Nubia : ancient kingdoms of Africa

ANCIENT KINGDOMS OF AFRICA
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UBIA
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ANCIENT KINGDOMS OF AFRICA
JOYCE
MUSEUM OF
L.
HAYNES
FINE ARTS,
WASHINGTON VtUAflE
BOSTON
I
This
book has been funded
from the
NYNEX
New
England Telephone.
Wallace has
Dr. Phyllis A.
made
Department of Education of the Museum of Fine
to distribute Nubia: Ancient
community
All rights
in
part through generous grants
Foundation and
A generous gift from
for the
in
Kingdoms of
organizations, libraries,
reserved.
No
it
possible
Arts,
and teachers
part of this publication
in
greater Boston.
may be reproduced
any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopy, without permission
in
writing from the publisher.
ISBN 0-87846-362-3
©
1992 Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston
Except where otherwise noted,
all
photographs are by the
Museum
\
^
Boston
Africa free of charge to schools,
of Fine Arts, Boston
Credits for illustrations appear on pages
63-64
^
Typeset
Pnnted by
Acme
in
Syntax
Printing
Company,
Wilmington, Massachusetts
Designed by Carl Zahn and Peter Der Manuelian
Edited by Fredrica A. Harvey
CONTENTS
Foreword by
Rita
E.
Freed
Introduction
Geography
6
7
of Nubia:
The Land and the River
10
The Peoples of Nubia
13
The History of Nubia
16
Kings and
Queens
of Nubia
25
Nubian Religion
33
Burials
40
Daily Life
44
Surviving Aspects of Nubian Cultures
53
Afterword
Nubia:
A
Black Legacy
by Edmund Barry Gaither
Glossary
List
of Illustrations and Credits
58
60
63
1
FOREWORD
With the opening of the Nubia
Boston,
in
May
gallery at the
Museum
of Fine Arts,
1992, unique and wonderful ancient African cultures
be available to the public for the
and comprehensive
time
first
installation. Realizing
in this
country
in
will
a permanent
the significance of Nubia, Bos-
ton City Councilor David Scondras pointed to the need for an introductory
guide to these cultures and offered to
a result of
his foresight
and
assist in
his challenge.
on the part of an advisory committee
commitee consisted of
Lorri
Kendall, Peter Lacovara, Peter
publication. This
book
is
represents a cooperative effort
It
up to produce
set
Berenberg,
its
Edmund
this
work. The
Barry Gaither, Timothy
Der Manuelian, Yvonne Markowitz,
Barbara Martin, Jan Michaels, David Scondras, and Theresa
myself. Lorri Berenberg, from the
Museum
Young and
Department of
of Fine Arts'
Education, chaired the committee. Joyce Haynes shouldered the main
responsibility for
writing and organization, while Carl
its
Der Manuelian were responsible for design and layout.
Zahn and Peter
Many others made
valuable contributions to the manuscript, including: Timothy Kendall,
Peter Lacovara,
tian
Sheila Shear,
all
from the Egyp-
Department; and Edmund Barry Gaither, director and curator of the
Museum
of the National Center of Afro-American Artists. Valuable edito-
advice
rial
Yvonne Markowitz, and
came from
Lorri
Berenberg and Barbara Martin, Department of
Education; Theresa Young, consultant to the Department of Education
and director of the Kush Club; and Claudine Brown, deputy
secretary for
museums, Smithsonian
Harvey was extremely helpful
due to William
less
J.
in
the
As
editor, Fredrica A.
final stages. Also,
many thanks
Burback, director. Department of Education, for
support and encouragement of
entire staff of the
Institution.
assistant
this project. Janice
are
his tire-
Sorkow and the
Photographic Services Department deserve much praise
for providing the exemplary color
and black-and-white
illustrations for
this publication.
due to Alan Shestack,
Special thanks are
Arts, Boston, for his constant
Nubian
gallery
and
his
and seeing
publications,
and
I
as
NYNEX
Museum
much
had the
his staff, for
adding
Rita
New
in
Curator,
book
to a busy schedule.
part through generous grants from
England Telephone.
joy to those learning about
E.
this
this brief introduction to
privilege of
of Fine Arts, for supporting this
through the system; and to Carl Zahn, director of
it
Foundation and
hope that
of Fine
advocacy of the present book; to Desiree Caldwell,
This publication has been funded
the
Museum
encouragement of the establishment of the
assistant director-exhibitions.
project
director of the
it
the cultures of Nubia
as
it
working on the Nubian
will
has to those of us
collection.
Freed
Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near Eastern Art
provide
who have
INTRODUCTION
The Museum of Fine
Department of Egyptian and Ancient Near
Arts'
Eastern Art has explored and researched the cultures of ancient Nubia
since the early part of this century. In 1906,
George Andrew Reisner
head of the Harvard University-Boston
(fig. 1),
Museum
of Fine Arts
was asked by the Egyptian government
Archaeological Expedition,
to head an archaeological survey of northern Nubia. This survey
was nec-
way to enlarge the first Aswan Dam,
1902. Once the new dam was finished, the
essary because plans were under
which had been completed
in
ancient remains of the cultures that existed between the
cataracts of the Nile
Soon
after
would be flooded and
lost
First
and Second
underwater.
completing the survey, Reisner moved farther south, into the
Sudan, to begin excavations of
sites
A.D. 350). From 1913 to 1932, the
from
later periods
Museum
(about 2000 B.C.-
Expedition explored major
five
massive mud-brick forts guarding the
river at the
Second Cataract
the walled city and huge burial
the royal cemeteries of
el
sites
of the
Kurru and Nuri
Kerma
(fig.
culture
2)
the Great Temple at the holy mountain at Jebel Barkal
(pronounced Jeh-bell
Bar-cal) at the Fourth Cataract
Meroe (Mer-oh-ay).
the cemeteries of the city of
The government of the Sudan agreed
to the Harvard University-Boston
the Sudanese choosing
excavations, the
most extensive
award
Museum
half of the objects
of Fine Arts, Boston,
collection of
Nubian
found
of Fine Arts Expedition, with
what they would keep. As a
first
Museum
to
now
art outside of
result of these
houses the finest and
Khartoum. Highlights
of the Boston collection include colossal sculptures of ancient Nubian
kings, dazzling gold jewelry,
one of the
largest granite sarcophagi ever
excavated, and ceramics of unequaled craftsmanship.
Reisner's chief excavator
in
the Sudan
Dunham (1890-1984). Dunham
of the
articles
on the Nubian excavations.
Museum
1986,
vealed
new
excavations
A
in
Nubia were renewed and have
discoveries at the site of Jebel Barkal.
to play an important part
bia.
eventually succeeded Reisner as curator
Museum's Egyptian Department, and published seven books and
numerous
In
was Harvard graduate Dows
timeline
in
in
The Museum continues
the ongoing exploration of the history of Nu-
figure 3 presents the major periods of
Thanks to worldwide
Nubian
interest in the fascinating cultures that
Nubia's history, our knowledge of Nubia has increased greatly
last
decade. For the
material
is
first
showcased
time at the
in its
own
Museum
cultures.
make up
in
the
of Fine Arts, Boston, this
gallery. This installation provides a
long-awaited opportunity to highlight Nubia's contributions to the
ancient world.
re-
.
Portrait of
George Andrew
Reisner (1867-1942) taken
1938.
including:
sites,
Fig. 1
in
June
I
6000
3000
B.C.
N
U
2500
B.C.
B.C.
2000
B.C.
1000 B.C.
B.C.
5(
A-Group
Prehistoric Period
6000-3100
(north)
3100-2800
C-Group
2000-1500
Egyptian
B
Khartoum
I
Mesoiithic/Neolithic
A
1500
(south)
Kerma
2000-1500
Napal
Domination
Peric
1550-1000
750-2
Sudanese workmen arrange
Fig. 2.
shawabtis of King Taharka at the
site
of
the pyramids of Nuri, Harvard University-
Boston
Museum of
Fine Arts Archaeological
Expedition, 1917.
Birth
of Christ
A.D. 500
1
A.D. 1000
1
1
A.D. 1500
1
Fig. 3.
Timeline of Nubian cultures.
i|
Post-
Meroitic Period
270-A.D. 350
MeroJtk
Period
Christian
Kingdoms
600-1500
islamic
Period
350-600
Uncertain.
9
GEOGRAPHY OF NUBIA:
THE LAND AND THE RIVER
Location
Where was
East
ancient Nubia?
If
you look
of Africa and the Near
you can see the modern-day countries of Egypt, the Sudan,
(fig. 4),
and Ethiopia. To
find ancient Nubia,
and follow the course of the
Cairo,
map
at the
go
to Egypt, start
Nile River
in
the north at
southward. The northern
border of ancient Nubia began approximately at the town of Aswan,
Egypt.
Its
southern border was near Khartoum,
more about the geography
map
Lower Nubia
figure 5.)
in
the north and
in
two corresponds
modern-day boundary between Egypt and the Sudan.
Nubia today
an ethnic and cultural area located
is
approximately the
in
region as ancient Nubia. Contemporary Nubians are an interesting
They have much
cultural blend.
rior
parts.
the south. The border between the
in
closely to the
same
the Sudan. (To learn
of Nubia, see the close-up
Ancient Nubia was divided into two
Upper Nubia
in
in
common
in
with the cultures
in
the inte-
of Africa and also have customs and traditions inherited from the
Egyptian and Mediterranean peoples.
The Aswan
High
Dam
In this
century, the lives of the northern Nubian people
Dam
by the building of the Aswan High
was necessary
for electrical
power and
were changed
(1960-1971). The dam, which
irrigation for
growing crops year-
round, created floodwaters that threatened the heartland of the remains
of the ancient Nubian civilization. Ultimately,
First
and Second cataracts was
lost
which formed Lake Nassar.
Nile,
who
the Nubians
lived in this
much
of Nubia
between the
forever under the rising waters of the
Prior to the
completion of the dam,
moved
area were
into parts of
Egypt and
southern Nubia.
The River
In
ancient times, people could not have lived
or Nubia without the waters of the Nile.
food.
The Nubians caught a
waterfowl that
lived
It
the desert areas of Egypt
was a source
variety of fish
along the
in
of both water and
and hunted ducks and other
river.
summer the heavy rains that fell in the
mountains would flow down into the Nile, causing the river to
Farmers knew that every
Ethiopian
flood
When
its
banks. Rich
soil
called
silt
the river overflowed, the
farmers used
this fertile earth to
was
silt
carried along by the floodwaters.
was deposited on the banks. The
grow
lush fruits
and vegetables
in
the
desert climate.
From Aswan southward, the smooth flow
of the Nile River
large granite boulders, forming rapids called cataracts
six cataracts
along the Nile make navigation
difficult.
times, boats have to be hauled out of the water
This
ier
makes shipping hazardous, and sometimes
to travel overland than by water.
stretch of rapids
Hagar, or the
10
"
The
local
is
broken by
(fig. 6). In
Today, as
in
Nubia,
ancient
and around the
cataracts.
impossible.
often eas-
people
call
It is
the sixty-mile
between the Second and Third cataracts the Batn
Belly of Rocks.
el
'
Mediterranean Sea
N
t
1st Cataract
4* Aswan
EGYPT
Abu Simbel
•
QustuI
•
2nd Cataract
Mirgissa
Gammai
y^
i iir„n,rfi
Uronarti
Semna •>*
Kumma
/ •
" - -
7
^-
LOWER NUBIA
(Ta Sety)
J/
\
^
THE SUDAN
*»^^'
Kerma
5th Cataract
UPPER NUBIA
Meroe
•
Modern politica
„ boundaries
']
Fig. 4.
Map
of
modern-day
100
I
northccist Africa
and surrounding countries,
Fig. 5.
Detailed
map
of ancient Nubia.
highlighting the location of ancient Nubia.
Desert makes up 96 percent of
Landscape
the Nile
is
soil lie
the land
in
Egypt and Nubia.
bordered on either side by a narrow band of
fields of vegetables, fruit trees,
of
all
Egypt,
where
and palms can grow. Beyond these
vast expanses of desert. Farther south
parts the desert landscape.
rich soil,
In
in
strips
Nubia, the Nile also
However, farmable land
is
not as plentiful
many places, the desert sands
and granite mountains reach all the way down to the banks of the river.
Therefore, little or nothing can grow, and the land for many miles may be
along the
river in
Nubia as
it is
in
Egypt. In
uninhabited.
Because
it
does not
rain in
northern Nubia, the people had to
the Nile for their water supply. As one
rain
does
fall
during the
moves south
into
filled
near
Upper Nubia,
summer months. At that time and
the desert blossoms, and the plains are
live
during the
fall,
with grass. This climate
11
miles
I
change allows the people
who
live in
southern Nubia to spend part of the
year farming and herding.
Gateway
to Africa
I
For thousands of years and even today, Nubia's Nile Valley provided the
only dependable
way
across the barrier of the great desert of Africa to the
Mediterranean Sea. Exotic animals,
skins, ostrich
eggs and feathers,
ivory,
ebony, and most important, gold were brought from Nubia and other
parts of Africa into Egypt
some
and the Near East
of these goods themselves.
middlemen
for Egyptians
In
(fig. 7).
Nubians exported
other cases, they acted as commercial
and charged taxes for these items, which they
prized so highly.
Because Nubia was such an important and well-traveled trade route,
was known throughout the ancient world,
particularly to the Egyptians,
Greeks and Romans, and peoples of the Near
meeting place for travelers from the
Fig. 6.
East.
It
served as a cultural
interior of Africa as well as
from the
Second Cataract of
the Nile, with rocky Nubian
landscape at
Semna
as
Mediterranean world. The cultures of Nubia
tions of
viewed from the west bank
of the
it
river.
12
all
of these people.
reflect
a blend of the tradi-
THE PEOPLES OF NUBIA
many
For thousands of years,
peoples have settled along the Nile River
from the Mediterranean coast to the
interior of Africa.
