Islamic Relief Worldwide

Islamic Relief
DANGER ON THE HOME FRONT
A policy brief on domestic violence
Version management
Title:
Danger on the home front: A policy brief on domestic violence
Category:
Internal and external
Policy Type:
Operational and stance policy
Version Control:
MAK//30062016
Date of Creation:
12 February 2016
Last Modified:
30 June 2016
Review Date:
15 February 2017
Approving Body:
Board of Directors
Date of Approval:
10 March 2016
Document author(s)/ Key:
Muhtari Aminu-Kano
Contributors including:
Akmal Shareef, Lotifa Begum, Atallah Fitzgibbon
Department:
Strategy, Policy and Process Division (SPP)
Policy Owner:
Head of policy
Either:
Or:
For public access online
For staff access only
(internet)
(extranet)
© Islamic Relief Worldwide June 2016
This publication is subject to copyright. The contained text may be used free of charge for the purposes of advocacy,
campaigning, education, and research, provided that the source is acknowledged in full. Islamic Relief Worldwide
request that all such use be registered with us to monitor the impact for advocacy purposes. For usage in any other
circumstances, translation or adaptation, permission must be sought and a fee may be charged. For further
information please email [email protected]
Contents
Ten key messages ....................................................................................................................................................... 4
Glossary of terms ........................................................................................................................................................ 5
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................................ 6
Nature and extent ....................................................................................................................................................... 7
Impacts ..................................................................................................................................................................... 12
Risk factors ............................................................................................................................................................... 15
Islamic perspectives .................................................................................................................................................. 17
Holistic prevention and support ................................................................................................................................ 22
Conclusion ................................................................................................................................................................ 28
Recommendations .................................................................................................................................................... 29
Islamic Relief’s commitments .................................................................................................................................... 31
References ................................................................................................................................................................ 33
Ten key messages
1. Domestic violence and other forms of violence against women are gross violations of human rights.
They are unjust and immoral and must therefore stop.
2. Domestic violence is fundamentally about power and control, exerted through patterns of abusive
behaviour.
3. Although women can also be perpetrators, the most common form of domestic violence is Intimate
Partner Violence (IPV) against women.
4. Domestic violence is widespread. It is not restricted to any region, country, culture, race or religion.
5. Domestic violence damages lives and is a serious public health and socio-economic concern.
6. The perpetrator must bear full responsibility but a complex interplay of psychological and social
factors allow domestic violence to flourish.
7. There is no excuse for domestic violence. Perpetrators should never use Islam to justify their
actions.
8. To end domestic violence we need a holistic and integrated approach, with actions across multiple
sectors, and interventions aimed at individuals, families, communities and the society.
9. Action and collaboration is required from governments, civil society organisations, donors, faith
institutions and research centres.
10. Islamic Relief is strongly committed to tackling all forms of gender-based violence, including
domestic violence.
Glossary of terms
DV
GBV
BWS
CDC
EFM
FGM/C
IPV
WHO
domestic violence
gender-based violence
Battered Woman Syndrome
US Center for Disease Control and Prevention
early forced marriage
female genital mutilation/cutting
intimate partner violence
World Health Organisation
Domestic Violence (DV)
Domestic violence is the abuse of one partner within an intimate or family relationship. It is the repeated, random
and habitual use of intimidation to control a partner. The abuse can be physical, emotional, psychological, financial
or sexual.
Violence Against Women and Girls (VAWG)
Any act of gender-based violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or
suffering to women and girls under 16, including threats of such acts, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty,
whether occurring in public or in private life.
Domestic Abuse
Domestic abuse is any type of controlling, bullying, threatening or violent behaviour between people in a
relationship. But it isn’t just physical violence – domestic abuse includes any emotional, physical, sexual, financial or
psychological abuse.
Gender-Based Violence (GBV)
Any harmful act done to a person because they are female or male. Types of GBV include domestic violence, sexual
harassment, trafficking of women and children, forced prostitution, early and forced marriage, female genital
mutilation/cutting, acid attack and honour killing.
Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)
Violence between intimate partners in which the male partner tries to exert power and control over his female
partner, or ex-partner, by using various forms of abuse. The abuse may be one or any combination of verbal,
emotional, psychological, physical, sexual, economic or spiritual.
Introduction
Islamic Relief’s comprehensive Gender Justice Policyi defines gender-based violence (GBV) simply as any harmful act
done to a person because they are female or male. It explicitly lists types of GBV to include domestic violence, sexual
harassment, trafficking of women and children, forced prostitution, early and forced marriage, female genital
mutilation/cutting, acid attack and honour killing. Although GBV is visited on men and boys as well as women and
girls, evidence from our work on the ground, and national and global statistics, clearly show that Violence Against
Women (VAW) is “perhaps the most shameful human rights violation, and the most pervasive.”ii As a faith inspired
organisation, we are compelled to act strongly against this pernicious injustice. Therefore, we have placed a high
priority on VAW for our advocacy programme.
Key message 1: Domestic violence, and other forms of VAW, are gross violations of human
rights. They are unjust and immoral and must therefore stop.
This publication is one of three policy briefs in Islamic Relief’s series of advocacy reports that will support our
campaign on gender-based violence (GBV). It focuses on domestic violence (DV) while its companion pieces address
Early and Forced Marriage (EFM) and Female Genital Mutilation/ Cutting (FGM/C), respectively.
Key message 2: Domestic violence is fundamentally about power and control, exerted through
patterns of abusive behaviour.
Box 1:
Box 2:
The issue
Some forms of abuse
In our series on Violence Against Women, we
focus here on a form of domestic violence between intimate partners - in which the
male partner tries to exert power and
control over his female partner, or expartner, by using various forms of abuse. The
abuse may be one or any combination of
verbal, emotional, psychological, physical,
sexual, economic or spiritual. It may be open
or implicit. Another name for this is Intimate
Partner Violence (IPV).






Physical injury or emotional,
mental or verbal abuse
Fear of imminent serious physical
injury
Sexual abuse
Spiritual abuse
Coercive or controlling behaviour
Other forms of abuse
Nature and extent
Domestic violence can happen between household members, family members or intimate partners. Since it happens
in the confines of the home, many people consider it a private matter and do not discuss it in the open. This is
particularly tricky to address where cultural norms and, in some countries, legal systems generally do not treat
behaviours between partners as criminal.
The graphic below depicts the usual pattern of abuse in domestic violence situations. First, the abuser engages in
behaviours that create relationship tension. Second, the tension explodes when the abuser commits some form of
abuse: physical, psychological, sexual, verbal or otherwise. Third, the abuser apologises and tries to make amends for
his bad behaviour. Fourth, he is forgiven and calm returns to the relationship, and the cycle starts all over again.
