Panthera tigris, Tiger

Transcription

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™
ISSN 2307-8235 (online)
IUCN 2008: T15955A50659951
Panthera tigris, Tiger
Assessment by: Goodrich, J., Lynam, A., Miquelle, D., Wibisono, H., Kawanishi,
K., Pattanavibool, A., Htun, S., Tempa, T., Karki, J., Jhala, Y. & Karanth, U.
View on www.iucnredlist.org
Citation: Goodrich, J., Lynam, A., Miquelle, D., Wibisono, H., Kawanishi, K., Pattanavibool, A., Htun,
S., Tempa, T., Karki, J., Jhala, Y. & Karanth, U. 2015. Panthera tigris. The IUCN Red List of Threatened
Species 2015: e.T15955A50659951. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.20152.RLTS.T15955A50659951.en
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THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™
Taxonomy
Kingdom
Phylum
Class
Order
Family
Animalia
Chordata
Mammalia
Carnivora
Felidae
Taxon Name: Panthera tigris (Linnaeus, 1758)
Synonym(s):
• Felis tigris Linnaeus, 1758
Regional Assessments:
• Mediterranean
Infra-specific Taxa Assessed:
• Panthera tigris ssp. altaica
• Panthera tigris ssp. amoyensis
• Panthera tigris ssp. balica
• Panthera tigris ssp. corbetti
• Panthera tigris ssp. jacksoni
• Panthera tigris ssp. sondaica
• Panthera tigris ssp. sumatrae
• Panthera tigris ssp. tigris
• Panthera tigris ssp. virgata
Common Name(s):
• English:
• French:
Tiger
Tigre
Taxonomic Source(s):
Luo, S.J., Kim, J.H., Johnson, W.E., Van Der Walt, J., Martenson, J., Yuhki, N., Miquelle, D.G., Uphyrkina,
O., Goodrich, J.M., Quigley, H., Tilson, R., Brady, G., Martelli, P., Subramaniam, V., Mcdougal, C., Hean, S.,
Huang, S.Q., Pan, W., Karanth, U.K., Sunquist, M., Smith, J.L.D. and O'Brien, S.J. 2004. Phylogeography
and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biology 2: 2275-2293.
Taxonomic Notes:
Taxonomy is currently under review by the IUCN SSC Cat Specialist Group. We currently follow Luo et al.
(2004), who confirmed the division of Tiger into six extant subspecies on the basis of distinctive
molecular markers:
Amur Tiger P. t. altaica: Russian Far East and northeastern China
Northern Indochinese Tiger P. t. corbetti: Indochina north of the Malayan Peninsula
Malayan Tiger P. t. jacksoni: Peninsular Malaysia
Sumatran Tiger P. t. sumatrae: Sumatra
Bengal Tiger P. t. tigris: Indian sub-continent
South China Tiger P. t. amoyensis (although this subspecies has not been directly observed in the wild
since the 1970s and is possibly extinct)
© The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: Panthera tigris – published in 2015.
http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T15955A50659951.en
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Three subspecies previously recognized on the basis of morphology are extinct:
Bali Tiger P. t. balica Schwarz, 1912: Bali
Javan Tiger P. t. sondaica (Temminck, 1844): Java
Caspian Tiger P. t. virgata (Illiger, 1815): dry river valleys of the Takla Makan, western slopes of the
Tianshan mountains, Amudarya and Syrdarya river valleys, shores of the Caspian sea, Elburz mountains,
eastern Turkey, Tigris and Euphrates river valleys.
Assessment Information
Red List Category & Criteria:
Endangered A2abcd; C1 ver 3.1
Year Published:
2015
Date Assessed:
April 20, 2014
Justification:
The Tiger is listed as Endangered under criterion A2abcd. Comparing a breeding recent range estimate
(42 “source sites” totalling 90,000 km² : Walston et al. 2010b) to a 2006 total range estimate (1.1 million
km² : Dinerstein et al. 2007) suggests a range decline much greater than 50% over the last three
generations (7 x 3 = 21 years). As per IUCN guidelines (Nowell et al. 2007, IUCN 2013), we calculated
generation length at seven years based on approximate age of maturity (four years) plus half the length
of the reproductive lifespan (six years) (based on Smith and McDougal 1991 and unpublished
information). This decline continues and at least two of the source populations listed in Walston et al.
