Heroes of the Colosseum

Transcription

GLADIATORS
Working title: Gladiators, Heroes of the Colosseum
Bologna, Museo Civico Archeologico
Firenze, Museo Bardini
Milano, Antiquarium Alda Levi
Napoli, Museo Archeologico Nazionale
Roma, Colosseo
Roma, Museo delle Terme di Diocleziano
Paestum, Museo Archeologico Nazionale
Scientific Coordinator
Rossella Rea
Director of Colosseum
Exhibition curated by
Eugenio Martera, Linda Carioni, Patrizia Pietrogrande, Rossella Rea
Organization
Contemporanea Progetti, Florence, Italy
&
Expona, Bolzano, Italy
Project Parteners
Soprintendenza Speciale per i Beni Archeologici di Roma, Rome
Colosseo, Rome
Contemporanea Progetti srl
Via del Campofiore 106
50136 Florence
tel +39 055 6802474
fax +39 055 6580200
www.contemporaneaprogetti.it
[email protected]
Copyright©2012 Contemporanea Progetti. All rights reserved; intellectual and moral property of Contemporanea Progetti.
No part of this book can be reproduced. The images are only included for illustrative purposes and in any case are not liable to article no. 1522 of current Italian regulation ( Codice Civile art. 1522).
EXPONA
Via dei Conciapelli 60
39100 Bolzano, Italy
Tel: +39 335 7294859
Dr. Alex Susanna
www.expona.it
[email protected]
Travelling Exhibition
GLADIATORS
List of Main Lenders
Gladiators were an expression of Rome’s martial ethics; by fighting well and dying well,
they engendered great admiration, wild acclaim and popularity throughout the Roman
world and their role as entertainers was celebrated and commemorated in high art and
commonplace objects. And there was no greater expression of this phenomenon than
the Colosseum in Rome, the greatest amphitheater ever built and still today one of the
wonders of the world.
In collaboration with the Director of the Colosseum, Dr. Rossella Rea, the ambition of
this large-scale exhibition is to illustrate this compelling, fascinating world in its myriad
of complexities through traditional exhibition methods, such as the display of original
objects, but also through modern replicas and models, based on rigorous scientific
documentation, cutting-edge interactive technology, suggestive graphics and
set design and other multimedia devices and applications. The exhibition unfolds
on two paths revealing two protagonists, interwoven by destiny: the gladiators and the
Colosseum, that colossal, complex structure that was the stage upon which their fate was
determined. Fact is separated from fiction through an exhibition that follows both a
chronological and thematic order.
GLADIATORS – HEROES OF THE COLOSSEUM is the first international travelling exhibition
in collaboration with the Colosseum in Rome with significant original loans coming from
important Italian museums and institutions and with the support of the Soprintendenza
Speciale per i beni archeologici di Roma, Rome.
Helmet of gladiator
Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Naples
Forever immortalized by films in the popular imagination, the gladiator locked in mortal
combat for the entertainment of the crowds in the Colosseum of ancient Rome is a
perpetually irresistible figure to a large spectrum of the public. Many are aware of the life
and death theatrics, but few know of the behind-the-scenes intricacies of existence of
the gladiators of ancient Rome. Theirs was a world of specialization, training, discipline,
regulation, peril, but also hope of fame, redemption, even wealth and freedom.
GLADIATORS
The exhibition, in brief
GLADIATORS
HEROES OF THE COLOSSEUM
GLADIATORS
DESCRIPTION OF
THE EXHIBITION
CONTENTS AND
HISTORICAL
BACKGROUND
Modern historians seem to dispute the ancient Etruscan attribution and identify the
origins instead in Campania, the region of Italy that today is centered around the city
of Naples. 4th century BCE frescoes in Paestum depict armed pairs with Corinthian
(Greek) helmets, spears and round shields.
According to the great ancient Roman historian and author of The History of Rome (Ab
Urbe Condita), Livy (Titus Livius 59 BCE-17 CE), the first known gladiatorial games were
held in 310 BCE by the Campanians to celebrate their military victory over the Samnites
through symbolic re-enactment. The Samnites were the people of Samnium, the territory
to the east of Campania (today known as the Molise region of Italy). Samnium’s support
for Hannibal and Carthage in the 2nd Punic War led to frequent punitive expeditions by
the Roman army and its Campania allies.
Wall-Paintings, Tomb of the Auguri, 6th Century BCE, Tarquinia
Wall-Paintings, Tomb of the Auguri
6th Century BCE, Tarquinia
Slab of the Tomb Laghetto X of Paestum
Museo Archeologico Nazionale, Paestum
Again according to Livy: the
Samnite
enemy
brandished
splendid, glittering, armaments
in contrast to Roman morals that
dictated that a soldier should
be “rough in appearance, not
adorned with gold and silver and
should trust in iron and courage”.
When victorious, Rome used
the splendid armour to honor the
gods, while Campania equipped
gladiators to play the Samnite role
for entertainment at victory feasts.
Indeed, one of the earliest gladiator
types most frequently mentioned is
the Samnite, and gladiators were
often armed and armoured to
represent the enemies of Rome.
Wall-Paintings, Tomb of the Auguri, 6th Century BCE,
Tarquinia
THE ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF GLADIATORIAL COMBAT
According to several ancient sources, the origins of gladiatorial combat were to be
found in the Etruscan civilization that preceded the dominance of Rome on the Italian
peninsula. Allegedly, in the Etruscan world, it was common for armed humans to fight
to death before a crowd in celebration of a holiday or as funeral rites, as suggested in
6th century BCE wall paintings in the tombs of Tarquinia in Tuscany. The ancient Greeks
also held funeral games, ending in symbolic deaths/defeats of athletes in competition: a
tradition that possibly was introduced to the Italian peninsula through the many colonies
of Magna Grecia as early as the 8th century BCE.
1a) Origins
GLADIATORS
Section 1:
THE ORIGINS AND HISTORY OF GLADIATORIAL COMBAT & VENATIONES
1b) The Evolution of the Games from the Republican Age to the Late
Imperial Age: from Funeral Rite to Political Manifestation; from Private to
Public; from Munera to Ludi
As the early documented munera substantiate, originally gladiators were primarily captured
soldiers made to fight with their own weapons and in their own styles. It is from these early
conscripted prisoners-of-war (in particular, the Samnites, Gauls and Thracians) that the
later, stylized exotic appearances of gladiator categories would evolve.
In keeping with the religious significance of the munera, they fought to death to exorcise
another death. The commemorative sacrifice was organized and paid for by the munerator,
normally family members of the deceased as private citizens. Later, the gladiatorial games
were organized by an editor who could be the same as the munerator or a hired official.
Although in the Republican period, a private citizen could own gladiators or a gladiatorial
school, more commonly, gladiators belonged to a lanista (the owner of a training school)
who would lease his familia (family of gladiators) to the editor or sponsor.
Relief with Bustuari from Amiternum, Museo d’Arte Nazionale d’Abruzzo, L’Aquila
First Gladiatorial Games in Rome:
By all accounts, the first gladiator games in the city of Rome were held in 264 BCE by Marcus and
Decimus Brutus to honor their father, Junius Brutus Pera, at the Forum Boarium (cattle market). To
satisfy the commemorative duty owned to the manes of a dead ancestor by descendants, three pairs
of gladiators (possibly Thracian slaves) fought in a munus (plural: munera) to guarantee the blessings of
the gods by offering blood.
In 216 BCE, Marcus Ameilius Lepidus (consul and auger) was honored by his sons
with three days of gladiator games in the Roman Forum and 22 pairs of gladiators.
Ten years later, the great military general and Roman statesman, Scipio Africanus
staged gladiator games in Iberia (Spain) to honor his father and uncle, both
casualties of the Punic Wars. Important Romans and non-Romans volunteered to
be his gladiators. The shadow of the near-disastrous Roman defeat at the 216
BCE Battle of Cannae added elements of military celebration, expiation of military
disaster and moral-boosting to these early games.