Figure 1: Pattern of abuse in Domestic violence
•No abuse
•Strong
communication
•Peaceful
atmosphere
•Breakdown of
communication
•Hostile behaviour
•Victim may placate
abuser
Calm
Tension
Makeup
Incident
•Forgiveness and
reconciliation
•Denial of abuse
•Feelings of remorse
•Physical violence
•Other forms of abuse
(psychological,
sexual, verbal)
Source: Adapted from Islamic Relief USA infographic- Cycles of Domestic Violence
The most common form of violence against women is that performed by a husband against his wife. Although
women can be violent in relationships with men, the overwhelming burden of intimate partner violence is borne by
women at the hands of men. Data for some of the countries where Islamic Relief operates show that, in general,
women are between four and ten times more likely to experience IPV as victims rather than perpetrators (Figure 2).
For this reason this policy focuses on the issue of violence against women and girls as they are the likely victims.
Key message 3: Although women can also be perpetrators, the most common form of domestic
violence is IPV against women.
Figure 2: Proportion of women who report experiencing lifetime IPV, as victims and perpetrators, 2005 -2013
in some of the countries that Islamic Relief operates
Mali
Central Africa Republic
Malawi
India
Philippines
Women perpetrators
Women victims
Haiti
0
10
20
30
40
Source: Chart drawn using data from UN Women (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015 – 2016: Transforming Economies, Realising Rights.
The facts also show that for far too many women all across the world, the place where they are most in danger from
violence is where they would ordinarily expect to find safety and comfort - in their own homes. The majority of
women affected by violence suffer abuse at the hands of an individual that is close to them, most commonly an
intimate partner such as a current or former partner or spouse. Globally, at least one woman in every four has
experienced violence from her intimate partner at some point in her lifeiii. Looking at a subset of countries where
Islamic Relief operates, the prevalence of lifetime physical and/or sexual IPV on women ranged between eight and
53 per cent in 2012 (Figure 3).
Figure 3: Prevelance of physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence (2012)
USA
UK
Turkey
Philippines
Nepal
Malawi
Kenya
Jordan
India
Haiti
Germany
Canada
Bangladesh
Australia
0
10
20
Life-time
30
40
50
60
Last 12 months
Source: Chart drawn using data from UN Women (2013). Violence against Women. Prevalence Data: Surveys by Country. Compiled by UN Women (as of
December 2012)
As high as the prevalence of physical and sexual abuse are, the corresponding figures for psychological abuse are
much higher. Figure 4 shows that in some countries where Islamic Relief is present, the proportion of women that
have experienced psychological domestic abuse ranges between 18 and 80 per cent. The two charts also
demonstrate that domestic violence is no respecter of race, culture, religion or wealth. It reaches every corner of the
globe and is widespread in countries from USA to India, Bangladesh to Kenya, and Australia to Haiti.
Figure 4: Proportion of women experiencing IP psychological violence in their lifetime
(States where Islamic Relief has a presence)
USA
UK
Turkey
Tunisia
Sweden
Palestine
Italy
Canada
Bangladesh
Australia
Albania
0
20
40
60
80
100
Source: Chart drawn using data from: UN Women (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015 – 2016: Transforming Economies, Realising Rights. 342pp
Key message 4: Domestic violence is widespread. It is not restricted to any region, country,
culture, race or religion.
Figure 5 presents regional estimates of IPV as conducted by the World Health Organisation (WHO)iv in 2013. It shows
that the global prevalence of physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence among women was 30 per cent. The
prevalence was highest in the WHO African, Eastern Mediterranean and Southeast Asia regions, where
approximately 37 per cent of women reported having experienced physical and/or sexual intimate partner violence
at some point in their lives. Respondents in the region of the Americas reported the next highest prevalence, with
approximately 30 per cent of women reporting lifetime exposure. Prevalence was lower in the high-income region
(23 per cent) and in the European and the Western Pacific Regions, where 25 per cent of women reported lifetime
IPV experience.
Source: World Health Organisation (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of intimate partner
violence and non-partner sexual violence. WHO. 57pp.
Impacts
Domestic violence has a severe impact on the survivors, their families and the society. The health and other
consequences of domestic violence on the individuals affected are serious. It puts women’s physical and mental
health at risk, limits their participation in society and causes great human suffering.
Key message 5: Domestic violence damages lives and is a serious public health and socioeconomic concern.
A WHO study iv documents the key findings on health outcomes of physical and sexual intimate partner violence to
include:
 Globally, as many as 38 per cent of all murders of women are reported as being committed by intimate
partners.
 Forty two per cent of women who have been physically and/or sexually abused by a partner have
experienced injuries as a result of that violence.
 Women who have experienced partner violence have higher rates of several important health problems and
risk behaviours. Compared with women who have not experienced partner violence, they:
o have 16 per cent greater odds of having a low birthweight baby;
o are more than twice as likely to have an induced abortion;
o are more than twice as likely to experience depression;
o are, in some regions, 1.5 times more likely to acquire HIV and 1.6 times more likely to have syphilis.
Domestic violence can result in a wide range of impacts on the health and wellbeing of women. These can include
non-fatal effects such as physical injuries, psychological effects and poor sexual and reproductive health. It can also
result in murder, suicide and death due to AIDS and maternal mortality. The table below shows the range of
potential health effects of domestic violence.
Table 1. Health consequences of intimate partner violence
Fatal outcomes
Murder
Suicide
AIDS-related mortality
Maternal mortality
Physical injuries and chronic
conditions
Fractures
Abdominal/thoracic injuries
Chronic pain syndromes
Fibromyalgia
Permanent disability
Gastrointestinal disorders
Irritable bowel syndrome
Lacerations and abrasions
Ocular damage
Sources: Adapted from Heise and Garcia Morenov; and Heise et. alvi.
Non-fatal outcomes
Sexual and reproductive
consequences
Gynaecological disorders
Pelvic Inflammatory disease
Sexually-transmitted
infections, including HIV
Unwanted pregnancy
Pregnancy complications
Miscarriage / low birth
weight
Sexual dysfunction
Unsafe abortion
Psychological and
behavioural outcomes
Depression and anxiety
Eating and sleep
disorders
Drug and alcohol abuse
Phobias and panel
disorder
Poor self-esteem
Post-traumatic stress
disorder
Psychosomatic disorders
Self-harm
Unsafe sexual behaviour
Often women experiencing domestic abuse feel that the violence perpetrated against them is somehow justified due
to their perceived inadequacies. Abusers can exploit and deepen this feeling amongst vulnerable women, and even
call upon cultural and religious norms or ideas of being a ”good wife” in order to justify their violent behaviour. This
can lead to Battered Wife Syndrome (see Box 3) where the wife becomes trapped in an abusive relationship.
