Marine Protected Areas in the Philippines - FTP-UNU

Marine Protected
Areas in the
Philippines
How much spillover do we
need?
PORFIRIO M. ALIÑO, PhD
The Marine Science Institute
University of the Philippines
Diliman 1101 Quezon City
PHILIPPINES
How can we reconcile sustainable fisheries
utilization with marine reserves?
In the previous discussions, we see the Philippines
and its Southeast Asian countries experiencing
similar declines in their fishery resources. Jackson
et al.(2001) has implicated that this condition of
overexploitation of the worlds fishery resources have
been observed many times in the past even with
traditional communities. Perhaps the intuitive logic
has urged many countries to take steps to curb this
downward trend through the establishment of marine
protected areas (MPAs) and no-take zones (Fig. 1)
(Roberts et al. 2002). In the Philippines, a pleasant
turn of events has occurred where a burgeoning
increase in the number of MPAs has been observed
(Fig. 2) (Aliño et al. 2000). Establishing more marine
reserves could seem initially interesting considering
the high dependence of its fishing population.
Historically varying objectives have been provided
as the underlying basis for the establishment of a
national integrated protected areas system (NIPAS)
(Aliño and Uychiaoco 1999). Under the NIPAS act
Figure 1. Global distribution of marine protected areas (MPAs). (Source: EMECS 2001)
one of the important criteria was
“representativeness” perhaps akin to the concept for
establishing a global representative system of MPAs
under the International Union for Conservation of
Nature - Commission on National Priority Protected
Areas (IUCN-CNPPA, Kelleher et al. 1995). On the
otherhand, in the Philippines most of the MPAs have
been established for the purpose of sustaining
fisheries utilization in the adjacent fishing areas (e.g.
more like the Marine Fishery Reserves as stipulated
in Republic Act (RA) 8550, 1998; also see Pajaro et
al. 1999). Arceo et al. 2001 summarizes the various
criteria for establishment and the importance of
determining the threats and root concerns of a
potential priority MPA (Table 1).
Figure 2. Over 400 MPAs have been reported in the Philippines. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)
The works of the tandem of Alcala (1988, 2001)
and co-workers, Russ and Alcala (1996), have been
one of the more acclaimed papers to demonstrate
the effectiveness of having marine reserves in the
recovery of depleted stocks (i.e. within the protected
areas). In the Philippines, a recent initiative to look
at an integrated framework of national priority
conservation areas has been undertaken using a series
Table 1. Example of evaluation criteria of significance values of MPA and the threat levels in each area to derive
important relative concerns in among various MPAs (Source: ARCBC 2001)
3
2
2
3
1
3
2
2
5
3
5
2
4
3
3
3
2
3
1
3
4
3
3
5
4
3
2
4
4
3
3
2
4
3
3
4
3
5
3
2
3
1
2
1
3
3
2
6
5
4
5
5
5
4
4
3
5
7
4
4
4
1
3
1
4
3
3
8
4
3
4
2
3
1
4
2
3
9
4
3
4
1
3
1
3
3
2
10
3
3
3
1
2
1
3
3
2
11
5
3
4
5
4
5
2
4
4
12
4
3
4
1
4
5
4
3
3
13
4
4
4
1
3
1
3
2
3
14
5
4
4
1
4
1
3
2
3
15
4
3
4
1
3
1
3
3
3
16
4
3
3
1
4
3
2
4
2
17
4
4
4
1
2
1
3
1
3
18
3
3
3
2
3
2
3
4
2
67
3 .7 2
4
33
1 .8 3
1
SUM
AVERA
M ODE
70
