RECONSIDERING TAINO SOCIAL DYNAMICS AFTER SPANISH
Transcription
RECONSIDERING TAINO SOCIAL DYNAMICS AFTER SPANISH
ARTICLES RECONSIDERING TAINO SOCIAL DYNAMICS AFTER SPANISH CONQUEST: GENDER AND CLASS IN CULTURE CONTACT STUDIES KathleenDeagan Despite thefact that the Tainopeople of the Caribbeanwere thefirst Native Americans to encounterand coexist with Europeans after 1492, there has been almost no archaeology of Taino response to that encounter.This study explores the reasons for (and consequences of) this neglect, and their larger implicationsfor American contact-periodarchaeology.It also challenges prevailing historical models of Taino social disintegration, drawing upon six years of archaeological work at the En Bas Saline site in Haiti, the only extensively excavated Taino townsite occupied both before and after contact. Our results, organized by a household-scale analytical framework emphasizing Taino constructions of gender and class, suggest that there werefew major alterations to traditional Taino social practice during the post-contact period, and most of these were related to activities thought to have been the domain of non-elite Tainomen. It is suggested that the relatively nonspecialized gender roles among the Tafno,as well as the clearly differentiatednature of their social classes, may have served as mitigatingfactors in the disruption of Ta'noculturalpractice under Spanish domination. This work also reveals a marked Taino resistance to the incorporation of European cultural elements, which provides a striking contrast to the Spanishpatterns documentedin contact-eraEuropeantowns, and underscoresthe critical importanceof incorporatinggender relations into studies of culture contact. A pesar de que los Tainosdel Caribefueron los primeros indios americanos en confrontarsey coexistir con los europeos despudsde 1492, no ha habido casi ninguna investigacidnarqueoldgicade la respuestaTainaa este encuentro.Este estudio explora las razonesy consecuencias de este descuido, y sus implicacionesmayorespara la arqueologia americana del periodo del contacto. Desafia tambidnlos modelos hist6ricospredominantessobre la rdpidadesintegracidnsocial de los Tainos, en base a seis afios de trabajo arqueoldgico en el sitio de En Bas Saline, Haiti, el U'nicopueblo Taino excavado extensivamente,y ocupadoantes y despudsdel contacto.Nuestrosresultadosorganizadosbajo un nivel de andlisis que enfadomrstico tiza las construcciones Tainas de gdnero y clase, sugieren que hubo pocas modificaciones mayores a la prdctica social tradicionalTainaduranteel perfodoposterior al contacto,y que la mayoriade estos cambiosestuvieronrelacionadosa actividades que hat sido pensadas del dominiode varonesno-dliteTainos.Esto sugiere que los papeles de gdnerorelativamenteno especializadosentrelos Tainos,asicomo la naturalezaclaramentediferenciadade sus clases sociales, pudieronhaberservido comofactores mitigantesen la rupturade la prdctica culturalde los Tainosbajo la dominacidnespafiola.Este trabajorevela tambidnuna marcadaresistenciade los Tainosfrentea la incorporacidnde elementosculturaleseuropeos,lo queproporciona un contrastellamativocon el modelo espahioldocumentadoen pueblos europeosde la epoca del contacto,y subrayala importancia critica de incorporarlas relaciones del gdneroen estudios del contacto cultural. One ofthecentral andmostenduring themes tiations.These issues have been of particularcon- in American historical archaeology has been theeffortto understandsocialchange provokedby the encounterof indigenousAmerican andimmigrantEuropeangroupsafter1492.A greatmanyquestionsof deep interestto archaeologists are embeddedin this largerproject,including thoserelatedto culturalsurvivalandcontinuity, accommoidentityformationandtransformation, resistance and dation,transculturation, powernego- cernin recentyears,as archaeologicalattentionhas focused on the roles of small-scale aggregate groups(suchas households)andindividuallyheld group attributes(such as gender,class, and race) as productivepathwaysin understandinghow and why the diverse social landscapes of postColumbianAmericaemerged. Thispaperis concernedwithpost-contactsocial dynamicsamongthe Tafnosof northwesternHis- Kathleen Deagan 0 FloridaMuseum of NaturalHistory,University of Florida,Gainesville, Florida32611 ([email protected]) AmericanAntiquity,69(4), 2004, pp. 597-626 Copyright@2004 by the Society for AmericanArchaeology 597 This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 598 ANTIQUITY AMERICAN paniola(today Haiti), and the largerimplications of thisforarchaeologyin earlycontactperiodsites. The Tainos were the first group of indigenous Americanmen and women to encounterand live with Europeans,beginningwiththe firstvoyage of Columbusin 1492,andcontinuinginto Christopher the sixteenthcentury.The criticalfirstdecadesof interactionbetween Tainos and Spaniardshad a profoundinfluenceon subsequentEuropeanbeliefs about,understandingof, andpolicy towardAmerica and its inhabitants(Jaraand Spadaccini1992; Rabasa 1992; Williamsand Lewis 1993). Nevertheless,verylittleis knownarchaeologicallyabout theTainoduringthisperiod.My discussionhastwo primaryobjectives:the firstis to explorethe epistemologicaland methodologicalreasonsunderlying the absenceof archaeologyin post-contactera Taino sites; the second is to offer a reconsidered modelof TainosocialdynamicsafterSpanishcontact and conquest,using genderand class as primarystructuringelements.This is derivedthrough a household-scaleanalysis of archaeologicaldata from the site of En Bas Saline, Haiti(Figure 1). En Bas Saline is the only systematicallyexcavated Taino town site in the Caribbeanthat was occupied both before and after Spanish contact, andourworktherebetween1983and 1988hasprovidedthe firstarchaeologicallyderivedunderstand of Tainoresponse(andresistance)to post-conquest circumstancesin Hispaniola.It revealsa considerablymorepronouncedregimenof post-contactcultural continuity and maintenanceof traditional practicethanhas beenpreviouslyrecognized.This argumentruns counterto the standardhistorical assessment(discussedbelow) of near-immediate andmonolithicTainosocialcollapse.I suggestthat the continuityin culturalpracticeat post-contact EnBas Salinewasclearlyconditionedby thenature of genderroles in both pre-contactTaino society and Spanish-Tainointeraction,and was mediated by social hierarchyamongthe Taino. Archaeology and Contact-Era American Encounters More than fifty years of archaeologicalresearch exploringNativeAmericanpeople's responsesto Europeanarrivalhavegeneratedanimmensebody of literature,which obviously cannotbe assessed fully here (foruseful syntheticoverviewsof much [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 of thisworksee Cusick1998a,1998b;Dillehayand Deagan 1992; Fitzhugh 1985; McEwan 2000; Ramenofsky1987;Rogers 1990;RogersandWilson 1993;Smith 1987;Thomas1989, 1990, 1991; Wesson and Rees 2002a; Woodet al. 1989). It is useful to note, however,the strikingvariationand diversityin the paths of Americanand European encounteracrossspace,time,ecology, andculture. Archaeologistsin recentyears have concentrated on understandingand explainingthis variationin termsof the specific social andhistoricalcircumstancesof bothindigenousandimmigrantgroups, embeddedin the local Americansettingsin which Old Worldnewcomersfoundthemselves. Throughthese efforts, it has become increasingly evidentthatgenderrolesandrelations-both betweengroupsin contactandwithingroupsexperiencing contact-are consistent and important interactionand conditioningfactorsin intercultural its consequences(Deagan1974, 1996;Deetz 1963; EttieneandLeacock 1980; Ewen 1991;Fairbanks 1962; Mason 1963; Rothschild2003). Gendered roles both within and between groups in contact have complex and often subtle influenceson the ways in which culturecontactunfolds.They also help structurethe ways in which socialbehavioris manifestin post-contactculturalsettings.Dependinteraction(e.g., ing on the contextof intercultural conflict, trade, religious evangelization,slaving, consensual intermarriage,etc.), the gender relations of social control,food productionand procurement, trade, rituals and healing, craft production,orwarfaremightpotentiallyeitherpromote social continuityor predictsocial collapse. Forexample,contactinvolvingarmedconflictand militaryresistanceto intrusivepopulationstendsto involve men, potentiallycreatinga demographic imbalancefavoringwomen in the local groups.In sucha case,thedegreeto whicha post-contactgenderimbalancewouldencourageormutesocialdisruptionwouldbe profoundlyinfluencedby whether men orwomenweretraditionallytheprimaryfood producersor ritualspecialists. Attention to gender is but one example of increasingsubtletyin the ongoing archaeological culturecontact.Nevstudyof European-American tensions inherentin conthe ertheless, disciplinary tactperiodstudies-pointed outby KentLightfoot nearly a decade ago (Lightfoot 1995)-remain largely unresolved. European-Americanculture This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] RECONSIDERINGTAINO SOCIAL DYNAMICS Haitian 599 Real ...o i HAITI .,/ n n .. . .:... U b1M o 0 KM Figure 1. Location of En Bas Saline. contactstudiesnecessarilyinvolvebotharticulation of andoverlapamongprecolumbianarchaeology, postcolumbianarchaeology,ethnographicanalogy, anddocument-basedhistory.Althoughall of these sourcesof evidenceaboutthe pasthave long been acknowledgedas essential to understandingthe European-American encounter and its consequences,theirbalancedarticulationremainsinadequatein practice,particularlyin our tendencyto privilege one line of evidence (usually but not alwaystext-based)in bothconstructingmodelsand interpretingevidence. This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 600 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY integrationis also madeprobInterdisciplinary lematicalby the fact thattextualand materialevidence bearingon the early yearsof Americanand Europeanencounteris only rarely generated at comparablescales of observation,intentionality, or resolution (see Lightfoot 1995; Ramenofsky 1987:2-5, 1991;WessonandRees 2002b;Wilson encounterclearly 1993).Thecase of Taino-Spanish illustratesthe ways in which these factors both shape and bias our understandingof the contact periodin the Americas. Taino Cultural Practice and Gender in Late Fifteenth-Century Hispaniola The first Europeansettlementsin America were establishedon Hispanioladuring1492 and 1493in thedenselypopulatedterritoryof theTainoIndians (amongthenumerousrecentsyntheticoverviewsof Tainolife andculture,seeAnderson-C6rdova 1990; Berchtet. al 1997;Guitar1998;Keegan1992,2000; Moscoso 1981, 1999; Oliver 1998:59-93; Rouse 1992;VelozMaggiolo1997;Wilson1990a,1997a). Theterm"Taino"hasbeentraditionally