Box 3: Battered Woman Syndrome
Battered Woman Syndrome (BWS) is a mental disorder that develops in victims of domestic violence as a result of
serious, long-term abuse. BWS is dangerous primarily because it leads to “learned helplessness” – or psychological
paralysis – where the victim becomes so depressed, defeated, and passive that she believes she is incapable of
leaving the abusive situation. Though it may seem like an irrational fear, it feels absolutely real to the victim. Feeling
fearful and weak, and sometimes even still holding onto the hope that her abuser will stop hurting her, the victim
remains with her abuser, continuing the cycle of domestic violence and strengthening her existing BWS.
Source: http://family.findlaw.com/domestic-violence/battered-women-s-syndrome.html
The experience of violence at home has a powerful and profound impact on the lives of children and their hopes for
the future. Between 133 and 275 million children worldwide are estimated to witness domestic violence annually
(see Table 2).vii The exposure of children to violence in their homes on a frequent basis, usually through fights
between parents can severely affect a child’s wellbeing, personal development and social interaction in childhood.viii
These effects can transfer into adulthood through a stronger inclination to commit suicide, abuse drugs and/or
alcohol, face unemployment, or by committing violence against their partners.
Table 2: Regional estimates of the number of children exposed to domestic violence.
Region
Global estimate
Developed countries
Commonwealth of Independent States
Northern Africa
Sub-Saharan Africa
Latin America & Caribbean
Eastern Asia
Southern Asia
Southeastern Asia
Western Asia
Oceania
Estimated number of children exposed to
domestic violence (range)
133 to 275 million
4.6 to 11.3 million
900,000 to 3.6 million
No Estimate
34.9 to 38.2 million
11.3 to 25.5 million
19.8 to 61.4 million
40.7 to 88.0 million
No Estimate
7.2 to 15.9 million
548,000 to 657,00
Source: Behind Closed Doors: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children (London: UNICEF and The Body Shop International Plc., 2006)
The absence of a legally established minimum age for marriage in some countries may expose children to partner
violence. In 2014 UNICEF estimated that more than 720 million women were married before age 18 and more than
250 million of them were married before their fifteenth birthday. Studies have established a link between early
marriage and domestic violence. Girls who marry early face a high risk of violence including forced sex (see Box 4).
They are more likely to believe that a man has the right to beat his wife.ix They are also more likely to be isolated and
lack the independent resources to speak out against IPV.x
Box: 4 Tahira’s story*
Tahira was born into a poor family in West Bengal, India. Her parents could not afford to send her to school and at
the age of 14, forced her into a marriage with Kasim, a man three times her age. Soon after the marriage, Kasim
began sexually torturing her. Tahira endured the pain and humility in silence for many years.
By the age of 19, she had given birth to five girls. When their eldest daughter began to mature, Kasim started abusing
her too. Both mother and daughter tried to resist but in revenge, he began spreading false rumours about them in
the community. Tahira tried to defend their reputation and told her family about the abuse. They did nothing to help
her, and the abuse continued.
One day, Tahira and her daughter fought back with the help of neighbours. They drove Kasim out of their home, and
have not seen him since.
Tahira and her eldest daughter now work as domestic houseworkers but do not earn enough to feed the family. They
live in extreme poverty and the girls cannot afford to go to school. Life is extremely difficult, but they are grateful
that Kasim is no longer in their lives.
*Names have been changed to protect identity.
Source: Islamic Relief Worldwide (2016). Not a Minor Issue- Policy Brief on Early and Forced Marriages. IRW.
The social and economic costs of intimate partner violence are enormous and have ripple effects throughout
society. Women may suffer isolation, inability to work, loss of wages, lack of participation in regular activities and
limited ability to care for themselves and their children. In addition to the human costs, research also shows that
violence has huge economic costs, including the direct costs to health, social, legal, police and other services.
In 2002, Health Canada estimated that the direct medical cost of all forms of violence against women was 1.1
billion Canadian dollars.xi In low-resource settings relatively few women may seek help from formal services but
because of the high prevalence of violence, the overall costs are substantial. In Uganda, for example, the cost of
domestic violence was estimated at 2.5 million United States dollars in 2007. The US Center for Disease Control
and Prevention (CDC) estimates that the costs of intimate partner violence in the United States alone exceeded
$8.3 billion in 2003, which included $6.2 billion for physical assault, $1.2 billion in the value of lost lives, $461
million for stalking and $460 million for sexual violence .xii
The World Bank estimated the loss to GDP using data from nine countries. The results indicated that costs are
substantial at between one and two per cent of GDP, which nearly equals government spending on primary
education in the countries studied.xiii
Risk factors
The simplistic view that substance abuse, unemployment or stress is the main cause of domestic violence is
unhelpful. Rather the root cause is when a complex interplay of psychological and social factors allows the
husband to exert power and control over his wife.
Key message 6: The perpetrator must bear full responsibility and a complex interplay of
psychological and social factors allow domestic violence to flourish.
The abuser should bear the full responsibility for his actions and we should also recognise the risk factors that can
cause vulnerable women to be victims of domestic violence. The risk factors found to be associated with intimate
partner violence occur within individuals, families, communities and wider society. Those identified in Figure 6
include behaviours, circumstances or elements that create an environment conducive to the commission of
domestic abuse. We can recognise them at four levels:

Individual (biological attributes and personal history of the perpetrator and survivor).

Family (mainly the relationship between the spouses involved).

Community (the context in which social relationships are embedded, e.g. peer groups, schools, work
places, neighbourhoods).

Society (broader factors that create tolerance or rejection of domestic abuse).
Figure 6: Risk factors associated with domestic violence
Community





Weak sanctions against DV
No shelters/ sanctuary
Poverty
Women’s participation is low
Use of violence to settle disputes




Marital conflict, family dysfunction
Gender injustice, economic stress
Large number of children
Friction over women’s empowerment
Society




Family
Men have sole decision making power
Social norms justify violence against
women
No laws against dDomestic vViolence
High crime rates and/ or armed conflict
Individual

A history of violence in the abuser’s or
victim’s family of origin



Male substance abuse
Male personality disorder
Young age forof either male or female
Source: Adapted from Heise and Garcia Moreno, 2002; and Jewkes, Sen and Garcia Moreno, 2002.
The list of risk factors above is not exhaustive but it is clear that there is a mix of structural, cultural and
behavioural elements at play. It is not necessary for all the factors to be present simultaneously although the
more factors present in a given situation, the higher the risk of domestic violence. Further, it will be difficult to
isolate a single factor or rank them in order of importance since the overall context determines the role that each
factor plays. In the final analysis the likelihood that domestic abuse will happen and/or whether it will be
prevalent within a particular situation will depend on the interaction of these factors within a broader political,
contextual, historical and cultural setting.