3 .8 9
4
58
3 .2 2
3
59
3 .2 8
3
40
2 .2 2
1
57
3 .1 7
3
52
2 .8 9
3
49
2 .7 2
2
MO DE
4
2
AVERAGE
1
S UM
En da nge re d sp ec ies
O V ERA LL
Us e co nflic ts
Prac tic ality
Int'l/Na tio na l
Sc ientific
So cial
Ec olog ic al
Na tu ra lne ss
MP As IN V IETNAM
Biog eo grap hic
S I G N I F IC A N C E O F T H E M P A
22
30
28
29
20
40
27
26
24
21
36
31
25
27
25
26
23
25
2 .4 4
3 .3 3
3 .1 1
3 .2 2
2 .2 2
4 .4 4
3 .0 0
2 .8 9
2 .6 7
2 .3 3
4 .0 0
3 .4 4
2 .7 8
3 .0 0
2 .7 8
2 .8 9
2 .5 6
2 .7 8
2
3
3
3
3
5
4
4
3
3
4
4
4
4
3
4
4
3
Table 1. (continuation)
4
4
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
2
3
1
0
3
4
2
2
2
1
1
1
3
3
3
2
1
0
2
3
2
3
3
3
2
2
2
4
2
4
2
2
2
3
3
1
3
3
1
3
2
5
0
4
3
1
2
2
2
1
2
2
1
1
1
6
3
2
1
1
1
1
2
1
2
1
1
2
3
7
0
2
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
8
2
4
2
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
2
2
1
9
0
3
1
0
4
4
2
1
1
1
3
1
4
10
0
3
3
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
11
2
4
3
2
2
3
4
3
2
3
1
3
0
12
0
4
2
2
1
1
1
1
1
2
1
4
0
13
0
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
14
0
3
2
1
1
1
2
1
1
1
1
1
0
15
2
3
2
1
1
3
2
1
2
3
2
2
2
16
0
4
2
0
4
2
2
1
2
3
3
2
3
17
2
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
0
18
1
4
3
1
4
3
2
2
1
2
3
3
4
56
3 .1 1
4
36
2 .0 0
2
19
1 .0 6
1
33
1 .8 3
1
38
2 .1 1
1
33
1 .8 3
2
24
1 .3 3
1
28
1 .5 6
1
31
1 .7 2
1
27
1 .5 0
1
32
1 .7 8
1
26
1 .4 4
0
SUM
H IG H = 9 0
AV E RA G E
M OD E
of consultation workshops. This process utilizes a
map based computerized Geographic Information
System (GIS) with the aid of experts’ opinion in
identifying priority areas based on taxonomic and
habitat significance values overlays (Fig. 3 a and b).
Marine Corridor
Babuyan Corridor
M ODE
0
2
AV ERAGE
1
SUM
Man grove d eforestation
T ourism
Ag ricultural run -off
D omestic sew ag e
O V ER A L L
Oil p ollu tion
Indu strial po llution
S h ore con versio n
Sedimentation
Maricu ltu re
C oral harvest
D estru ctive fishing
Overexploitatio n
M PAs IN V IETNAM
LEV EL O F ENFO RCEM ENT
T HR E AT S T O T HE M P A
18
23
25
29
22
18
15
19
25
16
30
20
13
15
24
28
11
32
1 .5 0
1 .9 2
2 .0 8
2 .4 2
1 .8 3
1 .5 0
1 .2 5
1 .5 8
2 .0 8
1 .3 3
2 .5 0
1 .6 7
1 .0 8
1 .2 5
2 .0 0
2 .3 3
0 .9 2
2 .6 7
1
1
2
3
1
1
1
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
2
2
1
3
In addition, the number of priority areas in a
biogeographic zone (sensu Aliño and Gomez 1994)
was utilized to identify the allocation of the level of
representative areas for conservation (Fig. 4).
Oftentimes these areas are relatively large and even
Marine Integrated
N
MP01
N
W
E
W
S
E
MP02
MP03
S
MP04
MP05
MP06
Mindoro - Calavite
Tablas Triangle
MP07
MP08
Ticao Pass - San
Bernardino Strait - Samar
Sea Corridor
MP09
MP12
Pa
Str na
ait y G
Co ulf
rr - G
id
or ui m
ar
as
MP11
MP13
MP10
MP18 MP17
MP15
MP19
MP20
dor a Corri
Bohol Se ait
Str
Surigao
MP14
MP16
MP25
MP27
MP28
MP24
MP23
MP22
MP26
MP30
MP29
la
Ba
MP31
ba
c
tr a
S
MP21
C
it
MP34
r id
or
or
MP32
pia
Ta
MP35
o
rid
or
C
r
Sulu
ssage Sibutu Pa Corridor
ago
Archipel
na
nta
MP33
il
Ph
ipp
ine
Se
aC
orr
ido
MP36
r
Figure 3a. Marine corridors identified in NBPSW
(Source: Aliño et al. on-going program)
Figure 3b. Integrated map of important species and
habitats (Source: Aliño et al. on-going program)
