Antropomotoryka nr 57 [2012]. - Akademia Wychowania Fizycznego

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ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIEN­CES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
AN­TRO­PO­MO­TO­RY­KA
Vol. 22, nr 57
INDEX COPERNICUS
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION
IN WROCLAW, POLAND
CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FIZYCZNEJ
I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘDZYNARODOWE STOWARZYSZENIE MOTORYKI SPOR­TO­WEJ – IASK
AN­TRO­PO­MO­TO­RY­KA
Vol. 22, nr 57
INDEX COPERNICUS
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO
IM. BRO­NI­SŁA­WA CZECHA W KRA­KO­WIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO
WE WROCŁAWIU
KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
COMMITTEE FOR REHABILITATION, PHYSICAL EDUCATION
AND SOCIAL INTEGRATION OF POLISH ACADEMY OF SCIENCES
INTERNATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF SPORT KINETICS – IASK
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION, CRACOW, POLAND
UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN WROCLAW, POLAND
VOL. 22, NR 57 CRACOW – WROCLAW 2012
EDITORIAL
COMMITTEE
CHAIRMAN
Edward Mleczko
V-CHAIRMAN
Zofia Ignasiak
MEMBERS
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
EDITORIAL BOARD
Michal Belej (Slovakia), Peter Blaser (Germany), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Germany), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Israel), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holland), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Russia),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
EDITOR’S OFFICE
al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków
Poland
Indexed in INDEX COPERNICUS
This publication is funded in part by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education
Translation: Wiesław Horabik, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
Proofreading: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Design and DTP: University School of Physical Education, Cracow, Poland
Print: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29
Circulation: 150
ANTROPOMOTORYK A
ISSN 1731-0652
KOMITET REHABILITACJI, KULTURY FI­ZYCZ­NEJ I INTEGRACJI SPOŁECZNEJ PAN
MIĘ­DZY­NA­RO­DO­WE STO­WA­RZY­SZE­NIE MOTORYKI SPORTOWEJ – IASK
AKADEMIA WY­CHO­WA­NIA FI­ZYCZ­NE­GO IM. BRONISŁAWA CZE­CHA W KRA­KO­WIE
AKADEMIA WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO WE WROCŁAWIU
VOL. 22, NR 57 KRAKÓW – WROCŁAW 2012
REDAKCJA
Redaktor Naczelny
Edward Mleczko
Z-ca Redaktora Na­czel­ne­go
Zofia Ignasiak
Komitet Redakcyjny
Jan Chmura, Jerzy Januszewski, Andrzej Klimek, Tadeusz Koszczyc, Lesław Kulmatycki,
Wiesław Osiński, Joachim Raczek, Teresa Sławińska-Ochla, Włodzimierz Starosta
RADA REDAKCYJNA Michal Belej (Słowacja), Peter Blaser (Niemcy), Tadeusz Bober, Janusz Czerwiński, Sławomir Drozdowski,
Józef Drabik, Joanna Gradek, Peter Hirtz (Niemcy), Josif Moisiejewicz Fejgenberg (Izrael), Adam Haleczko,
Andrzej Jopkiewicz, Han C.G. Kemper (Holandia), Krzysztof Klukowski, Vladimir Lyakh (Rosja),
Robert M. Malina (USA), Wacław Petryński, Ryszard Przewęda,
Igor Ryguła, Stanisław Sterkowicz, Stanisław Żak
ADRES REDAKCJI al. Jana Pawła II 78, 31-571 Kraków
Poland
Czasopismo ANTROPOMOTORYKA jest umieszczone na liście rankingowej INDEX COPERNICUS
Publikacja częściowo dotowana przez Ministerstwo Nauki i Szkolnictwa Wyższego
Tłumaczenie: Wiesław Horabik, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
Adiustacja i korekta: Barbara Przybyło, Transatlantic Communication – Sylwia Willcox
© Copyright by University School of Physical Education in Cracow
Opracowanie gra­ficz­ne i łamanie: Dział Projektów Wydawniczych AWF Kraków
Druk: ArtProm, 31-431 Kraków, ul. Dukatów 29
Nakład: 150 egz.
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
CONTENTS
From Editors Information for the Authors 7
11
ORIGINAL PAPERS
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players 17
Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk
The impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists 27
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle 35
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming
activities among students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow 45
Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska
Assessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people 57
Václav Bunc
Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence 63
Marta Wieczorek
Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years (continuous research)
73
Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska
Knowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education participating
in an obligatory winter camp. Part II 83
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (H-RF) in light of result of physical
fitness assessment using T-scores 89
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitruk
Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness
of rural boys from Lublin region 103
REVIEW PAPERS
Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski
The movement of a human being in the medical exoskeleton – the anthropomotoric aspects –5–
115
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
SPIS TREŚCI
Od Redakcji Informacje dla autorów 7
13
PRACE ORYGINALNE
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
Ćwiczenia rozciągające i siłowe w relacji z szybkością biegową i mocą anaerobową koszykarzy 17
Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk
Wpływ redukcji masy ciała na dyspozycję startową zawodników judo
27
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
Reakcje na obciążenia treningowe u płotkarzy w mikrocyklu okresu przygotowawczego 35
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
Wpływ przekazu informacji wizualno-werbalnej na skuteczność uczenia się i nauczania oraz doskonalenia czynności
pływackich studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie 45
Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska
Ocena efektywności turnusu rehabilitacyjnego na sprawność fizyczną i tolerancję wysiłku osób w wieku starszym
57
Václav Bunc
Wpływ marszu na sprawność fizyczną oraz skład ciała przedstawicieli różnych grup wiekowych 63
Marta Wieczorek
Asymetria funkcjonalna i dynamiczna chłopców w wieku 10–12 lat (badania ciągłe) 73
Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska
Znajomość zasad bezpieczeństwa wśród studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego uczestniczących
w programowym obozie zimowym. Część II 83
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
Długookresowe tendencje zmian sprawności fizycznej ujętej w konwencji zdrowia w świetle wyników ich ewaluacji
z wykorzystaniem skali tenowej 89
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitruk
Antropologiczna ocena wpływu czynników socjoekonomicznych na rozwój i sprawność fizyczną chłopców
wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny 103
PRACE PRZEGLĄDOWE
Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski
Poruszanie się człowieka w egzoszkielecie medycznym – aspekty antropomotoryczne –6–
115
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
FROM EDITORS  OD REDAKCJI
THE ENGLISH VERSION
OF “ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY” IN 2012?
W NOWYM 2012 ROKU
„ANTROPOMOTORYKA-KINESIOLOGY” – PO ANGIELSKU?
I hope that it will not be a rhetorical sentence
when we meet in New Year. We are planning to issue four quarterlies in English. In these activities
we are supported by the Ministry of Science and
Higher Education. We have conducted serious
talks with the publishers interested in promoting
our journal abroad. It obliges us to international
cooperation and to make the research topics internationally known. From this perspective, we shall
put forward increasingly higher requirements to
the authors. Only such contributions shall be qualified for printing, which will have a chance to be
quoted. Moreover, we have to become more professionalized. We are forced to do it by new guidelines
concerning the assessment of periodicals.
It might certainly be helpful if we have acquired
DOI (digital object identifier). As one can read in the
latest 2012 issue of DOI Handbook, published by The
International DOI Foundation, the founder and the
owner of the DOI system and trademark defines DOI
as: “a digital identifier for an object of intellectual property, which aims at the persistent identification of any
object of intellectual property in digital networks in connection with the current data which refer to it” One might formulate a question: why possessing the DOI is
so important?
Well, in order to be cited and have the published
articles cited, we have to have a tool which will enable us to get in contact with all renown and prestigious
scientific publications which do possess DOI. The identification of a digital object is perceived as something
“natural”. DOI is also used by different software suppor-
ting the process of writing scientific publications (e.g.
by the manager of bibliographies). Thus, one – while
using DOI – can easily attain the latest bibliography to
an article from all over the world.
It will certainly not be an easy way to win the world
market. However, why should we not aspire to the rank
of a highly appreciated periodical even today? It will
certainly depend on our readers but also on the methods of prioritizing the scientific periodicals.
The publication which is not indexed in Thomson
Reuters Scientific database cannot have a Predicted
Impact Factor (PIF) calculated. Such publication is not
disqualified, however. It may be awarded the punctuation in “Index B”; but – unfortunately – the articles
which are indexed there are the second category publications. The way to jump into a higher position may be
the indication by DOI. So, we are waiting for it. I think,
the majority of the publications included in the 57th
issue of “Antropomotoryka-Kinesiology” deserves
to be known not only in our country. So far, we could
have only referred to the opinions of our readers. What
is there, in the 57th issue of the Krakow and Wroclaw
periodical?
Undoubtedly, these are the empirical works
which evoke the principal attention. In the article entitled Stretching and Strength Exercises in Relation to
Running Speed and Anaerobic Power in Basketball
Players, the authors have presented interesting results of an experiment with the testing of effectiveness
of using stretching exercises in the sports training. It
turned out that the strength exercises performed even
with a small capacity at the lack of an intensive stret-
–7–
From Editors
ching stimulus had a positive impact on a dynamic development of the anaerobic power and running velocity.
Intensification of the stretching exercises limited the
increase of speed abilities and the anaerobic power.
On the other hand, the experiment The Impact of
the Rapid Weight Loss on the Competitive Preparation
of Judoists conducted on the competitive sportsmen
proved that the reduction of the body mass before the
competition might have (in a short period of time) a negative impact on the physical and psychical disposition
of the competitors. Hence, the potential reduction of the
body mass should take place under the control of the
professionals (trainers, physicians, physiotherapists).
The results of an interesting training experiment conducted in the Czech Republic may interest the sports
practitioners. The results were revealed in the article
Body Response of Hurdle Runners to Training Load in
Microcycle. The experiment showed the differences in
the intra-individual and inter-individual reaction of the
competitors’ bodies in different training units, in the following monitored variables: time of the push-off, effectiveness in the active phase of the push-off, the height
of the push-off and the effect of the push-off.
Another experiment conducted by the Krakow scientists, the results of which were presented in the work The
Influence of Visual and Verbal Information Transfer on
the Effectiveness of Learning and Mastering Swimming
Activities among Students at the University School of
Physical Education in Cracow, showed the significant
dependence between the implemented method of teaching the swimming activities based on the enriched
delivery of visual and verbal information and the effective mastering of the crawl swimming technique.
The importance of an effective 9-day rehabilitation
course for senior citizens in the area of the improvement
of their physical fitness from the health perspective was
reported in the article Assessment of the Effectiveness
of Rehabilitation Period on Physical Fitness and
Exercise Tolerance in Elderly People. It showed the positive effects in the area of the improvement of physical
fitness checked by Fullerton test and the lack of positive
results in the area of the BMI indicators.
Different conclusions were drawn by the Czech
researchers in the publication Walking as a Tool of
Physical Fitness and Body Composition Influence. They
conducted a 5-months training experiment in three age
groups. Walking was the primary tool (80%). Each of
the groups performed it with different intensity: 1000
kcal – the elderly persons; 1500 kcal – the middle aged
people, and 200 kcal – children and young people. All
the participants showed significant changes in physical
fitness and in the components of the somatic composition. Moreover, the working people reported the improved feelings and efficiency in performing the professional
activities. The authors are of the opinion that quick march
of about 10 000 steps a day may be an effective stimulus
for the improvement of health and the compensation for
the deficit of movement which today characterizes the
lifestyle of the people of various ages.
The article Functional and Dynamic Asymmetry in
10–12-year-old Boys (Research in Progress) referred
to – the so far unexplained – phenomenon of the functional and dynamic asymmetry and its etiology. On the
basis of the continuous testing of 10–12-year-old boys
it was concluded that some changes occurred in the
area of the functional asymmetry while no such tendency was reported in the level of the dynamic asymmetry
checked in the tests of the motoric fitness.
The results of an interesting research described
in the article Knowledge of Downhill Skiing Safety
Principles among Students at the University of Physical
Education Participating in an Obligatory Winter Camp.
Part II (Part I was published in the “Antropomotoryka”
issue No 55) revealed that more attention should be
paid to the application by future skiing instructors and
trainers the knowledge of a safety theory of practicing
this very popular and attractive sport. The authors are
of the opinion that the activities should focus on the
provision of an appropriate clothes, skiing shoes, the
awareness of the threats to health in the frosty mountain climate, high mountain sickness.
In two articles: Long-term Trends in Changes of
Physical Fitness Defined in the Concept of Health
(H-RF) in Light of Results of Physical Fitness Asses­
sment Using T-scores and Anthropological Evaluation
of the Influence of Socio-Economic Factors on the
Development and Physical Fitness of Rural Boys from
Lublin Region, which were created in different academic centers and on the basis of the material attained
at the turn of the 20th and 21st centuries in various geographical regions of Poland (The Lublin Region – “The
Eastern Wall of Poland” and South-Eastern Poland
– Małopolska) differing in infrastructure and in the lifestyles, the long-term trends of changes in the somatic
and motoric development, popularly called “the secular
trends” were confirmed. It is also interesting that in both
cases, different methodologies to solve the problem
were used. In the first one, while using the specially developed scale (“T”) the lack of foundation for identifying
“the phenomenon of the open scissors” in the youngest
–8–
From Editors
generation of the tested children and young men was
identified. Up till now, it was commonly believed that
the dynamic, somatic development of the younger generation and lowering of the physical fitness continue.
In the cited article, there was a greater dynamics of the
improvement of the motoric capabilities, particularly the
endurance capabilities, than the somatic features.
In the second article, the 10–11-year-old and 17–18year-old boys were divided into groups, the characteristic of which was the level of social stratification of
parents. In most cases, the greater rate of the somatic
and motoric development of children and of the young
people from rural areas was identified. It is probable that
in that way the inhabitants of the rural areas are making
up for the past backwardness in relation to the inhabitants of the cities and thanks to the improvement of the
conditions of living, despite poverty and deficiencies of
the life in the rural areas that can still be observed.
In the review section, the reader shall find an interesting article The Movement of a Human Being
in the Medical Exoskeleton – the Anthropomotoric
Aspects. In a very interesting way, the authors point to
the importance of “exoskeletons” i.e. mechanical constructions fixed to particular parts of human body and
supporting the man’s movement with the aid of the
in-built effectors, in didactics and scientific works. Our
today’s knowledge and understanding of the adaptation of a human being to walking and performing the
everyday activities in cooperation with robots such as
exoskeleton are still limited. The article is an attempt
to assess to what extent the possibilities in this area
are being utilized.
I wish you all an interesting reading, and I wish the
authors numerous citations of their creative work.
–9–
Edward Mleczko
Editor-in-Chief
“Antropomotoryka”
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
INFORMATION FOR THE AUTHORS
1. “Kinesiology” (“Antropomotoryka”) is an official scientific
quarterly of the International Association of Sport Kinetics
– IASK, pub­lished at the University School of Physical Edu­
cation, Cracow, Poland under the auspices of the Committee
Rehabilitation, Physical Education and Social Integration the
Polish Acad­emy of Sciences.
The magazine presents the results of original re­search work
and experiments in the field of human mo­to­r­icity and re­lated
sciences. It also publishes review ar­ticles, opinion ar­ticles and
discussion of scientists evalu­ating the current situation and
perspectives of sci­en­tific de­vel­opment of human motoricity.
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– 11 –
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gineering, Chem. Immunol. Basel, Karger, 1997,
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[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by­to­we
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka w Wo­lań­ski N (red.):
Czynniki rozwoju człowieka. War­sza­wa, PWN, 1987,
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor­to­we­
go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy­sio­lo­gi­cal
fit­ness and motor performance. Exerc. Sport. Sc. Rev.
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo­to­rycz­no­ści:
ana­li­za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk­cjo­nal­
nych i prób spraw­no­ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop­
ców w wie­ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kraków,
AWF, 1983; 35.
While quoting the reference materials in the text, only squ­
are parentheses with the number of the quoted item in Arabic
numerals should be given. When qu­oting two or more works
the square parentheses sho­uld con­ta­in the chronological
or­der of their pu­bli­ca­tion.
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– 12 –
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
INFORMACJE DLA AUTORÓW
1. „Antropomotoryka” („Kinesiology”) jest ofi­c jal­nym, re­
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•
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miejsce za­kła­du pra­cy, sło­wa kluczowe oraz zwięzłe
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może być mniejsza niż 200 i nie większa niż 250 słów.
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stro­nie. Prosimy wymienić w nim jedynie po­zy­cje, na
które autor powołuje się w tekście. Po­win­ny być one
nu­me­ro­wa­ne cy­fra­mi arabskimi i usze­re­go­wa­ne w kolejności cytowania ich w pra­cy (a nie w kolejności al­fa­be­
tycz­nej). Każdą po­zy­cję piśmiennictwa należy zapisywać
od no­we­go wiersza. Po nazwisku autora (lub wszyst­kich
au­to­rów) cytowanej pracy należy po­dać pierw­sze li­te­r y
imion, a następnie tytuł pracy w brzmie­niu ory­gi­nal­nym
oraz nazwę czasopisma, z któ­re­go praca pochodzi. Skrót
tytułu cza­so­pi­sma na­leży podać zgodnie z jego brzmie­niem
w Index Medicus (patrz rów­nież: International Com­mit­tee of
Medical Jo­ur­nal Editors: Uniform re­qu­ire­ments for ma­nu-­
– 13 –
Informacje dla Autorów
scripts sub­mit­ted to bio­me­di­cal jo­ur­nals. N Engl J Med
1997; 336; 309–315).
