
266
The relationship between demographic factors and behavioral
disorders of students in the primary schools of Rasht
BahmanAkbari*1, Zahra Pasandideh2, Mahnaz Ghiasi3
1. AssistantProfessor, University of Islamic Azad, Rasht Branch, Rasht, Iran
2. MA. Student of Psychology, Islamic Azad University- GilanScience and Research Branch, Rasht,
Iran
3. PhD student of Psychology, Department of Psychology, University of Alzahra, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Students’behavioral disorder exerts negative effect on person’s life in the long-term and
it disrupts education process.The purpose of this research was to study the relationship
between demographic factors and behavioral disorders ofstudents in the primary
schools of Rasht. 750 students (375 girls and 375 boys) were selected by multi-stage
cluster sampling and evaluated by Rutter Behavioral Disorders Questionnaire- Teachers
Specific Form.The data were analyzed using MANOVA and multi-regression. There was a
significant difference between behavioral disorders in two groups of boys and girls.
Social class and income had meaningful effect on behavioral disorders. Also subscales
of hyperactivity, anxiety-depression and conduct-antisocial behavior, significantly, were
the best predictors of behavioral disorders. In conclusion, the factors of hyperactivity,
anxiety-depression, conduct-antisocial behavior, social class and income have
significant role on behavioral disorders in students.
Keywords:Behavioral disorders, Academic Achievement, demographic Factors, primary school
students
Introduction
Children with behavioral disorders constitute a part of the community and increase the
prevalence of some disorders in the community; it seems that the root of most behavioral disorders refers
to the combination of genetic, biological and psycho-social factors.There is a variety of evidence which
suggests that, biological factors and childhood’s psycho - social negative experiences are effective in the
process of behavioral disorders in children. The negative experiences could be acquired at home, school,
or community. Children, who are biologically more vulnerable, would be more vulnerable if placed in an
unsuitable environment (Rutter, 1999).
Children with behavioral disorders cannot do their homework at a level that satisfies their parent.
They suffer from the educational problems related to the levels of advancement and specific skills,
particularly reading.Such children are often uninterested in school, have no desire for continuing
education and are careless about their future job. As compared with their identical peers in terms of age,
social - economic status and demographic variables, they experience the dropout earlier and in adulthood
they have high tendency to have aggressive behaviors. Therefore, by early identification of the problem of
such children, such behaviors can be prevented from continuing (Gondwin, Pacey, Grace, 2007).
According to the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders,the prevalence of
psychiatric disorders such as conduct disorder have increased in recent decadesIV-TR), and is more
common in urban areas than rural areas. Conduct disorder vary widely in terms of diagnostic methods
and population. And in the total population it is estimated at 1 to 10 percent (Kaplan andSadock, 2007;
Rezaei translation, 2009).Mehryar and Yousefi’s research (1991) on children referred to clinics in Shiraz
city showed that middle class families in Iran are more stressed and are seeking professional help to treat
behavioral problems in their children. Dezhgam’s study (1992), as quoted by Shams Esfand, 2001) in the
city of Qom demonstrated that the prevalence of behavioral problems is 13 percent among fourth grade
students and 10.5 per cent among the fifth graders. The study of Ahmadi (1994) on students showed that
collaborative problem was quite prevalent and more than 2.3 percent of the referred students had
delinquency such as vagrancy, aggression, stealing, running away from school and were restless.
Research ofMirzai (2000) on 6 to 12-year-old elementary school students in Qazvin showed that
the overall prevalence of behavioral disorders in Qazvin is 4.5 percent. The frequency of these disorders
in female individuals is 2.53% and 5.85% in male individuals. These figures show that behavioral
disorders in boys aretwice more in contrast to girls. Very and Govey(1971; cited in Sakai and Vamasaki,
2004) in a study concluded that, the mean scores of behavioral problems among the non-clinical
populations, for a sample of 926 males was 11.4% percent and 7.6 percent for a sample of 827 girls.In
Rajabi’s study,(1990), cited inMirzaei, (2000) regarding the prevalence of different kinds ofbehavioral
disorder injunior high school of Qazvin, behavioral disturbances in eight categories were as follows:
affection 9.8 percent, obsession 8.3% percent, isolation 4% percent, paranoid 4.2% percent, depression
4.2 percent, aggression 1.4 percent, restlessness 2.2 percent and anti-social tendencies 6.9 percent.
Nekapota (1991, cited in Barrett, 2001) showed that children with behavioral disorders in countries like
Ethiopia, Sudan and India ranged between 3 to 11 percent and this figure is more among boys than
girls.In the study of Gadite (2001), the amount of mental and behavioral disorders in children was 4.29
percent.
In the study byBarlow (1995; cited inSeifNaraghi and Nadery 1995), from the teachers' point of
view, the percentage of students with behavioral disorders in schools was significantly higher than 2 to 3
percent, which was accepted as the official figures by the educational system in America.Veyalba’s study
(2001, cited inSimic and Fambone, 2001) showed that, the behavior of mothers with eight-year-old
children with behavioral problems are more negative, more conservative and less patient as compared to
the mothers of normal children. However, these childrenwere more negative and aggressive as compared
to their mothers These findings support the relationship between the aggressive behaviors of children
with their mother’s conservative behavior. Such mother’s behaviors can exacerbate behavioral problems
in their children. Lahay et al (1999, 2001, cited inSimic and Fambone, 2001) have shown that children in
younger ages who suffer from this disorder show more behavioral problems as compared with children
who are suffer from this disorder in older ages, particularly physical aggression, vandalism, repeated
lying.
268
In a longitudinal study of Lambert (2001), 5- to 7-year-old children with behavioral disorder
showed to have the highest scores on issues such as internalizing problems, depression and isolation.
Massara (2001, cited in Sham Esfand, 2001) in examining the causes of behavioral disorders came to the
conclusion that factors such as lower economic – social class, taking risks, reduction in educational
attainment, poor parenting relationship, lack of class consciousness, the large number of children, family
stresses and disintegration of family can be good predictors of behavior disorders.
Simic and Fambone (2001) in their study stated that depressed people who also suffere from
behavioral disorders, have less level of aggression and violence as compared to those who only had a
behavioral disorder. And it has been reported that, they are less abused. Barkely and Edwards (2003)
showed that, the effects of educational failure on anti-social behavior are mutual and reciprocal and would
rapidly increase. Also, children with developmental language impairment may have problem in necessary
phonological processes required for the skill of reading and in constant communication with family, peers
and in many of the behavioral patterns.
Moreover, evidence suggests that early educational failure worsens the previous behavioral
tendencies outflow. Biederman, Mick, Farane and Barickhave reported that the age at which rates of
depression among adolescent girls increase is different. Mayers,Ostevart and Borun(1998; as quoted by
Barclay and Edwards, 2003) found that low socioeconomic status and parental educational level are
associated with the prevalence and higher risk of anxiety disorders in childhood. Evidence relating to the
different status indicates that the location of the facility should be obtained from various sources. Barkely
and Edwards (2003) found that the prevalence of hyperactivity is different in a large sample of Canadians
regarding the performance of children, gender, chronic health problems in family functions, lower
socioeconomic status of family, developmental disorders, and urban life. Lambert (2001; cited in Kazdin,
2007), found that when parents, teachers and clinicians have complete agreement in the diagnosis, there
is little difference in the prevalence of hyperactivity; However, when only two sources are in agreement
with each other, the differences in the prevalence of disorder are obtainedin low social class.
In general, attention deficit- hyperactivity disorder, lower social classes are seen more than the
upper classes. Most children with this disorder have problems with school performance and obtain lower
scores on tests of educational achievement. However, the differences are observed in preschool children
with hyperactivity - attention deficit disorder. Several studies have reported a higher incidence of anxiety
disorders in girls. In a study, 44.30% of the sample were girls with social phobia. (Lasst, 1992; Biddle and
Turner, 1995; cited in Lang, Davis and Avhman, 2000).Halgin and whitboume studies (2003, translated by
Seyed Mohammad, 2007) showed that most of the family environments of children with attention deficit
hyperactivity disorder were disturbed.
Given that behavioral disorders show remarkable stability over time and during a long time
adversely affects the lives of both suffering individuals and other individuals, understanding the amount of
the prevalence and factors affecting it among the elementary studentsis necessary for the prevention and
treatment of these disorders. Therefore, the present study aimed to determine the relationship between
factors such as educational attainment, social class, gender and behavioral disorders among elementary
school children in Rasht.
269
The present research was of causal–comparative type, and the statistical population included all
the students of elementary schools in Rasht, studying in academic year of 2007-2008, being a number of
43237 students. The research sample consisted of a number of 750 students (375 girls and 375 boys); In
other words, the students in the research sample were equally selected from the first to the fifth grade,
each of which a number of 150 students.
The research sample was selected by the use of the multi-stage cluster sampling method, in such
a way that at first, the city of Rasht was accidentally divided into some districts, and then one of these
areas was selected. Next, a list of all the male elementary schools (a single-sex school, only for boys)
and the girl elementary schools (a single-sex school, only for girls) was provided, among which, a number
of 8 elementary schools (4 boy schools and 4 girl schools) were chosen. Finally, the sample group
subjects were accidentally selected from among the students at these schools.
Rutter’s Behavioral Disorders Questionnaire- a form, Specified for The Teachers: In this study,
Rutter’s Behavioral Disorders Questionnaire- A form, specified for the teachers was used, by which the
students’ behaviors in the class are measured by the teachers. It includes 30 questions that a number of
24 questions have been directly derived from Rutter’s Questionnaire, and the other 6 questions have
been added to it based on the Iranian culture. This questionnaire measures the students’ behaviors
based on DSM-IV in dimensions of Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder, anxiety-depression, antisocial behavior– behavioral disorders andmaladjusted behaviors. The validity of the 6 added questions
were confirmed by the specialists. YusofiandMahriar (1991) reported the correlation coefficient of this
questionnaire by Gestal- Bender test as 0.96. By use of re-test and split-half methods, Adl (1993, cited in
Shams Esfand, 2002) reported the correlation coefficient of this questionnaire as.68 and.85, respectively.
To analyze the data, the statistical-descriptive method, Multi-Variate Variance Analysis and MultiVariate Regression-with the help of SPSS 15 software- was used.
Table 1- mean (M)andstandard deviation (SD) of behavioral disorders, based on gender
gender
girls
boys
total
Statistical
characteristic
M
SD
M
SD
M
SD
Anti-social behaviorbehavioral disorder
2.59
2.70
4.74
3.5
3.6
3.3
Hyperactivityattention deficit
4.19
3.25
6.4
3.22
5.21
3.41
Anxietydepression
3.11
3.03
4.35
3.58
3.7
3.35
Maladjustive
behavior
3.48
2.79
5.41
3.01
4.38
3.05
As observed in Table 1, the highest mean among the male students was related to anxietydepression and the highest mean among the female students was related to attention-deficit hyperactivity
disorder.
Table2- Analysis of the differences of behavioral disorders, based on gender
Variables
Anti-social behavior-behavioral
disorder
Hyperactivity-attention deficit
270
Sum of
squares
df
Mean of
squares
F
855
1
855
89/15
888
1
888
85.11
Sig.
000*.
000*.
Anxiety-depression
maladjustive behavior
p<.05*
283
693
1
1
283
693
26.11
82.88
000*.
000*.
Considering the results of Table 2, it is observed that there is a significant relationship between
anti-social behavioral disorders- behavioral disorders, hyperactivity-attention deficit, anxiety-depression
andmaladjusted behaviors among both boy and girl groups (p<.05).
Table3-Mean and standard deviation of behavioral disorders, based on social class
Social class
Low Social class
Average Social
class
High Social
class
unanswered
total
271
Anti-social
behavior-behavioral
disorder
Anxietydepression
Maladjusted
behavior
M
5.306
6.753
5.3
5.8
N
150
150
150
150
SD
3.481
3.047
3.628
2.88
M
3.161
4.74
3.18
3.93
N
322
322
321
322
SD
2.98
3.54
3.07
3.2
M
2.07
3.92
2.38
3.47
N
57
57
57
57
SD
2.62
3.27
3.457
3.077
M
3.45
5.194
3.68
4.307
N
221
221
221
221
SD
3.267
3.159
3.153
2.89
M
3.59
4.217
3.69
4.381
N
750
750
748
750
SD
3.27
3.41
3.35
3.040
Statistical
characteristic
Considering the results of Table 3, it becomes clear that the score mean related to the behavioral
disorders in low social classes is higher than that of the behavioral disorders in other social classes.
Table 4- Analysis of difference between the prevalence of behavioral disorders among the
students, based on social class
Dependent variables
Sum of
squares
633.65
F
Sig.
3
Mean of
squares
211.22
21.28
.000*
df
515.338
3
171.77
15.66
.000*
Anxiety-depression
Maladjustive behavior
p<.05*
567.97
41.94
3
3
189.32
136.98
17.99
15.61
.000*
.000*
Based on the results of Table 4, it is observed that the influence of social class has been
significant on the prevalence of the behavioral disorders among the students. With regard to the value of
F, the intensity of influence, from right to left, is as follows: maladjusted behavior, hyperactivity-attention
deficit, anxiety-depression, anti-social behavior- behavioral disorder.
Table 5- Mean andstandard deviation of prevalence of behavioral disorders among students, based on
level of income
Maladjusted
behavior
5.4819
Anxietydepression
5.8313
6.4940
5.3614
83
83
83
83
Number of Standard
deviation
5.24737
4.06598
3.43360
4.23855
Average Income level
4.2807
3.5273
8.447
3.2543
367
366
367
367
Number of Standard
deviation
3.09507
3.0588
3.48304
3.01700
High Income level
3.6271
2.8136
4
2.5593
59
59
59
59
Number of Standard
deviation
3.0955
3.4764
3.2642
2.787
unanswered
4.3402
3.4292
5.6432
3.7593
Income level
Low Income level
mean
mean
mean
272
mean
2.241816
240
241
241
Number of Standard
deviation
3.87056
3.2165
3.1539
3.164
total
4.3813
3.6952
5.2173
3.5047
750
748
750
750
3.0503
3.35266
3.41394
3.2744
mean
Number of Standard
deviation
On the basis of the findings in Table 5, the highest score mean, related to prevalence of
behavioral disorders is generally observed in the group with a low income.
Table 6- analysis of difference between prevalence of behavioral disorder, based on income level
Dependent variables
Anti-social behavior-behavioral
disorder
Anxiety-depression
Maladjusted behavior
p<.05*
Sum of
squares
369.5
318.3
451.9
137.1
F
Sig.
3
Mean of
squares
123.16
11.982
.000*
3
3
3
106.1
15.63
45.7
9.446
14.106
4.99
.000*
.000*
.000*
df
With regard to the results of Table 6, it is observed that the level of income significantly influences
the prevalence of behavioral disorders. The effect intensity, based on each disorder, is as follow,
respectively: maladjusted behavior, hyperactivity-attention deficit, anti-social behavior- behavioral
disorder, and anxiety-depression.
Table 7- Regression analysis for predicting academic achievement, based on behavioral disorders
Predictor variables
Anti-social behavior-behavioral disorder
Anxiety-depression
Maladjusted behavior
p<.05*
Beta
-.282
-.046
-.210
.110
T
-4.273
-.709
-4.036
1.385
Sig.
.000*
.000*
.000*
.16
Based on Table 7, the elements of anti-social behavior- behavioral disorder, hyperactivityattention deficit and anxiety-depression can predict the academic achievement as 28%, 4% and 21%
variances, respectively. Among these variables, anti-social behavior- behavioral disorder was of the
highest effect.
273
Table 8- Regression model between behavioral disorders and academic achievement
Correlation Coefficient
.461
Justification Index
.212
Standard Error
.203
Estimated Error
2.32306
Table 8 shows that the correlation coefficient is as r=.46 in the model and that one unit of change
in predictor variables only justify.21 unit of variation in the academic achievement.
As it was mentioned before,the aimof thepresent study wasto determinethe relationship
betweenfactors such asacademic achievement, socialclass, income level, gender,parental education with
behavioraldisordersamongschools’ elementary studentsin Rasht.
The result of the analysis of the relationship between demographic factors and behavioral
disorders suggeststhatthere is arelationshipbetweengender andbehavioraldisorders. Andmore boys
thangirlsare affected bybehavioraldisorders. Greatest difference was in behavioral disorder.
Consideringthefact that thedisorderaffects boysmorethangirls or is with a ratioof threeto oneortwo-to-one,
thishypothesisisconsistentwith previous findings. Inmany cases,ADHD disorder symptoms are
associatedwith behavioralsymptomssuch asbehavioral disorder, hysteria, and alcoholism, andalsoexplain
gender differencein other variables (anxiety, discordand behavioral disorder). Thesefindings are
consistent with finding ofKalin’sandMonaza (1991), Varyey and Godey (cited inMirzaei, 2000).
Also, thestudyshowed thatthere is arelationship between students’ social class and
behavioraldisorders and thelowerclasshas ameaningfulimpacton creatingbehavioraldisorders in students.
Theresult is consistent with thestudy of Masara(2001) that has considered socialclassasone of
thepredictorsofbehavior disordersin children. However, these findings are inconsistentwith the study
ofMehryarandYousefi(1991) andKoler(1995; cited inShams Esfand, 2001). However, this findingwas
obtained that, there is significant difference betweenbehavioraldisordersbased onparentalincome.
Thesefindings are consistent with the results of the research by Kalantari(1993) andMasara(2001) but are
inconsistentwiththe study ofMehryarandYousefi(1991).
Considering this general principleis essential that child'sbehavioral problems are a
resultofinteractionwithhissurroundingsand thatthe family as the main socialinstitution by which the child
has the most interactionwith. And anydefects ormalfunctionsresulting from anormalfamily would reflect
through behavioral symptomsrelatedtothoughts, actions, emotionsandeducational performance. An
overview of thefactors contributing to theemergence ofbehavioral disorders in childrenshowed that factors
such as lowsocio – economic,low educational achievement, poorrelationof parent- child, poor verbal
intelligence,a large numberof children, Familystress, collapseof the family,parents' educationallevelare
factors thatcan begoodpredictors ofbehavioraldisorders(cited inShams Esfand, 2001).
In addition, this studyfound that, the four examinedcategories ofbehavioral disorders,
anxietydisorders,
depression
andantisocialbehaviorandconduct
disorderwerenegativelycorrelatedwithacademic achievement. However, behavioral disorders have a
274
negativeimpact on the interactionof childrenwithparents and teachers, and make individuals school
truancy
and
impair
their
performance.Accordingto
the
results,children
withbehavioraldisorderscannotdohomeworkat a level of parental satisfaction.They probably sufferfrom
deficienciesin theareas ofeducational achievementandspecial skills especiallyinreading.Such childrenare
oftenuninterestedin school, have nodesire forcontinuingeducation and are careless about their career;
theyusuallyfail and showlower levels ofachievement. The above findings are in line with
theresearchresultssuch asRutter(1976), MonshiTousi(1996) andKenin et al(1999) which showthatthere is
a negativerelationshipbetweenbehavioral disordersandeducational achievement.
