Deforestation - University of Khartoum Dspace

Institute of Environmental Studies
University of Khartoum
The Causes and Consequences of Deforestation
on Woodlands Production in the Central Clay
Plains
of the Sudan : A Case Study of Er Renk Area
By:
Timothy Thwol Onak
BSc. Agric.; Diploma Forestry
Supervised by:
Prof. Mustafa Mohamed Suliman
A Dissertation Submitted in Partial Fulfillment For the Degree of
Masters in Environmental Sciences.
March 2005
1
Dedication
To the soul of my beloved mother: Achan Kimo whose
continuous struggle with life taught me this noble spirit.
To my sons Gani, Cham, Buywomo, Pakwan & Kimo and to
my daughters Nyamithajwok and Nyamijwok. Last but not least of
my family, to my wife : Rebecca Achol Ayul whose perseverance
encouraged me all along the difficult paths to completion of this
work while struggling with life demands.
To the “Greens” and the other environmentalists whose
guiding and untiring concerns and teachings are essential in
preserving, conserving and protecting the environmental resources
for the benefits of the future generations and survival of whole man
kind.
To the souls of environmental disasters World-wide and to
who affected in my country, Sudan.
2
Acknowledgement
I would like to express my deep gratitude to Professor Mustafa
M. Suliman, My supervisor, for his encouragement and guidance
throughout my fieldwork and during the preparation of this report.
Great appreciation and sincere thanks are extended to the
following:
Prof: Joshua Otor Akol, Vice chancellor, Upper Nile
University, and Dr. Akoy Dual Akoy, the Deputy Vice Chancellor,
Upper Nile University and Chairperson of staff training committee;
and to Master: Job Akieu Alieth , the Academic Secretary for
offering me this study opportunity.
The academic and supporting staff of the Institute of
Environmental Studies (IES), University of Khartoum for their usual
and unfailing assistance awarded to me during my course work and
research period.
Mr. Peter Gwel Achchen, Director of National Forests
Corporation (NFC), Er Renk for their valuable field assistance by
providing me with field support (guides) and logistics for my field
visits. To all my colleagues, the practising foresters and other
professionals who were by that time within Northern Upper Nile. To
3
them are my sincere thanks, appreciation and wishes to commitment
to the Development of Natural Resources of the State.
The entire staff of the Institute of Environmental Studies (
IES) University of Khartoum who have enriched my education and
personal experience with their sincere help and friendship.
My fellow graduate colleagues for their friendliness, and
stimulating discussions during study period at the Institute.
Last, but not least great thanks and appreciation are due to Mr.
Mohammed A. Abdel El Karim, Sudan Meteorological Corporation
Hqs. Khartoum for assisting in data analysis. My thanks are to Mr.
Changjwok Awadh Anyakwey, for lending me his PC that I used
during my study period.
4
Table of Contents
Topic
Page No.
Dedication
i
Acknowledgement
ii - iii
Table of Contents
iv – vi
List of Figures
vii
List of Tables
viii
List of Abbreviation
ix
List of Appendices
x
Abstract (English)
xi – xiii
Abstract (Arabic)
xiv -xv
Chapter I : Introduction
1.1: Background
1
1.2: The Problem
3
1.3: The Study Objectives
5
1.4: The Approach
5
Chapter II : Literature Review
2.1: General
2.2:
8
Deforestation,
definitions,
Drought
environmental
and
Desertification
concepts
and
–
8
their
implications
2.2.1: Deforestation: factors, causes, consequences and
12
implications
2.2.1.1: Natural calamities
19
2.2.1.2: Biomass productivity measurements
20
2.3: Study Area – Er Renk Area
22
2.3.1: Ecological Classification of Sudan
22
2.3.2: Location and Topography of Er Renk Area
23
5
2.3.3: Soils-Origin and Geology
23
2.3.4: Hydrology
24
2.3.5: Climate Conditions
25
2.3.5.1: Air Temperature
25
2.3.5.2: Rainfall
26
2.3.5.3: Winds
27
2.3.5.4: Evapotranspiration
27
2.3.5.5: Potential Evaportranspiration
27
2.3.6: Vegetation Cover
28
2.4 : Deforestation factors of Er Renk Area
32
2.4.1: The socio – economical Aspects of deforestations
32
2.4.2: Demographic features-socio economic activities
33
2.4.3: Land Use Patterns
34
2.4.3.1: Forestry Activities – Productivity and Utilization
34
2.4.3.2: Agricultural Production
35
2.4.3.3: Range lands
36
Chapter III : Materials and Methods
3.1: Materials
37
3.1.1: Data Sources
37
3.2: Methods
38
3.2.1: The Methodology
38
3.2.1.1: Data analysis techniques
40
3.2.2: The Null Hypotheses
41
Chapter IV : Results
4.1: Results
4.1.1:
Field
42
Observations:
Deforestation
impacts
42
identification
1.Woody biomass productivity of Er Renk Area
43
2. Climate elements’ assessment and field crops’ yields
54
Chapter V : Discussions
6
5.0: Discussions
66
5.1: Biophysical deforestation impacts
66
a. Degradation of the woody biomass and woodlands
66
productivity
b. Deforestation
impacts
of
rain
fed
agriculture
67
activities
c. Consequences of charcoal burning
68
d. Changes in vegetation cover and soils
71
5.2: The environmental impacts of deforestation
74
a. Variations in climate elements
74
b. Crop yields versus climate elements
75
c. Inhabitance
perceptions
and
knowledge
of
77
deforestations
Chapter VI : Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1:Conclusions
80
6.2: Recommendations
83
References
85
Appendices
90 – 97
7
List of Figures
Topic
Page No.
Fig 1: Location map of the Study area – Er Renk, Northern
21
Upper Nile State
Fig 2: Woody Area Cover, Study Area, Er Renk Area
31
Province
Fig 3: Percentage of land area cover of vegetation by
44
canopy classes (%) and biomass productivity
categories (tonn/ha.)
Fig 4: Woody Biomass Productivity of Er Renk Area
48
Fig 5: Pie Chart showing Land Vegetation Cover by
50
Canopy Classes
Fig 6: Quantities of charcoal produced and transported
53
outside Er Renk area between 1997-2003.
Fig 7: Curves showing dura crop yields for the ‘dry years’
62
in relation to climate elements 1983 – 2003
Fig 8: Curves showing dura yields for ‘wet years’ in
relation to climate elements 1983 – 2003
8
63
List of Tables
Topic
Page No.
Table 1: Biomass Distribution of Er Renk Area 1990
43
Table 2: Changes in land vegetation cover according to land use
47
types amongst ER Renk inhabitants 1990 – 2003
Table 3: Shows number of charcoal sacks (50.01 – 75.0kg. wt.)
52
produced and transported outside Er Renk: 1983 –
2003
Table 4: Mean Climate Elements (normals) and Drought index
values
for
Er
Renk
Meteorological
Station
55
(in
ascending order of aridity): 1983 – 2003
Table 5: Mean Climate Elements (normals) and Drought index
56
values for Goz Rom Meteorological Station (in
ascending order of aridity): 1983 – 2003
Table 6: Descriptive Statistics of Mean Climate (normal) for Er
57
Renk Meteorological Station: 1983 - 2003.
Table 7: Descriptive Statistics of Mean Climate (normal) for Goz
57
Rom Meteorological Station: 1983 - 2003.
Table 8: A Comparative analysis of drought indices estimates for
58
Goz Rom and Er Renk Meteorological Stations: 19832003
Table 9: Results of Independent T-Test of Equality of Variances
60
for Er Renk and Goz Rom Meteorological Stations
data (mean annual rainfall): 1983 – 2003
Table 10: A Correlation analysis of mean annual climate
61
elements’ values for Er Renk Area (Er Renk
meteorological station data) Vs. yearly-cultivated
areas (feddans) for dura and yield
Table 11a: Deforestation awareness amongst Er Renk inhabitants
64
Table 11b: Deforestation impacts–ameliorative measures and
65
interactions evaluation.
9
List of abbreviations
Word
Meaning
NFC
National Forests Corporation
IDPs
Internally Displaced Persons
MFC
Mechanised Farming Corporation, Er Renk
WB
World Bank
NFI
National Forests Inventory
ET
Evapotranspiration
PET
Potential Evapotranspiration
DI
Drought Index
CDD
Convention on Combat Desertification
GIS
Geographic Information System
Fedd (Arabic)
Feddan, equvillent to 0.42 hectare
Taayat (Arabic)
Charcoal Production groups
Maalliyat (Arabic)
Province
Dura (Arabic)
Sorghum species
Semsem (Arabic)
Sesame species
10
List of Appendices:
Topic
Page No.
Append 1: Land use Vegetation Cover Types of Er Renk
90
Area
Append 2a: Rain fed Mechanizes Agricultural Schemes of
91
Er Renk
Append 2b: Irrigated Agricultural Farms of Er Renk
92
Append 3: Questionnaire Forms – Sample
93
Append 4: Mechanized schemes, cropped areas, crop
94
yields, and meteorological elements for Er
Renk area: 1983 – 2004
Append 5: Map of Agricultural lands, Er Renk area
95
Append 6: Map of Rangelands, Er Renk area
96
Append 7: Field Observations – Photographs 1 - 30
97
11
Abstract
The case study concerns causes and consequences of
deforestation on the central clay plains woodlands production of Er
Renk Area (Sudan). It was conducted in the year 2004 and to cover
study period: 1983 – 2003.
The study aimed at identifying the causes of deforestation, by
assessing both ecological and environmental consequences of the
phenomenon. It was based on compiled vegetation cover maps and
the detection impacts of changes; charcoal production is statistics;
annual field crop yields and a selection of climatic parameters.
Several methods were used and adopted which included:1. An analysis of spatial and temporal data comprising of
vegetation
cover
imageries
(TM
satellite
1990
and
AFRICOVER, 2003).
2. An evaluation of the magnitude of charcoal production within
the area.
3. An analysis of climate elements: mean annual rainfall, mean
relative humidity, air temperature, and drought indices.
4. An analysis of field crop yield versus climate elements.
5. The questionnaire survey.
6. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS), was used in the
analysis of the woodlands and vegetation cover data , field
crop production figures and the climate elements.
The major findings were:
1. Existence of wide spread and an unabated deforestation cause
mainly by rain fed agricultural production schemes and
selectively logged trees for charcoal production. Deforestation
12
was also associated with other anthropogenic and the socioeconomic activities.
2. The inhabitants of Er Renk area were largely an aware of
deforestation and it’s consequences, but have limited
knowledge about its biophysical implications (vaguely defined
in terms of delay in rainfall, reduced annual amount increasing
distances of fire wood areas for the residencies and field crops
failure). Most of them had no idea about the necessary
corrective measure to either halt, reverse, or reduce the
impacts of deforestation.
3. The Forests Authorities (NFC, Er Renk) have robust forests
development plans, but failed to implement such programme
due to lake of funds, inadequate trained to personnel and tools
for regular monitoring and protection of the forest.
4. Deforestation was partially responsible for climate variations
(drought like features) and subsequent drop in field crop yield
during the “ Dry Years”.
Amongst other, the important recommendations of the study
were:1. Re-planting of the old fallow areas with productive three
species, imposition of crop rotation and shelter wood belts
within the agricultural schemes i.e. to reverse degradation
impacts of deforestation.
2. Restrictions be placed on agricultural land leases, charcoal
production permits and law enforcement of planting the 10%
of agricultural lands with productive tree species such as
Acacia species.
13
3. Stepping up the forestry extension service and involving the
local community in forest management.
4. Insuring adequate funding by the National Government to
Forests Authority (NFC, Er Renk) to provide for foresters
training, equipment/Tools acquisition for forest production and
its development.
5. Sensitize the Natural Resources Sector to work towards an
integrated approach to management i.e. involving foresters,
agriculturists, wildlife managers, range and livestock officials,
local Government Administration and the community.