Przykłady:
a) prace wydrukowane w cza­so­pi­smach:
• Casella R, Bubendorf L, Sauter G, Moch H,
Michatsch MJ, Gasser TC: Focal neu­ro­en­do­cri­
ne dif­fe­ren­tia­tion lacks pro­gno­stic si­gni­fi­cian­ce
in pro­sta­te core needle biopsies. J Urol, 1998;
160: 406–410.
b) monografie:
• Matthews DE, Farewell VT: Using and Un­der­
stan­ding Me­di­cal Statistics, ed 3, re­vi­sed. Ba­sel,
Karger, 1996.
c) rozdziały w książkach:
• Parren PWHI, Burton DR: Antibodies aga­inst
HIV-1 from phage display libraries; Map­ping of an
im­mu­ne response and progress towards antiviral
im­mu­no­the­ra­py; in Ca­pra JD (ed.): An­ti­bo­dy En­
gi­ne­ering. Chem Immunol. Ba­sel, Kar­ger, 1997,
65: 18–56.
• Kokot F: Fizjologia nerek; w Zieliński J, Leń­ko J (red.):
Uro­lo­gia, Warszawa, PZWL, 1992, 1: 9–20.
Materiał ilustracyjny musi mieć bardzo dobrą ja­kość. Po­
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cyframi arabskimi. Ich nagłówki, ob­ja­śnie­nia oraz podpisy
pod rycinami i nad tabelami powinny być w języku polskim
i angielskim. Przy­kład:
Tabela 1., Ryc. 1., Objaśnienia, Chłopcy
Table 1., Fig. 1., Commentary, Boys
Prosimy używać nawiasów okrą­głych. Wzory mu­szą być
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Spis piśmiennictwa powinien być sporządzony we­dług
ko­lej­no­ści cytowania:
[1] Żekoński Z, Wolański N: Warunki społeczno-by­to­we
jako czynniki rozwoju człowieka; w Wo­lań­ski N (red.):
Czyn­ni­ki rozwoju człowieka. Warszawa, PWN, 1987;
68–88.
[2] Malarecki I: Zarys fizjologii wysiłku i treningu spor­to­
we­go. Warszawa, Sport i Turystyka, 1975.
[3] Bouchard C, Malina RM: Genetics of phy­sio­lo­gi­cal
fit­ness and motor performance. Exerc Sport Sc Rev,
1983; 11: 112–115.
[4] Szopa J: W poszukiwaniu struktury mo­to­rycz­no­ści:
ana­li­za czynnikowa cech somatycznych, funk­cjo­nal­
nych i prób spraw­no­ści fizycznej u dziewcząt i chłop­
ców w wie­ku 8–19 lat. Wyd. Monograficzne, Kra­ków,
AWF, 1988; 35.
Powołując się w tekście na daną pozycję pi­śmien­nic­twa na­le­
ży podać w nawiasie kwadratowym tylko cy­frę arab­ską.
Przy­ta­cza­jąc dwie lub większą ich licz­bę należy podawać
w na­wia­sie kwa­dra­to­wym ko­lej­ność chro­no­lo­gicz­ną ich
wy­da­nia.
5. Uwagi Redakcji
• Wszystkie prace podlegają ocenie i są ano­ni­mo­wo re­cen­
zo­wa­ne.
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journals.indexcopernicus.com.
– 14 –
ORIGINAL PAPERS
PRACE ORYGINALNE
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
STRETCHING AND STRENGTH EXERCISES
IN RELATION TO RUNNING SPEED AND ANAEROBIC
POWER IN BASKETBALL PLAYERS
ĆWICZENIA ROZCIĄGAJĄCE I SIŁOWE W RELACJI
Z SZYBKOŚCIĄ BIEGOWĄ I MOCĄ ANAEROBOWĄ
KOSZYKARZY
Kazimierz Mikołajec*, Adam Maszczyk**, Arkadiusz Stanula**,
Ryszard Litkowycz*, Adam Zając***
*** PhD, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Team Sports, Chair of Basketball, Katowice,
Poland
*** PhD, Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Sports Theory, Chair of Methodology and Statistics,
Katowice, Poland
*** Prof. Dr. Habil., Academy of Physical Education in Katowice, Department of Sports Theory, Katowice, Poland
Key words: basketball, stretching, strength exercises, anaerobic power, running speed
Słowa kluczowe: koszykówka, rozciąganie, ćwiczenia siłowe, moc anaerobowa, szybkość
biegowa
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. This study aimed to identify the effect of stretching and strength exercises on running
speed and anaerobic power of young (13–15 years old) basketball players, and the relationships between
variables representing their speed, anaerobic power and flexibility.
Material and methods. Thirty-six young basketball players were randomly allocated to 3 groups (GR, GS
and GC) that carried out special 3-month training programs. Before the training macrocycle commenced and
after it ended, the participants were tested for running speed, anaerobic power and flexibility.
Results. ANOVA and post hoc test showed that the “training factor” distinguished more clearly the strength
exercise subgroup and the stretching exercise subgroup (p = 0.002 and p = 0.003, respectively). The discriminant analysis showed that power, 5-meter running speed and 20-meter running speed were these variables
that distinguished the strength exercise subgroup. In addition, the results of post hoc tests, pointed the level of
flexibility as a factor which discriminated more clearly subgroups GR and GS, and then GS and GC (p = 0.005,
p = 0.009 and p = 0.006, p = 0.012, respectively).
Conclusions. The experiment has demonstrated that under the absence of strong stretching stimuli even
low-volume strength exercises lead to the dynamic development of anaerobic power, running speed and flexibility, whereas more intensive stretching exercises limit improvements in these motor abilities.
Cel pracy. Badanie miało na celu określenie wpływu ćwiczeń rozciągających i siłowych na sprawność szybkościową i moc beztlenową młodych (13–15 lat) koszykarzy oraz zależności między następującymi zmiennymi:
szybkość, moc anaerobowa a elastyczność.
Materiał i metody. 36 młodych koszykarzy podzielono losowo na 3 grupy realizujące 3-miesięczny specyficzny
program treningowy: GR (rozciąganie), GS (akcent rozwoju siły), GK (grupa kontrolna). Przed rozpoczęciem i po
zakończeniu makrocyklu zostały przeprowadzone próby oceniające poziom szybkości biegowej (5 m, 20 m), mocy
anaerobowej (wyskok dosiężny na platformie tensometrycznej) oraz gibkości.
– 17 –
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
Wyniki. ANOVA i testy post hoc wykazały, że czynnik treningowy różnicuje bardziej podgrupę realizującą ćwiczenia siłowe i rozciąganie podgrupy wysiłkowej (odpowiednio p = 0,002 i p = 0,003). Analiza dyskryminacyjna
dowiodła, że ​​moc anaerobowa, szybkość biegowa 5 m i szybkość biegowa 20 m – to zmienne dyskryminujące
podgrupę realizującą program ćwiczeń siłowych. Wyniki analiz post hoc wskazały dodatkowo, iż poziom gibkości
to czynnik różnicujący podgrupy GR i GS, a następnie GS i GW (odpowiednio, p = 0,005, p = 0,009 i p = 0,006,
p = 0,012).
Wnioski. Eksperyment wykazał, że ćwiczenia siłowe, wykonywane nawet z małą objętością, przy braku intensywnych bodźców rozciągających pozwalają na dynamiczny rozwój mocy anaerobowej i szybkości biegowej
oraz gibkości, gdy tymczasem intensyfikacja ćwiczeń rozciągających ogranicza przyrost tych zdolności motorycznych.
Introduction
Modern concepts of physical training for competi­
tive sports are based on the multifaceted discipline
or event-specific fitness preparation, that assumes
exercise periodization and pays special attention to
the calendar of sports events (competitions), correctly
selected exercise volume and intensity, as well as to
periodic change of training means and methods. The
term “physical training” has been replaced today with
“physical preparation systems or programs” for ath­
letes. These programmes are characterized by appro­
priately balanced proportions of exercises developing
athletes’ muscle strength, power, speed, coordination,
agility, flexibility, local anaerobic endurance, as well as
aerobic endurance. Because the proportions should
closely correspond to the physical effort during an
event, special training programmes have been devel­
oped for each discipline, which additionally address
athlete’s age, sex, training experience and the training
and competition circumstances.
In team sports fitness training is also frequently adjusted to players’ positions on court and their respective
tasks.
A major methodological and training problem in
competitive sports is posed by the need to determine
how stretching exercises performed in the warm-up
phase, as part of the main phase of a training unit,
or before the competition affect athletes’ speed and
strength [1].
This knowledge is critical in the case of sprints and
athletics jumps, combat sports and team games characterized by dynamic movements, such as volleyball,
hockey or basketball.
It has been still a matter of controversy whether
stretching exercises improve speed and muscle contraction force, or whether they rather deteriorate them.
Following Kerner and D‘Amico’s opinions [2], most
athletes do stretching exercises before a training unit or
an event. Evidence has been appearing, though, that
not only do stretching exercises done before an event
not protect the athlete from injuries, but they also have
a negative effect on their performance.
As suggested by Witvrouw [3], stretching exercises
may fulfil their protective role in sports involving dynamic take-offs and rapid changes in movement directions,
such as soccer, volleyball and basketball. This opinion
would be justified, if a stretched muscle was capable of
absorbing larger amounts of energy.
Many studies have shown that stretching exercises
have a positive effect on muscle contraction speed
and force, thus improving parameters such as take-off
speed and absolute speed [4, 5, 6], jumping ability [7,
8, 9], balance and the reaction time [10, 11], as well as
power [12].
Other authors are of the opinion that intensive
stretching reduces maximal strength, the height of
a vertical jump, take-off speed and absolute speed.
The data they present lead to a rational conclusion that
this type of exercises should not be done before very
dynamic physical activity [13, 14, 15, 16].
While the aspects of muscle strength and power
development are relatively well-covered in the literature and the opinions on the effectiveness of particular training means and methods are quite consistent,
the methodology which is employed to develop flexibility and the actual stretching effects on athlete’s
performance stir many controversies. A common position on how stretching exercises contribute to injury
prevention, physical fitness and athletic performance
in the power and speed sports and those requiring
technique and coordination has not been adopted yet
[17, 18, 19].
Intensive stretching damages contractile proteins in
the skeletal muscles, as well as the muscles’ ability to
regenerate after effort.
This study sought answers to the following questions:
– 18 –
Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players
• Is the rate of changes in running speed and anaero­
bic power of young basketball players more affected
by a stretching exercise programme or a strength
exercise programme?
• Which of the two types of training has a greater ef­
fect on the development of the players’ flexibility?
• How are the level of flexibility of young basketball
players and their running speed and anaerobic
power parameters interrelated?
The above relationships were studied based on
long-term adaptive changes that were induced in the
young athletes by a special, 3-month training programme.
The research project was approved by the Bioethical
Commission at Jerzy Kukuczka Academy of Physical
Education in Katowice. Before the commencement of
research, the participants were informed about its nature and objectives, and their parents consented to their
participation. The participants could withdraw from the
study at any stage.
Material and methods
Participants
The sample consisted of 36 male basketball players
aged 15.7 ± 1.2 years and having training experience of
2.1 ± 0.9 years, who were selected based on a purpo­
sive sampling technique. They were divided into three
subgroups of 12 participants. Each subgroup carried
out a different fitness programme, but their technical
and tactical programmes were similar:
Group I (GR, n = 12) – stretching exercises done in
each training unit for 3 months.
Group II (GS, n = 12) – strength exercises done in each
training unit for 3 months.
Group III (control) (GC, n = 12) – a technical and tacti­
cal programme carried out in each training unit for
3 months.
Procedures
The study involved a 3-month training macrocycle dur­
ing which all three subgroups carried out similar techni­
cal and tactical training programmes, but started and
ended each training with their specific exercises aimed
to develop selected motor abilities:
Group I (GR) did 10-minute stretching exercises
during the warm-up and in the final phase of training.
Group II (GS) did 10-minute dynamic strength exercises in the second part of the warm-up and isometric exercises of the same duration in the final phase of
training.
Group III (GC) was a control group doing technical
and tactical exercises of identical duration, without any
accents on muscle strength and flexibility.
The participants were tested for running speed
(5 and 20 metres), anaerobic power (vertical jump on
a tensometric platform) and flexibility (three fitness trials) before and after the macrocycle.
Anaerobic power was measured on a tensometric
platform produced by AMTI (USA) AccuGait, at 100Hz
sampling frequency. The following variables were recorded: FO – take-off propulsion [N/s], VO – take-off
velocity [m/s], WWP – vertical jump height [m], PO –
work at take-off [J/kg], MS – mean power, and MM –
maximum take-off power [W/kg], relative values of work
and of the mean and maximum take-off power (i.e. in
relation to the player’s bodyweight), the angle of the
GRF vector at take-off.
Running speed was measured using the laser device LDM 300C-Sport for the following variables: SS5
– take-off speed (5-meter) [s], SA20 – absolute speed
(20-meter) [s], DKB – running step length [m], CKB –
running step frequency [k/s].
Flexibility was estimated based on a sit and reach
test (an SRT variable), a test for hip joint flexibility in the
sagittal plane (a GKDS variable) and a test for hip joint
flexibility in the frontal plane (a GKDC variable).
The sit and reach test
Description: The participant sits on the floor with feet
spread at shoulder width and blocked against a support
(e.g. a side of a bench) and then bends forward (keeping
his knees straight) to make fingertips marks on the scale
attached to the support (the bench) as far as he can.
Measurement: The test is repeated four times, during the fourth trial the participant is asked to hold the
position for at least 1 second. The measurement is read
from the centimetre scale.
Equipment and aids: a bench, a 0–100 cm scale.
The test for hip joint flexibility in the sagittal plane
Description: During the sagittal flexibility test the
subject assumes a front stance and then tries to do the
forward splits, the legs straight and the hands supporting the body on both sides.
Measurement: The flexibility coefficient (G) is calculated by dividing the distance between the floor and
– 19 –
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
the crouch (a) by the distance between the heel of the
forward leg and the toes of the rear leg (b).
G = a/b
Test for hip joint flexibility in the frontal plane
Description: During the frontal flexibility test the
subject bends forward with straight legs spread sideways and the body supported on the hands placed in
front, and then tries to do the side splits.
Measurement: The flexibility coefficient (G) is calculated by dividing the distance between the floor and
the crotch (a) and the distance between the inner sides
of the feet (b).
G = a/b
Equipment and aids: a measuring tape, a piece of
chalk.
Note: in both cases hip joint mobility (in the frontal
and sagittal planes) is represented by the lower absolute values of the coefficients.
Made before and after the 3-month experiment, the
measurements were intended to determine the relationship between the flexibility of the lower extremities and
the running speed and anaerobic power parameters in
young basketball players.
Statistical analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using the com­
puter software package Statistica PL StatSoft v 8.
The research results were presented as mean val­
ues (X) and standard deviations (± SD). A Repeated
Measures ANOVA (Analysis of Variance) was em­
ployed to establish the significance of the different
effects of, respectively, stretching and strength exer­
cises on the parameters recorded before and after
a particular type of training and between particular
groups (GS, GC and GR). The statistically significant
results were further subjected to post hoc tests. A
discriminant analysis was applied to find out which
variables statistically significantly differentiated the
“training factor” (p < 0.05). The relationships between
the level of flexibility and the running speed and an­
aerobic power parameters were determined from
a regression analysis.
Results
The results obtained from the Repeated Measures
ANOVA (the analysed factors were the type of train­
ing and the time of measurement, obtained before and
after the 3-month training cycle) justified rejecting the
hypothesis of homogeneity of variance in the GS and
GC subgroups (the independent variables were power,
Figure 1. The mean value of average power before and after
– 20 –
Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players
5-meter and 20-meter running speed, take-off velocity,
take-off height and work at take-off). In the post hoc
tests, “final measurement” was a factor that differenti­
ated the subgroups statistically significantly. The “train­
ing factor” distinguished more clearly the strength ex­
ercise subgroup and the stretching exercise subgroup
(p = 0.002 and p = 0.003, respectively).
The discriminant analysis clearly showed that power
(Wilks’ lambda 0.034 and p = 0.006), 5-meter running
speed (Wilks’ lambda 0.038 and p = 0.004) and 20-meter running speed (Wilks’ lambda 0.041 and p = 0.006)
were variables that distinguished the strength exercise
subgroup.
The analysis of the mean raw data obtained from
the measurements made before and after the experiment indicated that:
• In the strength exercise subgroup
­– average power increased (p < 0.01; see Fig. 1);
­– average take-off speed for 5 meters grew sig­
nificantly (see Fig. 2);
–­ absolute running speed for 20 meters improved
as well (p < 0.01; see Fig. 3).