As one moves from
the north to the south, one would observe that the physical features of
these Nile dwellers change gradually. The variations are barely noticeable
from one
ferences
village to the next. But,
over longer distances, one can see
skin color, facial features,
in
languages. This
is
as true today as
it
dif-
and height and hear several different
was thousands
of years ago.
The peoples of Nubia are an indigenous African population. They have
occupied the middle portion of the Nile Valley since at least 6000 B.C. and
likely for
much
The Greeks and Romans
longer.
south of Egypt by the Greek
Burnt Faces." This described
Even the name Sudan
name
its
Ethiopia,
people,
The Nubians
as Seen in
Ancient Art
the territory
all
which meant "Land of the
who had
dark brown or black skin.
an Arabic translation of the Greek name meaning
is
"(Land of the) Blacks." According to the
Nubians are most
called
latest studies,
modern-day
the direct descendants of the ancient Nubians.
likely
While both Egyptians and Nubians are indigenous African peoples, the
ancient Egyptians represented themselves
southern neighbors. Egyptian
differently
from
their
used a red-brown paint for the skin
men, yellow for Egyptian women, and a dark brown or
color of Egyptian
Nubians.
black for
all
queen,
figure 8,
in
artists
in their art
A
painting from the
shows her with black
tomb chamber
of an Egyptian
skin color, indicating that she
was
Nubian or of Nubian descent.
Characteristic clothing also distinguishes Nubians
tice, for
example, the long, beaded Nubian belt
an soldier on
his
tomb
by their
identified
in
in
example, figure
1
No-
art.
the painting of a Nubi-
stela (gravestone) in figure 9.
hairstyles. For
Egyptian
Nubians can also be
shows a procession of
four different races of mankind. The Nubians have short, curly hairstyles
distinctive
from those of the Egyptians. Some Nubian men dyed
red and adorned
Egyptian
tomb
it
with ostrich feathers. This hairstyle
paintings
in
figures 7
is
their hair
depicted
in
the
and 10.
Nubians painted or carved very few
representations of them-
artistic
selves during their early history. Therefore, Egyptian representations of
Nubians, along with the remains from Nubian graves, are the best evi-
dence of how Nubians looked
about 720
B.C.,
royal families.
prior to
about
1
000
B.C.
However,
Nubians created magnificent stone sculptures of
Two
such colossal statues of Nubian kings
of Fine Arts, Boston, are fine examples of
how
in
the
starting
their
Museum
they saw themselves and
wished to be remembered. The two royal brothers Aspelta (Ah-spell-tah),
in
figure
giants of
with
1 1
,
and Aniamani (An-lah-mah-nee),
men, standing
two cobras on
his
in
in
figure 12,
powerful, striding poses. Each
forehead and wears the
tall,
is
appear
like
crowned
feathered royal
Nubian headdress.
13
14
r
Fig. 7.
Wall painting showing a procession of Nubian princes, carrying rings and bags of gold,
arriving in Egypt;
from the Theban tomb of Huy,
who was
the "King's Son of Kush' under
Egyptian king Tutankhamun (1334-1325 B C).
15
O
Fig. 8.
M(^
ID
Jl
j&>i,
Kemsit, the Nubian
queen of the Egyptian king
Mentuhotep (2061-2010
B.C.), and her servants; from a
II
painting
in
her
tomb chamber.
THE HISTORY OF NUBIA
Nubian
civilization
know about the
is
among
the oldest
history of ancient
in
the world.
Most
of
what we
Nubia comes from archaeology.
parent that the histories of Nubia and Egypt have always been
It is
ap-
inter-
twined. Both countries shared a past of conquering and being conquered
by each other.
nate.
own
art,
When one
Throughout
history,
however, the Nubian cultures retained their
distinctive characteristics, as
costume, jewelry,
gods, for example.
16
country became weak, the other would domi-
evidenced
in
their
symbols of kingship,
hairstyles, pottery, dwellings, styles of burials,
and
Fig. 9. Stela
from Cebelein,
Upper Egypt, of a Nubian soldier named Nenu (about 2100
B.C.), carrying a bow. The text
states that he and his son are
Nubian; both wear a traditional
Nubian belt.
Prehistoric
Nubia
(6000-3100
B.C.)
In early prehistoric
times,
nomadic
occupied most of
cattle herders
north Africa, including northern Nubia.
In
southern Nubia, a very different
and highly advanced culture developed, known today as the Khartoum
Mesolithic.
Remains of
this
eight-thousand-year-old culture have been
found near Khartoum, the modern-day
capital of the
related to other ancient cultures spread across north
The Khartoum Mesolithic people subsisted
fishing. Their pottery,
Sudan.
and
It
was
central Africa.
primarily by hunting
perhaps the oldest known
the world,
in
closely
is
and
sophisti-
cated and advanced. Unlike the early civilizations of Asia and the Near
East, in
tery
seem
The
in
Nubia the establishment of settlements and the production of potto have occurred before agriculture began.
Neolithic Period
Nubian
(5000-3100
civilization. This culture
palettes for grinding cosmetics,
B.C.)
showed considerable advances
began creating human
figurines, slate
and Black-topped red pottery.
The four branches of
mankind according to the
Fig. 10.
/\A^*\/w^yN.
~
f
^
^
Egyptians, from
\
\
'i
^-
left
to right:
Egyptians, western Asiatics,
....
Nubians, and Libyans. From
Tj
thetombof
1279B.C.),
Sety l(1291in
the Valley of
the Kings, Luxor
17
J
#1*^
Figs.
11-12. Colossal
statues of King Aspelta
(left,
600-580
B.C.),
and
King Aniamani (right,
620-600
B.C),
from
Jebel Barkal.
By the beginning of the
The A-Croup
(about
3100-2800
B.C.)
of writing
first
appears
kingdoms existed
tered
in
in
(about 31 00 B.C.),
historic period
Egypt, ancient records
the use
us that independent
tell
both Egypt and Nubia. The Nubian state was cen-
in
Lower (northern) Nubia. The Nubian name
known, but the Egyptians
called
famed Nubian
reference to the
when
it
Ta
Sety, the
archers.
for this area
un-
is
"Land of the Bow,"
The archaeologists who
in
puz-
first
zled over the remains of these people did not
know what
because their original name was unknown.
an effort to organize the
In
materials from this culture, they selected the designation
because
was the
this culture
Later cultures have been labeled
The
rich
pottery,
and stone
vessels
A-Group
Lower Nubia.
identified in
B-Group and C-Group.
(fig. 1
3) that rivaled the wealth of the Egyptian
of these luxury objects were Near Eastern or Egyptian,
A-Group
indicating that the
In
them
call
graves of the A-Group kings contained gold jewelry, beautiful
Many
kings.
group
earliest
to
on extensive trade with those areas.
carried
time, the Egyptian and Nubian
Egyptian kings, the same ones
kingdoms became enemies, and the
who
built the great
pyramids, invaded
Nubia. The Egyptians conquered the A-Group and ruled the "Land of the
Bow"
as a colony.
However, south of the Third Cataract, beyond the area
of Egyptian control, the Nubians remained independent and continued to
grow
The B-Croup
strong.
name B-Group
Archaeologists gave the
culture,
which they believed followed the A-Group. However,
mation on
this culture exists. Currently, historians are in
to whether the B-Group has
C-Group
The C-Croup
(2000-1500
B.C.)
to another phase of
enough
Nubian
little
disagreement as
differences from the
A-Group and
to be called a separate group.
As with the A-Group, the
identified,
original
name
C-Group has never been
of the
because they used no writing. The C-Group existed
Nubia from about 2000 to
1
500
B.C.
and
lived peacefully side
the Egyptians. The Nubians farmed small,
fertile
Lower
in
by side with
areas along the river-
banks, raised cattle, traded with the Egyptians, and produced fine,
pottery
Cataract Forts
(fig.
power
B.C., the Egyptian king Sesostris
of peoples farther south,
es along the Nile
15).
The massive
in
I,
began building a
fearing the growing
string of
the area of the Second Cataract
forts
were sophisticated
structures,
in
heavy
fortress-
Lower Nubia
Some had
barracks
and storerooms to accommodate up to one thousand troops. The
an economic
role, for
lecting stations for the gold
was designed so
other. In this
in
Lower Nubia, but
mined
forts could
also to
forts
they functioned as trading posts and colin
the Nubian desert. The series of forts
that the Egyptian troops
way, the
(fig.
surrounded by en-
closure walls that had fortified gates with drawbridges.
also served
artistic
14).
About 1900
Second
infor-
manning them could
signal
each
be used not only to monitor trade
defend Egypt from the powerful Nubian
19
Fig. 13.
A-Croup (3100-2800
B.C.) pottery, jewelry,
kingdom to the south. Egyptian
name
The
Pan -Grave
Culture
(2200-1700
B.C.)
of this southern
A very
different
the C-Group
named
inscriptions
palettes.
tell
us that the ancient local
kingdom was Kush.
Nubian group that existed at about the same time as
was the
so-called
for their shallow,
the archaeologists.
and cosmetic
Some
Pan-Grave
culture.
These people were
round graves, which looked
like
frying pans to
of the Pan-Grave people likely originated from
the nomadic tribes of the desert east of the
Nile,
who were famed bow-
men known as the Medjay (Meh-jay). Because the Pan-Grave men were
skilled bowmen and warriors, the Egyptian kings hired them as soldiers
and gave them lands
in
Egypt on which to
bowman Nenu
Pan-Grave
in
figure 9).
live
with their families (see the
Pan-Grave settlements and
One
grounds are found throughout Egypt and Lower Nubia.
depictions of a Pan-Grave warrior
is
burial
of the
cow
painted on the skull of a
few
that
r
came from
The
Kerma
Culture
(2000-1550
B.C.)
a Pan-Grave burial
(fig.
16).
By about 1700 B.C., while the power of Egypt was declining, the great
Nubian kingdom of Kush expanded
the Third Cataract
known
as the
within the
what
is
in
Kerma
a
rich, fertile
influence.
bend of the
It
was centered south of
Nile. This
culture because the remains of
modern Sudanese town
now
its
its
Nubian group
of Kerma. Their kings ruled
tory of Nubia.
The wealth of the Kerma kingdom
burials of their kings (fig. 17). Kings
under huge mounds of earth the
chambers
20
lie
much
of
the northern Sudan as well as parts of southern Egypt.
The Kerma kingdom became one of the most powerful
agant royal
now
capital
is
at the center of the
is
states
reflected
in
were buried
in
the his-
the extrav-
in
splendor
size of football fields. Inside special
mounds, the
kings' bodies,
tomb
unmummified.
i
I
Fig. 14.
C-Croup (2000-1500
figurines, pottery, a necklace,
Fig. 15.
Drawing of
B.C.)
assemblage of human and animal
and an alabaster
fortress at
vessel.
Semna, Second Cataract (about 1900
B.C.).
21
I
c
.
*
<
Fig. 16.
Pan-Crave cow
skull
painted
with the image of a Pan-Crave soldier
(about 2000 B.C.).
were placed on gold -covered beds, surrounded by treasures of gold,
ivory,
and jewelry.
The Kerma kings formed an
alliance with other kings
from the eastern
Mediterranean called the Hyksos (meaning "Rulers of the Foreign
Lands"),
who
controlled northern Egypt.
bringing horses and chariots to Egypt. By
The Hyksos
1600
are best
B.C., the
known
Kerma
for
people,
together with the Hyksos, controlled most of southern and northern
Egypt, while the Egyptian kings were ruling only a small district centered
at Thebes.
Egypt
in
Nubia
The Egyptian kings from Thebes fought the Hyksos about 1550
and forced them out of northern Egypt. Then they turned
south and began a war against Kush which lasted about
B.C.
their armies
fifty years.
Once
:*?
'5iJ,lS*i^w-^^4iifi}?-..i-»'.-v-»*>l.J-*'"
«^
i:
\
f
Fig. 17. Artist's
recon-
struction of a
Kerma
tumulus
burial,
royal
showing a funerary
^)]^^-^^^^
procession entering the
main
corridor.
22
^
^m^^
they destroyed Kerma, the capital
dom
Kush, then the rest of the king-
city of
and the Egyptians gained control over
fell,
all
of Nubia as far south
as the Fourth Cataract. In order to control the region, the Egyptians
moved
and reoccupied the Second Cataract
their armies
in
Egyptian forces ruled Nubia as part of Egypt.
for
governing
this
A
forts in Nubia.
was created
special office
area led by a high-ranking Egyptian
known
official
as
the King's Son of Kush.
The Egyptians brought
with their
Nubia
of Kush:
The Napatan
Period
(about
750-270
B.C.)
own
in this
Centuries
In
and
Nubia and
priests into
temples there. The Nubians began to worship Egyptian gods along
built
The Kingdom
their administrators
deities,
years, Egypt ruled
way.
Egypt again became weak, while Kush became strong.
later,
about 724
and for more than four hundred
known
B.C., the Kushite king Piye (Pee-yeh), also
as Piankhy
(meaning the "Living One"), conquered Egypt and declared himself pharaoh of
all
He moved
of Egypt and Nubia.
his capital to
the great Egyptian
Thebes. This began the Twenty-fifth Dynasty, the time
city of
was
ruled by the kings of Kush.
pire
and governed
it
about
for
The Kushites brought Egypt
couraged a
revival in
Their powerful rule
by the Assyrians,
to an end, however,
who came from
em-
many new monuments and
both the literature and the arts
came
into their
They proved themselves to be
sixty years.
impressive pharaohs, as they constructed
when Egypt
in
en-
Egypt.
when Egypt was invaded
the area of modern-day Iraq. After
destroying the combined Kushite and Egyptian armies about 660 B.C.,
the Assyrians forced the Kushite kings to flee back to their homeland,
deep
The Kingdom
of Kush:
The Meroitic
Period
(about 270 B.C.-
A.D. 350)
in
Nubia.
Far from the reach of
enemy
armies and unable to return to Egypt, the
Kushites established a royal court
came
in
Meroe
(fig. 1 8).