14
‫ﻤﻠﺨﺹ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ‬
‫ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺘﺭﺘﺒﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺸﺠﺭﻱ ﻋﻠﻲ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺒﺎﻹﻗﻠﻴﻡ ﺍﻷﻭﺴﻁ ﺍﻟﻁﻴﻨﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻭﺩﺍﻨﻴﺔ ﺒﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ ﺍﻟﺭﻨﻙ‪ .‬ﺃﻗﻴﻤﺕ ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻋﺎﻡ‬
‫‪2004‬ﻡ ﻭﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺸﻤﻠﺕ ﺍﻟﻔﺘﺭﺓ ﻤﺎ ﺒﻴﻥ ‪2003 -1983‬ﻡ‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﺴﺘﻬﺩﻓﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺘﺸﺨﻴﺹ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﺴﺎﻟﺒﺔ ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﻤﺩﺍﺭﻫﺎ‪،‬‬
‫ﺘﻘﻴﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﺅﺜﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﻭﻟﻭﺠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻔﺴﻴﻭﻟﻭﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺠﻤﺔ ﻋﻡ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ‪ ،‬ﻤﻌﺭﻓﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﻭﺍﻤل ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻋﻼﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺒﺎﻟﺘﺩﻫﻭﺭ ﺍﻹﻴﻜﻭﻟﻭﺠﻲ ﺒﺎﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ‪.‬‬
‫ﺒﻨﻴﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻋﻠﻲ ﻤﻌﻠﻭﻤﺎﺕ ﻤﻥ ﺼﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻻﺼﻁﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ ﺃﻱ ﺨﺭﺍﺌﻁ‬
‫ﻋﻥ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﻋﻥ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻔﺤﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﺼﻴل ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻠﻴﺔ ﻤﻊ ﻨﻘﺏ ﻤﻥ ﻤﻌﺎﻟﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ‪ .‬ﺃﺠﺭﻴﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺢ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﻼﺤﻅﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻴﺩﺍﻨﻴﺔ )ﺯﻴﺎﺭﺍﺕ ﻋﻠﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ(‪.‬‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺭﻕ ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻠﻴﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﺨﺩﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺍﹸﺨﺘﻴﺭﺕ ﻟﻬﺫﻩ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﺸﻤﻠﺕ ﻤﺎ ﻴﻠﻲ‪-:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺼﻭﺭ ﺍﻷﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ ﻭﺼﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺘﻘﺴﻴﻤﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻟﻼﺴﺘﺨﺩﺍﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻤﺨﺘﻠﻔﺔ ﻟﻸﺭﺍﻀﻲ ﻭﺇﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ‬
‫‪AFRICOVER‬‬
‫‪) 2003,1990‬ﻁﻥ‪/‬ﻫﻜﺘﺎﺭ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺌﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻲ( ﻟﻸﻗﻤﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺼﻨﺎﻋﻴﺔ ‪.TM‬‬
‫‪ .2‬ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻔﺤﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﻋﻭﺍﻤل ﻭﻤﻌﺎﻟﻡ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺥ ﻟﻸﻤﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺠﺔ ﺍﻟﻨﺴﺒﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﺭﻁﻭﺒﺔ‪ ،‬ﺩﺭﺠﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺤﺭﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺠﻭﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻤﻌﺎﻟﻡ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﻋﻼﻗﺘﻬﺎ ﺒﺎﻹﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﺤﺎﺼﻴل ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻠﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬ﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺢ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻲ ﻟﺘﻘﻴﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﺴﺘﻭﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻭﻋﻲ ﻟﻤﺴﺒﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﻭﻤﺅﺜﺭﺍﺕ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﺒﺎﺴﺘﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺎﻴﻨﺔ ﺍﻹﺤﺼﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻌﺸﻭﺍﺌﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺍﺴﺘﺨﺩﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺤﺙ ﺍﻟﺤﺯﻤﺔ ﺍﻹﺤﺼﺎﺌﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻌﻠﻭﻡ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ )‪ (SPSS‬ﻓﻲ ﺘﺤﻠﻴل ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺎﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻻﺴﺘﺒﻴﺎﻥ‪.‬‬
‫ﺘﻭﺼﻠﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ ﻟﻠﻨﺘﺎﺌﺞ ﻭﺍﻟﺨﻼﺼﺔ ﺍﻟﻠﺘﺎﻥ ﺘﺸﻴﺭﺍﻥ ﺇﻟﻲ ﻤﺎ ﻴﻠﻲ‪-:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬ﺘﻭﺍﺠﺩ ﻋﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﺍﺴﻌﺔ ﻭﻤﻘﻨﻨﺔ ﻭﺘﺭﺠﻊ ﺃﺴﺒﺎﺒﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺭﺌﻴﺴﻴﺔ ﺇﻟﻲ ﺍﻟﺘﻭﺴﻊ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺭ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻨﺸﺎﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﻁﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻘﻁﻊ ﺍﻟﺠﺎﺌﺭ ﻟﻸﺨﺸﺎﺏ ﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻔﺤﻡ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ ﻭﺘﺸﻤل ﻫﺫﻩ ﺍﻷﺴﺒﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﻨﺸﺎﻁﺎﺕ ﺍﻻﺠﺘﻤﺎﻋﻴﺔ ‪ /‬ﺍﻻﻗﺘﺼﺎﺩﻴﺔ ﻭﺒﺄﺠﻤﻠﻬﺎ ﻋﺩﺩ ﻓﻲ ﺘﺩﻨﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻜﻠﻲ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪15‬‬
‫‪ .2‬ﺘﻭﺍﺠﺩ ﻋﺩﻡ ﺍﻟﻭﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻹﻟﻤﺎﻡ‬
‫ﻟﻌﻤﻠﻴﺔ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻭﻤﺅﺜﺭﺍﺘﻬﺎ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﺒﻴﻥ ﻤﻭﺍﻁﻨﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﻨﻁﻘﺔ‪ .‬ﺇﻻ ﺃﻨﻬﻡ ﻴﺼﻔﻭﻥ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻴﺔ ﻹﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻁﺎﻉ ﺍﻟﺸﺠﺭﻱ ﺒﺄﻨﻬﺎ ﺘﺴﺒﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﺄﺨﺭ‬
‫ﻓﻲ ﻫﻁﻭل ﺍﻷﻤﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﻗﻠﺔ ﺍﻷﻤﻁﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﺴﻨﻭﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺯﻴﺎﺩﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺎﻓﺔ ﻟﻘﻁﻊ ﺤﻁﺏ ﺍﻟﺤﺭﻴﻕ‬
‫ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻭﻁﻨﺎﺕ ﻭﺃﻏﻠﺒﻬﻡ ﻏﻴﺭ ﻤﻠﻤﻴﻥ ﺒﺎﻹﺠﺭﺍﺀﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﻼﺯﻤﺔ ﺍﺘﺨﺎﺫﻫﺎ ﻹﻴﻘﺎﻑ ﺃﻭ ﺍﻨﻌﻜﺎﺱ‬
‫ﺃﻭ ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺘﺄﺜﻴﺭﺍﺕ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﻟﺩﻯ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺃﻱ ﺍﻟﻬﻴﺌﺔ ﺍﻟﻘﻭﻤﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺒﺎﻟﺭﻨﻙ ﺨﻁﻁ ﺘﻨﻤﻭﻴﺔ ﻟﻠﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﻟﻜﻨﻬﺎ‬
‫ﻋﺎﺠﺯﺓ ﻋﻥ ﺘﻨﻔﻴﺫﻫﺎ ﻨﻅﺭﹰﺍ ﻟﻌﺩﻡ ﺘﻭﺍﺠﺩ‬
‫ﺘﻤﻭﻴل ﻜﺎﻓﻲ ﻟﺘﻭﻅﻴﻔﻬﺎ ﻓﻲ ﺸﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩﺍﺕ‬
‫ﻭﺍﻵﻟﻴﺎﺕ‪ ،‬ﺘﺩﺭﻴﺏ ﻋﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺭﺍﻗﺒﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻤﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﺴﺘﻬﺩﻓﺔ ﻟﺤﻤﺎﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﻟﻠﻬﺎ ﺩﻭﺭ ﺠﺯﺌﻲ ﻟﻠﺘﺫﺒﺫﺏ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺎﺨﻲ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻲ )ﺍﻟﺘﻲ ﺘﺴﺒﺏ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ ﻭﺃﻴﻀﹰﺎ‬
‫ﺘﺩﻨﻲ ﻓﻲ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﺎﺼﻴل ﺍﻟﺤﻘﻠﻴﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺯﺭﻭﻋﺔ ﺨﻼل ﺴﻨﻭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺠﻔﺎﻑ‪.‬‬
‫ﺃﻫﻡ ﺘﻭﺼﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺩﺭﺍﺴﺔ‪:‬‬
‫‪ .1‬ﺍﺴﺘﺯﺭﺍﻉ ﻭﺇﻋﺎﺩﺓ ﺯﺭﺍﻋﺔ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﻀﻲ ﺍﻟﺒﺎﺌﺭﺓ ﺒﺎﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ‪ ،‬ﺘﺄﻤﻴﻡ ﺍﻟﺩﻭﺭﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﺔ‬
‫ﻭﻤﻀﺎﺩﺍﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻴﺎﺡ ﺤﻭل ﻭﺒﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﻌﻜﺱ ﻤﻀﺎﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺘﺩﻫﻭﺭ ﺍﻟﺒﻴﺌﻲ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻨﺎﺘﺠﺔ ﻤﻥ ﺇﺯﺍﻟﺔ ﺍﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .2‬ﺍﻟﺘﺤﻜﻡ ﺃﻭ ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺘﺼﺎﺩﻴﻕ ﺍﻷﺭﺍﻀﻲ ﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﻴﺔ‪ ،‬ﺘﻘﻠﻴل ﺘﺼﺎﺩﻴﻕ ﺇﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﻔﺤﻡ ﺍﻟﻨﺒﺎﺘﻲ‬
‫ﻭﺇﺼﺩﺍﺭ ﺃﻤﺭ ﻗﺎﻨﻭﻨﻲ ﻤﺤﻠﻲ ﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﺔ ‪ %15‬ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻴﻊ ﺍﻟﻤﺼﺩﻗﺔ ﺒﺎﻷﺸﺠﺎﺭ ﺍﻟﻤﻨﺘﺠﺔ‬
‫ﻤﺜل ﺍﻷﻋﺸﺎﺏ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .3‬ﺘﺼﻌﻴﺩ ﺨﺩﻤﺎﺕ ﺍﻹﺭﺸﺎﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﻲ ﻟﺘﺄﻤﻴﻥ ﺍﻟﻤﺸﺎﺭﻜﺔ ﺍﻟﺸﻌﺒﻴﺔ ﻓﻲ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .4‬ﺍﺴﺘﻘﻁﺎﺏ ﺍﻟﺘﻤﻭﻴل ﺍﻟﻜﺎﻓﻲ ﻤﻥ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻭﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺭﻜﺯﻴﺔ ﻭﺫﻟﻙ ﻟﺘﻤﻭﻴل ﺍﻟﺘﺩﺭﻴﺏ ﻟﻌﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ‪،‬‬
‫ﺸﺭﺍﺀ ﺍﻟﻤﻌﺩﺍﺕ ﻭﺍﻵﻟﻴﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﻀﺭﻭﺭﻴﺔ ﻹﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻏﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﺍﻟﺭﻨﻙ‪.‬‬
‫‪ .5‬ﺍﺴﺘﻨﻔﺎﺭ ﺠﻬﻭﺩ ﻗﻁﺎﻉ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﻤﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﻹﻨﺸﺎﺀ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﻤﺘﻜﺎﻤﻠﺔ ﻟﻠﻤﻭﺍﺭﺩ ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﻴﺔ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻁﺒﻴﻌﻴﺔ ﺃﻱ ﺒﺈﺸﺭﺍﻙ ﻋﻤﺎل ﺍﻟﻐﺎﺒﺎﺕ ﻭﺍﻟﺯﺭﺍﻋﻴﻴﻥ ﻭﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﺎﺓ ﺍﻟﺒﺭﻴﺔ ﻭﻤﻭﻅﻔﻲ ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ‬
‫ﺍﻟﻤﺭﺍﻋﻲ ﻭﺍﻹﻨﺘﺎﺝ ﺍﻟﺤﻴﻭﺍﻨﻲ‪ ،‬ﺇﺩﺍﺭﺓ ﺍﻟﺤﻜﻭﻤﺔ ﺍﻟﻤﺤﻠﻴﺔ ﻭﺍﻟﻤﺠﺘﻤﻊ‪.‬‬
‫‪16‬‬
Chapter I: Introduction
1.1: Background:
Trees removal causes a number of environmental
degradation problems whose combined destructive effects
manifest themselves in undermining basic operations of the
ecosystems such as soil moisture declines, destruction and
extinction of certain flora and fauna, delayed and erratic
distribution of dependable rainfall; and drops in biomass
productivity. The latter cases cause rise in soil temperatures thus
leading to both high evapotranspiration (ET) and Potential
evapotranspiration (PET).
On large scale, the changes such as exposure of natural
soil system to direct solar radiation, winds and surface run – off
lead to surface erosions and hence loss of soil fertility with
subsequent effects on biomass productivity of forests,
agricultural crops yields and on growth of other plant species.
The long – term implications are long – term induction of
excessive aridity and possible recurrence of drought features.
At its severest levels, deforestation may induce flooding,
droughts and siltation of rivers and dams.
In the Sudan, deforestation leading to environmental
degradation has been mainly caused by massive tree cutting
within the natural forests, excessive grazing of nomadic and
settlers’ livestock, exhaustive and expanding rain fed cropping
system
and
highly
commercial
17
charcoal
production.
Management constraints and shortcomings tend to increase the
rate
of
illegal
deforestation
factors.
The
biophysical
environmental degradation is also caused by inefficient
conventional management and Government Departments often
characterised by many drawbacks and institutional shortcomings
The impacts of deforestation on the clay plains woodlands
of Er Renk area have clear and strong links with massive
clearance of woodlands for field crop production and irrigated
cash crop schemes; overexploited natural woodlands for
charcoal production and; overgrazing of vegetation by
increasing livestock population within the area. Obviously, these
impacts are also hastened by other human activities such as
frequent annual bush fires causing soil baking, consumption of
seeds/seedlings; burning of humus and oxidation of essential
mineral elements in soil through wind and surface water
erosions. The resultant effects are declines in soil fertility and
drops in soil moisture content. These rampaging problems occur
under poorly established natural resources management
environment within this nominally uniform Semi–arid or dry
land ecosystem of Northern Upper Nile Clay plains. Insofar,
these activities affect forests/woodlands productivity and
threaten food security.
An understanding of deforestation and its imminent
impacts on plant composition, plant density, tree cover,
vegetation’s biomass yields, its influences on micro climate,
18
field crop yields and woodlands productivity is essential.
Deforestation is viewed as an environmental degradation
problem which is caused mainly by human activities and the
manner of forest vegetation biomass exploitation due to socio–
economic factors and population growth rates. It may be
considered of serious long-term implications on woodlands
productivity and its sustainability of the Sudano–Sahelian zone.
Deforestation effects cause imbalance in the entire ecosystem
with deleterious and significantly negative implications on the
fragile semi–arid environments: forests, soil, bio-diversity and
admittedly remains a threat to humans and animals life.
The investigation in to the causes, consequences and the
impacts of deforestation on forest production are important.
This is for mitigating their repercussions; reversing the
deforestation effects; and in identifying better management
strategies of remaining forests and woodlands. This is
particularly so as human survival in terms of food security is
threatened under arid conditions such as Er Renk area of
northern
Upper
Nile
asserts
that
sound
environmental
management of dry lands or Semi–arid zones are important for
sound conservation and utilisation of the resources and to evade
the often deleterious consequences of past human activities.