As their popularity with the public increased, gradually these events evolved into displays of
aristocratic wealth and prestige with overt political implications. Their religious significance
was primarily a pretense and justification for self-promotion among ambitious Roman
citizens, politicians, public officials and military leaders. Triumphantly returning to
Rome and elected aedile in 65 BCE, Julius Caesar, hosted a display of 320
gladiator pairs, clad in silvered armor, in a wooden amphitheatre especially
constructed for the event. His pretense was the commemoration of his father
who had died 20 years before, but the result was a spectacular show of selfpromotion. He would have had even a bigger show, but the Senate, fearful of
the effects of the slave revolt led by Spartacus in 73 BCE and the expanding
popularity and private army of Caesar, limited the number of gladiator pairs that
could be kept in Rome to 320.
Then he did it again in 46 BCE, after victories in Gaul and Egypt. Hosting games
at the tomb of his daughter, this extravaganza featured not only gladiatorial bouts,
but also other forms of entertainment – theatrical plays and beast fights, including
the first appearance of a giraffe. Caesar’s showmanship was unprecedented in
scale and expense and in blatant defiance of the Republican somber tradition of
the munera as a funeral offering. Clearly political, it contributed to the transition
of the munera into the ludi (state games) that would prevail in the Imperial Ages.
Bust of Scipio Africanus
(235 BCE – 183 BCE)
Bust of Julius Caesar
(101 BCE – 44 BCE)
Wherever lie the exact religious origins, gladiator combat evolved into one of the defining
symbols of Roman culture; a symbol that would last for nearly seven centuries and generate
an enduring legacy.
Overtime, munera (gladiator games) became widespread through the provinces and
territories controlled by the Republic of Rome. In fact, small Roman munera were so
commonplace that many went unrecorded, although of note, is the munera sponsored by
Titus Flaminius; a lavish event, lasting 4 days in which 74 gladiators fought, accompanied
by the distribution of meat, banquets and other performances, foreshadowing the future
trend - evermore spectacular, sensational and opulent gladiator games.
GLADIATORS
As a side note, at the start of the Punic Wars, Carthage was the dominant power of the
Mediterranean, with an extensive maritime empire, while Rome was the rapidly ascending power
on the Italian peninsula but lacked the naval power of Carthage. By the end of the third war, after
more than a hundred years and the loss of many hundreds of thousands of soldiers from both
sides, Rome had conquered Carthage’s empire and completely destroyed the city, becoming the
most powerful state of the Western Mediterranean. The history and diffusion of gladiatorial combat
throughout what would become known as the Roman Empire was linked to events in the Punic
Wars against Carthage.
Head of a Dacian
Bust of Octavian, Caesar Augustus
( 27 BCE – 14 CE)
Aureus, Octavian Caesar Augustus
Bust of Trajan (98 CE – 117 CE)
Decline
By the 3rd century, gladiatorial games had passed their peak of popularity; the public
favored theatrical shows and chariot racing. There are perhaps several factors – the
spiraling costs of the games became an unwelcome and unrewarding tax for the lesser
magistrates in the provinces who were obliged to put on such displays. Even the Emperors
could ill-afford the lavish shows to which the crowds were accustomed considering the
various crisis confronting the Empire at that time. Another undisputable factor was the
spread of Christianity whose tenets viewed gladiatorial combat as pagan human sacrifice.
In 393 CE, Emperor Theodosius proclaimed Christianity the state religion and banned
pagan festivals all together.
Most of his cautions went unheeded by subsequent generations of Emperors – Caligula,
Claudius, Nero, Vespasian, Titus, Trajan, Marcus Aurelius, Commodus, to name but
a few, but the Imperial ludi evolved and expanded as a personal expression of the
generosity of the emperor and an important prop to his power in maintaining the loyalty of
the burgeoning population of Rome. Reportedly, in 108 – 109 CE, Trajan celebrated his
victories in Dacia (today a region comprised of parts of Hungary, Romania and Bulgaria)
in a 123-day extravaganza, involving 10,000 gladiators and 11,000 animals, perhaps the
largest ever recorded gladiator spectacle.
GLADIATORS
When Octavian became Caesar Augustus, the first Roman Imperator in 27 BCE, he assumed
authority over gladiatorial games. He imposed conditions to limit the power and influence that a
private citizen could amass through sponsoring such widely popular events and perhaps to also
reinforce certain traditional Roman values of propriety. Henceforth Imperial permission was needed.
He assigned the games to public officials (praetors), limited the amount of money that could be
spent, claiming to save the Roman elite from bankruptcy. The number of shows per year was
restricted to two to coincide with the festivals of the Saturnalia and Quinquatria. The greatest, most
celebrated, most expensive shows would be the Imperial ludi, promoting respect, recognition and
approval of the Emperor.
1c) The Origins and Evolution of the Venationes
Spectacles of beast hunts or venationes developed on a parallel course to gladiatorial combat, but had
their own distinct and unique characteristics.
Again, Livy, the great historian of Rome, dates the first hunts to the year of the foundation of the city in
ca. 185 BCE with the games offered by M. Fulvius Nobilior after the second Punic War. In subsequent
centuries, a string of powerful men boosting their public popularity – Sulla, Pompey, Julius Ceasar, the
Emperors – staged venationes featuring exotic animals – lions, hippopotamus, crocodiles. On one
occasion, Caesar deployed some 400 lions imported primarily from North Africa and Syria and also
introduced the first giraffe.
Not only did the people of Rome enjoy seeing these strange beasts, but even better that they were
chased, killed and the meat distributed to the crowds. Often, there was also a show in which the animals
performed tricks similar to the modern circus. The public so loved these shows that they became an
important part, the opening act, of the day at the arena. Hunts had a religious role as well; they were
dedicated to the goddess of the hunt Diana, or to the mighty Jupiter, in his different incarnations.
The capture, transport and care of these exotic wild beasts from all around the Empire developed into
a veritable industry, given the scores of animals required to produce the shows. Not all the animals sent
into the arena were ferocious, but many were, and the lion was especially revered for its ferocity. To
keep these animals and all the beasts that were condemned to find death in the arena, a kind of zoo
was created called a vivarium. At least three locations have been identified in Rome and its environs as
probable sites. The creatures went on public display the day before their appearance in the arena. In
Rome, this happened at the vivarium near Porta Prenestina.
In early times, the animals were chained in the arena, but after Sulla (about 100 BCE), they were freed
In general however, venatores had little chance of survival or life expectancy, and in later
Imperial times, some condemned criminals were literally thrown to the beasts or forced
to be the victims of horrific reenactments, ending with their suffering and execution.
In contrast on other occasions, there was a comical element introduced into the
combat, the venatore appearing in the role of a clown. Tame animals would perform
tricks: tigers would let themselves be kissed; lions would catch hares and bring them
back unharmed, elephants would do tricks like dancing or walking the rope.
The hunts were an extremely popular part of the spectacles. A few venatores even
became so famous that their names can be found on some mosaics. In fact, the
popularity was so great that by the time of their abolition in 523 CE, tens of thousands of
animals had died, and species no longer existed in their native habitats. There were no
more elephants in North Africa or hippos in Nubia. It is estimated that 5-10,000 animals
died in the celebrations dedicated to the completion of Colosseum, and more than
11,000 died in the greatest spectacle of all, the games of the Emperor Trajan staged to
celebrate the conquest of Dacia.
GLADIATORS
Mosaic Depicting Gladiators
End of 3rd Century CE
Galleria Borghese, Rome
and special defenses had to be built for the safety of the audience. In the Colosseum,
the wall around the arena, the podium, was approx. 4 meters tall and rounded so that
the beasts were prevented from climbing on top. The beasts were not allowed to enter
the doors of the arena but were confined in cages under the arena, lifted by pulleys into
cubicles placed all around the podium. If the beasts refused to enter the arena, they
were driven out by burning prods.