usedto designate the inhabitantsof the GreaterAntilles and Bahamasat the time of Europeanarrival;however, most researchersrecognize that this usage inappropriatelyreduces the considerablediversityof social, political,and economic formationsamong these people. While noting thatthe term is still a topicof lively debateamongCaribbeanarchaeologists, my use of "Taino"in this studycorresponds to IrvingRouse'sdesignationof "ClassicTaino"in Hispaniola,characterizedby complex chiefdoms, social hierarchy,a horticultural economybasedon root crops, and the highly artisticcraft and ritual expressionsassociatedwith the Ostionoidcultural tradition(1992:9-17). TheTainoarethoughtto havebeen matrilineal, andit hasbeen suggestedthatsomemayhavepracticed avunculocalresidence (Keegan and Machlachlan 1989). The Taino of Hispaniola were politicallyorganizedat the time of contactinto at least five hereditarychiefdoms(cacicazgos),each witha clearlyrecognizedregionalpowerhierarchy and paramountruler.It is estimatedthatthe cacicazgos incorporatedbetween seventy and a hundredcommunities,some of whichhadpopulations numberingin the thousands(Wilson 1997b:46). At least two distinctsocial categorieswere rec- [Vol. 69, No. 4, 2004 to thecaciques. ognizedby theTainoas subordinate The nitainos were equatedby the Spaniardswith nobles andappearto have assistedthe caciquesin the organization of production. Behiques, or shamans,were partof the nitainogroup.A second category, known as naborias, seems to have referredto laborers,althoughit is notclearlyunderstood whether this refers to the entire non-elite laboring population, or to certain specific subgroups (Anderson-C6rdova 1990:52-56,187; Moscoso 1981:216-241;Moya Pons 1992;Rouse 1992:9).Some scholarshaveinterpretedthis organizationas an accuratereflectionof precolumbian class differenceamongthe Taino(Moscoso 1981; Moya Pons 1992), while others suggest that this was a post-contact,Spanish-influencedstructure (AlcinaFranch1983). Tainoresidentsof northThe fifteenth-century of thisstudy)wereamong focus ernHispaniola(the the mostpoliticallycomplexof those documented by the firstEuropeanchroniclers(see Curet2002; Keegan 1996; Veloz Maggiolo 1997:36; Wilson 1997b:55).Most researchersinfer thatthey were organizedas complexredistributive(possiblytributary) cheifdoms with well-defined patternsof andinequality(Alegria1997a; socialdifferentiation Curet2002; Keegan et al. 1998; Moscoso 1981, 1999:7-9; Rouse 1992; Siegel 1999;Veloz Maggiolo 1997:36;Wilson 1990a,1990b, 1997b).Both chroniclers of theprincipalearlysixteenth-century of the Taino specifically recordedthat caciques controlledproductionof bothsubsistenceandcraft goods by assigningspecifictasksto individualsor the fruitsof theirlabor,and groups,appropriating goods to community redistributing subsequently members(Las Casas 1958 [IV, 305]:242; Martyr D'Anghiera1970:[II]252). Documentaryaccounts at the time of contact indicatethatalthoughtheparamountrulersamong the Tainowere most often men, womencouldalso be caciques.Womenseem to have participatedat all levels in the politicalhierarchy,both wielding power and accumulating wealth (Sued Badillo 1979:29-32).Elitewomen,forexample,areknown to have amassedvaluedcraftitems andused them for tradingand as gifts (see discussionby Wilson 1990a:141).Pre-contactgender roles among the Tainoareincompletelyunderstoodandoften contestedamongcontemporaryscholars,who tendto referto the "naturaldivisionof labor"as a basisfor This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS assigning gender to activities (e.g. Cassa 1990:82-83; Stevens-Arroyo1988:47). The few studiesthathavesystematicallyinvestigatedTaino gender constructionsconclude that gender roles among the Tainowere generallynonexclusivein most activities,rangingfrom political leadership and fightingas warriorsto food and craftproduction (Guitar 1998:36-45; Sued-Badillo 1979). Therearefew documentedsocialoreconomicfunctions that can be attributedexclusively to the domainof eithermen or women. Tainoeconomywasbasedon intensiverootcrop (primarilymanioc)agriculturesupplementedwith abundantwild estuarineresources.Both men and womenwerereportedby chroniclersto havefished, althoughit is not known whetherthis was a regularor universalpractice.Cultivatingandgathering manioc roots were apparentlynot gender-specific activities;however,theclearingof fieldsandpreparation of conucos-the raised mounds in which maniocwasplanted-is assumedto havebeendone by men. The transitionfrom slash and bum farming to conucofarmingamongmanyCaribbeanpeoples afteraboutA.D. 700-800 servednot only to greatly increasethe yield of manioc, but also to decreasethetotalamountof laborrequiredto farm it (see, forexampleMoscoso 1999:103-110;Veloz Maggiolo 1977[2]:202-207). Once the conucos were constructed,all thatwas requiredfor manioc was periodicplanting,weeding, andharvesting-all tasksthatboth men andwomen carriedout. While this process considerablyreduced the labor investment of men, larger yields greatly increasedthe laborinvestmentof women,as those who carriedoutthe long, laboriousprocessof convertingbittermaniocrootsto bread(see, for example Roosevelt 1980:129-137). This divisiontends to lend credenceto the 1494 pronouncementby Michel de Cuneo-a memberof Columbus'ssecondexpedition-that "Thewomendo all thework. Menconcernthemselvesonly withfishingandeating" (Cuneoin Parryand Keith 1984:92).Columbushimselfobservedthat"itappearsto me thatthe women work more than the men" (Columbusto Santangel,1493, in ParryandKeith 1984:61). Bothwomenandmen servedas leadersandparticipantsin communityrituals(areytos,described below) and ballgames(see Guitar1998:39;Sued Badillo1979:41).Thepantheonof Tainodeitiesand zemiimagesincludesbothmales andfemales,and 601 both figure prominently in Taino mythology (Arrom 1989; Stevens-Arroyo 1988:155-180). Male andfemale sexualityareopenlyexpressedin Tainoart,andshockedSpanishaccountsimplythat chastitywas not valuedfor eithergender(see discussion in Sued-Badillo1979:49). One of the most distinctivecharacteristicsof Tainosociety(atleastto themodfifteenth-century em observer)is a vibrantsense of artisticcreativity andexuberantinnovationin materialexpression. Taino artisansproduced a wide variety of craft items,includingelaboratedecoratedceramics,cottonandcottonproducts,groundandpolishedstone beads andornaments,carvedshell andbone ornaments, tools of stone, shell and bone, carved wooden objects,tobacco, variousfoodstuffs,and exotic birdsandfeathers(Berchtet. al. 1997;Garcia Ar6valo 1977; Kerchache 1994; Rouse 1992:17;Wilson 1990a:49-51). Chroniclersnote specificallythatwomen spunandwove cottoninto clothing and hammocks,made basketsand mats, and carved some ceremonialwooden items, and potteryproductionis assumedby most contemporaryauthorsto have been done by women (Cassa 1990:82;Guitar1998:41-42). Thereis less textual evidence for craft activities done specificallyby men, but it is generallyassumedthatmen carried out the fabricationof heavierwood items, such as canoesandbuildings,andproducedstonetools and objects (e.g., Veloz Maggiolo 1997:38). Encounter and the Assumption of Collapse: Why Is There No Postcolumbian Taino Archaeology? ShortlyafterColumbus'sarrivalin Hispaniola,the Tainocaciquesformedinter-chiefdomalliancesto oppose the Spanishinvaders.Nearly five years of open conflictultimatelyresultedin Spanishpolitical subjugationof theisland,thecessationof open warfare,the impositionof tributeon the Tainoin 1495, and the formal implementation of encomienda1503. Underthis institutionthe Indianswereobligedto exchangetheirlaborforinstruction in Christianityand "civilization."Spanish governorsassignedentireTainotowns to individual Spaniards,with labororganizedand mediated throughtheTainocaciques(ArranzMarqu6z1991; Moya Pons 1992). Spanishrespectfor chiefly status differentiationwas explicitly articulatedfrom This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 602 ANTIQUITY AMERICAN thefirstdaysof contactin 1492onward,andquickly becamea centerpieceof Spanishpolicy regarding the AmericanIndians(see, for example, Ramos G6mez 1993:124-167; Hanke 1949). EncomiendaIndianconscriptsspentfromfour to six months in service to the Spaniards (the demora)andthe remainderof the yearin theirvillages. In order to make this more efficient, the Taino villages were sometimes moved and consolidatedat locationsconvenientfor Spanishlabor exploitation(reduccidn),which exacerbatedboth exposure to and spread of European diseases among Indianpopulation(the practiceof reduccidn was not universallyimplemented,however, andtendedto be concentratedin the areasof major gold production). The combinedeffects of militarydefeat, nearslavery,forced physicalrelocation,social abuses, andnew diseasesthatconfrontedtheTainoof early sixteenth-century Hispaniolacreatedseveredemographic pressure and population loss within 20 yearsof theirfirstencounterswithSpaniards(recent Tainodemogsyntheticstudiesof sixteenth-century raphy include Anderson C6rdova 1990:41-160; Cook 1998:19-46; MiraCaballos1997:34;Moya Pons 1992; Wilson 1990a:90-92). By the middle of the sixteenthcentury,the Tainowere no longer identifiableas a social entity. A great deal of historicaland ethnohistorical researchover the past 500 yearshas been devoted to this encounter,most of it basedultimatelyon a relatively few primary,Spanish-produceddocuments.The most importantof these includethose of Christopher Columbus(Varela1982),Ferdinand Columbus(Keen 1959), Bartholomede las Casas (1951, 1958), Peter MartyrD'Anghiera (1970), andGonzaloFernmndes de Oviedoy Valdds(1959) (for a synthetic discussion of Caribbeancontact perioddocumentarysourcesin generalsee Alegria 1997b;Wilson 1990a:7-13). Theseearlychroniclersinspireda modelof Taino responseto theSpanishconquestof Hispaniolathat, untilveryrecently,dominatednearlyall subsequent ethnohistorical Thecentralelements understanding. of this model includethe stunninglyrapidpopulation decline and concomitantsocial disintegration of a largelyhelplessTainopopulationin response to Spanish-introduced epidemic disease, warfare, andfatallyabusivelaborexploitation.Thethemeof post-contactTainoculturalcollapsewas repeatedly [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 and vociferously assertedby Bartolom6de Las Casasin particular(1951, 1958) andbecamecodified as part of the anti-Spanish"Black Legend" throughoutthe English-speaking world. These assumptionswere reinforcedduringthe years of the ColumbianQuincentenaryobservations,when mostpopularandmuchscholarlyattentionwasjustifiably devoted to the negative consequencesof Europeaninvasionandexploitation(see, for example, Axtell 1995;Sale 1990;Stannard1992;SuedBadillo 1992). A widely