• In the stretching exercise and control groups statis­
tically significant differences between the pre- and
post-measurement data did not occur.
The next stage of the study aimed to evaluate
changes in the flexibility of lower extremities in particular subgroups.
The results of the Repeated Measures ANOVA provided grounds for rejecting the hypothesis of homogeneity of variance in the subgroups. The post hoc tests
pointed the level of flexibility as a factor that differentiated the subgroups statistically significantly. This factor discriminated more clearly subgroups GR and GS,
and then GS and GC by (p = 0.005, p = 0.009 and p =
0.006, p = 0.012, respectively).
In the discriminant analysis, though, variables
“forward bend” (Wilks’ lambda 0.023 and p = 0.009)
and “sagittal flexibility” (Wilks’ lambda 0.036 and p =
0.011) were clearly indicated as discriminating, again,
the strength exercise group. The baseline vector R0
and then R1 representing an optimal combination of
the variables (from the set of all speed and anaerobic
power parameters analysed in the study) pointed to
three independent variables (the vertical jump height,
work at take-off and the running step length) as being
statistically significantly related to the successively
analysed dependent variables, i.e. forward bend, flexibility in the sagittal plane, and flexibility in the frontal
plane.
Figure 2. The mean value of velocity at 5 meters before and after
– 21 –
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
Figure 3. The mean value of velocity at 20 meters before and after
The regression analysis showed that the DKB variable (running step length) was a statistically significant
predictor both in the sagittal flexibility model:
GKDS = 36.03+0.05DKB ± 0.321
(4.233)
(0.015)
and in the forward bend model:
SRT = 26.45+0.12DKB ± 0.121
(3.651)
(0.231)
The other independent variables were not entered
into the models. The third regression model did not reveal any statistically significant predictors for “frontal
flexibility”.
Discussion
The research problem analysed herein seems ex­
tremely important from the cognitive perspective, but
even more so regarding its bearing on competitive
sports. The study aimed to establish how stretching
and resistance exercises, as well as the absence of
these training stimuli, affect changes in the motor abili­
ties, flexibility and anaerobic power of young basketball
players going through a period of dynamic biological
development (aged 15–16 years).
In the subgroup, whose training programme contained some elements of resistance exercise, all variables showing the levels of speed ability and the power
of lower extremities significantly improved. This is
consistent with the findings of other authors who have
demonstrated a positive effect of dynamic strength
exercises with low or moderate loads (weight vests,
medicine balls) or free weights (barbells, dumb-bells),
done at maximum speed, on vertical jumping ability.
The exercises’ effectiveness is explained by increased
rigidity of the Achilles tendon, stronger reflexive contraction of muscle spindles after the eccentric phase of
motion and weaker inhibitory reflex from the Golgi tendon organs. These changes enable increased rate of
force development (RFD) that seems to be a key factor
in improving jumping ability through resistance training
[17, 18, 19, 20].
In examining the measurement and analytical data
on the young basketball players special attention should
be paid to the vertical jump, whose height improved by
– 22 –
Stretching and strength exercises in relation to running speed and anaerobic power in basketball players
4 cm on average, the volume of take-off increased by
0.40 J/kg of bodyweight and maximal power improved
by over 2 W/kg. Similar, statistically significant changes
were noted in the players tested for take-off speed and
absolute speed. The strength exercise subgroup performed better by 0.09 s in the 5-meter run, the improvement for the 20-meter run being 0.13 s on average.
Similar results were obtained in studies dealing
with the effect of maximal and supramaximal intensity
exercises on athletes’ jumping ability in sports where
the ability is a prerequisite for performance (jumping
events and hurdles, volleyball, basketball or ski jumping). Trzaskoma [21] have demonstrated that eccentric
exercise with supramaximal resistance (120–150%
1RM), for instance barbell squats, has a particularly
positive influence on the height of the vertical jump.
Again, the phenomenon was explained by an exceptionally effective engagement of fast-contracting motor
units, increased rigidity of lower extremity tendons, and,
to some extent, by a contraction reflex generated from
muscle spindles, which is strongly activated during eccentric muscle work [22, 23, 24].
In the subgroups doing the stretching exercises or
not doing them at all, significant changes in players’
speed and power were not observed. It seems that the
static stretching exercises that the young participants
did regularly in the warm-up phase of each training unit
had the least beneficial effect on the course of adaptive
changes in these abilities. Other authors have reached
similar conclusions. Namely, they have found that intensive stretching exercises, particularly static ones,
reduce speed as well as the skeletal muscle contractibility by reducing the number of newly formed actinmyosin bridges [14, 25, 26, 27, 28].
In the subgroup, that received only technical and
tactical training, the measurements revealed only slight
changes in the players’ speed and power, but the results were showing an upward trend. In the stretching
exercise subgroup almost no improvements in speed
and power abilities were observed during the 3-month
study.
The results of the measurements and analyses are
thereby consistent with the current opinions and results
of world studies, according to which stretching exercises, particularly high-intensity static exercises, constrain
athlete’s power and speed potential, mainly by making
the muscle-tendon complex less rigid, decreasing the
excitability of motor units, and reducing muscle contractibility because of fewer actin-myosin bridges being formed during a dynamic physical activity, such as
jumping or take-offs in running [15, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33].
The last part of the study aimed to estimate the flexibility of young basketball players and to find a relationship between this motor ability and running speed, and
anaerobic power parameters. The measurements were
made at the end of the 3-month experiment and the
flexibility tests focused on the players’ hip joints. Most
coefficients representing the baseline correlation matrix
were low and statistically insignificant. The determined
vector R1 showed the optimal combination of the variables (vertical jump height, work at take-off, and running step length) being statistically significantly related
to the successively analysed dependent variables – forward bend, sagittal flexibility, and frontal flexibility. The
other independent variables were too strongly related
to each other. The regression analysis evidently indicated the running step length as a variable predicting
both sagittal and frontal flexibility. Both flexibility tests
not only allowed assessing players’ hip joint and lumbar
flexibility, but also provided information on the flexibility
of their posterior thigh muscles. In the literature [26], the
key determinants of the running step length are take-off
force and hip-joint mobility; the measurements made
during this study indirectly confirm the observations.
Another finding consistent with the literature that arises
from the analyses is that very flexible muscles and high
mobility of the joints evidently reduce the capacity for
generating physical power. The finding corresponds to
the results obtained by Guissard and Duchateau [14]
and Makaruk [34].
It can be therefore concluded that excessive mobility of lower extremity joints and very flexible muscles
have an adverse effect on young basketball players’
power and speed. The 3-month study involving a training process has clearly demonstrated that under the
absence of strong stretching stimuli even low-volume
resistance exercises enable athletes to dynamically
increase their power and running speed, while more
intensive stretching exercises seriously limit improvements in these motor abilities.
– 23 –
Kazimierz Mikołajec, Adam Maszczyk, Arkadiusz Stanula, Ryszard Litkowycz, Adam Zając
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– 25 –
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE IMPACT OF RAPID WEIGHT LOSS
ON THE COMPETITIVE PREPARATION OF JUDOISTS
WPŁYW REDUKCJI MASY CIAŁA NA DYSPOZYCJĘ
STARTOWĄ ZAWODNIKÓW JUDO
Dariusz Boguszewski*, Katarzyna Boguszewska**, Jakub Adamczyk***
* PhD, Medical University of Warsaw, Poland
** MSc, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland
*** PhD, Medical University of Warsaw, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland
Key words: judo, rapid weight loss, competition, competitive preparation
Słowa kluczowe: judo, szybka redukcja masy ciała, zawody, przygotowanie startowe
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. Judo is a sport based on weight category divisions. The purpose of the research was to
establish the relationship between pre-competition weight loss and competitive preparations, as well as the
influence of pre-competition weight loss on the competitive results of judo competitors.
Material and methods. The research covered 28 judo competitors (13 juniors and 15 seniors). The research
method was the author’s questionnaire, selected tests of motor fitness by Denisiuk, and the Spielberger STAI
self-evaluation questionnaire.
Results. More than half (53.6%) of competitors in the research group reduced their weight regularly in
pre-competition periods. The average reduction was 4.2% among juniors, and 5.4% among seniors. The most
commonly applied body weight reduction methods included reducing the amount of food and liquids, increased
physical activity, and treatments in the sauna. During the periods of body weight reduction, contestants felt
deterioration of mood, decreased strength and endurance, and headaches. Functional trials performed during
rapid weight loss pointed to regression of the results connected with the process of weight loss reduction. In
the control (non-reducing) group, the differences were not significant. The anxiety level one day before the
competition was higher in the reducing group. In the research (reducing) group, 46.7% of the participants
fulfilled result assumptions; in the non-reducing group, the proportion was 58.3%.
Conclusions. In cases involving judoists, weight reduction in a short period of time has negative effects on
their competitive (physical and psychological) preparation. The eventual reduction of body weight should be
attempted under the control of professionals (coaches, physicians, physiotherapists).
Wprowadzenie. Judo jest dyscypliną sportu, w której rywalizacja toczy się z podziałem na kategorie wagowe.
Celem badań było ustalenie zależności między redukcją masy ciała a dyspozycją startową i wynikami sportowymi
judoków.
Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 28 zawodników (13 juniorów i 15 seniorów), przyjmując jako metodę
badawczą wybrane próby sprawności motorycznej Denisiuka, kwestionariusze Spielbergera oraz ankietę autorską.
Wyniki. Ponad połowa (tj. 53,6%) objętych badaniem zawodników regularnie obniżała masę ciała w okresie
przedstartowym. Redukcja ta wynosiła średnio 4,2% u juniorów, u seniorów zaś 5,4% masy ciała. Najczęściej
stosowanymi metodami były: ograniczenie ilości przyjmowanych pokarmów i płynów, zwiększony wysiłek fizyczny,
zabiegi w saunie. W trakcie redukcji masy ciała u zawodników występowało pogorszenie samopoczucia, obniżenie poziomu siły i wytrzymałości oraz bóle głowy. Próby sprawności wykonywane przed i po redukcji masy ciała
wskazały na znaczny regres wyników. W grupie, która nie redukowała masy ciała różnice nie były istotne. Poziom
– 27 –
Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk
lęku jako stanu na dzień przed startem był wyższy w grupie, w której redukowano masę ciała. W grupie, której
uczestnicy nie redukowali masy ciała, założenia startowe zostały zrealizowane w 58,3%, podczas gdy w grupie
redukującej masę ciała – w 46,7%.
Wnioski. Redukcja masy ciała przed startem (w krótkim czasie) może negatywnie oddziaływać na fizyczną
i psychiczną dyspozycję zawodników. Ewentualne obniżanie masy ciała powinno podlegać kontroli specjalistów:
trenerów, lekarzy, fizjoterapeutów.
Introduction
Combat sports are disciplines where competition
means direct confrontation between the competing
parties. Judo is a martial art derived from the Japanese
schools of ju-jitsu. According to the principles of its cre­
ator, Jigoro Kano, it is not only a sport but also a sys­
tem of physical education, real combat, and intellectual
education [1]. Taking into account the utilitarian aspect
(non-sport confrontation), judo is a relatively mild means
of defense [2].
Initially, judo competition was carried out with­
out division into weight categories. Weight divisions
were introduced for the first time (as a test) during the
Brussels European Championship in 1954. Since 1959
the European Championships have regularly been
conducted in a few weight categories. In 1964, during
the Olympic Games in Tokyo, the Olympic judo tourna­
ment was carried out for the first time. The competition,
however, ran then along the lines of an open category.
In the world competitions, the fights in various weight
limits started during the World Championship in 1965
in Rio de Janeiro and the Olympic Games in Munich in
1972 [3, 4].
Current weight limits, in which the competitors par­
ticipate, are a pre-condition for being admitted to com­
pete. Therefore, judoists are obliged to adjust their body
weight to a particular weight category in a given period of
time. The weigh-in is conducted on the morning before
the competition. Competitors, perceiving better chances
in the competition in a lower category, use various meth­
ods to reduce their body weight: limiting food and liquid
consumption, increased physical activity, intensive ef­
forts to sweat, and medication [5–10]. This is not a prac­
tice that is exclusively characteristic of judo competitors.
In other sports where sportsmen are also divided into
weight categories, such as in wrestling, kickboxing, ka­
rate or taekwondo, competitors behave in similar ways
[11–14]. Hence, the question arises: to what extent does
such reduction influence the competitive results? Do not
the negative side effects nullify the advantages resulting
from competing in a lower category?
The main cognitive aim of the research was the es­
tablishment of the relationship between pre-competitive
reduction of the body weight of judo competitors and the
competition disposition (physical and psychological), as
well as its effect upon the competitive results. The ap­
plication aim was to draw attention to the problem of
the competitors’ body weight reduction and to indicate
directions of effective management of the process of
preparation for the competition.
Material and methods
The research covered 28 judo competitors (13 junior
and 15 senior). The average age of the participants
was 19.34 years, training experience 9.96 years, height
178.04 cm, and body weight 80.29 kg. Of the competi­
tors, 8 had master class (MM or M), 13 – first sports
class (I), and 7 – secondary class (II). The detailed
characteristic of the examined group is illustrated in
Table 1.
To assess the physical condition of the competi­
tors, select trials of Denisiuk’s motoric fitness test were
used. Among them were a trial that assessed the dy­
namic strength of a shoulder girdle, back and stomach
(double-handed throw of 3 kg medicine ball in a simple
forward kneeling position) and a trial that assessed
the explosive force of lower limbs (a long jump without
a run-up) [15].
Psychological condition was assessed on the ba­
sis of Spielberger’s State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI)
[16].
Additionally, the participants completed the original
questionnaire that elicited information concerning train­
ing experience, judo rank, ways of reducing body weight
(if competitor regularly reduced body weight), and sub­
jective estimate of side effects of those activities.
On the basis of the training diaries (and consulta­
tions with coaches), the expected optimal result for
each tournament was defined for each contender.
The first measurement (physical fitness test,
Spielberger’s questionnaire, and the original question­
naire) was conducted 14 days before the scheduled
– 28 –
The impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists
participation in the targeted tournament. The examina­
tion (physical fitness test and Spielberger’s question­
naire) was repeated a day before the start.
To develop empirical data, the following statistical
tools were used: arithmetic mean, standard deviation,
and Student t-test. The minimum level of relevance was
established at the p < 0.05 level.
Results
Over half of the judoists (54%) in the researched group
were reducing body weight. There were 5 of them
among juniors and 10 among seniors. The average re­
duction among the juniors was 2.8 kg and 4.8 kg among
the seniors, which constituted 4.2 and 5.4% of body
weight, respectively. A third of the judoists (from both
groups) admitted that they reduced body weight before
each start. None used the help of a dietician, physician,
or physiotherapist.
Usually, reducing the body weight started 10 (ju­
niors) and 8.8 (seniors) days before the official weighin. The first attempt to reduce body weight was under­
taken by competitors at 15.6 years of age (juniors, 13.7;
seniors: 17.3).
The ways of reducing body weight (RBW) men­
tioned by participants (see Fig. 1) were: limiting the
Table 1. Characteristics of research groups
SENIORS
JUNIORS
Research
groups
Age [years]
Training experience [years]
Height [cm]
Weight category
[kg]
Body mass [kg]
J1
15
3
167
55
58
J2
16
9
170
60
60
J3
16
8
168
60
61
J4
16
8
167
60
62
J5
15
6
173
60
64
J6
16
4
175
66
66
J7
16
8
180
73
72
J8
16
10
176
73
72
J9
16
10
181
82
81
J10
17
4
180
81
81
J11
16
7
182
90
89
J12
15
6
177
90
90
J13
16
7
188
90
93
S1
30
18
171
66
68
S2
28
18
170
66
69
S3
21
16
168
66
70
S4
21
11
176
73
73
S4
23
15
174
73
79
S5
18
11
183
81
81
S6
27
9
181
81
83
S7
20
14
182
90
90
S8
20
9
188
90
90
S9
21
13
182
90
92
S10
19
7
176
90
93
S11
19
12
181
90
96
S12
24
14
181
90
99
S13
21
10
193
100
100
S14
23
14
195
100
109
– 29 –
Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk
increased
physical activity
reduction
of consumption
of food
sauna
exercises
in special
clothes
reduction
pharmacological
of consumption
methods
of liquids
others
Figure 1. Rapid weight loss methods
amount and frequency of food, limiting the consumption
of liquids, intensified physical effort, sauna, exercising
in special sweat-resistant suits, and pharmacological
methods. All participants indicated limiting eating as
the main way of RBW. Over half of the participants also
declared reduced consumption of liquids (3 juniors and
7 seniors), as well as increased physical efforts (4 ju­
niors, 5 seniors). Exercising in special, sweat-resistant
suits was practiced by nearly half the participants (3 ju­
niors and 4 seniors). About one-third of the participants
used sauna (1 junior, 4 seniors), and pharmacological
products were used by 2 seniors. The longest applied
method (average 8.75 days) was increased physical ef­
fort (juniors, 7.8 days; seniors, 9.5 days), reducing con­
sumption of meals (juniors, 6.2 days; seniors, 6.9 days),
and sauna (juniors, 6 days; seniors, 6.5 days).