1.2: The Problem:
Deforestation causes, consequences and impact assessment
is concerned with evaluation and assessment of environmental
19
parameters on vegetation cover (including trees biomass
productivity) degradations and its associated repercussions such
as observed changes in the micro climate elements. Investigation
of farmers’ claims of drop in crop yields in the most recent past
is essential. That is, all activities such as arising from
uneconomic utilisation of timber for firewood, charcoal
production, massive clearance occurring on rain fed mechanised
schemes, overgrazing problems. It is equally needed important
to understand the present spatial distribution of the remaining
woodlands, biomass productivity of rangelands, and the current
agricultural production areas. There is a dire need to understand
climate element variations.
There had been unprecedented constraints on forestry
action plans and efforts to conserve or rehabilitate forests and
woodlands remain unattainable. Improper forest management is
feared to result into immanent excessive aridity, drought and in
the long–term causes desertification of this important agroecological zone.
The
biophysical
impacts
and
consequences
of
deforestation were evaluated through scarcity of wood fuel,
increasing farming areas, disappearance of certain important
browse plants and emergence of non-indigenous plant species or
weeds on agricultural farms. Climatologically, the impacts
include drought influence assessment (Drought Indices, DI)
using evapotranspiration (ET), and Potential Evapotransoiration.
20
(PET). The latter data for Er Renk were obtained from Sudan
Meteorological Studies (IES, 1989). Finally, a correlation
analysis was carried out for the climate elements and field crop
yields.
1.3: The Study Objectives:
This study undertakes the followings as its main
objectives:1. To assess the extent of deforestation in Er Renk area
as a result of past and current activities.
2. To evaluate the biophysical impacts of deforestation
in terms of rate and magnitude on woodlands
productivity.
3. To investigate the linkages between the socio–
economic activities and natural resources utilisation
and environmental degradation.
4. To determine any drought or desertification features
emaciating from excessive tree cutting, clearances of
woodlands for rain fed agriculture and other human
activities.
1.4: The Approach:
In this study, several methods were developed and used for
identifying the causes, consequences and deforestation impacts.
Assessment includes the climatological influences on the agroecological zone of Er Renk area as representative of the vast
clay plains of the Sudan.
21
These methods consist of questionnaire surveying for
socio-economical
aspects;
charcoal
production
levels;
woodlands clearances for establishment of mechanised rain fed
agricultural schemes; overgrazing; and other anthropogenic
activities such as annual woodlands’ burning for pasture renewal
and shifting cultivation practised in the area. These were used as
indicators and evidences of deforestation.
Data
collected
therefore,
included
secondary
data
compilation; analysed questionnaire results; climate elements’
); ْdata (annual mean) rainfall, mm.; annual mean temperature. (C
Relative Humidity, (%); and crop productivity (annual yield,
100 kg bags weight per feddan), planted area per year (feddan);
personal contacts, and field observations such as photography
(MFC, Er Renk, 2004). Thematic Maps covering the area were
obtained and used in vegetation cover and land use analysis
(FAO, 1990; AFRICOVER Data, 2003).
Evapotranspiration
(ET) and Potential Evapotranspiration (PET) values produced
for Er Renk area: using Penman’s (1948; 1971) function and
Penman modified formula commonly used in the derivation of
ET, and PET. The derived mean (ET) and (PET) values were
2500, mm and 210.0, mm respectively for Er Renk area. (Sudan
Petroleum Oil Studies). Those values were concurrently
employed in derivation by extrapolation to assess drought
influences on Er Renk Area for the period of study. The FAO
(1989) Drought Function was used to produce Drought Indices
22
for the study area over the period of 1983-2003.
The main emphasis of this study is however, an
explanation of the underline causes of the biophysical
consequences of local climate area: deforestation impacts on
climate elements variations (rainfall amounts and distribution
over the study period, temperature, relative humidity) this
included the consequential effects on Dura and sesame crop
yield over the same period. In this study the local inhabitants
involvement
in
the
destruction
of
natural
woodland,
deforestation awareness level and interaction with forests were
assessed. Forest productions through fuel wood removals were
estimated to show the consumption trends. Land use covers
were likewise evaluated.
To this end, a number of analytical techniques were used
for identifying the various impacts of deforestation. SPSS
package was used for analysing TM LANDSAT and
AFICOVER satellite imageries of vegetation cover and Land use Imageries data. Climate parameters and annual field crops’
yields were also analysed. Field observations include visual
assessments, and photographs shots within the area were used to
supplement the research findings.
23
Chapter II: Literature Review
2.1: General:
Tropical forests and woodlands are menaced with
excessive cutting of trees and sluggish programs of
replacement planting. Trees removals cause a number of
environmental degradation problems which combined
destructive effects manifest themselves in undermining
basic operations of the ecosystems such as irreversible
ecological changes. The indirect effects are manifest for
instance, in reduced and delayed annual rainfall; decline in
field crops’ yields; disappearance of certain important
indigenous plant species; and scarcity of wood fuel thus
threatening food security of the nation. On large scale, the
changes caused by deforestation include impacts such as
exposure of natural soil system, to direct solar radiation
leading to increased mineralisation of organic matter;
wind and water erosions which in turn indirectly affect
water resources development, and soil fertility losses.
2.2: Deforestation, Drought and Desertification Definitions,
environmental
Concepts
and
Implications:
Deforestation is defined as ‘the change in land–use
partners with Depletion of tree crown cover to less than
10 percent; changes within forest cover (e.g. from closed
24
to open forest) which negatively affect the stand and site
and in particular production capacity-are termed as
degradation’. Other definitions described deforestation as
an enduring change of land use marked by forest loss.
Deforestation triggers and promotes drought and
desertification features (affecting and affected by it) and
to both of the latter phenomena. Between 1980 and 1995
Africa lost 49.0 million hectares of its forests as a result of
deforestation. Although tropical forests cover an estimated
114.0 million, Km2
(6%) of total global coverage.
Deforestation, however causes disappearance of tropical
forests at an alarming rate of 14.0 million hectares per
annum due to deforestation for economic development
(Camilla, 1988). Sudan ranks the 9th amongst the most
deforested ten countries world wide with an estimated
annual loss of 350 000 hectares per year (Roberts, 1999).
Several known factors are responsible for deforestation,
amongst
those,
apart
from
illicit
cutting,
includes
woodlands clear tree felling that result into environmental
imbalances
leading
to
both
pastoral
vegetation
degradation and soils losses (decline in fertility levels).
Several
factors
contribute
to
degradation
of
vegetation and pastures, these are: supported agricultural
policies, relaxation of traditional open grazing rights,
25
acidification, changes in rainfall patterns and expanding
mechanised farming. The imminent repercussions are
deforestation, degradation of rangelands. Reduction and
scarcity of these resources often lead to frequent socioeconomic problems such as fights over grazing and
animals’ watering sites and loss of income for those
making livelihood from forest products.
Drought is defined as prolonged aridity on arable
lands that influences and causes variations in annual
rainfall (precipitation) amounts, temperature, relative
humidity. It affects evaporation and evapotranspiration.
According to Balba and Naaseem (1999), drought
influence over an area maybe assessed using the following
mathematical drought function: DI= H/ET, where, DI=
Drought Index, H=Precipitation (annual rainfall), mm and
ET=Evapotranspiration.
Drought
index
values
range
between 0.03 and 0.5. Where DI value equals 0.03, it
means extreme desert (rainfall equal or less than 100 mm
p.a.); when this value lies between 0.03 & 0.2, it implies
moderate drought
(rainfall amount lies between 100 &
300 mm p.a.) whereas when DI values lie between 0.2 &
0.5, it means less or no drought (rainfall between 300 &
800 mm p.a.). Like desertification, drought impedes or
undermines agricultural production potential, causes wind
26
erosions and reduces entire biodiversity and results in high
temperature and low humidity (FAO, 1989).
Desertification:
Several Environmental Organisations including UNEP
and UNCOD define desertification as an irreversible
process of land aridity and dryness of vegetation cover
which result into drought and desertification hence causes
reduction of bio-productivity and may end-up with
complete deterioration and incapacitation of biosphere
potential that converts lands into deserts.
Rosanov (1982) use first define desertification
although, Aubreville (1949) used the term desertification
to imply excessive aridity as a result of various factors
including deforestation. Kovda (1980) however, used
ariditization to imply desertification where it designated a
combination of factors that include decline in soil moisture
content over wide land area and a drop in bio-productivity
of plants and the entire ecosystem.
Dergne
(1982)
on
the
other
hand,
attributes
desertification to the fragility of the ecosystem that is
under human activities which henceforth underlines
degradation (or deterioration) in the ecosystems to mean
drop in the desired species productivity of micro- fauna,
flora and thus leading to land deterioration, which in turn
27
endangers
terrestrial
ecosystems.
The
latter,
views
desertification as a process of environmental deterioration
occurring in Arid and semi–arid zones which results from
deficit or lack of land productivity, inhibition range land
productivity of the desired forage (fodder) species. While
discussing the phenomenon, major concerns emphasised
exploitation of dry lands e.g. Sahelian Zone being between
moist Equatorial zone (in southern region) and Sahara
desert (in the northern portion). There is conversion of
vegetation into Semi-arid or Sub humid zones over the
past 1000 years. Furthermore, it is concluded that it is
highly probable that human activities and interventions
have modified various vegetation cover types into desert
environments. It is also probable that these human
activities are the main causes of climate changes and
deterioration.
Several
reports
on
Sudan
(including
FAO)
emphasised the overwhelming dependence of the country
on fuel wood and charcoal as the main energy source.
Markets for non-timber products increased annually. The
Forest Sector in general employs up to 85% of rural
population (Hashim, 2003. Pers. Comm.)
2.2.1:
Deforestation:
Factors,
Consequences and Implications:
28
Causes,
Over the last few decades, the general public and
international community as a whole have raised and
manifested increasing concerns over the clearing and
degradation
of
forests
worldwide.
These
concerns
culminated in affirmation of the ‘Global consensus on the
management, conservation and sustainable development
of all types of forests, for example. Agenda 21 stands as
the living example of such concerns. (UNCHE, 1972;
UNCED, 1992). Salih (1982) mentioned that the major
factors to physical environment deterioration include over
cultivation, animals overstocking as main socio-economic
aspects of traditional agriculture and animal rearing.
Global deforestation problem has passed through
three important developmental stages and periods:
(1) 1967-71:
The period experienced a high demand for tropical
timbers causing deforestation.
(2) Early 1970s:
Deforestation as assented with grains shortages,
increased oil prices and a heightened food security.
(3) Mid 1970s:
And thereafter: deforestation resulted from high
exchange rate and currency devaluation.
29
(4) 1980s:
Debt crisis and reduced capital and trade flows.
Furthermore, deforestation may be driven by the
unsustainable consumption of natural resources (forest
products) and unplanned expansion of rain-fed and
irrigated crop production at the expense of rangeland and
biological diversity. Abdel Atti (2001) mentioned that the
effect of large scale deforestation are bound to be
disastrous on water supplies and soil fertility particularly
as no proper crop rotation is yet worked – out for
mechanically farmed areas. Furthermore, more and more
productive arable lands and potential gum Arabic areas
are annually being cleared for settlement with the notion
of the abundance of fuel wood, which jeopardised proper
land use practices.
World Bank reports mentioned the causes and
narrative explanations to deforestation as a result of
increasing global "Population growth rates"; the macroeconomics; the political economy; and bad governance.
Conceptually, factors affecting forests and woodlands
are in turn responsible for ‘disruption of the equilibrium
existing between the communities and their environment’.
High population growth rate triggered and increased the
negative effects of other factors as concluded while
30
observing the Malthusian theory influence leading to a
number of consequences including: variability in the
climate
e.g.
decreasing
rainfall
amounts
and
desertification and declining crop yields resulting from
microclimate changes. Briceno (1998) stated the impacts
of desertification causes an ultimate loss of future wood;
loss of bio-diversity; loss of non–timber products (e.g.
materials for construction and building of houses, charcoal
and fuel- wood); and pollution created by the burning of
forests are imminent repercussions.
The macro – economic narrative of deforestation
attributes deforestation to both internal and international
debt burden. Khan and Mac Donald (1992) pointed out
that there are positive and strong relationship between
debts
incurred
by
a
country
and
its
levels
and
deforestation, which tend to lead to myopic behaviour in a
country’s economy. This postulate however assumes a
forested country under globalisation.
Thomas Rudel (1985) in Brazil and Anna Doris
Capistrano's in Argentine studies confirm the contributory
roles
and
effects
of
both
macro–economics
and
globalisation as factors of deforestation. These occur as a
country's designed economic policies as responses to
31
pressures created by global demand for tropical timbers as
main causes of widespread deforestation.
Other factors to deforestation phenomenon includes
the Political economy of a nation whereby international
capitalism plays a major role as the main deriving force
behind deforestation thus causing disruption of the
harmonious relationships between local communities and
the forest ecosystem. These are imminent repercussions
because some forest clearances, and the resultant
degradation are needed to meet the growing subsistence
demands and the market needs of rural populations.
Globalisation contributes to deforestation in that it
tends to increase pressures on nations to utilise their
natural resources in an unsustainable manner. The
reasons are increased products’ diversification; widening
products markets and marketability of improved products;
promotions of products increases. Other concerns are over
improved
production
technologies;
diversified
forest
products requirements and raising populations’ growth
rates, which play significant roles towards deforestation.
Globalisation also relates to the current global warming
phenomenon that is responsible for reduction in forests
and woodlands coverage and their productivity.
32
Dauvergne (1999) used the shadow ecology concept
to the evaluate the environmental impacts of economy on
resource management in Japan by introducing new timber
logging and agricultural policies to elevate the impacts of
those activities.
Studies on improving land degradation using a
general equilibrium models (side equation model) to
assess the rate of soil loss from various cropping systems
on steep land that are exposed to possible water and wind
erosions for extended periods of cropping cycle. The
conclusions arrived at were that very high rates of soil loss
occurred from cropping systems on steep land whereby
soil and water conservation practices are introduced.
These practices were however abandoned thereafter. It
was found that soils’ water storage varied greatly with
type of cropping systems on colluvial/alluvial terraces
providing different yields and soils type and relief features
affected
the
Furthermore,
efficiency
the
socio
of
conservation
economic
measures.
constraints
partly
explained farmers behaviour.
