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A REVISIT OF ASSISTED REPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY AND THE
HUMANIZATION PARADIGM
Suleiman Zubair1*, Abubakar Sadik Mustafa2, Ahmad Ali Badri3, Ali Reza Lari2,
Mohammadreza Daroonparvar4, Fauzi Hussin5
1
UTM-MIMOS CoE Faculty of Electrical Engineering,
2
Faculty of Computing,
3
4
Faculty of Science,
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering,
5
Faculty of Islamic Civilisation,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM, Johor Bahru, Johor
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) has been debated over a period of time between its
permissibility and otherwise. While it has been widely accepted in classical terms, religion
generally seeks to regulate its varied application according to their various guiding principles.
The fact that ART intrudes the domains of human life that undermines human dignity has
made countries to establish regulatory laws. However, these laws have been agreed to be
rather negligent and not encompassing to protect the human dignity although the question of
the limits and definition of dignity is another area of debate as the article mentions. The
effects of ART and how present practice undermines human dignity are objectively
highlighted. Various religious views are summarized and a case is made for Islam as being
the most comprehensive way that looks at the issue from various relevant perspectives and
further advocate that bioethics is guided by Islamic rules.
Keywords: Assisted Reproductive Technology, Human Dignity, Bioethics, Religion
1.0 Introduction
Assisted Reproductive Technology (ART) is a general term used to refer to artificial or
partially artificial methods to achieve pregnancy or for infertility treatments. Recent advances
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in this area especially in the areas of gamete donations and embryo research when unguarded
by balanced ethics can lead to lineage disorder and confusion, genetic disorder and other
related issues (Kaylen S. M. D., 2013). It can be said that issues are vastly encroaching the
domains of human life that undermines human dignity, thus the need for an urgent re-visit
(Dondorp, W. 2013). This need becomes more imperative with the fact that each year, over
200 000 babies are born worldwide by ART (De Mouzon et al., 2009; Dobson, 2009) and the
number of cycles in Europe (Andersen et al., 2008) and the USA (Wright et al., 2008)
steadily growing.
On the other hand, to humanize can be widely defined as actions or constructions to
accommodate the limits or needs of human beings, as in the "humanization of science and
technology." While science and technology have themselves been extolled as humanizing the
world, they have also been criticized as in need of humanization. In social psychology,
dehumanization is defined as the process by which one person or group views others as not
worthy of humane treatment as is usually the case in wars and genocides. Dehumanizing in
this context can also apply to cases where humans are treated in ways that do not befit their
humanity and dignity although a unified definition of dignity and humanity of man is yet to
be agreed upon. However, for the sake of this article, we shall regard dehumanizing as any
act that reduces the essence of man equitable to that of animals or without sanctity. This
definition derives from man being a component of body and soul as Islam establishes.
Oriental critics and secularist that seek to negate the existence of the soul will rather not buy
in to this definition because in their own perspective, science is built on the premise of
negating its existence (Johnson, 2010). But advances and contribution of earlier Muslim
Scientist and thinkers falsify this claim (Huma, 2012; UNESCO, 2001).
This article focuses on ART because of its possibility of changing the view of human
procreation towards the direction of manufacture through the introduction of technical
approaches or attitudes into the activity of human reproduction. And for the fact that this
direction might affect our general understanding or attitudes about parenthood and childhood,
by making sexual reproduction simply one option among many, with no special significance
for how we understand the coming-to-be of the next generation. Thus we highlight the effect
of ART vis-à-vis the paradigm of humanity and dignity of Man by looking at the question of
human dignity in bioethics. It also raises the ethical issues that arise as implications of some
ART practices and the side effect at the major stages and to the involved parties. The article
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concludes by mentioning various religious views on the topic, summaries these views and
identifies the Islamic guidelines as the most realistic and all-encompassing in this respect.
2.0 Human Dignity in Bioethics
The question of human dignity in the realms of bioethics is a concept whose definition is yet
to be unanimously accepted for the fact that it can be viewed from various perspectives.
Considering the example of a patient being diagnosed with early Alzheimer’s disease which
according to the diagnosis will lead to an inexorable decline into dementia and dependency,
will it be termed as morally acceptable for the patient to stop taking his heart medication with
the intention of hastening his end so as not to be a distress to himself and his family? As
discussed by some, it even admirable for such a patient, who finds the prospect of years of
dementia humiliating or repellent and who is reluctant to become a burden to his family, to
forgo medication and allow heart disease to carry him off in a more “dignified and humane”
way. While others are of the opinion that intentionally taking one’s life in such instance
contradict the very essence of human dignity. The third group says the personal decision of a
competent individual should be respected in such matter and that it does not contradict the
concept of Human Dignity. A more correlating example will be if diagnosis reveals that the
unborn fetus when born will be deformed such that he will become a burden to himself and
his family. The case of debate in this respect is the moral issues regarding either allowing the
natural birth of the fetus or aborting it to avert what is perceived as burden!
Mankind generally acquires its definition of human dignity from various sources.
Classical definitions vary as some thinkers attack the idea of assigning a special status to man
in promoting animal rights (Peter, 1990); others are of a different perspective (Bernard,
1985). Kant in an effort to set a universal paradigm to the dignity of man from a purely
rational perspective said men possess dignity because of their capacity for free obedience to
the moral law of which they themselves are the authors (Johnson, 2010). Although it is
argued (Daniel, 2008) that Kant’s account of human dignity does not offer clear moral
guidance. In the universal declaration of Human Rights (1948), Charter of the United Nations
(1945), also proclaim upholding human dignity but however, its limits and full codes are
either narrowly defined or completely missing. Religions on the other hand seem somewhat
unified in attributing unique dignity to man that carries with it a full code of moral ethics
(Leon, 2003; Qurtubi, 1945). Although this definition from various religious perspectives is
somewhat similar, they also vary in some basic and or fine details. (Daniel, 2008) highlighted
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the indispensability of dignity understood as Humanity in Bioethics and (Schulman, 2008)
agrees to the fact of the crisis of the unguided encroachment of science and technology on the
domains of life that undermines human dignity and have tried to make an exegesis on this
with the aim of striking a balance.
The aspect of ART that directly affects the question of humanity lies in the methods,
values and practices that are associated to it. ARTcan be described as adoubleedged sword
that can both mar and benefit based on the guiding principles used in defining the values of
its essence. Surprisingly, responsible authorities and stakeholders in proper guiding of this
technology have been somewhat negligent. The Charter of the President's Council on
Bioethics (2004)made the following summary (ExecutiveSummary, 2004);

The fields of assisted reproduction, human genetics, and embryo research are
increasingly converging with one another.

There is no uniform, comprehensive, and enforceable system of data collection,
monitoring, or oversight for the biotechnologies affecting human reproduction.

There is minimal direct governmental regulation of the practice of assisted
reproduction.

There is extensive professional self-regulation of the practice of assisted reproduction,
but compliance with the standards invoked is purely voluntary.

There is no comprehensive, uniform, and enforceable mechanism for data collection,
monitoring, or oversight of how the new reproductive biotechnologies affect the wellbeing of the children conceived with their aid, the egg donors, or the gestational
mothers.

There are no nationally uniform laws or policies relating to access to assisted
reproduction.

Given the present framework of regulation, novel technologies and practices that are
successful move from the experimental context to clinical practice with relatively
little oversight or deliberation. Once in practice, these techniques are used at
clinicians’ discretion, with little or no external oversight. Use of effective
technologies becomes widespread rapidly.
And unfortunately, this trend has only changed but little (Bernard and Rebecca, 2011;
Nikolaos, 2010; Anna, 2011).
The argument regarding the right definition of human dignity and its limits are never
ending issues due to the fact that our perspectives as human beings is usually affected and
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directed by various factors that are uncountable. Thus mankind is in need of a unifying factor
that binds it together in order to protect its very existence. This we will argue is usually the
result when mankind abandons the general, encompassing and intrinsic principles set for it by
its Originator which others refer to as nature. It will surely continue groping in a labyrinth till
it seeks to annihilate its very existence. Islam on the other hand has a full body of knowledge
that properly defines and guides such technologies (Auda, 2007) such that it only further
humanizes man. For that reason, we will limit ourselves to the definition of human dignity as
defined by the shariah of Islam (Dusuki and Abdullah, 2007; Auda, 2007).
3.0 ART
Sterility which is the major case ART is supposed to combat has over the years increased
drastically. With the statistics in the US alone being one in every five couples (Nikolaos,
2010). This is an increase from 18.5% as reported by Begley (1995). The reason for this
drastic increase has not been unanimously agreed by scientists. However various biological
and social causes, diet (nutrition) or lack of exercise, pollution, stress and sexual
irresponsibility share a portion of responsibility. The deliberate altering or postponement of
motherhood has also been pointed as a major cause. So depending on the stage or level of
sterility, various ART means as deemed appropriate are applied.
3.1 Common methods of ART
In vitro fertilization (IVF) which means fertilization outside of the body seems to be the most
effective ART. It is often used when a woman's fallopian tubes are blocked or when a man
produces too few sperm. The woman is first treated with fertility drugs that cause the ovaries
to produce multiple eggs. Once mature, the eggs are removed from the woman. They are put
in a dish in the lab along with the man's sperm for fertilization. After 3 to 5 days, healthy
embryos are implanted in the woman's uterus. A similar method is Zygote intrafallopian
transfer (ZIFT) or Tubal Embryo Transfer. In this case, the very young embryo is transferred
to the Fallopian tube instead of the uterus after fertilization in the laboratory. Another method
is Gamete intrafallopian transfer (GIFT). Here fertilization occurs in the woman's body after
the transfer of eggs and sperm into the woman's Fallopian tube. In extreme cases where IVF
fails, Intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) is often used. In ICSI, the embryo is transferred
to theuterus or Fallopian tube after a single sperm is injected into a matured egg.
For women who cannot produce eggs or men who cannot produce sperm, ART
procedures resort to the use of donor eggs, donor sperm, or previously frozen embryos. This
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method is also sometimes used when the woman or man has a genetic disease that can be
passed on to the baby. In the case where donor embryos are used and transferred to the uterus
of the couples, the child will not be genetically related to either parent. Surrogacy is practiced
when a women agrees to get pregnant for a couple by using her egg and the male sperm and
submit the baby to the couples after birth. In this case the baby will not be genetically related
to the woman. Gestational Carrier is used for women with ovaries but no uterus or women
advised against pregnancy because of a serious health problem. In this case, a woman uses
her own egg. It is fertilized by the man's sperm and the embryo is placed inside the carrier's
uterus. The carrier will not be genetically related to the baby and gives him or her to the
parents at birth.
3.2 Some Ethical Implications
ART has indeed solved the cases of infertility in couples however when a third party is
involved in the reproduction case, it results to multiple complicated social issues and
implications. Several ethical detrimental concerns can be drawn from a US-based research on
244 non-biological parents (45 male and 199 female) who had used donor spermatozoa
within heterosexual or homosexual relationships in which many of the respondents shared
their views and challenges such as genetic connection to offspring, search for healthy donors
and matching donor to non-biological partner eta (Frith et al., 2012). Such views pose serious
ethical issues on such technology. Below, we further highlight implications of
unregulated/unguided practice of ART:

By the introduction of ART it opens up the possibility of changing the view of human
procreation towards the direction of manufacture which might affect our general
understanding of or attitudes about parenthood and childhood, by making sexual
reproduction simply one option among many.

Destruction of the family structure (Marriage) since single parenthood is promoted in
this case.

Confused lineage: A scenario where five people are in one way or the other related to
the child arises. Two sterile couple, two gametes donors, and the gestational carrier.
This can pose complicated social problems like inheritance; legal issues talk less of
the emotional imbalance this causes to the child in future. A lot of cases of this nature
are cited by (Nikolaos, 2010).
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
Encourages homosexuality as it gives such couples the chance to forms of family life
not provided by natural laws. According to a report, 50% of lesbians within the childbearing age wish to be become parents and their hopes are kept alive by this
despicable new technology (Amato and Jacob, 2004).

Encourages deliberate delay of motherhood which comes with its one complication
and social effects.

The possibility for a woman to bear a child by using her husband’s cryopreserved
sperm after his death (post-mortem fertilization). This also introduces complex social
and legal issues (Nikolaos, 2010).

The Commerce of Gametes and Embryos is the driving force that adds to this
complexity and has drawn the criticism of reducing man to yet a simple commodity
that can be purchased advertised and marketed just as pets or commodities. IVF
clinics advertise now for gametes donors (ASRM, 2007). Although some argue that
donors are only compensated for their time, efforts, and reasonable expenses, rather
than for the gametes themselves. At present, thousands of sperm banks exist in the US
(Baum, 2011). In 2000, between $60 and $70 is offered to sperm donors per donation
(Ethics committee, 2000). This has made some individuals aggressively market their
sperm for thousands of dollars per vial, and Internet sperm brokers (Andrew, 2003)
such as ManNotIncluded.com, offers baby-making kits to its customers (Goonzalez,
2002). In the early 1980s, multimillionaire Robert Graham established the
“Repository for Germinal Choice,” which offered infertile couples the opportunity to
buy sperm donated by Nobel laureates (Plotz, 2001). In some cases, brokerages like
Tiny Treasures solicit a pool of potential donors, create individual profiles (including
photographs, biographical data, information on physical characteristics, medical
histories, etc.), and establish a database. Egg Donation, Inc. for example seeks in a
donor someone who is “bright and attractive, between the ages of 21 years to 30
years, of any ethnic background, preferably who has completed a college degree or is
presently pursuing a college degree and is in excellent health.” (Egg Donor, 2004)
Egg Donation, Inc., advises potential donors that the donor fee “will range from
$3,500 to $12,000.” As to which variables drive cost, the website explains: “Asian
and Jewish ovum donors are always in demand. A tall, attractive donor with a masters
or doctorate degree will always receive higher compensation than most other donors.”
Ivy League donors from Tiny Treasures seek anywhere from $8,000 to $20,000
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compensation for a cycle of ova retrieval. Some couples directly advertise for ovum
donors. Such adverts are usually made in campus newspapers, prestigious colleges
and universities. One of such at Vassar College offered $25,000 in exchange for the
ova of a “healthy, intelligent college student or college graduate, age 21-33 with blue
eyes and blonde or light brown hair” (Shanley, 2002). Another in the Stanford Daily
offered $50,000(Healy, 2003).

The opening of such anonymous donations has brought about cases of one individual
producing over 150 children (Mark, 2011) which increases the risk of inadvertent
incest between half-siblings especially in countries like US and Canada who do not

have strict laws on how many children individual donors can father unlike France
Britain.
Alongside these implications, the practice of ART also has nontrivial effects at various stages
of implementations.
3.3 Delivery
One 1993 Canadian study showed that nearly 25 percent of all births facilitated by ART are
premature, and 30 percent of the resulting infants had low birth weight (McElrath et al.,
1997). While this low birth weight may be attributable to the high rate of multiple
pregnancies, one 1987-89 French study reported that even for singleton births facilitated by
ART, the rate of prematurity and low birth weight was twice that of children conceived by
natural means (Rufat et al., 1994). Another study suggests that women using ART are more
likely to induce labor and undergo elective caesarian section delivery (TPCB, 2004).
3.4 Child health
Recent research by the Centers for Disease Control showed that ART babies are two to four
times more likely to have certain kinds of birth defects. These may include heart and
digestive system problems, and cleft (divided into two pieces) lips or palate (DHHS, 2009).
Researchers don't know why this happens. Studies found an overall increase in birth defects
after ART (6.4%) compared with non-ART pregnancies (4.8%) (Jane et al., 2010). Children
conceived following ART are known to beat higher risk for adverse birth outcomes (Bergh et
al., 1999; Sutcliffe and Ludwig, 2007; Katalinic et al, 2004; Koivurova et al, 2002; Schieve et
al, 2004). (Karim et al., 2011) found a 40% increase in the overall risk of Congenital Heart
Diseases (CHD) in children conceived following ART after taking into account maternal age,
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socioeconomic factors, and year of birth. The emergence of this technology further
encourages postponed motherhood which also exposes comes with its unique health risk to
such mothers and children (Nikolaos, 2010).
3.5 Women Health in ART
Complications to women health can include rupture of the ovaries, cysts, and cancers. The
reported incidence of severe ovarian hyper stimulation syndrome is between 0.5 and 5.0
percent (Delvigne et al., 2002). Additionally, adverse side effects of the hormones
administered during superovulation have included memory loss, neurological dysfunction,
cardiac disorders, and even sudden death (ASRMPC, 2003).
Multiple pregnancies are far more common following ART. Multiple pregnancies pose
greater risks to mothers than singleton pregnancies. A woman carrying multiple fetuses has a
greater chance of suffering from high blood pressure, anemia, or pre-eclampsia (TPCB,
2004). Because multiple-gestation pregnancies are generally more taxing on the mother’s
body, they are likelier to aggravate pre-existing medical conditions (TPCB, 2004). Moreover,
such pregnancies expose the woman to higher risks of uterine rupture, placenta previa, or
abruption (TPCB, 2004).
4.0 Various Religious Views
Many religious groups have stood-firm to antagonize science and technological advancement
on such areas as procreation, abortion and infertility therapy and their implicated bioethical
impacts (Schenker, 2005). The possible harm the various practice of Assisted Reproductive
Technology (ART) can cause to the sacredness of marriage and the sanctity of the embryo are
among the two areas several religious groups have heatedly discussed (Dutney, 2007). Thus,
based on protecting the sacredness of Marriage and the sanctity of the embryo, and protecting
the lineage, Jews (Schenker, 2005), Roman Catholic Church (Benagiano et al., 2011), other
Christian denomination (Schenker, 2000) all approve IVF only when gametes are from
legally married couples without the introduction of a third party in any way either by
surrogacy or gestational Carrier. These views as already mentioned basically are mentioned
only to guard the sacredness of marriage and the sanctity of embryos.
On the other hand, in Islam finding remedy to infertility is allowed when the real need
arises and encouraged as long as enshrined prohibited limits are not violated. The rules
provided by Islam not only seek to protect the sacredness of marriage and the sanctity of the
9
embryo but revolves round submitting to The Creator and respecting His decree (i.e Human
Dignity) and also Morality associated with the practice in terms of privacy. Prohibit anything
that unnecessarily bring to man hardship or harm in anyway. The Islamic principles seek in
addition to protect the individual socially, morally, spiritually, economically and politically.
So according to these principles, the issue of ART is usually viewed from all these
perspective because the human being is a social being and cannot be detached from the
society as anything done by him in one way or the other affects his society. Thus ART may
be permissible subject to certain conditions:

That there is a real need for that. A delay of one or two years in having
children is not an excuse for the couple to pursue this or similar methods.
Rather they should be patient, for Allah may grant them a way out soon
without them doing anything that is prohibited. This is because Allah says in
Surah Ash-Shura 42:49-50 “To Allah belongs the kingdom of the heavens and
the earth. He creates what He wills. He bestows female upon whom He wills,
and bestows male upon whom He wills. Or He bestows both males and
females, and He renders barren whom He wills. Verily, He is theAll-Knower
and is Able to do all things.”