Behavioraldisordersinthepresentstudy were consistentwith the study of Mirzaei(2000)
andRajabi(2000), cited inMirzaei, 2000). Among thelimitationsof this study itcan bepointed outthat, due
tothe broadnatureof the research community, it was difficultto evaluate allthe factors associated
withbehavioraldisorders. Due toprevalence of behavioral disorders, it is recommended to provide
significant ways to reduce the incidence of behavioral disorders by the aim of prevention. Although itis
important
totreatbehavioral
disorders,
butthe
need
forthe
prevention
programsto
preventbehavioraldisordersismore important. Prevention in this context can be done in the form of primary
and secondary prevention.
Primary preventionprograms areaimedat preventingtheoccurrenceof new casesthrougha
proactiveconsideration before the occurrence oftheproblems.Interventions as a primaryprevention can
focus on four centers ofchild, family, school and community. The nature ofthe secondary prevention is
timelydiagnosis ofproblems andappropriatemedicalintervention before the problemsturn into
psychologicaldisorders.
Persistence
of
behavioral
disorders
in
life,
the
importanceof
earlyinterventionexplains not onlythe reduction of thesuffering of childrenandadolescents but also,itaims
toprevent the spread ofa wide rangeofpsychological problemsinadulthood.
Acknowledgment
We would like to express our profound gratitude to all people who participated in this research.
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276
The effectiveness of group psychotherapy based on the choice theory
in the marital satisfaction and quality of life of married women
Masoumeh Sharafi*1, Shahram Mami2, Sattar Kaikhavani3, Kourosh Sayeh Miri3
1-MA of General Psychology, Science and Research, University of Ilam, Iran
2-Associate Professor, Science and Research University, Ilam, Iran
3-Associate Professor, University of Medical Sciences, Ilam, Iran
Abstract
Marriage and initiation of family life is one of the most important phenomena that can
cause growth and development of capabilities as well as fulfilling various human needs
and providing psychological comfort; however, what seems more important than the
marriage and establishment of family is the durability of marriage and marital
satisfaction. Marital satisfaction influences different aspects of personal and social lives
of couples and is the foundation of the family performance. The desirable quality of life
has always been the wish of the human beings. The research purpose is to assess the
effectiveness of group psychotherapy based on the choice theory in marital satisfaction
and quality of life of married women living in Ilam in 2013. The study consisted of 30
women who were selected using purposive sampling and assigned into two
experimental and control groups (N=15 subjects) and matched control group (15
subjects) were replaced by the two groups. Both group were tested in the pre-test and
post-test. Subsequently, the women in the experimental group received 10 sessions on
the choice theory. The research data gathering tools included Enrich marital satisfaction
questionnaire and quality of life. The data of pre-test and post-test were analyzed using
descriptive and inferential statistics (Wilcoxon test). Results indicated that there is
significant difference between the experimental and control groups (P<.05). It can be
concluded that, reality therapy with emphasis on the choice theory can improve the
marital satisfaction and quality of life of house wives.
Keywords: choice theory, marital satisfaction, quality of life, housewives
Introduction
Without a doubt one of the most important decisions in the life of every human being is selecting
a life-long partner. A type of relationship is formed with the vow of marriage that is unique and
unparalleled as compared to other human relationships. Other human relationships cover one aspect of
life, but marriage encompasses various physical, emotional, social, and mental aspects and
environmental, economic, emotional and psychological relationship is established between husband and
wife. One of the most important aspects of this relationship is the satisfaction that is experienced by wife
and husband.
One of the most important factors that influence the effective performance of the family is the
satisfaction of different members of the family specially the satisfaction with spouse (Sinha & Mukerjee,
1990). In addition to marital satisfaction, desirable quality of life has always been one of the wishes of the
human being. At first, the greater welfare and length of life meant the quality of life. However, nowadays,
quality of life is considered as the opposite of the quantity and is defined with regard to the wide aspects
of health and means the years of life lived with satisfaction, happiness and delight. Quality of life is a
dynamic and broad concept of health (Ghasemi et al, 2011).
One of the theories that explain and deal with the problems of marriage and family’s behavior is
the choice theory of William Glasser. This theory in its evolution was called reality therapy, control theory,
and then choice theory. In this theory, it is believed that every human being needs to fulfill five basic
needs, including the needs of surviving, love and belonging, entertainment, freedom and power. These
needs become demands, actions and reactions ( (Carey, 1998; Sharf, 1996; Krsyny, 1998 Shafiabadi,
2002, and Bolding, 2001; Ellis, 2003 cited in Avaz Zadeh, 2012).
The cornerstone of this theory behavior is selective and optional and not influenced by
environmental pressures and conflicts of childhood (Glasser, 1998, cited in belonging, 2004 cited
inDorbai, 2007), and this means focusing on the freedom of the person. The main part of choice theory
considers some pre-assumptions. Each of our movement is a behavior; we select our behaviors; we're
biologically motivated to satisfy the basic needs of survival, entertainment, freedom, power, love and
belonging.
The first objective in the choice theory that constitutes a significant part of reality therapy is to
prevent problems before they occur. Glasser's Choice Theory expresses ways to control one’s life.
Choice theory rests on the idea that individuals are responsible for their own choices, decisions, goals
and satisfaction in their lives. External events and others have no control on us unless we allow them to
control (Thompson & Rudolph, cited in Avaz Zadeh, 2012).
The psychology of choice theory replaces the internal control based on human relations with the
psychology of external control. Paradigm of choice theory asserts that we as humans have mastery over
our lives more than what we imagine, but unfortunately, a significant part of these controls are ineffective
and inefficient and we haven’t learned how to make right and wise choice.
People who are not satisfied with their life exercise control and employ a series of stereotyped
behaviors to change the behavior of their spouses that is called the seven deadly habits of controlling by
Glasser, Including: 1- criticizing, 2-blaming, 3-complaining, 4- nagging, 5- threatening, 6- punishing and
7-bribing, rewarding to control. These habits are destructive and destroy the marital life if employed in the
long run. Some couples may demonstrate such habits every day but do not sue for divorce, however,
they will surely be in a difficult situation and breaking of such habits is the first step in the long way toward
the revival of life on the verge of collapse. The important factor is not only getting out of such deadly
habits and the choice theory should be replaced with such habits. We should pay attention and see what
we can do to improve our relationship if we have unsuccessful relationship and we must consider that we
can’t change other individuals.
278
Approximately in all the cases, if we do not exercise controlling, our spouse will change; however,
the choice theory is beyond the freedom from controlling (Glasser and Glasser, 2012). Glasser (2005)
has explained the increasing or strengthening behaviors. According to him, the seven caring habits
should be replaced with seven deadly habits. Seven caring habits include supporting, encouraging,
listening, accepting, trusting, respecting and negotiating differences (Glasser, 2012).
The carried out studies in the choice theory indicate the effectiveness of this therapeutic
approach. A study carried out by Russel et al (Dorbai, 2007), aimed to investigate the effectiveness of
group cognitive-behavioral group therapy with religious approach and classic cognitive-behavioral therapy
in the marital satisfaction of women and quality of marital relationship. The results of this study indicated
that classic cognitive-behavioral therapy was significantly effective in the increase of the marital
relationship and improvement of women’s communicational styles Pound&Duchac (2009). cited in Avaz
Zadeh, 2012).
Dorbai (2007) in a study investigated the effectiveness of the axioms of the choice theory and
techniques of reality therapy in the increase of maladaptive couples’ intimacy. 6 couples referring to the
counseling centers were selected using voluntary sampling and tested by intimacy and marital adjustment
test. The experimental group underwent 8 sessions of choice theory and reality therapy techniques.
Results indicated that choice theory training and reality therapy techniques decrease the maladjustment
of couples and their total intimacy increased in the post-test and follow-up stages. Avaz Zadeh (2012), in
a study entitled the effectiveness of William Glasser’s choice theory training in communicational patterns
of maladaptive, married housewives referring to the health centers of Tehran Municipality. A sample of 30
was assigned to the experimental and control groups and received 10 sessions of choice theory
concepts’ training. Results indicated that reality therapy with the approach of choice theory could improve
the quality of marital relationship. Padash et al (2012) indicated the effectiveness of psychotherapy based
on the quality of life in the marital satisfaction of married men and women.
The study consisted of 30 married women in the age range of 20 to 35 years with 1 to 10 years of
marriage duration who were selected using purposive sampling and assigned into two experimental and
control groups (N=15 subjects) and matched control group (15 subjects) were replaced by the two
groups. Both group were tested in the pre-test and post-test. Subsequently, the women in the
experimental group received 10 sessions on the choice theory. The research data gathering tools
included Enrich marital satisfaction questionnaire and quality of life.
Enrich Marital Satisfaction Questionnaire: This scale has 47 items and assesses the marital
satisfaction. This questionnaire has 9 subscales of personal issues - marital relationship - conflict
resolution - financial management - leisure activities - sexual relationship - marriage and children - family
and friends – religious direction. Olson and Olson (1997) have estimated the validity of the questionnaire
to be equal to 92%. The internal consistency of the long form and short form questionnaire was reported
to be 93% and 95%. The Cronbach alpha of this questionnaire in the present research equaled 87%.
279
Quality of Life Questionnaire which has 36 items and 8 subscales (physical performance, general
health, role limitations due to physical reasons, role limitations due to emotional reasons, bodily pain,
social performance, vitality, mental health). The sum of scores is divided to mental and physical aspects.
Each of these 8 aspects has score from 0 to 100. The higher score indicates better performance. The
standard mean of the mental and physical aspects is equal to 50. Scores higher or lower than 50 is
indicative of higher and lower performance. In a study by Montazeri et al (2006), the analysis of the
internal consistency indicated that except for the subscale of vitality (65%), all the other subscales of the
questionnaire have reliability standard of 77% to 90%. Moreover, the convergent validity was estimated to
be .4. The test-retest reliability in a two week interval was estimated to be 75% in the study by Dehdari et
al (2007). The Cronbach alpha of the questionnaire in the present research equaled 78%.
The data of pre-test and post-test were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics
(Wilcoxon test) by SPSS20. The data of the research were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods
and the differences between the experimental and control groups were investigated using inferential
statistics.
The normality of the data was investigated was investigated by either parametric or nonparametric statistical tests.
H0=the distribution of the data is normal----level of significance ≥ .05
H1=the distribution of the data is not normal----level of significance < .05
Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was performed to test out the above hypotheses and its results are
presented in the table below.
Table 2- normality test of the variables of the research
components
Level
significance
of
result
Quality of life
.19
the distribution of the data is normal
Marital satisfaction
.24
the distribution of the data is normal
As observed in the table above, the level of significance in both of the variables is more than .05,
therefore, the null hypothesis cannot be rejected at lower degree of %5. Put it differently, the null
hypothesis which indicates the normality of the data is confirmed. The number of the experimental and
control groups was 30 individuals (each of which is 15 individuals). The sample size is less than 40
individuals. Therefore, the data show the normality of the test; however, the Wilcoxon non-parametric test
was used that can be employed for normal data.
280
The research hypotheses were as following:
Choice theory will be effective in the marital satisfaction of the married housewives referring to
the counseling centers of Ilam.
Choice theory will be effective in the quality of life of the married housewives referring to the
counseling centers of Ilam.
Scale
Marital
Satisfaction
Group
Stage
Mean
Standard
Deviation
Experimental
Pre-Test
111.78
4.43
Post-Test
170.9
23.80
Difference
59.12
.37
Pre-Test
109.6
22.86
Post-Test
118.14
21.80
Difference
8.54
1.06
Pre-Test
260.8
25.95
Post-Test
353.31
34.87
Difference
92.51
9.08
Pre-Test
262.47
26.17
Post-Test
261.58
27.46
Difference
.89
1.29
Control
Quality of Life
Experimental
Control
Level
Sig.
of
.000
.08
.00
.75
With regard to the results of the above table, it was indicated that the error level in the control
group is more than the level of standard error (.05); therefore, the difference between the experimental
and control group is not significant in the pre-test and post-test. The estimated level of error is less than
the standard error level (.05), and the null hypothesis is rejected at level of less than %5; therefore, the
mean of marital satisfaction in the pretest and post-test is significantly different. On the other hand,
estimated level of error is less than the standard error level (.05), and the null hypothesis is rejected at
level of less than %5; therefore, the mean of quality of life in the pretest and post-test is significantly
different. Put differently, choice theory is effective in the increase of the quality of life among the
housewives referring to the counseling centers of Ilam.
281
The researcher could witness the effectiveness of choice theory intervention in the increase of
marital satisfaction and quality of life. Results indicated the employed training program can increase the
rate of marital satisfaction and quality of life of housewives. The results of the present research are in line
with the studies carried out with the approach of Glasser in marital satisfaction and quality of life of house
wives, including Farah Bakhsh and Hashem Abadi (2006), Bokharayi (2006), Dorbai (2007), Asgari
(2008), Hossein Abadi (2008), Rajabi (2011), Avaz Zadeh (2012), Padash et al Saleh Zadeh Abar Ghouyi
(2008), Ebtehaj Fard (2011) and Khosravi (2010). The effectiveness of choice theory training decreased
the marital conflict, feelings of intimacy and closeness, negative feelings of such relationship, significant
decrease in feelings of depression, anxiety and increase of the quality of life.
According to the researcher, the features of the choice theory that have produced these results
include gratification of the basic needs and the quality world of spouse, acquaintance with external control
methods, the destructive habits of communication and awareness of the mechanisms and their
consequences, familiarity with caring habits and behaviors that strengthen the relationships and
advantages of using them, teaching problem solving with this regard that the educational process of this
theory is learning life problem-solving, familiarity with the concept of creativity and how to foster and
strengthen the relationship by creativity, familiarity with the concept of conflict, personal responsibility,
abstaining from mind reading, identifying the needs’ profile, understanding the differences and similarities
of the needs and challenging the thoughts in relation to finding ways to reach an agreement in resolving
conflicts, dialogue, understanding and adequate skills of speaking. According to Glasser, people marry to
gratify their basic needs (Glasser, 1998). According to him, when the spouses develop different and
unrealistic expectations about the gratification of their basic needs or the intensity of needs differ among
them, the problems exacerbate. Glasser claims that, if couples are taught about basic needs, awareness
of needs and effort to satisfy the basic needs of the spouse can exert significant effect on their
satisfaction; As a result, training the axioms of the choice theory means enhancing the awareness of
spouses about the intensity of their needs and establishment of sense of responsibility in individuals to
gratify their needs that can cement the intimate relationships.
Choice theory emphasizes the flexibility of thinking and acting, responsibility, assessment of
behavior, testing the reality, emphasis on the difference of perception in different people, focusing on the
here and now, not accepting the excuses, the circle of conflict resolution etc. are some of the concepts
and techniques which are considered by other approaches such as emotion-focused approach and
behavioral approach. Some of the other concepts that are very effective in changing the relationships and
their growth are the psychology of internal control and caring habits which are against external control
psychology and deadly habits. Some of the destructive habits and key basic elements of the destruction
of relationships are factors such as intimidation, humiliation, blaming, criticizing, and bribery.
In other words, the communication styles improve by avoiding harmful habits and choosing caring
habits such as sympathy, support, listening, respect, acceptance, trust, encouragement and discussing
problems. Couples find the opportunity to express their desires, beliefs and opinions and evaluate data to
finally tend to change themselves. The most important and distinguishing concepts of Glasser are the
basic needs, differences and intensity of these needs in individuals that help the individuals develop their
understanding from each other and clarify the differences. Completing this process and sharing the
quality world creates an environment replete with trust, deep intimacy and sense of belonging between
the couples. It can be concluded that the simplicity of such concepts does not decrease their depth and
let the individuals reflect upon their existential aspects (cognitive, emotional,…) and develop their
autognosis and guide themselves responsibly.
282
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The investigation and comparison of individuals’ risking under
treatment of MMT and normal individuals in Khoramabad city
Mohamad Shahkarami 1 , Sirous Moradizadeh 2 , Leila Mirzaie 3 , Atefeh Veiskaramian 4
1-M.A student in family counseling, Tehran Kharazmi University
2-M.A OF Educational Psychology and Counselor of counseling center in Education, Lorestan province
3-M.A student in General Psychology, Arak Science and Research University and the authority of
Khoramabad Sedigh old aged house
4-M.A student in General Psychology, Borujerd Science and Research Campus
Abstract
The fundamental aim of the current study is the investigation and comparison of individuals’
under treatment of MMT and normal individuals in Khoramabad city. The present study is a
descriptive study which was conducted by random selection sampling from among those sick
under treatment individuals referring to Khoramabad addiction abandoning centers which
included 40 under treatment and 40 normal residing near those centers with regard to age and
education level. They were evaluated by using a 21 questions questionnaire content. The data
were analyzed by T-test. The results of the data revealed that there was a meaningful difference
between the risking of MMT individual under treatment and the normal individual in Khoramabad
city in the level of p<0/005.
Keywords: risking, the addicted individuals under treatment, normal individuals
Introduction
Today, addicting to Opium and Heroin phenomenon is one of the intricate difficulties in the world and has
engaged the mine of scientists as the fourth problem in the world after nuclear crisis, population
explosion, and environment pollution. Till before 1964 this phenomenon was called addiction but as the
WHO recommended this name was replaced by the above mentioned names (Saduk 2007).Controlling
the dependence to addiction is very important to our country. Iran is in the borderline of Pakistan and
Afghanistan as the main producers of poppy and opium in the world and is in the rout of transit of these
materials to Europe and as a result is in the more probable risk (Shusudefeski, Pooya translation 2003).
Despite this, it is considered as one of the painful issues for society and as a threat for social, economic
and hygienic dimensions in society (Momtaz, 2002). Heritage capacity, sensitive adolescence period,
personal threatening factors, personality factors, and the positive attitude to addiction are among those
factors. However, these factors should be taken into account seriously. It has been emphasized that the
acceptance from friends has resulted in addiction increase (Gorgin, 2006). Dependence and abusing the
addiction result in chronic biological, cultural,metal, social and behavioral effects (Walace, 2003 cited
from Haji Alizadeh Naziri and Modares Qoruri, 2008). Among the effectives ways affecting the addicted
person positively is the mental recognition of the addicted person and treating him/her (Marmani et al,
2007). The efficiency of Methadone in heroin addicted persons has been repeatedly verified in various
experiments (Jiajomozi et al, 2002). Using Metadon as a botanic material in treating the addicted persons
is a contributing factor (Ardeliank, 2001). The international approach treatment has been known as an
effective method for treatment of individuals (WHO, 2004). It is believed that that Metadon not only helps
in treating the addicted but also affects mental and physical aspects of individuals (Mosteshari, 2011).
Kar, Gorg and Goror (2003) define risking as the behaviors that increase the probable negative and
destructive psychological and social effects. Actions like asperity, auto biting, spot, common injection, and
unprotected sexual behaviors are among these factors. Naturally, prevention and correct and applied can
result in reducing these behaviors. Human is in the risk more than any creature (Lorner & Kerner, 2001).