Most of the contenders felt negative effects due
to body weight reduction. Among the most often men­
tioned negative effects of RBW were: lowered endur­
ance levels (it referred to all juniors and 6 seniors) and
worse physical and mental state (half of the juniors and
8 seniors). Most of the juniors and half of the seniors
complained also of decreased levels of strength.
Fewer than half of the participants (2 juniors and
5 seniors) tried to find a way to minimize the negative
effects of pre-competitive body weight reduction. Diet
supplements were used in this case.
The results of the test of the force of lower limbs
in the group of those who did not reduce body weight
showed slight oscillations in successive trials. The ma­
jority (7 juniors and 2 seniors) achieved worse results in
the second attempt than in the first one. The contend­
ers reducing their body weight achieved worse results
1 day before the competition than 2 weeks earlier. The
difference was p = 0.043 among juniors, and p = 0.057
among seniors (Fig. 2).
Figure 2. Average results of the long jump of juniors and seniors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (* significance
at p < 0.05)
Results of the dynamic force test of the lower limbs
and torso were less diversified, although here also the
majority (10 juniors and 5 seniors) achieved worse re­
sults during the second measurement. The greatest
differences (p = 0.025) were noted in the group of the
seniors reducing body weight (Fig. 3).
Assessing the psychological condition measured
with Spielberger’s questionnaire indicated slight differ­
ences of the State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI) values
– 30 –
The impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists
niors who reduced their body weights won 9 competi­
tions (an average of 1.8 per person), and those who
did not reduce their body weights won 20 competitions
(average of 2.5). The opposite relationship was noted in
the group of the seniors where judoists reducing their
body weights won 23 competitions (average of 2.3) and
those non-reducing only 8 (average of 1.6) (Fig. 5).
Figure 3. Average results of medicine ball throw of juniors and
seniors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (* significance
at p < 0.05)
(anxiety as a state of mind) in first and second mea­
surements among the contenders non-reducing body
weight. Among those who did reduce body weight,
an increase of STAI values was noted (the difference
amounted to p = 0.38 among juniors and p = 0.002
among seniors Fig. 4). It is interesting to note that the
STAI results of anxiety as a feature among seniors re­
ducing body weight were also significantly higher (p =
0.044).
Figure 5. Average number of winning fights of judoists reducing
and non-reducing body weight
The contenders reducing their body weights
achieved worse results in fitness tests conducted 1 day
before the contest. The greatest differences, p = 0.015
and p = 0.011, respectively, were noted in the power
tests of the lower limbs and explosive strength of the
upper limbs and torso in the group of those reducing
body weight, which fulfilled the training assumptions
(Fig. 6 and 7).
Figure 4. Average points STAI – state anxiety of juniors and
seniors, reducing and non-reducing body weight (** significance
at p < 0.01)
Over half of the juniors (n = 8) and only 40% of the
seniors achieved the foreseen result assumptions. In
the group of those reducing body weight, 2 juniors and
5 seniors fulfilled the expectations of the training staff,
while in the group of those who did not reduce their
body weight, there were 6 juniors and only 1 senior.
The participants of the program fought a total of 94
fights in the targeted contests (46 juniors, 48 seniors),
in which they won 60 (juniors, 20; seniors, 31). The ju­
Figure 6. Average results of the long jump of judoists, reducing
and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who have carried
out the coaching plan; ”–“ competitors who have not carried out
the coaching plan), (** significance at p < 0.01)
The assessment of psychological conditions indi­
cated greater increase of the STAI point value among
contenders reducing body weight (p = 0.01). Analyzing
– 31 –
Dariusz Boguszewski, Katarzyna Boguszewska, Jakub Adamczyk
Figure 7. Average results of medicine ball throw of judoists,
reducing and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who
have carried out the coaching plan; “–“ competitors who have
not carried out the coaching plan), (* significance at p < 0.05;
** significance at p < 0.01)
the results from the point of view of the fulfillment of the
initial targets, it turned out that the sportsmen who did
not fulfill them achieved significantly higher STAI results
than the remaining ones. The differences were: p = 0.05
in the reducing group and p = 0.0076 in the group not
reducing the body weight, respectively (Fig. 8).
Figure 8. Average points STAI – state anxiety of judoists reducing
and non-reducing body weight (“+” competitors who have carried
out the coaching plan; ”–“ competitors who have not carried out
the coaching plan), (* significance at p < 0.05)
Discussion
Although the negative impact of body weight reduction
upon the contender’s organism has been proved [7, 8],
the reduction of body weight is common in those sports
in which competition is divided into weight categories
(boxing, kickboxing, wrestling, judo, weight lifting) as
well as in those sports where there are no formal weight
limits but contender’s body weight is a factor having
influence upon competitive results (ski jumping, climb­
ing, some track and field competitions). The weight
loss problem concerns the majority of the competitive
sportsmen in these sports.
In the research group, over half of the contenders
reduced body weight before contests. Some of them
had been doing that for many years and before every
contest. The sportsmen lost average of 4.1 kg, which
equals 5.4% of body weight. In comparison, accord­
ing to research by Kinigham and Gorenflo, 77% of
young American wrestlers reduced their body weight
by over 2.27 kg [13]; British wrestlers and boxers, by
an average of 5–10% [17]. The speed of these reduc­
tions varies. For instance, according to Japanese re­
search, among judo contenders it amounts to 2.8 kg
a day [18], and among Australian body builders, 1.4
kg a day [19].
Body weight reduction concerns younger and
younger contenders. The average age of beginning to
practice BWR in the researched group of judoists was
15.5 years. According to Smith et al., British boxers
aged 14–16 years reduce their body weight an average
of 2.8% [20].
The leading method of reducing body weight is lim­
iting the amount of food [21] or limiting or eliminating
some energetic substrates from the diet [22]. Additional
methods are limiting the amount of liquids, intensifying
physical effort or exercise in warmer, airtight suits. It
referred to judoists, kick boxers [11], karatekas, and
weightlifters [21].
The majority of contenders feel the negative effects
of BWR. The principal reason here is the decrease of
glycogen supply, blood buffer capacity, volume of plas­
ma, density of plasma proteins and triacylglycerols, B6
vitamin and magnesium, and the increase of free fat
acids and cholesterol in plasma [7, 12, 22, 23]. During
the gradual body weight reduction, anaerobic capacity
does not diminish; however, the slowed re-synthesis of
glycogen and the loss of proteins from muscles may
influence competitive results. [24]. Ziemlanski proved
that rapid loss of 5% of body weight lowers physical
capacity even by 30%, no matter which BWR method
was used [25]. Physical effort combined with diet re­
strictions increase plasma activity of keratin kinesis,
which indicates damage to muscles, which increases
risk of injury [7].
The negative impact of BWR on a contender’s psy­
chological condition was also proved [21]. The psycho­
logical factor seems to be of no lesser importance, and
in combat sports may be even crucial, as the results of
the conducted research seem to suggest.
– 32 –
The impact of rapid weight loss on the competitive preparation of judoists
Although the majority of the contenders complained
about the negative side effects of body weight reduc­
tion, few of them tried to eliminate the acquired ailments.
They most often tried to use diet supplements. This re­
fers both to the researched judoists, as well as kick box­
ers [11]. Few contenders tried to reduce body weight
permanently. It might be one of the factors limiting the
rapid reduction of body weight before the contest. It is
worth trying, even using innovative methods. Oolong
in the group of wrestlers has successfully reduced the
body weight by even 1,5 kg in two weeks, while main­
taining the permanent diet and the unchanged training
regime [26].
Conclusions
1. The majority of the researched judo contenders
regularly reduce their body weight before contests,
and some of them do it before every contest. Most
of them feel the negative effects of BWR. Therefore,
one should work on the broadening the knowledge
of the contenders, coaches (and parents of the ado­
lescent contenders) in order to diminish the number
of side effects of the eventual body weight reduc­
tion.
2. Among the juniors reducing their body weight, only
40% fulfilled the competition target (75% of the con­
tenders not reducing body weight fulfilled the training
assumptions). Competing in a lower category does
not always increase the chances of a contender for
a success, especially if the reduction of body weight
is undertaken by young and inexperienced sports­
men. The process of training and eventual BWR
should be carefully planned by the training staff.
3. The research proved the significant dependence
between body weight reduction and the physical
and psychological disposition of the contenders. At
the same time, it turned out that the psychological
state of the contender has a significant influence
on the competitive results. It should mobilize the
coaches to deepen their knowledge of psychology
and encourage them to use the help of psycholo­
gists, particularly before the most important con­
tests of the season.
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– 34 –
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NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
BODY RESPONSE OF HURDLE RUNNERS
TO TRAINING LOAD IN MICROCYCLE1
REAKCJE NA OBCIĄŻENIA TRENINGOWE U PŁOTKARZY
W MIKROCYKLU OKRESU PRZYGOTOWAWCZEGO
Ivan Čillík*, Darina Kozolková**
** Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Humanities, Matej Bel University in Banská
Bystrica, Slovakia
** PhD, Department of Physical Education and Sports, Faculty of Humanities, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica,
Slovakia
Key words: sprint hurdles, training load, microcycle, body response, explosive power
Słowa kłuczowe: bieg przez płotki, obciążenia treningowe, mikrocykl, reakcja organizmu,
skoczność
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. The relationship between response-effect cannot be understood mechanically. Tracking the
current response to training load in disciplines of speed and strength character is relatively complicated.
Aim of the study. The main aim of this thesis was to follow the immediate, delayed, and short-term cumulative training effect. Two hurdle runners were followed during a specific preparatory period. The training effect
is rated according to changes in the level of explosive power of the lower extremities during training units in
one training microcycle.
Material and methods. These athletes underwent testing consisting of repeated jumps for 10 seconds
on the jump ergometer (FITRO JUMPER) at the beginning of the main part of the training session, after their
warm-up, and after general and specific workouts. We repeated this test after the end of the main part of the
training unit.
Results. We found differences in the intraindividual and interindividual reactions of runners in individual
training: contact time, power in the active phase of the take-off, height of jump, and force of reflection. A reduction of effectiveness at the end of training sessions focused on speed was recorded in the performance of
both athletes. Different immediate and delayed effects were recorded in the performance of both athletes in
training sessions focused on strength. Regenerative training focused on endurance brought a slight immediate
and also a delayed impact on the increase of effectiveness. Taking both athletes into consideration we recorded
a similar body response during the first 2 days of the microcycle in the immediate and delayed effect. In the
second part of the microcycle, differences were recorded in intraindividual response to training load.
Conclusion. Both analyzed athletes achieved an increase in jumping explosiveness in the first part of microcycle and a decrease in the second part of the microcycle.
Wstęp. Zależność między obciążeniem treningowym a reakcją organizmu jest czynnikiem złożonym, który
wymyka się mechanicznym, z góry założonym schematom. Skomplikowaną czynnością okazuje się zwłaszcza
monitorowanie odpowiedzi organizmu zawodnika na obciążenie treningowe w konkurencjach szybkościowosiłowych.
Cel pracy. Monitorowanie efektów treningowych płotkarzy ukierunkowane na wskazanie bezpośrednich,
opóźnionych, a także krótkoterminowych, kumulatywnych efektów treningu. Badaniem objęto nim dwóch plot1
The study was supported by grant VEGA 1/0322/10.
– 35 –
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
karzy w kategorii wiekowej seniora, w trakcie mikrocyklu okresu przygotowawczego. Efekt treningowy oceniono
na podstawie zmian poziomu skoczności podczas różnego rodzaju treningów oraz w ramach różnych ogniw
jednostki treningowej.
Materiał i metody. W zadanym czasie dziesięciu sekund badani wielokrotnie wykonywali skoki pionowe
na ergometrze skocznościowym (FITRO JUMPER). Badanie prowadzono podczas różnego rodzaju jednostek
treningowych, po dwóch rodzajach rozgrzewki – ogólnym i specjalnym – oraz na początku i pod koniec głównej
części jednostki treningowej.
Wyniki. Wykazano różnice w intraindiwidualnej i interindywidualnej odpowiedzi organizmu badanych zawodników podczas różnych jednostek treningowych w następujących monitorowanych zmiennych: czas trwania odbicia,
wydajność w aktywnej fazie odbicia, wysokość odbicia i efekt odbicia. U obu płotkarzy stwierdzono zmniejszenie
wydajności odbicia pod koniec treningu. W treningach siły zaobserwowano różne – natychmiastowe i opóźnione –
reakcje u obu zawodników. Pod wpływem treningu regeneracyjnego o charakterze wytrzymałościowym nieznacznie
zwiększyła się efektywność natychmiastowej, jak również opóźnionej reakcji organizmu. W pierwszych dniach
mikrocyklu odnotowano bardzo podobnie reakcje u obu badanych płotkarzy, natomiast obciążenia treningowe
stosowane w drugiej części mikrocyklu spowodowały wystąpienie różnych reakcji ich organizmów.
Wnioski. Przeprowadzone badania wykazały wzrost skoczności zawodników w pierwszej części mikrocyklu
oraz jej obniżenie w drugiej części.
Introduction
Hurdle races are considered to be a specific group of
athletic disciplines of the technical-sprinter character.
Performance depends on many factors, especially
the maximum running speed and hurdle technique.
Recently, more authors have been dealing with training
for short hurdle races [1, 2, 3, 4] and others emphasiz­
ing the complex approach in long-term sport training.
Sport training is based on repetitive training stimula­
tions. It is one of the conditions of achieving expected
changes in the level of adapting processes. However, the
relationship between response-effect cannot be under­
stood mechanically. According to different authors [5, 6,
7, 8, 9] the following division of training effects is recog­
nized: immediate training effect, delayed training effect,
and cumulative training effect. The cumulative training
effect is divided into short (effect of training microcycle),
middle (effect of training mesocycle), and long (effect of
one or more training macrocycles). The short cumulative
training effect is the result of the connection of imme­
diate and delayed training effects. The middle cumula­
tive training effect is the result of the connection of short
cumulative effects. The long cumulative training effect is
the result of the connection of middle cumulative effects;
it is expected to be reached in time for the most impor­
tant competitions. Long cumulative training effect shows
up through the relatively permanent change of the con­
ditions of athletes. Achieving the cumulative effect de­
pends on many factors such as training load (volume and
intensity, frequency of stimulations, type of stimulation,
variability and others), possibilities of regeneration and
also other out of training factors that influence the course
of recovering processes. Tracking the current response
to training load in disciplines of speed and strengthen
character is relatively complicated. We have already
tried to follow the influence of training on immediate
training effect during one training in short distance races
[10]. In our research we deal with following the body´s
response of hurdle runners to training load from differ­
ent views: immediate training effect, delayed training ef­
fect, and short cumulative training effect. Two hurdle
runners are followed in developing training microcycle.
The aim of the training focused on short distance race
in the preparatory period is the development of special
conditional abilities and the improvement of technique.
During the period of intensified training in which both ath­
letes were analyzed, we focused mainly on the intensive
development of the specific speed-technique and speedendurance abilities [3, 11, 12]. We deal with microcycles
because it is considered decisive, according to a number
of authors [7, 9] and others, in the practical organization
of training and, most importantly, in terms of manipulating
training load. Training is generally characterized by high
intensity; moreover, a multi-phase workout is used. Large
supercompensation waves are permitted; it means a fre­
quency of training sessions such that incomplete recov­
ery occurs. Searching for more exact and, individually,
the most convenient indicators of supercompensation
are difficult. Therefore, experience relies on estimates
based on available information. This was written with the
support of VEGA 1/0322/10.
Aim of the study
The main purpose of this thesis was to follow the imme­
diate, delayed, and short term cumulative training ef­
fect. Two runners who compete in the hurdle race were
– 36 –
Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle
followed during a specific preparatory period. The train­
ing effect is rated according to changes in the level of
explosive power of the lower extremities during training
units in one training microcycle in analyzed indicators:
contact time, performance in the active phase of the
take-off, height of the jump, and efficiency of the takeoff. The immediate training effect is rated according to
changes in the level of explosive power at the beginning
and at the end of a training unit. The delayed training
effect is rated according to changes at the beginning
of the next training unit and the short cumulative train­
ing effect according to changes at the end of training
microcycle.
A test of repeated jumps for 10 s is applied for the
assessment of the explosive power of the lower ex­
tremities [13]. From all 8 indicators which have been
detected by the jump ergometer we have included the
following parameters in the submitted contribution: con­
tact time – tc (s), power in the active phase of the takeoff – P (W · kg–1), height of the jump – h (cm), efficiency
of the take-off – h · tc –1 (cm.s-1). Repeated jumps are
the example of exercises with counter motion, in which
the cycle of an active stretch and shortening so-called
“stretch-shortening cycle” is observed [14, 15]. In our
results, we state even percentage changes of values;
for the basis (100%) we set the first measurement taken
at the beginning of microcycle.
Scientific questions:
1. What are the interindividual differences in response
to training load of athletes of different levels of per­
formance?
2. What is the immediate, delayed, and cumulative
training effect of different types of training load?
3. What are the differences in response to training
load in 4 indicators of explosive power that were fol­
lowed?