The woman should not uncover her privacy before men when there are female
staffs available. In a hadith narrated by the authors of Sunan and classed as
hasan by al-Tirmidhi and as saheeh by al-Haakim, from Mu’aawiyah ibn
Haydah, who said: “I said, ‘O Prophet of Allaah, when should we cover our
‘awrah and when may we uncover it?’ He said, ‘Protect (cover) your ‘awrah
from everyone except your wife and those whom your right hand possesses
(concubines).’ I said, ‘O Messenger of Allaah, what about when one of us is
alone?’ He said, ‘Allaah is more deserving than the people that you should be
modest before Him.’”

It is not permissible for the husband to masturbate; rather he maybe intimate
with his wife without penetration, and produce semen in this manner. Imam
Shafi’i stated that masturbation is forbidden based on the verses from the
Qur’aan 23.5-7. This is because the verses are clear in forbidding all illegal
sexual acts (including masturbation) except for the wives or that their right
hand possess. And whoever seeks beyond that is the transgressor. "And let
those who find not the financial means for marriage keep themselves chaste,
10
until Allah enriches them of His bounty." 24.33. This verse also clearly orders
whoever does not have the financial means to marry to keep himself chaste
and be patient in facing temptations (including masturbation) until Allah
enriches them of His bounty. From the sunnah of the Prophet (peace be upon
him): Abdullaah ibn Mas’ood said, "We were with the Prophet while we were
young and had no wealth whatsoever. So Allaah’s Messenger said, "O young
people! Whoever among you can marry, should marry, because it helps him
lower his gaze and guard his modesty (i.e. his private parts from committing
illegal sexual intercourse etc.), and whoever is not able to marry, should fast,
as fasting diminishes his sexual power." Bukhari: 5066. The hadeeth orders
men who are not able to marry to fast despite the hardship encountered in
doing so, and not to masturbate despite the ease with which it can be done.

The woman’s eggs and man’s sperm should not be kept in a freezer for later
use, or another appointment, and there should not be any delay in placing them
in the woman’s uterus. Rather that should be done immediately without any
delay, lest they be mixed with others or be used for other people.

The sperm must come from the husband and the egg from the wife, and be
implanted in the wife’s uterus. Anything else is not permissible at all.
Regarding this, Allah said in Surah Al-Nahl 16:27: “And Allaah has made for
you Azwaaj (mates or wives) of your own kind, and has made for you, from
your wives, sons and grandsons, and has bestowed on you good provision. Do
they then believe in false deities and deny the Favor of Allaah (by not
worshipping Allaah Alone)” and in Surah al-Baqarah 2:223: “Your wives are
a tilth for you, so go to your tilth, when or how you will, and send (good
deeds, or ask Allaah to bestow upon you pious offspring) for your ownselves
beforehand. And fear Allaah, and know that you are to meet Him (in the
Hereafter), and give good tidings to the believers (O Muhammad). Scholars
say tilth is mentioned specifically with regard to a man’s wife, which indicates
that a woman other than his wife is not appropriate for his tilth.

There should be complete trust in the doctors who are doing this procedure.