Despite attempts made in the last two decades in relating to increasing general awareness toward the
dangerous behaviors (Soleimaninia,2005). Researches done in the field of addiction have presented
numerous guidance relevant to family tension, educational problems, depression, personality disorders,
peer addiction, the earlier time of addiction to cigarette (Saduk and Saduk ; translated by Rafiee &
Rezaiee, 2005). The researches done by Loliz et al (2000) showed that there is a meaningful risk
difference among three groups by using narcotic and Methadone and then the under-treatment
individuals with Methadone users and the normal persons. Gossop (2002) Dolan et al (1998) in a study
showed that the under treatment with Methadone were in less risk in comparison to addicted persons and
use common ampoules less and less. Meanwhile, in a study done by Broyer et al, it was shown that
Methadone can prevent diseases like AIDS and HEPATIT and can be effective (Broyers, 1998).
Method
This descriptive research was conducted with random sampling participation of 40 under treatment and
40 normal persons residing near the abandoned centers based on age and educational level in
Khoramabad city.
Instruments
To measure the risky behaviors, the Yrbss questionnaire designed in American disease controlling
centers was used (Bakhshani et al, 2007). The form used in the research had 21 parts which measured
the intensity of risky behaviors related to asperity (cold weapon carting and participation in physical
struggle), addiction abuse, alcoholic abuse, mental disorder drugs, risky sexual intercourse, nourishment
286
and physical movement, and unfit friends. Berner et al obtained the result by using this questionnaire in
two weeks distance and Kappa correlation for all the items between 236 to 90.5 percent. In Iran also
Bakhshaiee wt al (2007) with measuring Kappa correlation, estimated the reliability of all the items 85
percent. Dr. Kajbaf et al, (2008) in a study estimated the reliability of this questionnaire on 377 subjects
79 percent.
Results
Research hypothesis: there is a meaningful difference between the under treatment individual with MMT
and the normal persons.
Table 1: A summary of t-test results and the difference between normal and under treatment individual
with MMT.
P
0.000
df
78
T
3.08
SE
Mean
5.29
15.43
7.31
24.17
Groups
Normal group
under treatment Group
As it is seen in the above table, the t-test estimated there is a meaningful difference between the under
treatment individual risk and normal persons with df =78 in p<0.000. Viewing the mean of the two groups,
the under treatment group have a higher mean of risk, therefore the research hypothesis is verified.
Discussion
The aim of conducting the present research is investigating the comparison of the risk between the two
groups, .i.e., the normal and under treatment with MMT groups. The hypothesis stated that there is a
meaningful difference between the normal and under treatment group individuals. The results revealed
that there is a meaningful difference between under treatment individual with Methadone and normal
bodies. And the under treatment individual with Methadone were in more risk comparing to the
counterpart group. As mentioned before, the health threatening behaviors are one of the challenges
related to the mental-social and hygienic dimensions of society in most of the societies of the world and
have caused numerous problems in the world. Despite attempts made in the last two decades for
awakening the general knowledge of the society with regard to the threatening factors in the society, we
witness the increase in such behaviors in society. This can also increase the risk of addiction. However,
the current research was done for more clarification though in a limited area and in a specified time
therefore it has its own limitations. It is recommended that for more reliability and validity similar
researcher be done somewhere else so that a remedy can be found to prevent addiction because it is a
threatening factor in the society for people particularly for the youths.
287
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288
Qualitative evaluation of the role of family structure and history of
family violence on the severity of adolescents’ delinquency in Ilam
Nabi Allah Gholami*1, Sakineh Soltan2,i Morteza Alizadeh3
1- MA student of Criminal Law and Criminology, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2- PHD of Psychology , Azad University , Ilam , Iran
3- BA student of Psychology, Semnan University, Semnan, Iran
Abstract
The family is the first institution in which the individual is a member from the birth and
has several functions which influence the actions of the individual in society. Violence is
one of the components that exert negative effects on the mind and soul of children.
Hence, the present research aims to investigate the role of family structure and history
of family violence on the severity of delinquency of juveniles in Ilam. The study sample
consisted of 20 subjects drawn from a larger population of adolescents between 16 and
18 years who had a history of committing crimes in the city of Ilam and were selected
through convenience sampling. Questionnairesof this study included domestic violence
(PourNaghash Tehrani, 2004) and surveys of family functioning and family structure
(Khosravi, Kiyamanesh, Banijamali and Nik Manesh,2007). Data were analyzed using ttest and Mann-Whitney U Test and results identified the effect of family performance,
family structure and family aggression on the severity of delinquency.
Keywords: Family performance, family structure, history of family violence, delinquency
Introduction
Family is the first and foremost responsible social institution for the socialization of children and
creating a safe and secure environment for the children's growth and fertility. According to many experts,
the family is largely effective in shaping the actions and lives of individuals and children’s socialization. If
the family is faced with numerous problems, the process of the socialization of family members will be
impaired (Salahi, 2009).
The conducted studies indicate that children are more vulnerable to the domestic aggression as
compared to adults and this vulnerability is to the extent that children are not only affected by mental and
physical aggressions but also observe the parents’ aggressive behaviors that exert detrimental effects on
them. There is no significant difference between children who observe the domestic aggression and
children who are the subject of such aggressions (Sigle, 2003).
The tension and aggression between parents and aggressive behaviors toward children is quite
common among the different strata of the society and does not belong to a specific stratum. Family is a
still a private setting in many of the cultures and this issue poses many problems for the external
agencies to prevent family violence (Moazzami, 2012, 22).Aggressive behavior is one of the major social
problems in a community and special attention is devoted to that due to the importance of such behaviors
in childhood and especially in adolescence (Layer and Haye, 1997; cited in Pakaslahti, 2000, 467). The
important thing in the realm of criminality includes examining the structures of hostility, anger, and
aggression(Hovlez and Riyte, 1978, 73). Studies show that maladaptive emotional reactions of delinquent
adolescents are different and this type of emotional connection is the predictor of criminal behavior
(Andrews and Hops, 1997, 10).
In spite of the variety of statistics in Iran, studies show that about 5 to 10 percent of the criminals
commit 50 to 60 percent of the crimes. Professional criminals who comprise an insignificant percent of all
the criminals commit a huge part of the crimes and have a major contribution in the occupation of the
different institutions of criminal justice, including police, prosecutors and courts. Establishment of juvenile
courts and implementing misdemeanor Security Act require adopting strategies and applying other
knowledge and developingdifferent numerous mechanisms. Assessment of the dangerous state and
controlling the risks, forecasting the crime and the possibility of repeating the offense, the formation of
specialized records related to the condition and circumstances of the offender including establishment of
the juvenile institution for children, irresponsible criminals’ asylum, exile of habitual criminals, agricultural
and industrial workshops and establishment of treatment centers for the offenders who are addicted to
smoking, alcohol and drug are the other necessary condition for the implementation of educational reform
approach in the law court of delinquent children and Security acts.
Regarding this approach ‫ كشاورزي‬regardless of its success or lack of success in comparison with
other criminal justice system, despite the recent emphasis of the fifth paragraph of Article 156 in the
Constitution regarding the appropriate action to reform criminals, this has been historically ignored in Iran.
Administrative regulations law of the establishment of juvenile courts of delinquent children was prepared
nine years after such condition and very few number of correction and rehabilitation centers existed
before the revolution in Iran. Establishing the security act with the establishment of security centers
related to the irresponsible habitual criminals and industrial workshops have been generally forgotten. In
addition, using other moderating institutes of punishment and criminal approach such as conditional
release and suspension of punishment has never been welcomed by the judges. Undoubtedly, one of its
main reasons is the scientific, educational and cultural tendency toward the punishments and also the
lack of alternative mechanisms of punishment in this regard (Gholami, 2009, 47).
Disorganized families
These families are characterized by actions and behaviors such as conflict between parents. The
parents are present but the family environment is replete with lack of attention to children, lack of
kindness, maladjustment between parents and conflict between parents in the presence of children
(Salahi, 2009, 130). Studies indicate that weak and inadequate bond between children and parents is
correlated to children’s running away from home and many other crimes such as stealing and prostitution
(Moazemi, 2009, 220).
Violence against children
According to the reports of international organizations, only 16 countries obey the law, based on
which any kind of physical punishment is forbidden and there is no such law in other countries. At least, in
30 countries, children are whipped by sticks or lashes in the correctional and rehabilitation centers. In
many of the countries, punishment and aggressive actsare legal in correctional and protective centers
(Peaneruo, 2008, 7).
The term of "family abuse" in the family includes those acts of family that are followed by
emotional, mental, sexual or physical abuse of a member (or members) of the family with other member
(or members). Lovinson has provided a list containing forty types of violence (Lovinson) 1989, 26).
The list includes issues such as child sexual abuse, rape the wife, abuse the elders, child
physical abuse, and physical violence between spouses or against the spouse. Penhale has proposed
one of the clearest and comprehensive definitions within the misbehavior toward the elderly that can also
be used in other cases.He writes, "Most of the definitions from the abuse includes these items: physical
290
abuse, sexual abuse, psychological and social abuse (including emotional and verbal abuse, harassment,
isolation and withdrawal, leaving home and monetary abuse)" (Penhale, 1993, 96).
According to the theory of behaviorism, individuals are affected by nurturing environment and
enter the field of crime and demonstrate violent behavior, therefore, the criminal behavior is learned
over.Principally, the rate of crime goes up in societies that have higher rates of delinquency. From the
perspective of Bandura, humans attack one another because of the past experiences and learning violent
reactions. They expect various reinforcements for such behaviors or their social and environmental
conditions drive them toward aggressive behaviors (Kaplan and Sadock, 2000, 78). According to Bowen,
aggression toward the spouse is transfered from one generation to another. This theory considers the
marital aggression as a learned social behavior (Hotaling and Sugarman, 1989; cited in Rosen, Haring
and Stith, 2001, 137).
Theory of the failure of violence puts forward that the failure of individual’s attempt in attaining the
goals gives rise to aggression and this arises a self or other destructive behavior and the emergence of
aggression decreases such issues (Kaplan and Sadock, 2000, 89). In the cognitive theory, the aggressive
tension is derived from the unfair imaging of the undesirable phenomena. The basic assumption of this
theory is that the way of thinking about the aggression results in aggression (Gartner, Gollan and
Jacobson, 1997, 129). In the theory of mental pathology, aggression stems from factors such as
psychological illness, personality weakness, mental pathologies and other abnormal intrapersonal factors
(ShahniYeilagh, 1997, 27).
The main goal of this research is to investigate the role of family structure and history of family
violence on the severity of delinquency of juveniles in Ilam. The alternative goal is to assess each of the
variables as contributory factors of delinquency in adolescents. The first hypothesis proposed that the
family performance exerts effects on the severity of adolescents’ delinquency. Our second hypothesis put
forward that, the family structure affects the severity of adolescents’ delinquency. The third hypothesis put
forward that the history record of family aggression affects the adolescents’ delinquency.
The study sample consisted of 20 subjects drawn from a larger population of adolescents
between 16 and 18 years who had a history of committing crimes in the city of Ilam and were selected
through convenience sampling.
The data gathering tools include structured interviews on the axes risky behavior, family
functioning and structure of the family. Interview forms were designed on the axes of family structure
(age, education, parental education, occupation and income level) and risk behaviors (use of illegal
substances, including tobacco, alcohol and drugs, relationships with the opposite sex, suicide). To obtain
the validity of the interview forms, several of the experts were asked to assess it and correct the related
flaws. Then it was performed as an experiment on the subject. The 5-point rating scale was used to
quantify and illustrate the findings.The score of 1 refers to the lowest severity and the score of 5 indicates
the highest level of severity.
Domestic Violence Questionnaire: in the present study, Domestic Violence Questionnaire was
used to investigate domestic violence. This questionnaire has 40 items and was developed by Pour
Naghash Tehrani (2004). 13- item of this questionnaire assess the psychological violence (verbal insults,
sexual disconnection, debunking your work and humiliating you in front of others), 24 items evaluate
physical aggression (pushing, hitting, squeezing the throat, pulling hair and kicking) among the couples
and the last three items assess the being victim or witness of violence (whether or not you have been the
subject or victim of the parents’ violence). The range of the responses in this questionnaire rates on a four
-point Likert scale from often to never. This questionnaire with measures of conflict was conducted in a
group of 50 couples and the correlation between the results of the questionnaire and average score of the
scale equaled .81. It represents the convergentvalidity of the domestic violence questionnaire. The
291
validity of the questionnaire based on Cronbach's alpha coefficient was equal to .87 (Pour Naghash
Tehrani , 2005).
Each of the subjects completed the family violence questionnaire and participated in the interview
of family structure and severity of risky behaviors with no knowledge of the ultimate goals of the research.
Data were analyzed using t-test and Mann-Whitney U Test.
The sum of the scores in each column is a minimum of ten and maximum of 50. The 5-point
rating scale was used to quantify and illustrate the findings. The score of 1 refers to the lowest severity
and the score of 5 indicates the highest level of severity. The score of 1 indicates the lack of risky
behaviors. The score of 2 refers to the tendency toward committing risky behaviors and the score of 5 is
indicative of severe risky behaviors.
Table 1- The table of delinquent behaviors among the subjects of the study
Relationship
with
aggression
suicide
Substance abuse
Offenders with sever risky behavior
1 2 3 4 5
variable
4 2 3 4 4
hookah
3 3 5 2 3
cigarett
e
2 2 1 3 2
alcohol
3 3 2 3 3
drug
3 3 5 4 4
threat
3 3 3 2 4
action
4 3 5 4 3
verbal
3 4 4 4 3
Physic
al
3 3 3 4 2
Nonsexual
relation
ship
3 2 3 3 3
Sexual
relation
ship
6
7
8
9
10
Offenders with mild risky behavior
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
18
19
20
5
2
4
3
2
1
1
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
4
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
1
2
3
3
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
3
3
3
2
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
4
1
3
3
4
1
4
2
2
3
1
2
2
3
2
2
3
3
4
3
2
1
1
1
2
2
2
2
1
2
4
3
5
5
4
1
3
4
3
3
3
2
1
3
2
3
4
3
3
4
2
2
2
3
3
2
2
1
2
2
4
4
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
3
3
3
2
1
2
2
1
2
1
2
2
2
2
Table 2- The table of the family structure of the subjects based on the severity of risky behavior
292
diploma
employee
business
Teacher
House
wife
employee
6
4
3
900
900
800
700
900
diploma
bachelor
employee
5
900
6
second
bachelor
diploma
employee
5
business
second
AD
diploma
employee
800
diploma
second
diploma
diploma
5
diploma
third
diploma
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
teacher
Father’s
job
Offenders with severe risky behavior
second
second
employee
second
bachelor
TGJH
business
diploma
third
diploma
TGJH
diploma
second
TGJH
second
TGJH
900
16
business
4
16
TGJH
teacher
16
TGJH
teacher
16
third
bachelor
17
business
bachelor
16
diploma
800
16
TGJH
5
16
second
teacher
17
worker
employee
15
diploma
diploma
17
diploma
900
16
third
3
17
worker
business
17
diploma
700
17
diploma
4
16
third
800
16
employee
6
16
TGJH
700
17
diploma
5
1
6
TGJH
900
20
employee
5
19
TGJH
900
18
bachelor
6
17
TGJH
800
16
bachelor
6
15
TGJH
800
14
business
5
13
elementar
y
illiterate
900
12
TGJH
5
11
business
10
second
700
9
business
6
8
TGJH
700
Average
of salary
7
diploma
7
Number
of house
6
third
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
wife
House
Mother’s
job
5
Mother’s
education
4
Father’s
education
3
education
2
age
1
sample
293
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
4
3
3
2
2
2
2
3
2
2
3
2
2
Physical
aggression
1
sample
Offenders with severe risky behavior
Table 3- questionnaire of family aggression of the research subjects based on the severity of risky
behavior
Mental
aggression
3
3
3
4
2
3
3
3
3
2
1
1
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
2
Witnessing
aggression
4
3
3
2
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
2
3
2
*the sum of scores on this test is minimum of 3 and maximum of 1
The first hypothesis, the intensity difference between the two groups of risky behavior related to
the substance abuse is equal to 112 in people with severe risky behavior and 48 in those with mild risky
behaviors. The suicide rates in people with severe risky behaviors and mild risky behaviors are equal to
64 and 38, respectively. The opposite sex relationship with severe risky behaviors and mild risky
behaviors are equal to 59 and 38, respectively.Violence in severe risky behaviors and mild risky
behaviors are equal to 76 and 51, respectively. Mann-Whitney U test results between the two groups
show no significant difference between groups at .001.
The second hypothesis, in studying the family structure, parental education and adolescent risk behaviors
are lower while the dropout rates are higher. They have more modest income and more number of family
members.
The third hypothesis of this study examines the impact of family violence on the severity of the criminal
behavior of students and t-test has been used to review the significant differences of the mean
comparison. The results of the table shows that the mean of the group with the experience of violence in
childhood was higher, t=4.78 which is bigger than t table with 18 degrees of freedom. Therefore,
significant between-group difference is observed between the two groups.
The results of this research are in line with some other studies. Based on the articles and studies,
we have confronted with growing and increasing pathology (Abdollahni, 2002). Studies indicate that the
abuse of drug, smoking and suicide are increasing (Sedigh Sarvestani, 2003; Raghibi, 2002; and
Hosseini, 2002). Stansfield and Kirsteim (2005) state that adolescence is the period of high-risk behaviors
and increase of exploration and curiosity. For example, drinking alcohol even for a short period of time
poses educational, driving and delinquency problems.
Parental processes such as controlling and monitoring role of parents (Santrak, 2005; Hubber
and Howel, 2003; Goudarzi et al, 2002), family solidarity (Rostami, 2002), parent-child relationship and
parenting style (Golchin et al, 2001; Shahsavari, 2003) are effective factors in the prevention of
delinquent behaviors. Moreover, studies indicate that belligerent children are usually grown in families
with low levels of skills in solving the problems and paradoxical discipline (Sigle, 2003, 202). In a
longitudinal study (Ferguseh and Linzeki, 1998; cited in Wadzby, Svedin and Sydsjo, 2007; 148), it was
indicated that inadequate educational style prolongs the consistency of maladaptive behaviors in
adolescents. Therefore, it can be concluded that discipline, education and prevention of the decline in
individual and society have significant role. The science of criminology that has promoted such teachings
in the past 200 years and has somehow owed the religious teachings. Special attention is devoted to the
criminology of prevention that deals with reaction actions for the prevention of delinquency (Najafi Abrand
Abadi, 2008, 49).
Planning to decrease social pathology requires the establishment and development of preventive
programs and each scientific and wise plan can exert profound effects on the decrease or suspension of
social problems. Based on the results of this research, it’s proposed that adolescents and parent be
294
encouraged to participate in life skills workshops. It’s also proposed that psychological and legal support
is offered to families that have children with risky problem behaviors. It’s also proposed that this research
be carried out on a larger and more diverse population and other contributory variables to the
adolescents’ delinquency.
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296
Mediating Role of Emotional
Intelligence in the Relationship between
Family Communication and Life Satisfaction among Women
Managers in Shiraz four Educational Districts Area
Fatemeh Darenjani Shirazi1 Masoumeh Fallahi2 Ali Akbar Khubiyari3
1-Master degree in general psychology, Islamic Azad University of Marvdasht
2-Master degree in organizational and industrial psychology, Islamic Azad University of Marvdasht
3-Master Degree in educational Planning, Isfahan University
Abstract
Introduction: since family is the main unit of a society, social conservation depends on family
conservation. Individuals grow in families and a society's existence and strength depends on
individuals’ existence.