(2010b) have apparently been lost (one from Lao PDR and one from Thailand). In 2006, it was believed
that breeding populations existed in 13 countries, but now known breeding Tiger populations occur only
in eight (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Thailand and Russia).
In 1998, the global Tiger population was estimated at 5,000 to 7,000 Tigers (Seidensticker et al. 1999). A
comparison of these population estimates of the 1990s (many with little scientific rigour) to similar
current ones (many of better quality; see Table 1 in attached Supporting Material) suggests a decline of
about 50% (taking the upper bound of 7,000 as the number of mature individuals in 1993, using a
precautionary approach, declining to approximately 3,500 in 2014), but differences in methodologies
and accuracy make such comparisons uncertain. This declining trend is likely to persist in the face of
continuing threats such as direct poaching, prey depletion and habitat degradation which continue in all
range states. Although several sites in India and Nepal have indeed reported recent recoveries,
population reductions may not be reversible in other areas where Tiger habitat itself has been lost.
Given the uncertainties about future declines, criterion A4bcd is no longer used.
The Tiger is also listed as Endangered under criterion C1 because the population of mature individuals
may be fewer than 2,500 individuals. Walston et al. 2010a estimated 2,154 tigers in 42 protected source
sites where there is evidence of breeding (two populations are since known to have been lost, as
described above), and the numbers in Table 1 (see Supporting material) could be overestimated.
Generally Tiger status outside the source sites is poor and large breeding populations are unlikely to
exist. To ensure tiger persistence, large population sizes (implying highest possible densities) and high
survival rates of breeding adult females are critical. Although well-protected tiger populations may
achieve recruitment rates that can sustain annual losses from mortality and emigration of 20% or more
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(Karanth et al. 2006), some theoretical models suggest declines to extinction when annual mortality of
breeding females exceeds 15% (Chapron et al. 2008). Population declines in recent years have been
most pronounced outside protected areas (Walston et al. 2010b). For the purposes of Red List
assessment, the estimated population in Source Sites is a good proxy for the breeding population of
adult Tigers. This population has declined by over 20% during the last two generations (14 years); the
decline continues and may not be reversible in all sites.
Previously, Tigers were also listed under criterion C2a(i), but we have removed this criterion because the
population in the Western Ghats in India has increased to >250 adults (Karanth unpublished data).
Other subpopulations in Terai, Central India, and Russia may also have >250 adults (Karanth et al. 2010).
See attached Supporting Material for alternative depictions of range and population details.
Previously Published Red List Assessments
2011 – Endangered (EN)
1994 – Endangered (E)
Geographic Range
Range Description:
The Tiger once ranged widely across Asia, from Turkey in the west to the eastern coast of Russia (Nowell
and Jackson 1996). Over the past 100 years Tigers have disappeared from southwest and central Asia,
from two Indonesian islands (Java and Bali) and from large areas of Southeast and Eastern Asia. Tigers
inhabit less than 6% of their historic range (Sanderson et al. 2006, Walston et al. 2010b), with a 42%
decline since 2006. Breeding populations of Tigers are currently found in eight range states: Bangladesh,
Bhutan, India, Indonesia, Malaysia, Nepal, Russia, and Thailand. There is evidence of breeding in China
and Myanmar between 2009 and 2014, though these populations are likely dependent on immigration
from neighbouring countries. Tigers may still persist in North Korea, although there has been no recent
confirmed evidence.
In 1994, the first comprehensive assessment to delineate Tiger range was carried out (Dinerstein et al.