These rules are adhered to in order to protect the lineage which Islam holds
very dearly. For this reason Abu Dawood in hadith 2157 transmitted that it is
forbidden to have intercourse with a pregnant widow until she has given birth.
11
This hadeeth was classed as saheeh by Shaykh al-Albaani in Irwa’ al-Ghaleel,
187. In this light, the Shareeah also prohibits the sale or donation of such
organs or gametes that will violate this protection in order to protect another
thing which is dignity and uniqueness of every human being. The shariah does
not count the reason of wanting to have a child as validity to go against these
established rules and principles.
5.0 Conclusion
This article discussed the need for the ethical revisit to ART and identified the main reason
for disunity in the definition and limitation of Human dignity and the imperativeness for a
unifying paradigm. It also mentions the implications of unregulated practice of ART as the
main drive for this call and highlights the negative effects of ART. It discovered that various
religions are united on it being regulated by divine rules and Islam identified as the most
comprehensive order that tackles the case from various perspectives and is thus advocated to
be the one that guides the bioethics formation.
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16
PEMBELAJARAN DEWASA SEBAGAI SUATU JIHAD INTELEKTUAL
Zulkifli Khair, Rosman Md. Yusoff dan Mohd Azhar Abd Hamid
Fakulti Pengurusan,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor
Abstract
The purpose of this paper is to discuss the adult learning from an Islamic perspective, in the
context of jihad. Intellectual jihad jihad as a branch of jihad is one of the unique characteristics
of adult learning from an Islamic perspective. Even though the writing is generally conceptual, it
was offset by the content analysis study of the adult learning process of Imam Syafii by his short
biography by Dr. Tariq Suwaidan. Based on the literature, the authors propose three main aspects
in the formation of the concept of intellectual jihad; sacrifice in intellectualism and scholarship,
for the sake of Allah and to establish the religion of Allah. The concept of 'intellectual jihad' is
found in the form of 'adult learning' through the great intellectual, Imam Syafii.
Keywords: Adult learning, intellectual jihad, higher learning, Imam Syafii.
Abstrak
Tujuan tulisan ini adalah untuk membicarakan pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Islam, dalam
konteks jihad. Jihad intelektual sebagai cabang jihad adalah salah satu ciri unik pembelajaran
dewasa dari perspektif Islam. Sungguhpun penulisan ini umumnya bersifat konseptual, ia
diimbangi dengan kajian analisis kandungan terhadap proses pembelajaran dewasa Imam Syafii
berdasarkan biografi ringkas beliau oleh Dr Tariq Suwaidan. Berdasarkan literatur, penulis
mengemukakan tiga aspek utama dalam pembentukan konsep jihad intelektual; pengorbanan
dalam intelektualisme dan keilmuan, kerana Allah dan untuk menegakkan agama Allah. Konsep
‘jihad intelektual’ ini didapati wujud dalam proses ‘pembelajaran dewasa’ intelektual agung,
Imam Syafii.
Kata kunci: Pembelajaran dewasa, jihad intelektual, pengajian tinggi, Imam Syafii.
17
1.0 Pengenalan
Perbahasan mengenai pembelajaran dan keilmuan telah wujud dengan banyak dalam literatur
sama ada dalam kalangan bukan Islam seperti Rosenthal (1992), apatah pula dalam kalangan
sarjana Muslim. Perbahasan khusus mengenai pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Islam
didapati wujud di bawah subtopik ‘Pembelajaran Dewasa dari Perspektif Islam’ yang ditulis oleh
Mazanah dan Mazalan dalam Merriam et al. (2005) yang kemudiannya diterbit semula dengan
sedikit pengubahsuaian dalam Merriam et al. (2007). Di persada literatur moden, literatur
tentang pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Islam ini begitu kurang.
Sehubungan itu, wujud salah faham apabila Islam dikatakan tidak dianggap menyokong
kajian-kajian saintifik dalam konteks pembelajaran dan juga pembelajaran dewasa. Demikian
dakwaan Merriam (2007) sewaktu menyorot pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif bukan Barat
termasuk Islam. Bagi penulis, kekurangan penulisan yang bersifat empirikal tentang
pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Islam tidak boleh dijadikan hujah bahawa Islam bersifat
seperti yang didakwakan itu.
Islam malah memberikan saranan kepada penganutnya agar
melakukan kajian secara saintifik dan mahukan penganut menjadi seorang saintis (Al-Faruqi dan
al-Faruqi, 1986). Malah pada peringkat awal, buku-buku teks di Universiti Oxford dan
Cambridge termasuk dalam bidang sains dan teknologi merupakan buku-buku terjemahan
daripada bahasa Arab dari dunia Islam (Salah, 2004).
Sungguhpun terdapat perbincangan pembelajaran dewasa dalam konteks jihad
sebagaimana termaktub dalam Merriam et al. (2005) dan Merriam et al. (2007) tersebut, ia tidak
dibincangkan secara mendalam melainkan sekadar dalam dua perenggan. Selain itu, perbahasan
tentang jihad intelektual dan yang setara dengannya seperti dalam Al-Qardhawi (2010),
Muhammad Hanif dan Mohamed (2007), Sardar dan Davies (2004) Al-Faruqi (1982), Rohizan et
al. (2011), Syuhadak (2013), Ramli (2006) dan Hilmy (2001) tidak pula dalam konteks disiplin
pembelajaran dewasa. Justeru, artikel ini mahu cuba menggabungkan antara pembelajaran
dewasa dengan jihad, dan konteks jihad yang relevan di sini disebut sebagai jihad intelektual.
Akhirnya, fokus topik tulisan ini diharapkan terletak kepada analisis kandungan terhadap
biografi Imam Syafii selaku model dan tokoh ilmuwan unggul daripada khazanah peradaban
Islam. Sorotan biografi beliau akan cuba dipadankan dalam konteks pembelajaran dewasa di
institusi pengajian tinggi moden agar tradisi pembelajaran beliau tidak dianggap begitu jauh dan
tidak praktikal untuk diaplikasikan dalam kerangka masa kini.
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2.0 Pembelajaran Dewasa
Pembelajaran dewasa merupakan suatu sub-disiplin dalam disiplin pendidikan yang mula
popular sekitar tahun 1970-an dan 1980-an (Henschke, 2008). American Society for Training
and Development selaku penerbit kepada tulisan Knowles (1995) menggelarkan Prof. Dr.
Malcolm Sheperd Knowles sebagai ‘Bapa Pembelajaran Dewasa’ yang didapati pada tahun 1950
sahaja, beliau telah menghasilkan 17 buah buku dan 230 artikel berkenaan pembelajaran dewasa.
Perbincangan serius tentang proses orang dewasa belajar bagaimanapun dikatakan bermula di
Amerika Syarikat sejak tahun 1920-an lagi (Ellinger, 2004).
Apabila disebut pembelajaran dewasa, makna ‘dewasa’ dapat dilihat dari pelbagai sudut.
Smith (1999) misalnya menyatakan bahawa dewasa boleh dilihat dari dimensi biologi,
perundangan, psikologi (memiliki konsep kendiri sebagai dewasa), tingkah laku dan peranan.
Usia dewasa dalam konteks perundangan di Malaysia adalah 18 tahun mengikut kalendar
Gregory (Jabatan Peguam Negara, 2006), namun usia dewasa dalam Islam dirujuk kepada ‘akil
baligh’ yang sudahpun mencapai tahap untuk bertanggungjawab melaksanakan segala perintah
Allah (Awang Sudjai, 1977; Abdullah, 1988).
Jarvis (1995) tidak menganggap sumbangan Knowles sebagai suatu teori sebaliknya
sebagai suatu gagasan falsafah dan konseptual tentang pembelajaran dewasa, malah Knowles
dikatakan tidak mengemukakan bukti-bukti yang kukuh terhadap gagasannya itu. Namun,
Merriam, Caffarella dan Baumgartner (2007) mengiktiraf set prinsip dan andaian Knowles dalam
pembelajaran dewasa sebagai suatu penjelasan ilmiah yang terbaik. Menurut Merriam, Caffarella
dan Baumgartner (2007) dan Taylor dan Kroth (2009), Knowles telah mengemukakan enam
andaian penting andragogi sebagaimana berikut:
i.
Orang dewasa lebih bersifat kendiri dan mahukan lebih banyak pilihan
untuk pelajar.
ii. Orang dewasa mempunyai pelbagai pengalaman yang boleh dijadikan
sebagai sumber yang penting dalam pembelajaran. Namun ada
pengalaman yang dapat menghalang kepada pembelajaran baharu.
iii. Orang dewasa lebih bersedia untuk belajar terhadap sesuatu masalah
yang ditanganinya juga terhadap sesuatu yang relevan dengannya.
iv. Pembelajaran lebih berpusatkan kepada diri sendiri sebagai pelajar
seperti yang dapat membantu mereka menyelesaikan masalah.
19
v.
Orang dewasa lebih termotivasi untuk belajar. Motivasi dalaman
(intrinsik) didapati lebih kuat berbanding motivasi luaran (ekstrinsik).
vi. Orang dewasa perlu tahu mengapa mereka perlu belajar atau dengan kata
lain apakah tujuan mereka belajar.
Andragogi (seni dan sains dalam membantu orang dewasa untuk belajar) telah digunakan
secara meluas dalam pelbagai aplikasi seperti dalam perniagaan, kerajaan, kolej dan universiti,
pendidikan agama, pendidikan pemulihan dan pendidikan berterusan bagi profesion tertentu
(Knowles et. al, 1984), pengendalian latihan (Knowles, 1995), dan pembelajaran menerusi
internet (Isenberg, 2007). Tujuan pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Barat moden adalah
terhad kepada pembangunan diri, kerjaya, sosial dan ekonomi, tanpa dikaitkan dengan tujuan
keagamaan apatah pula kerana Allah SWT.
Sebaliknya tujuan pembelajaran dewasa dalam Islam adalah untuk mendekatkan diri
kepada Allah (Merriam et al., 2005). Ini selari dengan tujuan pembelajaran untuk memupuk
kebaikan dalam diri atau dengan kata lain untuk membentuk peribadi yang beradab (al-Attas,
1980) dan tujuan tingkahlaku dalam seluruh kehidupan yang perlu dikaitkan dengan agama
sebagaimana setiap perbuatan dan pekerjaan hendaklah berupa suatu ibadah kepada Allah (AlQardhawi, 1988). Tujuan kerana Allah merupakan perbezaan paling penting antara pembelajaran
dewasa dari perspektif Islam dengan pembelajaran dewasa dari perspektif Barat moden.
Akhirnya, pembelajaran termasuk pembelajaran dewasa merupakan suatu bentuk jihad
dijelaskan oleh Nabi Muhammad saw sebagaimana direkodkan oleh Imam Tirmizi bahawa
seseorang yang belajar atau menuntut ilmu berada dalam keadaan berjihad di jalan Allah.
3.0 Jihad Intelektual
Rumusan jihad oleh Wahbah al-Zuhalili terhadap beberapa pandangan ulama termasuk imam
mazhab yang empat oleh Hafiz Firdaus (2003: 23-24) adalah, “Mencurahkan segala tenaga dan
keupayaan di dalam memerangi orang-orang kafir dan menahan serangan mereka dengan jiwa,
harta dan lisan.” Namun, Hafiz Firdaus (2003) turut menerima makna jihad yang digandingkan
dengan tujuan tertentu sebagaimana dijelaskan dalam Al-Quran dan sunnah seperti jihad hawa
nafsu dan jihad menegakkan agama.
20
Ini selari dengan pandangan Al-Qardhawi (2010: 4) yang mengatakan bahawa jihad tidak
sekadar merujuk kepada berperang di jalan Allah, bahkan mempunyai makna yang lebih umum,
“mencakup mujahid yang berjihad terhadap hawa nafsu, terhadap syaitan, amar makruf nahi
munkar, mengatakan perkataan yang benar di hadapan penguasa zalim, dan lainnya.” Menurut
beliau lagi, konsep ‘jihad’ serupa dengan ‘mujahadah’ dalam konteks melawan musuh; musuh
yang nyata dan musuh yang tidak nyata (syaitan dan hawa nafsu).
Jihad adalah berbentuk tindakan, berbeza dengan ijtihad yang berbentuk epistemologi
(Wan Mohd Nor, 1994). Bermakna, orang yang berjihad bukanlah orang yang berpeluk tubuh
tanpa sebarang tindakan. Bagaimanapun, ‘jihad’ bukan sekadar ‘perjuangan’, bahkan merupakan
‘perjuangan kerana Allah’, manakala objektif jihad pula adalah untuk melunturkan segala sistem
bukan Islam lalu digantikan dengan Islam. Demikian menurut Al-Maududi (1970). Pandangan
ini selari dengan Rohizan et al. (2011) yang merujuk ‘jihad’ sebagai kepada segala bentuk
perjuangan menegakkan agama Islam. Jihad yang diiktifar oleh Islam adalah jihad di jalan Allah
sebagaimana disebut di ayat 69 surah al-Ankabut dalam al-Quran.
Jihad intelektual merupakan cabang jihad (Al-Qardhawi, 2010; Muhammad Hanif dan
Mohamed, 2007; Sardar dan Davies, 2004; Al-Faruqi, 1982). Al-Faruqi (1982) barangkali yang
pertama merintis istilah ‘jihad intelektual’ ini. Penulis mendapati bahawa konsep ‘jihad
intelektual’ serupa dengan konsep ‘jihad ilmu’ (Rohizan et al., 2011; Syuhadak, 2013), ‘jihad
ta’lim’ (Ramli, 2006) serta ‘jihad ta’limi dan ma’rifat’ (Hilmy, 2001), kecuali ‘jihad intelektual’
Fazlur (1982) yang merujuk kepada konsep ‘ijtihad’. Umumnya, jihad intelektual dapat
dimaknakan sebagai perjuangan menegakkan Islam menerusi wahana intelektualisme atau
keilmuan.
Muhammad Hanif dan Mohamed (2007) tidak menafikan bahawa jihad intelektual, jihad
ekonomi dan lain-lain sebagai cabang jihad, namun menegaskan bahawa agar tidak sampai
menafikan jihad ketenteraan yang wujud dalam Islam. Peringatan ini penting dalam memahami
konsep jihad yang memiliki horizonnya yang cukup luas, manakala taraf jihad tertinggi adalah
jihad ketenteraan. Oleh sebab itu, sekitar dua pertiga karya jihad komprehensif tentang jihad oleh
Al-Qardhawi (2010) adalah berkenaan jihad ketenteraan atau jihad melawan musuh secara nyata.
Menurut Al-Qardhawi (2010), jihad intelektual adalah untuk melawan kemurtadan
intelektual yang perlu dibuat menerusi media dan juga menerusi pusat keilmuan. Gagasan beliau
dalam membentuk disiplin ilmu dari perspektif Islam kelihatan selari dengan gagasan Islamisasi
21
ilmu (Al-Attas, 1978; Al-Faruqi, 1982; Mohd. Nasir, 2005; Wan Mohd. Nor, 2005; Hilmy,
2001). Menurut Al-Faruqi (1982), Islamisasi ilmu menghendaki agar setiap disiplin ilmu
termasuk kemanusiaan, sains sosial dan sains tabie perlu didasarkan kepada prinsip dan
metodologi Islam. Ini membabitkan proses pembelajaran berterusan, penyelidikan dan juga
pengajaran.
Sebagai rumusan, jihad membabitkan tindakan atau bersifat dinamik. Oleh itu, jihad
intelektual membabitkan tindakan yang sewajarnya dilakukan oleh seseorang intelektual iaitu
membabitkan tindakan untuk meningkatkan intelektualisme dan seterusnya berperanan sebagai
intelektual. Kedua-dua perkara ini tentunya dilakukan dengan susah payah dan terdedah dengan
pelbagai cabaran sebagaimana makna asal jihad sebagaimana yang dibahaskan oleh Al-Qardhawi
(2010) bahawa makna asal ‘jihad’ dari segi bahasa adalah ‘menanggung kesulitan’. Berikut
adalah kerangka jihad intelektual yang kelak digunakan dalam menganalisis biografi Imam
Syafii:
i.
Pengorbanan dalam bidang intelektualisme dan keilmuan.
ii.
Ikhlas kerana Allah.
iii.
Bertujuan menegakkan agama Allah.
Sebagai rumusan, kami menakrifkan jihad intelektual sebagai, “Pengorbanan dalam bidang
intelektualisme dan keilmuan bersama niat kerana Allah dan tujuan menegakkan agama Allah.”
4.0 Pembelajaran Imam Syafii dalam Konteks Jihad Intelektual
Buku setebal 307 halaman oleh Dr Tariq Suwaidan dan diterjemahkan oleh Iman Firdaus
merupakan biografi ringkas Imam Syafii. Ia merupakan sebahagian daripada biografi tokoh
ilmuwan Islam termasuk empat imam mazhab. Secara ringkas, Imam Syafii merupakan Arab
berketurunan Quraisy yang dilahirkan di Gaza, Palestin dari keluarga yang miskin pada tahun
150 H (767 M). Nama sebenarnya ialah Muhammad bin Idris bin Abdullah Imam Syafii.
Nasabnya bertemu dengan nasab Nabi Muhammad saw di Abdi Manaf (Tariq, 2007).
Beliau pada awalnya terkenal sebagai pakar bahasa, lantaran karya beliau termuat ayatayat yang indah lagi puitis. Kemudian, menjadi pakar pula dalam bidang fikah, malah menjadi
perintis kepada pembinaan ‘formula’ fikah (usul al-fiqh). Imam Syafii juga menguasai bidang
perubatan dan nutrisi di samping ilmu nasab sebagai cabang ilmu bukan agama atau ilmu fardu
kifayah (Tariq, 2007). Sebagaimana direkodkan oleh Muhammad bin Abdullah bin Abdul
22
Hakam, Imam Syafii pernah berkata, “ilmu fikah untuk agama, ilmu kedoktoran untuk tubuh,
selain keduanya hanyalah khazanah pemikiran.” (Tariq, 2007: 67).
Berdasarkan kepada buku ini, analisis kandungan dibuat berdasarkan kepada kerangka
konsep jihad intelektual sebagaimana yang dibicarakan sebelumnya, dibantu oleh perisian NVivo
Versi 10. Dalam kajian ini, noktah permulaan pembelajaran dewasa Imam Syafii dianggap
bermula sewaktu beliau diiktiraf untuk mengeluarkan fatwa oleh Mufti Mekah, Muslim bin
Khalid al-Zanji (Majid, 1987). Menurut Majid (1987), tidak banyak maklumat yang diketahui
tentang riwayat awal Imam Syafii. Namun, dengan berdasarkan tulisan Ibn Abi Hatim Al-Razi,
Abu Nu’aim, Al-Baihaqi dan Ibn Abdul Barr, Imam Syafii dikatakan hafaz al-Quran sewaktu
berusia tujuh tahun, hafaz kitab al-Muwatta’ karangan Imam Malik dan layak mengeluarkan
fatwa sewaktu berusia 15 tahun. Menurut Majid (1987) lagi, Imam Syafii kemudiannya berhijrah
ke Madinah untuk berguru dengan Imam Malik sewaktu berusia 20 tahun.
Seterusnya, noktah akhir pembelajaran dewasa Imam Syafii adalah sewaktu pengakhiran
hayat beliau. Ini merujuk kepada konsep pembelajaran berterusan sepanjang hayat dalam Islam
sebagaimana perintah ‘Bacalah’ dalam Al-Quran (Al-‘Alaq, 96: 1) tidak mempunyai kerangka
masa pengakhiran. Malah walaupun Imam Syafii sudahpun mencapai tahap mujtahid dan
ilmuwan tersohor, beliau didapati berterusan belajar dalam konteks meningkatkan lagi tahap
intelektualisme beliau. Selain itu, pembelajaran dewasa boleh berlaku sama ada secara formal,
bukan formal dan tidak formal. Dapatan analisis kandungan digambarkan dalam Rajah 1 berikut.
23
Rajah 1: Pembelajaran Imam Syafii dalam konteks jihad intelektual
Tema niat kerana Allah dapat dikenalpasti berdasarkan ulasan pihak lain iaitu Rabi’ bin
Sulaiman yang mengatakan, “Keikhlasan Syafii dalam ilmu dan amal membuatnya dapat meraih
segala macam ilmu di zamannya.” (Tariq, 2007: 93). Imam Syafii juga disebut sebagai memiliki
jiwa yang jenih bagi memungkinkan untuk mencapai kebenaran (Tariq, 2007: 80), manakala sifat
ikhlas itu hanya wujud di jiwa yang jernih. Keadaan jiwa yang jernih daripada sebarang motif
peribadi adalah syarat penting dalam jihad yang bermatlamatkan kerana Allah (Al-Maududi,
1970). Nabi Muhammad saw dengan tegas menolak perjuangan yang bertujuan untuk
menyerlahkan keberanian dan kemegahan, sebaliknya menerima perjuangan di jalan Allah
(maksud hadis yang direkodkan oleh al-Bukhari dan Muslim).
24
Musafir ilmu dianggap sebagai suatu bentuk jihad dalam pembelajaran. Imam Syafii
Bermula ke Mekah. Kemudian ke Madinah, kembali ke Mekah, Baghdad, dan berakhir di Mesir.
Selain itu, Imam Syafii juga didapati terkenal dengan tidur yang sedikit dan makan yang kurang
di samping cuba memastikan peribadi dalam takwa dan akhlak yang mulia sebagai syarat bagi
setiap ilmuwan (Tariq, 2007). Untuk itu, Imam Syafii pernah berkata, “Allah akan menimpakan
petaka kepadanya (ilmuwan tanpa takwa dan akhlak yang mulia)... seperti orang-orang yang
menyembah berhala.” (Tariq, 2007: 112). Jihad melawan nafsu juga didapati penting dalam
konteks jihad intelektual dan ini wujud dalam kehidupan Imam Syafii apabila beliau berusaha
meninggalkan maksiat sebagaimana kata beliau seperti berikut (Tariq, 2007: 113):
“Aku mengadukan perihal lemahnya hafazanku kepada Waki’ (guru
Imam Syafii). Beliau membimbingku agar aku meninggalkan maksiat.
Kata beliau, ‘Ketahuilah bahawa ilmu itu anugerah dan anugerah