Frequency Distribution of M PAs per Biogeogr aphic Zone (A = P hil. Sea , B =
W. Phil. Se as, C = Sulu Sea, D= Visa yas & E = Celebe s Sea).
Figure 4. Frequency distribution of MPAs per marine biogeographic region. (Source: Aliño et al. 2000)
identify interconnected priority areas that can
serve as marine corridors. These marine corridors
are considered to be strategic areas which
facilitate the continued exchange of materials and
connectivity of various marine biogeographic
regions (Aliño et al. 2001).
Unfortunately the performance and effectiveness
in many MPAs leaves much to be desired and
thus have led to what many call “paper parks”.
There seems to be a consistent indication that
around at least only 10-15% of these MPAs have
been effective despite the tenuous concern of
sustaining the effectiveness in the long term
(Kelleher et al. 1995; Aliño et al. 2001). What is
interesting in the work of Alcala and co-workers
is that these studies were one of the first to show
evidence to indicate that there was some spillover
of the accumulated biomass buildup in adjacent
(Figs. 5 to 7). Subsequently they suggested that
this spillover can redound to improved catch rates
in the adjacent fished areas. More and more
examples are starting to demonstrate indicative
spillover effects from protection (Roberts et al.
2002).
Thus in the Philippines, there is an explicit Figure 5. Biomass buildup of fish within the no-take areas.
provision in the new fisheries code to encourage (Source: Russ 1991)
Figure 6. Concomittant buildup of fish in the fished areas. (Source: Alcala 1988)
the establishment of a marine fishery
reserve in each coastal municipality. This
has resulted in the upsurge of many small
municipal reserves around the country.
Lachica-Aliño (1998) has also suggested
that in areas where commercial fishing has
been banned for around 5 years recovery
of some of the fishery stocks may be
possible (Fig. 8).
Russ and Alcala (1994) has shown that
sustaining the no-take zone and the
regulation of its adjacent areas is crucial
or else the fish stock are vulnerable to
decline rapidly (Figs. 9 and 10).
Figure 7. Diversity of fish in Apo, Sumilon and Balicasag. (Source:
Russ 1991)
As part of the priority research projects
under the Agriculture and Fisheries
Modernization Act, the project entitled:
Enhancing Sustainable Fisheries
Utilization through Marine Fishery
Reserves was funded through the Bureau
of Agriculture Research (BAR) under its
National Fisheries Network (Fig. 11). This
project seeks to investigate the
mechanisms for spillover at various scales:
1) short range (through adult movement)
Figure 8. Map of Ragay Gulf, Philippines subdivided into “highly fished” and “less fished” based on ordination
analysis suggest that areas where commercial fishing has been banned catch rate have increased. (Source: Lachica
1998)
and 2) medium to long distance range (adult migration
and larval dispersal mechanisms).
The understanding of the mechanisms in adult fish
movement utilizing tagging experiments are useful
in the design of marine protected areas on the small
Figure 9. Patterns of decline and recovery for the most
important family in the Sumilon fishery, the Fusiliers
(Caesionidae). (Source: Redrawn from Russ and Alcala
(1994) in Roberts and Hawkins 2000)
scale (i.e. determining boundaries and the habitat
attributes important to optimize biomass buildup on
site) (Figs 12a and b). This is crucial in designing
the optimum size of the no-take areas (Figs 13a to d).
Since fish stocks and recruitment processes are
thought to be open systems, understanding the genetic
Figure 10. Patterns of decline and recovery for large
predatory fishes at Sumilon, the snappers (Lutjanidae),
groupers (Serranidae) and emperors (Letrinidae).
(Source: Redrawn from Russ and Alcala (1994) in Roberts and Hawkins 2000)
P
long -range
medium -range
P
2003 & beyond
short -range
P
P
overexploitation
Figure 11. Conceptual framework diagram on the aquaculture and fisheries AFMA-MFR program. (Source: Aliño
et al. on-going program)
linkages of the stocks and their dispersal patterns
would be crucial in the design of a network of
protected areas.