Goal: the present research was conducted in order to investigate mediating role of EI in
relationship between family communications and satisfaction with life in women managers in four
educational districts of Shiraz City.
Methodology: the present research is a correlation study. Statistical population of the research
included all women managers in four educational districts in Shiraz City. 225 people were
selected by means of multi-step cluster sampling method. Data were collected by means of family
communications questionnaire, Diener's satisfaction with life questionnaire and Schutt's EI
questionnaire.
Results: results showed that EI plays a significant mediating role in relationship between family
communications and satisfaction with life in women managers. Results also showed that there is
positive relationship between EI and satisfaction with life and conversation communication
model. Further, EI plays a mediating role in relationship between family monotony communication
model and satisfaction with life.
Conclusion: EI and also family communication (conversation orientation and monotony
orientation) result in satisfaction with life.
Keywords: EI, satisfaction with life, family communication model
Introduction
Intelligence has always been considered as a basic characteristic for differentiating between people.
However, intelligence has usually referred to cognitive aspects like memory, problem-solving and thinking
while non-cognitive aspects of intelligence like emotional, excitement, personal and social aspects of
intelligence are also considered as important and used in prediction of an individual's ability to succeed in
life (Wang, 2003). EI is the newest concept in the field of understanding relationship between emotion
and thinking and is considered as a trigger for a large revolution in psychological hygiene area. EI refers
to fundamental aspects of an individual's behavior which are completely different from intellectual abilities
(Braberi and Garous, 2007). EI is a combination of non-cognitive abilities, skills and knowledge which
influence on the ability to overcome environmental pressures successfully (Bar-en, 1997; Sharifi
Daramadi, 2007). According to studies, EI dimensions are good predictors of psychological well-being
indicators like satisfaction with life and inter-personal performance (Extermera and Fernandez, 2005).
Satisfaction with life is a condition in which individuals feel satisfied with each other. Satisfaction is
created through mutual interest, care for each other, acceptance, understanding each other and
satisfaction of needs (Bradberi and Garious, 2007). Diener (1985) defined satisfaction with life as
personal judgment of luckiness and well-being. Satisfaction is an internal expereicne which contains
positive emotions and does not contain negative feelings. Mehyer and Diener studies showed that
satisfaction with life is correlated with high psychological health. As satisfaction increases, positive
emotions and feelings are more possible (reported from Bakhshipour, 2005: 81). Family is made up of
transactions which organize the family environment. These transactions indicate family's ability to adjust
and regulate new needs and adaptation to new conditions. This dimension contains capabilities like
communication skills, coping strategies, problem-solving skills, decision-making, flexibility, and growing
children (Elliot, 1993). Family communication concept is defined as a scientific structure of apparent world
of a family and is based upon family members communications and what they talk about and what they
do (Fitzpatrik and Koerner, 2004).
Fitzpatrick and Richi (1994) believe that conversation orientation and monotony orientation are two key
dimensions of family members’ communications in this theory. Monotony is a type of family
communication model which exerts pressure on members to make values, attitudes and beliefs similar.
Families which receive higher points in this dimension emphasize on monopolizing beliefs and attitudes.
This kind of orientation is based on coordination, avoiding conflict and dependence and struggle and
attachment. In such families, communication reflects obeying parents (Koerner and Fitzparker, 2002).
Such families have traditional structures and hierarchical system. Communications within family
environment are considered more important than outside family. Parents expect everything to be done
according to their desire (Fitzparker, Koerner, 2004). In contrast, families with low monotony point do not
have traditional structure and pay little attention to hierarchy and traditions and customs. Such families on
disagreements in beliefs and independence of members is recognized (Koerner and Is, 2000). Another
dimension in this model is conversation. It refers to the level of free and relaxed atmosphere provided by
family for members' participation and expression of beliefs. Such families spend a lot of time on mutual
communication and discussing different topics. Members of such families share their individual activities,
thoughts and feelings and members make decisions in common (Fitzparker, Koerner, 2004).
In families which have a low level of this dimension, members have little communication with each other
and not all members participate in decision-making process (Koerner and Is, 2000). Four types of families
are possible based upon the combination of low and high levels of the two dimensions: consensual
family, pluralistic family, supporting family and Laissez – faire family. Pluralistic families have a low level
of monotony and a high level of conversation. Their feature is open and non-restricted interaction. In such
families, individuals take part in decision-making and children are independent. Consensual families have
high levels of conversation and monotony (Koerner and Fitzparker, 2002). In consensual families,
communication is a reflection of tension between beliefs and open communication and pressure for
supporting family hierarchy (Koerner and Mackey, 2004). Parents make the final decisions in a family in
addition to loving their children (Koerner and Fitzparker, 2002). Protective families have high levels of
monotony but low levels of conversation. In such families, acceptance of parents' power and obeying
them is important. Protective families emphasize on obeying and pay little attention to communicational
skills. Laissez – faire families have low levels of monotony and conversation. In such families, there is
very little communication between parents and children and children are susceptible to be affected by
their environment considerably (Fitzparker and Koerner, 2004).
Ahadi et al (2009) showed that there is positive and significant relationship between EI and satisfaction
with life. Considering close relationships between satisfaction with life and variables like spiritual
intelligence, EI and coping strategies, the following sentence deal with definition and explanation of these
variables. EI is a combination of non-cognitive abilities, knowledge and skills which influence on
successful confrontation with environmental pressures (Bar-En, 1997; Sharifi Daramadi, 2007). Maltaby
et al (2004) found that individuals with higher levels of satisfaction with life have more appropriate levels
of coping strategies, emotions and deeper positive feelings and have high general health. Rahimi and
Kheir (2007) conducted a research titled "relationship between family communications patterns and life
quality in high school students of Shiraz city" and concluded that family conversation orientation is
positive and monotony orientation is negative in all four dimensions of life quality i.e. physical health,
psychological health, social communications, and life environment perception. Keshtkaran (2009)
conducted a research titled "relationship between family communication models and resiliency in Shiraz
students". They picked 200 freshmen students. Results showed that conversation is a positive predictor
for resiliency. However, monotony is a negative predictor of resiliency and resiliency level is different in
four types of communication patterns in families. Tajalli and Latifiyan (2008) conducted a research titled:
"the influence of family communicational dimensions on psychological health, a mediating role of
teenagers' EI". They concluded that conversation orientation is a positive predictor of children
psychological health and monotony orientation is a negative predictor of psychological health. Moreover,
conversation orientation is significant in comparison with monotony and EI has a mediating role in
relationship between conversation and psychological health. Yar Mohammadiyan and Bonakdar Hashemi
298
(2011) investigated the influence of teaching EI and life skills on young couples marital compatibility and
concluded that teaching life skills and EI has significant influence on marital compatibility and its
dimensions (mutual satisfaction, mutual agreement, mutual correlation and kind comments). Further,
mutual agreement and kind expressions did not show any significant difference in life skills teaching and
EI teaching. Therefore, EI has a close relationship with psychological health and it can predict
psychological health (Zareian and Bakhshipour, 2007; Astean, 2005). The present research tries to
investigate the mediating role of EI in relationship between family communicational model and satisfaction
with life in women managers in four educational districts f Shiraz City.
Research hypotheses
EI plays a significant mediating role in relationship between family communication and satisfaction with
life in women managers.
Satisfaction with life
Family communication
model
Figure x: Research conceptual model
Research methodology
The present research is a correlation study. Statistical population of the research includes all women
managers (manager and assistant) in girls’ secondary schools and high schools in Shiraz four
educational districts (645 people). 240 people were picked as sample size by means of multi-step cluster
sampling. First, two districts were selected randomly. Then, 40 girls schools (20 secondary schools and
20 high schools) were selected from each of the two districts randomly and questionnaires were
distributed among women managers. Totally, 240 questionnaires were distributed and because 15
questionnaires were received in badly-filled formats, the remaining 225 questionnaires were analyzed.
Data collection instrument:
a) Scutte's emotional intelligence scale: this questionnaire was designed by Schutte et al (1998) based on
Saloui and Mayer's EI theoretical model (1990). It was first designed for measuring teenagers EI level.
They used factor analysis and analyzing main dimensions of 316 respondents to reach 62 questions and
four factors. The first factor (the present questionnaire) contains 32 questions and its Eigen value was
10.79. Second to fourth factors had Eigen values EIual to 3.58, 2.90, 2.53, respectively. 33 questions
which were contained in the first factor measured Saloui and Mayer's conceptual model of EI. Three
categories were observed in the 33 questions: evaluation and expression of emotions had 13 questions
(such as: I think it is difficult for me to understand others' non-verbal messages). Regulation of emotions
had 10 questions (such as: I look for activities which make me happy). Utilization of emotions had 10
questions (such as: when I feel a change in my emotions I like to reach new ideas).moreover, subdimensions of each category were also specified.33 questions were used for preparation of final scale.
Factors which are measured in this test include: first factor: regulation of emotion, which means ability to
confront with negative and adverse emotions compatibly through self-regulation methods which improve
such emotions length. Second factor is appraisal and expression of emotions, which means ability to
recognize and understand one's and others' emotions based upon situational clues. Third factor is
utilization of emotions which includes ability to use emotional information in thinking, action and problemsolving (Javid, 2001). Results of the Peterdis and Frenham's research (2000) showed that which
questions measure which factors (correlation between each of the questions with corresponding factor
was more than 0.30) regulation of emotions factor: 2, 3, 10, 14, 12, 16, 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, 28, and 31.
Appraisal of emotions factor: 9, 15, 18, 19, 22, 25, 29, 32, 5. Social skills factor: 1, 4, 6, 8, 11, 13, 16, 24,
26, 30, And 33. Utilization of emotions factor: 6, 7, 17, 20, 27, 31. Some questions are observed in more
than one sub-scale or factor which is expectable in factor analysis. Therefore, assignment of point to
these questions should be done in both sub-scales. 5-point Likert scale was used to answer the questions
(1= completely incorrect, 2= incorrect, 3= relatively correct, 4=correct and 5=completely correct). Then,
299
the points of each question are added and each sub-scale (factor)'s point is calculated separately. Sum of
the points in each of the four sub-scales will make up the total EI point of respondents. Questions number
5, 28 and 33 were answered in reverse order (5=completely incorrect to 1=completely correct) (Khosro
Javid, 2001). In the present research, Cronbach's alpha was calculated 0.84 for reliability of EI.
b) Life satisfaction scale: this scale has five questions and was designed by Diener et al (1985) in order to
measure satisfaction with life and is considered as sense of happiness indicator. Satisfaction with Life
Scale (SWLS) has been designed for measuring an individual's judgment about life and compares life
conditions with pre-determined standards. Since individuals may have different ideas about a good life,
SWLS measures general satisfaction with life. SWLS measures positive aspects of individuals'
experiences instead of negative emotions. This scale first contained 48 questions. The number of
questions was reduced to 10 questions after factor analysis. The final version of SWLS reduced to 10
questions due to meaning similarities (Torabi, 2012). Questions were based on 5-point Likert scale from
completely agree (point 1) to completely disagree (point 5). In the present research, reliability was
measured by Cronbach's alpha for satisfaction variable (0.84).
c) Family communication model: in order to investigate dimensions of family communication models i.e.
conversation and monotony, adjusted family communication model which was presented by Richi and
Fitzparker in 1994 was used. This instrument was a self-reporting questionnaire and measured
respondents' success or failure with 26 items concerning family communications. It was also based on 5point Likert scale. The first 15 items (questions) are related to conversation dimension and 11 next items
are related to monotony. This instrument has a strong theoretical base and therefore it has acceptable
construct validity. Reliability coefficient was measured by Cronbach's alpha for conversation
communication model (0.88) and monotony (0.92).
Results
Table 1 depicts descriptive indicators for variables. Variables matrix has also been provided in table 2.
conversation
monotony
Satisfaction
with life
EI
85.3
64.3 80.3
68.3
95.53
88.26
90.24
23.121
Standard
deviation
0/56
0/57
0/45
0/57
12/22
10/10
6/09
15/70
Cronbach’s 0/69
alpha
0/78
0/65
0/68
0/88
0/92
0/84
0/84
conversation
monotony
of
mean
indicator
Social skills
utilization
emotions
variable
Optimism/reg
ulation
of
emotions
Appraisal of
emotions
Table 1: mean and standard deviations for variables
optimism/regulation 1
300
EI
Satisfaction
with life
Utilization of
emotions
Social skills
of
Appraisal
emotions
Optimism/reg
ulation
of
emotions
Table 2: correlation matrix for research variables
of emotions
Appraisal
emotions
of **0/58
Social skills
1
**0/63
**0/52
1
of **0/70
**0/48
**0/59
1
conversation
**0/35
**0/33
**0/25
**0/30
1
Monotony
-0/03
-0/02
0/01
-0/07
**-0/43
1
**0/21
0/14
**0/23
**0/23
-0/26
**
1
**0/78
**0/82
**0/76
**0/40
-0/04
**0/20
Utilization
emotions
Satisfaction
life
EI
with *0/19
**0/89
1
Path analysis through step-by-step regression was used for testing the mediating role of EI in relationship
between family communication model and satisfaction with life by means of Baron and Kenny method. In
this process, the two independent variables of the model (conversation and monotony) were inserted into
Equation for predicting model's dependent variable (satisfaction with life). In the second step, mediating
variable (EI) was inserted into the Equation. Results of this research shows that R-squared value is Equal
to 0.09in the first step (F(2, 213)=10.74, p<0.001) and in the second step, R-squared value is Equal to
0.11 (F(3, 212)=8.60, p<0.001).
Table 3: step-by-step regression coefficients
step
variable
β
t
P<
F
R2
df
P<
1
conversation
0.17
2.36
0.02
10.74
0.09
213.2
0.001
monotony
-0.19
2.62
0.009
conversation
0.10
8.60
0.11
212.3
0.001
monotony
-0.21
2.94
0.004
EI
0.15
2.01
0.046
2
1.20 NS(0.23)
Table 4 shows the influence of independent variables on mediating variable.
Table 4: the influence of independent variables on EI
Independent
variable
β
t
P<
F
R2
df
P<
EI conversation
0.49
7.30
0.001
26.90
0.20
2215
0.001
monotony
-0.17
-2.49
0.013
Dependent
variable
301
Figure 1 shows different paths in this analysis.
conversatio
n
Satisfaction
with life
EI
monotony
Figure 1: various paths of model
Table 5 shows direct and indirect influence of independent variables and mediating variable on
dependent variable.
Table 5: direct and indirect influence of independent variables and mediating variable on dependent
variable
variable
Direct
influence
Indirect influence
Independent
variable
conversation
-
monotony
-0.21
0/03
Dependent
variable
EI
0.15
-
Through EI
0/07
Conclusion and discussion
Results of the present research showed that there is significant relationship between EI and satisfaction
with life and it can predict satisfaction with life. EI is a combination of non-cognitive abilities, skills and
knowledge which influence on the ability to overcome environmental pressures successfully (Bar-en,
1997; Sharifi Daramadi, 2007). Previous studies also showed that EI is a good predictor of psychological
well-being indices like satisfaction with life. Results of the present research match the results of studies
conducted by Ahadi et al (2009) and Extremera & Fernandez (2005) it can be said that EI can control
temperament, psychological conditions and is a motivating factor. EI is considered as a skill and is an
important ability because individuals who have high levels of EI skills are satisfied with their lives and are
usually efficient and productive. Many studies showed that EI can increase well-being, wealth, success,
love and happiness. Studies show that more than 50% of success depends on EI and individuals who use
EI in their lives are more successful, express high self-confidence and are aware of their abilities. Some
studies indicate that EI is a main predictor for psychological well-being indices (satisfaction with life) and
improves inter-individual performance.
Further, results verified positive relationship between EI and conversation communication model. Families
which have higher points of conversation have more free communications among members. Members of
such families respect each other's feelings and emotions and encourage each other to state their
thoughts or feelings (Elwood & Schrader, 1998; Regi, 1991). Consequently, family members learn to
express their feelings and understand others' emotions. In such families, thoughts and feelings are
shared and many different subjects are discussed freely (Fitzparker, 2004). Members of such families
302
learn to manage their emotions. these factors result in increasing EI. Families which have high level of
monotony emphasize on similarity of beliefs and attitudes, avoiding conflict and getting along with others
in communications. Members of such families cannot express their feelings well. Weakness in such skills
results in EI weakening. Results verified the mediating role of EI in relationship between family
communication model and satisfaction with life in women managers. In families with high level of
monotony, communications and interactions emphasize on listening to parents and elderly and
communications between two generations reflect obeying parents. Disagreement with family members
may result in serious conflicts. Self-concepts of such family members are determined by others'
expectations of them. Therefore, their life may be filled with dissatisfaction. In fact, when monotony exists
in a family and members cannot express their feelings well, they are not satisfied with their lives and
cannot plan, lead and manage and they do not have coping strategies to interpret tense conditions.
Results of the present research are limited to education system managers in Shiraz city. Therefore, the
results should be generalized carefully. Results were also affected by family socio-economic situation
variable which is another restriction. Because EI and communication models influence on satisfaction with
life and because they can be learned through education, managers' are advised to hold training courses
so that participants of the courses can adapt well to their family and working environment.
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Contemplation on National University Entrance Exam (Konkoor) in
Iran
1
2
3
Seyyed Ali khaleghinezhad Farzad Hakimzadeh Hassan Maleki
1. PhD Candidate of Curriculum Development, University of Allameh-Tabatabai, Tehran, Iran
2. PhD Candidate of Curriculum Development, University of Tarbeyat Modaress, Tehran, Iran
3. PHD of Curriculum Development, University of Allameh-Tabatabai, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
The method of entry into higher education from high school has a spectacular situation in
personal and social dimensions given the need for contemplative and creative humans. The issue
has been solved in other countries but, unfortunately in Iran it has always been considered a
challenging problem for parents, families, and planners.
the aim of the present study has been contemplating on national entrance exam of the higher
education (konkoor). The type of this study is documentary- descriptive and the method of
gathering the information is that of a library research.
the literature of konkoor in Iran has showed that assessing the cognitive lower levels instead of
higher ones, imposing more mental pressure on families and students, creating problems in
teaching methods and, leading students to play passive roles in learning are of concerns.
Conclusion: Considering a lot of cost and pressure that imposing in Iranian students and families,
and to be a qualified human capital, we need to change in procedure of adapting students.
Analysis of National University Entrance Exam in Iran and other nation idecated that the best way
for jouding about students’’ abilities and competencies to enter higher education institutes is
overall diploma average.
Keywords: National Entrance Exam (Konkoor), High School, Mental Pressure, Student,
Cost
Introduction
How can we improve our society’s future human capital? There is no doubt that one of the main goals of
each educational system as the center of cultivation of human resource for its nation is students’
academic guidance in a direction that meets the needs of individual and society. Accordingly, higher
educational institutes have a significant place for parents, students, planner and politicians in meeting the
two abovementioned needs.