FAO (1990) Forest Assessment Survey studies and
analysis attributed deforestation to the negative human
impacts on the ecosystem especially the population
pressures on deforestation and forest degradation. FAO
33
henceforth, standardised Global forest cover data of
different periods (spatial and temporal dated) and created
a
deforestation
model
also
known
as
Adjustment
Functions. The Model correlates forest cover every time
with other variables (parameters) such as population
density, population growth for the corresponding period,
initial area and an ecological zone equation is based on
"Climax Vegetation" theory assuming an equilibrium state
in nature based on a differential equation or the
mathematical model. The function: dY/dP = b1 * Yb2 –
b3 *Y, which correlates forest cover change in time with
other variables such as population density and population
growth (Y) for the corresponding period (P). Whereas b1,
b2 and b3 represent the coefficients of the model. These
factors
are
assumed
to
be
the
factors
causing
disturbances to the original state of woodlands or forests
(Marigolis, 1998).
The concept of the ‘new ecology’ school developed
over different research works on the other hand,
questioned the assumptions made by forest policy makers
such as FAO about the causes and extent of deforestation.
Although other ecologists, accept the new ecology school
of thought, they argued that on large scale, forests
(woodlands) have been indeed lost to multiple and linked
34
causes. They furthermore state that the rates of
deforestation had by and large had been grossly
exaggerated and concluded that in reality only a third of
the area of forest reported had actually been lost to
deforestation. It is further argued that "policies must take
into account the local realities of communities living in and
around
forests
and
reconcile
with
national
and
international conceptions and interests" (Bajpai et al,
1998). Other researchers argue that "forest composition is
in continuous transformation and is influenced by multiple
factors'' and that if left over substantial amount of time
would return to the initial state. Harrison and Jackson
(1958) indicated that the Semi–deserts and Desert areas
combined represent up to 51.5% of the total land area.
This
indicates
that
there
exists
potentiality
of
desertification in the Sudan with its likelihood of
encroachment southwards of its original belt.
Furthermore, fossilised trees trunks have been
unearthed from the present Desert and Semi – desert
areas of the Sudan, suggesting that during previous
centuries, there existed heavily forestlands within those
regions
(FNC
Development,
&
Arab
2002).
Authority
Probably,
for
those
Agricultural
forests
faced
widespread exploitative destruction and whereas long35
term climate changes over the centuries might have
contributed to these degradations.
Within Er Renk area, significant changes occurred in
woodlands cover have taken place during the past 20
years. The original cover has been modified and replaced
by extensive rainfed agricultural schemes (creating large
fallow) and grassland due to conversion of natural
woodlands prone to periodic burning, grazing and timber
extraction. After 1950s and particularly between 1983–
2003. The original woodlands of the area have greatly
been reduced.
This deforestation has created serious
environmental degradation and depletion of resources in
agricultural and livestock husbandry sectors. Eltohami
studies in 1993, confirmed an increase in land areas
cultivated under mechanised rain fed crop production
based on woodlands clearances in Dalli, which caused
extensive
damage
to
the
semi–arid
woodlands’
environment of Central Sudan.
2.2.1.1: Natural Calamities:
As a result of successive drought cycles that have
stricken the country and which plagued the entire
Sudano–Sahelian countries of 1970s and that affected
most parts of Northern Sudan, it caused excessive aridity.
Deforestation
on
the
other
36
hand
aggravated
the
environmental
instability
and
forested
woodlands
ecosystems degradation. For instance the 1968 -1973
Droughts, which affected up to 18% of the Sahelian
Africa, influenced large parts of the Sudan including the
Central Clay plains (Gaad, 1998; IES, 1984).
Alakhtar (1994) mentions the effects of Inter-tropical
Convergence Zone (ITCZ) seasonal movements on semiarid climates. These movements have strong bearing on
the start and amount of rainfall per rainy season, and
availability of rainfall. The high variability of rainfall
together with ITCZ movements causes natural shift of the
vegetation formations by several hundreds of kilometres
southwards.
This is in addition to massive woodlands
clearances, annual bush fire effects, and the recurrent
uncontrolled grazing of migratory nomadic livestock during
the dry season. Alakhtar (1994) furthermore, reported
field investigations of 1990 to 1993 indicated such
extreme environmental conditions and the impacts of
traditional nomadic tribes mobility and extensive utilization
of
natural
resources
cause
severe
exploitation
of
vegetation and preventing regeneration of woodlands on
Central Clay Region of the Sudan.
2.2.2: Biomass productivity measurements:
37
Productivity of biomass implies different things for
different people. Ecologists describe it in terms of gross
primary production (GPP) and net primary production
(NPP) measurable in tons per hectare per year (tonne
ha-1 yr-1). Other definitions that refer to productivity of
biomass
including
organic
production,
secondary
production, above–ground biomass production or standing
crop biomass to imply organic matter or total amount of
living organic matter present and animals at any time as
measured in terms of tons per hectare (ton/ha.). Forests
and range scientists however, refer to productivity as
growth or yield in terms attribute such as basal area
increment (cm2 yr-1), periodic/current annual increment in
volume
(m3 ha-1 yr-1).
Agriculturists still define
productivity in terms of crop yield (Kg. ha-1; Kg wt. fed1
) or harvest index (%) that is the percentage of harvest
to aboveground biomass (Roberts, 1999).
38
Fig.1: Location map of the study area, Northern
Upper Nile State.
Source: Government of Sudan Report, 1954: Southern
Provinces Development Committee
39
2.3: Study Area - Er Renk Area:
2.3.1: Ecological Classification of Sudan:
Sudan, with an approximate land area of 2.5 mill
km2, falls between Latitudes 22ْ & 38ْ N and longitude 3ْ
and 22ْ E.
Prior to Independence (1956), forests and woodlands
area coverage was estimated as 45% of the total land
area.
A recent study estimated forests and woodlands
coverage of 29.6% (NFC, 2003). Probably there has been
an increase in area coverage whereby a raise in
regeneration attributable to lack of exploitation and
woodlands stability within the war enclosed zones mainly
in the Southern Region of the Sudan (1983-2003)
Sudan belongs to the Sudano-Sahelian Zone and is
characterised by semi-extensive agriculture and sub humid
climate, soil degradation
and water shortages are
widespread features. In spite of an apparent increase in
woodland area, deforestation continues to be a major
problem of woodland productivity and their natural
development as these resources continue to provide both
essential tangible and non- tangible products and services:
timbers, fuel wood and charcoal, medicinal plants, food,
grazing lands, protection and conservation of flora and
fauna.
40
Prior to the discovery of Petroleum, Sudanese forests
use to contribute up to between 10-20 % of GNP (mainly
export) in addition to being important sources of fuel
wood (firewood and charcoal), building poles and posts
and constructing wood.
Several plant taxonomists; in attempts to classify
vegetation categories used numerous criteria. For instance
the classification based on the combination of rainfall and
soil texture determines the distribution of vegetation in
the Sudan (Smith, 1949). Harrison and Jackson
(1958)
classified Sudan into six major vegetation zones. Their
classification categorised Sudan into seven ecological
zones with rainfall varying from zero in the northern
desert to over 1300 mm. in the high rainfall Savannah to
the south.
2.3.2: Location and Topography of Er Renk area:
Er Renk area occupies northern part of Upper Nile
State. It is located at the most southerly fringes of the
Central Clay plain of the Sudan. It lies between Long. 32ْ
12´ & 32ْ 47´ E; and Lat. 10ْ 27´ & 11ْ 45´ N at an
elevation of 380, m A.S.I. Its area is approximately 32,000
Km2. It borders Blue Nile
(El Damazien area to the N.
East), Southern Kordofan (to the West and N. West) and
White Nile (to the North) States. Land topography is
41
generally flat except for few sandy outcrops (Qozes)
occurring as very low spurs along seasonal streams such
as Khor Dolieb and Khor Abu Khadra.
2.3.3: Soils-Origin and Geology:
The main soils occurring on the Central Clay plain
can be classified as mentromollitic clays belonging to Renk
and Gelhak Series. Two categories of soil types are
recognised: heavy clays and clay soils formed in situ.
These soils are derived from alluvial clayey material
(50%). These Central Clay plain soils are traced to belong
mainly to Cretaceous sediments of Nubian Formation
(Alakhtar, 1994). The Southern Provinces Development
Team Report (1958) and Sudan Soils Survey (1974)
classified these soils as predominately clays and heavy
loam,
which
are
pedeologically
categorized
as
montmorillitic clay minerals (locally known as the dark
cracking cotton soil type).
Physically, these soils are characterized by deep
cracking,
granularity
and
columnar
macro-structures
especially on dryness at exposed sites. On wetting
however, by rainfall or irrigation, these soils become
heavily water-logged and show plasticity in texture. The
latter properties are an advantage as they retard leaching
and water erosions, which are potentially responsible for
42
excessive loss of nutrients and hence drops in fertility
level.
These soils are generally fertile and with PH>8.0, salt
content is usually 0.1-0.5% and sodium values of between
10-30. The main limiting factor is Nitrogen on the irrigated
schemes or where higher rainfall amounts occur. Similarly
higher Organic matter content and a general salinity
together with sodium values rise on wetter sites.
2.3.4: Hydrology:
The river Nile delineates the area marking its western
borders with ‘Mallayiat’ Fashoda (Province). Few seasonal
streams run across the eastern parts of ‘Mallayiat Er Renk’
with the main ones being Ashier and Adar. It lies within
annual rainfall between of between 500–800 mm. per
annum (Harrison and Jackson, 1958). Both rainwater and
River Nile water are important for rain fed agriculture crop
production and irrigated schemes of Er Renk area.
2.3.5: Climate Conditions:
Er Renk area belongs to the Semi – arid zone of the
Sudan. It has two distinct seasons ie. Wet or rainy season
(June-October) and Dry season (November–May). The
monthly temperature (max. & min), relative humidity (%),
solar
radiation,
depending
on
and
rainfall
the
season.
43
and
The
distribution
rainy
vary
season
commencement depend on the ITCZ movement within the
country (Alakhtar, 1994). Rainfall amounts and its
distribution depend on a number of climatological factors:
temperatures, relative humidity, cloudiness, winds velocity
etc.
2.3.5.1: Air Temperature:
Mean annual temperature is 26.5Cْ, with Max. Annual
of 29Cْ and Min. of 23.8ْ C Daily atmospheric and soil
temperatures are important for vegetation growth. Both
atmospheric and soil temperatures are measured using
thermometers
(Cْ)
Monthly
maximum
and
minima
temperature as well as annual means are useful indicators
of aridity, drought influences and/or desertification effects
on an area. Numerous literature point out the inverse
relationships between atmospheric temperature on one
hand
and
evapotranspiration
evapotranspiration.
Temperature,
and
wind
Potential
speed,
solar
radiation and rainfall amount are important ingredients
used in derivation of both evapotranspiration (ET), and
potential evapotranspiration, (PET) according to Penman’s
(1948) and Penman’s modified formula (1971) (de Zuviria,
1992)
2.3.5.2: Rainfall:
44
The area lies within rainfall belt of between 400–800,
mm p.a. However, precipitation in the area lies between
450–550mm p.a. with mean values of 542.6mm p.a. (Max.
820mm, Min. 252mm p.a.) Precipitation is an element of
major concern in the agroclimatology of humid and humid
tropics. Too much rainfall or lack of it (even reduction)
may promote plant injuries or impede plant growth to
maturity. Rainfall may cause erosion especially in bare
soils where trees were removed (deforestated) or around
freshly planted fields (de Zuviria, 1992).
During
the
wet
season,
rainfall
amounts
are
measured daily using rain guages at the Metereological
stations of Er Renk, and Goz Rom locations. In Er Renk
area annual average precipation ranges between 450 550mm p.a. Rainfall starts as from June and ends by
September.
Development
According
to
Report
(1954)
the
Southern
records
Sudan
show
the
commencement of rainfall as early as May/June. The
mean annual precipitation records were much higher than
the present time’s.
Annual rainfall variations are observed within Er Renk
area.
For
instance,
at
Goz,
Akon
and
Er
Renk
Metereological Stations recorded 319.0; 460.6 and 426.3
mm of annual rainfall respectively for the year 2003 /
45
2004 growing season alone. It also shows progressive
reduction
northwards
of
the
area
where
larger
mechanized schemes were established prior to 1983
(MFC, 2004). Of late, dependable rainfall becomes scarce
i.e. the minimum amount of rainfall that can be expected
at a certain place in 3 out of 4 years, or, in other words,
the monthly rainfall with a 75 % probability of being
exceeded (de Zuviria, 1992).
2.3.5.3: Winds:
The prevailing winds are northerly and north westerly
winds of moderate velocity between August and April. The
southerly and southwesterly winds of moderate velocity
occur between April and August each year.
2.3.5.4: Evapotranspiration (ET):
Evapotranspiration (ET) has been described as an
element
of
local
climate
of
major
significance
in
agricultural studies. It is defined as the total amount of
water that evaporates simultaneously from soil or water
surface (in case of wetland rice) and that transpires from
total plant cover (de Zuviria, 1992).
2.3.5.6: Potential Evapotranspiration (PET):
Potential Evapotranspiration (PET), is termed as a
reference evapotranspiration and which is defined by
Penman (1948) as the ‘maximum quantity of water which
46
may be evaporated by a uniform cover of dense short
grass when the water supply to the soil is not limited’.
Within the context of this study, this concept is applied to
all vegetation cover types in the area.
2.3.6: Vegetation Cover:
The low rainfall woodland savannah vegetation types
consist mainly of low thickets of thorny Acacia mellifera on
heavy clay soils; Terminalia - Sclerocarya - Anogessius -
Prosopsis Savannah woodlands; Anagessuis - Combertum
hartimianum. Woodlands; and Acacia seyal - Balanites
associations. Acacia seyal and Balanites grow along water
courses and in mixture with species such as Acacia fistula,
Acacia
feldherbia, A. senegal, A laeta, A.
nubica, A.
tortolis subspecies Raddiana. Other tree species of
importance in the area are A. Seiberiana, Hyphaena and
Delbargia spp., Terminalia laxiflora, Zyziphus spina –
Christi and Combertum species. (Harrison and Jackson,
1958; NFC/ FAO, 1989).