Material and methods
Characteristics of analyzed trainings:
April 2
I. phase
1 km trot, warm-up 15 min., specific running exercises,
8 × 100 m, cool down with running at an easy pace,
stretching 10 min.
II. phase
300 m of cantering, warm-up 10 min., 6 × 200 m uphill
running, cool down with running at an easy pace
April 3, 2011
Characteristics of tested athletes:
R.O., born April 4, 1994, body height 180 cm, body
weight 70 kg. Sport specialization: 110m hurdles, per­
sonal record: 14.61 s; 400 m hurdles, 54.95 s. The
Slovak Champion in his category.
M.B., born 24 February 1993, body height 181cm,
body weight 77 kg. Sport specialization: 110m hurdles,
personal record: 16.01 sec.
These athletes underwent testing consisting of
repeated jumps for 10 seconds on the jump ergom­
eter (FITRO JUMPER) at the beginning of the main
part of the training session, after their warm-up, and
after general and specific workouts. We repeated
this test after the end of the main part of the training
unit. The measurements were performed during the
training sessions of the 2010/2011 season in the mi­
crocycle for the specific preparation phase from April
2–6, 2011.
Both an easier microcycle and the way of focus pre­
ceded the microcycle that was monitored. After com­
pleting the monitored microcycle, there was one day of
active rest.
I. phase
90 min. hiking
II. phase
Body weight exercises – triceps workouts, bicep work­
outs, ab workouts, back workouts.
April 4, 2011
I. phase
1 km of cantering, warm-up 10 min., specific running
exercises, hurdle run: 2 × 9 (0.76 height), 3 × 9 (0.84
height)
II. phase
0.5k m of cantering, warm-up 10 min., weightlifting:
squats 5 × 10 (60 kg), lunges 1 × 10 (40 kg), 2 × 10
(50 kg), triceps workouts, bicep workouts, ab workouts,
back workouts, stretching 5 min.
April 5, 2011
I. phase
1 km of cantering, warm-up (10 min.), specific running
exercises running with weights 3 × 40 m (15 kg)
frequency rate 2 × 40 m, 2 × 50 m, 2 × 60 m, 1 × 80 m,
1 × 120 m, stretching 5 min.
– 37 –
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
II. phase
1 km trot, body weight exercises – triceps workouts, bi­
cep workouts, ab workouts, back workouts
April 6, 2011
1 km trot, stretching 15 min.
Results are evaluated by using basic, logical meth­
ods according to intraindividual and interindividual
changes in analyzed parameters of explosive power of
lower extremities at the beginning and at the end of the
main part of a training unit.
Results
Figure 1. Contact time of athlete R.O.
Figure 2. Power in the active phase of the take-off of athlete R.O.
– 38 –
Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle
Figure 3. Height of the jump of athlete R.O.
Figure 4. Efficiency of the take-off of athlete R.O.
Figure 5. Contact time of athlete M.B.
– 39 –
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
Figure 6. Power in the active phase of the take-off of athlete M.B.
Figure 7. Height of the jump of athlete M.B.
Figure 8. Efficiency of the take-off of athlete M.B.
– 40 –
Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle
Discussion
During all training sessions of competitor R.O., an ex­
tension of the contact time occurred in the I.phase and
a reduction of the contact time in II.phase regardless of
the training orientation (Figure 1). Therefore, the imme­
diate effect is different during training sessions in the
morning and in the afternoon. The delayed effect of the
following training session in the same day is shown by
an extension of the contact time. The 3–4 hour interval
between training sessions turned out to be too short.
Thus, the runner started his afternoon training tired and
insufficiently recovered. The delayed effect of the fol­
lowing day showed reduction of the contact time. So
a short rest between the training sessions on the same
day was not enough for the reduction of the contact time,
while a longer rest until the following day was sufficient
enough for its reduction. The contact time of competi­
tor R.O. was essentially the same at the beginning and
at the end of microcycles. The difference between the
shortest and the longest contact time was 14%.
Changes in the power during the active phase of the
take-off showed the fluctuation: increasing, decreasing,
or maintaining the same level either in individual train­
ing sessions or in the following training sessions and
days (Figure 2). On the first 2 days of the microcycle
the performance during 1 day increased, but during
the next 2 days the power in the active phase of the
take-off was the highest at the beginning of the I.phase
and slowly declined. Therefore, fatigue showed through
a decrease of the performance. Taking part in 2 train­
ing sessions focused on speed followed by 24 hours
one after another, and moreover, training focused on
strength between those 2 trainings, turned out to be
very difficult. However, literature sources allow 24 hours
between intensive training sessions focused on speed
[16]. The power in the active phase of the take-off was
suddenly lower by about 10% at the end of a microcycle
than it was at the beginning. The difference between
the highest and the lowest level of performance was
20%.
The height of the jump has essentially the same
course as the performance in the active phase: the first
2 days it increased and next 2 days it dropped down
(Figure 3). The height of the jump decreased by about
12% at the end of the microcycle in comparison with the
beginning. The difference between the lowest and the
highest jump was 26%.
The efficiency of the take-off increased during the
first day, stagnated the second day, decreased on the
third and the fourth days, and under the influence of fa­
tigue it reached the lowest level on the final day (Figure
4). The efficiency of the take-off essentially took the
same course as the power in the active phase and the
height of the jump as well. The microcycle of competitor
R.O. is rated as following: graduation of performance
during the first day, maintaining the performance at the
same level on the second day, decreasing during the
third and the fourth days. However, the performance
during the fourth day was similar to third day and it sig­
nificantly decreased during the fifth day. Connection of
the immediate and the delayed effects during the train­
ing load and the frequency of training sessions led to
increasing the performance at the beginning of a mi­
crocycle and to a gradual decreasing and to the lowest
performance at the end of a microcycle. Fatigue started
to significantly show beginning the third day.
The decrease of the efficiency reflection at the end
of the microcycle was 12% compared to the beginning
of the microcycle, and was 31.3% compared to the
highest value of force reflection during the microcycle.
Participating in training sessions despite of the insuffi­
cient recovery in the second part of microcycle caused
a significant reduction of the performance in short cu­
mulative effect. Insufficient recovery and continuing in
long-term load may lead to overtraining.
Athlete M.B. got similar rates in the contact time
during a microcycle (Figure 5). However, fatigue was
the cause of extension of the contact time at the end
of a training session. The delayed effect was mostly
showed through shortening of the contact time during
the first day as well as another day. Marked differences
in prolonging the contact time were noted at the end
of 2 training sessions focused on the development of
speed. The contact time was the same at the beginning
and at the end of a microcycle. The biggest difference
between the shortest and the longest contact time was
23% in a microcycle.
The power in the active phase of the take-off in­
creased just at the end of 2 trainings (Figure 6). In other
training sessions the performance either decreased or
it stayed at the same starting level. The delayed effect
was showed mostly through an increasing of the perfor­
mance in one day as well as in another day. The differ­
ence between the highest and lowest rate was 18% in
a microcycle. The performance in the active phase of
the take-off was about 2% lower at the end of a micro­
cycle than it was at the beginning.
The height of the jump has a different immediate
effect in the first and second part of a microcycle. It
– 41 –
Ivan Čillík, Darina Kozolková
has been shown that athletes achieved higher height of
the jump in the first part and lower height of the jump
in the second part of training (Figure 7). The height of
the jump has not been shown clearly in a delayed ef­
fect: values move up and down. Firstly, the height of the
jump has an increasing tendency in a microcycle and
then a decreasing tendency. The height of the jump is
by about 2.5% lower at the end of a microcycle than at
the beginning. The biggest difference in the height of
the jump is 16.5% in a microcycle.
The efficiency of the take-off fluctuates differently
within a microcycle in both the immediate, or the de­
layed, effect (Figure 8). At the end of a microcycle the
efficiency of the take-off is by about 2.9% lower than
at the beginning. There is 25% difference between the
highest and the lowest value of the efficiency.
Both athletes achieved lower efficiency of the takeoff at the end of speed trainings. These training ses­
sions focused on speed had a significant influence on
the explosive power of the lower extremities. In delayed
effect we noted an increase of the efficiency during the
trainings focused on speed in athlete M.B., whereas
athlete R.O achieved different effect. Both athletes M.B.
and R.O. achieved a different immediate and delayed
effect at the training sessions focused on strength. Both
athletes achieved a reasonable immediate and delayed
increase of the efficiency of the take-off during the re­
generation focused on the endurance.
In interindividual assessment of response to train­
ing load of 2 analyzed runners, we stated that their
immediate response to the load was the same during
the first day: after the first training reducing of the ef­
ficiency of the take-off and its rising after the second
training. However, the response in other 3 analyzed
indicators was different. The changes of the efficiency
of the take-off were similar even during the second
day in all 4 measuring stages. Equally analogous
changes were in other parameters as well. Different
changes in the efficiency of the take-off were found
during the third and the fourth day. Runner M.B. was
able to regenerate faster to the II.phase in the frame­
work of the day, therefore higher efficiency of the
take-off was achieved at the beginning of the II.phase
than at the end of the I.phase. It was a result of the
shortening of the contact time and by improving of
the performance in the active phase of the take-off.
Higher fatigue of runner R.O. also showed in the effi­
ciency of the take-off at the end of a microcycle, when
efficiency was significantly lower than at the beginning
of a microcycle.
Conclusion
Implemented training sessions in a microcycle caused
a different immediate and delayed training effect in
individual analyzed parameters of intraindividual and
interindividual assessment. A similar response of both
athletes during the first 2 days of a microcycle was
discovered in the immediate and delayed effect. In the
second part of the microcycle, we noted the differences
in the interindividual response to training load. Higher
fatigue of runner R.O. led to the reduction of all indica­
tors of explosive power at the end of microcycle. The
training load turned out to be tiring for the athlete even
though he managed it. However, continuing the train­
ing sessions despite insufficient recovery might have
had negative effects on the athlete’s body. There are 2
factors that cause the fluctuating of fatigue: 2 training
sessions focused on speed undergone in 24 hours and
the short time (3–4 hours) between the training ses­
sions in one day. We recommend extending the interval
between training sessions from 3–4 hours to 5–6 hours
in 2-phase workouts in one day.
In the performance of both athletes we recorded
a reduction of effectiveness at the end of training
sessions focused on speed in immediate effect and
increasing in delayed effect. In trainings focused on
strength, mostly positive response in immediate and
delayed effect was recorded. Regenerative training
focused on endurance brought a slight immediate and
delayed increase of the efficiency of the take-off. The
effect of regenerative training sessions was in-line
with the intention and the theory of sport training as
well. Cumulative effect of individual types of load can­
not be demonstrated clearly when taking the structure
of microcycle, the frequency of training sessions, and
the impact of all kinds of training load into consider­
ation.
In the analyzed coefficients – contact time, power in
the active phase of the take-off, height of the jump, and
the force of effectiveness – we found fluctuating val­
ues in response to load. Therefore, we cannot accept
a definite conclusion in which response to a particular
type of training load comes in a certain coefficient. The
most significant changes in the power of the active
phase were logically noted in indicator: efficiency of the
take-off.
Both analyzed athletes achieved an increase of
jumping explosiveness in the first part of the microcycle
and its reduction in the second part of the microcycle.
The reduction in the jumping explosiveness came at
– 42 –
Body response of hurdle runners to training load in microcycle
the end of the analyzed microcycle, which means that
the short cumulative effect was expected. This is ex­
plained by the fact that both athletes took part in a de­
veloping microcycle that was in accordance with the
theory of large supercompensational waves and may
bring a temporary reduction in performance.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Millerová V: Překážkový běh mužu na 110 m a žen na
100m; in: Millerová V, Hlína J, Kaplan A, Korbel V: Běhy
na krátké tratě. Praha, Olympia, 2001; 46–109.
[2] Iskra J: Sprint hurdle races; in Track and field. Manual for
students [in Polish]. Katowice, AWF, 2004; 61–78.
[3] Laczo E: Prekážkové šprinty. Bratislava, IGM Agency,
2006.
[4] Iskra J: Hurdles; in: Atlas of athletics training for children
and youth [in Polish]. Opole, Politechnika Opolska, 2008;
39–48.
[5] Matvejev LP: Základy športového tréningu. Bratislava,
Šport, 1982.
[6] Neuman NG: Zum zeitlichen Aspekt der Anpassung beim
Ausdauertraining. Leistungssport, 1993; 23: 5.
[7] Dovalil J et al.: Výkon a trénink ve sportu. Praha, Olympia,
2002.
[8] Volkov L B: Teorija i metodika detskovo i junošeskovo
sporta. Kijev, Olimpijskaja Literatura, 2002.
[9] Moravec R, Kampmiller T, Vanderka M, Laczo E: Teória
a didaktika výkonnostného a vrcholového športu. Bratislava, FTVŠ UK, 2007.
[10] Čillík I, Krčmarek P: Okamžitý tréningový efekt po silovovytrvalostnom zaťažení u bežcov na krátke vzdialenosti;
in: Atletika 2009. Banská Bystrica, FHV UMB, 2009;
31–39.
[11] Iskra, J.: The most effective technical training for the 110
m hurdles; in: IAAF New Studies in Athletics, 1995; 10,
3: 51–55.
[12] Iskra J, Čoh M: Biomechanical studies in 110 m hurdle
race – history, characteristics, prospects; in Iskra J,
Tataruch R (eds.): The use of scientific research in physi­
cal education and sport [in Polish]. Opole, Politechnika
Opolska, 2008; 21–32.
[13] Zemková E, Hamar D: Výskokový ergometer v diagnos­
tike odrazových schopností dolných končatín. Bratislava,
FTVŠ UK, 2004.
[14] Slamka M: Akumulačno-rekuperačný cyklus svalovej
práce a jeho využitie v športe; in Kampmiller T et al.:
Zborník vedeckých prác IV. Bratislava, FTVŠ UK, 2000;
13–24.
[15] Bosco C, Viitasalo JT, Komi PV, Luhtanen P: Combined
efect of elastic energy and myoelectrical potentiation dur­
ing stretch-shortening cycle exercise; in Acta Physiologica
Scandinavica, 1982; 14, 4: 557–565.
[16] Van Patot T: Leitfaden für das Mittelstrecken training der
Mädchen von 8 –14 Jahren; in Leichtathletik, 1982; 22:
703–710.
– 43 –
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE INFLUENCE OF VISUAL AND VERBAL
INFORMATION TRANSFER ON THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF LEARNING AND MASTERING SWIMMING
ACTIVITIES AMONG STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION IN CRACOW
WPŁYW PRZEKAZU INFORMACJI WIZUALNO-WERBALNEJ
NA SKUTECZNOŚĆ UCZENIA SIĘ I NAUCZANIA
ORAZ DOSKONALENIA CZYNNOŚCI PŁYWACKICH
STUDENTÓW AKADEMII WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO
W KRAKOWIE
Ewa Dybińska*, Marcin Kaca**, Magdalena Zagórska***
****Dr. Habil., Assoc. Prof., Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical
Education in Cracow, Poland
****PhD, Department of Theory and Methodology of Water Sports, University School of Physical Education in Cracow,
Poland
****MSc, Vocational Schools Complex, Gorlice, Poland
Key words: visual and verbal information, learning and teaching swimming activities,
effectiveness of the teaching method
Słowa kluczowe: informacja wizualno-werbalna, uczenie i nauczanie pływania,
skuteczność uczenia się i nauczania
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The study was aimed to determine the significance of visual and verbal information transfer
in the process of learning, teaching and improving swimming activities. Before the research it was assumed
that the method of learning and teaching swimming activities based on enhancing visual and verbal information
transfer had much larger influence on the effectiveness of crawl technique than the standard method.
Material and methods. The study was carried out among the first-year male and female students at the University School of Physical Education in Cracow. The research group consisted of 104 participants (50 women and
54 men) divided into two groups: experimental (E) and control (K). The basic research method was pedagogical
experiment combined with the technique of parallel groups. Another experimental factor was the method of
teaching swimming activities that involved the implementation of visual and verbal information transfer enhanced
with additional audio-visual technique and supplemented with self-observation and self-assessment.
Results. Statistically significant changes of the pretest and posttest measurements in the level of mastering
crawl technique were noted, evidently higher in experimental (E) than in control (K) group, both of women
and men.
Conclusion. A significant correlation between the implemented method of teaching swimming activities
and efficiency to master the technique of crawl was observed. The presented results of the study proved the
usefulness in the search for didactic methods based on visual and verbal information transfer.
– 45 –
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
Cel pracy. Próba określenia znaczenia przekazu informacji wizualno-werbalnej dla skuteczności uczenia się
i nauczania oraz doskonalenia czynności pływackich u studentów Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego w Krakowie.
Podejmując proces badawczy założono, iż metoda uczenia się i nauczania czynności pływackich, polegająca na
wzbogaconym przekazie informacji wizualno-werbalnej, ma znacznie większy wpływ na efektywność opanowania
techniki pływania kraulem niż metoda standardowa.