Allah tidak diberikan kepada seorang pemaksiat.’ Beliau juga berkata,
‘Ketahuilah bahawa ilmu itu cahaya dan cahaya Allah tidak diberikan
kepada seorang pemaksiat.’”
Kalau meninggalkan maksiat itu berupa akhlak mulia kepada Allah, merendah diri pula
adalah bentuk akhlak mulia kepada manusia. Imam Syafii terkenal sebagai ilmuwan yang
merendah diri dengan ilmu yang ada pada dirinya. Menurut beliau, sekiranya wujud pendapat
atau ijtihad beliau yang bertentangan dengan kata-kata Nabi Muhammad maka kata-kata Nabi
yang dianggap benar sebagaimana kata Imam Syafii, “Itulah yang akan menjadi pendapatku.”
(Tariq, 2007: 128). Sifat merendah diri kepada guru juga wujud dalam diri beliau, ini selari
dengan penegasan Sheikh Nuruddin al-Banjari agar menjaga adab dengan guru (Syuhadak,
2013).
Menjadi mangsa fitnah adalah antara cabaran paling getir dialami oleh Imam Syafii.
Beliau difitnah berkomplot dengan golongan ‘Alawi untuk melakukan pemberontakan terhadap
Kerajaan Abbasiyah. Imam Syafii dirantai besi lalu dibawa ke Iraq. Beliau selamat daripada
dijatuhkan hukuman bunuh, sebaliknya dibebaskan malah diberi pula hadiah oleh pihak khalifah.
Bagaimanapun, semuanya ini mempunyai hikmah buat Imam Syafii dalam mendalami fekah
Hanafi dan seterusnya memulakan aliran mazhab beliau sewaktu berada di bumi Iraq (Tariq,
2007).
25
Penulisan adalah suatu usaha penting dalam konteks menegakkan agama Allah. Dalam
usaha mengoptimumkan manfaat penulisan beliau, Imam Syafii telah berusaha menulis dengan
bahasa yang mudah difahami oleh orang awam. Selain menulis, beliau juga sibuk mengajar
malah sering menjadi rujukan sehingga mendapat jolokan ‘ensaiklopedia berjalan’. Untuk itu,
beliau berusaha menjadi pakar dalam bidang ilmu tertentu disebabkan lautan ilmu yang sangat
dalam. Beliau dianggap pakar dalam pelbagai bidang termasuk fekah, kedoktoran, dan
kesusasteraan (Tariq, 2007).
Jihad dan mujahadah kurang tidur oleh Imam Syafii sebagaimana disebutkan sebelum ini
telah memberikan kelebihan buat Imam Syafii untuk menulis dan seterusnya menghasilkan
sejumlah karya agung. Beliau terkenal dengan pembahagian tiga bahagian malam; sepertiga
untuk menulis, sepertiga untuk solat dan sepertiga lagi untuk tidur. Imam Syafii telah hasilkan
sekurang-kurangnya 113 buah buku dalam bidang fekah, tafsir, sastera dan lain-lain (Tariq,
2007). Dua karya terpenting Imam Syafii ialah Ar-Risalah dan Kitab al-Umm (Majid, 1987).
Sifat mujahadah terkandung dalam nasihat Imam Syafii dalam konteks pembelajaran seperti
berikut (Tariq, 2007: 111):
i.
Kecerdasan,
ii.
bercita-cita tinggi,
iii.
sabar,
iv.
ada pembiayaan,
v.
bimbingan guru, dan
vi.
tempoh yang panjang.
Kitab Ar-Risalah merupakan kitab terpenting Imam Syafii dalam bidang fekah, dengan
nama asal, Kitab ar-Risalah fi Usul al-Fiqh. Terdapat dua edisi, awal dan baharu. Edisi awal
dihasilkan di Mekah (Ar-Risalah al-Qadimah) manakala edisi baharu dihasilkan di Mesir (ArRisalah al-Jadidah) (Tariq, 2007). Majid (1987) bagaimanapun berpandangan bahawa ArRisalah pada awalnya ditulis di Iraq. Sekiranya mahu dipadankan dengan pengajian di institusi
pengajian tinggi moden, Ar-Risalah edisi awal barangkali sepadan dengan disertasi atau tesis
PhD beliau dalam bidang fekah, manakala Ar-Risalah edisi baharu barangkali boleh dianggap
sebagai hasil karya pasca ijazah kedoktoran beliau dalam bidang fekah sebagaimana ditunjukkan
dalam Jadual 1 berikut.
26
Jadual 1: Tahap pencapaian pembelajaran Imam Syafii dalam konteks pengajian di institusi
pengajian tinggi moden (dalam bidang fekah)
Tahap pengajian
Syarat/hasil pengajian
Ijazah kedoktoran atau Ph.D.
Ar-Risalah Edisi Awal
Pasca ijazah kedoktoran (Post
Ar-Risalah Edisi Baharu
Doc)
Keaslian Ar-Risalah tidak dapat disangkal, yakni syarat dalam Ph.D. sebagaimana
menurut Phillips dan Pugh (2005) dan Mohamed Najib (2004). Pertama, dari segi gagasan Usul
Fiqh yang berupa teorem dan formula fekah sebagai suatu sub-disiplin baharu dalam bidang
fekah. Kedua, ini seterusnya membawa kepada kewujudan aliran fekah beliau sendiri yang
berbeda dengan aliran fekah Hanafi dan Maliki sebelumnya. Perlu dimaklumi bahawa ArRisalah bagaimanapun bukan dihasilkan untuk tujuan pengijazahan, namun dipinta oleh ulama
Iraq, Ibn Mahdi (Tariq, 2007; Majid, 1987). Menurut Tariq (2007), antara metodologi penulisan
Ar-Risalah adalah dalam memartabatkan Al-Quran sebagai sumber teragung. Sunnah tidak dapat
menghapuskan hukum dalam Al-Quran, lantaran sifat sunnah adalah sebagai penjelas kepada AlQuran.
5.0 Rumusan
Pembelajaran dewasa sudahpun wujud dalam Islam secara ‘semulajadi’ merujuk kepada perintah
pelbagai galakan berdasarkan Al-Quran dan sunnah, malah dapat dibuktikan berdasarkan
pencapaian gemilang umat Islam dalam bidang keilmuan, yang semuanya itu takkan dapat
dicapai melainkan dengan pembelajaran dewasa yang berlaku secara serius dalam kalangan umat
Islam beserta semangat jihad intelektual yang tinggi. Jihad intelektual dapat difahami sebagai
jihad dalam bidang intelektualisme dan keilmuan, kerana Allah dan demi menegakkan Islam.
Jihad intelektual membabitkan pengorbanan dan kepayahan sebagaimana makna asal jihad itu
sendiri.
27
Konsep jihad intelektual pula didapati teguh wujud dalam kehidupan tokoh ilmuwan
agung, Imam Syafii, dan kelihatan didokong utuh oleh jihad melawan hawa nafsu. Penulis
sedikitpun tidak berniat untuk merendahkan gagasan agung usul fiqh yang disifatkan setaraf
Ph.D. namun bertujuan untuk membuat perbandingan mudah dengan keadaan sistem pengajian
kini. Sebab kedua adalah untuk memaparkan sikap untuk terus belajar, meningkatkan kepakaran
dan mengemaskinikan gagasan besar sehingga terhasilnya mahakarya Ar-Risalah al-Jadidah
yang menjadi rujukan zaman berzaman hingga ke hari ini biarpun sudah menjangkau usia lebih
1,300 tahun.
Imam Syafii telah memberikan teladan agung dalam konteks jihad intelektual bahawa
jihad perlu dilaksanakan dalam mendapatkan ilmu. Jihad juga diperlukan dalam meningkatkan
kepakaran diri dalam sesuatu bidang ilmu, dan jihad juga diperlukan dalam mengamalkan ilmu
yang ada di samping dan mempertahankan kebenaran berdasarkan kepada ilmu yang dimiliki.
Jihad juga diperlukan dalam usaha penghasilan karya untuk dimanfaatkan kepada orang awam
dan jihad juga diperlukan untuk perkongsian dan wacana ilmu atau untuk diajarkan kepada orang
lain. Gagasan Islamisasi wajar disambut dan dilaksanakan dalam konteks jihad intelektual. Teori
dan model dari perspektif Islam perlu dikemukakan dan dimantapkan dengan kajian bersifat
empirikal.
Rujukan
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Semait). Singapura: Pustaka Nasional.
Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1978). Islam and Secularism. Kuala Lumpur: ABIM.
Al-Attas, Syed Muhammad Naquib (1980). The Concept of Education in Islam. Kuala Lumpur:
ABIM.
Al-Faruqi, I. R. (1982). Islamization of Knowledge. Herndon: IIIT.
Al-Faruqi, I. R. & al-Faruqi, L. L. (1986). The Cultural Atlas of Islam. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company.
Al-Maududi, S.A.A. (1970). Jihad in Islam
(Pent. Abdul Waheed Khan). Lahore: Islamic
Publications Ltd.
Al-Qardhawi, Y. (1988). Ibadah dalam Islam. Kuala Lumpur: Percetakan FS.
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Al-Qardhawi, Y. (2010). Fiqih Jihad (Penterjemah: Irfan Maulana Hakim dan lain-lain).
Bandung: Mizan.
Awang Sudjai Hairul Yusuff Khan (1977). Kamus Lengkap. Petaling Jaya: Pustaka Zaman.
Brookfield, S.D. (1986). Understanding and Facilitating Adult Learning. Buckingham: Open
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Ellinger, A.D. (2004). ‘The Concept of Self-Directed Learning and Its Implications for Human
Resource Development’ dalam Advances in Developing Human Resources, 6 (2): 158177.
Fazlur Rahman (1982). Islam and Modernity: Transformation of an Intellectual Tradition.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press
Hilmy Bakar Almascaty (2001). Panduan Jihad untuk Aktivis Gerakan Islam. Jakarta: Gema
Insani.
Hafiz Firdaus Abdullah (2003). Apakah jihad di jalan Allah? Johor Bahru: Jahabersa.
Henschke, J.A. (2008). ‘A Global Perspective on Andragogy: An Update’ dalam Prosiding The
Commission on International Adult Education (CIAE) Pre-Conference, American
Association for Adult and Continuing Education [AAACE] Conference, Boucouvalas, M.
(Ed). VoL 1, pp. 43-94 di http://www.umsl.edu/~henschkej/articles/added-02-10/11.pdf.
[Diakses pada 22 Februari 2013].
Isenberg, S.K. (2007). Applying andragogical principles to internet learning. New York:
Cambria Press.
Jabatan Peguam Negara (2006). Undang-Undang Malaysia Akta 21 Akta Umur Dewasa 1971
(Mengandungi segala pindaan hingga 1 Januari 2006). Kuala Lumpur: Pesuruhjaya
Penyemak Undang-undang Malasia, Malayan Law Journal Sdn. Bhd dan Percetakan
Nasional Malaysia Bhd.
Jarvis, P. (2009). The Routledge International Handbook of Lifelong Learning. London:
Routledge.
Knowles, M.S dan Associates (1984). Andragogy in Action: Applying modern principles of adult
education. San Francisco: Jossey Bass.
Knowles, M.S. (1995). Designs for Adult Learning. Alexandria, VA: American Society for
Training and Development, 1995.
29
Majid Khadduri (1987). Al Shafi’i’s Risala: Treatise on the Foundations of Islamic
Jurisprudence. Cambridge: The Islamic Texts Society.
Merriam, S.B. (2007). Non-Western perspectives on learning and knowing. Malabar, Fla:
Krieger Pub. Co.
Merriam, S.B., Caffarella, R.S. dan Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in Adulthood: A
Comprehensive Guide. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Merriam, S. B., Doraisamy, L., Findsen, B., Kamis, M., Kee, Y., Mohamad, M., Ntseane, G., &
Thaker, S. N. (2005). ‘Challenging the hegemony of western views of learning’ dalam
Prosiding The 46th Annual Adult Education Research Conference, The University of
Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
Mohamad Najib Abdul Ghafar (2004). Dinamika Sistem Pengajian Tinggi. Skudai: Penerbit
UTM.
Mohd. Nasir Omar (2005). Gagasan Islamisasi Ilmu. Kuala Lumpur: Utusan Publications &
Distributions.
Muhammad Hanif Hassan dan Mohamed Ali (2007). Questions and Anwers on Jihad. Singapura:
MUIS dan Perdaus.
Phillips, E.M. dan Pugh, D.S. (2005). How to Get a PhD: A Handbook for Students and Their
Supervisors. Maidenhead: Open University Press.
Ramli Awang (2006). Perkembangan Institusi Pondok di Nusantara: Pengaruhnya di Kedah.
Skudai: Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
Rohizan Ya, Ab. Halim Tamuri, Mohd Musnizam Mustafa, Khairul Najah Abdul Rahim dan
Wan Mariana Wan Mohamad (2011). ‘Kesepaduan Jihad Ilmu dalam Pendidikan Islam
ke Arah Meningkatkan Modal Insan’ dalam Prosiding Nadwah Ulama Nusantara (NUN)
IV: Ulama Pemacu Transformasi Negara: 667-677.
Rosenthal, F. (1992). Keagungan Ilmu. Pent. Syed Muhammad Dawilah Syed Abdullah. Kuala
Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.
Sardar, Z. dan Davies, M.W. (2004). The No-nonsense Guide to Islam. London: Verso.
Salah Zaimeche (2004). ‘The Impact of Islamic Science and Learning on England’, Oktober
2004 di http://www.muslimheritage.com/uploads/islamicscienceandengland.pdf [Diakses
pada 27 Oktober 2010].
30
Smith, M. K. (1999), ‘Adult Education’ di http://www.infed.org/lifelonglearning/b-adedgn.htm
[Diakses pada 26 Mac 2012].
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Sumbangannya dalam Menyuburkan Manhaj Wasatiah di Malaysia’ dalam Prosiding
Nadwah Ulama Nusantara (NUN) V: Ulama dan Cabaran Idealisme Semasa: 290-294.
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andragogy and its search for measurable instrument’ dalam Journal of Adult Education,
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31
PRESTASI PEMBAKARAN MENGGUNAKAN PEMUSAR UDARA ALIRAN PAKSI
DENGAN NOMBOR PUSAR YANG BERBEZA
Mohd Haris Ahmad1, Mohammad Nazri Mohd Jaafar1* dan Mohamad Shaiful Ashrul Ishak2
1
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Aeronautik, Automotif dan Samudera,
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM Johor Bahru, Johor
2
Pusat Pengajian Kejuruteraan Pembuatan, Universiti Malaysia Perlis,
Kampus Pauh Indah, 02600 Arau, Perlis
*
Penulis yang dihubungi: [email protected]
ABSTRAK
Pemusar udara, selain menstabilkan nyalaan merupakan kawalan pasif bagi mengurangkan emisi gas
ekzos. Bahan cemar yang keluar bersama gas ekzos terdiri daripada gas nitrogen oksida (NOx),
sulfur dioksida (SO2) dan karbon monoksida (CO). Pelbagai kaedah boleh diadaptasi bagi
mengurangkan penghasilan gas emisi dari pembakaran, antaranya ialah penambahbaikan teknik
pembakaran dalam usaha mengurangkan penghasilan gas emisi dari pembakaran tersebut. Kajian ini
memfokuskan kepada penggunaan aliran berpusar. Dengan menggunakan pemusar udara aliran
paksi, emisi gas NOx dapat dikurangkan kerana pembakaran yang lebih lengkap dan kecekapan
pembakaran yang lebih tinggi dapat dihasilkan. Kadar emisi ini bergantung kepada sudut pesongan
bilah pemusar yang digunakan dan dibuktikan keberkesanannya melalui penggunaan pemusar udara
aliran paksi di dalam ujian pembakaran yang dijalankan.
Katakunci: Gas emisi, NOx, SO2, CO, pemusar udara.
ABSTRACT
Swirler, besides stabilizing the flame is a passive control device to reduce exhaust gas emissions.
Contaminants discharged along with the exhaust gas consist of nitrogen oxide (NO x), sulfur dioxide
(SO2) and carbon monoxide (CO). Various methods can be adapted to reduce the production of
gaseous emissions from combustion processes, among others is the improvement of combustion
techniques in order to reduce the production of emissions from combustion. This study focuses on
the use of swirling flow. By using axial flow swirler, NOx emissions are reduced due to more
complete combustion and higher combustion efficiency produced. Emission rates depend on the
swirler blade deflection angle used and the effectiveness has been proven through the use of an axial
flow swirler in combustion tests that were carried out.
Keywords: Emission gas, NOx, SO2, CO, air swirler.
1.0 Pengenalan
Keperluan untuk melindungi alam sekitar daripada emisi NOx yang dijana semasa pembakaran telah
mencabar sebahagian besar pereka bentuk turbin gas untuk memperbaiki reka bentuk pembakar.
32
Perhatian khusus diberikan kepada turbin gas yang digunakan dalam enjin pesawat dan untuk
penjanaan kuasa di dalam loji pegun. Penyelidikan untuk membangunkan turbin gas dengan emisi
NOx yang sangat rendah sedang giat dijalankan. Beberapa tahun kebelakangan ini perhatian telah
diberikan khusus untuk mengurangkan NOx daripada proses pembakaran. Walau bagaimanapun,
untuk meminimumkan pelepasan emisi NOx dari pembakar turbin gas adalah perlu untuk
meningkatkan aliran udara zon utama dan untuk memperbaiki pencampuran udara dan bahan bakar.
Dalam proses untuk merendahkan pelepasan gas emisi kebanyakan reka bentuk pembakar turbin
cuba untuk menyalurkan seberapa banyak udara yang boleh melalui kemasukan pembakar dan
menambah udara yang selebihnya jauh di hilir dalam zon pencairan yang tidak diperlukan untuk
penyejukan filem [1]. Banyak kaedah yang digunakan untuk meminimumkan pelepasan NOx
daripada gas turbin boleh disesuaikan atau diadaptasikan untuk konfigurasi pembakar. Kajian ini
adalah berdasarkan kerja-kerja terdahulu mengenai pembakar NOx rendah oleh Al-Kabie [2], Escott
[3] dan Kim [4].
Kesan tahap peningkatan NOx di dalam atmosfera adalah sangat meruncing buat masa ini. Di
dalam atmosfera NO pesat dioksidakan kepada NO2 dan dalam bentuk ini memainkan peranan
penting dalam pembentukan ozon troposferik dan asbut fotokimia, dan dioksidakan untuk
membentuk asid nitrik yang kemudiannya boleh diturunkan sebagai hujan asid [5]. Di bumi,
peningkatan kepekatan NO2 (melebihi 0.06 ppm) boleh menyebabkan masalah pernafasan [6].
Undang-undang had pelepasan NOx di kebanyakan negara memberikan cabaran yang kuat
kepada pereka bentuk pembakar. Cubaan untuk menurunkan emisi NOx dengan mengurangkan
suhu nyalaan akan menyebabkan kestabilan nyalaan berkurangan atau meningkatkan emisi CO.
Pada dasarnya terdapat dua teknik mengawal NOx: kaedah yang menghalang pembentukan
nitrik oksida (NO) [7, 8] dan kaedah yang memusnahkan NO daripada hasil pembakaran [9-11].
Dalam kajian ini kaedah pertama yang diadaptasikan.
Kaedah yang menghalang pembentukan NO melibatkan pengubahsuaian kepada reka bentuk
pembakar konvensional atau keadaan operasi, seperti zon utama lemah, zon utama yang kaya, atau
mengurangkan masa mastautin kerana faktor-faktor utama yang mengawal pembentukan NO adalah
haba dan ketersediaan oksigen. Dalam kajian ini, penggunaan pemusar aliran paksi untuk menjana
aliran pusaran diterapkan sebagai langkah untuk mengelakkan pembentukan emisi NOx.
1.1 Pemusar Udara Aliran Paksi
Dimensi pemusar udara aliran paksi yang dicadangkan oleh Chigier [12] ialah seperti di dalam
Rajah 1.
33
tokokan
df (cm)
Z = dh/d
l (cm)
S
 (dar)
6.314
0.677
1.499
II
8:1
4.727
0.508
III
0.3:1
0.757
0.084
*Berdasarkan kepada gas asli dan  = 0.92.
2.306
4.290
0.3
0.6
0.6
0.6
28
47
53
60
Tentuan
Pemancit
I
m, nisbah
halaju*
20:1
Bil.
bilah
18
12
12
8
Rajah 1 Reka bentuk Pemusar Aliran Paksi [12]
Geometri pemusar adalah terhad pada diameter saluran masuk pembakar. Bilangan bilah yang
digunakan adalah di antara 8 hingga 18. Nombor pusar adalah antara 0.3 hingga 0.6. Saiz pemancit
bahan api mempengaruhi kadar alir udara yang masuk oleh kerana diameter pemusar adalah malar.
Rajah 2 menunjukkan kriteria pemusar udara aliran paksi dengan bilah rata [13].
Rajah 2 Ciri-ciri Pemusar Aliran Paksi [13]
dengan,
34
θ
c
s
z
Dhub
Dsw
z/c
s/c
N
T
= sudut alur keluaran ram
= perentas bilah
= jarak dua bilah bersebelahan
= tinggi bilah (diukur menegak dari permukaan luar hub)
= diameter hub
= diameter pemusar udara
= nisbah aspek
= nisbah jarak/perentas
= bilangan ram (bilah)
= tebal ram (bilah)
Konfigurasi yang ditunjukkan di atas merupakan reka bentuk asas bagi sesebuah pemusar
udara aliran paksi dengan bilah ram rata. Reka bentuk ini menunjukkan penentuan nilai jarak
mempengaruhi parameter lain sebagai contoh, nisbah aspek yang bergantung kepada parameter
tinggi bilah dan perentas bilah. Ralat yang besar akan mempengaruhi hasil ujikaji yang dijalankan.
1.2 Parameter pemusar udara ujian
Sebanyak empat buah pemusar udara aliran paksi dibangunkan untuk kegunaan pembakar jenis
kaleng [14]. Parameter pemusar udara yang telah difabrikasi ditunjukkan dalam Jadual 1.
Jadual 1 Parameter Pemusar Udara
Parameter
Diameter luar anulus
Diameter luar hub
Perentas bilah
Tebal bilah
Jarak antara bilah pada anulus
Tinggi bilah
Nisbah Aspek
Nisbah jarak perentas
Bilangan bilah
Panjang anulus
Panjang hub
Tebal hub
Tebal anulus
Simbol
Ukuran (mm)
D
d
c
t
s
z
z/c
s/c
N
85.0
25.0
10.0
1.5
28.8
8.0
0.800
2.880
8
8.0
40.0
6.0
1.5
1.3 Pengiraan nombor pusar, SN.
Pemusar udara yang direka bentuk mestilah mempunyai nombor pusar melebihi 0.6. Pengiraan
nombor pusar dari segi geometri seperti yang dicadangkan oleh Lefebvre [13] adalah seperti di
bawah:
35
3
  Dhub
 