acceptedandoften implicitcorollary themeto the demographiccollapse of the Tainois thatpopulationdeclinewasparalleledby anequally rapidand devastatingdisintegrationof traditional Tainosocial, economic,political,artistic,andideologicalorganization.It has been difficultfor most twentieth-centuryresearchersto contemplatethe panoramaof events in early contact-periodHispaniolawithoutassuminga considerabledegreeof social, material,and ideological alterationamong the Taino (see, for examples, discussionsin Alegria 1997a:31-33; Cook 1998:19-46; Deagan 1988a;Deagan and Cruxent2002:209-11; Deive 1995:72-76; Hanke 1949; Mira Caballos 1997:33-47, 409-412; Moscoso 1981:339-351; MoyaPons 1976, 1981,1992:132-33;Sauer1966; Wilson 1990a:96-98). Such alteration,however, may not have been equivalentto totalcollapse. The tendencyto uncriticallyacceptthe notion that Taino social formations suffered swift and monolithiccollapse in Hispaniolaafter 1492 has encouragedthepremisethatthepost-contactTaino experienceis largely inaccessibleto archaeology and,by extension,an unfruitfulfocus for archaeological research.Moreover,as a sourceof national identity,thestoryof post-contactannihilationof the Tainopeoplehas been considerablyless appealing to bothhistoriansand archaeologistsin the region thanhas thestudyof thepre-1492Tafnocheifdoms (GarciaAr6valo1988). As a consequenceof bothof theseassumptions, andof certainmethodologicalproblemsdiscussed below, archaeologistshave largely ignoredquestions of post-contact Taino social dynamics in Taino-occupiedsites. Importantstudieshave been directedtowardtheTainoin Spanishtowncontexts (GarciaArdvalo1990; Ortega1982; Smith 1995), but postcolumbianTaino occupation sites have rarelybeen identifiedand even more rarelyexca- This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS vated (Keegan 1996; Rouse 1992:139), and there exists no materially grounded,Taino-generated basisforassessingTainoactionin responseto Europeanpresence.This has servedin turnto tautologically reinforcethe notion that the Taino did not survivecontactlong enoughto generatesignificant archaeologicaldeposits. Historicalassumptionsaboutthe Tainoin Hispaniolahavebeen challengedin recentyears,however, by such researchers as Karen Anderson C6rdova (1990:122-133) and Lynn Guitar (1998:222-227) throughtheir anthropologically informedreconsiderationsof importantprimary Spanishdocuments(themostimportantof theseis theHieronymiteInterrogatory of 1517,reproduced in Rodriguez-Demorizi(1971:273-354). These documentsindicatethatnearlya quarterof a century after European arrival, most of the Taino encomiendaworkersin Hispaniolacontinuedto serve in the Spanishlabordraftsout of obedience to their caciques, whose statusremainedlargely intactin bothSpanishandTainoeyes. Oncetheconscripts'laborservicewas completed,theyreturned for the rest of the year to theirvillage homes and traditionalpractices,includingthe ritualcommunal feasts and dancesknown as areytos,andtheir spiritsymbol (zemi)-basedreligion (for a similar argumentconcerningculturalsurvivalamongthe Tainoof Cubasee DominguezandRives 1995). Despitethe inarguablefactsof post-contactturmoil and dramaticloss of life amongthe Taino,it appearsthatin some places atleast,Tainopolitical organization,patternsof social andeconomic differentiation,village organization,and community ritualmay haveremainedlargelyintactthroughat least the first 30 years of contact.This assertion challenges the more common assumption that Tainosocial reproductionquicklycollapsedunder thepressureof laborexploitationanddisease.Italso offersa moreinclusivealternativetext-basedmodel that can inform the archaeologicalinvestigation into the diversityof TainoexperienceunderSpanish dominion. 603 methodologicalissues relatedto site recognition. As in most partsof the Americas,archaeologists generallyassumethatEuropeancontactwithNative Americansimplies the introductionof European materialthingsandtheiruse by indigenousAmericans (albeit often with new meanings,uses, and symbolic significanceconferredby the American groups). Following from this, most post-1492 archaeologicalcontextsareidentifiedby the presence of recognizableEuropeanartifactsor structural features. Unfortunately,easily identifiable Europeanobjectsartifactsmay not be abundantor even present in Native American sites occupied early in the contact period. This problemis frequentlyconfrontedby researchersworkingin the "protohistoric"American era (that is, after the arrivalof Europeansto the continentbut before regularcontactbetween them and nativepeople; e.g., Galloway1995;Smith1987;WessonandRees 2002b). The datafromEn Bas Saline suggestthateven under conditions of direct encounter,European materialsmay not be particularlyevident.The terminipost quemfor post-1492 deposits were provided by European faunal remains and tiny fragmentsof glass, metal, andearthenware(some of which might go unrecognizedby excavators unfamiliarwith late fifteenth-centuryEuropean material culture) (Figure 2). These items were recoveredthroughrelativelyfinescreening(/4-inch or smaller) of all excavated soil, as well as the recoveryandidentificationnot only of all cultural materials,but also of faunalandfloralremains. This latterobservationis particularlyimportant and potentiallyproblematicin that it requiresat least rough-sortingandidentificationof all faunal andfloralremainsexcavatedata site,a practicenot or subsistence normallyrequiredforenvironmental reconstruction. Manysamplingdesignsrelyon columnsamplesor samplesfromspecifickindsof features or deposits for subsistenceanalyses.While these may be statisticallyappropriatemethodsby which to sample subsistence behavior,they are unlikely to recoverall of the Europeanplant and animalremainswhich serve, like EuropeanartiIssues in Methodological facts, as unequivocalterminipost quemfor postContact-EraArchaeology contact deposits. In some early contact-period The (untilrecently)prevailingassumptionsabout NativeAmericansites Europeanplantand animal the archaeologicalinaccessibilityof post-contact remainsmay,in fact, be morefrequentthanEuroTaino social action have been exacerbated by pean artifactsin the archaeologicalrecord.Unless This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions AMERICAN ANTIQUITY 604 1 [Vol. 69, No. 4, 2004 Centimeter Figure 2. Late fifteenth-centurySpanish artifacts from En Bas Saline. Top row, left to right: Melado glazed earthenware, Columbia Plain Majolica, fragments of iron. Bottom row, Left to right: Burned green glass, Redware earthenware. remainsaresampledandanalyzed thesenonartifact in the sameway artifactsare,the extentandnature of post-contactactivityandchangecan be considerablyunderestimated. Anotherpotentialbias thatmay affectboth the recognitionandstudyof earlycontact-periodcontexts is the granularityof samplingand analytical scale. As Antonio Curet(2003) has pointed out, Caribbeanarchaeologistshave only rarely (and only recently) employed a household scale of recoveryor analysis.Caribbeanarchaeologyand its methodologies have been dominated by regional-scaleconcernsof culturehistory,artifact taxonomy,migrationpatterns,and only recently, the emergenceof chiefdoms (Curet 1992, 2003; Keegan1994,2000, see alsoRouse 1992).Because of theirregionalfocus, theseissues havenot traditionallyrequiredclose attentionto eitherindividual households or single-event deposits. Whole sitesgenerallyprovidethebasicunitof analysisand comparison,oftenbasedlargelyon surfacecollections,a few testtrenches,orrandomtestpits.While this has often been quiteappropriatefor the kinds of questionsbeing askedby the researchers,it has renderedvery difficultthe isolation and segregation of post-contactoccupation contexts within sites.As a result,post-contactTafnooccupationat manymulticomponentsites has undoubtedlygone unrecognized. In summary,there exists a dearthof information generated in Taino contexts about Taino responsesto the arrivalof Europeansin Hispaniola. This is attributedpartlyto an uncriticalacceptance of the assumption (generated by documentary accounts)thatTainodemographicand social disintegrationtook place so rapidlyaftercontactthat no recognizable Taino occupation sites were formed.The neglect of post-contactTainosites is also in parta consequenceof assumptionsabout the recognitionof the sites andcomponentsthemselves. Many early post-contactoccupationstrata and depositionalevents are dateableonly through the presenceof Europeanfaunaor flora,andEuropean objects may be quite rare.This rendersthe recognitionof very early post-contactoccupation problematicalwithouta recoverystrategydesigned This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS RECONSIDERING to identifyfloralandfaunalremainsat the scale of householdor event. All of thesecontributingfactorsarebeing gradually mitigatedin the Caribbean.Ethnohistorical studiessuchas those of Anderson-C6rdova (1990) and Guitar(1998) have challengedthe documentbased models of post-contactTaino culturalpersistence, change, resistance, and adaptation. Fine-grainedhousehold studies are increasingly being called for and carriedout in Antilleansites (Curet 1992, 2003). The En Bas Saline project, summarizedin the following discussion,is one of thefirstprogramsto drawuponthesedevelopments and offer insights into post-contactTaino social dynamicsthat are groundedin a Taino-generated archaeologicalrecord. En Bas Saline En Bas Saline is the site of a large classic Taino town located on the northeasterncoast of Haiti aboutone kilometerfromthe village of Limonade Bordde Mer,andabout12 kilometerseast of present day Cap Haitian(Figure 1). It is one of the largestTainovillage sitesreportedin Haiti,encompassingan areaof some 95,000 squaremeters.No othersite in this region,which is one of the most intensively surveyedpartsof Hispaniola(Moore 1997, 1998), comes close to it in size or organizationalcomplexity,stronglysuggestingthatthiswas a centraltown of the cacicazgo. The site was firstlocatedandtestedin 1977 by medicalmissionaryandavocationalarchaeologist WilliamHodgesof Limb6,Haiti,as partof his lifelong searchfor Columbus'slost fort of La Navidad (Hodges 1983, 1986). Hodges carried out limited test excavationsat the site, the results of which led him to bringthe site to the attentionof the Universityof Florida.A collaborativeprogram of survey,mapping,andexcavationwas carriedout at En Bas Saline between 1983 and 1988 by the FloridaMuseum of NaturalHistory,the Bureau Nationald'Ethnologied'Haiti, and the Musee de Guahab in Limb, Haiti(Cusick1989,1991;Deagan 1986, 1987, 1988b, 1989, 1993;Hodges 1983, 1986). ChristopherColumbus's flagship, the Santa Marfa,wreckedin Decemberof 1492 off thenorth coast of Haiti, in the vicinity of En Bas Saline. Afterthe