There are few decisions in youngsters’ life that have an effective impact on their life like selection of
university major (gay, 2005). In various societies, Youngsters go to university with different motivations. In
Iran, they enter universities due to career motivations, scientific and academic tendencies, social
interactions there in (Mohammadi, Rozbahani, and Taremi, 2005). In Japan, instructional quality of higher
education is one of the most important factors for obtaining good jobs and social status (Veyoo, 1993).
The study of Western Virginia in the U.S. revealed beside career motivations for university entrance,
interaction with academic environment is another reason for them to enter university (Adams, 1997). Also,
in Australia, university entrance is to obtain better jobs and more income (Maxwell, and colleague., 2000).
Considering various motivations, for all students the decision to enter higher education have been
became important priority in the most of nations. One of Important problem in many of educational system
(for example, Iran) is usually the process of selecting and guiding high school students toward university
commensurate with abilities, capabilities, and interests of them. Additionally, makeing decision based on
accuracy and utility in selecting best students is another challenging policy for curriculum planners. Thus,
selecting of university majors have to completely match with aforementioned concerns. Regarding enter
the higher education institutes, Keravly ( 2004) believes unawareness decisions about that may imposed
negative impacts such as dissatisfaction about selective discipline, dropout, mental problems and
squander of time and costs on students.
In Iran, konkoor is the main strategy of government for adapting students in the most of universities such
as public and private institutes. Thus, we can say the result of konkoor for high school students is usually
determining factor in forming their job and specialist, mount of income, and their social condition. In Iran,
this role of konkoor has made it as important subject for all of Iranian families and students. Accordingly,
the aim of present study is contemplation on konkoor in Iran.
Method
The design of present study is descriptive- analytical that is doing via library researches.
Descriptive - analytical research defined as type of research that “researcher clarify what thing is
available now, illuminate and explain reason of how is it, and account for problem dimensions”
(Hafezneya, 2008: 62). The present study is composed of three stages: (1) the review of konkoor in Iran.
(2) The review of konkoor in other countries. (3) The criticism of Iranian konkoor.
The history of Konkoor in Iran
In Iran, at the beginning of establishing university, the numbers of university volunteers were lower than
university capacity. Thus, the indicators for selecting university discipline were individual diploma type
and their intelligence. The history of first konkoor turn to 1938 that hold by decentralized way. From that
year the kokoon has become a challenging word for Iranian people.
“Konkoor” is French word (meaning competition) that has become familiar word for Iranians, because
each year hundreds of thousands of high school graduates compete in this difficult exam to enter public
universities (Farrokhi-Khajeh-Pasha et al. 2012). In 1969, with an establish higher education and science
ministry, konkoor became hold by centralized way and multi-choice questions. Main reason for avoiding
use of explanation questions was problem of correction this type questions (Mardi, 2004). Three years
after 1978 the Islamic Revolution and the closure of the all Iranian university, no changing happened in
the construction of konkoor. In 1979, first of konkoor held by two centralized and decentralized ways
without any age limitation. In 1361, konkoor was only held in the medical, engineering, agriculture, and
theology disciplines. Also, since 1995, the admission of students to enter higher education institutes
would be done based on the result of konkoor by decentralized way.
306
In higher education ministry, Sanjesh Organization is responsible agency in charge of evaluating’
competency and ability of Iranian students. This organization formed in 1968 and their charts were
confirmed in February 1968 as a test center. This organization has a wide duties and typically, entire of
educational system is associated with it, somehow (Yadegarzadeh, Mogiemi, Paran, & Bahrami, 2008).
The analysis of konkoor volunteers showed that we had experienced grow 9 times from 1981 with
1234387 volunteers until 2013 konkoor with 1086613 volunteers. Furthermore, the study, Tlgyny and
colleagues (2002; cited in Mohtamedi at ell., 2004) posit that 63% of the konkoor volunteers had a rest
lower than 8 hours; approximately, 60 % of volunteers had a study nearly 4 and 6 hours each day.
Konkoor in other countries
Konkoor is not only limited to Iran. In other countries (for example, Brazil, Turkey, Afghanistan, China,
Japan, Mexico, and etc.), this exam used as filter in various form to enter higher education. For example,
in Brazil, there is private and public universities that quality of public universities is better than Private
University and students do not pay any tuition scholarships for their academic period. Thus, there is more
competition to go public universities (Cavalcanti, Guimaraes, & Sampaio, 2012). In Japan, many of
students go to university by written exams. There are two types of exam to enter university: First, holding
simultaneous of centralized exam by the National Center throughout of Japan. This exam concludes of
English language and special subject exam which are basis of admission in public universities and some
private universities. Second, is special exams which each university has?. In this exam, grade of English
lesson is important part of whole exam (Kitao, & Kitao, 2008). In Japan, Bossy (2000) analyzed pressure
of university entrance exam on Japanese’s students revealed that imposing pressure from teachers,
peers, and parents leading to deep mental damages for students.
In U. S. universities, there are particular approaches for selecting students. They categorize students in 4
groups. First group is 10% upper average of diploma, second group is 20% after first group, third group
are people who has diploma average between B and C. forth group have diploma average lower than C
(Kreempour, 1996). Isaacs (2000) also, introduce this subject that more than 66 % of junior students have
a tendency toward higher education institutes. In Mexico, receipting of students in universities has a
specific problem. Arce-Medina and Flores-Allier (2012) believed that success in Mexican university
entrance exam for Youngsters is an appropriate tool to access better life. Thus, students hardly attempt to
go top universities. Additionally, there is a lot request to enter top Mexican universities and each year has
rejected nearly 10 thousand requests.
Criticism to konkoor in Iran
Considering outcomes of konkoor, Psychologists have spoken about imposing mental pressures at the
end of high school on students; Educational experts warn about creating harms due to use testing skills
instead of important learning skills; Economics have introduced more compensating costs on families by
private institutes of konkoor; and higher education specialist emphasize on inability of used assessment
method in guiding students (Mardi, 2004).
Moehtame (2004) uttered that entering students to universities aren’t the end of their problems because
imposed pressures led to damages on next stages of their life. Therefore, compensated damages on
konkoor volunteers are bitter reality that encompasses both of students’ admission and non-admission
that we have to accept.
307
Allocating the grade more or lower than students’ ability, both are unacceptable. Judging about personal
abilities during several years is even subject that we have to deep analysis and contemplation about
characteristics ascribed to individuals. The following to access sound analysis, unsuitable result of
konkoor are introduced:
1) Assess lower levels of students ‘cognitive knowledge
Does konkoor has an ability for evaluating upper level of students’ cognition (for example, creativity,
critical thinking, synthesis, analysis, etc.)? Henson (2010: 314) believed that there is not any exam
declaring all things to us and measuring whole of students’ abilities because our exams not be able
measuring all information of students. Thus, we need various measurements of students to measure
academic achievement during several years.
According to (Sobhani,& Shahidi, 2007; Mardih, 2004; cited in Farrokhi Khajeh Pasha et al. 2012)
Konkoor is very difficult because students are usually so heavily prepare themselves to participate in it at
the last years of their academic period in high school. This subject creating disorder in "higher-level"
cognitive functions, such as creativity and critical thinking.
The Results of a study by Athari and colegous (2009) revealed that the scores of students’ critical thinking
who went university were not desirable prediction and their rank in the university entrance exam were not
deal with this skill. They suggested that teaching and promoting critical thinking skills in the university
educational planning is necessary. Etesami (2011) after examination and criticize to questions of etiology
in mathematical science and experimental science majors believed that remembered questions is
opposite of lesson objectives; konkoor question stimulates students to recall subjects and measuring
“lower- level” cognitive functions. Noorshahi (1999) posits that during 1370 until 1374 at the average
73/32 % of konkoor valentours with 19 to 20 total averages were rejected. Also, Farrokhi Khajeh Pasha et
al. (2012) believed that Konkoor alone or in combination with GPA, has not suitable ability to predictor of
medical students’ academic performance, and its predictive validity declines over the academic years of
medical school. They declared that admission criteria have to consider both cognitive and non-cognitive
factors, to identify the best applicants to become "good doctors" in the future.
2) Imposing more mental pressure on students and their families
Preparing to admission in university is stressful experience; process of students’ admission in college
creates more stress for family and student; stress can be dilemma and may be has impact on students
relationship with their friends, parents, and school activities (Schachter, 2007). In Iran, konkoor is vital
exam that each student have to pass it. Because according to konkoor, academic and career condition in
future result will be determined. Report of Iranian students’ families in 2002 year revealed that 43 % of
families were more sensitive to admission or non-admission their children; 30 % of student who rejected
suffer from mental pressure; and 44 % of families who rejected its student involvement in mental pressure
(cited in Mardi, 2004).
3) Selecting university course no based on talent and interest
Gathering suitable information from university courses by konkoor volunteers leads to academic
satisfaction and success to them. Also, caused more commitment to job that they will be select in future
(Crowley, 2004). In Iran, research results ( zandippor, 1991; shayan, 19943; abdi, 2007) showed Iranian
students have few understanding about university course who are studding now; this subjects make an
astonishment and withdrawal of university.
308
3) Imposing more cost on families
In four seasons of year, we can see advertisement of konkoor institutions in all of Iranian cities; after
more, more of long history of konkoor in Iran, konkoor class is well known name in Iran. The thought
metric center (2004) estimate income of konkoor institutions close to 284 million dollar; also, in 2013 year
(hashari newspaper, 2013) refer to institutions’ 700 billion toman income. This incomes are evidence of
imposing cost on Iranian families. These costs instead cultivate creativity in Iranian younger applying to
kill creativity of them.
4) Disorder in teachers’ teaching methods
Most experts and stakeholders in the education system are aware of effectiveness of evaluation type on
other components of curriculum development. In the other words, instructional objectives and contents,
teaching-learning methods, instructional materials, spaces, teacher and other educational elements will
be changing via evaluation type. More tendency of High school students to master in testing skills, have
been change teacher thoughts about teaching methods. So, all the activities of teacher should be doing to
prepare students for entry to university. For example, study result of razmjo (2004) revealed that more of
pre-university teachers emphasize on reading, translation English text to Persian text, and vocabulary
and grammar; usually regardless to listening skills and pronunciation; they attempted to match their
teaching methods with a konkoor exam. In Japan, murphy also utters his protest to konkoor. He believed
“I was very disappointed that teachers thought English was just a tool for entrance exams” (Murphey,
1998, p. 23).
Conclusion
The aim of this research was contemplation in konkoor with consideration of various aspect of it. Survey
of literature indicate that trying to access better social condition and career skills has become impressive
priority to enter higher education institutions. This subject no belongs to specific culture and more of
societies engage in it.
Entering higher education institutions doing based on two approaches. First, academic background was
used to judge about students’ competency and ability. Result of selection this approach attracted more of
countries in the world to adoption it as important foundation for entering higher education institutes; this
orientation has processing view for evaluating students.
In this orientation, upper level skills are considered valuable and evaluation doing to identify those skills.
Second, one exam hold in a centralized situation and simultaneous time to make a decision about how
much each student has ability and competency to enter higher education institutes. Adaptation of this
view in several countries leads to impose inappropriate consequence on families, students and societies.
In sum, review of experimental literature in Iran and other nations about konkoor showed that assessing
of lower skills students’ cognition, selection of university discipline regardless students interest and talent,
imposes more costs on families, disorder in teaching methods were had been available criticize on
konkoor. In Iran, parliament of Islamic republic with considering weak capacity of konkoor result confirm
law in 2007 year that it declared choosing students to enter university doing based on diploma and
academic background. This law has estimated done in 2010 year. Unfortunately, this law is not
excavation and it is not any hope for doing this law as soon as possible doing in Iran. Considering
309
experience more than 70% of world countries in this issue indicate of be performing of this orientation.
Thus, the best way for sending Iranian students to go university is overall diploma average.
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311
Quality of life role in dormitory students’ self-esteem
Abdolnaser Kor1, Zeynab Mohammadali Pour2, Nilofar Esmaeeli3, Zakie
Karbakhsh Ravari4
1
3
Master of School Counseling, Shahid Beheshti University
2
Family Counseling PhD student, kharazmi University
Master of Educational Psychology, Shahid Beheshti University
4
Master of Family Counseling, Shahid Beheshti University
Abstract
Self-esteem or self-worth is one of the most basic psychological- social human needs that affect
many different aspects of life. Having self-esteem is connected with many cognitive, emotional
and behavioral variables. People with high self-esteem than those with low self-esteem are less
anxious and depressed, have more social skills and ultimately their quality of life is much better.
This study aims at evaluating the relation between self-esteem and life quality in students.
The method of this study is a correlational descriptive one; the population is all graduates
dormitory students of Shahid Beheshti University. A sample of 185 students (92 girl, 93 boy ) are
chosen by a cluster random sampling method. Rosenberg self-esteem questionnaire and quality
of life questionnaire ( WHO- QOL- BREF ) are used. Data analyzing was performed throw
descriptive statistics, Pearson correlation, simple regression, multivariate variance analysis and
LSD post hoc test.
Hypothesis test results show that there is a significant correlation between quality of life
components ( mental health, physical health, social health and environmental health ) and selfesteem ( p≤ 0/001 ). According to the findings, there is a significant different between the boys
and girls quality of life mean in community health component ( p≤ 0/001 ). While such a difference
to other components of life quality and self- esteem is not mentioned.
We can say that self-esteem has acted like a mediator and had a significant role in upgrading the
life quality of students in dormitory environment that are far away from their family. Note that
there is no significant difference between most of boys and girls quality of life components (
mental health, physical health, social health and living environment health ).
Keywords:Self-esteem, quality of life
Introduction:
Bamister ( 1993 ) just like Allport, Ragers and Teser and Campbell, claimed that many of traditional and
contemporary psychological theories confirmed the fact that people have a strong and pervasive need to
self-esteem. He further noted that the self-esteem is a human vital need, a valuable sense that reduces
the sensitivity of individual against anxiety. In Mayers ( 1998 ) point of view, people with high self-esteem
than those with low self-esteem are less anxious, depressed and suffer from substance abuse, have
more social skills and also their interest style is likely to be safe. Despite this need to the self-esteem is a
basic psychological need, but only few researches have addressed that under what conditions the selfesteem will develop, how does it help to person and what mechanisms are involved.
Due to the importance and comprehensive range of quality of life, affecting factors has been always
investigated. In fact, quality of life is a summary of the entire health care goals that assess the impact of
health on life (Goth and Henkel, 2003). The World Health Organization (1974) claimed that Quality of life
is not just the absence of disease, but also is complete physical, mental and social welfare, and since
then this organization tried to define “ quality of life “ variables ( quoting Kastching et. al, 1998) that aimed
at positive psychology and psychological growth and health manifestation.
Tenyson and Vinderman ( 2002 ) found that there is a significant positive relation between the life quality
of children and their self-esteem, meaning that increasing the quality of life for children , results in
increasing their self-esteem. Rezaee Aderiani et. al ( 2007 ) in their study reported that 33.2 % of
students have high and 4.9 % of students have low quality of life. Ghasemizad, Berenjian Tabrizi , Abedi
and Barzideh in 2009 showed that there is a significant and positive relation between the quality of life
and self-esteem. Bashlide and Hashemi ( 2010 ) observed that negative self-esteem had an impressive
impact on mental health and exhaustion and finally concluded that the absence of worries and concerns
about self can protect the mental health much better than having good feelings about self. Although
several studies conducted on the quality of life relation with self-esteem, but only Zaki ( 2007 ) has
examined the role of life quality in self-esteem. He found that three components of life quality,
interpersonal relationships , paranormal ( spirituality ) and function are the most powerful predictor of selfesteem , but no significant difference in life quality of Isfahan University students, was reported .
Living in dorms has its own problems and dormitory students are more vulnerable to stress and harm, so
the aim of this study is determining the role of life quality in dormitory students’ self-esteem. Assume that
the overall score of life quality and the score of every dimension of it ( physical health , psychological
health , social health and living environment health ) can predict the self-esteem. In other words,
increasing the overall score of life quality, results in increasing self-esteem. This study also aims at
answering these questions : 1 ) which dimension of life quality can predict self-esteem better? 2 ) Is there
any significant difference between dormitory boys and girls in life quality dimensions and self-esteem?
Methods:
Due to the nature of this research, correlational research design was used. The data was analyzed using
these statistical methods: Pearson correlation, Regression, M-Box, Multi -way analysis of variance and
post hoc LSD tests.
Population, Sample, Sampling:
The population included all male and female graduate dormitory students of Shahid Beheshti University in
90-91 academic year. A sample of 185 university students ( 92 girl, 93 boy ) that are chosen by a cluster
random sampling method according to the previous study variance.
Data collection tools :
313
The quality of life questionnaire (WHOQOL-BREF): For the first time, the quality of life questionnaire was
translated and validated by Nejabat ( 2006 ). The questionnaire contains 26 questions and the four physical, psychological, social and environmental - aspects of quality of life that inscribe the positive and
negative aspects of life quality. Questions based on the Likert scale rating of 5, a score of 1 indicates a
negative and low perception and the score of 5 indicates a positive and high perception. The validity of
this questionnaire, with the potential to differentiate the device in healthy and patient groups using linear
regression, has been evaluated. Intracluster correlation in all domains of the questionnaire is upper than
0/70 , but this amount in the field of social relations is 0/55. The reliability of the test was 0/77 ( Karimi
Zadeh, 2009). In this study , the reliability of the questionnaire was calculated using Cronbach 's alpha
and Bisection, the total scale were 0/89 and 0/83.
The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale: This scale consists of 10 self-report items and any proposition of this
scale, consists four items ( from totally agree to totally disagree). Mohammadi (2005) reported the
coefficient Cronbach’s alpha ( 0/69 ) and split half Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale ( 0/68 ) for Shiraz
students, test-retest reliability coefficients of the scales, with intervals of one week 0/77, two weeks 0/73
and three weeks 0/78 is reported. In this study, Cronbach's alpha ( 0/69 ) and Bisection ( 0/65 ) methods
are used for determining the reliability of the questionnaire.
Findings:
In this section, the data is evaluated using different scientific methods. The purpose of data collection and
categorization is variables cognition and the relations among them to the objectives of the study be
summarized and concluded appropriately. In analytical part, Pearson correlation coefficient, multiple
regression and multivariate analyzes were used.
2
1
1
**
Table.1 Pearson correlation
coefficients between quality of
life ( total score ) and selfesteem
1
0/5
r
r
Quality of life
Self-esteem
1
2
N= 185 α=0/01**
Table.2 Pearson correlation coefficients between the
components of life quality and self-esteem
314
5
4
1
**
1
0/269
3
2
1
1
r
1
**
0/486
1
0/505
**
0/628
**
**
**
0/630
0/482
**
0/458
r
r
r
**
**
**
r
0/393
0/584
0/392
Physical
health
Mental health
Social health
Living
environment
health
Self-esteem
1
2
3
4
5
N=185 α=0/01**
According to Table ( 1 ) since r = 0/05 , we can say that there is a positive and significant relation
between the quality of life ( total score ) and self-esteem ( p ≤ 0/001 ). The quantity of “ r “ in Table 2
shows that there is positive and direct relation between components of life quality and self-esteem ( p ≤
0/001 ). Among the components of life quality, mental health has the most correlation with other
components that the higher one is related to mental health and physical health; after reviewing the basic
relationship between self-esteem and quality of life components we used simultaneous regression to
determine the most predictor component of life quality components. The results are shown in following
table.