Whatever the outcome of the interaction of various factors, it is clear that a culture of tolerance of domestic
violence is the reason why this injustice thrives in many societies. Figure 7xiv presents results from a cross section
of countries where Islamic Relief operates. It shows the proportion of females and males who agree that a
husband is justified in beating his wife for at least one of five reasons. These are; burning the food, arguing with
him, going out without telling him, neglecting the children and refusing to have sex with him.
Figure 7: Attitudes towards domestic violence in some of the countries where Islamic Relief operates
Haiti
Bosnia
Albania
Turkey
Jordan
Iraq
Sri Lanka
Women and Girls
Pakistan
Men and Boys
India
Afghanistan
Philippines
Indonesia
Niger
Tunisia
Chad
CAR
South Sudan
Somalia
Malawi
Kenya
Ethiopia
0.0
20.0
40.0
60.0
80.0
100.0
Proportion that agree that a husband is justified in hitting his wife for at least one of five specified reasons (2009 - 2014 latest available)
Levels of acceptance among females ranged from 4.8 per cent in Bosnia-Herzegovina (2011-12) to 90.2 per cent in
Afghanistan (2010-11). Levels of acceptance among males ranged from 6 per cent in Bosnia (2011-12) to 84.8 per
cent in Central African Republic (2010). Although we may assume that domestic violence is more widely justified
by males than by their females counterparts, in most countries levels of reported acceptance are actually higher
among females. xiv
Islamic perspectives
When perpetrators distort religious teachings to justify domestic violence, religion becomes a tool by which
abusers assume and maintain power and control over their partners. This is a common technique used by
domestic violence perpetrators from most faiths. As previous sections of this briefing paper have shown,
domestic violence occurs everywhere including in many Muslim communities. Some perpetrators may cite Islam
as one of their justifications. The Muslim Wheel of Domestic Violence, as adapted from the Duluth wheel by
Alkhateeb (see Figure 8), lists some of the tactics that abusers employ. The wheel captures the lived experience of
a group of Muslim women living in the USA.
Figure 8: The Muslim Power and Control Wheel of Domestic Violence
xv
Source: Adapted from the Duluth wheel by Sharifa Al-Khateeb. Peaceful Families. Available at
http://www.peacefulfamilies.org/dvwheel.html
The above wheel lists the various ways in which some Muslim perpetrators cite Islam to justify various forms of
abuse with a view to gaining power and control over their wives. These include, but are not limited to:
 Using male privilege:
o
He asserts that the Qur’an mandates a husband’s dominance and requires his wife to be obedient
and submissive.
o He condemns her opinions, aspirations and plans as un-Islamic.
o He sees verbally and physically abusing the children as his God-given ”right”.
o He encourages his wife to fear him, citing the bogus hadith about women bowing to men.
 Using their children:
o He threatens to take her to an Islamic court to gain sole custody of the children or to send them
away or marry them off young.
o He blames her for the children’s trauma symptoms and uses that as an excuse for further abuse.
o He encourages the children to disrespect and insult their mother.
 Minimising, denying and blaming:
o He directs the children to lie about and trivialise the abuse.
o He denies the abuse by calling it “discipline” and saying the wife caused it.
o
He tells the wife that if she exposes the abuse, she will be violating her Islamic responsibility to
protect his privacy and that God will condemn her for it.
 Using coercion and threats:
o He threatens to marry another wife because Islam allows him to marry up to four wives.
o He threatens “God-ordained” wife-beating citing the so-called chastisement verse (Qur’an 4:34).
o He threatens to leave her without money.
o He threatens to spread the rumours that she is an adulteress.
 Using intimidation:
o He grossly dirties the kitchen several times a day and expects her to clean up.
o He gets the local Imam to tell her that the abuse is her fault.
o He hides/destroys her important documents and valuables.
o He collects and displays dangerous weapons.
 Using emotional abuse:
o He belittles her and calls her unfit to be a Muslim wife or mother.
o He taunts her for not having enough knowledge of Islam.
o He tells her that she must be quiet, docile and obedient to uphold the family honour.
 Using isolation:
o He says that as her “qawwamun” (generally understood to mean “guardian” or “caretaker”, but
sometimes misinterpreted as “manager”), he has the God-given right to control her every
movement, who she sees and talks to, and what she reads.
o He excludes her from major decisions.
o He makes her seek his permission to use the phone, go for grocery shopping and visit her parents.
 Using economic abuse:
o He refuses to allow her to get an education or training.
o He refuses to let her get a job.
o If she is in a job, he asks her to resign.
o
If she earns money, he makes her give it to him.
Key message 7: There is no excuse for domestic violence. Perpetrators should never use Islam to
justify their actions.
The above controlling and abusive behaviours ostensibly justified in the name of Islam have no basis in the
religion. A careful study of the Qur’an and hadith makes it very clear that while it is possible to misuse texts to
justify domestic abuse, the texts do not in fact serve to justify abuse. Islamic teachings in the key areas discussed
in this section are clear.
Institution of marriage
Marriage is a very important institution in Islam. The religion clearly spells out how husband and wife should
relate well to one another, by creating both rights and obligations for the couple. It insists that the yardstick in a
marital relationship is living together in equitable terms or separating on equitable terms without harming each
other (Qur’an 2: 229).
General abuse of wives
Islam prohibits all kinds of abuse and exploitation. The Prophet (SAW) said: “You should not harm anybody, nor
should you be harmed.” He also said: “You are not a true believer until you love for your brother (Muslim) what
you love for yourself.” Islam not only condemns bad treatment of wives by their husbands but it goes further to
require the husband to be loving and compassionate to his wife, to the extent that the Prophet (SAW) says: ”the
best among you in the sight of Allah is the best to his family.” Allah (SWT) says: ”...and live with them [your wives]
honourably. If you dislike them it may be that you dislike a thing and Allah brings through it a great deal of good.”
(Qur’an 4:19).
A wife’s control of her wealth
In Islam, a wife has the right to own and control property and income independent of her husband. A woman
does not have her personality subsumed under that of the husband on getting married. She retains her
personality and identity and owns privately and exclusively whatever she acquired before or after the marriage.
The holy Qur’an says: ”for men there is reward for what they have earned; (likewise) for women there is reward
for what they have earned” (4:32). Financial provision for the basic needs of the family rests primarily on the
husband’s shoulders.
Overloading wives with domestic chores
It is common practice in many cultures to put all the burden of domestic work on the wife. The wife washes,
cleans, cooks and takes care of the children even if she still has a regular job outside the home. Yet this goes
unappreciated. In fact, surveys conducted by the United Nations show that men and women in many countries
believe that a husband is justified to beat his wife if the food is burnt! In Islam, both the husband and the wife
have rights and duties. Most Islamic scholars agree that domestic chores are not part of the duties or obligations
of a wife in an Islamic marriage. It is highly recommended in line with the practice of the Prophet (SAW) that
husbands should assist their wives with domestic work.