1



Dsw  
2
 tan 
SN   
2
3   Dhub
 
1  
Dsw  
i.
Bagi pemusar 40°,
1  25 3 
2
80  tan 40
SN  

3 1  25 2 
80 

S N  0.6010
ii.




Bagi pemusar 50°
3


25
2 1  80 
SN 
tan 50
3 1  25 2 

80 
S N  0.8536
iii.




Bagi pemusar 60°
3


25
2 1  80 
SN 
tan 60
3 1  25 2 
80 

S N  1.2406
iv.




Bagi pemusar 70°
3


25
2 1  80 
SN 
tan 70
3 1  25 2 

80 
S N  1.9679




Kesemua pemusar mempunyai nombor pusar kuat (SN > 0.6).
1.4 Reka bentuk pemusar udara
Reka bentuk pemusar udara aliran paksi yang telah dibangunkan untuk kajian ini ditunjukkan dalam
Rajah 3 dan 4 seperti di bawah.
36
Rajah 3 Pandangan Isometri Pemusar Udara Aliran Paksi
Rajah 4 Dimensi Plat Pemusar Paksi dengan Sudut 50º (unit mm)
2.0 Kaedah Ujikaji
Rajah rig ujian pembakar jenis kaleng untuk ujian pembakaran yang dijalankan ditunjukkan dalam
Rajah 5. Rig ujian tersebut dipasangkan ke atas troli boleh gerak pada kedudukan mendatar. Udara
dimasukkan ke dalam kebuk melalui paip masukan dan mengalir secara memaksi sebelum masuk ke
dalam kebuk pembakaran melalui pemusar udara aliran jejarian dengan garis pusat keluaran
sebanyak 40 mm.
37
Gegelung 12V
Rajah 5 Rig Ujikaji Pembakar Jenis Kaleng
Rig ujian dipasangkan dengan pemancit bahan api jenis memusat. Diameter dalaman kebuk
pembakaran ialah 140 mm dan panjangnya ialah 280 mm. Pembakar ini disejukkan secara olakan
oleh udara ambien di dalam makmal dan tidak memerlukan kaedah pendinginan yang lain. Udara
yang memasuki kebuk pembakaran melalui kebuk plenum terlebih dahulu yang mempunyai garis
pusat yang sama dengan kebuk pembakaran. Di dalam kebuk plenum ini dipasangkan dengan
pemusar udara di satah keluarannya dan pemancit bahan api di mana bahan api cecair dipancitkan.
Kuar pensampelan gas ekzos dipasangkan di bahagian hujung kebuk pembakaran.
Penganalisis gas yang digunakan di dalam ujian ini adalah jenis penganalisis gas mudah alih
ROSEMOUNT SERIES 500 yang hanya boleh mengukur gas-gas oksida nitrogen, sulfur dioksida
dan karbon monoksida. Dengan itu, hanya gas-gas ini sahaja yang akan dibincangkan di sini.
Dalam ujikaji ini, empat pemusar udara aliran paksi dengan sudut bilah 40o, 50o, 60o dan 70o
digunakan untuk menunjukkan kesan atau pengaruh kekuatan pusaran atau nombor pusaran dalam
mengurangkan emisi dari pembakar berbahan api cecair. Bahan api yang digunakan sepanjang
kajian ini adalah diesel.
3.0
Keputusan dan Perbincangan
Hasil pembakaran menunjukkan bahawa pembakaran adalah stabil. Ini disebabkan penggunaan
pemusar dengan nombor pemusar>0.6 menghasilkan zon edaran semula di kawasan tengah kebuk
pembakaran [15, 16]. Zon edaran semula ini akan menghantar semula spesis-spesis panas ke
bahagian zon pembakaran bagi meningkatkan kestabilan pembakaran. Kestabilan yang dimaksudkan
di sini adalah nyalaan sempurna dan tidak putus-putus. Suhu keluaran juga akan menjadi mantap
jika nyalaan stabil. Biasanya, apabila mengubah kadar alir bahan api, nyalaan akan stabil dalam
masa 5 minit. Bagi pemusar 40o, nyalaan hanya betul-betul stabil pada kadar alir bahan api 130
ml/minit. Nilai ini diambil sebagai nilai paling rendah bagi kadar alir bahan api untuk semua
38
pemusar supaya mudah dilakukan perbandingan. Seterusnya, kadar alir bahan api diubah kepada
140, 150 dan 160 ml/minit.
Secara umumnya terdapat dua nyalaan yang wujud bagi ujikaji ini, iaitu nyalaan kuning ketika
kestabilan nyalaan dan nyalaan berkilau. Ini disebabkan penggunaan bahan api diesel tidak mampu
untuk mewujudkan nyalaan biru [17, 18].
Rajah 6 menunjukkan suhu pembakaran (suhu maksimum) melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ).
Dari Rajah 6 dapat diperhatikan bahawa suhu maksimum meningkat dengan meningkatnya nisbah
kesetaraan, Φ bagi semua pemusar yang dikaji. Bagaimanapun, pemusar udara bersudut 40°
menghasilkan suhu pembakaran yang paling tinggi berbanding pemusar 50°, 60° dan 70° masingmasing. Perbezaan ini berlaku kerana bagi pemusar bersudut 40º, saiz zon edaran semula adalah
kecil jika dibandingkan dengan sudut yang lain. Oleh itu, edaran semula spesis-spesis panas hasil
pembakaran adalah kecil menyebabkan suhu pembakaran kekal tinggi hingga ke dinding pembakar
[19, 20]. Pengurangan suhu bagi pemusar 40° adalah sebanyak 12%, 9% dan 8% jika di bandingkan
dengan pemusar 50°, 60° dan 70° masing-masing pada nisbah kesetaraan 1.60 (pembakaran kaya
bahan api).
Rajah 6 Graf suhu dinding melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
Rajah 7 pula menunjukkan suhu ekzos melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ). Di sini dapat
diperhatikan bahawa suhu ekzos yang terhasil adalah meningkat dengan peningkatan nisbah
kesetaraan, Φ bagi semua pemusar. Sekali lagi pemusar udara 40° menghasilkan suhu ekzos paling
tinggi dan pemusar udara 70° menghasilkan gas ekzos paling rendah. Keadaan ini sama bagi kes
suhu dinding di mana, sudut pemusar yang kecil menghasilkan zon edaran semula yang kecil dan
seterusnya mengekalkan suhu nyalaan yang secara langsungnya meningkatkan suhu ekszos.
Rajah 8 menunjukkan graf emisi karbon monoksida (CO) melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ) bagi
pelbagai pemusar. Dari rajah ini dapat diperhatikan nilai emisi meningkat dengan peningkatan
nisbah kesetaraan (Φ). Bagaimanapun, kali ini pemusar udara 70° menghasilkan kepekatan emisi
CO yang paling tinggi berbanding dengan pemusar lain. Pengurangan CO sebanyak 3%, 8% dan
39
10% diperolehi apabila menggunakan pemusar udara 40o berbanding apabila menggunakan pemusar
udara 50°, 60° dan 70° masing-masing pada nisbah kesetaraan 1.60 (pembakaran kaya bahan api).
Ini berlaku kerana suhu tinggi mempengaruhi pembentukan CO di mana, suhu tinggi mempengaruhi
kadar perceraian CO2 kepada CO serta O dan secara langsung meningkatkan pembentukan emisi
CO.
Rajah 7 Graf suhu ekzos melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
Rajah 8 Graf emisi CO melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
40
Rajah 9 menunjukkan graf emisi nitrogen oksida (NOx) melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ). Rajah
ini menunjukkan bahwa emisi NOx akan meningkat dengan peningkatan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ).
Bagaimanapun kali ini pemusar udara bersudut 40° menghasilkan kepekatan emisi NOx paling
tinggi manakala pemusar udara bersudut 70° menghasilkan emisi paling rendah. Pemusar dengan
sudut lebih tinggi menghasilkan campuran udara dengan bahan api yang lebih baik disebabkan
aliran berputar yang lebih tinggi mengekalkan nyalaan stabil. Di sini dapat dirumuskan bahawa
untuk mendapatkan kepekatan emisi NOx yang paling rendah, pemusar udara 70° adalah yang
terbaik. Ini adalah selari dengan keputusan-keputusan yang didapati oleh penyelidik terdahulu.
Rajah 9 Graf emisi NOx melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
41
Rajah 10 Graf emisi SO2 melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
Rajah 10 menunjukkan graf emisi sulfur dioksida (SO2) melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ). Rajah
ini menunjukkan kandungan emisi SO2 meningkat dengan peningkatan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ).
Pemusar udara 70° menghasilkan emisi yang tertinggi berbanding pemusar lain. Sementara ini
pemusar udara 40° pula menghasilkan emisi yang rendah. Sementara itu, Rajah 11 pula
menunjukkan graf kecekapan terma melawan nisbah kesetaraan (Φ). Dapat diperhatikan bahawa
kesemua pemusar udara mempunyai kecekapan terma yang hampir sama iaitu di dalam lingkungan
65 hingga 70% yang membuktikan bahawa dengan penggunaan aliran berpusar dapat menstabilkan
nyalaan serta menghasilkan pembakaran yang lebih lengkap. Ini meningkatkan kecekapan
pembakaran serta mengurangkan penghasilan emisi yang berbahaya.
42
Rajah 11 Graf kecekapan terma melawan nisbah kesetaraan bagi pelbagai sudut pemusar
7.0 Kesimpulan
Didapati kesemua pemusar boleh menghasilkan nyalaan stabil pada semua keadaan operasi.
Pembakaran menggunakan pemusar 40° menghasilkan suhu keluaran yang paling tinggi. Ini
disebabkan rintangan udara yang rendah memudahkan pemindahan haba secara olakan. Pemusar
70° menghasilkan emisi NOx yang paling rendah berbanding pemusar lain. Ini menepati andaian
bahawa pemusar dengan nombor pusar yang lebih tinggi akan mengurangkan emisi NO x. Faktor
yang mempengaruhi keluaran emisi ini disebabkan suhu pembakaran yang rendah mengurangkan
penghasilan NOx haba [21]. Akan tetapi, emisi CO dan SO2 adalah lebih tinggi untuk pemusar ini
berbanding pemusar yang lain. Faktor kewujudan CO yang tinggi adalah disebabkan campuran
bahan api kaya.
[1].
[2].
[3].
[4].
[5].
Rujukan
Andrews, G. E., Alkabie, H. S., Abdul Aziz, M. M., Abdul Hussain, U. S., Al Dabbagh, N.
A., Ahmad, N. A., Ali Al Shaikly, A. F., Kowkabi, M. dan Shahabadi, A. R. 1992. High
Intensity Burners with Low NOx Emissions. Proc. Instn. Mech. Engrs. 206: 3–17.
Al-Kabie, H. S. 1989. Radial Swirlers for Low Emissions Gas Turbine Combustion.
University of Leeds, Dept. of Fuel & Energy, PhD.
Escott, N. H. 1994. Ultra Low NOx Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber Design. University
of Leeds, Department of Fuel and Energy, PhD.
Kim, M. N. 1995. Design of Low NOx Gas Turbine Combustion Chamber. University of
Leeds, Dept. of Fuel & Energy, PhD.
Harrison, R. M. 1990. Important Air Pollutants and Their Chemical Analysis. Pollution:
Causes, Effects and Control. London: Royal Society of Chemistry. 156–175.
43
[6]. World Health Organisation. 1987. Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. WHO Regional
Publications, European Series No. 23, ISBN 92 890 1114 9. WHO Regional Office for
Europe: Copenhagen.
[7]. Eide, L. I. dan D. W. Bailey. 2005. Precombustion Decarbonisation Processes. Oil & Gas
Science and Technology - Rev. IFP. 60(3): 475–484.
[8]. FukuShima, S. dan Y. Suzukawa. 2002. Eco-friendly Regenerative Burner Heating System
Technology Application and Its Future Prospects. NKK Technical Review. 87: 30–37.
[9]. Abul Hossain, K., M. N. Mohd-Jaafar, A. Mustafa, K. B. Appalanidu dan F. N. Ani. 2004.
Application of Selective Non-Catalytic Reduction of NOx in Small-Scale Combustion
Systems. Atmosphere Environment. 38: 6823–6828.
[10]. Sanisah Saharin dan M. N. Mohd-Jaafar. 2008. Emissions Reduction of an Oil Burner by Air
Staging. International Conference on Environment 2008, USM Malaysia, 15-17 December
2008.
[11]. Rowlan, S. J. 2002. NOx Control on Preheat and Radiant Furnaces at Nucor Steel Mills
through Urea SNCR, SCR, and Hybrid Processes. ICAC Forum, Houston, Texas, USA,
February 12–13.
[12]. N.A Chigier (editor) (1978). “Progress in Energy and Combustion Science”. Volume 4.
Oxford: Pergamon Press
[13]. Lefebvre, A.H. (1997). “Pembakaran Turbin Gas (terjemahan)”. Johor Bahru: Penerbit
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia.
[14]. Romales Ramli (1998), “Merekabentuk, Membina dan Menguji Sebuah Unit Pembakar, ”
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Tesis Sarjana Muda.
[15]. Chong, C.T., Hochgreb, S. Spray flame study using a model gas turbine swirl burner. 2013.
Applied Mechanics and Materials. 622: 1119-1124
[16]. Chong C.T., Hochgreb S. Flow field of a model gas turbine swirl burner. 2013. Advanced
Materials Research, 622, pp. 1119-1124.
[17]. Ishak, M.S.A., Jaafar, M.N.M., Shafie, N.E.A., Ramli, Y. Design of palm envo-diesel gas
turbine combustion test rig. 2012. International Review of Mechanical Engineering. 6(7):
1673-1680
[18]. Eldrainy, Y.A., Jaafar, M.N.M., Lazim, T.M. 2011. Cold flow investigation of primary zone
characteristics in combustor utilizing axial air swirler. World Academy of Science,
Engineering and Technology. 74:977-983
[19]. Effect of vane setting angle of swirler on flow field of a low-swirl burner. Yin, H. , Dai, R.,
Zhang, J.-H., Zhong, S.-L. 2011. Dongli Gongcheng Xuebao/Journal of Chinese Society of
Power Engineering. 31(9): 664-671
[20]. Jaafar, M.N.M., Nor, M.K.F.M., Ishak, M.S.A. 2011. Aerodynamic study of combustor
using axial swirler. International Review of Mechanical Engineering 5(1):92-99
[21]. Rahim, M.I.B., Asril, M.H.B., Mantari, R., Mohd Jaafar, M.N. 2010. Development of a
small gas turbine combustor. AIP Conference Proceedings. 1225:881-887.
44
A REVIEW OF MUSLIM MARITIME TRADITION
Omar Bin Yaakob*, Mohamad Pauzi Abdul Ghani, Faizul Amri Adnan
Marine Technology Centre,
Universiti Teknologi Malaysia,
81310 UTM, Johor Bahru, Johor
*
Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
The ocean covers more than 75% of the earth surface. This vast expanse of water promises a
wealth of opportunities as well as challenges. This paper describes a historical perspective of
development of maritime ventures in the Islamic World from the time of the Prophet (pbuh)
until the present day. The expansion of the Muslim caliphate entailed among others rapid
growth in
communication and transport system as well as the need for a well-organised
naval fleet. The peak of Muslim naval power was during the rule of the Ottoman Empire
when their warships held sway over the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and parts of the Indian
Ocean. A survey of the present status of maritime military, commercial, education and R&D
capacity in Muslim countries is presented and proposals put forward for improving
collaboration in this field.
Keywords: Muslim maritime, maritime technology, economic impact, commercial ventures
1.0 Introduction
The ocean, which covers more than 75% of the earth surface, supplies various needs of the
human being. Besides the ubiquitous seafood, the ocean provides sources of various kinds of
minerals and ornaments. It is a means of commerce, providing more than 95% of the
transportation needs of international trade. For the coastal states, it is a means of defense
while for the aggressive nations; the sea is an avenue for imperial expansions. In the latter
half of the twentieth century, the ocean strategic and economic importance was enhanced
particularly after the discovery of oil and gas in the Gulf of Mexico.
The history of involvement of the Muslims in sea ventures was very colourful, with
various illustrious figures contributing to the overall science of navigation, shipbuilding and
maritime technology.
The rise of the Muslim sea power reached its height during the
1
Ottomans when they held sway over the Mediterranean, the Red Sea and most of the Indian
Ocean.
This paper presents a historical review of maritime capability of the Muslim empires
and the present status of maritime capability of Muslim countries.
2.0 The Sea is Part of the Bounties of Allah
Man is reminded that the sea is actually one of the bounties from Allah, the Creator and
Sustainer of the World. The Quran contains many verses regarding the bounties of Allah and
these include bounties from the sea.
A selection of the verses related to the uses of the sea for mankind is given below. In
these verses, mankind is clearly reminded that the ocean is indeed part of the blessings and
bounties from the Almighty Creator. Among others, the uses of the sea mentioned are for
shipping, extraction of ornaments and of source of food. The verses also mentioned the
challenges provided by the sea; the large waves and the changing winds. All these are
mentioned so that the humble servants do not forget His signs and lead them to become
grateful.
164. Behold! In the creation of the heavens and the earth; in the alternation of the night and
the day; in the sailing of the ships through the ocean for the profit of mankind; in the rain
which Allah Sends down from the skies, and the life which He gives therewith to an earth
that is dead; in the beasts of all kinds that He scatters through the earth; in the change of the
winds, and the clouds which they Trail like their slaves between the sky and the earth; (Here) indeed are Signs for a people that are wise.( Quran – AlBaqarah: 164)
22. He it is Who enables you to traverse through land and sea; so that ye even board ships; they sail with them with a favourable wind, and they rejoice thereat; then comes a stormy
wind and the waves come to them from all sides, and they think they are being overwhelmed:
they cry unto Allah, sincerely offering (their) duty unto Him saying, "If thou dost deliver us
from this, we shall truly show our gratitude!" (Quran -Yunus: 22)
14. It is He Who has made the sea subject, that ye may eat thereof flesh that is fresh and
tender, and that ye may extract there from ornaments to wear; and thou see the ships therein
that plough the waves, that ye may seek (thus) of the bounty of Allah and that ye may be
grateful. (Quran – AnNahl: 14)
2
12. Nor are the two bodies of flowing water alike, - the one palatable, sweet, and pleasant to
drink, and the other, salt and bitter. Yet from each (kind of water) do ye eat flesh fresh and
tender, and ye extract ornaments to wear; and thou see the ships therein that plough the
waves, that ye may seek (thus) of the Bounty of Allah that ye may be grateful. (Quran Faatir: 12)
19. He has let free the two bodies of flowing water, meeting together: Between them is a
Barrier which they do not transgress: Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny?
Out of them come Pearls and Coral: Then which of the favours of your Lord will ye deny?
And His are the Ships sailing smoothly through the seas, lofty as mountains: Then which of
the favours of your Lord will ye deny? (Quran -ArRahman: 19-25)
3.0 The Ship
A recurrent mention in the above verses is the ship which “sails through the ocean for the
profit of mankind” (Albaqarah: 164). One point to note is that although the life history
(seerah) of the
Prophet (pbuh) did not record any instance of him boarding any sea going
vessel, the description the ship ‘ploughing the waves’ (An-nahl: 14), and the fear and anxiety
as well as the silent prayers of the sea farers (Yunus: 22) are very realistic. This may add to
the argument that the Quran is not based on the Prophet’s personal experience but rather
revelation from the All-Knowing Creator.
Ships or a floating vessel of all kinds and shape provide the means through which
man derive benefits from the sea. Using ships, sea-borne commerce can work, passenger
movement happens, sea defenses are initiated, and fish and other seafood are harvested while
the minerals, oil and gas are being explored, extracted and transported. Indeed the ship is
undeniably an important sign of Allah’s greatness and a symbol of His mercy.
Today, we have taken the ship for granted but on deeper thought, the fact that heavy
steel or even a concrete structure can float is by no means straightforward. It is due to the
nature of things set by Allah that a body immersed in a fluid is supported by a force
equivalent to the weight of the fluid it displaces. This sunnatullah was in about 250 B.C.
named Archimedes principle, after the person who discovered it. It is important for teachers
of ship science to emphasize this point when teaching the physics of floatation and
hydrostatics.
The subject of the ship takes us to the large ship often mentioned in the Quran when
describing the early stages of human history; the Noah’s ark. The ark was described in the
3
Quran as built under the inspiration from Allah, i.e. the design and construction was made by
the Prophet Noah under the guidance from Allah.
37. "But construct an Ark under Our eyes and Our inspiration, and address Me no (further) on
behalf of those who are in sin: for they are about to be overwhelmed (in the Flood)." (QuranHud: 37)
As for the size and shape of this ark, no details were given in the Quran and Hadith. This
contrasts with the Bible (Genesis 6), which presented a detail account of the structure; its
length, breadth and depth as well as the persons who were on board together with Prophet
Noah. The difference between the Biblical account and Quranic accounts does not stop there.
The well-known writer Harun Yahya described other major dissimilarities between them in
his book [1].
Interests among Muslims and non-Muslims on this Ark linger. A lot of effort was
spent, particularly by Christian literalist groups to search for the remains of the Ark in Mt
Ararat, the ark’s resting place according to the Bible (Genesis 8:4). Interestingly, some
Christians also believed, through deductions based on geological knowledge that the ark
rested on Mount Judi, the resting place mentioned by the Quran, for example ref. [2]
The open-ended nature of the Quran in the stories of Prophet Noah and the people of
old serves two purposes. First, as noted by Sayyid Qutb in his tafsir Fi Zilalil Quran, is to
ensure that the Muslims are not engrossed with the details, while losing the meaning and
lessons to be learnt from such stories. Secondly, the present authors contend that such
details, if given, will necessarily reflect the level of technology and knowledge at the time of
the Quranic revelations which might not be similar in other culture and time, thus creating
confusion. The Biblical account of the type of material used for building the ark and the
cubit unit of measure are examples of potentially contentious issues when details are
included.
4.0 Maritime Commercial Ventures in the Muslim World
The Muslims involvement in international trade is not new. From pre-prophethood period,
Makkah was seen as the centre for international trade between the regions of Yemen in the
South and Syria in the North. The annual pilgrimage season is an avenue for international
mingling and trade. When the Islamic domain developed and expanded, both domestic and
4
international trade also increased. Besides taking the land route to faraway places such as
China, goods also travel by sea.
Reference [3] and [4] describe the golden age of Muslim sea power. Maritime
commerce thrived under the Umayyads. From late 7th century A.D. onwards, Arabs were
frequently sailing to China. The port of Basra founded in A.D. 636, expanded to become a
major trading port under the Abbasids. Other important seaports are Muscat, Aden and
Jeddah.
5.0 Muslim Naval Power
Further detailed descriptions of development of Muslim sea power in the military and
commercial sense are given in by Fahmy [5] and Hourani [6]. The need to protect the
Muslim maritime traders and the defense of the Muslim lands from attacks from the enemies
necessitates the formation of a strong naval power. Prior to the middle of 7th Century A.D,
the Mediterranean is wholly controlled by the Byzantium naval forces. This status quo
changed when Amir Muawwiyah established the first Muslim naval mission and occupied
Cyprus in 648 A.D. According to ref [7], the Muslims held sway over the sea in the tenth
century of the Christian era. By then, Islam’s naval forces had established its complete
supremacy owing to its effective control over the North African Seaboard and Spain and its
occupation of Sicily, Sardinia and Southern Italy. When Muslim sea power began to wane
with the decline of the Abbasids, the Christian powers re-emerged as masters of the
Mediterranean. It was noted that according to Ibn Khaldun, the establishment of Christian
naval supremacy was the chief factor in losses of the Muslim territory in the Mediterranean
and Spain [7].
The Muslim naval strength returned in early sixteenth century when the Ottomans
took over the caliphate and became the de facto leader of the Muslim world.
A number of papers presented in an international conference held in Istanbul focused on the
historical development of the Ottoman navy. Among them, ref [8], [9], [10] described the
superiority of Ottoman Naval powers in the Mediterranean and beyond.
During early 16th century, the Barbary corsairs played a major role in the Western
Mediterranean as described in [11]. According to ref. [12], the dominance of the Ottoman
Navy was enhanced with rise to prominence of Khayr al-Din Barbarossa. Khayr al-Din
Barbarossa not only rise to the prominence of an international actor in the sixteenth century
international balance of power system, but also was appointed as the Grand Admiral of the
Ottoman Navy in 1534.
5
Reference [13] described the development of the Ottoman maritime arsenals (naval
base), the shipyards and logistic support system which was responsible for upkeep of one of
the biggest naval fleet in the world. The activities to protect the territories and maritime
commerce from the Venetian and Genoese fleets and match them at sea were initiated by
Sultan Bayezid I in 1390. In 1515, Sultan Selim I ordered the construction of the Istanbul
Naval Base. By the middle of the sixteenth century, this Naval base and dockyard became