disaster,ColumbusestablishedLa Navi- 605 dadin the townof theTainocacique,Guacanagarf, who was the principal chief of the province of Marienat the time of contact(todaynorthernHaiti and northwesternDominican Republic).En Bas Saline is thoughtto be the site of Guacanagarf's town both because of its singularsize and prominence in the region,andbecauseits locationconformsvery closely to the accountsof Columbus's wreck (Deagan 1989; Hodges 1983; Morison 1940). The loss of his vessel forcedColumbusto leave 39 crew membersbehind in Guacanagarf'stown with instructionsto build a fortressand searchfor gold, and a promiseto returnfor them the following year. Columbusdid returnfor his crew nine monthslaterduringhis second,colonizingvoyage, but foundthe fortburnedand all of the men dead. Guacanagariclaimedthat some had died fighting with one another,and most had been killed when town a rivalTainocaciqueattackedGuacanagarf's the and burned Europeancompound.Although ColumbusacceptedGuacanagari'sstory,he chose to abandonthe areaas a site for his firstintentional settlement,andsailedeastwardto establishthetown of La Isabelanearpresent-dayPuertoPlatain the DominicanRepublic(for expandeddiscussionof these events and their moderninterpretationssee DeaganandCruxent2002; Morison1940;Wilson 1990a). This markedthe end of documentedEuropean presence in Guacangari'stown, although Guacanagarfhimself remainedan ally of Columbus, providingfood andgifts of gold, visitinghim in La Isabela,and fightingwith him againstthe rest of the caciquesof Hispaniolain the finalyears of the fifteenthcentury(Wilson1990a:79-80).TheSpanish town of PuertoReal was establishedin 1503, reportedin the sixteenthcenturyto be very close to where the fort of La Navidad had been, and located today abouttwo kilometersfrom the site of En Bas Saline (Deagan 1995) (Figure 1). The subjects of Guacanagarf's chiefdom, perhaps includingtheresidentsof En Bas Saline,mayhave been pressed into encomienda service to the Spaniardsat PuertoReal. In 1514, citizens of the Spanishtown were assigned 12 caciques (one of whom was a woman), controlling 945 Indians (ArranzMarqudz1991:547). The region around En Bas Saline was also the centerfor some of the final Taino resistance to Spanish dominion, the This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions AMERICAN ANTIQUITY 606 [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 ,".,Periphery > o`.`.vatior / .....-<[ '... K ..... NNexcavation\ 0A A ~~N GAR ARNGARDEN :~ G JaA, %Alf" C nr Iid :;GARM?N AREN .0*aUn ARE GADN G N GARDE RDRP'. K GASDEN ... ...A...DEN GRE A N A r is a ....Ce moe, nd',"A :" P GARDEN ""GAADE ~?~ F 13A?I,: OAADEN ~N ~~GARDEN ;! . ? . A} i 6ARDE O iC'.r:*~~a~_?GARDEN J a ~642~- ~ Fe-Occpied ...... 25testpi Legend .... m "i"'~D '*IjiGARDENI r 571loid 'ili . DRS Cnt dxviGARDEN i i:-?-J C t gr ... ~ ] I ?- aitiatho.s . f Msem Hstr atra C .... ?'4 j Tanit taio Florida Museum of Natural History T GARDEN GARDEN S fnc Cacusgade .... -1;iD... ; T n staio .. 2 OI[ ,,. L5O.i itr a id. .. ..trto Dirtroa Figure 3. Archaeological basemap, En Bas Saline. Dashed lines indicate raised earth features. Shaded areas indicate the primary midden locations. guerilla-style"Baharucowars"of the 1530s, during which a number of Spanish settlers in and around Puerto Real were killed (see Deive 1989:30-42; MiraCaballos1997:313). The archaeologicalprogramat En Bas Saline was initially orientedprincipallytowardlocating LaNavidad,whichhasbeendocumentedelsewhere (Deagan1987, 1989). It has includedprogramsof topographicmapping,surfacecollection, electromagneticconductivitysurvey,transecttestpits,and extensivearealexcavations.AlthoughtheLa Navidad fort was not unequivocally identified, the ephemeralnatureof thatoccupationrequireda finegrainedexcavationstrategythatservedultimately to isolatethe post-contactTainooccupationof the site in a way that might not have otherwisebeen possible. The Tainotown at En Bas Saline was roughly oval,orientedfromnorthwestto southeast,andwas boundedby a curved,raised earthenridge in the shapeof a squared"C,"opento thesouthandsouthwest (Figure3). The ridge is about20 m across, with elevationsrangingfrom .5 to .8 m above the areas.Distributionof thesurfacematesurrounding rials from the site (representingtotal coverage) revealthatthedensestTainooccupationrefusemidden is also concentratedin a squared"C"shape, opposite to and in a mirrorimage of the raised earthenridge(Figure3). Theridgeandthemidden are separatedby a flat, open areathatis relatively clearof occupationalevidence,andis presumedto havebeen a plaza,dancecourt,orball court.Three raisedareas(approximately.8 m in elevationand from 15 to 30 m across) are aligned east to west acrossthe plazaarea,dividingit intotwo sections. Followingwhatis knownof Tainotown organization,thesearepresumedto be eliteresidentialareas, a presumptionsubsequentlyconfirmedby excavation (for discussionof Tainovillage organization and settlementpatternssee Alegria 1985; Oliver This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS Deagan] 607 Table 1. RadiometricDates from En Bas Saline. Sample ID Beta 47758 Beta 46760 Beta 46759 Beta-18173 Beta 18172 Beta 01527 Beta 10526 Beta 018469 Beta 010528 Beta 046761 Field Provenience FS7399 (A18) Mound structure FS7126(A21,L3) Mound structure FS7123(F26,L4) Mound structure FS6851 (PM6) Mound structure FS6316(F11,L5) Feast pit FS3888 (A6) Post underlying burialpit FS3885 (F4, L11) Burial pit FS6882 (A6,L6) Burial pit FS3897 (F8, L3) Burial pit FS7185 F31L2 Non-elite ridge structure * - Variables:est. C13/C12 Cal A.D. Yrs. ? 20 Cal A.D. Yrs. ? 1 '813C%o* Charcoal Uncalibrated14C Years ?+ B.P. 810 ? 70 1040 (1240) 1300 1180-1280 -25 Charcoal 800 ? 60 1060 (1250)1280 1090-1280 -25 Charcoal Charcoal 720 + 50 680 ? 80 BP 1230 (1280)1310 1210(1290)1420 -25 -25 Charcoal 600 + 70 BP Charcoal 640 + 260 1280 (1320,1340, 1390) 1440 1270 (1300) 1420 1270-1300 1270-1320 1340-1390 1300-1420 1290-1400 -.25 Charcoal 430 ? 80 1400 (1450)1650 -.25 Charcoal 440 ? 60 Charcoal 340 + 70 1460-1650 -.25 Charcoal 320 + 70 1410 (1440) 1530 1560-1630 1430 (1520, 1590, 1620) 1670 1440 (1530, 1560, 1630)1670 1770-1800 1940-1950 1420-1510 1600-1620 1420-1480 1470-1650 -.25 Material -25 -.25 = -.25:lab. mult =1 1998:28-48; Rainey and Rouse 1941; Rouse 1992:9-10; Siegel 1999; Veloz Maggiolo 1993: 148-154). Between 1984and 1988we excavated238.5 m2 at En Bas Saline, accountingvolumetricallyfor approximately216 m3of soil, dividedamong814 discretefieldexcavationproveniences(thatis, fivecentimeterincrementsof individualsoil zones and features).Radiocarbondatesfromtheloweststrata and featuresat the site indicatean initial date of occupationat aroundA.D. 1250, and continuous occupation into the historic period is supported both by post-1492 Europeanmaterialsand radiometric dates (Table 1). Excavationsconcentrated on the centralandlargestmound(as a chiefly residence),theearthridgeboundingthe site (tounderstand its chronology,constructionand function), anda locationin theplazaareathatcontainedelectromagneticanomalies(Figure3). Theearthridgewas apparentlyconstructedpurposefullyin a single episodepriorto contact,with a series of borrowpits on the village side, and a very low density of culturalmaterialin the ridge fill. The configurationand materialcontentin the areawe testedsuggeststhatearthworkwas notused for domesticoccupationbeforecontact,butrather servedas a boundaryfor the village or for a plaza. A portion of a small wattle and daub structure accompaniedby refusedepositswas locatedon the top of the earthenridge, and was occupiedexclusivelyduringthepost-contactperiod.Withoutadditionaltesting,however,we cannotdetermineif this representsan isolatedphenomenon,or a site-wide changein settlementpatternaftercontact. The centralmoundexcavationsrevealedremnantsof at least two very large,presumablyelite, They superimposedorreusedresidentialstructures. were oval in shape, exceeding 15 m in diameter, andwere supportedby posts measuringat least 50 cm in diameter.The initial structurewas probably constructed between A.D. 1200 and 1250 and burned at least twice during its occupation. It burnedfor the firsttime duringthe secondhalf of thethirteenthcentury(Table1), andthenagainduring the earlypost-contactperiod,indicatedby the presence of Europeanelements in several of the structure'slaterposts andburnedfill layers. Adjacentto andprobablyoutsidethe structural complex on the mound,we located a deep pit in which the remainsof an infantwere interred(Fig- This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 608 ANTIQUITY AMERICAN ure4). Includedin thefill of theburialpit werelarge quantitiesof ceramics(manyelaboratelymolded) andwhatwe interpretto be theremainsof feasting. A post-contactdatefor theburialis confirmedboth by the presence of Sus scrofa and Rattus rattus bones in the lowest levels of the feature(underlying the burial),andby radiometricdates(Table1). Electromagneticsurveyin theplazalocatedtwo verylarge,deeppitsbetweenthecentralmoundand the earthridge.Initiallyhypothesizedto havebeen partof a potentialmoat,it becameclearuponexcavationand analysisthatthe pits datedstratigraphically to the pre-contactera,andchronometrically to the mid-fourteenthcentury(Table 1). The pits were rectangularand straight sided, measuring approximatelyone by two meters,and extending to a depthof morethan1.5 meters(Figure5). They were filled with ceramicvessel fragments,broken ceramic griddles, burnedmanioc tubers, animal bone, layersof ash and shell, andwere apparently used for communalfeasting.Ceramiccrossmends showthattheseweresingle-eventpits (thefeatures and their remainsare discussed in Cusick 1989; Deagan 1986;Newsom 1993).Extensivetestingin otherpartsof the centralplazarevealedvery shallow culturaldeposits (less than 30 centimeters) with few intrusion,low artifactdensity,and obvious disturbanceby modernhoe farming. Of the 188,482artifactsrecoveredthroughexcavation,30 percentcamefromtheupper-levelplowzone or from disturbedcontexts;41 percentwere from undisturbed,sub-plowzonedeposits dating to after1492 , and29 percentcame frompre-contact contexts (Table 2). As noted earlier, faunal remains,studiedunderthe directionof Elizabeth Wing of the FloridaMuseumof NaturalHistory, proved to be critical in the identification of post-1492 deposits.Theanimalbonesfromall 814 excavatedproveniencesweresortedto look specifically forEuropeanspecies,andremainsfrompigs (Susscrofa),mice (Musmusculus),rats(Rattusrattus)and/orcats (Felisdomesticus),all unequivocal indicationsof Europeanintroduction,were found in 17 undisturbedsub-plowzonefeatures.The faunalandfloralremainsfrom42 undisturbed contexts werefurtheranalyzedusingdetailedmeasurements andallometricstudiesin orderto