Restricting the movement of wives
Islam does not allow free and unrestricted intermingling between men and women. Women are, however, free to
go out of their houses and pursue any legitimate business as long as they observe the code of modesty. Islam
allows a man or woman to earn a living by any legitimate means so long as it does not compromise their honour
and moral integrity.
Excluding the wife from key decisions
Some husbands do not generally consult their wives on matters that may concern them or their children. Similar
practice applies at the community level. Women are rarely involved in matters that concern the community, nor
are they nominated to represent the community. Mutual consultation (Shura) is an important principle rooted in
Islamic teaching. The Qur’an encourages Muslims to decide their affairs in consultation with those who will be
affected by that decision. Some husbands are of the distorted view that their role as “qawwamun” (maintainers)
entitles them to privileges. However, by this role the Qur’an merely assigns men to be financially responsible for
the family. The fact that husband and wife have different social roles to play in the family does not mean that
one is better than the other or has God-given power over the other. After all, many of the roles are not mutually
exclusive.
Wife beating
Some people have relied on a controversial interpretation of a single verse in the Qur’an (Chapter 4, verse 34) to
advance the argument that there is justification for domestic violence in Islam. In doing this, they rely on a literal
understanding of the Arabic word “daraba” which has multiple meanings. They ignore the context provided
within the Qur’an and the personal example of the Prophet (SAW).
The verse (Qur’an 4:34) explains the steps to be taken by a husband whose wife is guilty of disloyalty by
displaying ‘lewd conduct’. The first step he should take is to admonish her. If she persists, he should take the
second step and refuse to share her bed. All translations of the holy Qur’an and Islamic scholars agree on these
steps. It is the third step that is in contention. The English words traditionally used regarding what the husband
should do if she continues with the behaviour (daraba) are to beat/strike her, although some translators qualify
this by adding the word “lightly” in parentheses. In their guidance on the practical application of this verse, even
traditionalist Jurists are of the view that the physical act should be symbolic. They stipulate conditions such as
strike only with a folded handkerchief or miswak (chewing stick), and that it should not be in the face or leave any
marks. Therefore, they do not believe that this verse provides an Islamic justification for domestic abuse. They
draw an analogy with slavery and polyandry, which were widespread in pre-Islamic times. The Qur’an placed
limits on their practice and with the passage of time; both are disappearing in present day Muslim communities.
Further, some who accept the translation of “daraba” as “to beat” still do not agree that it provides justification
for domestic abuse. They see it, rather, as the opposite. They cite the historical context in which the Qur’an itself
was revealed. They argue that in early Islamic Arabian society husbands acted with impunity, domestic violence
was rampant and husbands did not need permission to abuse their wives. Thus, the revelation of a verse that
prohibits harsh sanctions as a first resort and limits the severity of sanctions will prevent abuse that may occur if
the steps were not specified or limited.
". . . As to those women on whose part you fear disloyalty and lewd-conduct, admonish them (first), (next), refuse
to share their beds, (and last) beat them (lightly)..." (Qur’an 4:34)
Many Islamic scholars have challenged the above interpretation of the verse. They hold the view that the term
“daraba” is mistranslated as “to beat”. A synthesis of their analysis will reveal that they base their argument on
two grounds. First, they cite the context within the Qur’an itself where it is clear in many verses dealing with
marriage that both partners should treat each other with respect, justice and mercy. For example, "Among His
signs is that He created for you spouses from among yourselves, in order to have tranquillity and contentment
with each other. He places in your heart love and care towards your spouses. In this, there are signs for people
who think." (Qur’an 30:21).
Second, they point to the example of the Prophet (SAW) who has shown his aversion to wife beating in word and
deed. For example, he said, “Never beat God’s handmaidens (female believers)”. In another instance, referring to
men who use violence at home, the Prophet said, “Could any of you beat his wife as he would a slave, and then
lie with her in the evening?” Also, the Prophet was never known to hit a woman or child. Aisha said, “The Prophet
never beat any of his wives or servants; in fact, he did not strike anything with his hand except if he were to
struggle in the cause of God.” This group suggest that the appropriate translation of “daraba” in the context of
verse 4:34 is “to separate” from wives who persist in disloyalty and “lewd conduct”.
To conclude, we can say that both interpretations debunk the view that verse 4:34, the so-called chastisement
verse, justifies domestic violence. There is no excuse for domestic violence in Islam.
Male privilege
When the prophet (SAW) introduced Islam in the seventh century, in a highly misogynist setting, it was a big step
forward for women. Islamic law banned the previously common practice of female infanticide, and it limited
polygamy to four wives, asking the husband to treat them equally. Muslim women routinely owned property,
with rights protected by law. Islam does not promote a culture of bias against women and does not create the
enabling conditions for domestic violence.
Holistic prevention and support
Domestic violence is a complex issue. Effective approaches to prevent and respond to it generally require working
at different levels - individual, family, community and society (see section on risk factors). It also demands a
multi-sectoral approach, primarily working in - as well as between - the health, education, socio-economic,
religious, legal and research dimensions. The figure below demonstrates the framework we will employ to
explore a holistic, integrated sustainable approach to domestic violence.
Key message 8: To end domestic violence, we need a holistic and integrated approach, with
actions across multiple sectors and interventions aimed at individuals, families, communities and
the society.
Figure 9: A holistic and integrated approach to ending domestic violence
Adapted by I. S. Pertek and M. Aminu-Kano from IRW’s Integrated Sustainable Development Model
This section presents workable approaches that show promise in the prevention and response to domestic violence.
We highlight initiatives that aim to bring about changes in the behaviour of individuals, those that address the family
as a unit, those aimed at mobilising communities and others aimed at societal change. For convenience, we review
the initiatives at each level by sector (mainly health, education, socio-economic and legal). However, we promote a
holistic approach across sectors because this is necessary for an integrated service response to survivors as well as
for effectively tackling domestic violence in society. The actors involved in public health programmes, educational
institutions, social services, economic development, law enforcement, research and faith institutions need to
collaborate closely for an effective response.
When correctly applied, Islamic teaching is a building block, not a roadblock, in the construction of viable structures
to tackle abuse. The crisis of domestic violence affects people physically, psychologically and spiritually. We must
address each of these dimensions for both survivors and their abusers. We tend to disregard certain needs and
issues when we approach the issue from either a secular or a religious perspective alone. This reflects a serious lack
of understanding of the nature of domestic violence and its impact on people’s lives. Thus, the importance of
developing a shared understanding and cooperation between secular and religious organisations in addressing
domestic violence cannot be emphasised enough.