the biggest in the world, rivalled only by Venice.
The reformation and modernisation of the Ottoman Navy was initiated by grand
Admiral Mezemorta Hüseyin. With the issuance of the naval code in 1701, the Ottoman
Navy underwent an important change and transition [14]. Golden Horn, Istanbul maritime
arsenal that would serve as the constructive and administrative centre of the navy was
established, with construction of 150 warships.
The naval superiority of the Ottomans not only influenced the political landscape, but
also trade and the spread of Islam across the Indian Ocean [15].
At one point, the Ottomans were controlling the whole of the Mediterranean Sea, the Red
Sea, The Black Sea, and some portions of the Indian Ocean, keeping check over the
Portuguese exploits. To support these activities, the Ottomans established naval bases in
Suez, Basra and on the Danube in Hungary.
Ref [16] and [17] described the expansion of the Ottoman empire towards the Indian
Ocean
particularly the confrontations with the Portuguese imperial navy. The domain of
suzerainty of the Ottomans extended to Acheh in North Sumatra. Reference [18] described
the development of strong relationships between the Ottomans and the Sultanate of Acheh in
North Sumatra. Acheh regarded itself as a vassal of the Ottoman Empire and to underscore
this link, the Ottomans, at the request of the Acheh Sultanate sent military aid to help stem
the Portuguese’s military expeditions, [19]. Sultan Suleiman responded by establishing a
military academy to train naval commanders and cannon makers and setting up a cannon
factory. Sultan Suleyman and Selim II also sent cannons and gun-making expertise to Acheh
to help them in their fights against the Portuguese. Remarkably, Acheh used its Turkish
equipment to attack the Portuguese colony in Malacca in 1568 and again in 1570 and 1573.
Muslim maritime prowess was also shown earlier in the East through the voyages of
Zheng He (Cheng Ho) from 1405 to 1433. A description in the Time magazine, which
published a feature article on this Ming Dynasty’s Admiral, is given as follows [20]:
6
“His armada of giant junks was several times bigger than any of the fleets Columbus
commanded nearly a century later. And his ships were five times longer than those of the
celebrated Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama. With more than 300 ocean-going vessels and
a crew of nearly 30,000 men, Zheng He helped transform China into the region's, and perhaps
the world's, 15th century superpower”.
Ref [21] describes the contribution of Zheng He’s voyages to the development of Islam in
south East Asia.
6.0 Development of Maritime Technology and Knowledge
The technology and knowledge need to be in consonant with the development of the maritime
ventures. Foremost in the development of the technology for maritime activities is the ship.
Ref [3] describes the use of lateen sail and made use of the knowledge of the monsoon winds
to operate the maritime trade. For shipbuilding, no other materials were used other than
timber, oak, pine, chestnut and teak being the most common for large vessels. In the early
days of the Muslim empire, most shipbuilding materials were imported. However, during the
Ottoman’s rule, the materials including timber, iron, tar, and sailcloth were sourced out from
the various regions of the vast empire [7].
The Muslims imported foreign technology, utilised them and developed them further.
Compasses, imported from China were used in the 11th century, much earlier than the
Europeans. The Muslims invented the astrolabe for positioning at sea. Sultan Mehmet I who
was also accredited with the building of the largest canon in the world had to introduce the
most novel way of transporting warships on dry land into the Golden Horn to bypass the
Byzantium blockade during the Conquest of Constantinople in 1452.
Ref [3] enumerates examples of the various records of Arab seafaring and maritime
techniques during the Abbasid Era. Amongst others, he mentioned writings of Ibn
Khurdadhib (A.D. 850), the geographer Al-Masudi (A.D. 947) and Al-Maqdisi (A.D.955).
During the peak of Ottomans domination of the sea, the famous Piri Reis wrote his
Kitab i Bahriye. This book, written in 1521 contains a very accurate and detailed guide to the
islands and coasts of the Mediterranean, perhaps the most detailed work on the subject until
modern times; the introduction in verse deals with such things as cartography, navigation and
general geography. The book was presented to Sultan Suleyman in 1526, and 29 manuscripts
of two different versions survived [22].
7
Maps are important for maritime ventures. Piri Reis also produced his famous Piri’s
world map giving a comprehensive description of the explored lands including the new
world. Although only a portion of this map survived, an interesting description of its content
and the controversy it created are given in ref [23] and [24].
7.0 Development of Legal and Juristic Framework
In addition to the hard sciences and technology, legal and juristic frameworks need to be
developed. The merit of fighting at sea is mentioned by one of the authentic Prophetic
tradition as follows.
Anas bin Malik, may Allah be pleased with him, reported:
“The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) used to visit Umm Haram bint Milhan
and Umm Haram was the wife of 'Ubadah bin Al-Samit. One day the Messenger of Allah
(may peace be upon him) paid her a visit. She entertained him with food and then sat down to
rub his head. The Messenger of Allah (may peace be upon him) dozed off and when he woke
up (after a while), he was laughing. She asked: What makes you laugh, Messenger of Allah?
He said: Some people from my Ummah were presented to me who were fighters in the way
of Allah and were sailing in this sea. (Gliding smoothly on the water), they appeared to be
kings or like kings (sitting) on thrones (the narrator has a doubt about the actual expression
used by the Holy Prophet). She said: Messenger of Allah, pray to Allah that He may include
me among these warriors. He prayed for her. Then he placed his head (down) and dozed off
(again). He woke up laughing as before. (She said) I said: Messenger of Allah, what makes
you laugh? He replied: A people from my Ummah were presented to me. They were fighters
in Allah's way. (He described them in the same words as he had described the first warriors).
She said: Messenger of Allah, pray to Allah that He may include me among these warriors.
He said: You are among the first ones. Umm Haram bint Milhan sailed in the sea in the time
of Muawwiyah. When she came out of the sea and (was going to mount a riding animal) she
fell down and died. (Muslim).”
However, beyond such exhortation, direct Quranic and Prophetic guidance and legal
judgement are hard to come by since the Prophet did not have the chance of conducting Jihad
at sea. However, since the time of Amir Muawwiyah, the legal structure of maritime warfare
began to be developed based on extension of the land-based war legal regime.
development of such rules is described by Khadduri in ref [6] and Chapter 4 of ref [25].
8
The
In the commercial world, the developments of maritime laws were modified from the then
current practices in the maritime world. These are described by ref [25] and [26]. Terms
familiar to present maritime laws practitioners such as general average, salvage, carriage of
goods, ship leasing contract, freedom of navigation and collision rules are all available in the
codified rules. In addition, ref [25] also describes additional Islamic laws applied at sea such
as the criminal laws and religious practices at sea.
8.0 Present Capability
Having seen the rise of Muslim maritime strength from the time of Amir Muawwiyah to its
Zenith during the middle of the sixteenth century and its subsequent decline due to the
onslaught of the western colonialist powers, we now review the present status of the Muslim
maritime capability.
The present status of the naval assets in Muslim countries is given in Table 1, while
those of their neighbouring potential adversaries are given in Table 2. It can be seen that the
Muslim countries are out-numbered in most cases. To add to this predicament, many other
Muslim countries are dependent on foreign assistance.
Table 1 Naval Assets in selected Muslim Countries
Aircraft carrier
Submarine
Frigate
Destroyer
Corvette
Coastal patrol craft
Source:
Pakistan Turkey
0
0
8
14
11
17
0
0
0
7
29
43
Iran
0
29
9
3
3
287
Indonesia Malaysia
0
0
2
2
6
4
0
0
23
4
70
25
http://www.globalfirepower.com (March 2013)
9
Table 2 Naval Assets in selected neighbours to Muslim Countries
Aircraft carrier
Submarine
Frigate
Destroyer
Corvette
Coastal patrol
craft
Source:
India
1
15
14
8
24
31
Israel
0
4
0
0
3
60
Singapore
0
6
6
0
6
12
Greece
0
8
20
0
0
35
http://www.globalfirepower.com (March 2013)
On the civilian side, the ranking of maritime nations are usually measured in terms of
the total shipping tonnage owned by the respective countries. United Nations Conference on
Trade and Development (UNCTAD) publishes Review of Maritime Transport [27] which
gives annual statistics of maritime transport including country rankings. The list of top 35
countries listed in which together own 95% of world fleet is given in Table 3. The table
shows that although a number of Muslim countries are listed, they are in the second half of
the league table with Turkey, Malaysia and Saudi Arabia leading the pack at no 14th, 20th
and 22nd place respectively.
In terms of educational institutions, the International Association of Maritime
Universities (IAMU) (http://www.iamu-edu.org) website listed 44 member institutions, of
which only four are located in Muslim countries. The International Maritime Organisation
(IMO) provides a Compendium of Maritime Training Institutes [28] which listed the
educational institution as in Table 4. The number of institutions in Muslim countries adds up
to 23. Although both lists are not exhaustive, they give an idea of the state of maritime
education and training in the Muslim countries, which is below their counterparts in
developed countries.
The above lists from IAMU and IMO present a mix of all kinds of maritime training
and education institutes, mainly for training of seafarers.
Table 5 presents the list of
institutions of higher learning offering Bachelor and post-graduate programmes in marine
technology related fields. These are available in Turkey, Iran, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia
and Bangladesh.
10
Table 3 Position of Muslim Countries in top 35 Maritime Fleets
Source: Review of Maritime Transport 2012, UNCTAD [27]
Country or Territory of ownership Deadweight tonnage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
Greece
Japan
Germany
China
Korea, Republic of
United States
China, Taiwan Province of
Norway
Denmark
Chinese Taipei
Singapore
Bermuda
Italy
Turkey
Canada
India
Russian Federation
United Kingdom
Belgium
Malaysia
Brazil
Saudi Arabia
Netherlands
Indonesia
Iran
France
United Arab Emirates
Cyprus
Viet Nam
Kuwait
Sweden
Isle of Man
Thailand
Switzerland
Qatar
Total top 35 countries
WORLD TOTAL
11
Total
224 051 881
217 662 902
125 626 708
124 001 740
56 185 570
54 622 733
45 485 988
43 099 867
39 991 334
39 045 289
38 562 727
29 996 046
24 988 732
23 480 628
21 849 996
21 362 954
20 368 207
18 429 755
14 521 311
14 445 096
13 761 528
12 740 115
11 701 244
11 592 966
11 464 389
11 170 913
8 796 135
7 137 105
6 695 009
6 692 219
6 396 416
6 358 211
5 153 550
4 890 262
4 627 351
1 326 956 877
1 518 109 503
Table 4 Maritime Training and Education Institutions (data from IMO [28])
Country
Egypt
Iran
Turkey
Malaysia
Indonesia
Pakistan
Bangladesh
5
3
5
3
5
1
1
9.0 Concluding Remarks
A review of the growth of maritime capability of the Muslim empire indicates a rapid
development. It gives us great motivation to learn that at one point in time our predecessors
were the unchallenged masters of the sea.
However, the present outlook is not so rosy. The Muslims navies are outnumbered in
terms of assets and the control of the maritime transport is not in the hands of the Muslims.
In addition, while we have many institutions for training of seafarers, the number of
institution of higher learning offering higher degrees, and conducting research and
development are still very limited. These are available in six out of the 57 members of the
Organisation of Islamic Conference.
It is proposed that the Muslim countries consolidate their effort particularly in the
field of education, training as well as R&D. The institutions of higher learning can link up to
carry out joint research, credit transfers, student and staff exchange. They can also help
established other institutions in other maritime Muslim countries.
Acknowledgement
The authors wish to thank Ministry of Science Technology and Innovation Malaysia who
supported the project under the Sciencefund programme. Special thanks are due to staff of
Research Management Centre, Universiti Technology Malaysia for their support and
assistance.
12
Table 5 Institutions
Country
of Higher Learning offering Higher Degrees Marine Technology
Programmes
University
Website
Academic Unit
Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering
Department
Naval Architecture and
Marine Engineering
Department
Egypt
Alexandria
University
http://www.alex.edu.eg/
Egypt
Suez Canal
University Port Said
http://scuegypt.edu.eg/
Iran
Amirkabir University
of Technology
http://www.aut.ac.ir
Faculty of Marine Technology
Iran
Sharif University
http://www.sharif.ir
Turkey
Karadeniz Technical
University
www.ktu.edu.tr
Department of Mechanical
Engineering
Department of Naval
Architecture and Marine
Engineering
Turkey
Istanbul Technical
University
http://www.itu.edu.tr/
Faculty of Naval Architecture
and Ocean Engineering
Indonesia
Hasanudin University
http://www.unhas.ac.id
Department of Shipbuilding
Indonesia
Sepuluh Nopember
Technical Institute
http://www.its.ac.id
Faculty of Marine
Engineering
Indonesia
Universitas Indonesia
http://www.ui.edu
Department of Ship
Engineering
Indonesia
Diponegoro
University
http://www.undip.ac.id
Department of Naval
Architecture
Malaysia
Universiti Teknologi
Malaysia
http://www.utm.my
Department of Marine
Technology
Malaysia
Universiti Malaysia
Terengganu
http://umt.edu.my
Department of Maritime
Technology
Malaysia
Universiti Kuala
Lumpur-Malaysian
Institute of Marine
Engineering
Technology
(MIMET) Perak
http://mimet.edu.my
Naval Architecture and
Shipbuilding
Bangladesh
University of
Engineering and
Technology
http://www.buet.ac.bd/
Department of Naval
Architecture and Marine
Engineering
Bangladesh
13
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15
EFFECT OF FAITH-BASED INTERVENTION ON DIETARY BEHAVIOUR
CHANGE
Suriani Ismail 1,3*, Khadijah Shamsuddin3, Khalib Abdul Latiff3, Hazizi Abu Saad2,
Latifah Abd Majid4, Fadlan Mohd.Othman4
1
2
Dept. of Community Health,
Dept. of Nutrition and Dietetics,
Faculty of Medicine and Health Science,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang,
Malaysia
3
4
Dept. of Community Health, Faculty of Medicine,
Dept. of al-Quran and Sunnah, Faculty of Islamic Studies,
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia, Cheras,
Malaysia
* Corresponding Author: [email protected]
Abstract
Many religious teachings are in line with health objectives, thus providing great opportunities
for faith-based health interventions. In this intervention, Islamic teachings were used as the
mediator to change dietary behavior to control weight. The promoted dietary practices were
voluntary fasting and food portion control. A quasi experiment was carried out to test the
effectiveness of this faith based dietary intervention. Two dietary interventions were
developed. One was the faith-based dietary intervention and the other was a basic dietary
intervention. The intervention packages developed were then validated. Two groups of
Muslim women were recruited for the study. The faith-based intervention group received an
Islamic intervention package while the basic intervention group received a basic intervention
package (i.e. without the faith components). Their baseline dietary practices were assessed
prior to intervention and reassessed at 3 months post ‘active intervention phase’. After 3
months of ‘active intervention phase’, the number of respondents who practiced voluntary
fasting has increased significantly in the faith-based intervention group, while it was slightly
reduced in the basic intervention group. As for food portion control practices, the number of
respondents who practiced such control were significantly increased in both groups, however
16
the increment in percentage was higher in the faith-based intervention group. The encouraged
behaviour changes were more significantly observed in the faith-based intervention group,
thus indicating the effectiveness of this faith-based dietary intervention.
Keywords: faith-based intervention, behavior change, voluntary fasting, food portion control
1.0 Introduction
Global health statistics shows that obesity is a critical health problem in Muslim countries.
According to the International Association for the Study of Obesity 2012, the prevalence of
overweight individuals in Muslim countries in the Eastern Mediterranean Region was among
the highest globally. Epidemiological analysis shows that between the genders, the overall
prevalence is higher among women. For example, in Kuwait, the prevalence of obesity
among adult females was 48% compared to 36% among their male counterparts. Similar
findings were observed in Qatar (45% vs. 35%), Saudi Arabia (44% vs. 26%) and in Palestine
(43% vs 24%). 1 Diabetes, one of the diseases that is associated with being overweight, was
also highly prevalent in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Six of the 10 countries with the
highest prevalence of diabetes in the world were from the region namely Bahrain, Kuwait,
Lebanon, Oman, Saudi Arabia and United Arab Emirates.2
In Malaysia, the third Malaysian National Health and Morbidity Survey (NHMS)
2006 reported the prevalence of obesity among ethnic Malays who are mostly Muslims at
29.8% (95% CI: 29.1,30.5). Furthermore, according to the recent NHMS 2011, the
percentage has increased to 31.1% (CI: 29.9, 32.3) and the prevalence according to the type
of occupation was highest among government officials 34.2% (95% CI: 31.5,37.1).3,4
According to a national survey which analyzed the odds of obesity among Malaysian women,
the odds ratio for obesity was 3.13 among Malay women (compared to Chinese women) and
3.63 in Muslim women (compared to Buddhist women).5
The two causes found to be contributory toward being overweight globally and
locally, were over consumption of energy and physical inactivity. Over the past four decades,
the world food balance sheet for Middle Eastern countries has showed an increase of between
16-60% with an increase in fat consumption of between 13.6-143.0%. Among the
contributing factors to this food transition (i.e. the increase in fat consumption) were
increasing numbers of fast food outlets, improvement of socioeconomic status and
urbanization. The trend changes were similar in Malaysia where the food balance sheet
showed an increment of 19.5% and an increase in fat consumption by 82%. 6-11
17
An ideal intervention to control weight should focus on both factors i.e. dietary
control and increasing physical activity. However, the focus of this intervention was to
control overconsumption of energy which mainly occurs due to excessive food consumption.
The choice of this focus was made as studies have shown that the physical activity among
women especially the Malays was very low. A recent survey among women in urban areas
show that only 22.3% of women in all races exercise and another survey among adult
Malaysians show that only 14.2 % of Malays exercise and only 9% of Malay women do
so.12-14Thus, a dietary intervention is expected to be better received and adhered to by the
Malay women as compared to the promotion of exercise.
The World Health Organization, particularly the Eastern Mediterranean Regional
Office has documented the possible benefits of using religion in promoting health.
Documents entitled ‘The Right Path to Health, Health Education through Religion’ and
’Health Promotion through Islamic Lifestyles’ mirror their aspirations.15-17 In fact, Muslim
countries are encouraged to seek their own health solutions and to not depend on researches
carried out in countries which do not share cultures similar to their own.
Muslims believes that Islam is a comprehensive religion and its teaching offers a
complete way of life as well as solutions to all spiritual and physical problems. Thus, a
Muslim believes that Islamic teachings provide numerous health solutions. The main task
was to identify religious teachings which are in line with the desired health objectives. The
ultimate health objective in this intervention was to control weight and the aim of this
intervention was to change dietary behaviour. The promoted behaviour changes were to
practice voluntary fasting and to control food portion. The effect of these behaviour changes
could reduce the total amount of food consumed and thus help in reducing the excess weight
of an overweight Muslim.
2.0 Methods
This study was approved by Research Committee of Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia
Medical Center. Consents were obtained from cluster guardians and each participant.
Two intervention packages were developed. Table 1 shows the similarities and
differences between the two intervention packages. Both groups were briefed
on the
appropriate food portion to be taken according to the available food groups as explained in
the Malaysian Food Pyramid Guideline 2010. Both groups were taught on how to estimate
food portion sizes and how to monitor their food intake amount themselves using a food
diary.
18
Table 1: The similarities and differences between faith-based intervention and basic
intervention
Faith-based
Basic
package
package
Food quantity estimation (Food Pyramid 2010)
√
√
Instruction on how to use food diary
√
√
Relevant religious information
√
X
Printed material
√
√
Briefing
Food diary
-
Guideline to estimate food quantity
√
√
-
Religious reminders
√
X
√
X
4 booklets on relevant religious information
However, in the Islamic intervention package, the briefing sessions stressed on the
relevant religious teachings to practice voluntary fasting and to control the quantity of food
intake. These were supported by relevant information in the form of printed materials. These
faith-based intervention printed materials were developed using information from the two
main sources of Islamic teachings that are the Quran and the hadith. The inputs were obtained
from team members who were known to be credible in their knowledge on the teachings of
Islam. The printed materials consisted of four booklets and a food diary. The content of the
four booklets covered knowledge concerning the importance of a Muslim to stay healthy,
fasting ethics, voluntary fasting, the reward of fasting, prohibition of excess food
consumption, and Islamic planning and motivation. The food diary was prepared to help
respondents to monitor their food portion control. The pages in the food diary were
interspersed with relevant religious reminders from the Quran and the hadith. The pages on
days recommended to voluntarily fast was colored to alert respondents about it. This Islamic
dietary intervention package was given to the faith-based intervention group. The basic
intervention group, meanwhile, received a basic dietary intervention package which includes
information on ’how to estimate food quantity’ and ’what is the appropriate food portion’.
The basic intervention group did not receive the four related religious information booklet,
nor they were briefed on them and their food diary was devoid of Islamic reminders.
19
All printed materials developed for this study (i.e. the booklets, food diary and the
questionnaire) were validated and tested for its reliability. It was initially pre-tested among 5
government staff from different occupational positions in a selected public university. A pilot
test was then carried out among 30 government staff also from different occupational
positions in a selected local government office. The representation from different occupation
positions was to ensure ’convergent’ and ‘discriminant’ validity. Validity tests for