Table.3 self-esteem Regression on components of life quality
Significance
level
0/000
t
Standardized
beta
coefficients
Non-standardized
coefficients
Coefficients
B
and
1/759
7/617
0/182
0/033
0/855
4/329
0/183
0/014
0/000
7/044
0/619
0/152
0/07
0/016
2/431
0/175
0/096
0/232
0/007
2/212
0/212-
0/113
0/305
0/379
R²
0/616
predictor
criterion
Selfesteem
Fixed effects
Physical
health
Mental
health
Social health
Living
environment
R
Due to the amount of R ² in the above table, we can conclude that the components of quality of life,
explain about 37/9 % of the variance in self-esteem component. According to the standard beta
315
coefficients, the most important part in self-esteem variance is mental health so that by every unit change
in mental health variance, there is a change of 0/619 in self-esteem variance. The beta model reflects the
degree of predicting criterion variables variance. In the second and third step, living environment health
and social health rate 0/175 and 0/212 of the self-esteem variance.
Table.4 results of studing M-Box homogeneity of variance
Box's
M
F
df1
df2
17/190
0/589
28
/860
116436
0/958
Sig.
In this section, the life quality and self-esteem in students is analyzed.
According to Table.4, since the value of F ( 0/589 ) with freedom degree of ( df=28 ) in M-Box test (
α=0/01 ) p = 0/958 is not in a significant level, so the default homogeneity of variance within data is
proved and accepted, and using ANOVA is permitted.
Table.5 Multivariate variance analysis to compare the quality of life and self-esteem in students
316
Significa
nce level
F
Mean
square
Total square
1/531
1/26
96/267
14/786
Freedo
m
degrees
1
1
1
1
0/504
0/653
0/002
0/197
0/449
0/203
9/572
1/677
0/732
0/118
2/177
3/414
6/208
1
183
183
2/177
624/673
1136/076
10/057
8/814
183
183
1840/511
1613/014
1/531
1/26
96/267
14/786
Physical health
Mental health
Social health
Living
environment
health
Self-esteem
Physical health
Mental health
Social health
Living
environment
Effect
of sex
Error
18/523
183
3389/737
health
Self-esteem
N = 185 α = 0/01**
Table.5 shows that the value of F in level of ( p ≤ 0/002 ) in social health component ( 9/572, 1, 185 ) of
quality of life is significant, so we can conclude that there is a significant difference between male and
female students in social health, while this difference do not exist for other aspects of life quality and selfesteem. Mean comparison of these groups using LSD post hoc test also showed that life quality of male
students in social health aspect is higher than female students.
Table.6 LSD post hoc test to compare the life quality of males and females
Significa
nce level
Standard
deviation
0/002
0/002
0/466
0/466
Mean
difference
(I – J)
*
1/443*
1/443
Variable
I
female
male
J
male
female
Social health
Discussion and conclusion :
The present study showed that there is a significant positive correlation between the total score of life
quality and its components with self-esteem ( p≤ 0/001 ). These findings are in line with Tenison and
Vinderman ( 2002 ) and Ghasemizade and his colleagues ( 2009 ). But in this study, the life quality and
its components are the predictor that increasing in life quality and its components results in increasing the
self-esteem. Now, the most predictive component of life quality for self-esteem is mental health. Zaki (
2007 ) reported these three components of life quality
( interpersonal relations, paranormal,
function ) as the most predictive components for self-esteem. But he used Missoula-Vitas Quality of Life
Index.
As mentioned in the introduction, self-esteem is one of the psychological needs of human that increase
his resistance against anxiety; and probably those with high self-esteem are secure that this issue is a
sign of mental health. The psychological aspect of life quality consists of different mental aspects of
health such as depression, fear, anger, joy and peace. Obviously, some subset of this aspect are : selfconcept, positive feelings, negative feelings, religious beliefs, thinking, learning, memory and
concentration ( King & Hindez, 2003 ). A high life quality leads to a greater efficiency and therefore this
person will have a positive judgment about himself. Self-esteem is a symbol for many other psychological
components and is sign of mental health. Only one person with a mentally high esteem, can feel safe.
One can have a high self-esteem only by mentally feeling secure. When the worries about physical,
psychological and social aspects of self, decrease and the quality of life increase, so he will feel the
power. For example, physically he will have enough mobility, energy, sleep and rest that gives him the
317
power to perform the daily activities ( same ). Data also showed that there is a significant difference
between boys and girls in the social health component of life quality, the boy’s life quality in social health
aspect is higher than girls, and this difference does not exist for other aspects of life quality and selfesteem. The social aspect is connected to self-ability in communicating with family members, neighbors,
co-workers and other social groups, employment status and economic situation. Meanwhile Zaki ( 2007 )
did not report any significant difference in boys and girls life quality. However, more researches on this
topic is needed and with just one or two research we cannot make a good judge, since several factors
may be involved.
One of the limitations in this study was that it run only in dormitory students and it is much better to run
this type of research in public, so that we can get some information about the life quality and self-esteem
status of people. By involving other students except those in dormitory, we can advance in comparing
dormitory students and those at home. This research offers the increasing self-esteem throw improving
life quality of dormitory students. One of the main tasks of psychotherapy is creating a greater selfesteem, the high self-esteem in students, results in more academic achievement and is a predictor of
future success. Therefore, the university counseling center and other relevant authorities should seriously
review the issue of dormitory students’ life quality and exercise necessary measures because the life
quality affects different aspects of student life that in this study we analyzed only one ( self-esteem )of
these aspects.
Sources:
Rezaee Aderiani, M; Azadi, A; Ahmadi, F and Azimi, A ( 2007 ). A comparison in rates of depression,
anxiety, stress and quality of life for dormitory students, Nursing Research Journal, No. 2 ( 4&5 ), 36-38.
Bashlide, Kiomars; Hashemi Shekh Shabani, Seyed Esmaeel ( 2010 ). Evaluating the relationship
between the positive and negative aspects of self-esteem and mental health through mediating role of
burnout in married and single women, consultation and family psychotherapy Journal, first year, No. 1,
82-100.
Zaki, Mohammadali ( 2007 ). Quality of life and its` relation with self-esteem in Isfahan University
students, Iran psychiatry and clinical psychology journal, thirteenth year, No. 4, 416-419.
Ghasemizad, Alireza; Berenjian Tabrizi, Hossein; Abedi, Mohammad Reza and Barzide, Omolbanin (
2009 ). A comparative study of the relationship between quality of life and self-esteem, locus of control,
stress and social capital of Shahed and Fars Isargaran, New approach in Educational Administration
Journal, University of Marvdasht, the first year, No. 4, 107-124.
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Gott M., Hinchliff Sh. (2003), How important is sex in later life? The views of older
people. Social Science & Medicine 56, pp, 1617–1628.
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adolescents in Ahvaz (Unpublished MA abstract, Islamic Azad University of Ahvaz). (Persian).
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King CR.,& Hinds PS.(2003). Quality of life from nursing an patient perspective. Massachusette: Jons
and Bartlett publishers Meyers,S.A.(1998). Personality correlation of adult attachment style. Social
psychology Journal,138, 407-409.
Mohammadi, N. (2005), An introductory study of reliability and validity of Rosenberg's self-reliance Iranian
Psychologists Journal, 1(4), 313- 320. (Persian),
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319
The role of identity styles and spiritual intelligence in the prediction of
psychological well-being of students
Hossein Hosseini*1.Dr. Jahangir karami2, Dr Khodamorad momani
2
1-MA of Psychology, Razi University, Kermanshah branch, Kermanshah, Iran
2-Associate Professor of psychology, Razi University, Kermanshah branch, Kermanshah,
Iran
Abstract
This study aimed to determine the identity styles and spiritual intelligence in the
prediction of psychological well-being of students. This study employed a descriptive
correlation. The study population comprised all the students of the University of
Kermanshah, out of which a sample of 360 subjects was selected through stratified
random sampling method. The data gathering tools included Berzonsky Identity Styles
Inventory, King Spiritual Intelligence, and Ryff Psychological Well-Binge Inventory.
Pearson correlation coefficient and multiple regression analysis were used to analyze
the data by SPSS19. Data analysis showed that the identity styles and spiritual
intelligence have the ability to predict psychological well-being and its components.
Moreover, identity styles and spiritual intelligence are significantly correlated to
psychological well-being. Based on the research findings, it can be concluded that
identity styles and spiritual intelligence are the effective factors of psychological wellbeing. The research results can be employed by counselors and people who are
concerned about increasing psychological well-being.
Keywords: Psychological well-being, spiritual intelligence, identity styles
Introduction
Mental health is not only one of the most important dimensions of the human being’s health but
also the crucial necessity for their growth and actualization. Therefore, implementing, maintaining and
improving the health of thought and thinking, enhancing the ability to cope with everyday problems of life,
ability to establish and maintain healthy intimate relationships with peers, having purposeful and fruitful
life and enjoying it is of crucial importance (Rezaei and Izadi, 2012).
In the past decades, Ryff et al (1989) have presented a model of positive psychological wellbeing or mental health. Based on Ryff ’s model, psychological well-being consists of six factors, including
self-acceptance (having a positive attitude toward self), positive relationship with others (warm, intimate
relationships and the ability to empathize with others), autonomy (a sense of independence and ability to
stand against social pressures), purposeful life (having a purpose in life and making sense of it), personal
growth (feeling of continuous growth), and mastering environment (ability to manage the environment)
have attracted great attention (Cheng and Chan, 2005).
According to the theory of Erikson, one of the factors that affect the psychological well-being and
mental health is the identity styles. Bahari Chegour (2009) in their research on the relationship between
identity styles, attachment styles and psychological well-being found a significant between attachment
styles and psychological welfare. The concept of identity (self) cannot be defined by exact words and is
somewhat ambiguous. Identity include continuity and stability that characterize individuals despite the
changes that may happen in every stage of life and the roles they make occupy. In the process of growth,
the processes that individuals go through are not separated from one another.
The individual has an identity and there exists relationship between the identities of every stage.
This identity has always had experimental type because each stage was in a becoming stage and now is
the time of being (Akbarzadeh, 1997). Various styles of identity are style identity commitment style,
informational style, and normative style and diffuse - confused style. World Health Organization (WHO)
have devoted great attention to religious beliefs, specifically the Islamic beliefs and this organization has
allocated some of its publications to the religious hygienic training as the strategy of healthy life since
1992. It has also published many books and pamphlets with titles such as hygiene from the perspective of
Islam or enhancement of hygiene from Islamic Perspective (Ramezani, 2001).
Intelligence is one of the most important factors of determining the behavior of individual. Spiritual
intelligence is a range of abilities, capacities and spiritual sources and its implication in daily life enhances
the individual’s adjustment and adaptability. The role of spiritual intelligence in solving the existential
issues and finding meaning and goals in daily life events and life phenomena has been emphasized in the
existing definitions of spiritual intelligence specifically spiritual intelligence (Sohrabi, 2006). With regard
the research literature and importance of the subject, the present research aims to find the relationship
between spiritual intelligence, identity styles and psychological well-being. Moreover, the researchers
attempt to find the predictive value of spiritual intelligence and identity styles in the prediction of
psychological well-being.
This study employed a descriptive correlation. The study population comprised all the students of
the University of Kermanshah in the academic year of 2012-2013, out of which a sample of 360 subjects
was selected through stratified random sampling method. The inclusion criterion was having studied for at
least two terms at university. The data gathering tools included Berzonsky Identity Styles Inventory, King
Spiritual Intelligence, and Ryff Psychological Well-Binge Inventory. Pearson correlation coefficient and
multiple regression analysis were used to analyze the data by SPSS19.
The Ryff inventory consists of either 84 questions (long form) or 54 questions (medium form).
There is also a short form, but it is statistically unreliable and therefore should not be used for
assessment. Both the long and medium forms consist of a series of statements reflecting the six areas of
psychological well-being: autonomy, environmental mastery, personal growth, positive relations with
others, purpose in life, and self-acceptance. Respondents rate statements on a scale of 1 to 6, with 1
indicating strong disagreement and 6 indicating strong agreement. Responses are totaled for each of the
six categories (about half of the responses are reverse scored, which is indicated on the master copy of
the test). For each category, a high score indicates that the respondent has a mastery of that area in his
or her life.
The Cronbach alpha for the subscales were .77 and .90, respectively. The correlation between
psychological well-being scale and satisfaction with life scale questionnaire, happiness questionnaire and
Rosenberg self-esteem questionnaire are equal to .47, .58 and .46, respectively. The reliability coefficient
in the research by Zanjani Tabasi (2004) using internal consistency for the total scale and subscales
equaled .94, .63 and .89, respectively. The correlation coefficient using test-retest for the total scale and
subscales were .76, .67 and .73, respectively (Zanjani, 2002).
Berzonsky (1989) developed the Identity Style Inventory (ISI) to assess the extent to which
individuals use these styles. The ISI also includes a subscale designed to assess strength of identity
commitment. It consists of 40 items scored on a scale ranging from 1 (not at all like me) to 5 (very much
like me). Information-oriented style, normative style, diﬀuse- style include 11, 9, 10 items, respectively
321
Cronbach alpha of Identity style inventory. The validity and reliability of the questionnaire were
assessed to be acceptable on an Iranian population (Ghazanfari, et al, 2004).
King spiritual intelligence scale is a 24-item questionnaire that included four subscales critical
existential thinking, personal meaning production, transcendental awareness and conscious state
expansion. Each question assessed one item and the sum of scores of several questions determines
the score each item. Higher score is indicative of higher spiritual intelligence. The Cronbach alpha
coefficients for the total scale and subscales are equal to .92, .90 and .70, respectively (Saadati, 2011).
As observed in table 1, the mean and standard deviation of the participants’ age was equal to
22.5 and 3.47, respectively. Moreover, the mean of GPA of the participants is equal to 16.11 in the range
of 11.93 to 20. The standard deviation of GPA is equal to 1.40. Other descriptive findings have been
presented in table 1.
Variable
Age
Gender
Residence
Marital Status
Average
mean
Sd
minimu
m
22.5
3.47
18
1
.48
1
1.74
1
1
1
.23
1
16.11
1.40
11.93
Table 1) descriptive data of the research variable
maximum
36
2
4
2
20
Table 2- correlation matrix of variables
As observed in table 2, matrix of variables correlation indicate that spiritual intelligence is
significantly correlated to self-acceptance, autonomy, purposeful life, personal growth and total
psychological well-being (p<.001). Informational identity style is significantly and positively correlated to
Criterion
variable
Spiritual
intelligence
Informational
Normative
Diffuseavoidance
Commitment
322
Statistical
indices
Selfacceptance
Positive
relationship
with others
Autonomy
Mastery
over
environment
Purposeful
life
Personal
growth
Psychological
well-being
Correlation
Level of
sig.
Correlation
Level of
sig.
Correlation
Level of
sig.
Correlation
Level of
sig.
Correlation
Level of
sig.
.21
.001
.01
.89
.26
.001
.19
.005
.21
.001
.17
.005
.31
.001
.31
.001
.44
.001
.19
.005
.09
.25
.033
.07
.11
.18
.38
.001
.08
.33
.20
.002
.17
.005
.04
.61
.21
.001
.08
.92
.09
.25
-.19
.005
-.45
.001
.07
.38
.04
.58
-.48
.001
-.15
.07
-.18
.005
.14
.08
.33
.001
.21
.001
.08
.31
.64
.001
.10
.22
.16
.005
self-acceptance, positive relationship with others, autonomy, purposeful life and total psychological wellbeing. Moreover, normative identity style is significantly and directly correlated to positive relationship with
others, autonomy and purposeful life. Furthermore, diffuse-avoidance identity style is significantly and
reversely correlated to positive relationship with others, purposeful life and total psychological well-being.
Finally, commitment style is significantly and directly correlated to positive relationship with others,
autonomy, purposeful life and total psychological well-being.
Regression analysis was used to predict psychological well-being using spiritual intelligence and
identity styles. The results of regression analysis indicated that the employed model is significant for the
prediction of criterion variable of self-acceptance (F=7.28) and this model with determination coefficient of
.37 can predict the relationship between the variables, meaning that spiritual intelligence can predict .37
percent of the changes of self-acceptance. From among the predictor variables of self-acceptance,
spiritual intelligence, informational identity style and commitment can predict .47, .33 and .41 of the
changes, respectively. Results of regression analysis indicated that the employed model is significant for
the prediction of the criterion variable of positive relationship with people (F=6.58) and the employed
model with determination coefficient of .29 can predict the relationship between the variables. From
among the predictors variables, positive relationship with others, informational, commitment, normative
and diffuse identity styles can predict .24, .63, .21 and -.49 percent of the changes. The results of the
regression indicated that the employed model is significant in the prediction of the criterion variable of
autonomy (F=3.15) and the employed model with determination coefficient of .08 can explain the
relationship between the variables.
From among the predictor variables, autonomy, spiritual intelligence, commitment and
informational identity styles can predict .20, .31 and .27. The results of employed regression analysis for
the prediction of criterion variable (mastery over environment) is significant (F=9.11) and the employed
model with determination coefficient of .47 can explain the relationship between the variables. Moreover,
from among the predictor variables, mastery over environment, diffuse and commitment identity styles
can predict -.32 and .20 of the changes. The results of regression analysis is significant for the prediction
of the criterion variable of purposeful life (F=4.06) and the employed model with determination coefficient
of .11 can predict the relationship between the variables. From among the prediction variables for the
purposeful life, spiritual intelligence and informational identity styles can predict with Beta coefficients of
.49 and .53, respectively. The results of regression analysis is significant for the prediction of criterion
variable (personal growth) (F=5.11) and the employed model with determination coefficient of .15 can
explain the relationship between the variables. From among the predictor variables for personal growth,
diffuse-avoidance identity style with Beta coefficient of -.21 can predict the changes.
The results of regression analysis is significant for the prediction of criterion variable (personal
growth) (F=5.11) and the employed model with determination coefficient of .15 can predict the
relationship between the variables. From among the predictor variables for personal growth, diffuse
identity style with Beta coefficient of -.21 can predict the changes. The results of regression analysis
indicates that the employed model is significant for the prediction of criterion variable (psychological wellbeing) (F=18.43) and the employed model with determination coefficient of .78 can explain the
relationship between the variables. From among the predictor variables for psychological well-being,
informational, commitment and diffuse identity style can predict the changes with Beta coefficients of .35,
.47, -.43 and .31, respectively.
Table 3- summary of regression analysis for determining the role of identity styles and spiritual
intelligence in the prediction of psychological well-being
Selfacceptance
Criterion
variable
323
R2
R
F
.37
.61
7.28
Level
of sig.
.001
Predictor
variables
Spiritual
intelligence
Informational
identity
B
β
T
.82
.47
.59
.47
.33
.41
4.2
2.07
3.5
Level of
sig.