Faith-based organisations and religious leaders have unique strengths when it comes to the issue of domestic
violence. They can use their networks to reach the grassroots and mobilise local faith communities to respond. They
can also deploy the teachings of their faith to motivate people to change. In addition, they can provide spiritual and
psychosocial support to women experiencing abuse and support to the family.
Woven through case studies, we will cite examples of Muslim organisations providing services and support to
individuals, families, communities and societies in tackling domestic violence in relevant parts of this section.
However, the greatest possible contribution that religion can make in the struggle to end domestic violence is to
address norms, attitudes and beliefs at all levels of society. Islamic Relief explored this potential in a joint study with
Christian Aid on Masculinity and Religion in Nigeria (see Box 5).
Box 5: Masculinity and religion in Nigeria
The study found that religion was a major factor in defining responsibilities of men - in the family, within religious
settings, in the community and in the nation. Despite overwhelming support for role distribution by gender, it was
mostly agreed that neither Christianity nor Islam explicitly specifies detailed roles for men and women beyond
biological roles based on the physical features of each gender. That these roles and responsibilities were apportioned
by culture, and not specifically by religion, was repeated across different groups of respondents.
Christian and Muslim respondents emphasised the point that both religions were against gender-based violence.
They regarded those who appealed to religion to justify violence against women as abusing the sacred texts or
traditions. It was also argued that it was possible for men and women in Christianity and Islam to share roles and
responsibilities. Furthermore, they indicated that as human beings, women also had inalienable rights.
In relation to the emergence of male religious leaders who are promoting positive ways of being male, the study
identified a number of such individuals in both the Christian and Muslim communities. These preachers were mostly
viewed with respect and as role models by other preachers and the community, provided they preached within the
tenets of religion. However, other male religious leaders who may want to promote gender equitable behaviour
among men in their respective religions hesitate due to the possibility of being considered “unorthodox” by other
religious leaders or followers. The study established that there was great potential for religion to act as a change
agent or catalyst and to propel men to embrace transformative masculinity as a lifestyle.
Source: Christian Aid and Islamic Relief (2015). Masculinity and Religion In Nigeria- Findings from Qualitative Research.
Changing behaviour of individuals
Many projects have tried to change behaviour of individuals by working especially with men and boys. Most involve
workshops in settings such as work places, trade unions and faith-based institutions. They promote discussions of
gender issues, power dynamics and gender stereotypes. As a result of some of these, men have expressed less
misogynistic attitudes, assumed more responsibility for household chores and demonstrated more solidarity with
women.
A number of projects have been carried out in schools in the context of broader reproductive health programmes.
They range from formal stand-alone classes to material integrated into the school curriculum. However, schoolbased programmes frequently suffer from poor content, lack of teacher training, resistance by teachers, cultural
barriers and parental objections to sex education.
Other projects have used radio and television to promote health and social change in so-called “edutainment”
programmes to address domestic violence.
NGOs around the world have used mass-media campaigns to raise awareness of domestic violence and encourage
women and men to be supportive of their friends and family members who experience violence. These campaigns
can be local, national or international, such as the 16 Days of Activism Against VAW (see image - IR poster). Some of
the campaign messages include raising awareness on legislation and encouraging women to exercise their rights (see
Box 6).
Box 6: GBV awareness workshop in Iraq
In 2009, Islamic Relief staff organised a workshop to raise awareness of violence against women.
Layla* is a married woman who has three boys. She was asked about her opinion of the workshop, and if she has
ever suffered from violence. She hesitated at first, then tears streamed down her face as she started her story. Her
husband used to beat and insult her in front of her children continuously. He was also abusive when they were alone.
Although they lived under one roof they were not living as partners. He eventually abandoned her and she had to
care for her children alone.
New problems developed for Layla when her eldest son took his father's role, insulting and hitting his mother. "He is
punishing me for the pain he lived in," she says, crying. "Your workshop awakened in me those pains. I'll try to do
something to change this situation. I have to."
Source: IRW Final Report to Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs, 2009.
Islamic micro-finance could reduce women’s vulnerability to domestic violence by increasing their access to
economic resources and by improving their social status in the household. However, the intervention must be
carefully designed so that it does not increase the risk of violence by challenging patriarchal norms and escalating
conflict in the household.
Supporting families
For women experiencing domestic violence, the police are, in most cases, the last resort. Family and friends are the
first. Often, the support of a woman’s immediate circle can make the difference between living in fear and getting
lifesaving help. If this informal network is able to provide helpful advice and support, women are more likely to
access a more formal network of services, such ascare and assistance provided through social or women’s centres,
clinics, or the justice sector.
Comment [MG1]: Where is the image?
When women do disclose violence, they speak first to immediate family members (e.g. grandmother, mother, sister,
brother) and friends. Yet the quality of the help they receive varies. The most frequent advice offered to women is to
stay with their abusive partner. In many instances, family and friends will offer to resolve the issue themselves by
speaking to the partner or seeking outside assistance.
The potential to use informal networks to respond to and prevent domestic violence is enormous. Too often women
are discouraged from seeking help because of fear and shame. When families and communities are supportive,
women are more likely to get the support they need to make decisions in their own interest and the general
tolerance for domestic violence diminishes.
Box 7: Family ‘edutainment’ in Afghanistan
The Afghanistan Family Guidance Association reported using a multi-pronged strategy to address family violence. A
42-episode radio drama series entitled ”Happy Family” was broadcast. As a follow-up to this series, senior leaders
from the community were requested to select ten families that fit the criteria of a happy, violence-free family, and
certificates were issued. In parallel, an initiative through the Ministry of Haj used books on family values, nonviolence and respecting women from an Islamic perspective as awareness-raising tools among religious leaders.
http://www.afga.org.af/
Source: Breakthrough, UNFPA & World Vision (2015). A Mapping of Faith-Based Responses to Violence Against Women and Girls in the Asia-Pacific Region
Mobilising communities
Many organisations have launched programmes to promote community-wide changes in attitudes and practices
related to gender norms and domestic violence. For example, the Stepping Stones programme in Gambia was a
community-training package focused on HIV prevention, gender and reproductive health. The Medical Research
Council UK conducted an external evaluation of the programme and found that it improved attitudes and behaviours
related to violence against women. Specifically, the programme reduced the social acceptability of wife beating at
the community level and appeared to produce a corresponding reduction in that behaviour.
The Peaceful Families Project (PFP) seeks to use Islam as a means to encourage leaders within Muslim communities
in the USA to recognise the reality of domestic violence and to be a catalyst for change from within. One of the ways
it does this is through community development and education, which includes a component on the training of imams
(see Box 8).