‘readability’ was carried out using ’Flesh-Kincaid Grade level’. The tests showed that the
printed materials were appropriate for persons aged 16 and above. The ’index of difficulty’
was within the acceptable range (0.12-0.66) except for 2 questions which were rated as ’too
easy’ (>0.66).
The religious information was validated by 3 religious experts from the Department of
Al-Quran & Sunnah, Faculty of Islamic Studies, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. The
dietetic content was validated by 2 dietetic experts from the Department of Nutrition &
Dietetics, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, while the
appropriateness of language used was checked by a Bahasa Melayu language teacher from
Sekolah Kebangsaan Presint 8 (2), Putrajaya. ’Test and retest’ method was adopted to test the
reliability of the questionnaire. The interval between the two tests was 2 weeks. The
statistical test carried out was ‘Cronbach Alpha’ consistency test for the numerical responses
and the ’Kappa’ test for categorical answers. The Cronbach Alpha value for the knowledge
and attitude questions was 0.4 and 0.7 respectively. The value for knowledge questions was
poor but could be improved if two identified questions were removed, but due to the
necessity of these questions, they were retained. The value for practices questions were
within the range of 0.7-0.9. In short, validity and reliability tests showed that all printed
material developed for this study were within the acceptable range.
The variables assessed as baseline were the socio-demographic, socioeconomic
characteristics and body mass index category. The voluntary fasting practices and the food
portion control practices were assessed through the number of respondents who practiced
them. These dietary practices were assessed at baseline (prior to intervention) and reassessed
3 months post ‘active intervention phase’. An important potential confounding factor i.e. the
level of religiosity was also assessed. Level of religiosity was measured using a validated
questionnaire which has been repeatedly used to study the association of religiosity and the
selection of banking in Malaysia. 18
The active intervention phase was the whole month of Ramadan. The month of
Ramadan was chosen to be the ’active intervention phase’ due to the uniqueness of
20
Ramadan’s environment where it facilitates these behaviour changes (i.e. fasting and food
portion control). There is less food distraction during Ramadan since the availability of food
public is scarce. Furthermore, Ramadan is viewed by Muslims as a spiritual and also a
physical training camp to leave what is religiously perceived as bad and to acquire that which
is perceived as good. Thus these moderating factors added on to the effect of the desired
behaviour changes. With increased correct knowledge and understanding about the promoted
behaviour and skill to be practiced, there will be an increase in the chances for behaviour
changes.
This was a quasi-experiment study among overweight Malay Muslim women working
as government officials. Two states in Malaysia were selected and the offices within the state
were chosen randomly through a one stage random cluster sampling. The main inclusive
criteria were BMI >25 kg/m2 and the main exclusive criteria were the inability to fast.
Characteristics of the two groups at baseline were compared using t and Chi square tests. To
detect pre to post behaviour changes McNemar test was used and to find out the success of
this faith-based dietary intervention, the magnitude of changes between the two groups were
compared. All significant level was set at p<0.05.
3.0 Results
Fifty-six Muslim women were recruited in the faith-based intervention group and eighty-four
in the basic intervention group. Table 2a and 2b show that the sociodemograhic, the
socioeconomic, the body mass index and the voluntary fasting practices characteristics of the
two groups were comparable. However, there were significantly more respondents who
control food portion in the basic intervention group compared to the faith-based intervention
group. The baseline level of religiosity was also comparable.
At 3 month post active phase, the number of respondents who turned up for follow up
was 48 (85.7%) in faith-based intervention group and 62 (73.8%) in the basic intervention
group. As shown in Table 3, after 3 months of active intervention phase, the number of
respondents who practiced voluntary fasting increased significantly only in the faith-based
intervention group, while it was slightly reduced in the basic intervention group. As for food
quantity control practices (Table 3), the number of respondents who practiced food quantity
control were significantly increased in both groups, but the percentage of increment was
higher in the intervention group.
21
Table 2a: Comparison of age, household income and BMI variable at baseline between
respondents in faith-based intervention group and basic intervention group
Faith-based intervention
Basic intervention
t
p
(N = 56)
(N = 84)
value
value
Means + sd.
Means + sd.
36.65+10.16
39.84+10.28
1.81
0.07
3471.63+1978.89
3368.92+2212.33
0.33
0.76
31.01+4.07
31.14+4.26
0.17
0.86
Variable
Age
Household income (RM)
BMI (kg/m2)
t = t test, significant at p<0.05
Table 2b: Comparison of marital status, dietary practices and religiosity level at baseline
between respondents in faith-based intervention group and basic intervention group
Faith-based intervention
Basic intervention
χ
p
(N = 56)
(N = 84)
value
value
f(%)
f(%)
Single
14(25.0)
12(14.3)
2.57
0.28
Married
42(75.0)
72(85.7)
No. practice voluntary fasting
34(60.7)
62(73.8)
2.67
0.10
No. practice portion control
22(39.3)
49(58.3)
4.88
0.03
Strongly religious
15(26.8)
24(28.6)
0.05
0.82
Moderate/casual
41(73.2)
60(71.4)
Variable
Marital status
Dietary practices
Religiosity level
χ2 = Chi square test, significant at p<0.05
22
Table 3: Voluntary fasting and portion control practice changes in faith-based intervention
Faith-based
intervention
(N=56)
Basic
intervention
(N=84)
Baseline
N(%)
3 months post
Ramadan
N(%)
Change
(%)
Variable
Differen
t (%)
and basic intervention group.
p
value
Voluntary fast
34(60.7)
45(80.4)
+19.7
32.5↑
<0.01
Portion control
Voluntary fast
22(39.3)
62(73.8)
33(58.9)
61(72.6)
+19.6
-1.2
49.9↑
1.6↓
<0.01
1.00
Portion control
49(58.3)
62(73.8)
+15.5
26.6↑
0.02
McNemar test, significant at p < 0.05
23
High eating frequency
Large quantity of food intake
Excessive food consumption
Intervention
↑ Relevant Islamic knowledge
+ Basic intervention
(Promoted behaviour change =
↑Voluntary fasting & correct fasting ethics
↑Food portion control)
↑Perceived knowledge
↑Basic self-monitoring skills
Being a Muslim as
moderating factor
↑ Positive attitude towards
intervention
↑ Motivation to comply with
the subjective norm
↑Perceived behavioural
control
↑ Intention to change behaviour
Behaviour change
↑Voluntary fasting and correct fasting ethics
↑ Practise food portion control
↓ Eating frequency
↓ Food quantity intake
↓ Better weight maintenance/ control
Figure 1: Islamic intervention to change dietary behavior
24
4.0 Discussion
At baseline the sociodemograhic and socioeconomic characteristics were expected to be
comparable as respondents were among government officials from all category. Since this
intervention was aimed at evaluating a faith-based intervention, the level of religiosity was
measured at baseline to detect if it was a pre intervention confounder. However the results
show that it is not likely since the levels were comparable. This was also an expected
comparison as all respondents were Malay Muslim women. The body mass indexs of the
respondents from both groups was comparable since one of the main inclusion criteria was
being overweight. However, the result shows that the basic intervention group was better in
their portion control practices.
Many studies have shown that weight lost during Ramadan was regained within 2
weeks to 1 months post Ramadan, which is probably due to the return to pre Ramadan dietary
habits. 19-21 Thus behaviour changes in this study was reassessed at 3 months post
Ramadan. The results show that at 3 months post Ramadan, ’voluntary fasting’ increased
significantly only in the faith-based intervention group, whereas ’portion control’ increased
significantly in both groups but the percentage was higher in the faith-based intervention
group. Thus, there is a strong indication that the promoted behaviour was more pronounced in
the faith-based intervention group. A possible explanation for the differences in behaviour
changes lies in the different intervention packages received.
To discuss behaviour change, a few theories need to be explained. The two main
theories used in this intervention were the theory of Knowledge Translation and Exchange
(KTE) and Theory of Planned Behavior (TPB). According to the Knowledge Translation and
Exchange (KTE) theory, increased knowledge in an intervention improves translation of tacit
knowledge to explicit knowledge. Clear explicit knowledge contributes in developing the
related skills. The behaviour theory used in this intervention was the Theory of Planned
Behavior (TPB). This theory explains that behaviour change is greatly influenced by behavior
intention. Behavior intention in turn is influenced by three main predictors i.e. attitude,
subjective norm and perceived behavior control. KTE works synergistically with TBP.22-24
The other main influence of a behaviour change is the goals and objectives set by the
individual. A well thought out plan or higher order goal will increase effective behavior
change. The selection of behavior to change depends on the behavior perceived as what is
most effective, when the most suitable opportunities arise and also the timing for most easy
initiation where the distractions are minimal. Other important considerations in behaviour
change intervention are the intermediating and moderating factors. An intermediate factor is
25
the factor placed between the cause and effect sequences in an intervention. Perceived
knowledge is a known intermediate factor and also a strong predictor in TPB. Moderators are
a unique set of characteristics belonging to a group of people and they influence behaviour
intervention in all stages. 25-26In this study the moderator was the religion of the
respondents i.e. Islam. Being Muslim, they are affected by Islamic teachings and its
celebrations such as Ramadan.
As illustrated in Figure 1, in the faith-based intervention, there was an increase in the
relevant religious knowledge through the briefing sessions and printed materials. This
resulted in an increased ‘perceived knowledge’ of Islam which served as an intermediate
between intervention and behaviour change. The increased perceived knowledge combined
with the moderating factors of being a Muslim, enhanced the effect of this faith-based
intervention. 27 Increased related faith knowledge brought with it increased insights about
these recommended behaviour change (i.e. voluntary fasting and portion control). This
enhanced positive behavioral belief and the positive evaluation of these behaviors, and thus
positively influenced the attitude (the first behaviour intention predictor in TPB). The Islamic
insights also strengthened the normative beliefs that these behaviour changes were
commendable acts and thus increased the respondents’ motivation to comply with the
subjective norm (the second behavior intention predictor in TPB). Specifically for voluntary
fasting, it is viewed as a virtuous act known for its desirable religious outcome. This further
enhanced the positive ‘attitude’ and ‘subjective norm’ (the first and second behavior intention
predictor) in TBP.
The basic intervention strategy used included imparting ‘self-monitoring skills’ with
the help of a self-monitoring tool i.e. the food dairy. Enhancing skills contributed to an
increased ’perceived behavioral control’ (the third behaviour intention predictor in TPB)
which was also a direct consistent predictor to behaviour change. Furthermore, the selection
of carrying out the intensive phase during Ramadan allowed an easy initiation environment
which was appropriate since distractions such as food availability was minimal during the
day. 28-29. After the intensive phase (Ramadan) the perception about one’s ability to practice
voluntary fasting has increased as respondents had just passed a month long period of
Ramadan fasting.
The faith-based intervention group has two specified goals. The first goal was to
control excess weight and the second goal was to obtain rewards in the next life. This
additional goal was emphasized in the group through briefing sessions, printed materials and
reminders. This higher order goal can increase behaviour intention and produce more
26
effective behavior change. Therefore, the suggested behavior changes were more evident in
the faith based intervention group compared to the basic intervention group. To sum up,
behavior intention is the main key for behavior change. Faith-related goals can strengthen
intention and its implementation. The magnitude of positive behavioral changes was more
pronounced in the faith-based intervention group. The motivating factors might be higher in
the faith based intervention group as they received an additional faith-based goal. A
modifying factor such as faith can be very influential and is likely to be effective in changing
behaviors.30-34
When practicing voluntary fasting, the dietary pattern is altered. The frequency of
meals was reduced compared to a non-fasting day. Many studies have supported the
hypothesis that reducing frequency of meals could contribute to weight lost. Thus it was
hoped that by practicing voluntary fasting regularly among those who are overweight, it will
help control the total food quantity consumed and this will contributes to weight control.
The limitation of the study was in its design which was a quasi-experiment which
allows doubts of internal validity. However, the design was improved with the use of a
control group. Another limitation was, there were many other potential confounders which
were not looked at in this study which could potentially influence the results. This article
concentrated only on the self-reported behaviour changes. There might be some information
bias due to this self-reporting method. Nevertheless, the focus was on the innovation i.e. the
faith-based dietary intervention.
5.0 Conclusion
At 3 months post Ramadan, the encouraged behaviour changes were significantly more
pronounced in the faith-based intervention group, thus indicating that the effectiveness of this
faith-based intervention in changing dietary behavior. Changes in dietary behavior could
reduce food quantity consumption, thus it may help to control weight. This intervention could
be adopted as a national health promotion program for the targeted group nationwide. Since
the active intervention phase is in Ramadan, there is a fixed schedule for annual revitalization
of the program. Faith-related goals can drive ongoing pursuits with or without immediate
tangible health outcomes. This could prevent respondents from ‘giving up’ due to failed
attempts and it could serve as a strategy toward sustainable behavior change. There are great
potentials in many other faith-based interventions as well and it is only wise to take full
advantage of them.
27
Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank all participants who had given their cooperation in this study. This
research was funded by the Malaysian Health Promotion Board (through Islamic Medical
Association of Malaysia) (Project code: LPKM (S)/04/061/06/02) and Universiti Kebangsaan
Malaysia (Project code : FF-153-2011).
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30
Pembangunan Bahan Dorong Ammonium Nitrat Untuk
Roket Pepejal
Mohamad Nazri Mohd Jaafar*, Wan Khairuddin Wan Ali, Shah Rizal Ruslan
Jabatan Kejuruteraan Aeronautik, Automotif dan Samudera
Fakulti Kejuruteraan Mekanikal, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia
81310 UTM Skudai , Johor
*
Penulis yang dihubungi: [email protected]
ABSTRAK
Penyelidikan yang dijalankan adalah bertujuan untuk membangunkan bahan ammonium nitrat
untuk digunakan sebagai bahan pengoksida bagi bahan dorong roket pepejal. Ini meliputi proses
penghasilan propelan dan menguji propelan tersebut. Segala kajian mengenai sifat ammonium
nitrat telah dikenalpasti dan direkodkan. Kajian turut dilakukan terhadap bahan bakar (fuel) dan
bahan pengikatnya (binder). Bahan bakar yang digunakan ialah sulfur dan aluminium. Manakala
beberapa bahan pengikat yang telah dicuba termasuk glyco dan resin. Propelan yang
dibangunkan ini dihasilkan dengan menggunakan kaedah acuan termampat. Melalui kaedah ini,
propelan yang dihasilkan didapati lebih stabil dan seragam. Ujian kadar pembakaran pada
tekanan atmosfera dilakukan dengan menggunakan propelan yang mempunyai nisbah kandungan
bahan pengosida-bahan api yang berbeza-beza. Melaluinya, nisbah campuran yang optimum
dapat diperoleh. Analisis ke atas daya tujah statik dilakukan dengan menggunakan perisian
Propep. Berdasarkan data prestasi yang diperoleh, didapati bahawa propelan yang dibangunkan
berpotensi untuk dimajukan sebagai bahan dorong roket pepejal.
Katakunci: Ammonium nitrat, roket pepejal, daya tujah statik, propelan
ABSTRACT
The research focuses on the development of ammonium nitrate for use as oxidizer for solid
rocket propellant. The development includes the production of propellant and its tests. All
studies on the characteristics of ammonium nitrate were identified and recorded. Studies were
also done on the fuel and binder materials. The fuel used is sulfur and aluminum. While some
binders have been tested including glycol and resin. The developed propellant is produced using
mold compression technique. Through this method, the produced propellant is more stable and
uniform. The burning rate tests were performed at atmospheric pressure using propellant
ingredient with varying oxidizer-fuel ratios. Through this, the optimum mixture ratio can be
obtained. An analysis of static thrust was done using Propep software. Based on performance
data obtained, it was found that the propellant has the potential to be further developed as solid
rocket propellant.
Keywords: Ammonium nitrate, solid rocket, static thrust, propellant
1.0 Pendahuluan
Apabila kita menyebut perkataan roket, pasti kebanyakan dari kita akan terbayangkan pesawat
Space Shuttle yang besar dan boleh membawa manusia meneroka lepas ke angkasa raya ataupun
pun roket Apollo yang telah berulang kali terbang lepas ke luar atmosfera, menghantar satelitsatelit pelbagai saiz, mengorbit bumi bagi memenuhi tujuan dan matlamat yang pelbagai.
31
Aplikasi roket adalah pelbagai. Dari sebesar-besar booster roket ke angkasa lepas
sehinggalah kepada sekecil-kecil roket peluru berpandu (Braun dan Orday, 1976). Boleh
dikatakan hampir kesemua roket ini diperolehi dari negara luar terutama negara barat dan kos
untuk memperolehnya boleh mencecah jutaan ringgit setiap satu. Oleh kerana setiap propelan
roket ini terutama sekali propelan pepejal mempunyai jangka hayatnya yang tersendiri, adalah
sangat merugikan sekiranya peluru-peluru berpandu yang berharga jutaan ringgit ini terbiar dan
tidak dapat digunakan akibat propelan yang sudah tamat tempoh.
Penggunaan roket juga tidak hanya tertumpu kepada sektor ketenteraan dan aeroangkasa
sahaja. Ianya juga boleh diaplikasikan secara meluas ke sektor komersial seperti alat bantuan
kecemasan/keselamatan seperti penunjuk isyarat (flare), roket pembenihan awan dan tidak
kurang juga dijadikan sebagai permainan hobi dan pertandingan yang mana sekali gus dapat
mengembangkan daya kreativiti dan kemahiran sains individu (Davenas, 1993).
Jenis roket dapat diklasifikasikan berdasarkan kepada jenis propelan yang digunakan.
Perbezaan jenis propelan ini sangat bergantung kepada jenis kegunaan dan matlamat yang ingin
dicapai sama ada untuk tujuan penerokaan angkasa ataupun untuk tujuan pemulihan alam sekitar
seperti pembenihan awan dan sebagainya. Roket yang lazim digunakan pada masa kini adalah
roket bahan api kimia yang mana ianya terbahagi kepada tiga kategori utama iaitu propelan
pepejal, cecair dan hibrid.
2.0 Roket Berasaskan Bahan Dorong Pepejal
Propelan pepejal merupakan sistem dorongan roket yang paling awal digunakan di mana serbuk
hitam telah digunakan sejak kurun ke 13 yang lalu di China (Nik Mohd Rodzan, 2004). Bahan
api roket pepejal hanya tunggal di mana bahan api dan bahan pengoksida telah dicampurkan
bersama terlebih dahulu sebelum dibentuk di dalam acuan ke bentuk pepejal.
Ramuan asas bagi sesebuah propelan pepejal terdiri daripada tiga bahan utama iaitu:
1. Bahan api
2. Bahan pengoksida
3. Bahan pengikat
Roket pepejal adalah sejenis roket yang ringkas berbanding jenis-jenis roket yang lain. Ia tidak
mempunyai alat-alat tambahan seperti pam, pencampur, injap dan juga pengawal campuran.
Umumnya, bahan pengoksida dan bahan bakar diikat bersama dalam bentuk pepejal dengan
menggunakan bahan pengikat.
Rekod-rekod bertulis menunjukkan bahawa roket pernah digunakan oleh orang-orang cina
sebagai senjata mereka pada tahun 1232. Mereka menghasilkan roket untuk mendorong anak
panah mereka di dalam peperangan. Mereka menggunakan kayu arang, belerang dan saltpeter
sebagai bahan dorong roket mereka.
Campuran di antara bahan pengoksida dan bahan bakar adalah dalam bentuk serbuk
kering. Untuk menjadi satu bahan dorong pepejal, campuran ini perlu ditambah dengan bahan
pengikat (binder). Pemilihan bahan pengikat yang sesuai adalah penting untuk menghasilkan
bahan dorong yang baik sama ada dari segi pembakaran dan juga ketahanannya. Bahan pengikat
yang baik dapat memanjangkan jangka hayat sesebuah propelan. Sifat-sifat bahan pengikat yang
baik dinyatakan di bawah (Davenas, 1993):
a) Bahan pengikat hendaklah berada dalam keadaan cecair semasa proses
pencampurannya dengan bahan pengoksida dan bahan bakar. Ia haruslah mempunyai
sifat pengewapan yang rendah.
b) Secara kimianya, bahan pengikat itu haruslah sesuai dengan bahan pengoksida. Ini
bermaksud bahan pengikat itu tidak akan menyebabkan kenaikan suhu semasa
pencampuran bahan-bahan tersebut.
32
c) Bahan pengikat haruslah berupaya untuk menanggung beban yang tinggi semasa
dalam keadaan pepejal.
Namun begitu, keperluan daya tujah bagi sesebuah roket juga berkait rapat dengan konfigurasi
bijian propelan itu sendiri di mana secara ringkasnya boleh dipecahkan kepada tiga jenis iaitu
yang memberikan hasil tekanan atau tujahan menaik, neutral dan menurun.
Rajah 1 Graf tekanan melawan masa
Konfigurasi propelan ini ditentukan oleh nyalaan propelan (lihat Rajah.2) di mana ianya
dimulakan oleh pencucuh pada permukaan bijian propelan dan serentak dengan itu propelan
akan mula terus menyala. Sesetengah propelan direka untuk nyalaan hujung dan ada juga yang
direka bentuk supaya terbakar dari arah dalam propelan bagi mendapatkan luas permukaan
terbakar yang lebih besar dan sekali gus meningkatkan kadar pembakaran propelan tersebut.
Rajah 2 Beberapa contoh konfigurasi nyalaan propelan pepejal (Sutton, 2001)
33
Bahan dorong yang dihasilkan akan disimpan di dalam kebuk pembakaran motor roket.
Ia mampu disimpan dalam jangkamasa yang lama iaitu 5 hingga 20 tahun bergantung kepada
jenis bahan yang digunakan dan juga cara penyimpanannya. Bahan dorong pepejal dihasilkan
dalam pelbagai saiz dan bentuk mengikut kepada operasi yang ingin dijalankan. Roket bahan
dorong pepejal tidak memerlukan penyelenggaraan yang kerap kerana penggunaannya biasanya
untuk sekali.
Kebaikan roket bahan dorong pepejal:
 Kos yang rendah
 Ketumpatan denyut tentu yang tinggi
 Boleh disimpan dalam jangka waktu yang agak lama.
 Keboleharapan kerana secara mekanikalnya ia lebih mudah, tiada melibatkan peralatan
tambahan.
Kelemahan roket bahan dorong pepejal:
 Denyut tentu lebih rendah
 Tiada kawalan daya tujah semasa beroperasi
 Kepekaan terhadap suhu
 Digunakan untuk sekali sahaja
3.0 Prinsip Dan Perkaitan Asas Prestasi Propelan
Berikut disenaraikan beberapa parameter penting yang perlu diketahui sepanjang kajian terhadap
prestasi propelan.
a)
Kadar pembakaran propelan, r
L
(1)
r
tb
dengan
r = kadar pembakaran
L = panjang jalur propelan
tb = masa pembakaran
b)
Kadar alir jisim, m
dengan
c)
m   p Ar
A  luas permukaan pembakaran propelan
 p  ketumpatan propelan
r  kadar pembakaran
Denyut tentu, I sp
F
C