1997). Priority areas for Tiger conservation were estimated to total 1.64 million km² in 159 Tiger
Conservation Units (TCUs), roughly equivalent to discrete meta-populations, not including Russia (later
estimated at 270,0000 km²: Sanderson et al. 2006) and China. While this was generally considered
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representative of current distribution, Tiger presence was confirmed in just 47% the TCUs, and 89%
were scored as undergoing medium to high levels of poaching of Tigers and their prey.
This exercise was revised and updated ten years later, and in delineating Tiger Conservation Landscapes
(TCLs), greater emphasis was placed on actual records of Tiger presence and breeding (Sanderson et al.
2006). TCLs were defined as areas where there is sufficient habitat to conserve at least five Tigers, and
Tigers have been confirmed to occur in the past decade. Tiger range was estimated at 1.1 million km² in
76 TCLs (again, roughly equivalent to discrete meta-populations). This represented a 41% decline from
the range described a decade earlier (in South and Southeast Asia, a drop from 1.55 million km² to
914,000 km²: Sanderson et al. 2006: 63), attributed primarily to poaching pressure (Dinerstein et al.
2007). Habitat loss due to deforestation was also to blame, notable particularly in Sumatra and
Myanmar (Wikramanayake et al. 2010). In India, landscapes with Tigers found to be much smaller and
more fragmented than in the original assessment (Sanderson et al. 2006: 63 and Figure 4.12).
Records of Tigers were collected over a ten-year period (1995–2004), a period which may have been too
liberal for places like Cambodia which underwent a sharp rise in poaching pressure in the 1990s
(Sanderson et al. 2006: Appendix 6). While 53% of the TCU survey respondents reported evidence of
Tiger breeding in the time period 1995–2004, out of over 2,500 point records collected in 2005, just 8%
had confirmed evidence of breeding Tigers (Sanderson et al. 2006: 11-17). Large areas of habitat were
defined as Tiger landscapes based on suitability, but given data paucity on Tiger presence there were
often few records of breeding and actual Tiger occupancy to substantiate these (Sanderson et al. 2006:
Figures 2.3 and 4.8).
A review of land management within Tiger Conservation Landscapes described the TCLs as “potential
habitat for Tigers” and found only 21% of their area to be legally protected. Management effectiveness
was generally poor in the protected areas, with regulatory, budgetary and enforcement constraints, and
hunting cited as the main threat. Significant portions of the TCLs are designated concessions for
resource extraction (timber, oil and gas, minerals, etc.) (Forrest et al. 2011).
Tiger range was revisited again in 2009, by which time the extent of the Tiger’s range collapse had
become evident. “Vast areas of Southeast Asia [were] recently found to be void of Tigers and depleted
of prey by hunters” (Walston et al. 2010a: 5). The exercise used a different methodology to prioritize
areas for Tiger conservation. Source Sites were defined as areas with confirmed current presence of
Tigers and evidence of breeding, population estimates of >25 breeding females, legal protection, and
embedded in a larger habitat landscape with the potential to hold >50 breeding females. An extensive
review of scientific literature as well as correspondence with Tiger scientists and protected area
managers resulted in the identification of just 42 source sites totalling approximately 90,000 km². Many
Southeast Asian countries, previously considered to have large areas with Tigers, were found, on the
basis of extensive survey effort over the past decade or more, to have no healthy breeding populations.
Since this publication, Lao PDR has lost its only source site, but Bhutan, originally listed as a country not
containing source sites, has documented breeding populations. [See Figures 1 and 2 in supplementary
material].
The map for this effort (Figure 1 in supplementary material) differentiates areas where breeding has
been detected in the past five years (2009-2014), where Tigers, but no breeding have been detected in
the past five years, areas surveyed where no Tigers were detected and areas not surveyed. Data include
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camera trap photos, DNA, and observations of Tigers and Tiger sign detected during scientific surveys.
Unsurveyed areas were excluded from Tiger range. Figure 2 (attached Supporting Material) documents
a 42% range decline since 2006, reflecting both real decline and improved knowledge from new and
better surveys.
For further information about this species, see Supplementary Material.