The
the center of an empire that included not only
also regions far south of
city of
much
modern-day Khartoum. Meroitic
strongly connected to central African traditions, while
still
Meroe
be-
of Nubia, but
culture
is
making use of
Egyptian styes and adding Graeco-Roman elements. Armies set forth
from Meroe on annual campaigns to take control over surrounding peoples.
Meroitic traders followed caravan routes east leading to the Red Sea
and points beyond, or they went farther south, up the Blue
In this
period,
gods unique to Meroe, such as the lion-headed Apede-
mak (Ah-ped-eh-mack), have
time, the Meroitic people
alphabetic
Meroe
Nile.
their
own
temples. Also, for the
first
own
in
began to express
their
language
an
script.
declined slowly
much competition
in
for trade
the third century A.D., perhaps because of too
from
its
neighbors. During the fourth century,
the culture seems to have mostly disappeared.
In
the sixth century A.D.,
missionaries from Egypt and Byzantium converted the various Nubian
23
Fig. 18.
Meroitic pyramid
and chapel
relief (early
second century
B.C.).
peoples to Christianity. This remained their dominant religion
fourteenth century A.D.,
Ancient
References
to Nubia
when
Islam
Since the Kushites spoke and wrote
which has not yet been
came
in
fully translated,
the
until
to Nubia.
the language called Meroitic,
most of
known. What we do know of them comes
their history
primarily
un-
is still
from archaeological
remains and other ancient sources: the Egyptians, the
the
biblical writers,
Greeks, and the Romans.
The
Bible reports that
Moses had a Kushite
historian said that this wife
and one ancient Jewish
wife,
was a member of the
royal family at
Meroe.
Another legend added that the queen of Sheba was a descendant of the
kings of Kush.
According to ancient
historians, the kings of
Kush were famous as great
warriors. In the Bible, the prophet Isaiah spoke of
ring wings," probably
because
reminded him of a plague of
Kushites
in their
its
Kush as a "land of whir-
armies, with their great leather shields,
locusts.
The Greeks and Romans
also put the
legends because of their renown as warriors.
In
of the Trojan War, the Greeks wrote that a Kushite royal hero
Memnon
to be pious
and devoted to
their gods.
Kush was a blessed place where the gods
storytellers reported that
regularly
named
fought on the side of Priam, king of Troy, against the Greeks.
The kings of Kush were known
Greek
the story
went for dinner. The food offered there was
said to be "the
most
pleasing to heaven."
The
physical beauty
Greek
writers.
They
and wealth of the Kushites inspired the ancient
called the Kushites "the tallest
ple in the
whole world. One Greek fable reports that Alexander the Great,
traveling
in
disguise, visited the court at
vinely beautiful queen.
was
built
The same
dead
in crystal coffins,
lived to the
flect
story
Meroe and
tells
fell in
love with
us that the palace at
on wheels and pulled about by elephants. The Greeks
that at Meroe, people bathed
age of
1
20
bound
years.
in
its
di-
Meroe
also
wrote
sweet-smelling fountains, buried their
their prisoners in
Although these
golden chains, and often
stories are mythical, they re-
a sense of mystery and admiration that the Greeks and
for the ancient Nubians.
24
and handsomest" peo-
Romans
felt
KINGS AND QUEENS OF NUBIA
We know very
However,
it is
little
about the beginnings of kingship
in
ancient Nubia.
believed that the idea of "divine kingship,"
came
king rules as a god,
from central
originally
Africa.
whereby the
The concept even-
Roman Caesars.
(about 3100-2800 B.C.), we see graves
spread to the Egyptian pharaohs and then to the
tually
Asearly as the A-Group culture
of rich chiefs
(Cuh-stuI),
Nubia as well as a cemetery of A-Group kings at QustuI
in
in
Lower Nubia. These graves were
and hundreds of beautiful pots painted
ivory,
filled
in
imitation of baskets.
Further proof of the existence of Kushite rulers
tian forts in Nubia.
From the
forts, small,
vated which date to about 1900 B.C.
with gold, jewelry,
was found
in
the Egyp-
broken clay tablets were exca-
On them were
written the
words
"Kush" or "Ruler of Kush." The tablets had been deliberately smashed by
the Egyptians. They believed that by breaking the tablets, they could
magically destroy the might of their enemies. The powerful Kushite rulers
were
clearly a threat to Egypt.
The
of the
Kerma culture (2000-1 550
rulers of the
A-Group, were buried
power and wealth
descendants
huge, earthen tombs. The size of their tu-
tombs, as well as their
muli, or circular
In
in
B.C.), possibly
rich
grave goods demonstrate the
of these early Kushite rulers.
the eighth century B.C.,
name. These kings were
all
we
are introduced to the Nubian rulers by
members
of a single royal family that rose to
be powerful emperors of Egypt and Kush. They are remembered
as Egypt's Twenty-fifth Dynasty (about
spoke
their
own
ing and have
left
us a
number
was only through the
All
Since there were
women
royal
that Nubian rulers inherited the
Amun
their father
was the god Amun. There-
themselves to be part divine and part human.
many
royal children eligible for the throne, the priests
to decide which ones
of King Aspelta (see
When
accomplishments, as they also give
personalities.
They believed that
fore, they considered
led into the
and
These texts do
the kings and queens had to be born to a queen, usually the
ruler's sister.
asked
Although they
of hieroglyphic inscriptions.
kings' political
us glimpses into their lives
throne.
B.C.).
history
language, they adopted the Egyptian language and writ-
more than record the
It
720-660
in
fig.
1 1 ),
would be
rulers. In
the king states that
all
the coronation text
his
brothers were
first
presence of the god, but none of them was chosen to be king.
Aspelta himself
was taken before the
spoke to the assembled
your Lord." After
this,
priests
and
statue of
Amun,
dignitaries, saying: "This
the god
is
the king,
Aspelta was crowned. The priests believed that
they could communicate directly with the god.
The
ruler
was required to do what the god
how and when
priests
to
proclaimed
wage
war,
make new
this information.
was governed by the
priests,
Amun
wished. Each was told
temples, or restore old ones. The
Therefore, every decision of the ruler
who were
the only ones believed to speak
25
directly to
ruler
was
Most
of
der,
he marched with
Symbols
ruled
was no doubt
queen was expected to commit
suicide.
this
his
army to the temple and
full
of rivalry and intrigue
killed
the priests. Kushite
between the
rulers
and
priests.
The Kushite
rulers
wore
special
symbols of
tures from Egyptian dress, such as the royal
crowns. But the Kushites had their
ical
moment that the
command, but King Arkamani (Ar-kah-manabout 270 to 260 B.C., did not. When he received this or-
them obeyed
who
the
the god even declared the
to die. Then, the king or
ee),
history
Royal
Amun. Sometimes,
of the symbols are the
two
own
royalty, including
kilt
and
some
fea-
certain kinds of
unique royal costume. Most typ-
rearing cobras, each called a uraeus, which
they wore on their foreheads. The Egyptian pharaohs also wore a uraeus,
but never more than one. Another feature of Kushite royalty
crown.
neck.
It is
a
skull cap,
which
Sometimes the cap has
we can
fits
tall
is
the cap
around the ears and the back of the
double feathers mounted on top of
see on the statue of King Aspelta (see
fig. 1 1).
Normally,
it
A
(fig.
Kushite rulers and can be seen on statues
Fig. 19. Relief
carving of
King Atlanersa (about 650
B.C.),
wearing the double
uraeus and traditional cap
crown with headband and
streamers.
26
down
19).
gold necklace with ram-head pendants
ram has
as
includes
a headband, from which a pair of long, ribbonlike streamers hang
the wearer's back
it,
special significance
because
it
was
(fig.
worn only by the
also
20) and
was sacred
to
relief carvings.
Amun.
The
Kings of Kush
The
first
of the great Kushite kings
that he swept
"like a
down
the Nile "raging
was
like
Piye.
The ancient records
us
tell
a panther" and conquered Egypt
cloudburst" about 724 B.C. For nearly sixty years,
his
family ruled
Egypt and Nubia. They are credited with bringing Egypt out of a troubled
time.
The Kushite reverence
for ancient traditions
them
to restore the temples
in
nies.
They
also copied
ed a rebirth of the
Nubia
(fig.
and the
arts inspired
Egypt and revive ancient religious ceremo-
and preserved ancient Egyptian books and support-
The Kushites even
arts.
built
pyramids as their tombs
21), just as the ancient Egyptian kings
in
had done a thousand
years earlier.
After Piye conquered Egypt, his reputation
was
was very powerful. He
able to rule Egypt from the Kushite capital of Napata almost without
ever having to set foot
Egypt, the king sent his
quest of Egypt
is
in
Egypt.
army
When
a rebellion broke out
to stop the rebels.
in
The story of
northern
Piye's con-
recorded on a great stone stela at the temple of
at Jebel Barkal. This inscription gives us his
Amun
view of the war and also some
Fig.
understanding of the king's personality. According to the
tremely religious
passion.
The
(fig.
22).
He
also appears to
inscription tells us that
text,
he was ex-
have been a king with com-
he wished to avoid
killing,
if
possible,
20. Detail of a bronze
statuette of a l<ing (possibly
Taharka,
690-664
wearing the
necklace
BC)
classic
composed
Kushite
of three
ram-headed pendants.
and that he pardoned
all
his
opponents
in
exchange
for their promise to
be loyal to him.
Piye's interest in horses
is
mentioned many times
personally scolded a conquered Egyptian prince
horses to starve during the conflict.
He
also
in his
who had
demanded
from the overthrown Egyptians. Scenes carved
in
inscriptions.
allowed
He
his
horses as presents
the walls of the temple
Amun at Jebel Barkal show great stallions that were offered to him as
gifts. When Piye died, in 716 B.C., he had eight of his best horses buried
of
Fig.
27
21
.
The pyramids
of Nuri.
Fig.
22. Bronze offering stand
of King Piye (747-716 B.C.).
Fig.
23. King Taharka (690-
664
B.C.) offering a figure of
Maat, a conical cake, a necklace, and a pectoral to the
god Amun.
near
four,
his
tomb
in
the royal cemetery. They were arranged
in
two groups
of
each probably representing a team for a four-horse chariot. The
horses were beautifully adorned with ostrich plumes and colorful, beaded
nets decorated with amulets of blue faience
and
silver.
The most outstanding member of the dynasty was
successor, Taharka (Ta-har-kah),
23).
He
is
mentioned
of the ancient world.
in
who
ruled
Piye's son
and
from 690 to 664 B.C.
third
(fig.
many powerful warring kings
ruler is named. An inscription tells
the Bible as one of
No
other Kushite
us that he arranged for his
mother to journey
Memphis, Egypt, so she could be present
1
,200 miles from Nubia to
at his coronation.
her to see him on the throne of Egypt. The text
tells
He wanted
us that "She rejoiced
exceedingly after beholding the beauty of His Majesty [Taharka]...
crowned upon the throne of Upper and Lower Egypt."
Taharka's reign was prosperous; therefore, he was able to build and
store temples
re-
throughout Egypt and Nubia and to have many beautiful
sculptures can^/ed.
One
interesting text
tells
us that Taharka's troops once ran a thirty-mile
race across the desert.
The
race, longer
To avoid the extreme desert
than a marathon, took
heat, the soldiers ran at night.
followed along on horseback, and he found
it
five hours.
The king
so entertaining that he
28
I
T
rewarded both the winners and the
losers.
The
inscription tells us: "His
majesty liked the 'contest' performed for him."
Taharka
lost control of
Egypt
when
the powerful troops of the king of
Assyria invaded Egypt and defeated his
to Nubia,
where he
burial place at the
by the
Museum
army
in
667
B.C.
He then returned
An enormous pyramid marks his
1917, his tomb was excavated
ruled until his death.
cemetery at
Nuri. In
of Fine Arts' Expedition.
They found
it
had been badly
plundered by robbers; however, more than a thousand stone shawabtis
(sha-wab-ties), funerary statuettes, belonging to the king remained (some
of these can be seen
Fig.
24. Shawabtis of Taharka
(690-664
tomb
in
figure 24), as well as
many
great treasures that
were buried with him. Near the opening to the pyramid, the
Museum
ar-
B.C.) placed in his
order that they might
magically
in
come
to
life in
the
chaeologists found something that the thieves likely dropped
haste: a solid gold ring for an unusually large finger. Probably
next world and perform any
hard labor asked of him.
worn by the great Taharka.
in their
it
had been
One
famous descendants of Taharka was
of the
Aspelta,
who
ruled
treasures of the
is
due to the
many
grave goods found
tomb had
from thieves.
silver,
of Fine Arts (see
of the Nuri pyramids, Aspelta's
roof of the
Many
great-grandson
from 600 to 580 B.C. His colossal statue
Museum
rich
his
collapsed
fine
in
works of
fig.
in his
is
one of the
11). Part of Aspelta's
fame
pyramid tomb at Nuri. Unlike
was not completely robbed. The
ancient times, hiding the contents
art,
as well as precious objects of gold,
and alabaster were buried within
(fig.
25).
A twelve-ton,
granite
sarcophagus of the king was also recovered from the tomb and brought
back to Boston. These remains reveal that Aspelta was a powerful and
Fig.
25 Spouted,
silver
milk vessel, with gold
wealthy
ruler.
and
alabaster objects from the
About 591
B.C., the Egyptians
tombs of Kings Aspelta and
Senkamenisken (sixth and
were badly beaten.
seventh centuries B.C.).
and he was forced to
His
new
invaded Nubia, and Aspelta's armies
palace
in
retreat south to
Napata was burned to the ground,
Meroe. After
this,
Aspelta seems to
disappear from history, as
his final
years of rule are not mentioned
in
the
ancient hieroglyphic records.
Queens
of Kush
Women
held very high status
played an important role
in
the Kushite culture
establishing
in
king or queen. Customarily, the throne
child of a sister.
However,
in
some
who was
(fig.
26).
going to be the next
was passed on from the
cases,
They
ruler to
a
one brother might be chosen to
succeed another on the throne, as was the case with Kings Aspelta and
Aniamani.
Women
ruled the Kushite
could also be the rulers themselves, and
kingdom
(fig.