mg g
C  halaju berkesan ekzos
g  daya graviti
m  kadar alir jisim
I sp 
dengan
d)
(2)
(3)
Tujah maksimum, F
F  mve
dengan
m  kadar alir jisim
34
(4)
ve  halaju ekzos
e)
Halaju ekzos, ve
dengan
k 1




Pe k 
2k  RTc  
ve 
1  
k  1  M    Pc  


R  pemalar gas universal
M  berat molekul gas ekzos
Tc  suhu kebuk pembakaran
k  nisbah haba tentu
Pe  tekanan ekzos
(5)
Pc  tekanan genangan dalam kebuk pembakaran
f)
Pekali kadar alir jisim, Cm
m
Pc At
Pc  tekanan genangan dalam kebuk pembakaran
m  kadar alir jisim
At  luas kerongkong nozel
Cm 
dengan
g)
Pekali daya tujah, CF
F
Pc At
(7)
PA
C
1
F


 c t
CF Cm mCF
m
(8)
CF 
h)
(6)
Halaju ciri, C *
C* 
4.0 Proses Penyediaan Propelan
Propelan dihasilkan dengan campuran bahan pengoksida, bahan bakar dan juga bahan pengikat.
Terdapat juga bahan-bahan tambahan lain yang digunakan seperti curing agent (Davenas, 1993).
Namun untuk uji kaji peringkat awalan ini tiada sebarang bahan tambahan lain yang digunakan.
Proses penyediaan propelan memerlukan ketelitian yang tinggi bagi mendapat satu keputusan
yang baik. Ia merupakan satu peringkat yang rumit dan berbahaya kerana propelan yang
dihasilkan berkemungkinan meletup secara tiba-tiba.
4.1
Bahan Pengoksida
Untuk kajian ini, ammonium nitrat digunakan sebagai bahan pengoksida. Ammonium nitrat
banyak digunakan dalam industri baja dan juga sebagai komponen bom asap. Ammonium nitrat
adalah sejenis bahan kimia berwarna putih dan tidak berbau. Persamaan kimianya ialah NH4NO3.
Diperhatikan sebatian ammonium nitrat adalah gabungan nitrogen, hidrogen dan oksigen.
Ammonium nitrat dihasilkan melalui tindakbalas antara ammonium hidroksida dengan asid
nitrik. Ia perlu disimpan di tempat yang jauh daripada bahan-bahan organik yang mudah
teroksida disebabkan sifatnya yang mudah menyebabkan kebakaran dan letupan. Sekiranya
35
berlaku kebakaran yang berpunca daripada ammonium nitrat, kuantiti air yang banyak
diperlukan untuk memadamkan kebakaran tersebut. Sekiranya termakan pula, ia akan
menyebabkan methemoglobinemia iaitu satu simptom yang mengakibatkan muntah-muntah dan
juga pening kepala.
Ammonium nitrat banyak digunakan dalam penghasilan smokeless powder dan juga
bahan dorong roket. Sebagai bahan pengoksida, ia tidak memberikan denyut tentu yang tinggi
seperti ammonium perklorat. Namun, ia adalah bahan yang murah, mudah diperolehi serta tidak
menghasilkan gas-gas toksik semasa pembakarannya.
4.2
Bahan Bakar
Aluminium merupakan salah satu logam metaloid di dalam jadual berkala unsur iaitu logam
yang menunjukkan ciri-ciri bukan logam. Ianya berwarna keperakan dan diperoleh dari bijih
bauksit. Aluminium terkenal dengan sifatnya yang ringan, mudah dibentuk dan tahan kakisan.
Mempunyai ketumpatan jisim sebanyak 2.70 g/cm³ dan lebur pada suhu 933.47 K (Vargel,
2004).
Sulfur dalam bentuk asalnya adalah berbentuk pepejal kristal kuning. Juga dikenali
sebagai belerang, sulfur secara semulajadinya boleh dijumpai dalam bentuk mineral sulfat dan
sulfida. Ianya merupakan satu elemen yang penting dalam kehidupan. Dari segi komersial,
sulfur digunakan sebagai baja (Komanirsky et al., 2003) dan ianya juga digunakan secara meluas
sebagai serbuk peledak (Yinon, 2000), mancis, racun serangga dan racun kulat (Garthwaite dan
Thomas, 2004). Ianya juga merupakan salah satu ramuan penting dalam penghasilan serbuk
hitam.
Pada suhu bilik, sulfur mempunyai ketumpatan jisim sebanyak 2.08 g/cm³ dan mula
melebur pada suhu 388.36 K (Scholar Chemistry, 2009; Matter-Antimatter, 2009). Walaupun
sulfur dioksida secara sedikit adalah selamat digunakan sebagai bahan tambahan makanan, tetapi
pada kepekatan yang tinggi, ia bertindak balas dengan lembapan dan membentuk asid silfurik
yang mana dalam kuantiti yang tertentu boleh menjejaskan paru-paru, mata dan tisu badan yang
lain (http://en.wikipedia.org).
4.3
Bahan Pengikat
Bahan pengikat yang digunakan adalah campuran bahan-bahan kimia, cellulose nitrate, resin,
plastisizer, solvent dan diluent. Bahan pengikat ini pada keadaan suhu bilik adalah dalam bentuk
cecair yang likat dan ia tidak memerlukan sebarang cross-linker untuk mengeras. Bahan
pengikat ini dikelaskan dalam kategori bahan mudah terbakar dan memberikan kesan sampingan
yang hampir sama jika terdedah dalam jangka masa yang lama. Oleh sebab itu bahan pengikat
ini harus disimpan di tempat yang jauh dari sumber api dan haba.
5.0 Penyediaan Jalur Propelan
Sebelum ujian kadar pembakaran dapat dilakukan, jalur propelan haruslah disediakan terlebih
dahulu. Ini adalah penting dalam menentukan hasil pembakaran yang akan dilakukan kelak
adalah seragam dan berterusan. Penentuan dimensi propelan juga penting dalam usaha
mendapatkan isi padu serta ketumpatan propelan yang mana akan digunakan dalam persamaan
mencari kadar alir jisim pembakaran. Oleh itu dimensi propelan ditentukan terlebih dahulu bagi
memudahkan pengiraan kadar pembakaran. Rajah 3 di bawah menunjukkan dimensi jalur
propelan yang dihasilkan.
36
l = 170 mm
d = 10 mm
Jarak bagi pengiraan masa = 100 mm
Rajah 3 Dimensi jalur propelan
Pada jalur propelan ini telah ditetapkan jarak pengiraan masa sepanjang 100 mm di mana
pada titik mula dan tamat tersebut akan ditanda bagi menempatkan suis fius signal pemasa.
6.0 Kaedah Membentuk Propelan
Secara umumnya, terdapat dua kaedah membentuk propelan iaitu kaedah acuan termampat dan
kaedah pembentukan. Namun, daripada uji kaji awalan yang telah dilakukan telah membuktikan
bahawa propelan yang dihasilkan melalui kaedah acuan termampat adalah lebih tumpat. Ini
disebabkan semua liang udara yang wujud antara bijian telah dikeluarkan dari propelan semasa
proses mampatan. Hal ini seterusnya menyebabkan kadar pembakaran menjadi lebih rendah.
Justeru, hanya kaedah acuan termampat sahaja yang akan dipraktikkan dalam uji kaji ini.
Namun begitu langkah-langkah keselamatan yang lebih tinggi haruslah dipraktikkan bagi
mengurangkan risiko kemalangan yang tidak diingini kerana ianya melibatkan geseran antara
omboh pemampat dengan dinding acuan.
Acuan yang digunakan adalah dari tiub aluminium berdiameter dalam 10 mm dengan
ketebalan 1 mm. Bahagian dalam tiub ini kemudiannya akan dibalut dengan gulungan kertas
sebagai pelapik antara propelan dengan dinding acuan bagi mengurangkan kesan geseran logam
antara omboh dengan dinding acuan selain untuk memudahkan propelan dikeluarkan dari acuan.
Jadual 1 dan 2 menunjukkan keputusan yang diperoleh. Uji kaji kadar pembakaran
dilakukan dalam dua sesi iaitu tanpa kehadiran bahan penambah dan dengan bahan penambah.
Bahan penambah yang digunakan ialah potassium nitrat. Ia bertujuan untuk membantu
pembakaran. Daripada uji kaji ini kita akan dapat menilai tahap pembakaran propelan yang
dihasilkan.
Bil.
Jadual 1: Keputusan ujian kadar pembakaran tanpa bahan penambah
Komposisi
Masa (saat)
r
(AN/S/Al)%
t1
t2
t3
td
1.
50/24/26
60.3
75.2
58.4
64.63
0.1547
2.
55.4/22.2/22.4
44.7
38.6
63.4
48.90
0.2045
3.
60/19/21
56.4
78.8
66.4
67.20
0.1488
Bil.
Jadual 2: Keputusan ujian kadar pembakaran dengan bahan penambah
Komposisi
Masa (saat)
r
(AN/KN/S/Al)%
t1
t2
37
t3
td
1.
40/10/24/26
54.6
58.1
59.8
57.5
0.1739
2.
45/10/22/23
55.3
69.4
65.4
63.367
0.1578
3.
50/10/19/21
62.7
64.2
67.9
64.933
0.1540
Rajah 4: Pembakaran jalur propelan tanpa bahan penambah
Rajah 5 Pembakaran jalur propelan dengan bahan penambah
7.0 Keputusan dan Perbincangan
Data-data pembakaran yang telah diperolehi dari ujian kadar pembakaran dapat menentukan
prestasi pembakaran. Ujian kadar pembakaran ini penting kerana banyak lagi parameterparameter prestasi yang boleh diperolehi seperti kadar alir jisim, daya tujah, denyut tentu dan
sebagainya.
Daripada keputusan kadar pembakaran yang telah diperoleh dapat dinyatakan bahawa
kadar pembakaran propelan yang dibangunkan menjadi lebih baik dengan mencampurkan dua
jenis bahan pengoksida yang berlainan iaitu ammonium nitrat dan potassium nitrat.
Pada komposisi stoikiometri propelan yang dihasilkan iaitu 55.4% ammonium nitrat,
22.2% sulfur dan 22.4% aluminium didapati propelan dapat terbakar dengan baik tetapi
pembakarannya tidak berterusan di samping agak lambat untuk mula terbakar. Tetapi setelah
sedikit bahan pengoksida lain dicampurkan (potassium nitrat), propelan dapat terbakar dengan
baik sekali. Hal ini menunjukkan potassium nitrat dapat meningkatkan kadar pembakaran
propelan.
Potassium nitrat merupakan satu bahan pengoksida yang baik. Daripada ujikaji yang
telah dijalankan oleh individu-individu yang lepas telah berjaya membuktikan tahap prestasi
potassium nitrat sebagai bahan pengoksida bagi roket pepejal. Tetapi untuk ujikaji ini, fungsi
potassium nitrat hanyalah sebagai pemangkin proses pembakaran sahaja.
38
Graf Kadar Pembakaran Tanpa Kehadiran Pemangkin (Potassium Nitrat)
0.25
Kadar Pembakaran (cm/s)
0.2
0.15
r
0.1
0.05
0
48
50
52
54
56
58
60
62
Peratus Ammonium Nitrat (%)
Rajah 6 Graf kadar pembakaran tanpa bahan penambah
Graf Kadar Pembakaran dengan Kehadiran Pemangkin (Potassium Nitrat)
0.175
Kadar Pembakaran (cm/s)
0.17
0.165
r
0.16
0.155
0.15
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Peratus Ammonium Nitrat (%)
Rajah 7 Graf kadar pembakaran dengan bahan penambah
Daripada persamaan (3) kita telah ketahui bahawa:
1
p 
r
(9)
Ini bermakna semakin tumpat propelan tersebut, maka kadar pembakaran akan semakin
berkurang. Dengan menggunakan persamaan ketumpatan ideal propelan;
1
p

f AN
 AN

39
fS
S

f Al
 Al
(10)
dengan
fAN
fS
f Al
ρAN
S
 Al
p
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
pecahan jisim Kalium Nitrat
pecahan jisim Sulfur
pecahan jisim Aluminium
ketumpatan Ammonium Nitrat
ketumpatan Sulfur
ketumpatan Aluminium
ketumpatan propelan
Daripada keseimbangan kimia yang telah diperoleh, diketahui 5 mol ammonium nitrat akan
bertindak balas dengan 5 mol sulfur dan 6 mol aluminium untuk menghasilkan satu tindak balas
optimum atau secara ringkasnya seperti di bawah:
5NH 4 NO3  5S  6 Al  5N2  4H 2  5H 2O  3 Al2O3  S2  2HS  SO
(11)
Nilai ini menunjukkan bahawa pembakaran yang optimum boleh dicapai pada keadaan
keseimbangan iaitu pada nilai stoikiometri. Ini bermakna sebarang penambahan bahan api
melebihi tahap keseimbangan hanyalah sia-sia kerana berdasarkan persamaan kimia (11),
sebarang pertambahan bilangan mol pada bahan api tidak akan memberikan sebarang kesan
positif kerana bilangan mol bahan pengoksida telah habis digunakan. Akan tetapi secara
realitinya lebihan mol bahan api ini masih lagi boleh terbakar dan sekali gus membantu
mempertingkatkan prestasi propelan kesan dari kehadiran udara persekitaran.
8.0 Kesimpulan
Propelan ammonium nitrat-sulfur-aluminium boleh dihasilkan melalui kaedah acuan termampat.
Melaluinya, propelan yang dihasilkan mempunyai sifat mekanikal dan kimia yang baik. Propelan
lebih keras, tumpat serta menunjukkan pembakaran yang tetap dan stabil. Propelan yang
dihasilkan berwarna ‘silver’, keras tetapi rapuh, berketumpatan 1.9547 g/cm3 dan mudah
menyerap lembapan. Bahan pengikat yang digunakan ialah laker. Didapati laker mampu
membantu proses pembakaran berbanding glycol dan resin. Propelan kurang reaktif. Ia perlu
didedahkan kepada sumber api dalam masa yang lama bagi memulakan pembakaran. Tetapi,
apabila propelan mula terbakar, pembakarannya baik dan memuaskan. Bahan penambah
(additive) digunakan bagi membantu pembakaran. Potassium nitrat, KNO3 digunakan dalam
kuantiti yang kecil bagi tujuan ini. Dengan penggunaan potassium nitrat sebagai bahan
penambah, pembakaran propelan menjadi bertambah baik serta menjadi sangat reaktif. Kadar
pembakaran bagi propelan yang dihasilkan melalui kaedah acuan termampat adalah bergantung
kepada nisbah campuran bahan pengoksida-bahan api dan juga tekanan mampatan yang
dikenakan semasa proses menghasilkan propelan tersebut. Semakin besar nilai tekanan yang
dikenakan, semakin rendah kadar pembakaran propelan. Kadar pembakaran maksimum tanpa
penggunaan bahan penambah ialah 0.2045 cm/s. Kadar pembakaran maksimum selepas
dicampurkan dengan bahan penambah ialah 0.1739 cm/s.
RUJUKAN
Braun, W.V & Orday, F.I (1976), The Rocket’s Red Glare, Anchor Press, New York.
Davenas, A. (1993). Solid Rocket Propulsion Technology, Pergamon Press Ltd, New York.
Garthwaite, D. G. dan M. R. Thomas. 2004. Pesticide Usage Survey Report 204. Department
for Environment, Food & Rural Affairs, York.
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Komanirsky, L. A., R. J. Christopherson, dan T. K. Basu. 2003. Sulfur: Its Clinical and
Toxicologic Aspects. Nutrition. 19(1): 54-61.
Matter-AntiMatter.com.
2009.
Sulfur-AntiSulfur.
Retrieved August 2009, from
http://www.matter-antimatter.com/sulfur-antisulfur.htm
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Berbeban Dorong Pepejal, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, Tesis Sarjana Muda.
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Chemistry.
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Retrieved
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2009,
from
http://noshadow.cnc.net/table/S.shtmlwww.
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Vargel, C., M. Jacques, dan M. P. Schmidt. 2004. Corrosion of Aluminium. Elsevier Ltd. P.
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41