Box 8: Community development and education, USA
One of the primary areas in which PFP works is in educating local communities and offering training to community
leaders in order to equip them with the knowledge and skills to respond to cases of domestic violence. Previous
workshops and training events held by the organisation have demonstrated that community members who have a
solid understanding of familial conflict and abuse are much more effective leaders since they are able to engage with
and relate to issues faced by the community. These leaders are then able to become visible advocates and promote
change, as well as going on to educate others and engage the community effectively on issues they face.
IMAMS’ TRAINING: Imams are often on the frontline and will be the first port of call for women experiencing abuse
or violence from a male relation. PFP arranges one to two-day workshops for imams extensively discussing the
prevalence, dynamics and impact of domestic violence and best practices on how to respond. The sessions are
delivered by a team that includes an imam and a practitioner as a means to combine a practical and theological
approach that is in touch with the reality faced on the ground. The role of an imam in both intervention and
prevention is emphasised and participants have the opportunity to debate and discuss theological and practical
issues that may emerge from such discussions. Participants value the opportunity to discuss these issues in a safe
space as well as how this can be applied in practice and leave feeling more confident in their ability to intervene
effectively.
Source: Peaceful Families Project: http://www.peacefulfamilies.org
An example of a multi-sectoral initiative to reduce domestic violence throughout the community was a project run by
Association Najdeh, an NGO in Lebanon, which operated 26 service centres for Palestinian refugees that offer
vocational training, literacy, preschools, and income generation programmes. They launched a domestic violence
initiative using action research, staff training, community awareness-raising, and four counselling centres.
Community-based baseline and follow- up surveys found that some attitudes and beliefs improved over the course
of the initiative. These include attitudes about whether women have a right to decide whom to marry, whether
women have the right to accept work outside the home, and whether women could turn to the organisation for help
with domestic violence. Another exemplary initiative is Awaaz-e-Niswan which was started by survivors of domestic
violence (see Box 9).
Box 9: Awaaz-e-Niswan, India
A collective of domestic violence survivors started this organisation in 1985. Their work includes counselling and
education programmes, which aim to provide girls with the skills and knowledge to become self-reliant. They provide
training on a range of gender issues, including violence against women and Muslim Personal Law. They also conduct
awareness and advocacy campaigns on issues such as domestic violence to promote the rights of the marginalised,
especially women.
Website: Awaaz-e-Niswan website
Broad societal initiatives
By the end of 2015, 46 countries had no or limited legal protection against domestic violence. In some countries, the
penal code does not criminalise certain kinds of physical or sexual violence against women. They consider sexual
violence to be a private offence against “family honour” rather than a criminal offence against the personal integrity
of a woman. This may mean:

Allowing perpetrators of rape to evade criminal responsibility by agreeing to marry their victim.


Involving criminal procedures that make conviction unlikely.
Sometimes punishing victims of sexual violence by prosecuting them for adultery or abortion.
Even when strong legislation exists, law enforcement institutions often fail to enforce the law and/or inflict
additional trauma on survivors of violence through bias and mistreatment. Worse still, in many societies the
dominant culture tolerates domestic violence.
The legal route to tackling domestic violence has several limitations. Even strong laws do not often lead to successful
prosecutions or some survivors may just want the abuse to end without breaking up the family. Nevertheless, strong
laws and their implementation are important tools in the fight against domestic abuse, if nothing else because they
send a clear signal that the society has zero tolerance for such violence. Therefore, a plethora of civil society
organisations are engaged in advocacy for legislative change, institutional reform of law enforcement and training of
personnel in the police and judiciary (see Box 10).
Box 10: Masjid Council supporting women affected by violence in Bangladesh
The Masjid Council for Community Advancement in Bangladesh (MACCA) works within the purviews of Islam, but
reaches out to communities of all faiths. MACCA has a legal support department as well as a women’s department
that deals specifically with cases of violence. On a voluntary basis, lawyers associated with MACCA provide support
to women who approach them for help. MACCA combines this practical grassroots work with high-level advocacy
initiatives, by hosting the Council for Interfaith Harmony*, which seeks to bring together leaders from all faiths on a
common platform to address social justice issues.
With guidance from its widely respected founder, the Secretary General, Moulana Abul Kalam Azad, the Council
coordinates advocacy platforms for diverse faith leaders at national level, to address issues such as HIV prevention
and violence against women and girls, in addition to providing direct support to women affected by violence.
*www.cihbd.org
http://masjidcouncil.org/
Conclusion
Domestic violence is a tough and complex issue but we must always remember that the survivor and those
experiencing it should be at the forefront and centre of all considerations. Therefore, we must ensure that all
programmes prioritise their safety and wellbeing. In addition to taking an integrated, multi-sectoral approach at
different levels of society, we should work closely in partnership with Governments, CSOs, FBOs and Research
Centres.
Faith leaders and faith based organisations can make a unique contribution but their involvement presents both
opportunities and challenges. They can provide services and other support that secular agencies are unable to
provide as well as motivate faith adherents to change attitudes and behaviour. However, they also need to discuss
the tough questions about the misuse of religious texts to justify domestic violence and provide counter-narratives.
Available empirical evidence for faith involvement in domestic violence and in other GBV prevention and response
shows that very little of what is done is being documented and even less of it evaluated. The scarcity of rigorous
evidence about faith-based programmes that work makes it difficult for policy makers and programme managers to
take informed decisions. Researchers and practitioners need to collaborate on a more rigorous evaluation of
prevention and response measures.
Recommendations
Key message 9: Action and collaboration is required from governments, civil society
organisations, donors, religious leaders and research centres.
We make the following recommendations to specific actors:
Governments
1. Enact a law on domestic violence or strengthen implementation/enforcement in countries where legislation
exists.
2. Make adequate financial, technical and human resources investment in strengthening law enforcement.
3. Develop national plans for a comprehensive integrated approach to domestic violence.
4. Establish a mechanism for networking at local and national levels.
5. Work with faith leaders, recognising their influence in motivating attitudinal and behavioural change.
6. Support civil society groups (in particular faith and other groups) with initiatives aimed at countering
domestic violence.
7. In partnership with civil society, religious institutions and inter-governmental organisations, train religious
leaders, equipping them with knowledge and skills on how to respond to cases of domestic abuse.
Civil society organisations
8. In partnership with governments and religious institutions, provide families with support and access to
information to help them to recognise and react constructively to signs of domestic abuse.
9. Engage faith leaders to take action on domestic violence and support them to increase their capacity to
address the issue.
10. Promote and support the development of tool kits for training faith leaders and community leaders in
prevention and response to domestic violence.
11. Advocate for the enactment and strengthening of relevant policies and laws and raise awareness on them.
12. Provide information and other appropriate support to enable survivors to access health, educational, socioeconomic, legal and other services.
13. Initiate programmes for the empowerment of survivors of domestic abuse.
Donors
14. Encourage and promote collaboration between secular and faith-based organisations for learning exchange
and complementarity.