The common denominator of all venationes was that there were animals in the show;
they weren’t necessarily killed, and could also be trained to perform tricks, Augustus
displayed all kinds of exotic and strange animals sent for this purpose by the governors of
the provinces. Nevertheless, the usual hunt saw beasts matched one against the other,
or against men. Scholars make a distinction between the venatio in which men provided
with weapons fought the wild beasts, and another “show” in which men condemned to
death were thrown to the beasts without any defense or hope of survival.
Most of the animal vs. animal matches were classic: a lion against a tiger, or maybe
against a bull or a bear. On occasion, the match was very unequal: hounds, or lions
were loosed against deer, and sometimes to break the monotony, the Romans staged
strange combination of animals such as a bear against a python. The majority of the
combats, however, staged beasts against specially trained men (venatores) armed with
a spear and protected by leather bands on their arms and legs.
Venatores were primarily slaves or criminals considered even viler (noxii) than gladiators
and condemned (damnati ad bestias). They received a special training in the ludi like
gladiators. In Rome there was the ludus matutinus, whose name seems to come from
the fact that hunts took place in the morning. They also were divided into categories
according to the role performed: hunters, archers, bullfighters etc. Fighting techniques
were many: some venatores were armed as above described, others were almost
naked, some fought with their bare hands or with special devices, and some wore iron
plates on their chests or even a suit of armor.
THEMES:
- The Tombs of Paestum and the origin of gladiator games
- Osco-Samnite origin
- Relationship / comparison between Samnite and Roman armor
- Funeral games
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Painted slab of the “Tomba Laghetto X”
- Painted slab of the “Tomba femminile 18”
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Example of Samnite armor
- Example of Roman Republican armor and a Centurion
RECONSTRUCTIONS:
- Tomb of the Auguri
- Tomb of Paestum
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- The origin of the gladiatorial games
- Comparison between the samnites and roman armours
1b) The evolution of the Games from the Republic Age to the Late Imperial Age: from Funeral Rite to Political
manifestation; from Private to Public, from Munera to Ludi.
This subsection illustrates the main events in the evolution of gladiatorial games from their introduction in the middle-Republican
age until the 4th century. Gladiator shows were widely popular events throughout the empire.
Due to their extraordinary success with the Roman public, gladiatorial games became an essential part of public life and
developed into a veritable industry in terms of investment and organization.
A graphic panel and a video interview with Dr. Rossella Rea, director of the Colosseum and well-known expert on the subject,
explore the various stages of development of the games throughout the centuries. Representative and evocative images
THEMES:
- The development of the gladiator games
- Emperors and powerful people as promoters of the games
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Stucco relieves from the tomb of Festus Ampliatus
- Relief with Bustuari from Amiternum
- Funerary Relief with beginning of battle
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Republican officer
- Republican gladiators with a provocator armours
- Busts of Emperors
GRAPHIC PANEL:
- The evolution of the games from the middle republican age to the imperial age
VIDEO:
- video “The development of gladiator games through the centuries”
1c) The Origins and Evolution of the Venationes
This subsection explores the evolution of the venationes, as another specialized type of entertainment combat
and symbolic representation of both Roman power and the geographical vastness of the Empire itself. The
presence of exotic animals from remote areas of the Empire was a source of amazement for audiences in every
province. A graphic panel illustrates the different phases of the venations, accompanied by archaeological
and literary sources, while another one gives information about the Circus Maximus. Historical reconstructions
of attire and weapons of the venatores are accompanied by images of mosaics and archaeological artifacts
recovered throughout the Mediterranean basin. Underlining the astounding capacity of the Romans to organize
large-scale campaigns to capture ferocious, wild animals and display them to the public as marvelous wonders,
an interactive wall shows the different techniques used to capture a wide variety of animals and how these
beasts were transported throughout the Empire.
THEMES:
- Origin, development and decline of the venatio
- Beasts and animals used in the venationes
- Techniques of capture; transportation
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- 6 Tempera paintings representing the Frescos of the amphitheatre of Pompei
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Mosaics
- Armour of bestiarius
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- Graphic panel on the evolution of the venatio
- Graphic panel on the Circus Maximus
INTERACTIVES:
- 1 interactive wall “Capture and transport of the animals”
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS
1a) Origins
The origin of gladiatorial games remains in some respects an obscure field in which various theories converge, but clearly the
beginning of these traditions can be dated to very ancient times and connected to the neighboring cultures and populations
that during the centuries of expansion influenced the Roman world. A graphic panel with texts and images illustrates the
different theories about the derivation of the gladiatorial shows.
Some aspects of gladiatorial shows may have been Etruscan; wall paintings from Etruscan tombs have been adduced as
evidence that the Etruscan invented gladiatorial combat. The reconstruction of the Tomb of Auguri from Tarquinia testifies
this derivation through the representation of the character labeled “Phersu”, who stands holding the leash of a dog, which is
attacking a man. This scene has been interpreted a san example of early gladiatorial combat, as a prototype for the venatio or
damnatio ad bestias.
The reconstruction of one of the tombs found in Paestum, an Italian settlement of Greek origins presents suggestive testimony
that the origins of gladiatorial games can be traced to Campania, the region of Italy that today is centered around the city of
Naples. Reproductions of frescoes dating to 370 BCE and 340 BCE highlight the relationship between funeral traditions and
gladiatorial combat, focusing on its sacred connotations.
Two extraordinary original artworks follows the reconstruction; both come from two other tombs of Paestum, the tomb of
“Laghetto X ” and “tomba femminile 58” and have the surface decorated with combat scenes.
Meticulous reproductions of Samnite armours, documented by ancient reliefs and classical sources, are also on display.
The Samnites were the people of Samnium, the territory to the east of Campania (today known as the Molise region of Italy).
Defeated by the Romans and their Campanian allies, the Samnites were represented in the earliest staged gladiators’ games
in order to celebrate victory and the dominance of Rome as it expanded into the Italian peninsula. Gladiators were often armed
and armoured to represent the enemies of Rome and indeed, one of the earliest gladiator types is the Samnite.
Detailed reproductions of weapons dating to the Roman Republic further illustrate the close relationship in this early phase
between the evolution of the armaments of the Roman army and weapons adopted by the gladiators.
create a powerful narrative on the subject.
Original artworks, coming from funeral monuments and representing combat scene, show the link between the
gladiatorial games and the funeral rites.
Reproductions of a republican officer and republican gladiators with a provocator armours are exhibited also to
explain and show the clothing and armours in the republican age.
Portraits of important figures of Roman public life such as the Emperors who were the principal promoters of the
games illustrates their relationship with the gladiatorial shows.
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS: ORIGINAL ARTWORKS. REPRODUCTIONS,
VIDEO, GRAPHIC PANELS, INTERACTIVES, RECONSTRUCTIONS
GLADIATORS
SECTION 1: The Origins and History of Gladiatorial Combat & venationes
Others were criminals or slaves condemned to the arena (damnati ad ludos) as
punishment for their crimes, the nature of which could determine their fate. Banditry,
arson, rebellious acts, tax evasion are among the crimes that might result in a sentence
to the arena. Other more obnoxious offenders (noxii) received even worse punishments
with little chance of survival such as those condemned to the beast fights (ventationes).
By the late Republic, autocrati, essentially volunteers, accounted for perhaps half of the
gladiator population and perhaps the most capable half. Their ranks were comprised of
various types of otherwise free men: non-citizens, the indebted, the disinherited, social
outcasts, or discharged soldiers, because in addition to shelter and food, gladiator
schools and success in the arena provided an opportunity to fame and fortune. Volunteers
required the permission of a magistrate to join a school and their contract specified their
fighting style and earnings; an indebted novice could negotiate the repayment of his
debt. Moreover, gladiators customarily kept their prize money and gifts. The Emperor
Tiberius is said to have offered the equivalent of approx. Euro 400.000 today to retired
gladiators to continue to fight.