characterize Taino subsistence(Newsom 1993;Newsom andDeagan 1994;Newsom andWing 2004;Wing 1989, 1991, 2001). [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 Given the temporalcontrastbetween the centuries-longpre-contactoccupationandthedecadeslong post-contactoccupation,the high proportion of materialfrom undisturbed,post-1492 deposits was unexpected. Sampling bias possibly contributedto this distribution,in that much of our excavation was concentratedin the central area mound where several very large, very rich, and unequivocallypost-contactfeatureswere located (therebyappearingto be a good candidatefor the fortof LaNavidad).Thiscannot,however,account fully for the large proportionof historiccontexts locatedthroughoutthesite.Undisturbed,sub-plowzone, post-1492 contexts occurredin all partsof the communitywe tested(Table2), andthe occupationof EnBas Salineclearlycontinuedwell after the first introductionof Europeanmaterialsand animals. It is quitepossiblethatEn Bas Salinemay have incorporatedadditionalpopulationafter 1492 if other,smallercommunitiesin the cacicazco collapsedunderthe pressuresof disease and Spanish labordemands.If thisdid,in fact,occur,it suggests thattherewas a strongmaterialhomogeneityin the regionfromwhichrefugeepopulationsweredrawn, since no significantdifferencesin artifacttypesand styles could be detectedin these laterdeposits. Articulating Material and Written Sources: The Analytical Framework The analysisof archaeologicaldata from En Bas Saline was organizedto addressthe questionsof post-contactchangeand/orcontinuityin the community,and was informedby documentary-based informationaboutgeneralpatternsof Tainosociety and Taino-Spanish interaction (discussed above). The organizationof labor was centralto this, since laborexploitationwas the definingelement in Spanish-Tainorelations after the initial periodof conflict.As notedearlier,the well-docuandpolitof socialdifferentiation mentedstructures ical inequality among the Taino of Hispaniola helpedprovidethefoundationforSpanishexploitation of Taino labor. Spanish recognition of and respect for chiefly statusprivilegedthe caciques, who were generally exempt from labor requirements andinsteadorganizedtheirsubjectsfor the encomiendalabordrafts.The demoralabordrafts thus probablyaffected non-elite Taino men dis- This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS Deagan] EN SAS 84, SALINE & 4,6j FEATUIRES 8. 609 PROFILE NO~RTH 97 N 1017E . r 94 Nl 1027EI , .. ..... t~?"~i :1~?:i jih~~h~~hh~~h :r:si~~i!~~,,~ : ?'?:aCciic:`~' %:-' NTBURIA0-:ii.r -?INFA ~r::~t r ';.~k*bIs::=" .?- RE., 8: - - - 0 METERr~: I Figure 4. Post-contact burial pit, En Bas Saline (Features 4, 6, 8). A-Plowzone; B-Midden zone; C-Culturally sterile yellow sand; D-Culturally sterile clayey sand; E-Grey clay; F-Sterile white sand. EN BASSALINE PROFILE 85, 01000N 977E,NORTH 1001.5N101SN •980E .977.E A gs lwg Ws~~~igza*ir j~ ?)?rgc?~~i~d~z~ " q 0 ..5cm Figure 5. Pre-contact feast pit, En Bas Saline (Feature 11). A-Plow zone; B-Midden zone; C-Mottled tan clayey soil; D-Culturally sterile yellow sand; E-loose gravelly sand; F-Grey clay. implyingthatthe directimpactof non-elite households and men. Although Taino proportionately, dominion mayhavebeenexperiencedmost womenoftenservedtheSpaniardsin severalcapacSpanish and gender lines, specifically ities (particularlyproducingcotton cloth), it was class keenly along This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 610 [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY Table 2. Distributionof All ExcavatedCulturalMaterialsThroughSite Areas and TemporalPeriods at En Bas Saline. Feast Pit Units Central Mound % # % # 58.16 32.42 9.42 2949 2416 12056 17421 16.93 13.87 69.2 31020 58776 24866 114662 Boundary Ridge # Plowzone/Disturbed 11895 ContactPeriod 6631 Precontact 1928 All 20454 for the mostpartnon-elitemen who wererecruited for distantworkin Spanish-ownedmines, agricultural fields and town construction.As a consequence,it is likelythatgenderratiosin manyTaino communitieswere alteredaftercontact. The extentto which the removalof men would have disrupteddomesticand communitypatterns dependedon a numberof factors.Removalof men from a setting characterizedby an inflexible or highlydifferentiatedgendereddivisionof labor,in which men contributedheavily to the production of staples,would be expectedto createconsiderable disorder.A weakly differentiatedgendered divisionof labormightprovokeless disruption,if women (or children) were able to accept and assume some of the functionsnormallyassigned to men. In eithercase, the natureof such potentialdisorderwoulddependto a considerableextenton the degreeto which leaderscould sustaintheirability to organize,control,andconsolidatelaborandproduction in order to balance the demands of the Spaniardswith theirown communityneeds in the face of an alteredlaborpool. Chieflypowercould have been enhancedby Spanishreinforcementof the existing Taino social hierarchy,which could presumably serve to maintain continuity. Conversely, the impositionof Spanishlabor requirements, loss of population through disease, and disruptionof the Tainosense of worldorderafter contactmighthavediminishedchieflypower,provoking disorderandchange. In the interestof exploringsome of these possibilitiesat En Bas Saline,we constructedouranalytical frame to compare pre-contact and post-contactpatternsof gender-linkedactivities, social differentiation,andcommunityritual(as an index of political control).Excavationdata were unitsthatreporganizedintofive"socio-temporal" resentedsingle householdsor single ritualevents, each datingrespectivelyto eitherthe pre-contact % 27.05 51.26 41.7 Plaza Excavations # 9420 3402 5014 17836 % 52.81 19.07 28.1 Burial Pit # 1071 5950 11088 18109 % 15 85 30 ALL # 56355 77175 54952 188482 % 30 41 29 orpost-contactperiod("pre-contact"and "post-contact" are obviously arbitrary divisions, and undoubtedlyreducevariationin the much longer pre-1492 period quite severely. While acknowledging this, we accept it for the purposesof this particularinquiryinto the natureof changestimulatedby the impositionof Europeandominancein the regionafter 1492). The resultinganalyticalunitsincluded: 1. A pre-contact ritual event, comprisedby the feast pits in the centralplaza, datedat ca. AD 1350; 2. A post-contact ritual event, comprisedby the post-1492 burial pit adjacent to the central mound; 3. A pre-contactelite residentialarea, comprised by theearlierlargeburnedstructureandits associatedfeatureson thecentralmound,whichwas occupiedfromearlyin the establishmentof the site (at ca. A.D. 1250) to the late fifteenthcentury; 4. A post-contact elite residential area, comprisedby the latest large burnedstructureand associatedfeatureson the centralmound,dated to after 1492; 5. A post-contact non-elite residential area, comprisedby the small wattle and daubstructure and associatedfeatureson the earthwork ridgeperipheryof the site. The assignmentof individualdeposits to the pre-contactor post-contactperiod was based on associationsanchoredby thepresence stratigraphic of Europeanmaterialsand radiometricdates.All plow zone levels ("A"horizon),any depositswith evidenceof alterationordisturbancedatingto after the mid-sixteenthcentury,and certainother site sheet deposits(suchas functionallyundifferentiated from excluded were in the central plaza) deposits this analysisfor the purposesof this study. This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS RECONSIDERING 611 Ceramicvessels usedin food preparation comprise more than 96 percentof the domestic artifactsat En Bas Saline, and plant food preparationitems suchas burines(ceramicgriddles),grindingstones, and coral gratersconstitute the remaining food items.Theceramicassemblageis overpreparation whelminglydominatedby Carrierpottery,a local variantof the Chican-Ostionoidsubseriesdistinguishedby paste, manufacturingtechniques,decorative modes and vessel forms (Cusick 1989, 1991; Rouse 1939:43, 55-56, 1941:122-154, ceramicsin gen1992:110-112).Chican-Ostionoid eral are associatedwith the rise and spreadof the Taino in Hispaniola, and they dominatedTaino assemblagesthroughoutmuch of the island at the time of contact(Rouse 1992:112).White-slipped subpottery,a subcategoryof theChican-Ostionoid occurs and Saline Bas En at is also series, present most commonlyin bottle forms.The paste is thin anddistinctive,andthebottlesaresometimeselaboratelysculptedandincised in effigy images (Figure 6). Therewereno significantdifferencesin theproportions of ceramic types or ceramic decorative modes amongthe threehouseholdsin the sample. Although the relativeproportionof undecorated potteryincreasedslightly after contact, this was not a statistically significant change, and is accountedfor by a concomitantdecreasein whiteslippedwares.This observationapplies,however, only to the domestic household samples, in that white slipped wares in ritual contexts increased aftercontact,while undecoratedwaresdecreased. The proportionsof decoratedwaresin the ceramic assemblagesdid not changeeitherthroughtime or acrosshouseholdsocial divisions.These patterns implythatneitherceramicproductionnorceramic distributionpatternsat En Bas Saline underwent significantalterationin thepost-contactperiod.The similarityof theeliteandnon-elitedomesticassemblagesfurthermoresuggeststhatthe ceramictypes themselvesdidnotreflectdistinctionsin socialaffiliationwithinthe community. The major differences between the ceramic Results assemblagesof elite and non-elitehouseholdsare seenin the abundanceof potteryandin vessel form Foodand DomesticPractice diversity.The peripheralnon-elitehouseholdhas a Food preparation,potteryproduction,anddomes- dramatically lower ceramic density (142 tic activitiesare assumedto have been dominated sherds/cubicmeter) than does either of the elite by andlargelyunderthe controlof Tainowomen. households (704 sherds/cubicmeter in the post- Comparativeanalysesof householdsandritual eventsthroughtime,acrossclass,andbetweenpublic anddomesticpracticewere organizedby these units (Table3). Because labor,gender,andpower were centralto ourquestionsaboutTainoresponse to Spanishencomiendadomination,artifactswere quantifiedand groupedin categoriesthat materiallyreflectgenderedeconomicactivities(foodtechnology, fishingtechnology,tools andimplements, lithicproductionby-products)andaccessto valued goods (ornamentsand ritualitems). Ethnohistorical documentation,the corpusof previousarchaeological work on the Taino, and archaeological contextprovidedthe basis for assignmentof artifacts to specificgroups. The organizationof archaeologicalmaterials into behavioralor functionalcategoriesfor purposes of quantitative comparison is widely employedby