Country Occurrence:
Native: Bangladesh; Bhutan; China (Anhui - Regionally Extinct, Beijing - Regionally Extinct, Chongqing Regionally Extinct, Fujian - Possibly Extinct, Guangdong - Possibly Extinct, Guangxi - Regionally Extinct,
Guizhou - Regionally Extinct, Hebei - Regionally Extinct, Heilongjiang, Henan - Regionally Extinct, Hubei Regionally Extinct, Hunan - Possibly Extinct, Jiangsu - Regionally Extinct, Jiangxi - Possibly Extinct, Jilin,
Liaoning - Regionally Extinct, Shaanxi - Possibly Extinct, Shandong - Regionally Extinct, Shanghai Regionally Extinct, Shanxi - Regionally Extinct, Sichuan - Regionally Extinct, Tianjin - Regionally Extinct,
Tibet [or Xizang], Xinjiang - Regionally Extinct, Yunnan, Zhejiang - Possibly Extinct); India; Indonesia (Bali
- Regionally Extinct, Jawa - Regionally Extinct, Sumatera); Lao People's Democratic Republic; Malaysia
(Peninsular Malaysia); Myanmar; Nepal; Russian Federation; Thailand
Possibly extinct: Cambodia; Korea, Democratic People's Republic of; Viet Nam
Regionally extinct: Afghanistan; Iran, Islamic Republic of; Kazakhstan; Kyrgyzstan; Pakistan; Singapore;
Tajikistan; Turkey; Turkmenistan; Uzbekistan
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Distribution Map
6
Population
The thirteen Tiger Range Countries came together in an unprecedented pledge to double the world’s
Tiger population by 2022, the next Year of the Tiger on the Asian lunar calendar, with a goal of achieving
at least 6,000 Tigers. This figure was based on a baseline global population of 3,200, agreed upon at a
preparatory workshop held in Kathmandu, Nepal in October 2009; 3,200 Tigers was the IUCN Red List
population estimate at that time. Since then, Tiger Range Countries have adjusted their baseline
national Tiger estimates, finalized in the Global Tiger Recovery Program adopted at the International
Tiger Forum in St Petersburg, Russia in November 2010 (GTRP 2010).
The global Tiger estimate published in the 2010 Red List assessment of 2,154 tigers was an updated
version of the estimate of Tiger numbers in source sites (Walston et al. 2010a). This was not a complete
estimate of global Tiger numbers (for example, most Amur Tigers in Russia are found in unprotected
areas), but justified because Tiger status outside the source sites is generally poor and poorly known.
IUCN Guidelines (IUCN Standards and Petitions Subcommittee 2010) define population as the number of
mature individuals, defined as “individuals known, estimated or inferred to be capable of reproduction.”
While in general this refers to all reproductive-age adults in the population, the Guidelines also “stress
that the intention of the definition of mature individuals is to allow the estimate of the number of
mature individuals to take account of all the factors that may make a taxon more vulnerable than
otherwise might be expected.” Tigers require large populations to persist, and the survival rate of
breeding adult females is a key parameter, with models suggesting population declines when mortality
of breeding females rises over 15% (Chapron et al. 2008). Population declines in recent years have been
most pronounced outside protected areas (Walston et al. 2010b). The IUCN Guidelines advise that
“mature individuals that will never produce new recruits should not be counted.” Thus, for the purposes
of the Red List assessment in 2010, the estimated population in the Source Sites was used as a proxy for
the breeding population of adult Tigers.
Due to extensive surveys using improved methodologies since this analysis, our understanding of tiger
distribution and numbers is much improved, e.g., extensive camera trapping in Bhutan has
demonstrated significant populations. Further, Walston et al. (2010a) ignored some important Tiger
areas, e.g., thousands of square kilometres in Kerinci and Leuser National Parks known to contain
breeding Tiger populations. Hence, the current estimate of 3,159 Tigers (Table 1 in supplementary
material) is based on data collected in scientific surveys conducted over the past five years (i.e. since
2009). This is a minimum estimate because some important areas (e.g. the Russian Far East) did not
have current estimates. However, because of differences in methodology, this can by no means be
interpreted as an increase over the 2010 estimate of 2,154. Rather, it is a more complete counting.