During the 1st century CE, female gladiators start to appear in the documentation. Nero
in 66 CE introduced Ethiopian women in the arena, and a spectacle during the reign of
Domitian in 89 CE featured female gladiators against dwarfs. Although some Romans
may have regarded these mostly exotic, erotic displays as symptomatic of the corruption
of stoic, Roman values, the larger public seems to have found the novelty of female
gladiators highly entertaining. Like their male counterparts, they were culled from the
lowest classes of society, enslaved and probably subjected to the same rules and
arduous training.
Funerary stone of Secutor Urbicus,
Antiquarium “Alda Levi”, Milano
Despite early Republican precedents, the Emperor Augustus forbid senators and
members of the equestrian classes to be associated with infamia of the arena in an effort
to preserve the Roman ideals of piety and virtue attached to the knight class. Even during
his lifetime however, the rules were bent, and eventually completely ignored by other
emperors who themselves performed in the arena, although with mostly minimal risks
to themselves and hugely unfair odds for their adversary, be it man or beast. Caligula,
Titus, Claudius, Hadrian, Caracalla all are thought to have performed in the arena, but
undoubtedly, the most notorious participant was the Emperor Commodus (180192 CE). Boastful, cruel, he slaughtered exotic animals from Africa and India
and sliced off extremities of his victims. He fought as a secutor, shamelessly
promoting himself as “Hercules Reborn.”
Bust of Commodus
(161 CE – 192 CE)
WHO WERE THE GLADIATORS?
From the Republican period and well into Imperial times, many of the gladiators who filled
the gladiator schools and arenas were prisoners of war; healthy, robust captives sold into
slavery and purchased by a lanista (an owner or manager of a gladiator ludus (school).
A thriving trade existed throughout the empire.
2a) The Life of a Gladiator: Hierarchy, Recruitment, Legal & Social Status,
Daily Life
GLADIATORS
Section 2:
In the Roman stratification of society, a gladiator was a schooled fighter with sworn and contractual
obligations to a master. Conversely in the Roman mentality, this voluntary submission endowed the
gladiator with honor and free will. Perhaps this paradox stems from the Roman concept of infames,
a form of social dishonor that excluded the legal rights and advantages of citizenship. All arenarii
(those who appeared in the arena, were infamis, including the lanista). By allowing capture, a soldier
was automatically infames; to be granted slave status was considered an unmerited gift of life with
perhaps the chance to redeem his honor in the arena. For the autocrati, payment for their performances
compounded their infamia and despite popularity or wealth, their social status was marginal; unless
manumitted, their lives and property belonged to their master. In another paradox, among the most
admired gladiators were those who returned to the arena after having won their freedom.
During the daily training, non-lethal weapons were used, blunt, wooden replicas. Trainees
ascended through grades (palus) to highest level (primus palus). The fighting style was
learned through relentless, choreographed rehearsal. Preparation to accept an unflinching
death was also part of the training as the highest value was placed upon this obligation.
Training, Discipline, Schools:
Upon swearing their oath, those condemned to or selected for gladiator combat entered a rigorous,
demanding and harshly disciplined training school. The earliest documented school is that of Aurelius
Scaurus at Capua (105 BCE); its function was to train Roman legionnaires and to entertain the public
as well.
Few other lanistae are known by name, but all had the power of life and death over their extended family
(famiglia) despite a social stigma equivalent to that of a pimp or butcher.
Most schools were organized as barracks positioned around a central practice yard.
Gladiators were accommodated in cells, strictly segregated according to a rigid hierarchy
of gladiator types. Despite the harsh discipline, most gladiators were treated quite well as
they represented a significant financial investment. They were provided 3 meals a day;
probably a high-energy vegetarian diet consisting of staples such as barley, beans, dried
fruit. It is conjectured that according to today’s standards, they would be considered
overweight, but that the extra padding served to protect vital organs and help heal wounds.
In addition to massage, it is thought that they were treated by the most advanced medical
practices of that time.
After the revolt of Spartacus, ownership of the schools was gradually taken over by State in order to
prevent the build-up of private armies. By Imperial times the ludi were under the control of the Emperors,
and usually positioned close to the amphitheaters built for these spectacles. Rome had four major
schools: the Ludus Magnus, adjacent to and directly connected to the Colesseum was the largest and
most important, capable of housing more than 2000.
Amphitheatre, Capua
Gymnasium of Pompeii
Amphitheatre of Pola
Every gladiator was taught to fight in a certain defined style, ideally the style best suited to
his capabilities and physique; retired gladiators were often the teachers. Each style had
its own weapons and armor, but not Roman military armor as that would have been an
inappropriate political message.
Regardless of their circumstances, the legal status of all gladiators was unequivocal: they were slaves
and all swore the same horrific oath (sacramentum) to their master, (the lanista): “to be burned, flogged,
beaten or killed if so ordered” (Petronius, Satyricon, 117). Thus the gladiator became a member of a
familia belonging to his master unless sold or manumitted.
GLADIATORS
Legal and Social Status: concept of “infames”
Gladiators were paid each time they fought, and could earn their freedom if they survived
3-5 years of combat. Winners were awarded a palm leaf symbolizing victory and some
other award such as a crown or a golden bowl or coin. On occasion for a particularly fine
performance, a gladiator could win his freedom on the spot, symbolized by the gift of a
wooden training staff (rudis) from the editor.
Selection of gladiatorial armours, reproductions
2b) Types of Combat: Murmillo, Secutor, Thraex, Retiarius, etc.
Helmet, reproduction
Bronze Greaves, Museo
Archelogico Nazionale, Naples
Spear-head of a Bestiarius, Museo
Archeologico Nazionale, Naples
As the popularity of gladiatorial games evolved, so did the many categories of combatants,
distinguished by their armor, weapons and style of fighting. Rarely did gladiators of the
same category compete which each other, as there was no great honor or skill in simply
defeating a weaker opponent. Consequently, and of paramount importance, gladiators
were paired by types in the arena; it was the asymmetry of strategies and skills that
was so engaging and popular with the public. Most pairings would have a lightly armed
opponent paired with heavily armed adversary in bouts of about 15 – 20 minutes. For
instance a retiarius (netman), the most mobile of gladiators, wore no helmet which gave
him superior vision, very little defensive armor leaving him more vulnerable to wounds; his
weapons were a large net, a trident and small dagger; his strategy was to ‘ensnare’ his
opponent with the net. A typical opponent was a secutor (pursuer) armed with a large,
rectangular shield and sword; his helmet was rounded to avoid the net, but the eye-holes
limited his range of vision.
Although there were also exotic, bizarre categories such as the sagittarius who fought
with bow and arrow or the andabata whose helmet effectively acted as a blindfold forcing
the gladiator to fight in the dark, the most common types, in addition to the retiarius and
secutor, were the following:
Surgical instruments
Funerary stone of
Murmillo, Museo
Archeologico Nazionale,
Aquileia
Hoplomachus (heavy weapons fighter): long spear, short sword, visored helmet with
crest, leg greaves, small round shield
Murmillo (fish): short sword, visored helmet with high crest, large curved rectangular shield.
Provacator (attacker): the most heavily armed gladiator, short sword, breastplate, greave,
visored helmet that extended over the shoulders
Thraex (Thracian based loosely on these former enemies of Rome): short sword (sica) with
curved blade; visored helmet with griffin crest, shin protection, short rectangular shield.