The Acacia mellifera woodlands occur in the northern
and central sectors of the area. It consists mainly of
thorny thickets where annual rainfall is less (< 450mm
p.a.). These are sporadically distributed in between the
abandoned cultivated sites. The tree canopy is typically
single layer canopy (canopy closure of 0 - 5 %). The
47
undergrowth
is
occupied
mainly
by
grasses
like
Cymbopogon nervatus few shorter grasses: Tetrapogon
spathacus, Isechima schoenefeldia and Entanda sudonica
are dominant on these open clay plains. The productivity
of these woodlands is often less than 2.09m3/hectare.
The Terminalia - sclerocarya - Anogiessus - Prosopsis
Savannah woodlands occur at the fringes of the central
sector and extends eastwards of central sector. It consists
of an upper storey of larger but sporadic trees (canopy
cover of 5 – 10 %). The productivity lies below 2.09m 3 /
hectare.
The Acacia – Balanites spp. Savannah woodlands
occupy the southern sector and extending northeast and
south east of the area. Within this type, species diversity
tends to increase where trees (19.3 %) and shrubs (14.1
%) are more abundant. Other important tree species
include Acacia seyal, Acacia fistula, Zyziphus spino –
christi, Terminalia laxiflora, Salix spp. More tees on wider
land areas are found where population density is lower,
with lesser-cultivated schemes and where higher rainfall
occurs annually. The trees are interspersed by tall grasses
such as Cyombopogon nervatus, Tetrapogon spathacus,
Isechima schoenefelda and Entanda sudanica as the
dominant grasses. Grasses such as Belpharis edulis and
48
Urochloa trichopus also occur as browsed species. The
productivity
of
these
woodlands
is
often
above
2.09m3/hectare. These tree species find several uses:
browsed or looped trees, charcoal and fuel wood
production, local furniture manufacturing, building and
construction poles. However, the productivity of these
woodlands is impeded by frequent dry seasonal bush fires.
According to the most recent Forest Inventories (FNC,
1989; 2003), land vegetation cover types appear to be
predominantly treed areas. This includes individual trees
and stands classified under rangelands.
Drastic changes in land cover (woodlands and range
lands) have taken place during the last 20 years. The
original cover has been replaced by crops and grassland,
or partially modified by horizontal expansion of rain fed
mechanised crop schemes, excessive charcoal production
and periodic bush fires.
49
50
Fig. 2 (Map): Woody Area Cover of the Study Area –
Er Renk Province.
51
2.4: Deforestation factors of Er Renk Area:
2.4.1:
The
socio
–
economical
Aspects
of
deforestation:
For
decades,
the
area
had
undergone
heavy
production pressures, repeated mismanagement, misuse
and abuse because of unplanned rain fed agricultural
schemes, harmful traditional cropping practices and
uncontrolled
grazing
from
the
ever
increasing
domesticated livestock numbers. For instance, as from
late 1950s and for successive decades, this semi-arid
agro-ecological zone had experienced massive woodlands
clearances for shifting mechanised rain-fed farming for
staple crops, irrigated riparian and irrigated cash crops
schemes as well. In both cases, woodlands are cleared for
crops production, which are latter abandoned as soil
fertility declines hence creating large fallow lands. This is
in
addition
to
sedentary
harmful
traditional
crop
production practices based on shifting cultivation system.
Fodder looping of trees for nomadic livestock; open range grazing practices; and woodlands burning for range
renewal, which are at the expense of woodlands
productivity
by
destruction
of
mature
trees
and
consumption of seedling/seeds (Alakhtar, 1991). Further
more, uncontrolled and unabated illegal selective logging
52
of particular tree species for charcoal burning and fuel
wood production is common in the area.
These endemic environmental issues of the area
maybe summarised as follows:1. The past and current high deforestation rate
caused by the ever-expanding rain fed and
irrigated agricultural schemes established by
clearances of woodlands.
2. The
existing
and
unprecedented
heavy
production pressures on woodlands in terms of
commercialised wood and charcoal production
affecting forest productivity.
3. Existence of large fallow or abandoned fields
leading to man- induced modifications of soils vegetation cover.
2.4.2:
Demographic
features-socio
economic
activities:
The population of Er Renk and its rural localities are
classified as low income practising subsistence economic
activities. This population has been on a steady increase
as from 1983, i.e. a period marked by the beginning of
53
political unrest within the country, which, caused massive
internal displacement into the area. The most recent
settlers come from eastern, central and western Sudan,
and practising charcoal burning based on selective species
cutting as the traditional mode of livelihood. According to
the Sudan Census of 1973 and 1983, Er Renk area
population were estimated as 84, 000 and 125,358
persons respectively. Presently, the population of the area
is estimated as 250,000 inhabitants. Mahalliayat Er Renk
continue to attract internal displacement from the various
parts of Sudan due to availability of employment
opportunities in agriculture, forestry and animal resources
sectors i.e. as mechanised farming labour; charcoal
burners, wood cutters and hired seasonal agricultural
labour force. Those inhabitants effectively contribute
directly or indirectly to deforestation phenomenon.
2.4.3: Land Use Patterns:
Land cover and land use classification indicate
continuously widening areas of vegetation being put under
different types of socio-economic production activities. It
further indicates an ever decreasing land cover yet to be
un-exploited (NFI, 1998).
2.4.3.1:
Forestry Activities - Productivity and
Utilisation:
54
Forestry activities in the area are dominated by
exploitative utilisation where forests and forest products
being them central to the socio-economic well-being of
the inhabitants: charcoal burning, fuel wood collection and
use of fruits and pods. This is causes deforestation and
hence decline in productivity of the natural woodlands.
Trees of large sizes are removed in these activities. The
results are lack of regeneration (consumed seeds), bare
soils and invasion of land cover by newer plant species
such as weeds.
According to NFI (1998), average crown cover
percentage ranges from 0 - 20 % with an average
productivity of 2.09m3/ha. The treed area occurs where
population is lower and rainfall is high. Vegetation species
diversity tend to follow the same trend as tree density
increases southwards and south-eastern area where
cultivation is less practised. Bulk of volume also occurs
(FNC, 1989).
2.4.3.2: Agricultural Production:
Rain fed agriculture started on small scale by 1956 as
slash–and–burn at Goz Rom and progressively increased
to 20,000fed. At Umm Dullish by 1960. Mechanised or
semi mechanized farms were established on a 50,000 fed.
55
At Goz Fammi. Crop rotation and fallow systems were
practised.
Between 1960 and 1970, rain fed field crop
agricultural production extended into undemarcated and
surveyed lands. Currently, there are ten (10) schemes:
Goz Rom, Goz Fammi (extention), Akon, Umm Dullwish, El
Doulla, Umm Dullwish West (extension), El Ataham,
Shomode. Presently, a total of 1,550,550.0 feddans were
under cultivation (MFC, Er Renk, 2004). This is in addition
to undemarcated agricultural schemes that are operational
in the area (> 50,000 feddans). Out of the total cultivated
area, 382,397.0 feddans, which were funded by three
National
Banks:
Farmers
Bank,
Co-operatives
Development Bank & Ivory Bank. Crop rotation and
fertiliser applications are however abandoned; there are
no plantings of windbreaks or shelterbelts around
agricultural lands - a factor leading to large obsolete
fallow schemes. In addition less care is given to land
fertility drops.
2.4.3.3: Range lands:
The woody vegetation is however dominated by
Acacia mellifera as the outstanding browsing shrub. Both
56
increased number of livestock and annual expansion of
mechanised rain fed agricultural production have resulted
into lowering of range lands’ browsed species composition
to an extent of disappearance of certain palatable shrubs
and grasses (Badr El Din, 1995). Trees and shrub
seedlings, which appeared during the rainy season, were
to a large extent browsed during the following dry season
by nomadic livestock. Rangelands appear as patches of
woody vegetation inter playing mechanised agricultural
schemes. This clearly shows severe depletion within the
vulnerable stage of growth of important tree species such
as A. mellifera, Commiphora spp., Capparis decidua and
Balanites aegyptiaca that use to be abundant have to a
great extent disappeared on the exposed nomadic
livestock routes. Currently, rangelands cover 1,528.9 Km2,
constituting approximately 4.8% of the total land area.
There were evidential effects of human activities with
considerable impacts on pastures of the clay plains of Er
Renk area.
57
Chapter III: Materials and Methods
3.1: Materials:
Several methods were developed: questionnaire
surveying; land cover vegetation and land use imageries
analysis; fuel wood production and consumption trends;
climate elements data and field crop yields per unit area
(feddans).
The
compiled
data
correlated
with
woodlands
were
analysed
productivity
and
and
certain
elements of climate. The impacts of deforestation were
therefore; indirectly measured through randomly selected
questionnaire interviews; forest volume drain estimation;
climate
elements
and
crop
yield
statistics.
Field
observations (Photography) and TM Satellite Imageries
analysis were also deployed.
The study furthermore, took in to consideration
ecological changes as a result of natural resources
exploitation and utilisation of timber, clearances of
woodlands and overgrazing prevailing in the area. The
evaluation comprised of vegetation cover changes and
microclimate elements analysis: means annual rainfall,
annual
relative
evapotranspiration
humidity,
and
annual
drought
indices
temperature;
estimation.
Correlations were made between these elements and
annual field crop yields within the area.
58
3.1.1: Data Sources:
The
data
sources
include,
observations
and
photography of study area obtained during field visits
carried out between July, 17 and August, 19, 2004.
The main data sources used in this study were:a) Landsat TM Imageries and AFRICOVER Data.
b) Charcoal Production Records.
c) Climate Parameters and Field Crop Yield (Dura and
Sesame):a.
Climate Parameters
b.
Field crop yields
d) Questionnaire Surveying.
e) Field Observations and photography.
3.2: Methods:
3.2.1: The Methodology:
Satellite imageries for Er Renk area were acquired
through National Forests Corporation (FNC). The Satellite
imageries
consisted
of
FAO,
Fuel
wood
Energy
Development Project for the Sudan, FAO/NFC, 1990; and
AFRICOVER Data on Land Vegetation and Land use
classification (NFC, 2004).
The quantities of charcoal (sacks of 75 – 100Kg
weight) produced between the year 1983 and 2003 were
obtained from the Forests National Corporation of
59
Northern Upper Nile State, Er Renk Province, Er Renk
Offices.
Climatological data were obtained from both Er Renk
and Khartoum Meteorological. Climate elements for the
period of study comprised of mean annual rainfall (mm),
mean annual temperature (Cْ), and relative humidity
(mm). Climatological data were obtained from the
Meteorological department for the last 20 years (1983 –
2003). These data comprises of annual rainfall, annual air
temperature and relative humidity.
Annual crop yields and the corresponding annual
rainfall data were obtained from Er Renk Mechanized
Farming Corporation (MFC) for the past 20 years: 1983 2003.
A total of 45 questionnaires representing 0.02% of
the entire estimated statistical population of Er Renk, El
Gelhak and Shemodi localities. The questionnaires were
categorised using proportional (weighed) allocation into
four groups of potential interviewees. The questionnaire
forms were used for socio- economic assessment amongst
the farmers, laymen and professional staff from Forestry,
Agriculture and Veterinary Department (including livestock
nomadic herdsmen) i.e. to assess the aptitude towards
forest, deforestation impact awareness and level of
60
interaction of the inhabitants with woodlands and forests
within this predominantly farming community.
The questionnaires were divided into four categories
of potential respondents and to be inerviewed:• Forest products’ makers (12 or 26 %), which
include charcoal burners, woodcutters, forest
product dealers and collectors of fruits.
• Farmers (15 or 33.3%) that includes semi mechanized farmers and traditional farmers.
• A consumer of forest products (10 or 22.2
%) to encompasses tea makers, restaurant
owners, bakers, laymen and householders.
• Natural Resource Managers and Local
Administrators (8 or 17.8%), which includes
foresters,
agriculturists,
livestock
owners,
wildlife officers and the local Government
officials.
Selection of respondents for interviewees was carried
out randomly from each group and responses recorded
promptly.
The potential respondents were randomly selected
(Simple random technique of selection) from each
category and a face - to – face dialogue conducted with
respondents and the answers were carefully recorded.
61
3.2.1.1: Data Analysis Techniques:
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) was
used for analysis of data on woody biomass productivity,
land vegetation cover and land use patterns, cropped
areas, annual crop yields by areas and climatological
parameters. The statistics obtained were used for
deforestation impacts. The statistics of normalisation data,
descriptive statistics, simple correlation, charts and graphs
were drawn using the same statistical software.
The study conceptualises the followings:a) An existence of certain casual interrelationships and
linkages between excessive tree cutting and production of
forest
products
(massive
clearance
for
agricultural
production) and any micro -climatic variations over the 21
years period as effects of deforestation problem.
b) An understanding of the predominant socio – economic
activities and public perceptions of woodlands, which are
effective contributory factors to deforestation affecting
natural woodlands productivity within the area.
c) Presentation of practical guidelines for use by natural
resources managers, planners and policy designers as basis
for more efficient forest management.
3.2.2: The Null Hypotheses:
The following assumptions were stipulated:-
62
• The current timber removals and production
levels are within sustainable productivity limits
of the woodlands.
• No significant environmental degradation to the
semi- arid woodlands albeit the current levels of
this massive drain.
• There has been a major micro climatic change
in the area as indicators of the previous and
current deforestation processes.
• The level of deforestation had no or little effects
on the climate and soil –vegetation association
in the area.
63
Chapter IV: Results
4.1: Results:
4.1.1: Field Observations - Deforestation impacts
identification:
The following deforestation impacts on woodlands were observed
during field visits:-
1. Large clear felled areas of woodlands for agricultural
crop production and many grass covered fallow
areas.