While Tiger numbers have increased in some areas in India (e.g. Western Ghats, Central India, and
Corbett Landscapes in India), they have also declined in key areas, especially in mainland SE Asia (e.g.
Nam Et-Phou Louey in Lao PDR is no longer considered a potential source site).
In 1998, the global Tiger population was estimated, less rigorously, at 5,000 to 7,000 Tigers
(Seidensticker et al. 1999). Although to some extent the new numbers represent improved knowledge, it
is clear that there have been substantial population declines, with Tigers all but eliminated from much
of their recent forest range, particularly in Southeast Asia.
See the supplementary material for further information about national Tiger population estimates.
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For further information about this species, see Supplementary Material.
Current Population Trend: Decreasing
Habitat and Ecology (see Appendix for additional information)
Tigers are found mainly in the forests of tropical Asia, although they historically occurred more widely in
drier and colder climes. One subspecies, the Amur Tiger P. t. altaica, persists in the Russian Far East.
Photos of Tigers up to 4,500 m have been obtained in Bhutan (Wang 2008).
Availability of a sufficient prey base of large ungulates is the Tiger's major habitat requirement: "wild
pigs and deer of various species are the two prey types that make up the bulk of the Tiger's diet, and in
general Tigers require a good population of these species in order to survive and reproduce" (Hayward
et al. 2012, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Tigers need to kill 50-60 large prey animals per year (Karanth
et al. 2004, Miller et al. 2013). Tigers are opportunistic predators, however, and their diet includes birds,
fish, rodents, insects, amphibians, reptiles in addition to other mammals such as primates and
porcupines. Tigers can also take ungulate prey much larger than themselves, including large bovids
(Water Buffalo, Gaur, Banteng), elephants and rhinos (Nowell and Jackson 1996). However, like many
large carnivores, preferred prey are key to successful reproduction and are those species that are
approximately the same weight as Tigers themselves (Hayward et al. 2012).
Tigers are generally solitary, with adults maintaining exclusive territories, or home ranges. Adult female
home ranges seldom overlap, whereas male ranges typically overlap from 1–3 females, a common felid
pattern of social organization. Tiger home ranges are small where prey is abundant - e.g., female home
ranges in Chitwan averaged 20 km², while in the Russian Far East they are much larger at about 400 km²
(Goodrich et al. 2010, Sunquist and Sunquist 2002). Similarly, reported Tiger densities range from a
maximum of 17-19 Tigers per 100 km² where prey are abundant (India's Kaziranga and Corbett National
Parks) to as low as 0.13–0.45 per 100 km² where prey is more thinly distributed, as in Russia's Sikhote
Alin Mountains (Jhala et al. 2011, Soutyrina et al. 2012).
Systems: Terrestrial
Use and Trade (see Appendix for additional information)
In the early 1990s, it was feared that poaching of Tigers for the use of their bones in traditional Asian
medicine would drive the Tiger to extinction (Nowell 2000). Despite strong international action to
eliminate it, illegal trade persists (Nowell 2007). Tiger bone has long been considered to hold antiinflammatory properties, with some support from Chinese medical research, but many consider the
effect to be more psychological than pharmacological (Nowell and Xu 2007). Although all countries have
banned use and manufacture of Tiger bone, illegal production persists in several Asian countries,
especially in China, Malaysia, and Viet Nam (Nowell 2007). In China there are several operations
engaged in intensive breeding ("farming" of Tigers), with the captive population reportedly reaching
over 6,000. They are pressuring the government to allow them to produce Tiger products, and several
have already engaged in illegal production of Tiger bone wine. Market surveys indicate that medicinal
use of Tiger bone has decreased since China banned Tiger bone in 1993. Tiger farming perpetuates and
threatens to re-ignite consumer demand (Nowell and Xu 2007). In 2008 the Convention on International
Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) adopted a Decision stating that “Tigers should not be bred for trade
8
in their parts and derivatives” (CITES 2008).