Materiał i metody. Badaniem objęto studentki i studentów pierwszego roku Akademii Wychowania Fizycznego
w Krakowie. Ogółem poddano obserwacjom 104 osoby, w tym 50 kobiet i 54 mężczyzn. Podstawową metodą badawczą był naturalny eksperyment pedagogiczny z zastosowaniem techniki grup równoległych: eksperymentalnej
(E) i kontrolnej (K). Celem procesu dydaktycznego było opanowanie przez badanych umiejętności pływania kraulem
na poziomie standardowym. Czynnikiem eksperymentalnym była metoda nauczania, polegająca na wdrożeniu
w grupie eksperymentalnej informacji wizualno-werbalnej wzbogaconej w dodatkowe techniki audiowizualne oraz
uzupełnione autoobserwacją i samooceną.
Wyniki badań. Zaznaczyły się istotne statystycznie zmiany poziomu nauczanej techniki pływania kraulem
pomiędzy dokonanymi pomiarami pretest-posttest, które w grupie eksperymentalnej (E) były wyraźnie wyższe
aniżeli kontrolnej (K) – zarówno wśród kobiet, jak i mężczyzn.
Wnioski. Zaobserwowano istotną zależność pomiędzy wdrożoną metodą nauczania czynności pływackich,
polegającą na wzbogaconym przekazie informacji wizualno-werbalnej a efektywnością opanowania techniki
pływania kraulem.
Introduction
The issue of how to teach motor skills in a fastest
and most efficient way has been always in the centre
of scientific research carried out by theoreticians and
practitioners working in the field of physical education
didactics. The educationalists have been continually
penetrating the fundamentals of methodology in search
for useful instruments to develop the didactics. The
teachers, who have faced this problem, have taken up
the efforts to make the teaching process more effective
by means of different methods.
The introduction of changes is conceived to make
the learning and teaching process more attractive and
improving efficiency of the educational process in the
area of motor skills. The activities are based on the
increase of influence on cognitive sphere of students
and the intellectualization of the teaching process [1],
which is defined as “a process of education and physi­
cal education carried out with the use of mind, intel­
lect, knowledge and intellectual skills of a human be­
ing” [2, p. 49]. The process is based on a cooperation
with the use of proper forms of conveying information
which shows teaching as “a constant flow of informa­
tion between the teacher and the student which leads
to permanent changes of the student’s behaviour” [3, p.
22]. Teaching in this particular perspective is a process
thanks to which an individual acquires and processes
information in order to make changes in the repertoire
of his or her own motor behaviours [4, 5].
The efficiency of teaching motor skills to a large ex­
tent depends on mutual understanding of the teacher and
the student. That is a key factor in efficient communica­
tion considered as “an exchange of information between
speaker and recipient. The conveying of information is
based on the optic, acoustic and verbal channel; and it
is assumed that the conveyed information (the message)
is to influence the change of recipient’s behavior” [6,
p. 130, 7]. In didactics we attribute the role of the speaker
to the teacher and the role of the recipient to the student.
In interpersonal communication the speech is the most
important system of signs [8, 9, 10]; likewise the abovementioned author differentiates optic and tactic systems.
In the world of information communication systems are of
great importance. Efficient didactic communication is the
key to the progress of didactic process in physical educa­
tion [3, 7, 11, 12, 13, 14]. In the process of teaching motor
skills information affecting the receptors of hearing, sight
and touch efficiently influence the effectiveness of learn­
ing motor activities [15].
The image as the means of conveying the visual
information is applicable mainly to the outer structure
of movement [14, 16, 18, 19], and has a significant di­
dactic function in the process of teaching motor skills.
In practice, however, this form of conveying information
is not appreciated enough by the teachers. Used mainly
in the form of display and demonstration, it takes into
account only the complexity of a given motor skill being
taught, and does not provide the student with almost
any possibility of understanding a way in which the
movement was done. Thus, in order for the visual infor­
mation to pose didactic function in the process of teach­
ing, it should contain information (in the form of images)
thanks to which the students have an opportunity to
precisely recognize a given motor activity. The informa­
tion should concern not only the aim of teaching, that is
– 46 –
The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming...
the structure of activity, its components, their order and
connections between them, but also a way to approach
to the goal, that is getting to know a given algorithm of
decision and activities which every student should do.
Thanks to above-mentioned the student has the oppor­
tunity to create a mental plan and program of activities
in accordance with a given algorithm. The condition of
meeting the criterion is slowing down the image (e.g.
film image presented in slow motion) [7, 20].
The basis for improving the educational process is
also stimulating for student’s involvement. Consequently
one will aim at self-improvement and self-correction,
and furthermore would observe one’s skills and ob­
jectively would assess them. It will create a sense of
responsibility for the progress of education having an
impact on active participation in the didactic process
of teaching and learning. There is an important part on
the side of a teacher, who should do everything that is
possible in order to help the student to get to know his
or her abilities, the needs for physical activity and to
determine behaviors contributing to its realization. The
procedure enables mutual creation of didactic behavior
in accordance with the needs and individual aims of the
student. The information conveyed in order to make the
student realize his or her errors in doing a particular
activity should be formed in an easy way with the use
of the newest methods of transferring the knowledge,
such as audiovisual aids [21].
In aim to improve the didactic process there has
been done a constant search for efficient methods
of learning and teaching motor skills. The majority of
publications (in both Polish and foreign literature) on
teaching motor skills or patterns of didactic behavior is
based on observations without formulating particular
conclusions or introducing changes in the process. The
lesser part constitutes of publications based on experi­
mental research considered as the basis for improving
didactics [8, 9, 17] through making constructive and
bold changes in the process. The issue of the search of
such improvements inspired the authors of the paper to
do research on the importance of transfer of visual and
verbal information on the effectiveness of learning and
teaching motor skills on the example of swimming.
Aim of the study
The basic aim of the paper was an attempt to determine
the importance of the transfer of visual and verbal infor­
mation on the cognitive sphere in the process of learn­
ing and teaching, and improving swimming skills (on the
example of crawl) among the students at the University
School of Physical Education in Cracow.
On account of the main aim of the thesis, the follow­
ing research questions were posed:
1. What is the level of learning swimming skills (of
crawl) that the students have shown after the end
of the training?
2. Is there a connection between the applied method
of learning, teaching and mastering swimming skills,
based on the increase of visual verbal information,
and the effectiveness of mastering the swimming
technique by the subjects?
3. Is there a difference in the effectiveness of acquir­
ing swimming skills in relation to a given method of
teaching taking into account the factor of gender?
The hypothesis
The method of learning, teaching and mastering swim­
ming skills based on the enhanced transfer of visual
and verbal information has a significantly larger influ­
ence on the effectiveness of mastering crawl than the
standard method.
Material and research methods
The research was done in the academic year 2008/2009
among the first-year students at the University School
of Physical Education in Cracow. There were 104 sub­
jects in total, 50 women and 54 men.
Being a part of an extensive project, the pre­
sented study was conducted in accordance with the
Supervised Postgraduate Research Project, registered
as 241/KTiMSW/2008 in the academic year 2008/2009.
In this paper the authors presented chosen areas of the
research, focusing the readers’ interest on learning and
teaching crawl.
In the research the authors used the method of nat­
ural pedagogical experiment [22] “In science the term
describes a group of activities consisting in examining
a given phenomenon or process by causing or chang­
ing its course through implementation of some new
factor” [23, p. 87]. Pedagogical experiment is a typical
form of natural experiment. It is a method which deals
with deliberately evoked pedagogical phenomena in
controlled conditions in order to get to know them. In
experimental research a given situation is caused in or­
der to get to know connections between experimental
factor, that is an operand, and changes which occurred
under its influence (a dependent variable).
– 47 –
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
In the research done a technique of parallel groups
was used, distinguishing two comparative groups: ex­
perimental (E) and control (K).
Before the beginning of the experiment the students
were divided by the means of randomization technique
[22] on research groups as follows:
• experimental group (E) consisted of 54 people, in­
cluding 26 women (EK) and 28 men (EM),
• control group (K) consisted of 50 people, including
24 women (KK) and 26 men (KM).
The aim of the teaching method and mastering swim­
ming skills was learning crawl methods on a standard
level by the students. Taking into account the fact that
the students willing to study at the University School of
Physical Education had gained basic swimming skills (on
the level of swimming 50 meters using any technique),
the majority of them did not indicate the starting point
“zero”. However in the research concerning mastering
crawl the subjects taken into account were the ones with
the same (equal) level of starting skills. It formed a de­
pendent variable in the experiment results of mastering
the level of crawl in research groups (E, K).
An operand, that is the experimental factor in the
research done, was the method of teaching consist­
ing in influencing the cognitive sphere with the use of
enhanced transfer of visual and verbal information in
experimental group (E) in relation to traditional didactic
activities in control group (K).
To assess the results of the influence of experi­
mental factor there were measurements done in both
groups (E and K) of size of dependent variables (the
level of swimming skills):
• in the first research – pretest – at the beginning of
the teaching process,
• in the second research – posttest – at the end of the
process.
Conditions of realization of the experiment in both
groups (E and K) were the same. The contents of
teaching included the same agenda premises which
were accomplished within 6 forty-five minute lessons
(once a week) taught by teachers with the same profes­
sional competence and comparable work experience.
Throughout the experiment on experimental groups the
same students took part in all classes. Furthermore, the
process of teaching, which was under constant obser­
vation, was accomplished in the form of exercises in the
water. The above process was mainly in direct and task
form and with the use of different teaching methodol­
ogy: partial, integrated and partial-integrated.
In the analysis the only subjects taken into account
were those (both men and women) whose attendance
was over 75%.
Furthermore, in order to eliminate the potential influ­
ence of mediating (intervening) variables on the result of
the experiment (for the efficiency of the process of learning
and teaching motor skills), the level of motor skills and the
level of intelligence, the assessment of size of variables
among the subjects were under careful observation.
By the means of properly selected tests [24] the
authors assessed the level of coordinating motor skills
(KZM) such as: the speed of arm movement, static bal­
ance, the ability of kinetic diversification, the ability of
quick reaction, the ability of rhythmization, the ability of
linking movements and the structural-functional ability,
that is suppleness.
Then, with the use of “Raven” test in the adult ver­
sion [25] the authors assessed the level of intelligence
of the subjects. The interpretation of the test was done
by a psychologist and academic of the University
School of Physical Education in Cracow.
In the experiment shown (while selecting students
to experimental groups) the only people taken into
account were both men and women, who presented
similar level of mediating variables, that did not show
statistically significant differences in the level of motor
(coordination) skills and the level of intelligence.
In order to assess the level of crawl skills the au­
thors used “Criterial Test of Skills” [26] focused on scor­
Table 1. Basic statistical parameters of pretest results of women and men (KTU pts)
Group
–
x
SD
Min
Max
V%
EM
10.12
2.16
6
13
21.34
KM
10.78
2.11
5
14
19.57
EK
8.62
1.64
5
10
19.02
KK
7.90
1.57
5
10
19.87
– 48 –
The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming...
ing assessment of sense-motor sequences consisting
of one-motion cycle in crawl. “Criterial Test of Skills”
was created by means of bio-mechanical methods.
The authors recognized the motor activity being taught
and paid special attention to distinguishing fundamen­
tal movements occurring in the particular technique of
motion – sense-motor sequences [27], and resulting
from this effort 28 such sequences were distinguished
in crawl.
The test was carried out according to the following
premises:
• The subject covered a distance of 50 km by crawl
(individually on a separated track) and in that time
his or her skills were recorded by means of video
camera.
• The recorded material was assessed by scoring
done by two independent judges-experts. A de­
tailed analysis of the assessed motor sequence
was done among other things by multiple playing
back, freezing the frame or slowing down the video
recording at a particular moment which enabled re­
liable assessment.
• Scoring results of the analysis were recorded in
scorecards of “Criterial Test of Skills”.
In experimental group (E), apart from traditional
(above-mentioned) methods of transferring information,
the authors introduced during the classes additional di­
dactic activities, oriented towards the transfer of visual
and verbal information, which comprised such impor­
tant materials, as:
• model images with an instruction and commentary
(multimedia presentation) on the structure and tra­
jectory of movements of the taught crawl technique
(on a standard level),
• video recordings concerning swimming skills
learned by the student in the context of model tech­
nique which is described in didactics as parallel
demonstration [27] – comprising in confrontation of
the model with actual level of student’s skills, which
in turn enabled the subject to do self-assessment
on the basis of self-observation (Fig. 1),
A proper execution of each individual element of the
technique was assessed as follows:
• “1” point – proper (flawless) performance of the ele­
ment of movement,
• “1/2” point – performance of a distinguished sense-motor sequence with deficiencies or deviations of
movement,
• “0” point – lack of sequence or its erroneous perfor­
mance.
The amount of possible score gained in the area of
crawl varied from 0 to 28 points. A proper (flawless) per­
formance of the whole motor sequence was expressed
by a number equal with the quantity of distinguished
components in a given swimming technique. The as­
sessment of the performance of starting and turning
technique was omitted.
In the control group (K) in the process of teaching
crawl the transfer of information was done by means of:
• verbal methods (description, explanation, instruc­
tion, commentary),
• visual methods (demonstration, display, visual
charts, didactic films),
• methods of practical activities (kinesthetic informa­
tion).
Figure 1. Parallel show – pattern and subject (picture on CD)
• technique assessment card which was presented
by the subject done according to “Criterial Test of
Skills”, filled in by the expert (independent jury).
The information included in the card described
quantity (points) and quality (description of errors,
deficiencies and suggestions of corrective exer­
cises),
• model sets of exercises with description of their
use, whose aim is to correct mistakes.
– 49 –
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
In experimental group the subject during each
lesson spent the last 8–10 minutes on individual (or
in pairs) execution of exercises or a video recordings
study of a taught technique.
Additionally, in the research the authors used “Test
of Theoretical Knowledge” (TWT), diagnosing the lev­
el of theoretical knowledge of students in the area of
knowing the structure and trajectory of crawl technique.
The test, consisting of 6 questions, was conducted at
the beginning and at the end of the didactic process.
Furthermore, in order to determine the level of anxi­
ety declared by the participants of the experiment the
authors posed a question (contained in the question­
naire of “Test of Theoretical Knowledge”):
“Do you feel any anxiety during exercises in the wa­
ter (for instance, discomfort during exercises in deep
water)?”
• I am absolutely not afraid.
• I am rather not afraid.
• I am indifferent towards it.
• I am rather afraid.
• I am very afraid.
The answers gained were examined by the Likert
scale [28], whose purpose is to determine attitude and
opinion. The analysis was done according to the follow­
ing criteria:
• strong negative attitude – answer “e” – 2 points,
• indifferent attitude – answer “c” – 0 points,
• strong positive attitude – answer “a” – 2 points
The material gathered was organized and subject­
ed to statistical and descriptive analysis. The results of
the research were examined according to the following
statistical tools:
• Student’s t-test for independent samples – in the
case of determining differences in the level of mas­
tering crawl by the subjects (in groups E and K),
• the Mann-Whitney U-test [29] in order to determine
differences between groups E and K in the case of
distribution of data differing from normal,
• Spearman rank correlation in order to determine the
relationship between the level of anxiety and swim­
ming skills of subjects.
• optional repeated measures analysis in order to
indicate differences (or lack of them) between the
results of swimming efficiency of research groups
E and K in pretest and posttest and the control of
changes in the variable level.
The authors used STATISCICA 6.0 software from
StatSoft in order to do statistical calculations.
The results of the research
In order to assess the level of swimming efficiency
in research groups, experimental (E) and control (K)
“Criterial Test of Skills” was used, whose results were
expressed by points. The results of the first research
(pretest) and the second research (posttest) in experi­
mental and control group among women and men were
presented below.
As it seems from the data presented in Table 2 and
Figure 2, the level of swimming efficiency of the sub­
jects was equal at the beginning of the experiment be­
cause the results of pretest (Table 2) showed the lack
of differences statistically significant between group E
and K, among both men and women.
Table 2. Differences between pretest results in group E and K
(women and men) – Student’s t-test
Pretest
Group
F
df
P
KM – EM
1.29
1. 52
0.260
KK – EK
1.76
1. 34
0.193
* P < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
12
10,12
10,78
8,62
10
7,9
8
6
4
2
0
EM
KM
EK
KK
Figure 2. Arithmetical average of pretest results: women and
men (KTU pts)
During the analysis of the level of crawl in research
groups E and K at the end of the experiment (posttest)
it may be noted that in the conditions of “Criterial Test
of Skills” among men no statistically significant differ­
ences were observed (Table 3, Fig. 3), while among
women (Table 4) significant differences did occur
(p < 0.001).
Then the authors made a comparison of changes
which occurred between pretest and posttest in the
area of mastering crawl between experimental group
– 50 –
The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming...