27).
One well-known queen was Amanitore
lived
about the time of Jesus
queen and
relief
is
(fig.
28).
(Ah-mahn-ee-toh-ray),
who
She was the daughter of a
own right. Her husband appears with her in temple
we know that he was not considered a reigning king
in
scenes. But
because he
kings,
ruled
many queens
her
never shown without her. Since she was a descendant of
and her husband probably was
not, her
pyramid was located
in
Fig.
is
26. This
gilt silver
mask
an idealized image of the
queen
Malakaye (Mala-kay-ah),
face of the Kushite
eariy sixth century B.C.
31
a great royal cemetery along with other kings and queens of Meroe, and
his
was placed
in
an isolated,
Other important
through maternal
and the
fact,
religious
less
important area.
and government
were handed down
Therefore, the "Mother of the King"
lines as well.
"Sisters of the King" held very
when
offices
prominent positions
in
society. In
the Kushites ruled Egypt during Dynasty Twenty-five, they
placed the Theban area under the control of a royal Kushite princess. She
was given the
title
and administrative
her successor.
To
"God's Wife of Amun." This was a powerful religious
position,
handed down from each Kushite princess to
receive this office, a
woman
had to be a
Amun.
of women, some classical
virgin,
because
she was considered to be married to the god
Because of the significance
believed that
Meroe was
ruled only by
the Meroitic queens has continued
"Queen Mother"
In
many
person's
Fig. 27. This silver
image of
a goddess suckling a Kushite
queen (eighth century
is
a pose that
is
borrowed from
Egyptian religious
it is
B.C.)
art.
However,
in
Meroitic,
is
in
Nubian
cultures,
of the
titles
name Candace.
and success are equated with a
women
with
full
figures
were considered
models of prosperity. The Meroitic queens are usually shown as
powerful
women. They
are covered with jewelry
fringed and tasseled robes
life
of wealth, power, and
(fig.
held by
use as a name. Candace, meaning
the origin of our female
traditional societies, wealth
size. In
women. One
writers incorrectly
29). Their
large,
and wear elaborately
weight was symbolic of
abundance and was considered the
their
ideal
form
customarily the Egyptian
king with the goddess and not a
of beauty.
queen. This demonstrates the
high status of the Kushite
Fig.
queens
Amanitore
in their society.
28.
The powerful queen
(early first century
A.D.) grasps the enemies of Nubia
by their hair and holds a sword
over them as she prepares to smite
them.
.^
32
>^
R
f^ f^ M' ^-
T
mam.
Fig.
29.
Queen Amanitore
(early first
century A.D.),
in
her finest garments, and
her husband. King Nataka-
mani,
make offerings
Apedemak.
to the
NUBIAN RELIGION
lion-god
Little
bly,
known about
is
very early Nubians identified certain sacred geographic areas and nat-
ural forces
with their gods.
comes
primarily
places.
During the
like
the religious beliefs of early Nubian cultures. Proba-
What we know about their religion
from an interpretation of objects found
earliest period, archaeologists
Egyptians, believed
in
some form
few grave goods remain, we know
their burial
assume that Nubians,
of an afterlife. However, because so
little
more than
the cemeteries were used over long periods,
religious
in
at that time
we
that.
Because
many
of
can assume that a similar
system was shared by the A-Group and C-Group, as well as some
of the later Nubian civilizations.
Shrines and small offerings to the gods lead us to believe that an infor-
mal
religion existed,
although no temples remain from
this early period.
Beginning about 2000 B.C., the Nubians established a shrine
in
a rock
ledge at Toshka East, near the Second Cataract. Archaeologists have
found hieroglyphic
were deposited
inscriptions as well as
as offerings.
and Egyptians considered
1
500
B.C.
gives to
all
fragments of ceramics there that
These indicate to us that both Lower Nubians
this
a holy place.
on the walls of the shrine
reads:
One
inscription
from about
"An offering which the King
the gods of Nubia."
33
Also, small clay figurines of animals
Group graves and
may have been
at a
placed
and humans have been found
C-Group settlement. Those found
in
in
a domestic shrine, or temple, as
C-
in
the settlement
gifts
or offerings
to the gods.
The temples
aract
seem
Egyptians.
built in
the Egyptian forts along the Nile at the Second Cat-
to have been houses of worship for Nubians as well as for
One
can assume that Nubians
adopted some aspects of Egyptian
living in the vicinity of
religion. In fact, after
been taken over by the Nubians, about 1640-1532
ma
sent for an Egyptian
This temple
fort.
official
was dedicated
The kings of Kerma
B.C., the king of Ker-
Buhen
to Horus, an Egyptian god.
also built their
own temple
— modern-day Nubian for "mud-brick
(fig.
30),
ruin." This
now
called the
temple was sim-
plan to the small chapels associated with the large, round (tumulus)
graves
in
grander
long.
the forts had
to help rebuild the temple at the
Deffufa
ilar in
the forts
It
the
Kerma cemetery. However, the Deffufa was on a much
scale.
It
measured more than 60 feet
was surrounded by workshops,
in
height and
bakeries,
complex was decorated with columns, faience
was 150
feet
and warehouses. This
tiles,
and a huge
altar
carved from quartz and covered with a blue glaze. The glazing of quartz
was a uniquely Nubian technique. Numerous
the temple.
Some were made
locally at
statues also decorated
Kerma, while others were
imported from Egypt. This temple complex was as large or larger than
any known of
in
Egypt at the time.
Nubians worshiped
lays
local deities as well as
found on the funerary beds
in
Egyptian gods. The ivory
the great tombs at
Kerma probably
may repgoddess Taweret (Tah-where-it), shown
represented both. Fantastic creatures such as the winged giraffe
resent local deities.
The Egyptian
as a pregnant hippopotamus, also appears as an ivory inlay
Fig.
30.
brick
The massive mud-
temple complex of the
upper Deffufa, at Kerma
(about 1600 B.C.).
34
in-
(fig.
31).
No doubt some of the
religion
Egyptian gods that were adopted into the Nubian
were combined with
god played an important
headed sphinx
at
local
Nubian
role in Nubia.
Kerma, as well as
deities.
One
For example, the ram
can find statues of a ram-
burials containing elaborately decorat-
ed rams. This worship of the ram was well-established
cult of
Amun
believe that the
ram connection to
brought to Egypt
The
tures.
likely,
ram deity and considered him
their ancient
er
from Egypt. Very
arrived
cult of
the Nubians linked
as their
originated
Amun was
the gods and the father of the Egyptian king.
One
to
own. Many scholars
in
Nubia and was
lat-
showed him
Amun
can recognize
by
in
his
cul-
the creator and king of
He was
sun and the forces of nature. Egyptians represented
man.
Amun
an important connection between the two
The Egyptians believed that
simply a ram. Nubians
Nubia before the
32).
(fig.
Amun was
Amun
in
all
identified with the
Amun
as a
human
or
a unique way, as a ram-headed
crown, decorated with a sun disk
Fig. 31. Ivory inlays
and two
tall
feathers
(fig.
33).
Egyptian kings built colossal temples
domination
Fig.
of
32.
(1
550-1 000
B.C.).
of
the goddess Taweret
in
Nubia during the period of
These temples became
their
familiar features of
and winged
giraffes
on
a funerary bed from
Kerma (2000-1550
Nubian gold earring
ram head of Amun,
crowned with double
uraeus and sun disk, dating
to the sixth century B.C.
Enlarged.
35
B.C.).
Fig. 33. Amun as a ramheaded man, seated within
the sacred mountain at Jebel
Barkal,
from the reign of
Taharka (690-664
B.C.).
the Nubian landscape.
Abu
es
II
of
Amun
at
Simbel
(fig.
Egypt's frontier.
in
In size
Egypt.
became one
site
called the Pure
In
34.
Temple of Abu Simbel,
constructed about 1250 B.C.
by Ramesses
II.
35).
The temple
fig.
(fig.
B.C.,
and the temple
at Jebel Barkal
was
about 1450 B.C. to mark the southern
and importance,
it
rivaled
was a
this
cliff
built at
limit
of
Amun's main temple
temple, and overtime,
religious centers in Nubia.
at
it
A distinctive
small mountain, which the ancient Egyptians
Mountain. They believed that
and imagined him
Amun
resided behind
sitting there eternally
its
on a
33).
front of the
When
Fig.
about 1250
most important
three-hundred-foot
throne (see
most famous are the temple of Ramess-
The Nubians maintained
of the
feature at this
in
of the
34), built
at Jebel Barkal
the town of Napata
Karnak,
Two
cliff rises
a huge, freestanding pinnacle of rock
(fig.
36).
Nubians and Egyptians viewed the mountain and pinnacle from
Fig.
35. Jebel Barkal with a
computer reconstruction of
the ancient temple complex.
Fig.
36.
View
of the
pinnacle and ancient
ruins of Jebel Barkal.
certain angles, they
rising
from
saw the
"brow."
its
It
silhouette of a
was
believed that
head or crown with a cobra
Amun
chose Jebel Barkal and
the city of Napata to be the true center of kingship for
all
of Egypt and
Nubia because of the cobra's importance as a royal symbol. Therefore, the
kings of Napata believed themselves to be the true sons of
rightful heirs of the Egyptian
In
Amun
and the
pharaohs.
the eighth century B.C., the powerful Kushite kings took control of
Egypt. Believing themselves to be the legitimate rulers of Egypt, they successfully ruled the country for nearly sixty years.
Inscriptions
tell
at Jebel Barkal.
priests
us of
crowned
in
of the activities that occurred
in
the temple
Amun in the temple was said to "speak" to the
proclaim who would be king. Each new king was
A statue
and even to
some
of
the temple. Throughout his reign, the king
was
dictated to by
the gods through the priests on matters of state and conduct of war. The
temple of
Amun was
like
a
museum,
scepters of the previous kings
Other temples
tian
were
at Jebel Barkal
for
it
was where
all
the crowns and
kept.
were dedicated to the well-known Egyp-
goddesses Mut, Hathor, Tefnut, and a fourth whose name has been
37
i
Fig.
37. Gold jewelry image of
the goddess
Isis,
with out-
stretched wings, found
tomb
in
the
of a queen (late sixth
century B.C.).
lost,
probably
37),
Isis (fig.
who were honored
as divine mothers.
who
goddesses were the protectors of the kings and the queens
picted
Nubian
in
art suckling at the breasts of the
have been discovered
Silver vessels for milk
in
goddesses (see
The
are defig.
27).
the royal tombs, and they
bear inscriptions stating that drinking purified milk protected the ruler
from
all
evil (see fig. 25).
Nubians worshiped other gods besides Amun. They identified
god Horus, the legendary
ing kings with the
first
deceased kings with the god of the Underworld,
Khnum (Ka-num) was
(fig.
early as
He was
38).
2300
B.C.
in
liv-
king of Egypt, and their
The ram-headed
Osiris.
the deity of the Nile cataracts. Other gods were
purely Nubian, such as the
tions
their
human-formed Dedun, god of the four
identified as the
direc-
god of the land Ta Sety (Nubia)
as
ancient Egyptian religious writings called the
Pyramid Texts.
The supreme
god
position of the
Amun
at Jebel Barkal
At that time. King Arkamani was
close of the third century B.C.
have received an order from the god to commit
having a mind of
With
his
ends toward the
suicide. But
own, marched on the temple and
killed
said to
Arkamani,
the priests.
the Kushites broke with their traditions. The royal burials,
this event,
for example, subsequently
were located much farther south,
Egyptian was no longer the language used
in
Meroe.
Meroitic
in inscriptions;
was
used from then on. The Egyptian ideal went out of fashion, and kings and
queens
in art
were represented according
chitecture, too,
to
assumed many completely
new
standards of beauty. Ar-
original aspects.
The center of
the kingdom shifted southward.
For the
first
time, temples
Apedemak, who came
was represented
to
were dedicated to a new "great god, " named
have almost equal status with Amun. This god
as a powerful lion-headed
man, often shown seated or
standing on elephants or holding lions and elephants on leashes
On one
39).
of his temples, he appears fantastically, with three lion's heads
and four arms and as a giant lion-headed serpent. By the
A.D., the Egyptian goddess
mythical wife.
Isis
Apedemak was
and as a god of war and
38
(fig.
seems to have become
first
century
linked with
him as
revered as a protector of the king and state
victory.
Fig.
38.
The Nubian god Dedun, seated on a throne
(1518-1504 B.C.); relief
before the kingThutmose
II
from Semna.
Fig. 39.
The Nubian lion-god Apedemak, wearing
elaborate costume and crown, seated on a throne
(late third
century B.C.).
/^
39
BURIALS
Why
to
study burials? Archaeologists rely on the material remains
tell
them about both the
When
peoples.
religious
no written language
life
is
and the
daily
Dwellings and the objects
in
people leave behind a house
them have often not
of objects.
full
In
materials such as
burials.
survived. Rarely
do
any event, the houses
themselves have not lasted long since they were
manent
must speak
The majority of
culture.
come from
the material remains of ancient Nubia and Egypt
graves
of ancient
available, the objects
and provide a record of an ancient
for themselves
life
in
made
primarily of imper-
mud, branches, and wood. Objects placed
in
graves are often the best preserved simply because burying protects them
from natural elements and from robbery.
Certain categories of objects are customarily found
jewelry, cosmetic implements,
weapons,
Nubian graves:
in
fine pottery. Items
can be found throughout the entire spectrum of burials
in
from
daily
life
ancient Nubia,
from prehistoric times through the Meroitic Period.
The graves of the
oval
Fig.
40.
Khartoum Mesolithic
sherds (about
6000
B.C.).
pits.
prehistoric
and A-Group peoples were usually shallow
The body was placed on
its
side, curled
with knees drawn up. The greatest difference
groups was
The
primarily beads
heads, adzes, and
graves were simple. They included
celts.
(fig.