There are other illegal markets for Tiger products, especially skins, but also teeth and claws (particularly
in Sumatra: Ng and Nemora 2007), contributing to poaching pressure. But many Tigers are also killed by
people seeking to protect life and livestock. Conflict-killed Tigers can also feed into the illegal trade.
Many Tiger products in trade are faked, a legal "grey area" in several countries which also perpetuates
consumer demand (Nowell 2000).
Tiger poaching is driven by less by poverty and more by wealth (TRAFFIC 2008), which is putting
expensive illegal Tiger products within reach of a rapidly growing group of potential consumers. TRAFFIC
has documented rising levels of recent illegal trade within the Tiger range countries, with seizures and
confiscations in 2007–2009 averaging the equivalent of approximately 150 Tigers per year (Verheij et al.
2010). Interdictions represent just a fraction of the true level of illegal trade, indicating that Tigers are
gravely imperilled by black market demand.
Threats (see Appendix for additional information)
Poaching for illegal trade in high-value Tiger products including skins, bones, meat and tonics is a
primary threat to Tigers, which has led to their recent disappearance from broad areas of otherwise
suitable habitat, and continues at unsustainable rates. That there are roughly one million square
kilometres of unoccupied Tiger habitat is a clear indication that poaching is the greatest threat to Tigers
range-wide.
Asia is a densely populated and rapidly developing region, bringing huge pressures to bear on the large
wild areas required for viable Tiger populations. Conversion of forest land to agriculture and silviculture,
commercial logging, and human settlement are the main drivers of Tiger habitat loss. With their
substantial dietary requirements, Tigers require a healthy large ungulate prey base, but these species
are also under heavy human subsistence hunting pressure and competition from domestic livestock.
Tiger attacks on livestock and people can lead to intolerance of Tigers by neighbouring communities and
presents an ongoing challenge to managers to build local support for Tiger conservation and can lead to
high rates of retaliatory killing of Tigers. In some areas there have been many human deaths - for
example, about 40 people were killed by Tigers in the Sundarbans mangrove forest of Bangladesh and
India 2000-2010 (Barlow et al. 2013).
Conservation Actions (see Appendix for additional information)
At a “Tiger Summit” held in St Petersburg, Russia in November 2010, the 13 Tiger Range Countries
adopted a Global Tiger Recovery Program (GTRP 2010). The goal is to effectively double the number of
wild Tigers by 2022 through actions to:
i) effectively preserve, manage, enhance and protect Tiger habitats;
ii) eradicate poaching, smuggling and illegal trade of Tigers, their parts and derivatives;
iii) cooperate in transboundary landscape management and in combating illegal trade;
iv) engage with indigenous and local communities;
v) increase the effectiveness of Tiger and habitat management; and
vi) restore Tigers to their former range.
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The Tiger Summit was attended by Heads of State including Russia, China, Lao PDR, Nepal and
Bangladesh, and represented significant government commitment to Tiger conservation.
The future of Tiger range depends upon the Asian governments creating effective Tiger landscapes by
conserving large areas of suitable habitat. Within these landscapes, the most urgent need is to first
secure the source sites—protected areas with viable Tiger populations—where most of the global Tiger
population is now clustered, and many of which are currently too threatened to deliver their potential
as the demographic sources for species recovery (Walston et al. 2010b).
Countries that do not currently support known breeding populations (Myanmar, Cambodia, Viet Nam
and Lao PDR) but still have large landscapes with suitable habitat, Tigers might still be recovered if
government commitment to Tigers, staff capacity for law enforcement and legal frameworks for Tiger
protection can be established (Lynam 2010), though reintroduction may be needed in some places.
Credits
Assessor(s):
Goodrich, J., Lynam, A., Miquelle, D., Wibisono, H., Kawanishi, K., Pattanavibool,
A., Htun, S., Tempa, T., Karki, J., Jhala, Y. & Karanth, U.
Reviewer(s):
Nowell, K., Hunter, L., Duckworth, J.W., Breitenmoser-Würsten, C., Lanz, T. &
Breitenmoser, U.