historicalarchaeologistsas an analyticalmethodology,derivedfromStanleySouth's "patternrecognition" methods (1977). Pattern recognitionhas receivedwidespreadcriticismfor its reductioniststatisticalapproach,and its often arbitraryassignment of function. The "pattern method"has, in truth,been too often used inapandwithoutcarefulthought propriately,arbitrarily, (see SouthandDeagan2002:44-45). Nevertheless, it is one of the few analyticaltechniquesthatpermits us to organizeandcomparematerialremains fromhouseholds(whetherfromhistoricor prehistoric) into informedcategoriesappropriateto our questions.Such an organizationalapproachadditionallyhelpsavoidtheprivilegingof a singleactivity such as food preparation(as representedby ceramics) in the materialassessment of cultural practice.I suggest as a methodologicalnote that comparativeanalysesatthe scale of householdand eventrely somewhatmoreheavily on the articulation of artifactpatternsthando the regional-scale or community-widespatial approachin contact period studies called for by Lightfoot (1995:210-211). This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Table 3. Distributionof CulturalMaterialsthroughSociotemporalDivisions at En Bas Salin Pre-Contact Ritual (Feast) 14 581 Soil volume (m3) Artifactdensity (/m3) Post-Contact Ritual (Elite Burial) 18 416 Proportion FOOD TECHNOLOGY" Carrierpottery Decorated Undecorated White slipped Subtotal,Carrier Otherpotteryb Buren (griddle) Coral grater Metate All food preparation Proportion # Po R (E Proportion 525 6188 1052 7765 23 269 .07 .77 .13 .96 .00 .03 274 2827 744 3845 25 107 .07 .71 .19 .97 .01 .03 1068 12676 2190 15934 29 634 1 .06 .76 .13 .96 .00 .04 230 3100 443 3774 5 92 1 8058 1 3977 1 16598 1 3872 2 2 .07 4 4 8 .03 4 .13 95 .39 FISHINGTECHNOLOGY Shell fishhook Net weight Subtotal DEBITAGE/MICROLITHS (GRATERS?) 24 ORNAMENTS/RITUALITEMS ITEMS Beads Pendant Earplug Shell ornament Coral ornament Clay disc Polished celt Stone Zemi fragment Cohobainhaler Subtotal TOOLSAND IMPLEMENTS Anvil stone Blade # Pre-Contact Residence (Elite Mound) 28 601 .28 4 2 5 1 2 1 1 3 4 .05 1 3 .10 7 This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 13 .05 89 Scraper Hammerstone Stone tool fragment Shell adze Shell awl/punch Shell hammer Shell tool fragment Coral tool fragment Ceramiccloth stamp Subtotal 4 6 1 1 3 12 LITHICPRODUCTIONBY-PRODUCTS Preformhammer Preformtool Chertcore 44 Flake 1 Unidentifiedworked objects 45 Subtotal SUMMARY Food preparation Otheractivities All Taino 1 1 2 2 5 3 .14 7 .23 1 2 3 3 1 20 .08 1 1 1 .40 95 4 101 .41 # % all # % all 3977 30 4007 .99 .01 16598 245 16843 .99 .01 .53 9 3 12 # % all 8058 85 8143 .99 .01 1 387 10 398 EUROPEANITEMS:FIFTEENTHCENTURY ColumbiaPlain majolica Melado ware Bizcocho Clear glass Latticinio glass Opaquered glass Patinatedglass White glass Iron object Subtotal European a The materialassemblage of En Bas Saline is so overwhelminglydominatedby food preparationelements that any statistically measurab masked when they are quantifiedand considered as proportionsof the total assemblage. Food preparationelements are thereforestatistica behavioralcategories. b Boca Chica, Meillacan This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 614 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 Figure 6. Taino ceramics from En Bas Saline. Left: White slipped, decorated bottle fragments. Right: Typical decorated Carrier sherds (local variety of the Chican-Ostionoid ceramic subseries). contactelite household).The non-elitehousehold furthermore useda morerestrictedrangeof vessels, which includedonly five of the eight vessel forms foundin theelitehouseholds(Table4). Boat-shaped bowls, platters,and small roundbowls are absent from the non-elitehousehold,and were probably associatedwith consumptionor specializedfuncThisdistinction tionsunrelatedto food preparation. suggeststhatthe elite householdshadenhancedor exclusive access to vessels used for presentation, dining, and possibly ritualactivity.They did not, however,evidenceprivilegedaccessto food preparationvessels. Although the elite household had manymorepotsthanthenon-elitehousehold,there was little differencebetweenthemin the formsor decorativestyles of cookingceramics. These distributionsimply a broadconsistency in culturalpracticesrelatedboth to ceramicproduction and to food preparation-domains of women-both throughtime and across community elements.Thereis no indicationthateitherthe relationsof potteryproductionor preferentialelite access to potterychangedaftercontact.Unfortunately,withouta non-elite,pre-contactsample,we cannotassess patternsof non-eliteaccess priorto contact.It seems likely, however,thatthe choices of the non-elitehouseholdsin quantityandvariety of potterywere considerablymorerestrictedthan those of the elite householdsbothbeforeandafter contact. A puzzlingcontradictionin assessingdomestic practiceat En Bas Salineis presentedby the materialevidenceformaniocuse. Bittermanioc(Manihotesculenta)was the staplecropof theTainodiet, andits cultivationandarduouspreparation werethe province of Taino women. Manioc also figured prominently-both literallyandsymbolically-in Tainoreligion(for discussionsof maniocin Taino spiritual life and daily practice see Arrom 1989:20-44; Moscoso 1981:351-88; Newsom 1993:323-334; Sauer 1966:51-55; Sturtevant 1961). This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS Deagan] 615 Table 4. CeramicVessel Forms at En Bas Saline. Precontact Ritual (Feast) # Bowlforms Boat shaped 1 Carinated 88 Round 5 Shallow 13 Unidentified 39 Otherforms Platters 3 Bottles 104 Jars 110 Totalforms 484 Postcontact Ritual (Burial) Postcontact Residence (Elite) Precontact Residence (Elite) Proportion # Proportion .00 .18 .01 .28 .08 39 13 54 42 7 .15 .05 .21 .16 .01 157 2 113 153 6 .23 .00 .16 .22 .01 308 15 198 122 .00 .28 .15 1 109 153 695 .00 .16 .22 2 175 165 991 .01 .21 .23 1 74 38 261 # The most frequentlyused archaeologicalindex of manioc preparationand use are the ceramic griddlesknownas burines.As noted,thesearedistributedevenly at En Bas Saline across all time periods,functionalareas,andresidentialstatusdistinctions,implyinga stable,relativelyunrestricted resource(Table3). Anotherartifactcategorygenerally relatedto manioc preparationis thatof the chertmicrolithchips or debitagethoughtto have been embeddedas gratingteeth in wooden manioc grating boards (Figure 7). The use of microlithicdebitage in manioc gratinghas been discussedat lengthin the archaeologicalliterature (Berman 1995; DeBoer 1975; Lewenstein and Walker1984; Roosevelt 1980:129-130, 236) and many or most of those from En Bas Saline undoubtedlyserved this food preparationfunction. In contrastto manioc griddles,however,the proportional frequencyof microlithsincreaseddramaticallyaftercontact,in bothritualandresidential contexts(Table3). Theincreasein microlithdebitagewouldappear initiallyto imply a significantincreasein the use of manioc gratersduringthe post-contactperiod. However,becausechertmicrolithsused as manioc graterteeth and chertmicrolithsthatwere simply debitagewerenotdistinguishedduringanalysis,we cannotdismissthepossibilityof sampleerrorin this distribution.The increase in chert debitage may thereforealso imply a change in the regimen of lithic production, possibly including increased householdproductionof stone tools aftercontact. This questionis consideredbelow. # Proportion Postcontact Residence (Non-Elite) Proportion # .31 .02 .20 .12 42 .25 18 23 .11 .14 28 55 166 .17 .33 .00 .18 .17 Proportion Food Remains Unlike either burines (which remain constant throughtimeandsocialcontext)orchertmicroliths (whichincreasethroughtime),theremainsof manioc tubersthemselvesat En Bas Salinevaryin different ways both throughtime and accordingto social context.Carbonizedtubersdeclinedin frequency aftercontactin both ritualand residential contexts,althoughthey were primarilyassociated with ritualactivities(Table5). Lee Ann Newsom, in herstudiesof plantremainsfromEn Bas Saline (Newsom 1993;Newsom andDeagan1994;Newsom andWing2004), identifiedmorethan700 carbonized tuber ends in the pre-contact feast pit-undoubtedly remnantsof a community-wide feast (discussedbelow). This was a dramatically higherconcentrationthanthatencounteredin other site areas;however,it shouldbe noted that these would have been the intactends of tubers,which are inedible in their unprocessedstate. The low proportionsof tuberremainsin other contextsand particularlytheirdecline in post-contactcontexts-must be interpretedwith caution, since tubersthemselveswould only be foundin areasof grating activity,and then only if carbonized.As Table5 shows, however,the overallproportionof cultivatededibleplantremainsdeclinedin bothritual andresidentialcontextsaftercontact,a decline thatcontrastswiththepatternsof plantfood preparationtechnology. Patternsof animalfood use in the elite households of En Bas Saline also changedmeasurably This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions AMERICAN ANTIQUITY 616 [Vol. 69, No. 4, 2004 1 Centimeter Figure 7. Chert microliths. Chert debitage possibly used as manioc grater teeth (the two lower right chert fragments have the lime mortar used to affix them to graters or other implements still adhering). aftercontact,althoughthe changeswere not sufficiently dramaticto provokea concomitantalterationin foodpreparation technology.Althoughthey small a comprised relatively partof the Tainodiet at En Bas Saline,therewas a sharpreductionafter contactin the use of terrestrialmammals,whose huntingis thoughtto havebeenthe domainof men (primarilyCapromyidaeand Isolobodonportoricensis rodents,Table6). Trappingand huntingof these animalsappearsto have declinedaftercontact,most likely throughthe removalof men from the community. Marine mammals (manatee), althoughrarein the community,occurredonly in elite householdandritualcontexts.Europeanterrestrialmammals(rats,mice, pigs, cats, anddogs) did not constitutea majorportionof the diet either numericallyor in termsof biomass (Wing 1991). They were foundmost frequentlyin elite andcontexts on the central mound, suggesting greater access to these exotic species by elite membersof the community,eitheras food or curiosities. There is a strong associationof mammalsin generalwith elite diet at En Bas Saline, and their acquisitionmay havebeen controlledor restricted by elites.Inthisregard,however,eliteswereappar- ently unable to sustain their dietarypreferences afterthe Spanishlabor draftsbegan. Neither the members of the elite household nor those less affectedby thelabordraft(presumablywomenand children)were able to provideterrestrialmammal food resourcesata pre-contactlevel.Thepost-contact decrease in land mammals after contact is accompaniedinsteadby a significantincrease