40) as well as stone tools such as mace
The A-Group people, who came
used for eating (see
fig. 1
placing of food and drink
In
in
after the prehis-
were buried with more elaborate clothing and jewelry. Also
interesting are the containers for storing food
a belief
the burials of these
and other small ornaments made of stone, carnelian,
to include pottery
toric cultures,
a sleeping position,
During the Khartoum Mesolithic period, the repertoire
shell.
expanded
in
in
the types of grave goods.
in
earliest objects placed in the
bone, or
up
a spiritual
some A-Group
life
3) that
in
and
have been found
the graves
drink, as well as vessels
in
likely reveals
A-Group
that the
burials.
The
A-Group had
after death.
burials,
a circular stone structure was built on top
of the grave. This structure sometimes also had a small adjoining stone
chapel area for receiving offerings. Pottery offerings and, occasionally,
uninscribed stelae (gravestones) have been found
in
the chapels.
Some A-Group graves also included small human and animal figurines
made of mud or clay. Because they were placed in graves, they likely had
religious significance for the
The
circular
Nubians and were not
just
grave form continues into the C-Group
well-known for the high, stone,
ornamental.
burials.
They are
circular structures, called tumuli, placed
over the graves. The practice of having a burial marker on a grave was
popular throughout Nubia at the time of the C-Group. Probably the stone
tumuli were intended as memorials. The
C-Group began a new
practice
of adding animal sacrifices to the graves. Skeletons of sheep, goats, cattle.
40
gazelles,
man
and dogs have been found
Groups of
burials.
in
cattle skulls are
the
same grave
shafts as the hu-
commonly found
some
in
of the
richest graves, suggesting that cattle represented wealth. Further,
lae,
measuring up to
six
feet
tall
ste-
height and positioned outside the graves,
in
frequently were inscribed with pictures of cattle. Images of long-horned
cattle also
appear on pottery and
As mentioned
earlier,
round graves shaped
in
drawings on rock
the Pan-Grave culture got
like
frying pans. Their graves
its
cliffs.
name from
were located
their
in
both
Egypt and Lower Nubia. Both the circular type of grave and the contents
within firmly connect the Pan-Grave people to other Nubian cultures. This
is
evidenced by the
classic leather kilts,
the style of jewelry, and the horns
of cattle, sheep, and gazelles that are found
skull carries
the
culture, burial practices
goods were more numerous and
men
are
famed
lavish. Fine
for their daggers
faience, ivory, glazed crystal,
The body could be buried
was placed on a tanned ox
small, with a
large,
and the
in hi-
bronze objects
in
burial
the graves
Kerma people were expert bronze workers. Kerma
(fig.
41), tools,
Jewelry was beautifully crafted from gold,
it
name
changed markedly. Graves of im-
became more elaborate and
portant individuals
indicate that the
his
animal
16).
fig.
Kerma
One
the graves.
a unique depiction of a Pan-Grave chief with
eroglyphs (see
In
in
and
in
crafts-
and cosmetic implements.
semiprecious stones,
silver,
Fig.
41
.
Miniature dagger from
Kerma dating
to
about 1700 B.C.
shell.
a variety of ways.
In early
hide, with another hide over
Kerma
it.
burials,
Graves were
tumulus superstructure. Sacrificed sheep are often found
in
the graves. Ostrich-feather disks decorated the heads of the sheep, and
decorative horn protectors were placed on their horns
Later,
Kerma
over the burial
al,
royal graves included
pit.
A whole
and hundreds of
their skulls
were
laid in
in
42).
earth and gravel tumuli
herd of cattle was sacrificed at each royal buri-
were arranged around the rim of the earth-
en tomb. These tombs were for the
frequently dressed
enormous
(fig.
rulers,
leather garments
whose unmummified
bodies,
and wearing sandals and jewelry,
a natural sleeping position on a bed. Their
weapons were
placed nearby.
Fig.
42.
Ram
skulls
with
horn protectors, from a Kerma
tomb (about 1600
41
B.C.).
Fig.
43.
and
bird
Mica
inlays in animal
images on leather caps;
from the Kerma culture (2000-
1550
B.C.).
new element
Perhaps the most dramatic
was
their inclusion of
women, and
human
sacrifices
children, possibly servants
creased as the
one
chambers of the
wore
(fig.
royal
spirits
sacrifices
might be buried
when
in
a
tomb
people.
in
in
in-
of this
a single tomb;
Some
and
of the sacribird
images
the Nubians ruled Egypt, a noticeable
introduction
in
Nubia of many of the
this period,
traditional Egyptian burial
Nubians began to build small stone pyramids for
The presence of canopic
jars,
the containers
in
which the
in-
organs were placed during mummification, indicates that the Nubi-
ans had begun mummifying their dead.
the Egyptian tradition
In addition,
of including servant statuettes, or shawabtis,
ary.
the
43).
practices. For instance,
ternal
filling
could serve their ruler
break with earlier Nubian funerary traditions occurs. During
their rulers.
men,
tomb. Possibly these
leather caps with unusual mica animal
the eighth century B.C.,
we see the
burials
finely dressed
of these sacrificed servants
some four hundred
large grave contained
attached
Kerma
Kerma culture developed and prospered. At the peak
hundreds of these
ficed figures
In
number
in
and wives, were found
were made so that the "servant"
the next world. The
practice,
The bodies of
sacrifices.
corridors leading to the burial
discovered
in
the
tomb became custom-
At the same time, certain Nubian practices were discontinued. For
example,
human
sacrifices
were no longer included
chief remaining connection to the earlier
Nubian
in
the burials. The
burial style
was the
funerary bed.
Burial practices
customs
became an
interesting blend of
after the location of the royal
about 270 B.C. Pyramids were
42
still
Nubian and Egyptian
cemetery shifted south to Meroe
used for the burial of royalty
(fig.
44).
Graves of high-ranking
and
priests
dignitaries also
had
Fig.
small, brick
44. Nineteenth-century view
Meroe (about
270 B.C.-A.D. 350).
of the pyramids of
pyramid superstructures. As
placed
in
Egypt, the
in
an extended position
in
a
body was
wooden
coffin.
still
mummified and
However, shawabtis
were no longer used, and human servants once again were
included
than
in
in
the
the burials. But, such sacrifice
Kerma
Roman
ties
and
smaller scale
culture.
The graves of the Meroitic period
indicate
was on a much
sacrificed
Nubian participation
in
also
Graeco-
trade, as they contain large quanti-
of imported objects, including pottery,
bronze work,
glass,
and
silver
from the
Mediterranean world.
A
unique Meroitic creation
ue of a
Most
human
is
with bird wings
likely, this
is
a large stat(fig.
45).
an adaptation of the
Egyptian ba bird, which represented a
itual
form of the deceased. The Nubian ba
statues
were
set
up outside the tombs of
persons of high rank
erally,
ued
sixth
spir-
all
Lower Nubia. Gen-
in
of these burial practices contin-
until Christianity
came
to
Nubia
in
the
century A.D.
Fig.
45. Reconstruction of
a royal ba bird statue, Meroitic
period (about third century AD.).
««"» oiu
43
r\
it'l'®~l
m&wmdmMM
Fig.
46. Pastoral scene showing
men and women
before a reed hut involved
in
the process of milking cows; engraved on a bronze bowl (second century AD.).
DAILY LIFE
Dwellings
Nubians occupied small and impermanent camps that they moved
Early
regularly.
They
built
As hunters,
lived in tents
fishers,
made
and herders, they
of cowhide or houses
seminomadic
led
made
lives.
of grass and reeds
on stone foundations. Traces of stone walls indicate that the
C-Group people
lived in
open
villages with
later,
more permanent houses. At
Aniba (Ah-nee-ba), archaeologists have uncovered one-room houses
as well as larger structures that
were a
cluster of several circular rooms.
Both kinds of buildings had large, stone foundation slabs that were covered with
Few
at
mud and
smaller stones.
ancient Nubian
Wooden beams
supported the
ceilings.
have been found. The largest was excavated
cities
Kerma, around the lower Deffufa temple complex. Near the Deffufa
a large, circular building
made
king's residence. Also
it
resembles a modern African
found there were smaller versions of
building, as well as square
may have
of reeds and timber posts that
been the palace of the Kerma king, since
mud
ones made of
is
brick.
Some
this
type of
of the brick
houses had porches or verandas. (This architectural feature was brought
to America from Africa
were
built
Africans were the
cattle herders.
They
brick,
first
it is
stone blocks, or
also raised
The climate
nomadic way of
early
wood and
reeds.
were
was not
all
rich in wild
until
primarily
cattle
the Sahara at that early time was
life in
made
records
both rock carvings and paintings
The rock representations depict animals and,
Because Nubia was
it
in
in
located, houses
sheep and goats, and even made
humans. They have been found
gathered,
be found
still
today, providing areas for grazing. Nubians
of their travels and
walls.
46) and can
to domesticate cattle. Nubians
drives across the Sahara.
wetter than
(fig.
Depending on where they were
were made from mud
on rock
Colonial times.) Both round and square houses
throughout ancient Nubia
parts of Africa today.
Livelihood
in
occasionally,
over the Sahara and beyond.
food that could be hunted, fished, or
the Neolithic times, about
4000
B.C., that the
Nubians began growing grains. Wheat and barley were made into
bread and beer, and dates and nuts were also cultivated.
In
addition, the
Nubians traded with the Egyptians for a variety of other types of foods.
Lower Nubia was always important as a center for trade between Egypt
and the
ebony,
down
rest of Africa.
ivory, wild
materials from the interior of Africa, such as
animal skins, and most important, gold, were traded
the Nile for food, jewelry, and other luxury items
of the wealth
44
Raw
made by trading,
a
number of important
(fig.
47). Because
cultures developed
was
area. This
in this
particularly true during periods
control of the river traffic
Later, in Meroitic times,
manufacture.
In
when
the Egyptian
was weak.
Nubia also became famous as a center for
addition, Nubians used silver
iron
and bronze to create
elaborate vessels, including copies of those that they had imported from
Italy
and Greece. Nubians traded these metal goods throughout the
Roman
world.
Nubians were famous as warriors, renowned for
ability
for
with the
bow and
arrow. This
Nubia already mentioned, Ta
pointed out
earlier,
is
their strength
and
demonstrated by one of the names
Sety, the
"Land of the Bow." Also as
the Pan-Grave people were hired by Egyptians as
mercenaries, and Nubian divisions were an important part of the Egyptian
army. Soldiers from Nubia were also sought for armies as far away as
Crete and Persia.
Writing
During the Meroitic Period (270 B.C.-A.D. 350), Nubians created their
own
unique writing system. Prior to
had been
in
this time,
all
known
inscriptions
the Egyptian language. Meroitic texts of business documents,
Fig.
47. Wall painting of
Nubians carrying trade
historical
The
accounts, and religious prayers and offerings have been found.
religious inscriptions
well as
on funerary
were placed on temple and tomb chapel walls as
stelae
and offering
tables.
goods of
ivory,
ebony, and
exotic animals; from the
Theban tomb of Rekhmire
(about 1450 B.C.).
sefsrwa^i^a^^
45
J
^^"
^O^
.^
.^^
vi'^
.O^
^^^'^
^^^
^
K
^
?
a
^
1^
1
<^
c
kh
y
>
m
3
sh
n
^//
s(se)
L_
k
kh
y
/
4i]
///
y
^
2
w
57^
|/
b
A
/?
q
p
:3)
;
t
S^
>9
;
1
X
:j:?
•
O
L^^^
/-^
-n
/^
48.
^
i
^ ^
Fig.
.S^4
n
c^
"^
7^
te
to
•
X
d
•
r
•
word
•
divider
The Meroitic alphabet.
The Meroitic alphabet
is
The symbols were written
sive,
form.
Some
composed
in
of twenty-three symbols
of the signs were adapted from Egyptian hieroglyphs;
itself
is
Meroitic texts have been studied for
much
though the sound value of each sign
entirely deciphered.
grammar
We
still
is
different
from Egyptian.
more than a hundred
complete understanding of the language has
ther the
48).
both a hieroglyphic and a shorthand, or cur-
however, the Meroitic language
been
(fig.
escaped scholars. Even
still
known, the language
do not have a
years, yet a
full
itself
has not
understanding of
ei-
or the vocabulary. Meroitic writing remains one of the
great ancient mysteries.
Jewelry
Jewelry
clets, hair
was an important aspect
adornment
in
ancient Nubia. Cir-
ornaments, necklaces, armlets, bracelets, finger
and beaded
children
were provided with an abundance of jeweled
fabric
they were
known
In prehistoric
in
rings, girdles,
were worn by both men and women. Even
anklets,
were probably introduced
into
items. Earrings
Egypt by the Pan-Grave culture, although
Mesopotamia from about 2500
B.C.
Nubia, organic materials such as shell and bone were used
to manufacture beads, bangles,
colorful amulets,
and pendants.
Flint-drilled
hard stones,
and beads of faience were popular with A-Group and
C-Group peoples.
46
of
In
Kerma, clear quartz beads glazed a
brilliant
blue were
strung as necklaces and sewn onto garments. The effect must have been
dazzling under the bright sun.
Nubia was a
source of raw materials for the ancient jeweler. Gold,
rich
carnelian, amethyst,
and rock
crystal
were
plentiful,
and the
art of metal-
smithing was highly developed. Gold work from Napata and
among the
Meroe
finest in the ancient world.
enamel work
mental. The
(fig.
49),
Museum
particularly
is
Meroe
known
body adornment bring
Clothing
28 and
and
to
life
and
anklets.
in
50),
These objects of
the images on temple walls.
Queen Amanitore bedecked
(fig.
One
can imag-
an array of such jewelry
29).
Our knowledge
graves. Nubians
its
of Fine Arts, Boston, houses a dazzling and extraor-
earrings, necklaces, armlets, bracelets, rings,
(see figs.
for
which includes several techniques, some experi-
dinary collection of royal jewelry consisting of beads, pendants
ine the splendor of
is
in
of Nubian clothing
the time of the
linen loincloths, belts,
comes
chiefly
from items found
A-Group and C-Group wore
in
leather
and sandals. Leather caps have been found
with the feathers that they wore
in their hair.