Contributor(s):
Petracca, L., Pokharel, C., Dhakal, M., Samba Kumar, N., Pusparini, W., Hossain,
A.N.M., Rayan, MR, Gumal, MG, Clements, R., Habib, B., Chundawat, R.S., Ahmad
Khan, J., Sunarto, S., Wang, S.W., Nyhus, P. & Tilson, R.L.
10
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Luo, S.J., Kim, J.H., Johnson, W.E., Van Der Walt, J., Martenson, J., Yuhki, N., Miquelle, D.G., Uphyrkina,
O., Goodrich, J.M., Quigley, H., Tilson, R., Brady, G., Martelli, P., Subramaniam, V., Mcdougal, C., Hean, S.,
Huang, S.Q., Pan, W., Karanth, U.K., Sunquist, M., Smith, J.L.D. and O'Brien, S.J. 2004. Phylogeography
and genetic ancestry of tigers (Panthera tigris). PLoS Biology 2: 2275-2293.
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rates using global positioning system collars. Journal of Mammalogy 94: 845-855.
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E.N., Salkina,G.P., Seryodkin, I.V., Gaponov, V.V., Fomenko, P.V., Litvinov, M.N., Kostyria, A.V., Yudin, V.G.,
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Nowell,K. 2007. Asian big cat conservation and trade control in selected range States: evaluating
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Citation
Goodrich, J., Lynam, A., Miquelle, D., Wibisono, H., Kawanishi, K., Pattanavibool, A., Htun, S., Tempa, T.,
Karki, J., Jhala, Y. & Karanth, U. 2015. Panthera tigris. The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2015:
e.T15955A50659951. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2015-2.RLTS.T15955A50659951.en
Disclaimer
To make use of this information, please check the Terms of Use.
External Resources
For Supplementary Material, and for Images and External Links to Additional Information, please see the
Red List website.
Habitats
(http://www.iucnredlist.org/technical-documents/classification-schemes)
13
Habitat
Season
Suitability
Major
Importance?
1. Forest -> 1.1. Forest - Boreal
-
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.4. Forest - Temperate
-
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.5. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
-
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.6. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Lowland
-
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.7. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Mangrove Vegetation Above
High Tide Level
-
Suitable
Yes
1. Forest -> 1.9. Forest - Subtropical/Tropical Moist Montane
-
Marginal
-
3. Shrubland -> 3.5. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
-
Suitable
Yes
3. Shrubland -> 3.6. Shrubland - Subtropical/Tropical Moist
-
Suitable
Yes
4. Grassland -> 4.5. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Dry
-
Marginal
-
4. Grassland -> 4.6. Grassland - Subtropical/Tropical Seasonally
Wet/Flooded
-
Marginal
-
Use and Trade
End Use
Local
National
International
Food - human
No
Yes
Yes
Medicine - human & veterinary
No
Yes
Yes
Handicrafts, jewellery, etc.
No
Yes
Yes
Pets/display animals, horticulture
No
Yes
Yes
Establishing ex-situ production *
No
No
No
Threats
Threat
Timing
Scope
Severity
Impact Score
1. Residential & commercial development -> 1.1.
Housing & urban areas
Ongoing
-
-
-
Stresses:
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.1. Ecosystem conversion
1. Ecosystem stresses -> 1.2. Ecosystem degradation
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Commercial & industrial areas
Tourism & recreation areas
-
-
-
-
14
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.1. Annual &
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.1. Shifting
agriculture
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.2. Small-holder
farming
perennial non-timber crops -> 2.1.3. Agro-industry
farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.2. Wood & pulp
plantations -> 2.2.1. Small-holder plantations
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.2. Wood & pulp
plantations -> 2.2.2. Agro-industry plantations
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming
& ranching -> 2.3.2. Small-holder grazing, ranching or
farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.3. Livestock farming
& ranching -> 2.3.3. Agro-industry grazing, ranching
or farming
2. Agriculture & aquaculture -> 2.4. Marine &
freshwater aquaculture -> 2.4.3. Scale
Unknown/Unrecorded
3. Energy production & mining -> 3.2. Mining &
quarrying
5. Biological resource use -> 5.1. Hunting & trapping
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.1. Intentional use (species is
the target)
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.1. Species mortality
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
15
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.2. Unintentional effects
(species is not the target)
terrestrial animals -> 5.1.3. Persecution/control
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.1.