Gladiators who fought well were likely to be spared. By Imperial times, many spectacles
were advertised as “missio” – mercy to be granted. “Sine missione” (without release from
the sentence of death) bouts were more infrequent, most likely due to the considerable
costs of training and maintaining gladiators. Although it is not known how many died in
their first match, a very few survived 150 combats. Although some fought in only 2-3
munera per year, not many survived more than 10 matches or the age of 30.
When one gladiator had wounded or overpowered his opponent in the arena, the crowd
would typically shout habet, hoc habet (he has had it). The defeated gladiator was then
expected to raise his left hand with one finger extended in acceptance of his fate and
perhaps imminent death, yet it was the crowd who would decide between mercy or death
which was to be met unflinchingly.
GLADIATORS
Life expectancy
Relief Depicting Gladiator Games,
20 – 40 CE, Museo Archelogico, Chieti
2c) Real Gladiators
In reality, there is not a lot of historical documentation about specific gladiators or the particulars of their
lives; after all, they were slaves, however there are some noteworthy exemptions:
This laudatory poem by the poet known as Martial (Marcus Valerius Martialis) is the only
detailed description of a gladiatorial fight that has survived to the present day. It is also the
only ancient source about Verus and Priscus and the legendary combat between them on
the opening day (80 CE) of the games conducted by the Emperor Titus to celebrate the
inauguration of the great Colosseum in Rome.
The dramatized documentary of the BBC in 2003 is based on certain suppositions. In
approximately 78 CE, Verus was taken prisoner while defending his settlement in Moesia,
which is composed of parts of modern day Bulgaria, Romania and Serbia. Verus was put
to work in a stone quarry that was providing stone for the construction of the Colesseum.
Priscus, supposedly was of Celtic origins, was also enslaved at the same quarry. Both are
selected by a lanista and sent to a gladiator training school where the two men become
friends until Priscus is eventually sold to another gladiator family. Thus the two end up
opponents on that fateful day.
Apparently, as the poet describes, they fought so
long, so equally, so valiantly and then mutually yielded
that the crowd demanded and the Emperor granted
freedom to both men.
Another source of documentation can be found
in memorial inscriptions on gravestones. When a
gladiator died, if his death had been noble, his famiglia
would most likely take care of his burial and these are
today sources of information on real gladiators.
Spartacus (109 – 71 BCE): although there is conflicting documentation about perhaps the most
famous gladiator of all, most ancient sources agree that Spartacus was born in Thracia; either as a
dishonorable auxillary to or a captive of the Roman legions, he was condemned to slavery, but due
to his notable strength, he was sent to the gladiator school in Capua. In 73 BCE, he was part of an
escape plot involving some 70 trained gladiators that led to his leadership of a slave revolt that would
surge to some 70,000. Camped near Mount Vesuvius, due to his tactical capabilities, his forces
repeatedly defeated the militias sent after them. However their luck would turn with the appointment of
Marcus Licinius Crassus and the dispersal of 8 seasoned Roman legions. The rebel forces, its numbers
decimated by divisions, skirmishes and defections was definitely defeated in 71 BCE in southern Italy
where it is thought that Spartacus had hoped to secure passage to Sicily or even Greece. He probably
died in battle as his body was never recovered.
Relief Depicting Gladiator Games
Museo Nazionale Romano, Rome
“As Priscus and Verus each drew out the contest and the struggle between the pair long
stood equal, shouts loud and often sought discharge for the combatants. But Titus obeyed
his own law (the law was that the bout go on without shield until a finger be raised). What
he could do, he did, often giving dishes and presents. But an end to the even strife was
found: equal they fought, equal they yielded. To both Titus sent wooden swords and to both
palms. Thus valor and skill had their reward. This has happened under no prince but you,
Caesar: two fought and both won.” (Martial, De Spectaculis, XXIX)
GLADIATORS
Priscus and Verus: (late 1st century)
2a) The Life of a Gladiator: Hierarchy, Recruitment, Legal & Social Status, Daily Life
Through various devices, the behind-the-scenes intricacies of existence of the gladiators are illustrated; theirs was a world of
specialization, training, discipline and regulation, beginning with their recruitment until their liberation or death.
An introductory area illustrates the extension of the Roman Empire, through the display of an interactive map. Gladiators came
from different places and social situation, but most of them were prisoners of war or slaves; in addition, during the republican age,
gladiators wore an armour similar to Roman enemies, as Samnites, Thracian and Gauls, visibile through the exhibit of reproductions
of Thracian and Gauls armours. Explaining the Roman Empire expansion and the power of its army the public understands where
most of the gladiators came from, their background and the different types of gladiators.
Visitors will be able to understand the height of the Roman Empire and to know all the defeated populations in order to learn the
different places of origin of the gladiators.A video and a graphic panel illustrate the travel made by the slaves, who became gladiators,
to reach Rome from their place of origin and it is helpful to understand the distance and the lenght of the route.
A graphic panel shows the geographical locations where gladiators were recruited, trained and funnelled into local arenas, while
another one explains the role of the lanista.
The funerary stone of Secutor Urbicus, extraordinary original artworks, gives more information about the life of a gladiator.
All the place where gladiators used to live (gymnasium, ludi) are explained through graphic panels, models, reproductions and
reconstructions. Videos and graphic panel will discuss the daily training, routine and diet in gladiator schools in reference to
archaeological documentation recovered in the tombs of Ephesus.
In addition original objects of medical instruments will explain the gladiator’s life expectancy and the role of the doctors.
THEMES:
- The extension of the Roman Empire
- Recruitment
- Legal and social status
- Ludi and training
- How did a gladiator live?
- Daily diet and life expectancy of the gladiator
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Funerary stone of Urbicus
- Coins
- Surgical instruments
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Etruscan and Piceno warriors armours; Gauls and Thracian armours
- Roman oplita armour
- The wood sword and pole used by gladiators during the training
- Gladiators bones
RECONTRUCTIONS:
- The Armoury
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- Geographic provenance and social origin of gladiators
- The lanista and gladiators’ trade
- Where did a gladiator live?
- Coarelli’s plan of Ludus Magnus
- The gladiator’s diet and the researches on gladiators bones
- The oath of gladiators
- How much a gladiator earned
- Life expectancy and doctors
VIDEO:
- The travel to Rome
- The recruitment of Verus (Clip from BBC documentary)
- The diet of gladiators and the discoveries in Ephesus (Clip from BBC documentary)
- Life expectancy (Clip from BBC documentary)
INTERACTIVE:
- Interactive wall with a Map of the Roman Empire with carachteristics and peculiarities
2b) Types of Gladiators: Murmillo, Secutor, Thraex, Retiarius, etc.
As the popularity of gladiatorial games evolved, so did the many categories of combatants, distinguished by their
armor, weapons and style of fighting. Rarely did gladiators of the same category compete with each other, as there
was no great honor or skill in simply defeating a weaker opponent. Consequently, and of paramount importance,
gladiators were paired by types in the arena; it was the asymmetry of strategies and skills that was so engaging and
popular with the public.
A graphic panel and an interactive wall illustrates the different types of gladiators, highlighting their specific characteristics,
armour, weapons and attire.
At interactive stations, visitors can play “What kind of gladiator are you?” Educational in design and highly interactive, the
device is intended for children and teens as a break in the exhibition and a summary regarding the types of gladiators.
The characteristics and pecularieties of gladiators are highlighted by original artworks with the representation of the
different types of gladiators.
A graphic panel explains the all kind of weapons and armours and their derivation from the defeated population
armours and the roman army. Reproductions of weapons and armour, faithfully are based on archaeological and
ancient sources, represent the whole gambit of gladiator types, revealing the bright colors, feathers and metals used
in the fabrication of gladiator armor and the specific functions of the object.
Cornerstone of the section is the display of original gladiatorial armours, as helmets, greaves, shields, daggers and
spearhead.