The Kerma graves included items of
leather, linen,
and wool. Rich dec-
oration can be seen on almost every item of clothing, embellished with
pieces of mica or beads of faience, ostrich-egg shell, gold, or
silver.
Leather seems to have been the most popular material for clothing. Nubians tanned the hides of sheep, goats, cattle, and gazelles to
net coverings for the head, loincloths,
caps,
worn by men and women
alike,
skirts, girdles,
make
caps,
and sandals. The
were sometimes decorated with
Fig.
49.
A
hinged Meroitic
bracelet of gold
and
bichrome enamel
tury B.C.).
Hathor
is
seated
central panel.
47
(first
cen-
The goddess
in
the
wJs\
T^T
ornaments of mica cut
43).
Men wore
arranged
braided
diamond-shaped designs.
patterns or
usually
worn
wore knee-length
large pieces of leather or
were held
skirts
in
as girdles
— stained
in
place.
and used as sword
leather skirts
made from one
belts.
or
two
from many narrow panels stitched together. The
place by a drawstring, and this, too,
a variety of beads. Nubians embellished their leather
ways
Belts of leather or
often decorated with beads, held the loincloth
Braided leather strips were also
Women
fig.
leather loincloths with frontal panels decorated with beads
in line
fiber,
the shapes of animals, birds, and plants (see
in
was adorned with
many
skirts in
Women
beaded with designs.
red, pierced in patterns, or
also
wore
fine
seams and bead ornamentation. Footwearconsisted of sandals made
nets of very fine leather on their heads and leather tunics with
two loops
of thick cowhide soles with
that
went around the
The
toes.
sandals were held on with laces. Sandals, too, were ornamented, often
with geometric designs cut into the soles.
Linen
Some
in
fine
and coarse weaves was found
in
most of the Kerma graves.
pieces had decorative patterns of small, blue, faience ring beads
strung onto the threads.
seams were found
in
it.
It is
unclear
how Nubians
Perhaps they wore
In
Nubians also adorned themselves
finely
made from
high-quality cotton and
Meroitic temple
reliefs
show
Nubians,
Furniture
ornamented with
Roman periods,
embroidered woven garments
imported from China.
silk
like
and pleats (see
figs.
brick that could be used as tables, chairs, or benches.
made
of
is still
done
in
Africa today. Colorful furnishings such as
wooden
in
Pottery
Pottery
left
made
(fig.
51).
made
is
in
in
29).
of
mud
The wealthy could
They
also
ivory or
made
Ethiopia and other parts of
woven
mats, trays, decorated
boxes, chests, and beds have also been found. Beds
Africa strongly resemble those
dressed
ebony wood decorated with
even gold, such as the beds found at Kerma
furniture out of basketry, as
is
28 and
Egyptians, used mostly "built-in" furniture
afford beautiful furniture
Queen
elaborate styles of royal clothing.
tassels
no
by wrapping or tying a single
Amanitore, at the temple at Naga, near the Sixth Cataract,
lavish robes
linen, for
the Meroitic and
length of cloth around their bodies.
in
it
used the
ancient Nubia
(fig.
made today
52).
one of the most important remains that ancient people have
behind, because archaeologists can learn about and date ancient cul-
tures by studying the pottery alone. Since different cultures created pottery
in
different shapes
and
styles,
the pots can be used to identify specific
groups of people. Ancient people continually altered the design of their
Fig.
50.
finest
One
of the
examples of
Nubian craftsmanship
is
this
pendant made of a
rocl< -crystal
base topped
with a gold head of
Hathor (eighth century
B.C.). Enlarged.
pottery, ever so slightly. These changes,
sometimes very
subtle,
can be
traced through time. For example, a short-handled vessel might slowly
evolve into a long-handled one.
Once
archaeologists can date the short-
handled one as older, they can further interpret that the objects found
with the short-handled pot are also older than the objects found with the
49
Fig.
51
.
Bed with ivory
Fig. 52. This
much
50
like
inlays
found
in
a royal
Kerma
contemporary bed of wood and palm
the ancient one
(fig,
51)
made
burial
(about 1600 B.C.).
fiber rope
from the Sudan looks
nearly four thousand years earlier.
long-handled one. By the careful study of pottery, entire cultures can be
identified
and dated.
Pottery
was used
and more.
vases,
In
as dishes, storage containers, cooking pots, offering
dry climates such as Nubia's and Egypt's, ceramics do
made
not easily disintegrate. Nearly every pot that was ever
some form
in
or other and can be used for analysis.
Ancient Nubian pottery
superior
It is
is
renowned
for
outstanding craftsmanship.
its
development, beauty, and creative design to any made
in
by Nubia's neighbors. Nubians created their
They began
impressive.
by hand,
earliest pottery
which makes the eggshell thinness and perfect shapes of
more
has survived
their pots
the
all
wheel to "throw" pots about 1500
to use a
handmade pottery tradition as well.
known in Africa was made by Nubians
B.C. but continued the
The
of
earliest pottery
modern-day Khartoum.
Made
culture.
It
of hand-shaped, unpainted, brown, fired clay, the pottery
tive patterns often involve
is
called
ogists suggest that the
Dotted Wavy-Line pottery (see
Nubians may have used a
throughout northern Africa and
Another Nubian ceramic type
Kerma
it
type of pot to predynastic Egypt.
culture.
in
Africa.
rim.
They were produced
was the Nubians who
Some A-Group examples
burnished pattern on the surface (see
fine, rippled,
40). Archaeol-
was used on ancient pottery
and
No doubt
Black-topped tradition was taken to
the
fig.
lines;
Black-topped ware. These handmade,
is
as early as the Prehistoric Period.
had a
The decora-
catfish spine to incise, or
popular today
is still
polished, red pots had a shiny black interior
this
incised designs.
combinations of dotted and continuous
carve, these designs. This type of decoration
brought
the area
was produced by the Khartoum Mesolithic
was elaborately decorated with punched and
thus, this type
in
its
fig.
13).
The
greatest peak of development by
The shallow bowls of the
early
Kerma
civilization later
developed into bell-shaped cups that are remarkably thin-walled and
have
flaring rims.
black
mouth
These often have a
of the vessel and the red
distinctive gray
body caused by the extremely high
temperatures under which these cups were
pottery
is still
being
made today
in
band between the
fired (fig. 53). This style of
the Sudan.
Also characteristically Nubian are small, black C-Group vessels
with incised lines
filled in
with white or colored pigments (see
fig.
14).
Examples of such vessels are noted especially for the endless variety of
geometric
line patterns.
This decoration technique
is
also
still
popular on
African ceramics.
The A-Group
culture produced a unique type of pot: eggshell-thin,
cone-shaped vessels painted with shades of red and orange
intricate patterns that imitate basketry. This
time
in
is
not found at any other
Nubia.
The Pan-Grave
culture also produced a distinctive decorated cup.
of redware and had a finely
combed
Meroitic craftsmen also are
of extraordinarily thin ware
painted with red and
ornamental stamps
nistic
type
iron oxide in
for their bowls, vases,
54).
The
and cups
the potter's wheel. This pottery
brown designs and may
(fig.
was
or ridged surface.
renowned
made on
It
lively
also be
marked with
is
small,
motifs are a combination of Helle-
designs and local patterns, such as lotuses, palm fronds, giraffes.
51
and
crocodiles, gazelles,
frogs, as well as religious
ankh (the Egyptian hieroglyph meaning
Food
symbols such as the
"life").
Nubians ate the meat of both domestic and wild animals, including
cows, sheep, goats,
The
Nile
were
was
turtles.
full
of
and ducks.
pigs, hippos, gazelles, ostriches, geese,
all
kinds of fish that
were caught and eaten,
Bread and beer were staples, as were dates,
figs,
as
and
nuts.
Egyptian beer and wine jars have been found, suggesting that these
imported drinks were popular. Very
chased
in
likely,
the
first
imported beer was pur-
Nubia.
Pottery and baskets were used to store and serve food. Beautiful baskets
were pictured
Today, Nubians
in
still
tomb
paintings
Oils
and
fats
were used not only
men and women
Fig.
53.
delicate
Some
found
of the
and creative pottery
were made by the
Kenma culture (2000-
vessels
1550
B.C.).
in
its
and tweezers.
markets
(fig.
56).
like
the Egyptians. They
medicinal benefits, as
it
wore
it
not
prevented eye
in-
and stones for grinding the eye cosmetics have been
Nubian graves, as well as
most
55).
for cooking, but also as cosmetics. Both
applied eye paint,
only for beauty but also for
fections. Palettes
(fig.
use baskets for serving food, and the colorful exam-
ples are popular items for sale in the
Cosmetics
showing wares of Nubians
toilet articles,
such as mirrors, razors,
Fig.
with
54. Meroitic vessel
lively
painted crocodile-
and-vine design (second
century A.D.).
SURVIVING ASPECTS
OF NUBIAN CULTURES
Nubians were
among
the most sophisticated and
peoples of the
artistic
ancient world. Thanks to recent excavations and expanded interest
history of Africa,
we now
the
in
are beginning to understand the everyday
life
of this ancient African civilization.
Many
aspects of ancient Nubian cultures survive today, unchanged for
more than
thirty-five centuries, in
southern Egypt, the Sudan, Ethiopia,
and perhaps beyond. As previously mentioned, pottery very
in
decoration and manufacture to ancient types
purchased
in
village
beds and stools
in
Kerma were made
similar
made and can be
is still
markets of these countries. Today, Nubians create
much
the
same way
(see figs. 51
eastern Sudan, people use
and
wooden
Modern-day Nubians wear
as those
52). Even
found
now,
in
the graves at
in
remote parts of the
pillows similar to ancient headrests.
leather sandals identical to those found
in
ancient graves.
Nubians
still
commonly
place square amulets, similar
in
shape to ancient
Kushite and Egyptian types, around their necks for protection against dis-
ease and misfortune. Today, the amulets are small leather pouches containing folded papers with quotations that are often from the sacred
Islamic texts of the Koran. Ancient Kushites
jewelry;
styles
modern-day Nubians continue the
adorned themselves with gold
tradition. Likewise,
some
hair-
have scarcely changed, as can be seen by comparing the ancient
and modern methods of
plaiting (figs.
57 and
58). Today, small children
frequently have their heads shaved except for certain tufts, which are
lowed to grow long,
just as
can be seen
in
al-
ancient paintings.
53
Fig. 55.
Wall painting showing
Nubian baskets containing
luxury goods
tomb
1450
Fig.
in
the Theban
of Rekhmire (about
B.C.).
56. Basket
or market,
in
shop
Aswan
In
the suk,
(1984).
54
From the markings on
some
C-Group women elaborately decorated
of the
toos and patterns of scars.
Many
we know
female figurines,
small, pottery
their bodies with tat-
peoples of Nubia, the Sudan, and most
custom of adorning
of Equatorial Africa today continue the
their faces
with a series of distinctive permanent scars. Tattoos and scars
cate social status or signify
rites
mark of one's
tribal origin
facial scars identical to
The arrangement of the
of passage.
or affiliation.
indi-
scars
One
Roman
59 and
art (figs.
in
60).
hallmark of both ancient and contemporary Nubian cattle herds
the presence of select oxen with
these animals are seen primarily
naturally
forced to
deformed horns. Today,
among the southern
Sudanese,
on these animals, while the
Egyptian art
in
prehistoric
in
who keep
respect. Typically, the right horn
left
horn has been cut and
grow downward. Oxen with horns deformed
seen frequently
Nubian rock drawings.
in this
Later,
way can be
they appear
in
scenes of Nubian war booty. Texts identify them as "oxen
of the finest quality from Kush."
of cattle appear
In
Kushite
art, later
the
still,
same types
scenes illustrating Kushite war spoils that have been
in
taken from the southern
owning
artificially
and as objects of intense
as pets
grows
Many modern-day Sudanese wear
those that can be seen on Nubians represented
ancient Kushite, Egyptian, Greek, and
them
may
from one group to another and may also serve as an identifying
varies
is
that
cattle with
tribes.
The Kushites themselves are represented
both horns symmetrically deformed
who
animals of the modern-day Shilluk people,
are
—
^just like
now
the
centered along
the White Nile south of Khartoum.
Many
features of ancient Nubian burial customs have disappeared
owing to the
influences of centuries of exposure to the religions of ancient
number
Egypt, Christianity, and Islam. However, a
of familiar features
have remained remarkably unchanged. Although funerary beds are no
longer placed
in
graves, Nubians are
still
carried
on them
in
the procession
to their graves. Nubians are
no longer buried with grave goods; however,
food and water
left at
jars are
allows relatives to
make
still
the foot of the graves after burial. This
offerings to the spirit of the deceased as
more than three thousand years ago
and
in
ancient times, grave
mounds
in
was done
Kerma. Furthermore, both today
are covered with a surface of
hundreds, sometimes thousands, of smooth, white desert pebbles.
The ancient meaning of these stones
stone
left
is
not known; however, today each
on the grave represents a prayer that has been
said for
the deceased.
Another noteworthy
is
characteristic of
Nubian culture that has survived
the popularity of the sport of wrestling.
In
Egyptian
depicted as champion wrestlers and are frequently
61). Today,
wrestling
is
in
the southern Sudan,
among
art,
Nubians are
shown performing
the people
in
the
Nuba
(fig.
hills,
the primary sport of men. They gather annually to compete
55
g.
57. Plaited hair
on
mummy of Queen
Nedjmet (1070-946
Fig.
B.C.).
58. Contemporary Sudanese
hairstyle
in
great wrestling festivals. The winner
much
like
the ancient
girl
with finely braided
plaits.
becomes the man most
likely
to win a bride.
As mentioned previously, one ancient Kushite word that survives today
is
the female
name Candace.
It is
dace, used for Kushite queens.
ited
actually derived
from the royal
title
Can-
The Greek and Roman explorers who
vis-
Nubia carried back the incorrect report that Candace was the name
given to
all
the queens of Kush rather than a
seems to have become
title.
especially popular after
it
The name Candace
appeared
in
the
New
Testament (Acts 17:27).