Table 3. Basic statistical parameters of posttest results: women and men (KTU pts)
Group
x–
SD
Min
Max
V%
EM
17.94
2.86
13
25.5
15.94
KM
16.59
4.53
6
25.5
27.30
EK
17.32
3.26
11
23
18.82
KK
13.43
3.05
8
18.5
22.71
17,94
20
19
17,32
16,59
18
17
13,43
17,325
17,325
16
15
15
13,4375
13,4375
14
KTU
10
5
13
12
11
10
0
EM
KM
EK
9
KK
8,625
8,625
8
7,90625
7,90625
7
Figure 3. Arithmetical average of posttest results: women and
men (KTU pts)
6
pretest
posttest
ZMIANY/ CHANGES
Table 4. Differences between posttest results in group E and K
(women and men) – Student’s t-test
Posttest
Groups
F
df
P
KM – EM
1.74
1. 52
0.192
KK– EK
13.33**
1. 34
<0.001
* p<0.05, ** p<0.01
(E) and control group (K). In order to do this, the method
of optional repeated measures analysis was used.
The statistical analysis (Table 5, Fig. 4) conducted
for the results obtained on the basis of “Criterial Test
Table 5. Comparison of changes of mastering the crawl technique between experimental men group (EM) and control men
group (KM)
Factor
Latitude
degree
F (1.52)
p
Group (experimental vs.
control)
1.52
0.265
0.609
Change (pretest vs.
posttest)
1.52
186.79**
0.000
Group x change
1.52
4.078*
0.049
* P < 0.05, **p < 0.01
KK
EK
Figure 4. Comparison of changes in mastering the crawl technique:
experimental men group (EM) and control men group (KM)
of Skills” (KTU) in male research groups (E and K)
revealed statistically significant changes (P < 0.001)
in the area of the assessed technique of movement
between measurements of pretest-posttest. The au­
thors also noticed statistically significant differences
(P < 0.05) in the effectiveness of teaching and learning
crawl (interaction between factors group x change) to
the advantage of experimental group (EM) in the rela­
tion to control group (KM). The result enables to see
better effects in mastering of the swimming skill in ex­
perimental group.
The results of “Criterial Test of Skills” of female
students showed significant progress in mastering
the motor skill taught. Statistically significant changes
(P < 0.01) were observed between the measurements
pretest-posttest, however they were distinctively higher
to the advantage of experimental group. Among wom­
en (similarly to men) statistically significant differences
emerged (P < 0.01) in the effectiveness of teaching
and learning crawl (interaction between factors group
x change) to the advantage of experimental group (EM)
in relation to control group (KM). Thus, the results ob­
tained showed that the experimental group was much
better in mastering crawl among women.
– 51 –
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
Table 6. Comparison of changes of mastering the crawl technique
between experimental women group (EK) and control women
group (KK)
Factor
Latitude
degree
F (1.34)
p
Group (experimental
vs. control)
1.34
9.58**
0.004
Change (pretest vs.
posttest)
1.34
317.25**
<0.001
Group x change
1.34
15.72**
<0.001
* P < 0.05, **p < 0.01
19
18
17,94643
17,94643
17
16,59615
16,59615
16
knowledge on the structure and trajectory of crawl and
declared level of anxiety among the subjects.
The results presented in Table 7, which concerned
the assessment of the level of knowledge and declared
level of anxiety in male groups, indicated lack of sta­
tistically significant differences between experimental
group (E) and control group (K) in the area of interven­
ing variables concerning measurements:
• declared level of anxiety at the beginning (L1) and
the end (L2),
• changes observed in declared level of anxiety
throughout the research (L1– L2),
• the level of knowledge assessed at the beginning
(w0) and at the end (w1) of the process of teaching
and learning crawl,
• changes observed between measurements (w0,
w1) in the area of level of knowledge (wz).
KTU
15
14
13
12
11
10,78846
10,78846
10,125
10,125
10
9
pretest
KM
EM
posttest
ZMIANY/ CHANGES
Figure 5. Comparison of changes in mastering the crawl technique: experimental women group (EK) and control women group
(KK)
In the experiment presented, apart from the ef­
ficiency assessment of the influence of experimental
factor (an operand), the analysis was done in the area
of intervening variables, which could potentially dis­
tort result of the research, and concerning the level of
The statistical device used (the Mann-Whitney
U-test) to determine differences between female
groups E and K in the area of declared level of angle
and knowledge (of the distribution different from norm)
reveals (Table 8) statistical significance (p < 0.05) only
in the case of level of knowledge presented at the
end of teaching and learning process, which indicates
a higher level of knowledge of the technique in the fe­
male experimental group (EK) in relation to female con­
trol group (KK).
Discussion
In the available literature one can find opinions that
the word includes the most information from among all
signs that every human uses [16, 30]. Speech is the
Table 7. Differences in intervene variables – knowledge and fear, between manipulated men group (layout incompatible with normal)
The Mann-Whitney U-test
The sum of ranks
EM
The sum of ranks
KM
L1
796.5
688.5
337.5
0.5
0.62 28 26
0.65
L2
699.5
785.5
293.5
–1.34
0.18 28 26
0.22
L1–L2
690
795
284
–1.62
0.11 28 26
0.17
w0
762
723
356
–0.13
0.89 28 26
0.9
w1
846
639
288
1.33
0.18 28 26
0.19
wz
840.5
644.5
293.5
1.23
0.22 28 26
0.22
U
* P < 0.05
– 52 –
Corrected Z
p
N
N
2*1s.
Precision P
The influence of visual and verbal information transfer on the effectiveness of learning and mastering swimming...
Table 8. Differences in intervene variables – knowledge and fear, between manipulated women group (layout incompatible with
normal)
The Mann-Whitney U-test
The sum of ranks
EK
The sum of ranks
KK
U
Corrected Z
p
N
N
2*1s.
Precision P
L1
339
327
129
–1.062
0.29
20
16
0.34
L2
335.5
330.5
125.5
–1.181
0.24
20
16
0.28
L1–L2
366
300
156
–0.133
0.89
20
16
0.91
w0
369
297
159
–0.02
0.99
20
16
0.99
w1
434
232
96
2.08
0.04
20
16
0.04*
* P < 0.05
most frequently used means of information by humans
in interpersonal relationship as well as in the process of
teaching motor skills [7, 8, 9]. However, for the teacher
ensuring high efficiency of the transfer of verbal in­
formation is in many cases exceptionally difficult and
demanding proper knowledge of phrases, using them
skillfully and applying them to the level of students. It
should be also emphasized that the image in the mod­
ern world is a basic technique of conveying information.
It is caused on the one hand by the expansion of audio­
visual media and development of technology, enabling
with greater ease the recording of motion picture and
sound (television, film, video recording), on the other
hand by willingness to facilitate access to information
to those members of a given community who have
problems with the understanding of written text. Thus,
in the process of teaching motor skills it is significant
to convey visual information (next to verbal and kines­
thetic), since they express more efficiently than words
external structure of movement of an acquired activity
and substantially influence effectiveness of the process
[13, 17, 18].
The fundamental aim of the paper was an at­
tempt to assess the influence of visual and verbal
information on the efficiency of learning and teach­
ing motor skills, on the example of swimming skills.
The pedagogical experiment conducted by the au­
thors by means of an operand (as an experimental
factor) in the form of implemented teaching method
enabled positive verification of the stated research
thesis. The method of teaching, learning and master­
ing swimming skills comprising in enhanced transfer
of visual and verbal information turned out to have
much larger influence on the effectiveness of learn­
ing crawl by the students than standard method
comprising in implementation of standard methods
of conveying information.
The results obtained turn out to be a confirmation of
the results of research of different authors, who in their
experimental efforts [9, 10, 17, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35] empir­
ically proved that the method, including implementation
of varied verbal and visual information, had significant
influence on the improvement of the results of learning
and teaching motor skills.
Conclusions
On the basis of analysis concerning the influence of
visual and verbal information on the efficiency of learn­
ing and mastering swimming activities following conclu­
sions may be formulated:
1. At the end of the experiment concerning the pro­
cess of teaching and learning swimming skills the
students from the experimental group (E) – men
and women – obtained higher level of mastering
crawl than the participants from the control group
(K).
2. Statistically significant changes of the level of tech­
nique taught (crawl) occurred between the mea­
surements done in pretest-posttest, which were
significantly higher in experimental group, among
both men and women.
3. It was also observed the relation between the
method of teaching and learning swimming skills
(experimental factor) applied and the effectiveness
of mastering crawl.
4. The applied transfer of visual and verbal informa­
tion concerning the technique taught caused the
increase of effectiveness in the didactic process in
both experimental groups (men and women), how­
– 53 –
Ewa Dybińska, Marcin Kaca, Magdalena Zagórska
ever among female students the effectiveness of
learning the swimming skill turned out to be higher
than among male students.
5. The level of knowledge and declared level of an­
xiety reached no statistical significance in the ef­
ficiency of learned swimming activity in either of the
research groups.
6. It seems that above-presented results of the re­
search aimed at implementing varied visual and
verbal information, confirmed its importance in im­
proving didactic communication and the search of
new and efficient methods of learning and teaching
motor skills.
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hodology [in Polish]. Warszawa – Poznań, PWN, 1985.
Ferguson GA, Takane Y: Statistical Analysis in Psychology
and Pedagogy [in Polish]. Warszawa, PWN, 2003.
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[30] Cooper LA, Shepard RN: Transformations of representa­
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Perception, New York, Academic Press, 1978.
[31] Guła-Kubiszewska H: The Shortage of visual and verbal
information and the efficiency of learning motor skills
[in Polish]; in Koszczyc T (ed.): Didactics of Physical
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tions [Uczenie się i nauczanie w sytuacjach trudnych. 3.
Międzynarodowa Konferencja Naukowa „Dydaktyka wy­
chowania fizycznego”]. Wrocław, AWF 1997: 127–139.
[32] Chrobot M. The role of visual and verbal information in
teaching motor skills (on the example of swimming) [in
Polish]. Doctoral thesis, Wrocław, AWF 2010.
[33] Zysiak-Christ B: The efficiency of different methods of
teaching motor skills [in Polish]. Doctoral thesis, Wrocław,
AWF, 2008.
[34] Czabański B: Direct instruction – prescriptive instruction,
problem-based instruction – connective learning – cogni­
tive learning [in Polish]. Human Movement, 2003; 2 (8):
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[35] Dybińska E, Kaca M: The importance of quality visual
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of Physical Education in Cracow [in Polish]. Antropomotoryka, 2009; vol. 19, no. 47: 49–58.
– 55 –
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AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
ASSESSMENT OF THE EFFECTIVENESS
OF REHABILITATION PERIOD
ON PHYSICAL FITNESS AND EXERCISE TOLERANCE
IN ELDERLY PEOPLE
OCENA EFEKTYWNOŚCI TURNUSU
REHABILITACYJNEGO NA SPRAWNOŚĆ
FIZYCZNĄ I TOLERANCJĘ WYSIŁKU OSÓB
W WIEKU STARSZYM
Krystyna Rożek*, Jerzy Piechura**, Anna Skrzek*, Tomasz Ignasiak***,
Monika Bartczyszyn****, Marta Majewska*****
***** Dr. Habil., Assoc. Prof., Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
***** PhD, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
***** PhD, Institute of Physiotherapy, Karkonosze State Higher School in Jelenia Gora, Poland
***** MSc, Faculty of Physiotherapy, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
***** MSc, Faculty of Health Science, Wroclaw Medical University, Poland
Key words: physiotherapy, physical fitness, exercises tolerance, ageing
Słowa kluczowe: fizjoterapia, sprawność fizyczna, tolerancja wysiłku, wiek starszy
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The study was intended to evaluate the effectiveness of a two-week program, developed
at rehabilitation camp, to improve physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people.
Material and methods. The 10-day training program, which consisted of a 30-minute morning gymnastics
and 1-hour water exercise a day, was attended by 50 people aged between 60 and 70 years. In all these patients standard somatic features were measured. To assess the level of physical fitness and physical ability the
Fullerton Functional Fitness Test was carried out. Assessment of body balance, upper body strength, flexibility
and lower body exercise tolerance was also carried out in all patients.
Results. Normal body mass index BMI was reported only by 22% of participants. The results of the 6-minute
corridor walk test showed a significant improvement in covering the above distance for both women and men.
In the group with normal and abnormal BMI the improvement of results in the walk test was also reported. In
terms of physical fitness the group of female patients similar in age range as the test group of men obtained
better results in individual trials of the above test.
Conclusions. 1. Performed set of tests has shown that the exercises conducted in the framework of rehabilitation period significantly improved physical fitness and exercise tolerance in older adults. 2. The results
achieved before and after the treatment in the Fullerton Test were significantly different in terms of gender. 3.
In terms of exercise tolerance with regard to BMI no statistically significant differences were observed.
Cel pracy. Ocena skuteczności wpływu dwutygodniowego turnusu rehabilitacyjnego na poprawę sprawności
fizycznej i tolerancję wysiłku u osób w starszym wieku.
– 57 –
Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska
Materiał i metody. W 10-dniowym cyklu treningowym, składającym się z 30 minut gimnastyki porannej oraz
1 godziny ćwiczeń dziennie w wodzie, wzięło udział 50 osób w wieku 60–70 lat. U wszystkich badanych wykonano pomiary podstawowych cech somatycznych. Do oceny sprawności i wydolności fizycznej badanej grupy
posłużył Senior Fitness Test. U wszystkich pacjentów przeprowadzono ocenę zwinności/dynamicznej równowagi,
siły górnej części ciała, gibkości dolnej części ciała oraz tolerancji wysiłku.
Wyniki. Prawidłową masę ciała według wskaźnika BMI odnotowano tylko u 22% badanych. Analiza wyników
6-minutowego testu korytarzowego wykazała istotną poprawę przebytego dystansu marszu zarówno u kobiet, jak
i mężczyzn. W grupie z prawidłową i nieprawidłową wartością BMI również odnotowano poprawę wyników w teście marszowym. W odniesieniu do sprawności fizycznej grupa kobiet uzyskała lepsze wyniki w poszczególnych
próbach testu w porównaniu do objętej badaniem grupy mężczyzn w identycznym przedziale wieku.
Wnioski. 1. Ćwiczenia prowadzone w ramach turnusu rehabilitacyjnego w istotny sposób poprawiły sprawność
fizyczną i tolerancję wysiłku u osób starszych. 2. Wyniki zmierzone przed i po okresie terapii za pomocą testu
Fullerton różniły się istotnie statystycznie u obu płci. 3. Tolerancja wysiłkowa z uwzględnieniem wskaźnika BMI
u badanych nie zmieniła się istotnie po zastosowanych ćwiczeniach.
Introduction
The human aging processes may proceed differently.
Years of lived life are not always adequate to the bio­
logical age. The speed and pace of aging are to a large
extent affected by the genetic factor in determining
life expectancy, as well as such external factors as
past diseases, injuries, improper diet, wrong lifestyle,
environmental pollution. A lot of people remain physi­
cally or mentally active often until the old age [1]. These
processes are often affected by additional long-term
diseases, usually progressive in manner. A series of
structural changes may occur and remain irreversible.
According to Żak and Gryglewski the reduction in the
strength of the lower limbs in 37% of men and 60% of
women aged 55 to 74 enables them to maintain their
body in a standing position, with knees bent to an angle
of approximately 90 degrees [2].
Binder et al. regard low physical fitness as one of
the reasons of frailty among the elderly. They have
proved that physical training of moderate intensity may
enhance physical performance and reduce the frailty
in healthy elderly people leading low active lifestyle
[3]. Physical fitness in older people can be assessed
by functional tests, such as the Fullerton Functional
Fitness Test [4] or the Tinetti test; questionnaires are
also available for this purpose [5].
Rehabilitation for patients over 60 years of age is
difficult due to the physiological and pathophysiological
changes, often connected with chronic diseases. A con­
siderable number of people need rehabilitation because
of the diseases to which they suffer and to restore their
functional activity, tending to decrease with age. Regular
physical activity is a procedure which has beneficial in­
fluence on health in ageing people. It is among the most
important factors mitigating the effect of age.
Rehabilitation leads to the restoration and mainte­
nance of the maximum potential for independent living
in the family and community, ability to work, social and
creative activity. Medical rehabilitation is a fundamental
part of the wider process of rehabilitation [6].
Aim of the study
The aim of this study was to evaluate the effective­
ness of a two-week rehabilitation program on improv­
ing physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly
people.
Research questions:
1. Do the exercises carried out during the rehabilita­
tion camp significantly improve the physical fitness
and exercise tolerance after the rehabilitation cycle,
and to what extent?
2. Does gender affect the performance in the Senior
Fitness Test?
3. Do the weight categories in terms of BMI have
a significant impact on improving exercise tolerance
measured by 6-minute walk test?
Material and methods
A research group included 50 people aged 60–70
years (Table 1), qualified for the rehabilitation camp at
the Rehabilitation and Recreation Centre “Wielspin” in
Wągrowiec. This group was formed of 22 men aged
64.8 years ± 4.3 and 28 women aged 66.6 years ±
3.9. Recruitment of participants was made based on
deliberate choice. The criteria that allowed the elderly
to be included into the test were: calendar age over
60 years, no impediments to conduct training in wa­
ter, the patient’s consent to the study and the doctor’s
consent.