Thus the interaction of passive larval dispersal and
active behavioral mechanisms of the adult and
juvenile fish are important in determining sites where
Island Ecosystem
the best entrainment and replenishment sites are to
be located. In addition, population genetic stock
delineation could help gauge how reproductive output
and realized stocks might be linked. The genetic
affinity relationships help provide an indication for
the linkage between the take and no-take area
boundaries between adjacent MPAs. In addition, the
Long Coast
6.25%
12.5%
M FR
25%
12.5%
50%
100%
50%
35%
25%
12.5%
M FR
70%
35%
12.5%
6.25%
Figure 12a. Proposed hypothetical spillover mechanism
within the short range scale of isolated islands. (Source:
Aliño et al. 2001)
Figure 12b. Proposed hypothetical spillover mechanism
in long coastline stretches in the context of short-range
spillover. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)
Consider in straight coastlines and
adjacent islands, leeward entrainment
Figure 13a. Spillover of islands and contiguous
coastlines with varying oceanographic features, small
to medium range context. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)
Figure 13b. Spillover of islands and contiguous
coastlines with varying oceanographic features, small
to medium range context. (Source: Aliño et al. 2001)
Island cluster network
in Honda Bay
Figure 13c. Hypothesized possible spillover mechanisms
in embayed areas in the medium range context. (Source:
Aliño et al. 2001)
Figure 13d. Hypothesized possible spillover mechanisms
in embayed areas in the medium range context. (Source:
Aliño et al. 2001)
linkages provide a framework which can help
connect the efforts of a federation of MPA fisher
managers towards having strategic framework for
fisheries resource management. The Philippines has
a federation called “PAMANA KA SA PILIPINAS”
(Pambansang Alyansa ng mga Maliliit na
Mangingisda na Nangangalaga ng Karagatan at
Sanktuaryo sa Pilipinas or National Alliance of Small
Fisherfolks and Sanctuaries in the Philippines)
wherein this acronym means heritage. Heritage is
quite appropriate since one of their main principles
is to foster stewardship of their marine ecosystem
heritage through a network of MPA and what they
can do as steward caretakers to pass on to the next
generations.
Aside from the biophysical regime of the MFR
resource management, of major concern is how to
match the biophysical management requirements with
the social and cultural dimensions in the management
of these areas. Due to the open access nature of the
commons, clarifying entitlements of ownership and
tenure (stewardship) to the MPA is crucial to its
sustainability (Fig. 15). This is also important because
the subsequent institutional arrangements which
unfold become complex in the take and no-take
The
TheMarine
Marine
Biogeographic
BiogeographicAreas
Areas
I. South China Sea
II. Sulu Sea
III. Visayas region
IV. North eastern Pacific Seaboard
V. South eastern Pacific Seaboard
VI. Celebes Sea
Luzon
IV
I
Visayas
PANATALAWAK
III
Political Archipelagic Divisions
Luzon
Visayas
Mindanao
PANGALDAUAN
PAG-ASA
V
II
Mindanao
VI
Source: Alino and Gomez 1994
ELNIDO
NANGALAO
NEINVES
CAMBARI
J.BEAZLEY
NORTHISLET
BUGSUK
SOUTHISLET
MANTANGULE
CANABUNGAN
Figure 14a. The marine biogeographic areas in the
Philippines. (Source: Aliño and Gomez 1994)
Figure 14b. Reef connectivity in the South China Sea
(Source: Juinio-Meñez et al. 2001)
areas.Appropriate matching and hierarchical
linkaging are often linked to the interaction between
“ownership access (or quasi-tenurial arrangement of
resources and management control” considerations.
In addition, the equity concerns in the allocation of
benefits accrued from the protection play a strategic
role in sustainable financing and other noneconomically linked benefits (e.g. empowerment,
emancipated self-esteem and sense of community and
heritage). As implied here, a more holistic perspective
of MPAs do not only refer to the no-take zones but
equally as critical are these areas outside the no-take
areas (Fig.16). Thus fisheries management and MPA
management are often viewed in the context of
integrated coastal management (ICM) (Fig. 17).