.001
.001
.001
.29
.54
6.58
.001
.08
.28
3.15
.001
.001
.24
.63
.21
-.49
2.28
6.23
4.11
5.32
.001
.001
.001
.001
.001
.70
.41
.18
.20
.31
.37
2.40
3.01
2.04
.001
.005
Mastery
over
environment
9.11
.82
.71
.39
-.63
.47
.11
.33
4.06
.001
Spiritual intelligence
Informational identity
.78
.63
.59
.43
6.11
4.33
.001
.001
.15
.39
23.5
.001
Diffuse identity
-.70
-.31
-2
.001
.60
.78
18.43
.001
Spiritual intelligence
Informational identity
Commitment identity
Diffuse identity
.93
.99
.85
.76
.31
.35
.47
-.43
2.82
3.39
2.14
3.11
.001
.001
.001
.001
Psychologic Personal
al well-being growth
.69
Informational
identity
Commitment
identity
Normative
identity
Diffuse identity
Spiritual
intelligence
Commitment
identity
Informational
identity
Diffuse identity
Commitment identity
Purposeful
life
Autonomy
Positive relationship
with people
Commitment
identity
-.82
-.32
-2.80
.70
.20
2.40
.001
.001
We aimed to investigate the relationship between spiritual intelligence, identity styles and
psychological well-being among students. Results showed that all components of psychological wellbeing (with the exception of positive relations with others) have a significant positive correlation with
spiritual intelligence.
In the explanation of the significance between spiritual intelligence and psychological well-being,
it can be stated that individuals who have higher spiritual intelligence have particular meaning and more
specific goals, maintain their mental balance while confronting with frustration and problems and suffer
from less anxiety and stress by believing in ultra -material power and therefore, maintain their
psychological well-being.
It can be stated that having a spiritual meaning in life and spiritual peace strengthen the hope and
expectations of positive phenomena. This finding is in line with the research results by Reker (1997) and
Zika and Chamberlain (1997). Individuals with higher levels of spirituality demonstrate higher levels of
self-actualization and meaning of life. According to the research findings, it can be concluded that, there
324
exists significant and positive relationship between spirituality, personal growth and goal-orientation, in a
way that the formation of spirituality in life leads to the self-actualization and fulfillment of purposefulness.
The study by Nadi and Sajadian showed that the spiritual meaning is influenced by the
psychological actualization, spiritual peace, and purposefulness in life. In other words, individuals try to
behave purposefully when they understand that meaningfulness in their life is based on spirituality. Put it
differently, spirituality in life and spiritual perspective makes individuals be more purposeful and happy.
Therefore, such people perceive the inner joy, believe in the transcendental existence and find peace with
this belief (Nadi and Sajjadian, 2011).
In explaining the significance of the relationship between identity styles and psychological wellbeing it can be concluded that people with commitment identity style establish lasting, logical and strong
relationships, have certain beliefs, certain purposes and specific goals in life, face less instability in their
social relationship and feel more comfortable; therefore, they maintain their psychological well-being in a
higher level as compared to other individuals who have other styles of identity.
Diffuse identity style has significant and reverse relationship with other components of
psychological well-being. Individuals with diffuse identity styles can establish reliable relationships with
the society, have clear beliefs and goals, cannot maintain their mental balance in life and stressful and
conflicting life conditions and suffer from confusion and anxiety. These factors decrease individuals’
psychological well-being and they feel less mental health and psychological well-being.
These findings are in line with the results of the research by Ghazanfari. In a study entitled the
relationship between the adolescents’ identity styles and mental health, the results of the research
indicated informational identity style, normative identity style and psychological health are significantly
and positively correlated to one another. Moreover, there is significant and reverse relationship between
diffuse-avoidance identity style and mental health. Results of the present research are in line with the
results of the research by Ghazanfari (2003), Ghafar Zadeh (2010), Hosseini (2007) and Abdi Zarin et al
(2010).
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326
Comparison of the personality traits in homosexual and heterosexual
boys
Maryam Mirza Abolhasan*1, Mojtaba Balkaneh2, Atefeh Abdolmanafi3, Elaheh Hejazi4 Mohammad
Ali Besharat4
1- MA of educational psychology, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
2- MA of guidance and counseling, Khatam University, Tehran, Iran
3- PhD student of counseling, Tarbiat Modarres University, Tehran, Iran
4- Associate professor, Tehran University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
As women and men are different in some personality traits, heterosexual and
homosexual people are also different in personality traits. The purpose of present study
was the compare personality traits in homosexual and heterosexual boys. The
population of this study included all the male students in Tehran city in 2009. Fifteen
students with heterosexual orientation were selected through convenience sampling and
fifteen students with homosexual orientation were selected by snowball sampling.
Participants filled the questionnaires personality inventory (NEO). The data were
analyzed by various indicators such as frequency, percent, mean, standard deviation
and independent-samples T Test. The finding showed that, there is significant difference
in the mean of personality scales between homosexual and heterosexual boys; that
extroversion and openness is high in homosexual group and agreeability and
conscientiousness is high in heterosexual group but there isn’t difference between the
mean of groups in the neuroticism scale. The data analyzed by T test showed that, there
is a significant difference in high level of extroversion and openness in homosexual
group as compared to heterosexual group. The present study showed that sexual
orientation influences the personality traits. So according to the sexual orientation that
affects the personality and behavioral system, it seems necessary to focus on this factor
along with other affective factors.
Keywords: personality traits, homosexual, heterosexual, sexual orientation
Introduction
In recent years, questions and concepts related to the sexual orientation have been the subject of
scientific and public discussions and parallel psychological studies on sexual orientation have also started
to grow. Sexual orientation is a continuous emotional, romantic, and sexual or emotional attraction that a
person feels toward another person. Some people are exclusively homosexual and others are exclusively
heterosexual and some can have varying degrees of attraction for both sexes (Patterson, 2008).
Considering the feelings in the early stages of adolescence is a way to detect a person's sexual
orientation. Growing stages are more complicated when the sexual orientation is homosexual or bio
sexual, according to the social labels (Hammersmith, 1987). Researches in recent decades have shown
that sexual orientation is moving from exclusive attraction of the opposite sex to the homosexuality.
(Hiller, Turner and Mitchell, 2005; American Psychological Association, 2008). Homosexuality is a
sensual attraction to someone from own sex in which men are called gays, (male homosexuality) and
women are called lesbians (female homosexuality), (American Psychological Association, 2008).
Around 8.2 percent of gay men in the UK in the past 5 years, 6.31 of them had sexual partner, In
Britain in the past 5 years, 6.31 have one sexual partner, 1.31 have two partners, and 1.15 percent have
more than ten sexual partners in the course of their lives. (Kassel, 2005). Sandfort et al (2001) in the
Netherlands reported that, 8.2 percent of men and 4.1% of women have homosexual partner. The
prevalence of homosexuality in men may vary in different societies and times. This difference may be due
to the joint effect of two factors: changes in the number of family members and consecutive birth of two
brothers, of course, this may be varying in different countries (Bogaert, 2004).
As people accept their social labels and characteristics (e.g., race or obesity), a person who is
identified as gay or bisexual is at higher risk for accepting the unpleasant consequences of his –
psychological-social and sexuality. These results include differences in emotion, personality, problems in
school, the peer verbal abuse, physical abuse, sexual abuse, trouble with the law and suicide or
attempting suicide (Resnick, 1984).
Thus, since this behavior can affect the personality and behavior of individuals, it is proper to
examine the person from the perspective of psychology. Based on the diversity of human behavior,
different definitions of characters can be offered. The character is set of stable and unique characteristics
that may change in response to different situations (Shultz and Shultz, 2005).
On average, men and women are different in some of characteristics (Lippa, 2005; Casta &
McCrea, 2001, Feingold, 1994). Men’s score is higher than women's in extraversion (e.g., assertiveness
and dominance) but is lower in others (like sociability and agreeableness). While women’s score in many
aspects of neuroticism (e.g. anxiety, depression, vulnerability) and in many aspects of agreeableness
(tendency, altruism and empathy) is higher than men. (Lippa, 2008, McCrae et al, 2005). Zang et al's
study (2011) of analysis of a questionnaire with five factors of personality on both male and female
homosexuals showed that there is a significant difference between homosexual and heterosexual men.
There was no significant difference among the four other factors. Just as women and men differ in certain
personality traits, homosexuals and heterosexuals are also different Lippa (2008).
Lippa (2008) examined gender differences and sexual orientation in six personality traits:
extraversion, harmony, neuroticism, rigidity, male career interests as compared to women and masculinefeminine self-expression. Homosexual men gained a higher score than bisexual men in courage,
agreement, conscientiousness, neuroticism and experience gaining. Heterosexual women had higher
scores than homosexuals in adiabatic neurosis. While lesbians achieved higher scores in career
interests, self-expression and openness to experience than heterosexual women.
In confirmation of previous research, gender differences and sexual orientation differences in
self-description and interests related to gender were more pronounced. Heterosexual and homosexual
differences reflect sex differences in personality. Gay’s interest was more toward women and lesbians
toward male. Although the characteristic of gays and lesbians is different from heterosexuals, it is
important to pay attention to this fact that gay’s personality is not similar to women. And also lesbians’
personality is not like men. Homosexuals’ characteristic is like both between heterosexual men and
women. Therefore, the results of this meta-analysis support that sexual orientation change characters’
characteristics but do not transform them.
Smith and Boss (2000) in a study found that there is a significant association between sexual
orientation and openness to experience. Thus, homosexuals compared to heterosexuals get higher
scores on the scale of openness to experience. In Iran only Ansari (1999), has considered lack of
confidence, narcissism, context variability, bitterness and nervous disorders as remarkable characteristics
of female homosexuals. The research literature shows that the study of gay male characteristics based
on the five factor model has not been done. Research findings in other countries in this regard are limited.
Thus, this study was the first research done in this field in Iran and other countries.
328
The present research is not experimental and employs post facto design. The research sample
included homosexual and heterosexual boys aged 18 to 30 years old in 2008, out of which a sample of 30
male boys were selected (15 individual with heterosexuality and 15 individuals with homosexuality). The
heterosexual sample was selected through random and convenience sampling and the homosexual
sample was selected through snow ball sampling and both groups were controlled in terms of age, marital
status, education, lack of referral to the psychologists and psychiatrists for changing their sexual
orientation.
NEO personality inventory is a 240-item questionnaire that was designed and developed by
Costa and McCrae (1999) to evaluate the personality characteristics. The items of the questionnaire
assess five dimensions of personality including neuroticism, extroversion, openness to experience,
agreeableness and conscientiousness. The responses are scored on 5-point Likert scale from zero
(completely agree) to four (completely disagree. Each of these scales has 6 indicators. The psychometric
characteristics of NEO personality inventory have been confirmed in overseas studies (Costa and
McCrae, 1988, cited in Garousi, 1998). The Persian form of NEO was normalized by Garousi (1998) on a
2000 sample of university students studying in Tabriz University, Shiraz University and Medical Sciences
Universities of these two cities. The correlation coefficient was reported to be between .56 and .87
between the five main dimensions.
Questionnaire of homosexuality and sexual health was designed and developed to evaluate the
sexual behavior and determine the sexual orientation of each group. The homosexuality questionnaire
and sexual health were piloted on homosexual individuals in the age range of 14 and 21 in Australia. The
sampling was not random and therefore, the results can’t be generalized to large population of
homosexuals. The final sampling continued from 2003 until 2004. The final construct of this scale has 40
items that has 6 subscales (sexual behaviors, sexual feelings, using drug and medicine, general wellbeing, friends and family, sexual information and education).
Table 1 presents the frequency distribution of homosexual and heterosexual subjects based on
demographic variables (education and job).
Table 1- frequency distribution of the subjects based on demographic variables
Indicator
Groups
Homosexual
Heterosexual
Total
Education
Diploma
7
(47.7)
4
(26.7)
11
(36.7)
AS
0
(0)
2
(13.3)
2
(6.7)
BA
5
(33.)
12
(70)
17
(56.6)
Job
Student
0
(0)
7
(46.7)
7
(23.3)
Employed
7
(47.7)
2
(13.3)
9
(40)
Unemployed
8
(53.3)
6
(40)
14
(36.7)
* The figures within parenthesis are indicative of the percentage
As observed in table 1, half of the homosexuals are diploma and 33 percent have BA. Moreover,
half of them are employed and 53.3 percent of them are unemployed. 26.7 percent of the heterosexuals
have diploma, 46.7 percent are university students and 70 percent have BA. What’s more, 13.3 percent
are employed and 40 percent are unemployed.
Table 2 indicates the statistical indices of the variables related to the personality characteristics of
homosexuals and heterosexuals
329
Group
Neuroticism
Extroversion
Openness to
Experience
Agreeableness
Conscientiousness
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
M
Sd
Homosexual
45.33
11.57
59.86
8.39
62.80
12.71
47.60
12.21
48.66
10.51
Heterosexual
45.20
9.03
49.20
10.38
52.93
8.44
51.86
9.95
49.86
5.42
As observed in table 2, the mean of the variables of openness to experience and extraversion is
higher among the homosexuals as compared to the heterosexuals. However, heterosexuals score higher
on the variables of agreeableness and conscientiousness. No significant difference is observed in the
variable of neuroticism.
In order to investigate the research hypotheses, t-test was used to compare the personality
characteristics of male homosexuals and heterosexuals. Therefore, five personality characteristics of
neuroticism, extraversion, openness to experience, agreeableness and conscientiousness were
separately analyzed. Results of the t-test indicated that from among the 5 personality characteristics, two
characteristics of extraversion and openness to experience are significantly different. The results are
presented in tables 3 and 4.
Table 3- results of independent t-test for the comparison of homosexual and heterosexual groups in the
variable of extraversion
Group
Homosexual
Heterosexual
M
59.86
49.20
Sd
8.39
10.38
Df
28
T
3.09
P
.004
As observed in table 3, the mean of homosexual group is higher than the heterosexual group
(59.86 as compared to 49.20) which is significant at .01. Therefore, it can be concluded that male
homosexuals have higher levels of extraversion as compared to male heterosexuals.
Table 4- results of independent t-test for the comparison of homosexual and heterosexual groups in the
variable of openness to experience
group
homosexual
heterosexual
M
62.80
52.93
SD
12.71
8.44
df
28
t
2.50
p
.01
As observed in table 4, the mean of homosexual group is higher than the heterosexual group
(62.80 as compared to 52.93) which is significant at .01. Therefore, it can be concluded that male
homosexuals have higher levels of openness to experience as compared to male heterosexuals.
The results of the research indicated that male homosexuals and heterosexuals differ significantly
in the personality characteristics of openness to experience and extraversion. The mean of male
homosexuals in the scales of extraversion (59.86) and openness to experience (62.80) in the NEO
inventory was higher than the mean of male heterosexuals (52.93 and 49.20). The results of this research
330
are in line with the results of the research by Lippa (2005, 2008), McCrae et al (2005) and Smith and
Boss (200) on some of the personality characteristics of men.
In the explanation of this finding it can be mentioned that homosexual groups rate higher in terms
of intimacy, collectiveness, assertiveness, activity, sensation seeking, imagination, feelings, positive
affection, interest and values. Therefore, it can be inferred that male homosexuals are more emotional
and seek for more sensation as compared to heterosexuals. They seek positive emotions such as love,
happiness and enjoyment.
Homosexuals’ openness to experience has also been supported in other studies and this
personality characteristic is based on this notion that, the unknown is tempting. Bam (2007) knows this as
one of the reasons of their sexual orientation. Individuals who are open to experience are individuals who
deviate from the common and normal issues, are interested in freedom in ethical and social affairs and do
not enjoy usual activities. Therefore, the unknown and undiscovered is always tempting for such
individuals. This finding is in line with the results of the research by Boss and Smith, 2003; Lippa, 2008;
McCrae et al, 2005.
The results of the present research indicated no between-group difference in the scale of
neuroticism. According to Loure (1978, cited in Wiley & Ltd, 1997) male individuals have less intimacy in
their friendship with friends from the same sex as compared to female individuals. Therefore, from a
social perspective, the intimacy between two boys seems unnatural (Waren, 1983, cited in Wiley and Ltd,
1997; Herk, 1995; cited in Rider, 2005). Therefore, it seems that, the relationship between homosexual
females can more easily be overlooked or wrongly be labeled as intimate relationships (Bowen, 2003)
and as the result, they face less social pressure. This finding is in line with the results of the research
carried out by Mayer et al (2003), Ansari (1999), Browne et al (1991) and Feingold (1994) in the
investigation of male and female personality characteristics.
On the scale of agreeableness, the mean of heterosexual group and homosexual groups are
51.86 and 47.60, respectively. This finding indicates that, the homosexual group scores lower on the
characteristics of trust, ethics, philanthropy, humility and cooperation as compared to the heterosexuals.
Therefore, it can be concluded that homosexuals do not trust others as much as heterosexuals and may
seem dishonest, deceitful or under false pretenses. This finding can indicates that, the extraversion and
intimacy of these individuals are more observed in the homosexual groups (Feingold, 1994; Costa and
McCrae, 2001; Lippa, 2005 and 2008). In the scale of conscientiousness, the result indicated insignificant
difference between the homosexuals and heterosexuals (48.66 versus 49.86) and this finding is in line
with the results of the research by Lippa.
Overall, the findings of the research indicated that male homosexuals and heterosexuals differ
significantly in the variables of openness to experience and extraversion. Form a theoretical perspective,
limited research has been carried out on male homosexuals and the results of the current research can
enrich our theoretical literature and lay the foundation for more extensive research in this area. In
practical level, strengthening the sexual identity to stabilize the determination of feelings, and sexual
orientation or behavior, it’s suggested that, personality characteristics of male and female homosexuals
and heterosexuals be compared with one another.
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332
Comparison of brain behavioral systems between runaway and
normal girls
kamrani Fakoor, Shahrbanoo MD1 Rasool zadeh Tabatabaei, Kazem PhD2
Department of psychology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
Department of psychology, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
Abstract
Introduction: whereas there are various theoretical approaches about the relationships between
biological bases of personality traits and delinquency; and considering the fact that runaway
girls perform impulsively and perpetrate more delinquent behaviors than normal girls, therefore,
this study aims to compare runaway and normal girls in brain-behavioral systems.
Method: 72 runaway girls who settled in welfare organization shelters and 73 no runaway students
participated in this post facto study. Two groups were matched for age, grade and socio
economic conditions.
Results: T test showed that runaway girls were significantly higher on Behavioral Activation
System (approach component), whereas runaway girls had significantly under reactive Behavioral
Inhibition System than normal girls. There was no significant difference between two groups in
Fight Flight System.
Conclusion: paying more attention to bio-behavioral bases of delinquency and runaway is
recommended, both over reactive BAS or under reactive BIS can result in runaway.
Keywords: runaway girls, behavioral activation system, behavioral inhibition system.
Introduction:
Running away is considered as a conduct disorder and antisocial behavior. DSM IV has described
running away as a conduct disorder and categorized it as under socialized aggressive type(Rasool Zadeh
Tabatabaei et al, 1994).
In fact, running away is a kind of maladjusted behavior in which one leaves home to avid from troubles or
to receive fun(Rasool Zadeh Tabatabaei et al, 1994).