2. Degraded woodlands transformed into shrubby
vegetation around
major towns, villages and
commercial settlements inside the forests.
3. Existence of large number of stacked round wood for
charcoal production on sites illegally established
inside the forest.
4. Changes in vegetation cover and soils were observed
and documented.
The
biophysical
consequences of deforestation on
woodlands production were evaluated by analysing the compiled
TM Satellite imageries (1989), and AFRICOVER data (2003) of
Er Renk area; charcoal production figures; agricultural land
coverage and crop yields data Climate elements. The field visits
and observations were recorded using photography.
Data analysis and field observation revealed that large
areas of woodlands were clear felled areas for agricultural crop
64
production; selective cutting of trees (including fodder looped
standing trees); and existence of burnt woodlands (creating
extensive fallow areas) which collectively led to woodlands’
ecosystem deterioration and hence reduction in their production
capacity. There were signs of degradation in woodlands causing
transformation of natural forests into shrubby vegetation
especially
around
major
human
settlements.
Localised
microclimate variations within the area resulting into periodic
fluctuations in annual precipitation and hence drop in field crops
productivity and yields. It was furthermore observed that the
most of inhabitants of Er Renk area were unaware of
deforestation impacts as well as ignorant of the necessary
environmental replenishment measures.
4.1.2: Woody Biomass productivity of Er Renk Area
(a) Description of woodlands biomass productivity:
The TM data and AFRICOVER imagery coverage show land
extent of the woodlands and the total biomass productivity of natural
forest trees (including other vegetation). These are presented in Fig.2
supplemented by Table 1.
Table 1: Biomass Distribution, Er Renk Area: 1990
Canopy cover %
Biomass productivity
ton/ha
Percent. Land
Land
cover %
cover
(000 ha.)
Over 50
Over 32.9
0.4
80
30- 50
19.0 – 32.9
0.9
177
20-30
12.5 – 19.0
1.5
296
10- 20
6.0- 12.5
3.5
678
1- 10
0.1- 6.0
8.2
1579
65
Others
85.4
16475
Total
99.9
19285
66
Productivity category lying between 0.1 – 6.0 ton/ha
Productivity category lying between 6.0 – 12.5 ton/ha
Productivity category lying between 12.5 – 19.0 ton/ha
Productivity category lying between 19.0 – 32.0 ton/ha
Productivity category lying between over 32.0 ton/ha
Figure 3: Percentage of land area coverage of vegetation of Er Renk by biomass productivity
categories (tonn/ha): 1990.
Source: Adopted from FAO (1990): Fuel Wood Energy Development in the Sudan Project.
67
The Initial woodlands productivity and changes experienced
in woodlands biomass productivity (according to canopy closure
percentages, category class coverage and approximate land areas)
are presented in Fig. 3 and Table 2. As can be seen from Fig. 3
and Table 1, the biomass distribution of land vegetation and landuse categories were used in this study as the guiding principles to
show the extent of exploitation of the natural woodlands. These
vegetation cover types were described under Sub-section: 2.4.5.
Vegetation face tremendous production pressures and hence show
considerable changes in their land area cover over the study
period. These changes are shown in Fig. 3 and Table 2. It
furthermore shows the status of drain and condition caused
degradation of the remaining woodlands and impairing their
productivity by comparing land-use categories for 1990 & 2003.
Table, 2 shows the endemic horizontal expansions in agricultural
lands which had increased by over 209.8%. Grazed or grazing
lands had likewise increased by 138.9% during the same period.
This resulted in an apparent increase in heavy grasslands. The not
evident areas comprising of mainly fallow and abandoned (old)
schemes, woodlands transformed into either open grasslands
and/or grazing lands with sparsely dense trees, shrubs of low
productivity (Acacia mellifera) thickets.
Trees productivity however, is estimated as less than 2.09
m3 / ha with canopy closure of between 0 and 5% /ha. The open
to very open treed areas comprise 24% and 11% respectively.
68
Whereas, the average biomass productivity lies between 6.0–12.5
tonne/hectare and 12.5–19.0 tonne/hectare for those stands. The
remaining well-stocked woodlands (occupies Eastern & S. Eastern
sectors of study area) have woody biomass productivity lying
between 19.0–32.9 tonnes/hectare (covering about 0.9% of total
land area). Woodlands with productivity levels of over 32.9
ton/hectare cover a meagre 0.4% of total land area (NFI, 1998).
The distribution of vegetation cover types by productivity classes are
presented in Fig. 3. and Fig. 4a. The TM data and AFRICOVER data
analysis show the main vegetation composition and cover types as
categorized by biomass productivity classes.
The vegetation and woody biomass productivity classes
show that most species with small diameter had been cleared
either on lands prepared for agricultural crops or converted into
charcoal activities. These changes are shown in Fig 4b and Fig.4c
depicting the level of changes between 1990 and 2004. This is
elaborated in Table 3.
Table 2
Changes in land vegetation cover according to land-use types amongst
Er Renk inhabitants: 1990 - 2003.
Year
Land vegetation /
1990
2004
use types
1.
Cultivated areas
Area, Km2
(%)
Area, km2
(%)
Level of change (%)
1,097.6
34.3
3,390.5
10.6
(209.8%)
640
2.0
1,528.9
4.7
(138.9%)
(Agricultural lands)
2.
Grazing
69
3.
Forestry (woodlands)
19,392
60.6
18,932.8
59.1
4.
Population
-
-
-
-
5.
Not evident
960
3.0
8,147.8
25.0
70
(2.4%)
(748.7%)
Fig 4: Woody biomass productivity of Er Renk area.
Source: NFC, Khartoum ( 2003 )
71
(b) Impacts of Rain fed and Irrigated Agricultural Schemes:
The impacts of massive tree cutting for agricultural crop
production and selective logging on woodlands (drain) affecting
natural vegetation cover are shown in Fig. 5 and Table 2 and
Appendices 2a & 2b. Raw data for the annually cultivated crops
by areas (fedd) are indicated in Appendix: 4. This furthermore
shows the high rate of annual deforestation of a minimum of
69,121.0 feddans of woodlands’ cleared and designated for leased
rainfed schemes. Whereas, annually an estimated 190.0 feddans
were likewise cleared for irrigated agriculture schemes. This is in
addition to an approximated 2 333.0 feddans of treed area were
leared for undemarcated land users (MFC, Er Renk, 2004).
72
Fig. 5: Pie chart showing land vegetation cover by canopy classes (%).
73
(c) Charcoal Production:
Large quantities of commercially (authorized permits)
produced charcoal in addition to the illegal burnt charcoal are
shown in Fig.6. Assuming that 17 m3 produces 1.0 ton of
charcoal, the amount of round wood converted annually into
charcoal certainly exceeds the annual allowable cut. The average
per hectare productivity of the woodlands was estimated as 2.09
m3/ha mainly from medium and small diameter classes of less
than 0.5, cm (DBH) and 5 – 10 cm (DBH). This productivity
measure certainly falls below annually approved permits of
charcoal production. This is in addition to illegally produced
commodity by unauthorized charcoal burners (NFC, Er Renk,
2004). The annually recorded charcoal production figures are
presented in Fig. 6. Table 3 indicates the yearly production of
burned charcoal between 1983/84 and 2003/2004 in the area.
74
Table 3: Shows number of charcoal sacks (50.0-75.0 Kg. wt.)
produced and transported outside Er Renk: 1983-2003.
Year
Quant. Charcoal bags
Quant. Stored
Total
1983/97
NR
NR
NR
NR
1997/98
398175
NR
NR
39817
5
1998/99
186474
NR
NR
18647
4
1999/00
298114
NR
NR
29811
4
2000/01
254246
NR
NR
25424
6
2001/02
120687
NR
NR
12068
7
2002/03
NR
NR
NR
NR
2003/04
242600
NR
60000
30260
0
75
Fig. 6: Quantities of charcoal produced and transported
out side Er Renk area between 1997 – 2003.
Er Renk Forests Corporation, 2004 Source:
NR = No records, as in 1983/97 and 2002/2003
76
Note:
2. Climate elements assessment and field crop yields:
The annual means of climate elements: rainfall, air
temperature (C), relative humidity (%), vapour pressure (mm);
and drought indices (arranged in ascending order) are presented
in Tables: 4 and 5 for Er Renk and Goz Rom Data. The
descriptive statistics of the climate elements are shown in Tables
6 & 7. A comparative analyses of yearly variations in climate
elements are presented in Tables 8 & 9.
Table 4: Mean climate elements (normal)
and drought index values for Er Renk
meteorological station (in ascending order of
aridity): 1983 – 2003.
Year
P1
C1
H1
ET
DI1
1
1990
234.1
26.7
37
2500
.036
2
1984
255.7
29.3
40
2500
.1023
3
2000
303.9
28.3
42
2500
.1216
4
2001
322.8
26.5
41
2500
.1291
5
1996
322.8
28.6
42
2500
.1291
6
1983
336.9
28.6
41
2500
.1348
7
1985
338.9
28.4
44
2500
.1356
8
1991
350.8
26.2
43
2500
.1403
9
1993
355.6
23.8
40
2500
.1422
10
1989
364.8
28.7
44
2500
.1459
11
1986
372.9
28.5
39
2500
.1492
12
1998
378.8
29.0
42
2500
.1515
13
1997
385.9
28.4
42
2500
.1544
77
14
1992
389.1
28.0
40
2500
.1556
15
1995
390.7
28.7
39
2500
.1563
16
1987
390.7
26.7
37
2500
.1563
17
2003
426.3
28.0
40
2500
.1705
18
1999
473.4
29.1
43
2500
.1894
19
1988
482.1
28.7
42
2500
.1928
20
1994
485.9
28.6
42
2500
.1944
21
2002
553.0
28.2
39
2500
.2212
P1 = Mean annual rainfall, mm.
C1 = Mean annual air temperature, C o
H1 = Relative humidity, %.
ET = Evapotranspiration, (ET), mm
D1 = Drought index
Table 5: Mean Climate Elements Normals and D1
Values for Goz Rom (in ascending order of
aridity): 1983 – 2003
Year
P
C
H
1
1984
252.0
29.3
40
2500
.1008
2
1995
341.0
28.7
39
2500
.1364
3
1992
344.3
28.0
40
2500
.1377
4
1990
353.6
26.7
37
2500
.1414
5
1986
369.5
28.5
39
2500
.1478
6
1983
391.0
28.6
41
2500
.1564
7
1987
392.7
26.7
37
2500
.1571
8
1993
426.2
23.8
40
2500
.1705
9
1991
441.1
26.2
43
2500
.1764
10
1988
463.5
28.7
42
2500
.1854
11
2003
466.3
28.0
40
2500
.1865
78
E
DI 2
12
2001
495.3
26.5
41
2500
.1981
13
2002
520.0
28.2
39
2500
.2080
14
1996
528.5
28.6
42
2500
.2114
15
1997
533.5
28.4
42
2500
.2134
16
1999
535.0
29.1
43
2500
.2140
17
1989
535.6
28.7
44
2500
.2142
18
1994
570.0
28.6
42
2500
.2280
19
1985
689.0
28.4
44
2500
.2756
20
2000
821.5
28.3
42
2500
.3286
21
1998
821.5
29.0
42
2500
.3286
= Mean annual precipitation, mm.
P
= Mean annual air temperature, C o.
C
= Relative humidity, %.
H
= Evapotranspiration (ET), mm.
ET
= Drought index.
DI 2
Table 6: Descriptive statistics of climate elements’
data, Er Renk Meteorological Station.
Statistic
Er Renk Station:
Er Renk Station:
Er Renk Station:
Er Renk Station:
mean annual
mean annual
relative
mean ET values,
humidity,%
mm
o
rainfall, mm.
temperature,C
N valid
21
21
21
21
Missing
0
0
0
0
Mean
376.910
27.952
40.90
2500.00
Median
372.900
28.400
41.00
2500.00
Mode
322.8a
28.6a
42
2500
Std. Deviation
76.4629
1.2964
1.998
.000
Range
318.9
5.5
7
0
Minimum
234.1
23.8
37
2500
Maximum
553.0
29.3
44
2500
79
Table 7: Descriptive statistics of mean climate
(normal) elements’ data for Goz Rom
Meteorological Station.
Statistic
Goz Rom
Goz Rom
Goz Rom
Goz Rom
station; mean
station; mean
station; relative
station; mean
annual rainfall
annual
humidity
ET values (mm)
temperature
N valid
21
21
21
21
Missing
0
0
0
0
Mean
490.052
27.952
40.90
2500.00
Median
466.300
28.400
41.00
2500.00
821.5
28.6a
42
2500
147.3745
1.2964
1.998
.000
Range
569.5
5.5
7
0
Minimum
252.0
23.8
37
2500
Maximum
821.5
29.3
44
2500
Mode
Std. Deviation
Results of statistical analysis of climate elements and
drought features effects show location – specificity. Annual
rainfall (precipitation) variations within the same area even
within short distances i. e. Between Er Renk and Goz Rom data
are shown in Tables 8 & 9.
Localised variations in annual climate parameters: such as
rainfall (precipitation) are shown in Fig. 7 (Dry years) and Fig.8
(Wet years). Tables 8, 9 and 10 depict these variations and their
effects on rain fed agricultural crop production mainly dura
(Sorghum spp.), were observed in Figs. 7 and 8. Table 8 and
80
Appendix 6 exemplify the strong relationships and effects of
annual rainfall amounts on field crop yields.
Table 8: A Comparative analysis of drought indices estimates
for Goz Rom and Er Renk Meteorological Stations:
1983-2003.
Statistic
Goz Room; drought index
Er Renk; drought index
values
values
N valid
21
21
Missing
0
0
Mean
.196021
.150764
Median
.186520
.149160
.3286
.1291a
.0589498
.0305851
Range
.2278
.1276
Minimum
.1008
.0936
Maximum
.3286
.2212
Mode
Std. Deviation
™ Multiple modes exist: the smallest value is shown.