As mentioned in the earlier section, mariculture and
sea ranching has been also viewed as complementary
to MPA management and the context of coastal
zoning, co-management and ICM (Fig. 18). This
situation is exemplified in the experience of the sea
urchin fishery collapse and its eventual combination
of grow-out and reseeding in Bolinao, Pangasinan
(Juinio-Meñez et al. 2000). In the early 1990s the
Figure 15. Management aptitude of Fijan customary fishing rights areas (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)
Figure 16. The importance of MPAs as part of adaptive management as a “canary” to other stresses outside of
overfishing. (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)
sea urchin fishery in Bolinao was a multimillion peso
industry which collapsed (Fig. 19). In 1997 due to
completion of the hatchery production technology
adoption, the closure of the life cycle of the sea urchin
Tripnuestes gratilla was achieved and linked to the
fishery resources management interventions. Thus
reseeding and grow-out of hatchery produced sea
urchin juveniles were pursued together with fisher
cooperators. These mini-grow out areas (where
cooperators were made to understand that they have
to wait for the juveniles to spawn before they can
harvest them) serve like de-facto marine reproductive
reserves. In addition, the reseeding in MPA no-take
areas require that the MPA also be managed like a
sea ranching area, where spillover of biomass are
treated as the main interest of their stewardship
investments (Fig. 20). This experience may be one
possible indication where spillover can be enhanced.
Based on our initial simulation scenarios of spillover
of MPAs and the area needed for recovery of stocks
from overexploitation, it would take an unreasonably
large area to achieve recovery (Hilomen et al. 2002).
Figure 17. The participatory municipal coastal development plan of Bolinao, Pangasinan helps to provide integrated
framework through zoning and community stewardship. (Source: Junio-Meñez et al. 2001)
Figure 18. Combine sea ranching, grow-out and stewardship in fishery management (Source: Polunin et al. 1996)
Aside from the local and national concerns of MPAs,
transborder agreements have been initiated in some
parts of the Philippines. The bilateral transborder
agreement between Malaysia and the Philippines on
the Turtle Islands is a good example of how marine
protected areas offer value-added benefits to
maintaining goodwill among neighboring states aside
from sustaining fisheries and protecting endangered
species. In addition, the large marine ecosystem
(LME) approach referred to in our earlier discussions
is not only being pursued from an esoteric academic
standpoint but also efforts are under way in applying
this in an ecoregional vision-mission, to manage
LMEs as seen in the Sulu-Sulawesi Marine
Figure 19. Combine livelihood linked interventions to stewardship and the management framework. (Source: JuinioMeñez et al. 2000)
(2000-2003)
Aliño PM, Arceo HO, Palomar N, Uychiaoco A
(2000) Challenges and opportunities for
community participation for the management
of marine protected areas (MPAs) in the
Philippines. Abstracts, 9th Int Coral Reef
Symp, 23-27 Oct 2000, Bali, Indonesia, p 150
Aliño PM, Campos W, Hilomen VV, Lasola N
(2001) Marine fishery reserves: their
relevance in sustaining fisheries utilization.
Abstracts, Int Seminar on Responsible Capture
Fisheries in Coastal Waters of Asia: case
studies and researches for sustainable
development and management of tropical
fisheries, 24-27 Sept 2001, Miag-ao, Iloilo,
Philippines, p 43
Figure 20. The Marine Science Institute University of
the Philippines Diliman researches utilize MPAs as
important areas for reseeding sensu marine reproductive
reserves (Source: Arceo et al. 2001; Juinio-Meñez 2001)
Ecoregion, together with the participation of local
communities. In addition, disputed areas like the
Spratlys in the South China Sea may not only serve
as marine sanctuaries for fisheries replenishment but
may also serve as “PEACE parks” akin to those areas
established in regions of conflict (WCPA 2000).
Aliño PM, Gomez ED (1995) Philippine coral
reef conservation: its significance to the South
China Sea. In: Yamazato K, Ishijima S,
Sakihara S, Taira H, Shimabukuro Z, Teruya
F, Nishihira F (eds) Development and
Conservation on the Asia-Pacific Region, pp
222-29. Proceedings of the Regional
Conference of East-West Center Association:
Regional Development in the 21st Century,
Think Globally, Act Locally, Okinawa 1993.
Okinawa: The East-West Center Association
Okinawa Chapter.
Aliño PM, Uychiaoco AJ (1999) Clarifying the
objectives of marine protected areas In:
Uychiaoco AJ, Schoppe S, Aliño PM, Hermes
R (eds) Marine Protected Areas in the
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