Homer (1973) divided running away incentives as two: Running to, Running from. Running from girls are
girls who experience interpersonal conflicts and domestic violence at home and can’t solve their
problems. But running to girls are attracted to activities and situations that are prohibited by caregivers.
(Such as sex, alcohol and drug abuse). And are joined to delinquent groups.
There are evidence of rebellion, impulsivity and instability in personality traits of runaway girls. Anyway,
frequent studies have revealed that disintegrated families, parental intensive disciplines and parent’s
inability in handling their children’s high risk behaviors can intensify girls running away cycle(Ayrest,1999;
Mac Lean et al,1999; Rew et al,2001).
The increasing importance of explanation of psychopathic and delinquent behaviors has excited
researchers to widen their point of view and discard restricted opinions. Recently, neuropsychologists
have done many efforts to reveal biological and individual differences that cause one be susceptible to
delinquent behaviors.
Eysenck suggested that heredity (genetic) can be an important factor in perpetrating crime and
predisposing one to do delinquent behaviors. In his opinion, personality traits such as extroversion are
related to deviant behaviors such as running away from home. He concluded that neurotic extraverted
people because of failure in internalizing social values and poor condition ability became unresponsive to
community and perpetrated delinquent behaviors, sexual deviations and offensive behaviors as a result of
weakened brains arousal system and debilitated reticular activation system (Azad Fallah, 1989).
In addition, Cleckly concluded that delinquent people are unable to learn to avoid from aversive
consequences because delinquent people don’t perceive anxiety and are low aroused and don’t
understand trouble. Or, conversely, it is possible that delinquent people are more sensation seeker and
try to reach optimal level of arousal (Gray, 1994; Wallace and Newman, 2006).
Failure in learning of punitive experiences has considered being original characteristics of delinquency
and has become the main issue in experimental researches of delinquency. It seems that delinquent
people’s failure in avoiding from high risk behaviors and over looking pleasures is comparable with
animals which have brain septo hippocampal impairment and are incapable to learn from punishment
(Azad Fallah, 1989; Newman et al, 2005; Beck et al, 2009).
The author investigated on prostitute (all of them have running away history) women’s sensation seeking,
revealed that prostitute women got high scores in thrill and venture seeking and disinhibition components
of Zuckerman’s personality questionnaire than normal women; were extroverted and over aroused and
behaved impulsively, and tried to experience different life styles and abnormal experiences in order to
obtain optimal level of arousal (Kamrani, 2003). As well as, other studies concluded that novelty seeking
is a dominant personality trait in delinquents and sexual deviants(Walker et al, 1991).
In addition, Gray Wilson’s personality inventory that consists of three dimensions: behavioral activation
system, behavioral inhibition system and fight flight system is appropriate scale for assessing personality
traits in runaway girls. For example, behavioral activation system (BAS) illustrates ones tendency to gain
money, drugs, multiple sex partners and enjoyable social circumstances (Beck et al, 2009). Two
subtypes of this component are approach (actively reward seeking) and active avoidance (withdrawal
from punishment) (Walker et al, 1991). Having over sensitive behavioral activation system is related to
impulsivity and arousal (Matthys et al, 1998; Amodio, 2007).
Behavioral activation system structures include dopaminergic paths and cortico striato pallido thalamic
circuits.neuroanatomic bases of this system consist of prefrontal cortex, amygdale and basal ganglia. It is
motivated by both pleasurable stimulus due to reward or eliminating of punishment (Brenner et al, 2005).
In contrast, behavioral inhibition system is thought to be responsive to conditioned stimuli for punishment
and lack of reward as well as novel stimuli and innate fear stimuli. If the BIS activity predominates, it is
thought to lead anxiety state, and emotional action readiness, current behavior inhibition, increasing in
focused attention and psychological arousal. Two behavioral subtypes of this system are passive
avoidance and extinction (Amodio et al, 2007; Fowles, 1988; Qua, 1988).
BIS is a result of over responsiveness noradrenergic (locus coeruleus) and sertonergic (raphe nucleus)
afferent paths (Amodio et al, 2007). Neuroanatomically, this system is located in septo hippocampal
system, brain stem, papez circuit and orbito frontal cortex (Walker et al, 1991; Brenner et al, 2005; Raine
and Yang, 2006; Gray and MC Naughton, 2000).
The third system is fight (defensive aggression) and flight (escape from jeopardy source) is responsive to
aversive unconditioned stimulus and neuroanatomically is related to amygdale and medial thalamus
structures (McNaughton and Corr, 2004).
Gray and MC Naughtons (2000) revised their reinforcement sensitive theory. (RST). Consequently, fight
flight system has modified to FFFS which includes freeze reactions besides fight flight responses. FFFS
is considered as a response to unavoidable threatening stimulus (Brenner et al, 2005; Beck et al, 2009).
When we confused by conflicting goals (between approach BAS and withdrawal FFFS). The FFFS, is
thought to have determiner function. Whereas, over responsiveness of BIS leads to anxiety state.
Individuals with over reactive FFFS disclose high levels of fear emotions (Beck et al, 2009; Wallace and
Newman, 2006; Gray and MC Naughtons, 2000).
Gray hypothesized that psychopaths have over responsive BAS. Behavioral activation system is over
reactive to environmental or behavioral rewards rather than susceptibility to punishment cues; so they
often relinquish punishment cues and exclusively attempts for achieving rewards (Wilson NJ, Evans,
1989).
Lykken (1995) according to Gray`s RST theory and Cleckly`s opinion concluded that under reactive BIS
could contribute to ADHD (Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder) and primary psychophaty as a result of
334
deficiency in information processing system and lack of inhibition system(Kooijmans et al, 2000).
Whereas, over reactive BAS is strong predictor of impulsivity, conduct disorder and secondary
psychopathic behaviors and contributes in being strongly responsiveness to reward cues (Amodio et al,
2007; Newman et al, 2005, Wilson and Evans, 2003; Quay, 1993).
Fowles (1980) based on Gray`s RST hypothesized that psychopaths have relatively under reactive BIS;
therefore it leads them to delinquent symptoms such as running away from home(Wallace JF,
Newman,2006; Fowles, 2001). Quay suggested that over aroused individuals have permanently
underreactive BIS and permanently overreactive BAS; consequently, have weak possibility to stop
ongoing behavior and to notice to punishment. Conversely, their over responsiveness to reward cues
determines their behavior (Kooijmans et al, 2000).
Considering this fact that no investigation has done about the relationship between brain behavioral
systems and running away ,as well as, divers people respond differently to reward and punishment cues,
current study attempts to determine whether antisocial characters such as runaway girls have under
reactive BIS or have over reactive BAS ; so that disturbs their inhibition systems responsiveness.
Method:
Present study is post facto study.
Participant: data were derived from 72 girls (age 13-18 years) who ran away from their home and
habituated in welfare organization centers. Control group consisted of 13-18 year girls who were
randomly selected from guidance school and high school students. Both sample groups were from
Tehran.
We omitted subjects who were mentally severe retarded or had chronic mental disorders (psychosis) and
were unable to respond to questionnaire items correctly. Moreover, in order to control intervening
variables effects, two groups were matched based on age, grade, family’s income, parent’s education
and parent’s job.
Measures:
Gray Wilson personality questionnaire: this scale assesses the function of brain behavioral constructs
and its dimensions. It has created by Wilson, Barret and Gray.
This scale consists of 120 items, and 40 items has considered for estimating each subscales: behavioral
activation system (BAS), behavioral inhibition system (BIS) and fight flight system (FFS). BIS itself
consists of 20 items for passive avoidance and 20 items for extinction subtypes. Similarly, BAS has 20
items for approach and 20 items for active avoidance subtypes. Also, FFS consists of 20 items for
assessing fight and 20 items for flight subtypes (Azad Fallah, 1989).
Wilson, Barret and Gray (1989) estimated that Cronbach's
(alpha) coefficient for approach, active
avoidance, passive avoidance, extinction, fight and flight subtypes are respectively as noted bellow:
.65, .65, .61, .58, .61, .71 for men
.71, .71, .63, .59, .35, .68 for women. So, this scale has acceptable internal reliability.
In Iran, Azad Falleh`s study yielded an internal reliability for subscales (approach, active avoidance,
passive avoidance, extinction, fight and flight) as noted below:
0.75, 0.69, 0.71, 0.78, 0.65, and 0.68 respectively.
Wilson et al (1989) applied Eysenck`s personality questionnaire in order to calculate it`s convergent
validity with Gray Wilson’s personality questionnaire. Results showed that BIS correlated high with
neuroticism as well as BAS correlated high with extroversion.
Davoodi et al (2008) calculated convergent validity of Gray Wilson personality questionnaire with NEO
FFI questionnaire subscales (Neuroticism, Extroversion, Conscientiousness):
BAS and Extroversion were negatively correlated(r=-0.67) as well as FFS and Conscientiousness did(r= 0.5).
In addition, BIS and Neuroticism had positive correlation(r=0.56); BIS and Extroversion correlated
negatively(r=-0.45). The data was processed via SPSS ver 16.
Results:
Descriptive results revealed that the average of age range in runaway girls and normal girls was 16.82
and 16.45 respectively. 89% of runaway girls versus 100% of normal girls were educated (up to high
school).
31% of runaway girls had substance abuse experience and 50% of them had unallowed sexual
experiences. In addition, 54% of runaway girls had criminal background. Normal girls didn’t have
mentioned histories.
Table1 indicates the means and standard deviation for two normal and runaway groups in the main scale
and subtypes of Gray Wilson personality questionnaire.
Table1: run away and normal girls scores in the main and subtypes of Gray Wilson personality
questionnaire
group
N
mean
Standard
deviation
Approach
runaway girls
72
20.32
5.624
normal girls
73
18.05
4.980
Active
avoidance
runaway girls
72
26.00
5.225
normal girls
73
25.90
4.429
Passive
avoidance
runaway girls
72
13.99
6.746
normal girls
73
18.60
5.063
Extinction
runaway girls
72
13.46
7.306
normal girls
73
16.38
6.313
runaway girls
72
15.74
7.377
normal girls
73
16.86
6.642
runaway girls
72
19.46
6.824
normal girls
73
20.33
6.878
runaway girls
72
46.32
6.148
normal girls
73
43.96
5.675
runaway girls
72
27.44
12.508
normal girls
73
34.99
9.295
runaway girls
72
35.19
11.983
normal girls
73
37.19
10.627
Fight
Flight
BAS
BIS
FFS
In order to determine whether two groups significantly differ in biological bases of personality (brain
behavioral systems) or not, these proposals are considered:
1- Sensitivity of behavioral activation system in runaway girls is different from normal girls.
2- Sensitivity of behavioral inhibition system in runaway girls is different from normal girls.
3- Runaway girls get different scores in fight flight system from normal girls.
The results of between two groups T test for the main and subscales of questionnaire are presented in
table2.
Table2: T test results in runaway and normal girls
Component
t
df
Sig(2tailed)
Approach
2.568
143
.011
Active
.119
143
.905
avoidance
Passive
-4.665
143
.000
avoidance
Extinction
-2.581
143
.011
Fight
-.967
143
.335
Flight
-.765
143
.446
BAS
2.403
143
.018
BIS
-4.125
143
.000
FFS
-1.062
143
.290
Mean difference
Std Error ifference
2.265
.096
.882
.804
-4.617
.990
-2.925
-1.127
-.870
2.361
-7.542
-1.997
1.133
1.165
1.138
.982
1.828
1.880
T test illustrated that runaway girls differs significantly from normal girls in BAS. In other words, runaway
girls had hyper sensitive BAS. (T= 2.4, 0.05>P).
336
Applying T test in brain behavioral questionnaire subscales revealed that runaway girls got significantly
higher scores in approach subscale than normal girls (T=2.57, 0.01>P).
No significant difference was found between two groups in active avoidance subscale.
Moreover, T test revealed significant difference between two groups in BIS (T=−4.12, 0.001> P).
In addition, significant difference was found between two groups in passive avoidance subscale (T=
−4.66, 0.001>P).
On the other side, runaway girls got significantly lower scores in extinction subscale than normal girls
(T=−2.58, 0.01>P).
No significant difference was found between two groups in FFS scale and its subscales.
Discussion:
Recent study compares runaway girl’s brain behavioral systems (BAS, BIS, and FFS) with normal girls.
The results of examining hypothesis revealed that runaway girls have significantly more over reactive
BAS than normal girls. So, the first hypothesis was supported. Although there were no research records
about relationships between running away and brain behavioral systems, enormous studies have since
yielded support for relationship between delinquency, addiction, conduct disorder, ADHD and behavioral
brain systems, therefore the results of recent study is consistent with these investigations.
According to Quay, children with Attention Deficit Hyper Activity Disorder (ADHD) have permanently
under reactive BIS, causing inability to inhibit responses. Whereas, Conduct Disorder is considered that
BAS overshadowed BIS. When there are punishment and reward cues simultaneously, children with
conduct disorder concentrates to pleasure cues. In other words, when both systems are active, in
individual with conduct disorder, BIS is unable to stop the ongoing response of BAS. Therefore, when the
BAS is active exclusively individuals with conduct disorder aren’t overactive (Quay, 1988).
Considering this fact that multiple studies have shown that runaway girls significantly have personality
disorders specially antisocial personality disorder, borderline personality disorder and conduct disorder;
as well as descriptive results of current study revealed, runaway girls had unallowed sexual
experiences(50%), were addicted(21%) and perpetrated criminal and delinquent issues and had been
condemned(54%); consequently , the results of current study seems to be consistent with Quays
suggestion. In other words, runaway girls have stronger BAS and more impulsive; consequently they are
biased toward exciting events and inhibited behaviors such as unallowed sexual experiences and drug /
alcohol abuse instead of considering secondary negative consequences of running away from home.
Wilson and Evans (2002) investigation revealed that delinquents behave so that hypersensitivity to
reward cues leads to decreased attention to punishment cues- trait that is called reward dominance-.
In other words, behavioral activation system dominance can contribute to impulsivity temperament in
runaway girls and their tendency toward positive reinforcements such as sensation seeking state in
delinquent behaviors (such as substance abuse and hyper sexuality) so, fail to anticipate negative latency
contingencies.
Consistent with Kagan, it is concluded that runaway girls behave more impulsively. These girls are
capable to control their desires and fail to postpone their gratifications, so they are capable by
environmental excitants(Quay,1988).
Considering Grays proposal that BAS is associated with impulsivity, fun seeking, extroversion and
hypersensitivity to reward cues; and according to Eysencks theory about delinquency, it is concluded that
delinquent people as well as runaway girls fail to internalize social values because of having lowered level
of arousal system and lack of anxiety. Psychopaths have arousal system deficit and weak reticular
activation system that leads them to be unable to understand punishment as aversive and predispose
them perpetrate antisocial behaviors such as unallowed sexual behaviors and law breaking. On the other
hand, it is probable that delinquent people try actively to acquire sensation in order to increase their
arousal to optimal level; or behave more impulsively because of their overactive BAS(Sijtsema,2010).
Kooper et al (2000) reported that personality traits such as neuroticism and extroversion contribute to
increased tendency to alcohol and high risk sexual behavior. He postulated that extroverted people did
high sexual behavior in order to increase their positive emotional experiences.
337
In fact, interaction of extroversion, neuroticism and impulsivity determines ones motivation for doing high
risk sexual behaviors. Enormous investigations showed that these behavioral traits are considerably high
in runaway girls than normal girls (Rasool Zadeh Tabatabaei, 1994).
Kamrani (2003) estimated sensation seeking and thrill and adventure seeking, experience seeking,
disinhibition and boredom susceptibility in prostitute women who ran away from their home using
Zuckerman’s personality questionnaire. Finding illustrated that prostitute women were evaluated
significantly high in these subscales than normal women. Ostadi (1997) reported that runaway girls, when
were confronted stressful events, adopted ineffective emotional strategies instead of using effective
cognitive strategies; and were significantly high in sensation seeking.
Because of their irrational thoughts, runaway girls considered frustrating situations as invariable, so when
they are confronted frustration, can’t withstand.
Moreover, present study demonstrated that runaway girls have under reactive BIS than normal girls.
These finding is consistent with White(1994), Antonio(2010), Vital et al(2005), Alizadeh(2005), Mashhadi
et al(2009), Wallace and Newman(2006) and Quay(19997), Hamzeh loo and Mashhadi(2009).
Hamzeh loo and Mashhadi reported that delinquents have considerably more under reactive BIS than
normal people. So, it is concluded that delinquent youths as well as runaway girls have significantly
substantial delinquency in behavioral inhibition. In fact, imperfection in BIS leads to inability in controlling
thoughts and emotions and contributes to impulsive, maladjusted and undesirable behaviors. Moreover,
the results of current study are in accordance with Fowles speculation based on reinforcement sensitivity
theory, fowles(1980) speculated that psychopaths have relatively under reactive BIS, so weak BIS leads
them demonstrate psychopathic symptoms.
Barkley (1997) argued that an imperfection in BIS has remarkable role in delinquency. So consistent with
these investigations it is presumed that deficiency in passive avoidance learning is associated with jueline
delinquency, conduct disorder and running away from home. In other side Whit et al (1994) suggested
that impulsivity and capability in self regulation and lack of response inhibition is an important component
in running away from home and other delinquent behavior (Vitale et al, 2005).
In addition, White et al (1994) illustrated that impulsivity and self regulation deficit and weak BIS is a
significant factor in delinquent behavior. Kinsey (2004) demonstrated that psychopaths have both over
reactive BAS and under reactive BIS. In other words, psychopaths are not only relatively weak in BIS; but
also are strong in BAS(Wallace and Newman,2006).
Under reactive BIS- because of deficiently processing of threat related stimulies- leads to maladjusted
behaviors. Gray acknowledges that antisocial behavior, in individuals with over reactive BAS and with
deficient inhibitory control BIS, is considerably stronger and more durable(Walker et al,1991). In addition,
Walker et al (1991) findings accord with Gray theory and the current study. Their findings revealed that
children with conduct disorder and anxiety co morbid diagnosis displayed significantly less antisocial and
delinquent behaviors than children with exclusively conduct disorder diagnosis. (That had under reactive
BIS).
Kooijmans et al (2000) demonstrated that in children with conduct disorder and oppositional defiant
disorder, inhibitory control is significantly weaker than normal children.
On the other side, considering the formal statistics of welfare organization in Iran which indicated that at
least 40% of runaway girls had a kind of externalizing behavior (conduct disorder, ADHD, personality
disorders and oppositional deficient disorder). Moreover, considering the second hypothesis that runaway
girls have more under reactive BIS than normal girls was proved. Consequently, the current study results
are consistent with Quays proposal.
As a result, it is possible that individuals with weak BIS have deficiency in developing of nervous systems
located in prefrontal lob and have crucial role in executive functioning. Moreover, they are impaired in
anterior cingulated and basal ganglia functions. So, an imperfection in this process can contribute to lack
of inhibitory control, and impulsive or involuntary behaviors that predisposes one to do delinquent
behaviors such as running away from home .
The third hypothesis didn’t prove in spite of this fact that runaway girls had lower scores in fight flight
system than normal girls .so, there were no significant difference between two groups.
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