THEMES:
- The various typologies of gladiators and their armours
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Relief with sagittari
- Funerary stone of Murmillo
- Helmets, greaves, shields, daggers and spearhead
- Small statue of gladiator
- Small statue with two gladiators
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Helmets, greaves, weapons, shields, clothing, armours
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- Gladiators’ typologies
- Types of gladiators’ armours
INTERACTIVES:
- 1 interactive wall on the different typologies of gladiators
2c) Real Gladiators
After an interactive station with information about clichès related to the gladiatorial sphere, the attention is focused on
certain gladiators who really lived, as Spartacus, Verus and Priscus. This information provides accurate and concrete
historical content in response to public curiosity about gladiators.
While a graphic panel and a video re-construct the fascinating story of the famous Spartacus, a Thracian gladiator who
led a slave revolt and became a protagonist in Roman history, an interactive settig tells the story of Verus and Priscus,
the two gladiators who fuoght during the Emperor’s inaugural games for the Colosseum.
THEMES:
- Real Gladiators
- Spartacus
- Priscus and Verus
- Clichés about gladiators
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- Spartacus and Capua’s rebellion
VIDEO & INTERACTIVES:
- Spartacus
- 1 interactive wall on clichés about gladiators
- 1 interactive wall on the story of Verus and Priscus
GRAPHIC PANELS, INTERACTIVES, RECONSTRUCTIONS
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS: ORIGINAL ARTWORKS. REPRODUCTIONS, VIDEO,
GLADIATORS
SECTION 2: Who were the Gladiators?
Evidence of amphitheatres and gladiator games can be found throughout what was once
the Roman Empire and this section of the exhibition is reserved for any such local history,
relevant to the host museum. The space will be curated by the museum, the organizers,
Contemporanea Progetti and Expona in collaboration with Dr. Rossella Rea in order to
maintain the scientific continuity of the exhibition, however, it will be an excellent opportunity
of a dialogue between venues and archaeological collections.
As the popularity of gladiator games grew, the need for larger and more permanent structures
emerged and the Roman solution was a building designed specifically for this purpose: the
amphiteatrum with elevated seating extended all around an oval arena covered with sand.
Free standing, they could be built in any open area, and were built throughout Roman
territories, initially in wood and then in stone. The first permanent amphitheatre in Rome was
built in 30 BCE during the consulship of Augustus and the first stone amphitheatre was built
in Pompeii during the 1st century.
Part of the Roman design was a solution for social control, yet one that allowed a freedom
of expression by the populace that was not permitted in other aspects of Roman society.
The amphitheatre of El-Jem
Amphitheatre of Nimes
Model of Gladiator School of Carnuntum, Austria
Amphitheatres Around the Empire
In early times, gladiatorial shows were often held in open public spaces such as a
marketplace. In Rome, both the Forum and or the Forum Boarium (cattle market) were
adapted for such use. Temporary wood scaffolding provided elevated seating for the patron
and other spectators of status, either invited guests or those who could afford to buy a
ticket (scalpers would sell or rent seats at inflated prices) while the poor were offered limited
visibility. On all to frequent occasions, these structures would collapse or catch fire, killing
thousands who had come to witness the deaths of others.
Option: The Amphitheatre of …
The Development of the Amphitheatre
GLADIATORS
Section 3a:
Amphitheatres Around the Empire
Seating was divided into five levels with each level reserved for a specific class as per
the prescriptions of Augustus. Entrance was controlled by tickets which would stipulate
which of the 80 entrances one should use as well as row and seat number. The North
entrance was reserved for the Emperor. Indeed, the crowd control features including the
80 entrances allowing for rapid, orderly entry and exit to the Colosseum is considered one
of the ingenious hallmarks of its design.
The future Emperor Vespasian was in the East when he heard that Nero had committed suicide.
Although proclaimed Emperor in 69 CE, the first of the Flavian dynasty, military affairs prevented
him from returning to Rome until mid-70 CE, but upon his arrival, he initiated a massive propaganda
campaign in favor of his dynasty, including the ambitious construction of the greatest amphitheatre
of the Roman Empire, the Flavian Amphitheatre as it was then called, but today known around
the world as the Colosseum.
The construction of the amphitheatre begun in 72 CE and was intended to replace the amphitheatre
of Taurus Statilius, destroyed during the fire of 64 CE. The emperor also wanted to restore to the
Roman people the large portion of the city that Nero had confiscated for a grandiose, palatial
complex with ornamental lake: by transforming the Domus Aurea into a grand arena for games
and entertainment, Vespasian sought to ensure the loyalty of the people of Rome to his new
imperial dynasty.
Like all amphitheatres, the building had an elliptical plan, but what distinguished the Colosseum
was the scale, the dimensions and engineering feats; although its architects are unrecorded
in history, its design is still admired for its innovation and complexity. The major axis measured
188 meters, the minor one 156 meters with a perimeter of 527 meters enclosing 3,357 square
meters. The axis of the arena itself was 83 by 48 meters.
At an overall height of 52 meters, the upper structure consisted of 4 levels providing a seating
But the true engineering feats lay underground, in the hypogeum. At the onset, the first
challenge was to build the foundations for such a massive structure on naturally, marshy
terrain that had been turned into a lake. The solution was found 10 meters under the
bottom of the drained lake. The concrete foundations consisted of a series of tunnels and
vaults. The 5-6 meters high underground hypogeum also housed all the many services
areas needed to put on such elaborate extravagances from places to store scenery to
cages for the hundreds of beast who could be forced into the arena in a single day. 80
vertical shafts with elevator-like mechanisms hoisted men and beasts into the arena. The
gladiators were accessed by tunnels connected to the nearby barracks. Other devices
permitted the arena to be flooded upon occasion for the staging of naumacchia, the
reenactment of naval battles or as a diversion, gladiatorial combat or hunts in a watery
context.
It is not known exactly how many slaves were used in the construction of the Colosseum,
but estimates range from 20,000 to 100,000, many being prisoners taken during the
Great Jewish Revolt which led to the sacking of Jerusalem (70 CE) and considered one
of Vespasian’s finest commands. It is also hypothesized that Vespasian’s booty from the
war paid for the enterprise, however Vespasian would die before he saw his monumental
undertaking completed. It would be his son, the Emperor Titus who would preside at
the inaugural celebrations in 80 CE – an extravaganza that lasted 100 days from June to
September, and witnessed the dual of Priscus and Verus as well as the deaths of as many
as 10,000 wild beasts from around the Empire.
Emperor Vespasian
(9 CE – 79 CE)
Model of the Colosseum
capacity estimated between 50,000 and 73,000. The arch, a distinctly Roman invention, is the
“basic formula”; the levels are stacked according to three architectural orders - Doric, Ionic and
Corinthian style columns creating 80 arcades per floor.
The main walls were built with 100,000 cubic meters of travertine stone quarried by slaves from
nearby Tivoli. The internal walls were built primarily from tufa, a common, brown volcanic rock
that was then plastered and painted in variety of bright colors. Marble was used to face some
seating areas or for some flooring, while the upper floors were covered by herringbone pattern
of brickwork. The top level was divided into 80 compartments that contained the beams and
Partial View of the Hypogeum
Emperor Titus (
39 CE – 81 CE)
The Colosseum: The Amphitheatre of the Emperors
History and Construction of the Colosseum
mechanisms for controlling the huge velarium or retractable awning that could be unfurled
to protect spectators from rain or sun.
GLADIATORS
Section 3b
THE AMPHITHEATRE OF THE EMPERORS, THE COLOSSEUM
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS: ORIGINAL ARTWORKS.
REPRODUCTIONS, VIDEO, GRAPHIC PANELS, INTERACTIVES, RECONSTRUCTIONS
The Development of the Amphitheatre
As the popularity of gladiator games grew, the need for larger and more permanent structures emerged and the Roman solution
was a building designed specifically for this purpose: the amphitheatrum with elevated seating extended all around an oval
arena covered with sand.