Recreational activities
6. Human intrusions & disturbance -> 6.2. War, civil
unrest & military exercises
7. Natural system modifications -> 7.1. Fire & fire
suppression -> 7.1.3. Trend Unknown/Unrecorded
7. Natural system modifications -> 7.2. Dams & water
management/use -> 7.2.11. Dams (size unknown)
8. Invasive & other problematic species & genes ->
8.2. Problematic native species
Ongoing
-
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
2. Species Stresses -> 2.2. Species disturbance
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
Ongoing
-
Stresses:
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
-
Conservation Actions in Place
Conservation Actions in Place
In-Place Research, Monitoring and Planning
Systematic monitoring scheme: Yes
In-Place Land/Water Protection and Management
Occur in at least one PA: Yes
Area based regional management plan: Yes
In-Place Species Management
Harvest management plan: Yes
Subject to ex-situ conservation: Yes
In-Place Education
Subject to recent education and awareness programmes: Yes
Included in international legislation: Yes
Subject to any international management/trade controls: Yes
16
Conservation Actions Needed
Conservation Actions Needed
1. Land/water protection -> 1.1. Site/area protection
1. Land/water protection -> 1.2. Resource & habitat protection
2. Land/water management -> 2.1. Site/area management
2. Land/water management -> 2.3. Habitat & natural process restoration
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.1. Harvest management
3. Species management -> 3.1. Species management -> 3.1.2. Trade management
3. Species management -> 3.2. Species recovery
3. Species management -> 3.3. Species re-introduction -> 3.3.1. Reintroduction
3. Species management -> 3.4. Ex-situ conservation -> 3.4.1. Captive breeding/artificial propagation
3. Species management -> 3.4. Ex-situ conservation -> 3.4.2. Genome resource bank
4. Education & awareness -> 4.1. Formal education
4. Education & awareness -> 4.2. Training
4. Education & awareness -> 4.3. Awareness & communications
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.1. International level
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.2. National level
5. Law & policy -> 5.1. Legislation -> 5.1.3. Sub-national level
5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.1. International level
5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.2. National level
5. Law & policy -> 5.4. Compliance and enforcement -> 5.4.3. Sub-national level
6. Livelihood, economic & other incentives -> 6.1. Linked enterprises & livelihood alternatives
Research Needed
Research Needed
1. Research -> 1.2. Population size, distribution & trends
1. Research -> 1.3. Life history & ecology
1. Research -> 1.5. Threats
1. Research -> 1.6. Actions
2. Conservation Planning -> 2.1. Species Action/Recovery Plan
17
Research Needed
3. Monitoring -> 3.1. Population trends
Additional Data Fields
Distribution
Estimated extent of occurrence (EOO) (km²): 1184911
Number of Locations: 76
Lower elevation limit (m): 0
Upper elevation limit (m): 4500
Population
Number of mature individuals: 2154-3159
Continuing decline of mature individuals: Yes
Population severely fragmented: Yes
Habitats and Ecology
Continuing decline in area, extent and/or quality of habitat: Yes
Generation Length (years): 6.5-10
18
The IUCN Red List Partnership
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species™ is produced and managed by the IUCN Global Species
Programme, the IUCN Species Survival Commission (SSC) and The IUCN Red List Partnership. The IUCN
Red List Partners are: BirdLife International; Botanic Gardens Conservation International; Conservation
International; Microsoft; NatureServe; Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; Sapienza University of Rome; Texas
A&M University; Wildscreen; and Zoological Society of London.
THE IUCN RED LIST OF THREATENED SPECIES™

Panthera tigris, Tiger

Transcription

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