Significant differences in annual rainfall amounts and
distribution each year were observed within the area even
within a short distance range (17.0 Km). Periodic drought
cycles occurred during the study period. The results are
depicted in Table 9. The driest years with significant
reduction in annual rainfall were experienced in 1983, 1984
and 1990 as widespread and common to the two
Metereological Stations at Goz Rom and Er Renk stations.
81
The notable ‘dry years’ within Er Renk area therefore were
1983, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1990, 1993 and 2001. The ‘wet
years’ were 1989, 1992, 1994, 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999.
The various climatic elements were perfectly correlated and
fluctuated accordingly with the main crop yields grown in
the area. These are shown in Figs. 7 and 8 respectively.
The variability and influences of microclimate elements as a
result of massive deforestation are shown in Figures 7 and 8.
These depict their environmental implications on Dura crop
yields during the dry and wet periods respectively.
The results of T-test analysis for equality of variances of
mean annual rainfall (precipitations) data collected at Goz Rom
and Er Renk Meteorological stations. Results show statistical
differences between Goz Rom and Er Renk stations. The drought
Indices values, DI (arranged in an ascending order) are shown as
Table 8. The variability in annual rainfall amount are presented as
Table 9.
Table 9: Results of Independent T- Test of Equality of
Variances for Er Renk and Goz Rom
Meteorological Stations data (mean annual
rainfall): 1983 – 2003.
Station
N
Mean
Standard
annual
Error
rainfall,
difference
DF
Mean
Difference
T
Sign.
Significance of
(2 -tail)
5% C.I. of the
difference
mm.
Lower
82
Upper
Goz
21
490.05
36.231
40
113.14
3.123
0.003
39.91
186.3
8
66
39.15
187.1
4
32
room
Er
21
376.91
0.004
Renk
Table 10: A Correlation Analysis of
Mean Annual Climate Elements’ values
for
Er
Renk
Area
(Er
Renk
Meteorological Station Data) Vs. yearlycultivated areas (feddans) for dura and
yields (sacks/feddan).
RR
RH
Temp.
Areas
Sacks
Plans
Yields
Aread
Sackd
Pland
RR
1
RH
0.6
1
Temp
0.5
0.3
1
Areas
-0.2
0.1
-0.2
1
Sacks
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.0
1
Plans
0.3
-0.1
0.1
0.1
0.3
1
Yields
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.4
0.4
1
Aread
-0.2
0.1
-0.2
1.0
0.0
0.1
0.0
1
Sackd
0.5
0.3
0.1
0.1
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.1
1
Pland
0.1
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.3
0.2
0.2
0.0
-0.3
1
Yieldd
0.3
0.1
0.0
0.0
0.4
0.4
0.6
0.1
0.4
0.6
= rainfall, mm
83
RR
yieldd
1
= sacks of Semsem
Sacks
= relative humidity, mm
RH
= area planted with semsem
Plans
ْ= temperature, C
Temp
= yields of Semsem
Yields
= area planted with Semsem, feddans
Areas
= No. Of sacks of dura
Sackd
= area planted with dura
Pland
= yield of dura/feddan.
Yieldd
84
C.ْ= temperature, Temp
= area planted in dura,
Pland
= relative humidity, mm.
RH
= sack of dura. Sackd
= annual rainfall, mm.
RR
= area dura, feddans. Aread
feddans.
= yield of dura, sack/feddan. Yieldd
85
Fig. 7: Curves showing Dura Crop Yields for the “ Dry Years” in Relation to Climate Elements: 1983 –
2003.
C.ْ= temperature, Temp
= area planted in dura,
Pland
= relative humidity, mm.
RH
= sack of dura. Sackd
= annual rainfall, mm.
RR
= area dura, feddans. Aread
feddans.
86
= yield of dura, sack/feddan. Yieldd
Fig. 8: Curves showing Dura Crop Yields for the “Wet years” in elation to Climate Elements: 1983 –
2003.
87
Results of questionnaire survey are shown in Table 11a
& 11b. These show that forest products dealers, farmers,
natural resource mangers and forest product consumers
accept ameliorative measures. Most of the interviewees were
however, unaware of deforestation consequences. The
traditional farmers however, define deforestation impacts in
terms of drops in annual rainfall amount and hence declined
field crops production (sacks/feddan ).
Table 11a: Deforestation awareness amongst Er Renk
inhabitants:
Category
Dealers in forest products
Aware of
Unaware of
Have no idea
impact
deforestation
deforestation &
impacts
impacts
Total
2 (14.3%)
8 (38%)
6 (42.9%)
5 (23.8%)
4 (40%)
15
Forest products’ consumers
0 (0%)
8 (38.1%)
2 (20%)
10
Natural resource managers &
6 (42%)
0 (0%)
2 (20%)
8
21 (46.7%)
10 (22.2%)
45
Farmers:
traditional
&
2 (20%)
12
mechanization farmers
administrators
Total
14 (31.1%)
lxxxviii
Table 11b: Deforestation impacts - ameliorative
measures and interactions evaluation:
Category
Accept
Reject
emalioratvi emaliorativ
Dealers
in
forest
Have no
Tota
idea
l
e
e
measures
measures
8 (25.8%)
2 (25%)
2 (33.3%)
12
1 (12.5%)
2 (33.3%)
15
products
Farmers: traditional & 12 (38.7%)
mechanized
Forest
product
5 (16.1%)
3 (37.5%)
2 (33.3%)
10
resources
6 (19.3%)
2 (25%)
0 (0%)
8
31 (58.8%)
8 (17.8%)
6 (13.3%)
45
consumers
Natural
managers
Total
The destructive deforestation impacts associated with
rural economic activities combined with the views presented
by the local inhabitants of the area (responses) concerning
the impacts of deforestation are shown in Table 11a & 11b.
Field observations and visual assessment of woodlands
utilisation and the destruction of natural forests ecosystems
were recorded as photographs, which are presented in
lxxxix
Append. (7) That clearly show the level of woodlands’
degradation;
soil-vegetation
deterioration;
woodlands’
clearances made for establishment of semi-mechanised rain
fed agricultural schemes and charcoal burning activities.
These were recorded as photographs seen in Append 8.
Chapter V: Discussions
5.0: Discussions:
5.1: Biophysical Deforestation impacts:
(a) Degradation of woody biomass and woodlands
Productivity:
Data illustrated as Pie charts Fig. 3; Fig. 4a and Fig. 4b show
biomass productivity and its distribution, land vegetation cover;
and land-use categories of Er Renk area. Table 1 indicated total
vegetation biomass productivity (ton/ha) according to canopy
closure percentages and area coverage (km2). Initially, woodlands
and forests occupied an area of 1,231.0 km2 i.e. vegetated area with
canopy closure of 10% or more and as defined by FAO (FAO,
1990). These areas include open rangelands, animals passage
routes and singletree stands along watercourses. Fig.4b, Fig. 4c
and Table 2 data indicate the level of changes in land vegetation
cover according to the land-use patterns within the woodlands
(AFRICOVER, 2003).
xc
The remaining trees and natural woodlands have greatly been
reduced to either individual trees and stands on non-agricultural
lands, and degraded woodlands due to heavy selective logging (for
charcoal production, building poles and fuel wood extraction). On
the other hand interviewees, also expressed the devastative affects
of annual dry season bush fires that rampage these woodlands.
This is in addition to grazing problem that hamper regeneration of
trees.
Comparing this situation to an ideal regeneration capacity of
undistributed woodlands (58 stems/ha), the current rate and counts
of trees barely reaches 32 stems/hectare. Crown closure is
estimated at 5.28% on average. Whereas the volume production is
estimated as 2.09 m3/ha. Bulk of per hectare volume production
(hence total average aboveground biomass productivity) occurs at
low volumes categories from small diameter classes (NFI, 1998).
The latter characteristic makes harvesting of wood for either
firewood or charcoal production a very labour intensive and
lucrative activity within the area. The interviewees furthermore,
mentioned concerns over certain of negative factors as a result of
deforestation phenomenon such as increasing distances of
firewood collection areas and the current as scarcity of indigenous
tree species that use to provide vital forest products for sustenance
of their livelihood.
xci
(b) Deforestation impacts of rain fed agriculture production
activities:
The natural forest cover has drastically degraded throughout
the study area over the past 21 years due to clearances of
woodlands that were turned into cultivated agricultural schemes.
Graze lands and bare lands have also increased in area. Both the
cultivated lands under traditional farming, irrigated agricultural
schemes and mechanised farms had increased from 346097 feddan.
(1983/84) to 947530 feddan (2002/2003). The rain fed agriculture
production had therefore removed natural tree cover thus turning
woodlands into treeless and open grasslands. Appendix 7:
Photographs 3a &3b.
(c) Consequences of charcoal burning:
Illegal and permitted charcoal production figure were
continuously on raise due to new settles in the area (inside the
forests). Although charcoal production insignificantly decreased
from 398175 sacks in 1997/98 to 302 600 sacks by 2003/2004
(Fig. 6). The high production of this commodity has caused the
woodlands to recede to over 80.0, km distance from the major
town of Er Renk.
The high production rate of charcoal during 2001/ 2002 and
2003/2004 could be explained by the presence of about 134
charcoal camps (Tayaat) comprising on average of (7) seven
xcii
workers. With each worker assigned production of 5.0 sacks (50.0
– 75.0 Kg. wt.) of charcoal per day (during production season
between November to June). Also charcoal burning has been
availability of transportation
boasted by a number of factors:
means to and from the forested lands; use of fossil fuel powered
saws; abundance of small diameter class trees; and abundant
manpower (involved in charcoal trade) including traditional
charcoal burners from other States of the Country.
Charcoal burning business has become a lucrative trade
because it currently fetches high price (locally and outside the
State). A major administrative drawback contributed to more
woodlands destruction especially as the local administration that
view revenue from charcoal to be a secure source of financing
“Mallahiayat” Er Renk treasury. This is certainly at the expense of
woodland resources. The latter factors are paradoxical and play a
negative role as an environmental deterioration element.
The Federal Ministerial Decree (1998) was issued i.e. ordering
suspension of charcoal production, which was latter on promptly
neglected (showing drop in production between 1998/1999 Bar
Chart Fig 6). A further managerial shortcoming lies in the poor
infrastructure set-up culminating in lack of trained personnel;
shortages in supervision vehicles, and shortages trained staff to
properly manage the resources. The high local consumption of
xciii
charcoal is evident whereby, a majority of inhabitants use charcoal
as the main source of domestic energy and practice charcoal
production as a source of livelihood as well. Due to scarcity of the
usually used tree species for charcoal production burners have now
reverted to cutting important tree species such as A. senegal, A.
seyal, Balinites aegyptiaca and Acacia nilotica stands.
Furthermore, the agricultural lands and graze lands had
increased drastically between 1990 and 2003. The notable increase
of over 208% and decrease in forest cover (1.4%) show a decline
in woodlands cover and hence their productivity. The non-evident
lands are fallow farm schemes invaded by heavy grasslands. A
meagre decrease in woodlands is partially explained by the
selective logging.
Partly, it is evidenct from the massive and
newly cleared virgin woodlands for establishment of rain fed
agricultural schemes. Over this period alone, agricultural schemes
(rain fed and irrigated farms) have increased from 436744 to
947530 feddan for the two major crops grown in the area i.e, dura
and sesame making an increase of 94%. Appendix 2a and 2b.
Table 2: indicate a decrease in woodlands cover by 1.4%
whereas cultivated and graze lands had increased by 7.2% and
208% respectively showing a decline in the entire woodlands cover
over the last 14 years. Interviewees attribute the reduction in treed
areas to cutting with social economic consequence causing decline
xciv
income for charcoal burners and woodcutters. Insecurity and
difficulty in obtaining charcoal and wood fuel were expressed.
This is particularly so as the distance for collection of domestic
fuel woods have increased. On the other hand, the traditional
charcoal burners are located at distances over 80 km from Er Renk
town where they are actively involved in charcoal production.
Permitted deforestation by licensing charcoal represents a social
economic activity gave people face access to forested lands
causing decline in woodlands’ area coverage. It could therefore be
deduced
that
supported
unsupervised
mechanised
farming
expansion for more food crop production gives people the right for
tree cutting land without leaving single trees on farms to
ameliorate any ecological disturbance created by the activity.
Leaving single trees on farms usually provide protection and
replenish bare soils with humus and nutrients through recycling
process (Margolis et al., 1998).
(d) Changes in vegetation cover and soils characteristics
(observed):
Field visits and interviewees revealed that deforestation
had caused loss of most indigenous tree species and shrubs.
Deforested soils appear as transformed sands created by
heavy run-off especially where resettlements of charcoal burners
inside the forest is currently a common place. Areas such as
Shemodi and El Gelhak are at present highly populated by
mainly charcoal burners from Western Sudan. This alarming rate
xcv
of charcoal threatens the future existence of the natural
woodlands of the area. These were evidenced by field
observation. (Appendix 7: Photographs–1–13).
Open ranching by an annual (dry season) nomadic livestock
(estimated at 4.0 million heads) is a further threat to regeneration
due to fodder looping of mature trees as source of forage. Wild
fires for fodder renewal cause annually massive destruction of
seedlings and shrubs. Annual bush fires cause up to 45% of
forest destruction whereas 36 % of it are attributable to
agricultural activity in Sudan (Badi, Kamal Hassan, 2004, Pers.
Comm).
The impacts of deforestation have been expressed also in
terms of reduction and scarcity in the minor forest products such as
fruits, fibre, medicinal plants and pods. The biophysical
consequences resulting from the various human activities can be
determined by comparing FAO (1990) TM imagery and
AFRICOVER Satellite imageries (2003) maps. Fig 4b & 4c and
land cover maps (Fig. 2) show that forested or treed area have
reduced from 60.6% to 59.1% whereas, the cropped area and
grasslands cover 85.4% of the total study area. Comprising mainly
comprised of Acacia mellifera and Acacia nubica, which, are
expanding southwards from its natural zones. Table 2 and
Appendix 7 indicate massive eradication of most tree species to an
extent that the potentially important tree species commonly found
in the area: Acacia senegal, Acacia seyal and Balanites aegyptiaca
are now disappearing at an alarming rate. These species are now
xcvi
cleared on lands designated for rain fed mechanized farming
schemes.