In this section of the exhibition, visitors learns about the origins of this structure and its architectural importance in urban
contexts throughout the Roman provinces. Visitors has also the unique opportunity to understand the extraordinary nature of
these buildings and their exceptional importance in the classical world.
A graphic panel and especially a video morphing highlight the strong link between the architectural structure of the theatre and
the amphitheatre. This system illustrate visually the peculiarities of these buildings, relating the common characteristics.
In the Empire, such structures were built in various provinces. A “Wall-video” will make visible the various amphitheatres and
ludi, each with historical its and structural peculiarities.
Some original artworks related to the construction of the amphitheatres close this subsection.
History and Construction of the Colosseum
The section is dedicated to the most famous and greatest arena of Antiquity: the Colosseum. Considered
by the ancients as the eighth wonder the world, the Coliseum will be the focal point of the final section, as
a symbol of the extraordinary world of gladiators and paramount expression of Roman engineering.
A HD video with virtual and tridimensional reconstructions of the Imperial Rome in the Flavian age shows
the majesty of the architecture, the colossal dimensions of public buildings and gives an idea of the number
of people who lived in the city. This support gives visitors an immersive experience in the ancient Rome.
Video and graphic panels explain the most important events happened during the flavian age, as the
eruption of the Vesuvius and the blaze of Rome, in order to give visitors an overview of that time.
Through videos, interviews to Dr. Rea, director of the Colosseum, graphic panels, the construction plans,
materials and construction techniques is documented. Original architectural elements are exhibited
such as steps and decorative marble elements as testimony that the Colosseum was also one of the
greatest architectural achievements ever. In addition, visitors can touch original travertine elements from the
Colosseum and live an extraordinary experience in very close contact with objects that went through history.
For the first time, these objects are exhibited outside of Italy and it is a truly unique occasion to see materials
from the most famous arena in the history.
The section also shows the fascinating underground spaces and evidence from recent excavations
which has brought to light new aspects of the building’s history, its hidden characteristics and unique
features. The incredibly complex backstage machinery that was activated during every performance
is displayed through various devices and documents, such as graphic panels, models and videos.
THEMES:
- The evolution of the “double theatre”: the Amphitheatre
- Amphitheatres and schools of gladiators of the Roman Empire
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Marble slab with a relief of a construction of a amphitheatre
- Marble slab with a relief of a inauguration of a amphitheatre
GRAPHIC PANEL:
- The development of the amphitheatre
VIDEOS:
- 1 video “Theatre and amphitheatre”
- 1 video wall “The Amphitheatres of the Empire”
Option: The Amphitheatre of …
Evidence of amphitheatres and gladiator games can be found throughout what was once the Roman Empire and this
section of the exhibition is reserved for any such local history, relevant to the host museum. The space will be curated
by the museum, the organizers, Contemporanea Progetti and Expona in collaboration with Dr. Rossella Rea in order
to maintain the scientific continuity of the exhibition, however, it will be an excellent opportunity of a dialogue between
venues and archaeological collections.
THEMES:
- History of the Construction
- Materials and construction techniques
- The Hypogeum, the underground
- The Colosseum today: New Discoveries
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Capitals, barriers, friezes, archiectural elements, cornices, bricks from the Colosseum
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Busts of the Flavian dynasty
- The architect of the Colosseum, Alma Tadema (1875)
- Relief of the spoils of the Temple of Jerusalem, Arch of Titus
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- The eruption of Vesuvius and the blaze of Rome
- Construction’s phases of the Colosseum
- The velarium
- Construction’s materials of the Colosseum
- The new discoveries: the basement
MODEL:
- Colosseum
VIDEO:
- Rome in the Flavian age
- The eruption of Vesuvius
- The beginning of the construction of the Colosseum
- The construction phases of the Colosseum
- The travertine
- The secrets of the Colosseum (information about the basement)
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS: ORIGINAL ARTWORKS. REPRODUCTIONS,
VIDEO, GRAPHIC PANELS, INTERACTIVES, RECONSTRUCTIONS
SECTION 3B: The Amphitheatre of the Emperors, the Colosseum
GLADIATORS
SECTION 3A: Amphitheatres around the Empire
billboards around the city, often in red ink, would give the reason for the games, date, number pf paired
were ceremoniously checked and distributed by the editor or lanista. And so the gladiators
gladiators to be featured, details about the venationes, executions or other kinds of entertainment,
stepped into the arena accompanied by more fanfare and shouts from the crowds. Both
including amenities, door-prizes, food and drinks that were to be offered. For the gamblers, special
were expected to fight well and bravely according to established practices and rituals. To
programs called a libelous, was prepared, a type of betting sheet for the day that would show names
concede defeat, a gladiator was expected to lay down his shield and raise his index finger to
of the gladiators, types and previous match records. Betting and partisanship was widespread and
plead for mercy. A referee with a long staff ensured there were no more blows as the crowd
vociferous in all classes of society.
expressed their judgment by shouts and gestures of the thumb, although it is not certain
if pollice verso meant thumbs up or thumbs down to signify death. Ultimately it was the
The day before the event, the gladiators were given a public banquet (coena libera): a last supper in
Emperor’s decision, but he was ill-advised to contradict the collective will of the anonymous
which they could gorge themselves, if they so desired, on meat and other foods not normally part of
public: the affirmation of the Emperor derived from his munificence in accepting the wishes
their primarily vegetarian diet.
of the crowd.
From the time of Augustus, a day at the munera followed more-or-less an established sequence.
If no mercy was granted, then the gladiator was expected to accept his death courageously
After the stands were filled, an elaborate procession (pompa) took place among great fanfare with the
at the hands of his opponent who would stab his sword into the neck. After costumed figures
gladiators being ceremoniously led in to present themselves to the Emperor’s podium. Preliminary
personifying Charon, the ferryman of the underworld, and Mercury, messenger of the gods,
performances might include mock battles by clowns with unlethal weapons or trained animal performing
tested for signs of life and certified his death, the fallen gladiator was taken away through the
tricks, but usually the main event of the morning were the venationes or beast hunts.
Porta Libitinensis while the victor with his prizes and palm branch excited through the Porta
Triumphalis to fight again another day. Eventually if he survived long enough, he might be
The midday break as dedicated to the public execution of criminals in a variety of degrading and painful
ways meant as a deterrent by setting an example of the consequences of defying Roman law and
customs.
Relief with Pompa, Museo Archeologico
Nazionale, Naples
Slab with a venatio scene,
Museo Civico, Rieti
awarded the symbolic wooden sword (the rudis) of freedom.
THE INAUGURATION OF THE COLOSSEUM: 100 DAYS OF GLADIATORIAL GAMES
The afternoon was dedicated to the main event: the individual gladiator pairings. Weapons
Games were advertised well in advance, eliciting excitement for the upcoming spectacle. Posters and
GLADIATORS
Section 4
THE INAUGURATION OF THE COLOSSEUM: 100 DAYS OF GLADIATORIAL GAMES
THEMES:
- Inauguration of the Colosseum
- Emperors and promoters of the games
- The organization of the show and the staff involved
- The propaganda before the beginning of the games
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Relief of Lusius Storax
- Rilief with pompa
- Inscription on honorary stone
RECONSTRUCTION:
- Pompeii’s street with public advertisment
VIDEO:
- The inauguration of the Colosseum: The Naumachie
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- The program of the day during the spectacle
- Emperors and promoters of the games
- The propaganda on Pompeii’s street
- The preparation of the show
INTERACTIVES:
- The organizers of the games
THEMES:
- The coena libera
- The offers to nemesis
- The industry of gadget
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Oil lamps
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- The offers to Nemesis
VIDEO:
- The coena libera
4c) The public behaviour
This subsection is dedicated to the public, to their interest in the combat and the betting activities. For the
gamblers,infact, special programs called a libelous, was prepared, a type of betting sheet for the day that would
show names of the gladiators, types and previous match records; a graphic panel explain all these aspects.