15. Support the development and implementation of faith-based approaches to tackling domestic violence.
16. Facilitate increased collaboration and networking at local, national, regional and global levels.
17. Recognise faith leaders as key stakeholders.
Religious leaders
Comment [ASQ2]: 1.“Critical organs of
the state, such as the police and judiciary,
must ne sensitized to gender concerns.
Funds must be provided to the government
to develop a long term program which
trains police, prosecutors, doctors and
forensic scientists, and judges to eliminate
gender bias in handling cases of gender
based violence.”
2. The nexus between gender and health
must be highlighted through effective
service delivery. There is need for training
health professionals to address gender
based violence in clinical settings
3. A wide range of media, including
electronic, print, social media and popular
theatre must be employed appropriately to
reach various audiences and build an
indigenous perspective and prescriptions
for addressing gender based violence
18. Support and promote gender principles that oppose domestic violence.
19. Denounce domestic abuse and develop a strategy to counter the narratives that underscore domestic
violence.
20. Establish a network/coalition of religious leaders and actors whose main objective will be to prevent and
counter domestic violence.
Research centres
21. Prioritise the collection of evidence of what works and what doesn’t.
22. Critically investigate how existing policies and strategies help or hinder faith inclusion.
Islamic Relief’s commitments
Key message 10: Islamic Relief is strongly committed to tackling all forms of gender-based
violence, including domestic violence.
In our Gender Justice Policy (2015), Islamic Relief made the following commitments
Tackling gender-based violence
We recognise that gender-based violence (GBV) impedes opportunities for human development and violates the
rights to protection and security enshrined in Islam. We also recognise that GBV is mainly, but not only, directed
against females, and that GBV includes harmful traditional practices, sexual violence and human trafficking.
Our programmes will take full account of GBV in contexts where we identify it as a risk. We will work with others
towards the elimination of all forms of violence against women, girls, men and boys, while recognising and
addressing the underlying socio-economic root causes of GBV.
We will provide physical, emotional and financial security to the survivors. We will also work with boys and men
through innovative Islamic faith-inspired programmes for the transformation of harmful cultural norms of
masculinity, high-risk behaviours and violent practices.
Integrating a component of women’s rights from a faith-literate perspective
We believe that faith plays a positive role in the process of human development as a constructive motivation for
personal and social change, especially where the rights and status of women and girls are grossly violated.
We aim to integrate a component of women’s rights from a faith-literate perspective into our empowerment and
capacity-building programmes.
We shall facilitate the process of “empowerment from within” to increase self-esteem for women and men using
our faith perspective.
Engaging religious leaders in our programmes
We recognise that, from an Islamic faith perspective, IR is well positioned to challenge some of the most undignified
cultural forms of gender inequities. We aim to engage religious leaders in our programmes, leveraging their status to
help dismantle myths and religious/cultural misinterpretations that support the oppression of women, girls, men and
boys, with particular focus on issues including reproductive health, inheritance rights, economic rights, access to
health care, early/forced marriage, domestic violence. Also, building upon IR’s experience in inter-faith collaboration,
we will work with leaders from other faiths in our programmes to ensure the most effective aid delivery to all faith
groups.
Gender-based violence (GBV) campaign
From the local to the global, Islamic Relief will seek to actualise its commitments to gender justice from Islamic
perspectives through an advocacy campaign seeking to eradicate gender-based violence (GBV) in all its forms. This
will include domestic violence, early and forced marriages, and FGM/C. It will counter harmful or inadequate
legislation as well as promote awareness-raising activities. This will be reinforced through our work on child
protection.
References
i
Islamic Relief Worldwide (2015). Gender Justice Policy.
ii
Annan, K. Remarks on International Women’s Day. In: Interagency videoconference for a World Free of Violence against
Women, New York, 8 March 1999. Available at: http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/1999/19990308.sgsm6919.html
iii
UN Women (2015). Progress of the World’s Women 2015 – 2016: Transforming Economies, Realising Rights. 342pp.
iv
World Health Organisation (2013). Global and regional estimates of violence against women: prevalence and health effects of
intimate partner violence and non-partner sexual violence. WHO. 57pp.
v
Heise, Lori, and Claudia Garcia-Moreno. 2002. Violence by Intimate Partners. In: Krug, Etienne et al., Eds. World Report on
Violence and Health. World Health Organization: Geneva. Pages 89-121.
vi
Heise, Lori, Mary Ellsberg, and Megan Gottemoeller. 1999. Ending Violence Against Women, Population Reports, Volume XXVII,
Number 4, Series L, Number 11. Available at: http://www.infoforhealth.org/pr/l11/violence.pdf
vii
Estimate based on United Nations Population Division data for global population under 18 years for 2000 and domestic
violence studies from 1987 to 2005. Behind Closed Doors: The Impact of Domestic Violence on Children (London: UNICEF and The
Body Shop International Plc., 2006).
viii
L. A. McClosky, A. J. Figueredo and M. P. Koss, The effect of systemic family violence on children’s mental health, Child
Development, vol. 66: (1995), pp. 239-1261 cited in Krug, op. cit. at note 1, p. 103; and S. R. Dube et al., Exposure to abuse,
neglect, and household dysfunction among adults who witnessed intimate partner violence as children: implications for health
and social services Violence and Victims, vol. 17, No. 1 (2002), pp. 3-17.
ix
International Center for Research on Women, 2006, Child Marriage and Domestic Violence,
[http://www.icrw.org/files/images/Child-Marriage-Fact-Sheet-Domestic-Violence.pdf], (accessed 26 May 2015).
x
Care International, Child marriage in emergencies – The fatal confusion between protecting girls and sexual violence, p.14,
http://insights.careinternational.org.uk/media/k2/attachments/CARE_Child-marriage-in-emergencies_2015.pdf
xi
Garcia Moreno, C. & Watts, C. (2011). Violence Against Women: An Urgent Public Health Priority. Bulletin of the World Health
Organisation. http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/89/1/10-085217/en/#R11
xii
Max W, Rice DP, Finkelstein E, Bardwell RA, Leadbetter S. The economic toll of intimate partner violence against women in the
United States. Violence Vict. 2004;19(3):259–72.
xiii
Duvvury, N; Callan, A; Carney, P and Raghavendra, S. (2013). Intimate Partner Violence: Economic Costs and Implications for
Growth and Development. Gender Equality & Development. Women’s Voice, Agency & Participation Research Series 2013 No.3.
The World Bank.
xiv
Figure drawn from data in World’s Women 2015 Chapter 6_a Statistical Annex, available at
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/gender/worldswomen.html. UN Women.
xv
Sharifa Al-Khateeb. Available from http://www.peacefulfamilies.org/dvwheel.html