According to MFC, Er Renk, 2004 there are 50,000 feddans
of undemarcated agricultural schemes whereas the area of
demarcated schemes are estimated at 1,550,500 feddan. Among
these 302,397 feddan are funded by Local Banks (Farmers Bank,
Cooperatives Development Bank and Ivory Bank) in addition to
indigenous Trading Companies involved in rain fed Agriculture
production. This massive clearance of woodlands on annual basis
was augmented by commercial fuel wood and charcoal producers
(increased involvement of many role players) such as top Army
Officers, merchants and companies. Also increased population size
in the area had heightened consumption of firewood and charcoal
removals
from
forests.
The
consequences
are
massive
deforestation, which leads to the claim by farmers as causing: drop
in soil fertility (measurable in terms of loss in field crop yields),
enhanced wind and water of soil erosion, reduction in the biodiversity of flora and fauna. Newer plant colonies had invaded
cropped lands.
xcvii
5.2: The environmental impacts of deforestation:
(a) Variations in Climate elements:
Climate elements data shown as Table: 4 & Table: 5 and
descriptive statistical analysis shown in Table 6 & 7 indicate
sufficient variations in mean annual rainfall amounts and drought
influences over the past 21 years. On contrary, no considerable
viabilities were observed in annual mean air temperature and
relative humidity. Over the same period the mean annual
temperatures recorded in Er Renk Meteorological station showed
significant variations: 28.0ْC max & min. 23.0ْC for 1984 and 1993
respectively. However, it is not possible to quantify with precision
these variations. On the basis of annual data analysis conversely,
annual relative humidity are bound to vary reciprocally with these
temperature variations. The annual rainfall amount shows a
variation as well although these differences are attributed to the
rate of evapotranspiration (ET) as an absolute dependent of annual
precipitation. It is worth while mentioning that climatic parameters
are closely linked to start of rainfall (wet) season rainfall
periodicity, amount and its distribution over the area. However it
must not be construed wholly as cause–and–effect of deforestation.
In the proceeding chapters, the relationships of main climate
elements and rain fed crop success have been fully described. On
the other hand wind movements and vegetation cover are
xcviii
important elements to effect evaportranspiration and used in
estimation of evaporation for an area (de Zuviria, 1992)
(b) Crops’ yields versus climate elements:
Figs. 7 & 8 indicate the effects of micro - climate elements
variations and their effects on field crop yields. The correlation
analysis show strong links between the climate parameters and
yields of two main crops grown in the area: Dura and Sesame. This
is shown in a matrix: Table 9. The climate element data analysis
revealed that the study area had undergone three periods of
intermittent rainfall variations and drought influences: dry year,
medium years and wet years. Table. 4 & 5. The dry periods
covered 1983, 1984,1986,1987,1990,1993 and 2001. Whereas
1985, 1988, 1991, 1995, 2000, 2002 and 2003 were considered
minimally droughty years. During the later periods, crop
performances and yields were ideally successful. The dry periods
however, showed substantial drops in annual crop yield as an
indirect effect of degradation in physical environment due to
deforestation. However, several other factors that probably
contributed to such decline in field crop yields including drops in
soil fertility as a result of continuous and over-cultivation with
mono-cultured crops; changes in soil chemical and physical
characteristic; and lost of protective functions of woodlands in soil
moisture retention. The views held by Margolis and others support
xcix
tree planting on farms, which suggest their importance in soil
conservation and soil nutrients replenishment. Crop rotation on
agricultural farms and/or leaving single trees on farms improved
nutrient cycling. This as opposed to clear felling all the tree species
during clearance for establishment of field crop schemes (Margolis
et al., 1998).
During “dry years” where both rainfall and relative humidity
were significantly declined it caused drop in field crop yields.
Although earlier than 1980’s the area planted with dura and sesame
were relatively small the crop yields were acceptable. Increased
areas cropped with dura and sesame had not on the other hand
significantly improved crop yields (save an average for sesame
crop). It is worthwhile mentioning that other limiting production
factors might have effects: unavailability of labour force (due to
insecurity); shortages in funding and mechanical input constraints.
Conversely, during wet years where smaller land areas
cultivated, yields were reasonably high. The decline in yield during
1997 and 1999 were due to water logging in soils (due to high
frequency of heavy rain fall), heavy infestation by pests and
diseases that occurred during the same period (MFC, 2004).
(c) Inhabitance perceptions and knowledge of deforestation:
The results of questionnaire surveying on awareness about
deforestation amongst Er Renk inhabitants are shown in Table 10a
c
and Table 10b. Table 10a reveal that a limited number inhabitants
of the area ware aware of deforestation: causes and consequences.
These percentages were 14.3%, 42.9%, 0% and 42% for forest
product dealers, farmers, forest product consumers and the natural
resources managers respectively. A larger proportion of this
population, which comprises of the dealers (38%), farmers
(23.8%), forest product (38.1%) was equally unaware of this
phenomenon. These figures show uninformed population (46.7%)
since about (22.2%) of the entire population have no idea at all.
Respondents believe that deforestation is mainly caused by
the ever expanding rain fed and irrigated agricultural production,
uncontrolled illicit tree cutting, annual bush fires, unguided over
grazing by sedentary and nomadic livestock. Other reasons
advanced by the Natural resources managers (0.48%) include a
lack of coherent and strain forest Law application, poor
Institutional set-up, and lack of an integrated approach to Natural
resource management.
It is further amplified in Table 10b that while (13.3%) of
inhabitants have no idea concerning deforestation impacts and
consequences. The rejection of environment ameliorative measures
to reduce, reverse or halt deforestation is solely improper and
appears a contested vein because 58.8% of the entire population
accept these measures. On the other hand, farmers (38.7%) and
ci
dealers (23.8%) accept this measures although the former category
states reservations to these measures. These were under the pretext
that planting trees around and in between large agricultural
schemes introduced parasitic birds, pests and crop diseases.
An interview with Wildlife management officers revealed
that large clearance of trees and treeless areas represented an
inappropriate habitat for wildlife, causes loss of palatable herbal
species, lost of important wildlife sanctuaries and shade during the
long dry season. Change in habitat caused wildlife migration
whereas agricultural machinery caused noise pollution and a threat
to wildlife existence in the area.
Animal husbandry officials complained about loss of fodder
plant species, although rangeland areas created by abandoned old
schemes tend to increase. Creation of large grasslands due to
deforestation tendency increase bush fire hazards in the area.
Officials of NFC (Er Renk) recognised the importance of
reserve trees as seed mothers (secondary regeneration), approved
cyclic selective logging, and establishment of windbreaks and
shelter wood-belts. However, they are faced by a chronic funding
problem. The existing methods and tools used in regular
monitoring of woodland are likewise inadequate. However, the
necessary participatory roles of rural community in protecting and
cii
conserving the remaining woodland are not fully addressed (Van
Leeuwen & Gelens, 2004).
ciii
Chapter VI: Conclusions and Recommendations
6.1: Conclusions:
Deforestation phenomenon and its repercussion effects found
to have a wide occurrence in the area. The implications were
evident: impaired productive capacity of woodlands, loss of
important vegetation cover and decline in crop yields. The prime
reasons of deforestation being the socio-economic aspirations for
developing rain fed agricultural sector and revenue generation.
Socially, woodlands serve to secure the livelihood for the lowincome majority of peasants, wood fuel merchants, farmers and
individuals involved in forest products exploitation. In absence of
stringent forest law application, improper forest management and
poor infrastructure set-up, the long- term effects will enhance and
incite be a faster introduction of frequent droughts and possible
within the area.
There are a number of concerns to be taken into serious
consideration:1. Existence of large deforested schemes that have been
turned into fallow lands as potential factors for more
deforestation and negative ecological changes in the
area.
2. Existence of the paradoxical notion of revenue
generation
from
forest
products
civ
that
leads
to
unregulated licensing of charcoal production, over –
usage of mechanised schemes and livestock taxes
undoubtedly lead to more deforestation.
3. There is a dire need for an integrated land use policy
and management plan.
4. The local communities are not involved in natural
resource management.
5. Most of the charcoals producing tree species are wipedout within the vicinity of major human settlements such
as Er Renk, Gergeir and Gelhak, whereas illegal
charcoal
burners
and
woodcutters
have
located
woodlands amongst themselves.
6. A hundred and thirty four “ taayat” charcoal camps
with an average of 5-7 persons were located inside the
forest in the area with each person likely to produce
about 5 sacks of charcoal per day during the production
period (5-6 months).
7. Mechanised farmers admitted drop in field crop yields
and appearance of weeds, pests and diseases. This
situation encouraged clearance of more woodland.
There is an appearance of dangerous and new weed
species on the agricultural farms such as ‘Abu
Marrowa’ (Pennisatum ramosum), ‘Abu Aharedha’
cv
(Desmodium spp), Buda (Steriga hormonthica, and ‘El
Haggra’
(Ipomea
exhausted
and
continuously
cardocepala)
over
planted
-
cultivated
with
single
especially
and
on
schemes
crop
types
(Monoculture)
The major conclusions could be summarised as follows:There is a high deforestation rate caused by annual massive
clearance of woodlands, commercial charcoal production, and to a
limited extent due to annual bush fires, and overgrazing by
nomadic herders:a.
The natural resources management sectors are poorly
equipped, inadequately funded and have limited technical
and logistic support.
b.
There is paucity of community-based approach to forest
management in the study area.
c.
Freedom of utilising forest resources and supported semimechanised farming are the main culprits of woodlands
deterioration i.e. irrational natural resources utilisation. (see
page 71 No. 2).
d.
The environmental impacts of deforestation are partially
responsible for drop in yields of Dura and Sesame during the
dry years.
cvi
6.2: Recommendations
The following recommendations are suggested:1. Reclamation of fallow agricultural lands by planting
them mainly with Gum Arabic producing species –
(Acacia senegal) trees by seed broadcasting. Other
species such as Acacia. mellifera and Balanites
aegyptiaca are also recommended for planting on the
abandoned schemes.
2. Limiting land lease approvals.
3. Re-introduction of shelter wood belts, crop rotation and
mixed farming.
4. Exerting concerted efforts towards protection of the
remaining forest cover by executing fire lines and
creation
of
protected
areas
(rangelands,
forest
resources, wildlife resorts etc).
5. Ensure public participation and involvement through
forest extension work among the natural resources
managers, administrators and individuals working in
natural resources management sector (forests and range
lands).
6. Laying – down clearly stated natural resource
utilisation law and formulating State policies and
programmes.
cvii
7. Stringent application of Forests and Environmental Law
and execution of the 10% reforestation portion on
agricultural lands.
8. Soliciting strong Government financial support for the
rehabilitation of the Forests Administration Sector
(NFC, Er Renk) for execution of the Forests
Development Programmes and Plans: capacity –
building, acquisition of forest production facilities and
protection equipment and tools. (Logistical support).
9. Future studies to evaluate deforestation process to be
based on remote sensing (data): Aerial photography,
Satellite and Radar imageries complemented by
Conventional Forest inventories.
10. Continuous monitoring of climate is important for
drought indices assessments and browsed herbal species
assessment.
The suggested management interventions to minimise
the human related factors of deforestation are envisaged as
follows:1. Activation of fire lining activities.
2. Encouragement of community participation and
roles in forest resource management activities.
3. Adoption of an Integrated approach to natural
cviii
resources management (Land use policy).
cix
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cxv
cxvi
Appendix 2a: Rain fed Mechanized Agricultural
Schemes of Er Renk Area
Scheme Location
Suitable
Unsuitable
Area
No. of
agricultural
agricultural
Feddan
schemes
area
area (non-
(invested)
invested)
1
Goz Rom
198.550
236
Suitable
-
2
Goz Rom Extension
178.750
217
“
-
3
Akon
68.500
68
“
-
4
El Doulla (Private Sector) 21.000
21
“
-
5
El Doulla (Public Sector) 5.000
5
“
-
183
“
-
6
Umm Duluish
156.750
7
Umm Dulwish – West 48.000
48
“
-
8
El Ataham
245.000
345
“
-
9
El Ataham Extension
558.000
558
“
Unsuitable
72
“
-
1.685
“
-
10
South Shomadie 72.000
Total
1.550.550
Source: Mechnized Farming Corporation (MFC), Northern Upper Nile
State, Er Renk (2004).
Note:
1-
Total suitable (invested lands) agricultural land equals
920.550 feddans. (386631.0 hectares).
2-
Total unsuitable (Non-invested lands) agricultural land
equals 630.000 feddans (386631.0 hectares).
Appendix 2b: Irrigated Agricultural Schemes of Er Renk Area
cxvii
1
Total No.
of
Schemes
Irrigated
Aver. Area
Approx. Area
Scheme
Agricultural
per scheme
coverage
ownership
type
(fedd.)
Riverian Small
5 – 50
280
1.400 – 14.000
Private sector
100 – 200
81
8.100 – 16.200
Mainly private
(fedd.)
Pump scheme
2
Large Pump
Scheme
Total
sector
361
9.500 – 20.200
-
Source: Department of Agriculture (Horticulture) Northern Upper Nile,
Er Renk (2004).
Notes:
1-
Figures include irrigated schemes that were operational prior
to and between 1983–2004.
2-
Total irrigated scheme approvals between 1983 & 2004
reach 1.357 at time of data compilation.
cxviii
Appendix 3: Questionnaire Form–Sample
cxix
cxx
cxxi
cxxii
cxxiii
cxxiv
cxxv
cxxvi
Appendix 4: Mechanised Rain fed Schemes,
crop yields and climatological elements data
(Er Renk and Qoz Rom) for Er Renk area:1983
– 2004.
cxxvii
cxxviii
cxxix
Appendix 7: Field Observations – Photographs: 1 – 13
cxxx
cxxxi
cxxxii
cxxxiii
cxxxiv
cxxxv
cxxxvi
cxxxvii
cxxxviii
cxxxix
cxl
cxli
cxlii