In addition, a graphic panel and original objects from the Colosseum explain the hierarchy of seating, through
some loca senatoria, the inscriptions that show the senators’ reserved seats. As prescribed by Augustus in
his Social Reforms: seats were reserved for senators, special seats were assigned to married common men,
under-age boys had a section; women were restricted to only upper seats; some free seating was allocated to
the poor probably by a lottery.
Other original objects from Coloss eum contribute to understanding the public’s behaivours, as fragments of
seat coverings, reveal graffiti made by an unknownperson of the public, who, as in our time, left a sign of his
presence on his seat. We can imagine that in some slack moment of the spectacle someone in the public spent
his time writing on the surface of the seats what he has seen or he was going to see.
Finally original busts or statues of unknown people give an idea of the roman citizen in the ancient time.
THEMES:
- The two factions
- Free entrance and gambles
- Seats hierarchy
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Loca senatoria from the Colosseum
- Seats covering with graffiti from the Colosseum
- statue of a gowned man
- Male bust
- Famale bust
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- The two factions
- Free entrance and gambles
- The hierarchy of the seats
4a) The inauguration of the Colosseum; the preparation and the organization of the game.
The last section is dedicated to the gladiatorial game and to the entire day of spectacle; the inauguration
of the Colosseum has been taken as an example to tell all the phases of the game; it lasted for one
hundred days and during this time over 9,000 wild animals and 2000 gladiators were slaughtered.
The program of the day is expalined by a video and a graphic panel.
The subsection explore the various figures and their roles connected to or involved in the organization
and production of the games, first of all the Emperos: editor, munerarius, lanista, doctores, confector,
arenarius, bestiarius, minister, secunda rudis, summa rudis.
An interactive setting highlights the main features of these characters, as all the staff assigned to the
preparation of the event, analizing their roles in the gladiator games. In order to help the interpretation of
these figures, extraordinary original artworks, as the relief of Lusius Storax, are displayed too.
The public advertisements descovered in Pompei promoting the forthcoming gladiator spectacle are
explained by a graphic panel, that is useful to understand the importance of the game among society
and how this event was crucial for the public. An immersive reconstruction of a Pompei street, thought
to create an emotional environment, follows the explicative panel.
SUMMARY OF EXHIBITION CONTENTS & ELEMENTS: ORIGINAL
ARTWORKS. REPRODUCTIONS, VIDEO, GRAPHIC PANELS, INTERACTIVES,
RECONSTRUCTIONS
4b) Gladiators as stars
The subsection is focused on the events related to the spectacle (as the coena libera) and the aspects
connected to the gladiatorial world, as the offers that gladiators made to Nemesis before entering to the arena
or the industry of gadget linked to the games.
The coena libera is shown by a suggestive video, that explains the importance of ritual to the gladitorial games
and testifies to Roman banquet traditions, while the relationship between gladiators and the rites related to
Nemesis are explained by a graphic panel and original artworks.
A wide display of oil lamp decorated with gladiatorial scene are taken as an example of the industry of gadget
created because of the increasing importance of the gladiatorial spectacles.
GLADIATORS
SECTION 4: The Inauguration of the Colosseum: 100 days of Gladiatorial Games
ORIGINAL ARTWORKS:
- Musical instruments
- Slab with a venatio scene
- Oil Lamp with Elephant
- Relieves with Venatio
- Gold glass medallion with a venatio scene
- Relief with Winning Gladiators
- Relief with Two Gladiators
GRAPHIC PANELS:
- Pompa Triumphalis
- Venatores and wild animals
- Combats in crowds
REPRODUCTIONS:
- Eques armour
- Sagittarius armour
- Venator armour
- 4 pairs of gladiators fighting
VIDEOS:
- 4 videos related to the fighting between the pairs of gladiators displayed
THEMES:
- Pompa Triumphalis
- Venationes
- Combats in crowd
- The fight between the different pairs of gladiators and fighting techniques
- Death or freedom
GLADIATORS
4d) The show begins
The subsection shows all the phases of the gladiator spectacle, from the pompa triumphalis to the performance
of the morning, until the individual gladiator pairings.
The room reproduces the arena with its shape and it reveals to the visitors all its contents; it is thought as an
immersive room, in order to let visitors live an emotional experience.
The pompa triumphalis is explained by a graphic panel and suggestive original artworks, as relieves that represent
the procession and the original musical instruments used during the parade.
The venatio is well represented and illustrated by a graphic panel and original artworks, as relieves with scene
of venationes, oil lamp in the shape of animals and a gold glass medallion decorated with a venator. Finally,
reproductions of the armours of eques, sagittarius and venator show how these categories were worn.
The description of combats in crowd is explained by a graphic panel, that precedes the final subject of the section
related to the fighting in pairs and the technique of combat; the most important and long awaited moment of the
spectacle is well represented by different devices: original artworks with scene of combats between gladiators are
displayed as an example of how the fighting took place; reproductions of pairs of gladiators fighting show what
they wore and which kind of armour they had, while videos related to each pairs displayed explain the different
tecniques and fighting styles between pairs of gladiators.
The concept of victory and freedom is illustrated by a graphic panel, that explain every detail about the end of the
combat.
One does not have to look far to discern the connections between the Roman gladiator
traditions and modern sports. Perhaps gladiator combat should be considered the true
origins of Extreme Sports. The American football helmet is surprisingly similar to the ancient
helmets of gladiators. Modern day matadors face off with angry bulls in yet another sport
that echoes to the ancient venationes. Boxing, wrestling, rodeo competition can all be
connected to the spectacles that entertained the ancient Romans. Bookies still take
bets; banners, posters and all means of modern media advertise upcoming events. The
hoopla of Super Bowl and halftime entertainment could be paralleled to the Emperors’
annual games.
So has the form and function of the Colosseum itself endured, proving to be a lasting
architectural legacy of the Roman empire. Many modern stadiums are oval with tiered
seating enclosing the playing field. The largest stadium in the world today is the Great
Strahov Stadium in Prague, Czech Republic, with a seating capacity of 240,000 although
it is no longer used for sporting events, but pop concerts. May Day Stadium in Pyongyang,
North Korea holds 150,000 people while both Bird’s Eye Stadium in Beijing, China and
Wembley Stadium in London, U.K have a seating capacity of some 90,000. In the US,
the largest stadiums are home to football teams and the 10 largest stadiums are all home
to college football teams, the largest being Michigan Stadium, (116,000) home to the
University of Michigan’s Wolverines in Ann Arbor. The stadium of the USC Trojans in Los
Angeles is even called the Coliseum.
Considered one of the seven original wonders of the world since Medieval times, the
Colosseum is still on the list today. Despite the ravages of time, it still stands in central
Rome attracting some 3.9 million visitors a year; it’s capacity often sold-out. Its tiers,
columns and passageways are still suffused with the nuances of the gladiators and
beasts, emperors and spectators who once filled it’s spaces, the roar of the crowds
still reverberates, while outside it’s oval perimeters, costumed centurions and gladiators,
food vendors and ticket-scalpers re-create the congested, tumultuous atmosphere of the
ancient games.
GLADIATORS
Section 5 / Optional
Arenas of the Third Millennium
Contemporanea Progetti srl
Via del Campofiore, 106 - 50136 Florence
tel +39 055 6802474 - fax +39 055 6580200
www.contemporaneaexhibitions.com
[email protected]
EXPONA
Via dei Conciapelli 60
39100 Bolzano, Italy
Tel: +39 335 7294859
Dr. Alex Susanna
www.expona.it
[email protected]

Heroes of the Colosseum

Transcription

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