All
of the features discussed above demonstrate the long-standing
tradition
upon which modern-day Nubian
great civilizations have
the creativity,
vitality,
and continue to
56
society
is
based. While
come and gone over the course
of
human
many
history,
and individualism of ancient Nubian cultures survive
flourish in
our
own
age.
Fig.
fito
59. Ancient
of the
first
image of
scarification
Fig. 60.
from graf-
to second century A.D.,
Modern-day Sudanese
scarification
from
on her
girl
with
face.
Meroe.
Fig.
in
61
.
Nubians wrestling,
in
a scene from the temple of Medinet
Thebes, constructed by Ramesses
III
(1194-1163
Habu
B.C.).
57
NUBIA: A BLACK LEGACY
Afterword by Edmund Barry Gaither
American
societies
throughout
this
hemisphere have roots
from many other parts of the world. For
to
know about one
this reason,
it is
cultures
in
important
another's past to better understand ourselves and
others. Unfortunately,
torted by cultural bias
much
and
of our
racial
knowledge of the past has been
prejudices that
we
are only
now
dis-
begin-
ning to correct.
As a consequence of slavery and
been
history has not
history
"New World"
in
the Americas, African
many
feel that Africa's contributions to
and culture have been devalued, misrepresented, or denied as a
Examining Nubia
result.
aftermath
presented. African-Americans and
fully or fairly
others throughout the
its
therefore, help lead us
will,
toward an overdue
reassessment of ancient Africa.
For Africans and their descendants throughout the Americas, the
zation of ancient Nubia
their
a symbolic legacy. They consider Nubia part of
own, broad heritage and view Africa
well as
many
as the source of their
own, as
had wide impact
globally.
other, diverse cultures that have
Black people
can
is
—whether Caribbean or North, Central, or South Ameri-
— have preserved a profound consciousness of
Some
their African roots.
speak African languages; others observe a wide array of African
still
and African-inspired
transform
art,
religious, social,
and
cultural practices.
Still
others
music, and dance through new, expressive forms created
out of the synthesis of African and other traditions.
ical
civili-
In
many
places, polit-
thought has been forcefully impacted by nationalist sentiments
in
which Africa figures prominently.
From the time of
their arrival in the Americas, African-Americans
sought to strengthen
sixties,
the
movement,
new
have
their identity with Africa. In the United States in the
identification
at the center of
took clear form
in
the cultural nationalism
which was the reclamation of ancient Egypt
both as part of Africa and as the cradle of
civilization.
Symbols from ancient Egypt were embraced by popular
culture. Pyra-
mids, images of pharaohs or their queens, and other similar designs proliferated.
The most widespread was the Egyptian ankh, which appeared
on necklaces and jewelry. Lectures and numerous other presentations
interpreting the history of ancient Africa
re-
assumed increased importance
and popularity.
Much
of the discussion of ancient Egypt focused on the physical traits
of early Egyptians. Frequently, these discussions did not distinguish
between Egyptians and Nubians.
facial features, hair textures,
and
In
both cases, figurative works with
styles associated with black
occur. African-Americans could see aspects of themselves
Nubian and Egyptian
Over the
Africa have
last
in
people often
ancient
art.
three decades, important
new
perspectives on ancient
emerged. These perspectives assert that Egyptian
civilization
was indebted
to Africa to the south, including Nubia, for
formative ideas and that Egyptian civilization provided
Graeco-Roman
dation for
Africa
civilization.
became not just the home
Proceeding from
some
much
this
of
its
of the foun-
approach,
of the earliest humans, but also the
birthplace of civilization.
Inspired by an increased appreciation of early African heritage,
many
African-Americans adopted or gave to their children names such as Nefertiti
or Candace. Others probed ancient texts, including The
Book of
the
Dead, seeking to gain greater personal knowledge of Egypt and Kush.
Beyond
this specific interest in
Nubia and Egypt, African-Americans em-
braced Africa as a generalized ancestral legacy.
names
to
West
Some changed
African, Swahili, or Arabic. Because a
their
growing number of
African-Americans were becoming Muslims, Arabic names were especially
frequent.
Still
others adopted the practice of wearing African or African-
inspired garments.
young
blacks
A number
ful,"
of
Ranging from bubas (dresses) to geles (head wraps),
donned
women, under
began to wear
men wore
colorful outfits that proclaimed their
awakening.
the influence of the adage "black
is
their hair in African-inspired coiffures, just as
beauti-
many
popular haircuts called Afros.
Greater knowledge of Nubia
heritage while assisting
in
will
enhance our understanding of black
the restoration of Africa to her place
cultural history. Additionally,
it
will inspire
in
world
and challenge young people of
African descent everywhere.
59
GLOSSARY
A-Group: comparatively advanced culture with trade,
possibly gold mining
among
and
cattle raising,
the sources of their wealth; flourished
about 3100-2800 B.C.
Abu
Simbel:
located
in
two temples created by Ramesses
of
site
about 1250
II
B.C.;
northern Nubia near the Second Cataract area.
Amanitore: Meroitic queen
who
likely ruled in
own
her
depicted
right;
in
the temple of Naga.
religious object or figurine believed to provide magical
Amulet: small
protection for
wearer.
its
Egyptian god adopted by the Nubians and combined with
Amun:
ram
their
by the Nubians as a
deity; depicted uniquely
man
with a
ram's head.
who
Aniamani: king
his colossal
reigned (620-600 B.C.) during the Napatan Period;
stone sculpture
Apedemak: god
in
is
the
Museum
of Fine Arts, Boston.
the form of a powerful lion-headed
in
man
often
shown
seated or standing on elephants and worshiped during the Meroitic
270 B.C.-A.D. 350).
Period (about
Arkamani: king
Period;
who
270-260
reigned about
known from
during the Meroitic
B.C.,
ancient texts to have slaughtered the ruling priests
so he could control the
kingdom
Aspelta: king of Kush and Egypt
as he desired.
who
ruled
about 600-580 B.C. His
pyramid tomb at Nuri was discovered and excavated by the
Fine Arts, Boston,
in
B.C.
and
Iraq
who
and again
who
lived
approximately
in
of
the area of modern-
forced the Nubians out of Egypt twice,
660
in
Museum
1916.
Assyrians: ancient people
day
rich
in
about 667
B.C.
B-Group: name of the culture thought to follow the A-Group, but whose
existence
Ba
is
now
disputed.
bird statues: the
ba was an aspect of the human personality, often
translated "soul," which lived
sented
in
el
after death.
Nubia as a human figure with
third centuries
Batn
on
A.D.
Hagar: Arabic
in
The ba was often
bird wings.
repre-
From the second
to
Nubia, ba statues were placed outside tombs.
name meaning
"Belly of Rocks," referring to the
rocky rapids between the Second and Third cataracts.
Black-topped ware: some of the finest pottery ever
Valley.
The peak of production was achieved
was handmade with a
high, glossy, red polish
created by the potters during
B.C. Their
the
in
Kerma
the Nile
culture.
It
and a black top, an effect
firing.
C-Group: a seminomadic people
2000-1500
in
made
who appeared
camps were of reed
in
Lower Nubia about
or stone huts, and they had
a cattle-based economy.
Candace:
has
60
title
of a queen
come down
meaning "Queen Mother"
to us as a female
name.
in
Meroitic, which
Cataract: fierce rapids
are located
Khartoum,
in
in
formed by granite boulders
the Nile starting
the
in
Nile. Six cataracts
Aswan and extending south near
in
the Sudan.
Dedun: a Nubian god
who
human
takes a
form, called the god of the
Four Directions.
Deffufa: a Nubian term for "large brick building." Also, the
name
given
to the principal religious building at the site of the capital of the
Kerma kingdom.
Ethiopia: a Greek term adopted by both the Greeks
and the Romans to
designate the land of Kush and surrounding areas. Derived from the
Greek aethiops ("burnt-faced"),
it
meant "Land of the Burnt
Faience: type of porcelain-like ceramic
made of crushed
by Nubians and Egyptians primarily for small
and jewelry. The surface commonly has a
quartz,
Faces."
employed
toilet articles, sculptures,
blue, glassy glaze in imitation
of turquoise.
name
Hieroglyphs:
The
script
is
Jebel Barkal:
given to the writing symbols used by the Egyptians.
composed
site
of pictorial as well as phonetic symbols.
god
of the great temple complex dedicated to the
located near the Fourth Cataract. The Pure Mountain, as
was the most important
it
was
Amun
called,
religious center in Nubia.
Karnak: greatest temple complex
in
Egypt, dedicated to the
god Amun.
Kerma: powerful Nubian kingdom, located near the Third Cataract, that
existed
between 2000 and 1550
Khartoum Mesollthic:
located at the
site
prehistoric culture
of the
Khnum: ram-headed god
el
Kurru:
site
Kush: Nubian
tion
B.C.
modern-day
of the
First
of Khartoum.
Cataract.
name
of a powerful kingdom.
B.C.; the
name became
used by the Egyptians, Assyrians, and
Lower Nubia: northernmost
Meroe:
city
B.C.;
of one of the Napatan king's royal pyramid burial grounds.
about 1900
Second
from 6000 B.C.to 5000
First
mentioned
in
an inscrip-
standard for Nubia and was
biblical writers.
part of Nubia, located
between the
First
and
cataracts.
royal residence of
Kush during the Meroitic Period, about
270 B.C.-A.D. 350.
Napata: northern capital and chief religious center of the kingdom of
Kush. The Napatan kings were buried
el
in
pyramid tombs nearby at
Kurru and Nuri.
Nuri: royal cemetery of Napata,
from 690 to 664 B.C. The
and nineteen of
his
site
founded by King Taharka, who ruled
contains the pyramid
of Taharka
successors and their queens.
Pan-Grave culture: famed
bowmen and
cattle herders
northern Nubia and southern Egypt about
gists selected this
tombs
name because
who
2200-1700
settled in
B.C. Archaeolo-
of their distinctive pan-shaped graves.
61
Piye: Kushite king
who
himself pharaoh of
George
Reisner,
all
about 724 B.C. conquered Egypt and declared
in
of Egypt and Nubia.
Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, and chief
University-Boston Museum of Fine Arts
A.: curator of the
archaeologist for the Harvard
He excavated numerous
Expedition.
sites in
Upper and Lower Nubia
from 1906 to 1932.
Sarcophagus/sarcophagi: stone coffins
were often
rulers of
Nubia
buried.
Scarification: ritual application of scars
status or to
mark
faience; placed
on the body to indicate
social
identification with a particular group.
Shawabti: statuette
in
which royal
in
in
mummiform shape
tombs
in
to
usually
made
of stone or
do manual labor on behalf of the deceased
the next world.
Stela/stelae: inscribed rectangular or
rounded
slab of
wood
or stone,
carved and/or painted, serving as a funerary monument.
Taharka: greatest of
Tihirka,
is
located
in
Ta
Sety:
named
Nuri,
name
the Bow,
"
all
Kushite rulers of Egypt (690-664 B.C.), who, as
twice
in
the Bible. His pyramid and rich grave goods,
were excavated by the
Nubians were formidable archers.
after the fact that the
is
in
the form of a pregnant hippopota-
credited with watching over
Thebes: capital
city
Tumulus/tumuli:
Kerma
of Fine Arts, Boston.
given to Lower Nubia by the Egyptians, meaning "Land of
Taweret: popular Egyptian goddess
mus who
Museum
of Egypt from
circular burial
1570
mound
to
women
1070
in childbirth.
B.C.
used especially by the
culture.
Upper Nubia: area south of the Second Cataract, extending
to
modern-
day Khartoum.
Uraeus/uraei: most characteristic symbol of kingship, a rearing cobra
worn on the forehead of Nubian and Egyptian pharaohs. Nubians were
unique
62
in
wearing two cobras.
OF ILLUSTRATIONS
LIST
All
object
numbers
erwise noted.
refer to
Museum
dates after royal
All
numbers unless oth-
of Fine Arts
names
refer to the lengths of reigns.
Museum
Frontispiece: detail of shawabti of King
50.9 cm, w. 18 cm;
Nuri; granite; h.
Expedition 23.731.
Taharka (690-664
Museum
13 cm, diam. 22.5 cm; kohl pot and
B.C.);
warrior; British
Sudanese workmen arranging shawabtis of King Taharka with
pyramids of Nuri in the background; March 19, 1917; photo-
Fig. 4.
Map
and the Tasian Culture
Large Kerma royal tumulus
Fig. 7.
Manue-
burial;
from David O'Connor,
Early Contacts," Expedition
14
p. 7, fig. 3.
View of Meroitic chapel
relief
and pyramid; Beg. N. 13, King
B.C.); photograph by Timothy
The front of the barque stand of King Atlanersa (about 650
from Jebel Barkal; granite; h. 117 cm, w. 152 cm, d. 152
cm; Museum Expedition 23.728; drawing by Peter Der Manue-
Fig. 19.
B.C.);
lian.
1928 (expedition negative A 4957).
Wall painting from the Theban tomb of Huy, viceroy of Nubia
Fig.
A. Gardiner, The
1926),
ety,
pi.
Tomb
of
Huy (London: Egypt
Kemsit, Nubian queen of King
(2061-2010
Museum
B.C.);
of Art,
Mentuhotep
from her tomb chamber
New
ples at DeireTBahari
York; from
III
Dynasty 11
king (possibly Taharka, sixth
Amun Jebel
Barkal;
bronze with
cm;
Museum
Fig.
21
Pyramids at Nuri; photograph by Timothy Kendall.
Fig.
22. Offering stand of King Piye
Metropolitan
.
bronze;
h.
Expedition 21.3096.
81.1 cm, diam.
(747-716 B.C.); from el Kurru;
45 cm; Museum Expedition 21.3238.
The XI Dynasty Tem-
Naville,
E.
II,
wall;
unknown Nubian
traces of gilding on crown; h. 19.9 cm, w. 8.5 cm, thickness 7.5
Exploration Soci-
28.