in otherkindsof terrestrialanimalresources,such as turtlesand lizards,which could be gatheredwithout specializedhuntingor capturetechniques. Marinefishesprovidedthe majorsourceof vertebratebiomassbothbeforeandaftercontact.There was a slight (althoughnot statisticallysignificant) increasein the use of bony fishes duringthe postcontactperiodin general,particularlyin the nonelite household (Table 6); however, the predominantfish families exploited by the elite householdsremainedthe same. Scaridae (parrotfish), Lutjanidae(snappers),Carangidae(jacks), Serranidae(sea bass), and Haemulidae (grunts) togetherprovidedmorethan50 percentof the fish consumed by both pre- and post-contact elite households.All of thesefishcan occurin relatively shallowinshorewatersor on reefs, andcouldhave This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Table 5. Distributionof Plant Remains at En Bas Saline (After Newsom 1993). Float sample (liters) Charcoal(grams) Precontact Ritual (Feast) 30 486.79 # CULTIVATEDEDIBLE Maize Manioc Palm Guava Soursop Pimiento Subtotal 34 746 2 Postcontact Ritual (Burial) 30 532.27 Proportion # .04 .95 2 Proportion Precontact Residence (Elite) 20 142.8 Postcontact Residence (Elite) 62 183.2 Post Res (Non 1 3 # Proportion # Proportion # 6 43 .07 .49 14 17 1 1 .05 .06 3 6 1 1 782 1.00 2 .33 49 .56 5 38 .13 11 CULTIVATEDMEDICINAL(?) Primrose Subtotalall cultivated 782 1.00 2 .33 3 52 .06 .60 214 252 .71 .84 2 13 WILD EDIBLE Amaranth/chenopod Sapote family Goosefoot Guaba(tree bean) Nightshade Panicoid grass Purslane Trianthema Subtotalwild edible TOTAL PLANTS 1 3 2 1 2 2 2 3 785 .00 4 6 .66 1 25 6 35 .40 87 This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 3 3 2 1 4 32 48 300 2 6 .16 19 24 2 53 66 618 ANTIQUITY AMERICAN been capturedby line, traps,or net fishing from boatson reefs,oron foot in shallowinshorewaters. There is a slight increaseduringthe post-contact periodin the size of some of thegroupersandsnappers,possibly suggestingan increasein hook and line fishing,ora changein trapsize selection(Wing 2001:Table6; Newsom and Wing 2004:TableC3). ChroniclersrecordedthatbothTainomen and women fished, althoughthere is no direct informationaboutdifferencesin male andfemale fishing practices.It is likely that with the removalof menaftercontact,morewomenfishedforthecommunity,perhapsemphasizingline or trapfishing over net fishing. The fish consumedin the non-elitehousehold were quitedifferentfromthose usedby the central mound elite residents.Three families, including Chaetodontidae (butterfly fish, 23 percent), Haemulidae (grunts, 15 percent), and Scaridae (parrotfish,15 percent)comprisedmore than 50 percentof thefishin theirdiet.Butterflyfish,prized todayas tropicalaquariumspecies, arevery small andbony andarenot generallyused as a food fish. They were not presentin the pre- or post-contact elite households, and their relatively abundant occurrencein thenon-elitehouseholdmay suggest that the peripheralhouseholdwas using the nonpreferredfishleftfromtrapsornetsafterthosewith morepowerto exercisechoice were supplied. Dietary differences between the post-contact elite and non-elitehouseholdsare also evidentin the overallmeasuresof faunalrichness,diversity, andequitability(Table6). The elite householdvertebratespeciesrichnessanddiversityvaluesarethe highest at the site, implying that a wide rangeof species was availableto them. This was coupled, however,with a very low vertebrateequitability value, suggestingaccess to a wide rangeof vertebratespecies, but with consumptionfocused on a few (presumablypreferred)resources.The nonelitehousehold,in contrast,hadthelowestsite-wide vertebrateand invertebraterichnessand diversity values, as well as dramaticallyhigherequitability values than did the elite households(althoughit shouldbe notedthatthese valuesmay be exaggeratedby the smallnon-elitesamplesize). This pattern suggests not only that non-elite membersof the community had a restricted access to food species, but also that they made broader, less choice-drivenuse of them.Regardlessof who was [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 actuallydoingthefishingduringthecontactperiod, the elite householdseems to have exercisedcontrol overprocurementanddistribution. Crafts Althoughthey constitutea very smallpartnumerically of the En Bas Saline assemblage,the proportionsof ornamentalitems, finishedtools, and non-debitagelithicproductionelementsdecreased significantlyin elite domesticcontextsduringthe post-contactperiod.At the same time, therewas a dramaticincreasein chertdebitage,discussedearlier.These materialchanges suggestthatthe regimens of production,distribution,andperhapsuse of nonceramiccraftitems were alteredafter 1492 at En Bas Saline. If a largeportiontheproducersof essentialtools andimplementswerelostto Spanishlabordemands orotherSpanish-inducedreasons,thoseremaining in Taino communitiesand households may well haveattemptedto assumethose necessarytasks.It is possible,forexample,thattheproductionof critical foodways-relatedimplementssuch as manioc gratersand stone knives shiftedto householdproduction,undertakenby those sparedfromthelabor drafts,accountingfor largeramountsof debitage in households. More specialized artistic activities, however, such as productionof carved ornamentalitems, may have declinedas a consequence.This is consistentwith the hypothesisthatmen were the primaryproducersof ornamentalcraftitems,andthat theremovalof menfromthe communityshouldbe reflectedby a change in the materialproductsof theirwork.The productionof beads andpendants did, in fact,continuein thepost-contactperiod,but at a markedlyreducedlevel. It shouldbe notedthat the highest proportionof such items at the site occurred in the post-contact burial (discussed below).Possiblyas a consequenceof reducedproduction, these ornamentalobjects seem to have been emphasizedin ritualperformanceratherthan in householduse aftercontact. RitualActivity The ritualactivitycomplexesat En Bas Salineare particularlyrevealingof Tainosociopoliticalrelations in that they involved the concentrationand controlof resources,includingfood, crafts,symbols, andlabor.In the case of the Taino,it is likely This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] RECONSIDERING TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS thatthis was not a gender-specificarena,butrather one tied to politicalpower and class (since Tafno caciques, nobles, and ceremonial participants includedbothmen andwomen).The ritualassemblages used in this discussionincludeda pre-contact feasting pit and a post-contact burial with associatedfeasting. Archaeological studies have underscoredthe importanceof ritualfeasts in providingimportant insightsinto politics andthe negotiationof power, as well as intoa varietyof practicesrelatedto social cohesion,economicandcraftspecialization,symbolic systems,commodityvalue,andredistribution (amongthem,DietlerandHayden2001; Pauketat et. al 2002; Spielmann2002). The Tainocommunity ritualsknownas areytoswere documentedin considerable detail in Spanish accounts, and involved feasting, dancing, singing, offerings to spiritdeitiesandancestors,andritesof purification (includingthe use of hallucinogensand induced vomiting).Areytoswere held in the plaza to celebrate deeds of ancestors,at the time of harvest, before and after battles, in associationwith ball games, at the marriageor death of a chief, and undoubtedlyon other occasions as well (Cassa 1990:174-177; Rouse 1992:14-15; Wilson 1990a:23,58). Thesocialfunctionsof ritualfeastingamongthe Taino are not yet well understood, and they undoubtedlyvariedthroughtime andamongcommunities accordingto local traditions,resources bases, and political economy. Nevertheless, the comparisonof pre-contactand post-contactritual events at En Bas Saline provides an important insightintothedegreeto whichcontinuityin power relations,resourcevalues,andsymbolicattribution were sustained (or lost) during the post-contact periodby the Tafnoof En Bas Saline. Despitethethreecenturiesandthedifferentpurposes separatingthem,thepre-contactfeastandthe post-contactburialpossess similar materialprofiles and imply a consistentvision of appropriate ritual performance(Table 3). Obviously,certain differences materialresulted from the different functionsof thetwo ritualevents,suchas thehigher proportionof whiteslipped,moldedandsculptural Carrierbottleformsin the post-contactburialfeature (Figure6). The emphasison these bottles in the post-contact burial suggests their symbolic importancefor residentsof En Bas Saline,andthe 619 persistenceof corollarybelief structureand practice after Spanish dominion.A cut and polished bone tube made from an avian legbone was also presentin the burialpit, and may have been associated with the inhalationof hallucinogenicpowder during the Taino cohoba ritual (Alegrfa 1997a:24;CaroAlvarez 1977). Inadditionto theirsimilarceramicassemblages, both of the ritualcontexts containedhigher proportionsof objectsrelatedto craftproduction,ritual, and ornamentationthan did the residential contexts.Stone beadswere, for example,twice as common proportionatelyin the ritualcontexts as theywerein theresidentialcontexts(althoughthey were few in numberthroughoutthe undisturbed contextsat the site).Thepre-contactfeastpits containedfewer finishedornaments,tools, andimplements than did the burial, but also many more productionby-products(includingtheproblematic chertmicroliths)thandidtheburial.Thismayimply thatthe socially valuedgoods associatedwith the post-contact burial were gathered from those alreadyexisting, while the productionof implementsandcraftitemsforritualfeastingorexchange was incorporatedas partof the pre-contactevent (see Spielmann2002). Food remainsfrom both of the ritualcontexts also illustrate the aggregationof resources and labor for these events both before and after contact. Although the kinds of animals targetedfor feasting did not differ from those in the residential contexts, the vertebrateand invertebratefaunal species richnessof the two ritualcontexts(63 and69) is muchhigherthanin any of the residential contexts (46, 45, and 16 respectively)(Table 6). The high species richnessand diversityin the ritualcontexts suggests an intensive but broadly focused effort to accumulatea large amount of food fora singleevent.Likethedietof elite domestic households,however,theverylow speciesequitability suggests that consumption was concentratedon certain preferredresources for these events. Plant remains are less consistent between the two ritual contexts--in the pre-contact feast pit, more than 99 percent of the edible plants were corn or manioc, while in the post-contact burial pit only 33 percent of the edible plants were domesticated (Table 5). This decline in the proportion of cultivated edible plants after contact, as noted, is This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 620 [Vol.69, No. 4, 2004 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY Table6. SummaryFaunalDistributionsand Proportions(Prop.) at En Bas Saline.a Precontact Ritual MNI Prop. VERTEBRATES Terrestrialmammals Marinemammals Europeanmammals Freshwaterturtles Marineturtles Snakes Lizards Toads Birds Bony fishes Sharks SubtotalVertebrateMNI 27 0 .08 9 9 8 18 4 8 269 3 355 .03 .03 .02 .05 .01 .02 .76 .01 # families # species Class diversity(H') Species diversity(H") Species equitability 37 64 1.44 3.57 .04 INVERTEBRATES Crustaceans Bivalves Gastropods SubtotalInvertebrateMNI 35 2508 233 2776 # families # species Class diversity(H') Species diversity(H") Species equitability TOTALFaunalMNI MNI 27 4 4 9 13 3 19 4 9 428 4 524 .01 .90 .08 159 4936 288 5383 Prop. MNI Prop. MNI Prop. 26 1 .14 .01 13 2 .06 .01 1 0 .03 .00 1 1 4 2 2 2 147 2 188 .01 .01 .02 .01 .01 .01 .78 .01 6 6 3 4 0 3 176 3 216 .03 .03 .01 .02 .00 .01 .82 .01 1 1 1 1 0 0 28 0 33 .03 .03 .03 .03 .00 .05 .01 .01 .02 .03 .01 .04 .01 .02 .82 .01 .03 .92 .05 5907 21 1653 121 1795 .01 .92 .07 1983 .02 .91 .08 .00 1377 8 147 22 1 .05 .83 .12 22 27 .93 2.66 .28 28 44 .3 2.12 .08 29 45 .29 2.35 .08 .00 19 1054 88 1161 .88 18 16 .36 2.77 .34 38 45 1.63 3.67 .08 37 46 1.63 3.36 .08 37 68 .21 2.8 .05 .00 Postcontact Postcontact Precontact Elite Residence Elite Residence NoneliteResidence Prop. MNI 46 69 1.66 3.52 .05 40 60 .16 1.12 .04 3131 Postcontact Ritual .00 210 % all MNI % all MNI % all MNI % all MNI % all MNI .16 33 .16 216 .10 SubtotalVertebrates 188 .09 355 .11 524 177 .84 .84 .91 1161 Subtotal Invertebrates 1795 2776 .91 .89 5383 aBasedon 42 field proveniencesanalyzed underthe directionof ElizabethWing, FloridaMuseum of NaturalHistory, Universityof Florida. NISP=65,850 a generaltrendbetweenthe pre-contactandpostcontactperiods at En Bas Saline, albeit with the caveats of preservationvagaries as a source of sample error.Overall,however,it is the continuity in materialprofiles that is the most striking aspect of the ritualcontexts, suggesting the continuing ability of leaders duringthe post-contact period to commandwhat were probablyincreasingly scarce labor and commodity resources requiredfor communityritual and social reproduction. Discussion and Summary This studyhasbeenconcernedwiththereasonsfor, and consequencesof, the dearthof archaeological information generated about Native American responsesto the arrivalof the first Europeansin America.Using archaeologicaldatafromtheTaino town site of En Bas Saline, Haiti, it has also has exploredthe natureof thoseresponses,andoffered substantiveinsightsintoTainoculturalsurvivaland dynamicsafter1492. This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions Deagan] TAINOSOCIALDYNAMICS RECONSIDERING Theabsenceof archaeologicalattentionto postcontactTainosites in the Caribbeanis attributedto bothmethodologicalandepistemologicalbiasesin archaeologicalpractice.One importantfactorhas been a largelyuncriticalacceptanceof the assumption-based in documentarysources-that Taino demographicand social disintegrationtook place so rapidlyaftercontactthatno recognizableTaino occupationsiteswereformed(orif theywere,their ephemeralitymadethemmateriallyinaccessible). Not only has text-basedassessmentof Tainocollapse limitedarchaeologicalproblemdefinitionin theregion,butarchaeologicalpracticehasalsobeen biasedby assumptionsabouthow we identifypostcontactNative Americancontexts.In the case of En Bas Saline, Europeanartifactsare few, unremarkable,andnot easily recognizable.Manypostcontactoccupationstrataand depositionalevents aredateableonlythroughthepresenceof European fauna,implyinga need to incorporatetotalrecovery and sortingof these remainsas a standardpart of researchstrategyin suspectedpost-contactsites. Withtheseconcernsin mind,archaeologyatEn Bas Salinehasdemonstratedthattherewas,in fact, a substantialpost-1492 Taino occupationat this site, andthattraditionalTainosocial and communitypracticein generalwas sustainedherewithfew materialalterationswell intothe sixteenthcentury. Thedocumentaryrecordmakesit apparentthatthe most disruptiveaspect of Spanishdominationof Hispaniola(otherthanepidemicdisease) was the annuallabordraft,which removedTafnoworkers fromtheirtownsforpartof eachyear.Spanishpolicy accordedcaciquesthemselvespoliticalrecognitionandexemptionfromlabor,andit is probable thatthey, in turn,extendedpreferentialtreatment to kinsmenandelite communitymembersin their organizationof the labordrafts.These labordrafts furthermoreseem to haveimpactedmen (as workers in mines, construction,and agriculture)to a considerablygreaterextentthey did thanwomen. Thearticulation of archaeologicaldatawithtextbased informationabout this aspect of SpanishTainointeractionhas madeit possible to elicit the essentialdiversityof Tainopost-contactexperience withinthe community,andthe importanceof gender and social class in conditioningthatdiversity. Archaeologicallyvisible changesin Tainodomestic culturalpracticeat En Bas Saline afterEuropeanimpositionof theencomiendaaremostclearly 621 manifestedin activitiesassociatedwithmen.These include lithic tool production,the productionof shell, stone, and bone ornaments,huntingof terrestrialanimals,and possibly some fishing practices. During the same period, there was a high degree of continuityin the kinds and proportions of items presumedto be associatedwith women's activities, or to have been producedby women, includingmanioc processing,shellfishgathering, food preparation,andceramicproduction.Thereis the possible implicationas well-at least in the case of lithicproductionandfishing-that women may have assumedsome of the most criticalsubsistenceandproductiontasksthoughtto havebeen traditionally performedby men.Therelativelynonspecializedgenderroles andrelationsof theTaino, outlinedin this discussion,mayin facthaveserved as a mitigatingfactorin the disruptionof cultural practiceprovokedby the removalof men fromthe community. The alterationsin genderratioscreatedby the labor draftsdo not appearto have affectedritual practice,or by extension,the powerof leaders(be they male or female) to marshal people and resourcesfor ritualevents that were fundamental to communitycoherenceand social reproduction. Residentsof the elite householdhad access to and possessed a greaterdiversityof materialobjects andchoice in food resourcesthandidthepost-contact, non-elite household, clearly implying a markedsocialinequalityamonghouseholds.Inthe absenceof a pre-contactnon-elitehouseholdsample, we can only presumethatthe social differentiation seen in the post-contact archaeological recordof En Bas Saline representsthe continuation of similar patternsbefore contact. Spanish accounts of such differentiation made at the momentof contactsupportthis presumption. The scarcity of Europeanartifactsat En Bas Salineis conspicuous.Despitetheirlocationwithin a few kilometersof the Spanish town of Puerto Real, the people of at En Bas Saline only rarely incorporatedSpanishitemsinto theirmateriallife. This is consistentwith Anderson-C6rdova'ssuggestionthatmostTainosretreatedto theirhomevillages when not workingin labordrafts,and were largelyinsulatedtherefromthe Spaniards(1990). It also supportsthe suggestion of Tafnoindifference to andrejectionof Spanishculturalelements andvalues. This content downloaded from 129.252.86.83 on Wed, 25 Feb 2015 20:36:49 UTC All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions 622 [Vol. 69, No. 4, 2004 AMERICAN ANTIQUITY This rejectionpresentsa strikingcontrastto the otherside of thecontactequation,thatis, European responseto interactionwith Tainos.It is well-documentedarchaeologicallythat Spanishdomestic culturalpracticeatPuertoRealandothersixteenthcentury Spanishtowns throughoutthe Americas was quickly transformedin response to contact withAmericanIndians.Withina decadeof contact, women'sdomainsof food preparation andceramic in most households in these production Spanish townshadthoroughlyincorporated Tainopractices throughthe agency of Tainowomen who married orlivedwithSpanishmen(see Deagan1995, 1996; Ewen 1991). Thereversesituation-Spanish influencein the households of En Bas Saline communicated throughIndianmen in contact with Spaniardsdid not occur,providinga provocativeillustration of how the natureof contact-provokedchangecan be grounded in gender roles, particularly as embodiedin culturalbrokerage.Italso offersa dramaticdeparturefromearliermodels of acculturation and Euramericanculturecontact(see Cusick 1998b).Fromanarchaeologicalperspective,Taino culturalcontinuityand Spanishculturaltransformation in sixteenth-centuryHispaniolasuggests thatcontact-inducedculturalchangein household domestic practice was largely unidirectionalfromTainoto Spaniard. En Bas Saline is the first post-contactTaino communitythathas been studiedarchaeologically in orderto understandpost-contactresponseand action,and as such, may reflecta very local set of circumstances. There were undoubtedly many otherTainohouseholdsandcommunitiesthathad very differentexperiencesafter 1492, althoughit is unlikelythatthepeople of at En Bas Salinewere the only Tainos who retainedtraditionalcultural practices until epidemic disease finally overwhelmedthem.The full panoramaof post-contact organizationalandexperientialdiversitycannotbe articulatedwithoutan archaeologicallyinformed reconsiderationof documentarysources, a concerted effort among prehistoric and historical archaeologiststo coordinatescale and strategyin the studyof theearlyAmericancontactperiod,and a genuineintellectualcommitmentto incorporate genderintothose studiesas a basic structuringelement. Acknowledgments.The research upon which this study is based was provided by grants from the National Science Foundation (BNS 8706697), the National Endowment for the Humanities (RO2093585), the National Geographic Society, the Organization of American States, and the Institutefor EarlyContactPeriodStudies at the Universityof Florida. Funds were also provided by the by the Florida Museum of Natural History and the University of Florida Division of Sponsored Research. George Avery, James Cusick, Michael Gannon,William Hodges, William Keegan, Jean Massena, Jerald Milanich, Lee-Ann Newsom, Jean Claude Selime, MauriceWilliams, and ElizabethWing have all contributedin importantways to this project. I particularly appreciatethe criticalreadingand thoughtfulcomments on earlier drafts of this paper made by Antonio Curet, Bill Keegan, Bill Marquardt,Jerry Milanich, Bonnie McEwan, ClarkMoore, ElizabethWing, and Sam Wilson. 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