20. Statue of an
century B.C.); from the temple of
under King Tutankhamun, Dynasty 18 (1334-1325 B.C.), showing the homage of Nubian princes. From N. de Garis Davies and
Fig. 8.
pi.
Kendall.
Second Cataract of the NileatSemnafrom the west bank; Nov.
6,
painted with the image of a Pan-Grave
3252, watercolor copy by Nicholas
Nakyrinsan (early second century
lian.
Fig. 6.
Sorrel! (1957);
76.
Fig. 18.
of ancient Nubia; drawing by Peter Der
I.
Museum.
—
modern-day northeast Africa and surrounding coundrawing by Peter Der Manuelian.
map
skull
Museum
Semna; painting by Alan
British
"Ancient Egypt and Black Africa
of
Detailed
at
and 58/
94 cm.
(pot)
(London: Bernard Quaritch, 1937),
(1971),
Timeline of Nubian cultures; drawing by Peter Der Manuelian.
Fig. 5.
69/61/3
Thayer, after G. Brunton, Mostagedda
Fig. 17.
7081).
Fig. 3.
tries;
lid,
5.2 cm; bead necklace, no #:
in
Fig. 2.
E
lid
Pan-Grave cow
Fig. 16.
June 1938 (expedition negative B 8968).
graph by G. A. Reisner (expedition negative D 335,
with
(lid): h.
courtesy Trustees of the
from
Expedition 20.227.
12.7 cm; large Black-topped bowl, 101/424/6:
Drawing of fortress
Fig. 15.
George Andrew Reisner (1867-1942); photograph taken
Fig. 1.
8.2 cm, diam
119/2
Cover; detail of statue of King Senkamenisken (643-623 B.C.); from
Jebel Barkal; granite; h. 1.47 m;
h.
h.
(London: Egypt Exploration Fund, 1913),
Fig.
23. King Taharka presenting offerings; from the hypostyle hall of
temple T at Kawa (about 680
B.C.);
redrawn by Nicholas Thayer
pi. 3.
and Peter Der Manuelian.
Fig. 9. Stela
of the Nubian soldier Nenu; from Gebelein, Dynasty
10 (2213-2035
B.C.); painted
sandstone;
I.
45 cm,
h.
9-
37 cm; pur-
Fig.
(690-664 B.C.); from Nuri; ala10-35 cm; Museum Ex-
24. Shawabtis of King Taharka
baster (calcite), granite, and steatite; h.
chased by A. M. Lythgoe, 03.1848.
pedition.
The four branches of mankind (Egyptians, western Asiatics,
Dynasty 19
Nubians, and Libyans); from the tomb of King Sety
(1291-1279 B.C.); Hall E; left side; Book of Gates, Fourth Division; photograph from K. Lepsius, Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und
Fig. 10.
Fig.
I,
Aethiopien... (Berlin: Nicolaische Buchhandlung, 1842-45), Abt.
136.
3, pi.
Senkamenisken (643-623 B.C.) and
Aspelta (600-580 B.C.); from Nuri; silver, gold, alabaster (calcite),
carnelian, turquoise, and steatite; spouted milk vessel: h. 1 6.4 cm,
w. 17.3 cm; alabastron: h. 25.2 cm, diam. 7.2 cm; ewer with handle: h. 31 .5 cm; cylinder sheaths: h. 1 1 .3 cm and 12.6 cm, diam.
25. Ritual objects of Kings
1 1
Colossal statue of King Aspelta
.
ple of
Amun
(600-580
at Jebel Barkal; granite; h. 3.32
B.C.);
m;
from the tem-
Museum
Amun
(620-600
Jebel Barkal; granite; h.
B.C.);
from the
about 3.81 m;
Fig.
Museum
26.
Fig.
Assemblage of A-Group
objects: three bowls, bracelet,
two
3100-2800
27.
B.C.; ceramic, stone, shell, mica,
Assemblage of C-Croup objects (2000-1500 B.C.); from
Lower Nubia; ceramic, alabaster (calcite), carnelian, and faience;
gift of G. A. Reisner and G. Steindorff; human figurine, no #: h.
Fig.
cm, max. w. 8.5 cm; animal figurine, 40/1 14/P:
h.
10 cm,
the
12 cm; cup, 101/151/1: h.9cm,diam. 12.5 cm; cup, 101/80/6:
Museum
from
Expedition 20.1059.
suckling a Nubian queen; from a silver plaque
tomb
of Nefrukakashta, wife of King Piye, at
cm, w. 1.8 cm, thickness 2 cm;
Queen Amanitore
28.
Museum
el
Kur-
Expedition
smiting enemies; from the pylon of the
Temple at Naga; early first century A.D.; from K. Lepsius,
Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien... (Berlin: Nicolaische
Buchhandlung, 1842-45), Abt.
Fig.
29.
5, pi. 56.
Queen Amanitore and King Natakamani
Apedemak; from the
I.
(early sixth century B.C.);
cm, w. 11.3 cm;
Lion
Fig. 14.
.3
Queen Malakaye
24.928; drawing by Nicholas Thayer and Peter Der Manuelian.
quartz; gift of G. A. Reisner,
1 1
in
ru; h. 5.1
and
and Emily Esther Sears Fund,
03.1613, 19.1539, 19.1543, 98/806, no. #, 137/10, 137/4/11,
137/3/10, no#.
of
A goddess
found
of a set of four bracelets, mirror, palette, diamond-shaped palette, necklace;
Mask
Nuri; gold; h. 13
Expedition 23.732.
Fig. 13.
I.
24.901.
Colossal statue of King Aniamani
temple of
3 cm; tweezers:
I.
Expedi-
tion 23.730,
Fig. 12.
cm and
18 cm, w. 4.3 cm; vessel lid with
of chain: 22 cm; Musebraided chain: h. 2.8 cm, diam. 8.5 cm;
um Expedition 20.334, 20.341-342, 20.1070, 21.339-40,
3.1
Fig.
rear wall of the Lion
before the lion-god
Temple
at
Naga; from
—
K. Lepsius,
Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien.
Nicolaische Buchhandlung, 1842-45), Abt. 5,
The upper Deffufa
by Timothy Kendall.
Fig. 30.
Kerma (about 1600
at
pis.
.
.
(Berlin:
1
Fig.
B.C.);
Taweret:
h.
about 14.5 cm; winged
Museum
cm, w. about 9 cm;
817, 13-12-802.
Fig. 32.
Ram-head
2.9 cm, w.
Fig.
33.
Amun
cm,
Fig.
giraffe: h.
d.
cm;
1 .3
Museum
B.C);
York: the Met-
The Meroitic alphabet; drawing by Peter Der Manuelian,
48.
Fig.
Brooklyn
Museum,
1978),
49. Hinged Meroitic bracelet
and enamel;
Barkal; gold
93,
p.
(first
century B.C.); from Jebel
4 cm, diam. 6 cm;
h.
Antiquity (Brook-
in
67.
fig.
Museum
Expedi-
Expedition 23.333.
tion 20.333.
ram-headed deity inside the mountain at Jebel
temple B 300 (reign of King Taharka, 690drawing by Timothy Kendall.
as a
Fig.
50. Ball pendant, with Hathor head; from
Barkal; relief carving in
664
Tomb ofRekh-mi-Re at Thebes (New
Museum of Art, 1943), pi. 19.
adapted from the Brooklyn Museum, Africa
lyn:
earring (sixth century B.C.); from Meroe; gold; h.
.6
1
about 8.5
Expedition 13-12-813, 13-12
Dynasty 18(1504-1450
Davies, The
Mythical beast bed inlays (about 1600 B.C.); from Kerma;
ivory;
III,
procession of Nubians with imported goods; from N. de G.
photograph
ropolitan
Fig. 31.
Theban tomb of Rekhmire, vizier unB.C.), showing a
47. Wall painting from the
der King Thutmose
59-60.
Temple of Ramesses II at Abu Simbel (1279-1212
photograph by Torgny Save-Soderbergh.
Fig. 34.
unknown queen (mid-eighth century
an
gold; h. 5.3 cm, diam. 3.2 cm;
B.C.);
Fig.
Museum
el
Kurru, pyramid
B.C.); rock crystal
55 of
and
Expedition 21.321.
Modern reproduction of an ancient bed from Kerma; original:
1750-1550 B.C.; wood, rawhide lacing; h. 66 cm, 183 cm, w.
73.5 cm; reconstruction by Joseph M. Gerte, Boston; Director's
51
.
I.
with computer reconstruction of the ancient tem-
Fig. 35. Jebel Barkal
ples; reconstruction
Fig. 36.
and photograph courtesy William Riseman.
View of the pinnacle and ancient
ruins of Jebel Barkal;
pho-
Contingent Fund 40.469.
Fig.
tograph by Timothy Kendall.
Fig. 37.
Winged
Isis
h.
6.9 cm, w. 16.7 cm;
Fig.
Museum
of the lion-god
I,
pel,
12.8 cm; bowl:
Expedition 25.1511.
Apedemak; from inside the west wall
of the Lion Temple at Musawarat es-Sufra (late third century
B.C.); from F. Hintze, Musawwarat es-Sufra
2, Der LowentemTafelband
(Berlin:
Akademie-Verlag, 1971),
pis.
h.
rilled
from Kerma; ceh. 22.5 cm, diam.:
B.C.);
beaker:
5.5 cm, diam. 6.8 cm; beaker:
cm, diam. 13 cm; bowl with incised decoration:
of King Thutmose II, Dynasty 18 (1518-1504 B.C.) begod Dedun; from Semna; sandstone; h. 1.055 m; Muse-
Fig. 39. Detail
the suk, or market, at Ka-
in
Assemblage of vessels (1700-1550
12.3 cm; miniature beaker:
Fig. 38. Relief
um
53.
ramic; spouted beaker: h. 12 cm;
Expedition 20.276.
fore the
Modern-day Nubian bed (1984)
reima; photograph by Timothy Kendall.
pectoral (late sixth century B.C.); from Nuri, pyr-
amid of Amaninatakilebte; gold;
52.
h.
h.
h. 1
8 cm, diam.
9.2 cm, diam. 10.5 cm; pot with ram's head:
Museum
h.
22 cm; polished
bottle: h.
dition 13.4101,
20.2006, 13.4076, 13-12-936, 13.4105, 16-4-
18.4 cm, diam. 11 cm;
Expe-
1523, 20.1714, 14-2-714.
Fig. 54.
Meroitic painted pot with crocodiles and vines (second cen-
tury A.D.); from Kerma; ceramic; diam.
71, 73.
28 cm; Museum Expedi-
tion 13.4038.
(6000 B.C.) of the Khartoum Mesolithic; from
Kaderu (the Sudan); courtesy of the Peabody Museum of Archae-
Fig 40. Pottery sherds
Fig.
Fig.
41 Miniature dagger
.
hilt;
Fig. 42.
1.
16.7 cm;
Ram
skulls
(1
700
Museum
with horn protectors; from Kerma, tombs 1064
Egyptian Paintings
Chicago, 1936),
Fig. 56.
Kerma; mica; bustards:
.5-1 .8 cm;
h.
7 cm, w. 8 cm; petals:
bands on the border:
I.
h.
5.5 cm, w.
10.6 cm, w. 2.3 cm;
Denkmaeler aus Aegypten und Aethiopien...
Nicolaische Buchhandlung, 1842-45), Abt.
1, pi.
45. Reconstruction of a ba bird statue, Cairo
.
for sale
pis.
mummy
of
in
the suk at Aswan; photograph
Queen Nedjmet,
Mummies
de
(Cairo: Imprimerie
Contemporary Sudanese
graph by Timothy Kendall.
Fig. 58.
pl.
Cairo
CG
girl
61087, with
E.
Smith, The
I'Institut fran^ais
69.
with braided hairstyle; photo-
Museum,
59. Ancient Nubian relief with tattoos (scarification); from Ursula
Hintze, Meroitica 5 (1979), p. 139,
CG
1-2. Photograph courtesy of the University
Female
d'archeologie orientale, 1912),
Fig.
University of Pennsylvania.
Fig.
Davies, Ancient
(Berlin:
138.
40232; from C.
Leonard Woolley and D. Randall-Maclver, Karanog: Ttie Romano-Nubian Cemetery 4 (Philadelphia: University Museum,
1910),
un-
16.
pl.
Modern-day baskets
Royal
Museum
44. Nineteenth-century view of the pyramids of Meroe; from K.
Lepsius,
Fig.
M.
vizier
showing
(Chicago, Oriental Institute, University of
braided hairstyle; Dynasty 21 (1070-946 B.C.); G.
Expedition 13.4284.
Fig.
I
B.C.),
1809).
43. Inlays of animal and bird images from a cap (1700 B.C.); from
1
Theban tomb of Rekhmire,
Dynasty 18 (1504-1450
by Paul Tomassetti.
Fig. 57.
Fig.
III,
ancient baskets and other goods; from N.
from Kerma; bronze with gold
Expedition 15-3-421.
B.C.);
and 1042; photographed on March 30, 1913 (expedition negative B
55. Wall painting from the
der King Thutmose
ology and. Ethnology, Harvard University.
Contemporary Sudanese
by Timothy Kendall.
Fig.
60.
Fig.
61 Wall
girl
fig. 8.
with scarification; photograph
relief from the temple of Ramesses
Medinet Habu, Thebes, showing Nubian
.
at
46. Pastoral scene engraved on a late Meroitic bronze bowl from
Epigraphic Survey,
Karanog; from C. Leonard Woolley and D. Randall-Maclver,
Karanog: The Romano-Nubian Cemetery 4 (Philadelphia: University Museum, 1910), pis. 26-27.
Ramses
1932),
III
pl.
Medmet Habu
II,
III
(1
194-1 163 B.C.)
wrestlers;
from the
Later Historical Records of
(Chicago: Oriental Institute, University of Chicago,
111.
Back cover: statue of King Senkamenisken (643-623
Barkal; granite; h. 1,47 m;
Museum
B.C.);
from Jebel
Expedition 23.731.
Boston Public Library
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VILLAGE
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