– 58 –
Assessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people
Table 1. General characteristics of a study group
Trait
Men
N = 22
Women
N = 28
Age
64.8 ±4.3
66.6 ±3.9
BMI
29.0 ± 5.8
29.0 ±4.6
All patients actively participated in the 10-day reha­
bilitation cycle including: a 30-minute morning gymnas­
tics and one-hour water exercise per day. Measurements
of basic somatic traits, such as height and weight, were
carried out in the whole group, and after that BMI level
was calculated. To assess the accuracy of body weight
the WHO criteria were implemented.
Physical activity and physical fitness were assessed
by means of the group functional test. The above
test, designed by Roberta Rikli and Jessie Jones in
Lifespan Wellness Clinic at California State University
in Fullerton, with a questionnaire, is currently known
as the Senior Fitness Test [4]. It provides a reliable as­
sessment of physical activity parameters of the elderly.
Six motor tasks are used to asses: oxygen efficiency,
flexibility, strength endurance, agility and dynamic bal­
ance [7].
In presented study six fitness tests were performed
in all patients, which were: get up and go (up and go)
– assessment of agility / dynamic balance, getting up
from a chair in 30 seconds (a 30-second chair stand) –
assessment of lower body strength, bending arms (arm
curl) – evaluation of upper body strength, sit on a chair
and reach (chair sit and reach test) – evaluation of the
lower body flexibility (primarily – hamstring), join hands
(back scratch) – evaluation of the upper body flexibility,
a 6-minute walk (the 6-minute walk test) – assessment
of exercise tolerance.
After that the results were statistically analyzed with
the help of basic descriptive statistics, such as arith­
_
metic mean (x) and standard deviation (SD). To dem­
onstrate the differences between parameters before
and after the rehabilitation program, Student’s t-test for
dependent groups was used. Calculations were per­
formed by means of the Statistica 2007 package.
Results
Assessment of the accuracy of body weight, carried out
on the basis of BMI, revealed that only 22% of patients
were characterized by a normal weight, while 36%
were overweight, 30% obese grade I and in 12% obese
grade II (Fig. 1).
Implemented rehabilitation program significantly
improved all parameters of physical fitness assessed
by the Senior Fitness Test (Table 2).
women
men
[%]
40
35,7 36,3
35
31,8
28,6
30
25
21,4
22,7
20
14,3
15
9,2
10
5
0
normal
overweight
obesity I°
Figure 1. Percentage distribution of BMI according to WHO classification of respondents
– 59 –
obesity II°
Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska
Table 2. Changes in the results of the Senior Fitness Test before and after the rehabilitation program applied to the entire group
Fitness test
Before
After
t-values
Test 1 [s]
9.33 ± 3.75
8.58 ± 3.38
9.1022
Test 2 [number of repetitions]
13.16 ± 5.00
14.38 ± 4.94
–9.4795
Test 3 [number of repetitions]
15.92 ± 5.28
17.10 ± 5.34
–7.3365
Test 4 [cm]
–5.09
–2.22
–8.4834
Test 5 [cm]
–9.35
–6.86
–8.5510
Test 6 [m]
412.3 ± 96.1
448.9 ± 100.7
–14.2299
p < 0.05
Table 3. Mean values, standard deviation and significant differences in results of the Senior Fitness Test
Fitness tests
Test 1 [s]
Test 2 [number of repetitions]
Test 3 [number of repetitions]
Test 4 [cm]
Test 5 [cm]
Test 6 [m]
Groups
Before
After
p
Men
8.4 ± 3.4
7.9 ± 3.1
0.05
Women
10.0 ± 3.9
9.1 ± 3.6
0.042
Men
14.0 ± 5.7
14.6 ± 5.4
0.05
Women
12.5 ± 4.4
14.2 ± 4.6
0.021
Men
17.7 ± 4.2
18.4 ±4.1
0.046
Women
14.5 ± 5.7
16.1 ± 6.0
0.012
Men
–3.4
–0.9
0.01
Women
–6.5
–3.3
0.01
Men
–11.8
–9.4
0.035
Women
–7.5
–4.9
0.022
Men
472.7 ± 75.2
508.6 ± 75.4
0.045
Women
364.9 ± 84.0
401.9 ± 93.7
0.01
Walking test illustrated the exercise tolerance.
Comparing the results before and after the treatment
there was a significant improvement in the distance trav­
elled by walking for both women and men (Table 3).
When assessing the effects of this 2-week rehabilita­
tion in terms of gender-based physical fitness, it should
be stressed that female participants obtained better re­
sults in individual tests than men at the same age.
The study also assessed the impact of BMI on
the results achieved in the walk test (Table 4, Fig. 2).
Table 4. Progress after the rehabilitation in patients of two groups,
different in terms of BMI, measured by means of the walking
corridor test
Walking test m]
BMI < 25
n = 11
BMI > 25
n = 39
p
41 ± 26
35 ± 15
0.43
Classification criterion for the groups was the value in
the range from 18.9 to 24.9 (correct value). The second
group consisted of individuals whose BMI exceeded the
value 25 (invalid value). The results of both groups dif­
fered significantly. The first group improved the scores
by 41 ± 26 and the second – by 35 ± 15.
Discussion
The tests for assessing the level of physical fitness in
the elderly have been in use more and more frequently
these years. The search for effective methods for im­
proving physical fitness has been carried out as well.
It was found that a large number of diseases could be
avoided by regular exercise based on effective system
of training [8]. The most effective and having the most
spectacular impact on daily activities are balance ex­
ercises. For considerable number of elderly people
– 60 –
Assessment of the effectiveness of rehabilitation period on physical fitness and exercise tolerance in elderly people
[m]
Figure 2. Comparison of the progress in the 6-minute walk test achieved by the participants with BMI < 25 and BMI > 25
imbalance and associated falls are the most disturbing
symptoms of aging, triggering fear of injury and loss of in­
dependence. Both, the significant prolongation of human
life and the constant increase in number of older people,
have an impact on the need to develop and implement
effective rehabilitation programs that would contribute to
mitigating the adverse age-related changes, and above
all develop the balance of the body of an elderly person,
thereby reducing the risk of falls [9, 10].
Pain occurring in old age can significantly affect the
efficiency and level of activities of daily living. It can also
distort the results of functional tests. Commonly used
pain relief medications, however reduce pain, have an
adverse effect on the body. Physiotherapy is the alterna­
tive, particularly therapeutic exercises and exercises in
water. There is a belief about the beneficial effects of the
aquatic environment on many diseases. Patient can do
a lot more in unloaded conditions. Kaczor et al. assessed
the use of a two-week therapy based on water exercises,
observing a reduction in pain which lowered the con­
sumption of analgesics in this research group [11].
The researchers in numerous studies have proved
that kinesitherapy not only contributes to the reduction
of disability and increases range of joint motion, but
also modifies cardiovascular efficiency, and acts posi­
tively in the case of coexisting diseases such as high
blood pressure, diabetes and obesity [8].
Our findings have confirmed the beneficial effect of
an exercise program developed at rehabilitation camp
on all the components of physical fitness as well as the
speed of walking. The importance of the improvement
of walking speed, and what’s involved, the improvement
of balance outlined Żak, who used physiotherapy pro­
gram including free active exercises, active exercises
with resistance and balance exercises in high positions.
He stressed that these exercises should be a regular
part of rehabilitation programs [12].
The results of rehabilitation in “Get up and go” test
obtained in this research after the rehabilitation cycle
were highly significant. Podsiadlo and Richardson [13]
in their article also highlighted that the elderly, able to
perform this test in 20 seconds or less, were the per­
sons who could operate without help, keeping a bal­
ance in static and dynamic positions and reaching
a good walking pace.
Based on the research conducted by the authors
of the test, standards for healthy elderly people were
established. The study involved people between 60–94
years of age. In Europe these norms have not been
established yet. The above study, conducted on the
population of south-eastern provinces of Poland,
showed that these residents got a significantly worse
test results comparing to American population. The au­
thors suggested that a sedentary lifestyle could have
affected these results [14].
Comparative test results covering two populations,
American and Polish, have clearly proved that Poles
in the same age ranges achieved significantly worse
– 61 –
Krystyna Rożek, Jerzy Piechura, Anna Skrzek, Tomasz Ignasiak, Monika Bartczyszyn, Marta Majewska
performance, and thus a lower fitness level. The differ­
ences in the results of the 6-minute corridor walk test
[15] should be highlighted.
The results obtained by male and female participants
of this research are worse than those observed in the
corresponding age group, according to the American
standards. Only attempt to get up from a chair in 30
seconds and oxygen efficiency measured by 6-minute
corridor walk test before and after the treatment were
comparable with American standards for both men and
women.
Botarro et al. evaluated the effects of the 10-week
training, strengthening the muscles in men aged 60 to
76 years [17]. The study was conducted before and af­
ter the therapy. The results clearly showed a significant
improvement in physical function after the training pro­
gram. Own results confirm this hypothesis and show
that regular physical activity, although practiced in
a short period of time, can significantly improve physi­
cal fitness and mobility of older adults.
Conclusions
1. Exercises used during the rehabilitation camp sig­
nificantly improved physical fitness and exercise
tolerance in older adults.
2. Gender differentiates the scores obtained in the
Senior Fitness Test before and after the implement­
ed therapy.
3. Weight categories in terms of BMI do not affect the
exercise tolerance of patients.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Matsuo M, Nagasawa J, Yoshino A, Hiramatsu K,
Kurashiki K: Effects of activity participation of the elderly
on quality of life. Yonago Acta Medica, 2003; 46: 17–24.
[2] Żak M, Gryglewski B: Evaluation of rehabilitation results
in patients after 85 years of age with impaired functional
capacity [in Polish]. Rehabilitacja Medyczna, 2006; 10(2):
20–24.
[3] Binder EF, Schechtman KB, Ehsani AA, et al.: Effects of
exercise training on frailty in community-dwelling older
adults: results of a randomized, controlled trial. J Am
Geriatr Soc, 2002; 50: 1921–1928.
[4] Jones CJ, Rikli RE: Assessing physical performance of
older adults in a community setting; in Bailey S (ed.):
Physical Activity and Ageing. Oxford, Meyer & Meyer
Sport (UK) Ltd., 2001: 127–47.
[5] Tinetti ME: Performance-oriented assessment of mobility
problems in elderly patients. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc., 1986;
34(2): 119–126.
[6] Kabsch A: Disability accompanying the aging processes
as a challenge for physiotherapy [in Polish]. Fizjoterapia,
2001; 9: 3–8.
[7] Rikli RE, Jones CJ: Development and validation of func­
tional test for community residing older adults. J. Aig.
Phys. Act., 1999; 7: 129–161
[8] Rikli RE: Reliability, validity and methodological issues
in assessing physical activity in older adults. Res Exere
Sport, 2000; 71(2 Suppl): 89–96
[9] Żak M, Melcher U: Rehabilitation as part of a program to
prevent falls in older people [in Polish]. Przegląd Lekarski,
2002; 59: 4–5.
[10] Mętel S, Jasiak-Tyrkalska B: Effect of physical training
performed on unstable surfaces with the use of elastic
bands for resistance exercise on functional performance
and quality of life of older people [in Polish]. Rehabilitacja
Medyczna, 2006; 10, 3: 35–46.
[11] Kaczor R, Łyp M, Cabak A, Zdrodowska A: The use of
aquatic exercises for the rehabilitation of patients with os­
teoarthritis of the hip-joint [in Polish]. Fizjoterapia Polska,
2007; 2(4): 155–164.
[12] Żak M: Effect of kinesitherapy on gait speed in elderly
patients [in Polish]. Fizjoterapia, 2004; 12(4): 44–49.
[13] Podsiadlo D, Richardson S: The Timed “Up & Go”: A test
of basic functional mobility for frail elderly persons. J Am
Geriatr Soc, 1991; 39: 142–148.
[14] Wiącek M, Zubrzycki I: The level of functional fitness
of elderly in Southeastern Region of Poland. J Human
Kinetics, 2006; 16: 91–96
[15] Nazar K, Kaciuba-Uściłko H: The importance of physical
activity in the prevention of lifestyle diseases; in Górski J
(ed.): Physiological Basis for Physical Exercise [in Polish].
Warszawa, PZWL, 2001: 532.
[16] Wong KY, Cheung SY: Functional fitness level of older
women in Hong Kong. Human Development, 2000; 50(4),
319–328.
[17] Bottaro M., Machado N., Nogueira W., Scales R., Veloso
J.: Effect of high versus low-velocity resistance training
on muscular fitness and functional performance in older
men; Eur J Appl Physiol, 2007; 99: 257–264.
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AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
Walking as a tool of physical fitness
and body composition influence 1
WPŁYW MARSZU NA sprawnośĆ fizycznĄ
ORAz skład ciała
PRZEDSTAWICIELI RÓŻNYCH GRUP WIEKOWYCH
Václav Bunc*
* Prof. Ing., Faculty of Physical Education and Sports, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
Key words: walking, movement intervention, physical fitness, body composition,
children, adult men, seniors
Słowa kluczowe: marsz, interwencja ruchowa, aktywność fizyczna, skład ciała, dzieci,
dorośli mężczyźni, seniorzy
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. Summarizing the possibilities of walking as a tool influencing health, fitness, body composition, well-being and other physiological variables.
Material and methods. Following the five-month weight loss intervention program with a 1000 kcal energy
intensity in seniors, 1500 kcal in middle-aged men and 2000 kcal in children, which was composed of at least
80% walking, pointing to significant changes in fitness and body composition parameters.
Results and conclusions. Together with positive changes in examined variables significant improvement in
predispositions for physical endurance and workload was observed. It may be concluded that walking in the
range of about 10,000 steps per day helps to remove the motion deficit, which is due to present lifestyle and
may be used to improve both health predispositions and physical fitness state in the majority of population.
Cel pracy. Wskazanie wpływu marszów na zdrowie, sprawność fizyczną i dobrostan zdrowotny, a także na
inne parametry fizjologiczne człowieka.
Materiał i metody. Uczestników badań objęto pięciomiesięcznym programem redukcji wagi o energochłonności 1000 kcal u seniorów, 1500 kcal u mężczyzn w średnim wieku, 2000 kcal u dzieci, który w 80 procentach
składał się z marszów, i wskazano na tej podstawie istotne statystycznie zmiany sprawności fizycznej oraz parametrów składu ciała.
Wyniki i wnioski. Wraz z korzystnymi dla dobrostanu zdrowotnego zmianami analizowanych parametrów
odnotowano u badanych osób istotną statystycznie poprawę wydolności fizycznej i wysiłkowej. Można zatem
uznać, iż u większości populacji marsz długości około 10000 kroków dziennie zaspokaja deficyt ruchu wywołany
sedenteryjnym trybem życia i może być z powodzeniem zastosowany w profilaktyce zdrowotnej i w podnoszeniu
sprawności fizycznej.
1
The study was supported by grant of the Czech Ministry of Education. Grant number: MSM 0021620864.
– 63 –
Václav Bunc
Introduction
Physical activity oriented towards promoting active
lifestyle can improve the health state and predisposi­
tions for working and leisure time activities in subjects.
Unfortunately, despite these potential health benefits,
the majority of current population does not exercise
regularly [1].
Among the people, who do exercise, walking is the
most popular physical activity. Being a weight-bearing
form of aerobic exercise that can be easily integrated
into one’s daily routine, it is frequently recommended as
a good protection against health problems, low working
and leisure capacity [2].
Major advantage of walking over running is lower
frequency of injuries and lesser probability of exceeding
the security level in examined patients. The strain on
ligaments and joints caused by walking is significantly
lower than for comparable running exercises. In the
walking group it is very important that the participants
are able to communicate during the exercise, what can
contribute to their wellness. Walking differs from a running gait in a number of ways. The most obvious difference is that in walking one leg always stays on the
ground while the other is swinging. There is a typically
ballistic phase in running, during which the runner is
airborne with both feet in the air (for bipedals) [3–5].
The course of energy cost coefficient c is presented
in Figure 1. In the range of intensities lower than 7 km.h–1
the dependence of the coefficient c on the speed of
walking has a minimum value at a ground speed about
4 km.h–1, increasing exponentially at speeds slower, and
at speed greater than 7 km.h–1 the coefficient of walking
energy cost grows practically linearly with the increase
of moving speed. In the same Figure 1 the coefficient
c for running is presented. In the range from 4 to 12
km.h–1 this coefficient is practically constant [3].
Human walking is accomplished with a strategy
called t h e d o u b l e p e n d u l u m . During forward
motion the leg that leaves the ground swings forward
Figure 1. Dependence of walking and running energy cost coefficient c in dependence on speed of movement
– 64 –
Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence
from the hip. This sweep is the first pendulum. Then the
leg strikes the ground with the heel and rolls through to
the toe in a motion described as an inverted pendulum.
The motion of the two legs is coordinated so that one
foot or the other is always in contact with the ground.
The process of walking recovers approximately sixty
percent of the energy used due to pendulum dynamics
and ground reaction force [5–8].
Another important difference concerns the movement of the center of mass of the body. In walking the
body “vaults” over the leg on the ground, raising the
center of mass to its highest point as the leg passes the
vertical, and dropping it to the lowest as the legs are
spread apart [7].
Essentially kinetic energy of forward motion is constantly being traded for a rise in potential energy. This
is reversed in running, where the center of mass is at its
lowest point as the leg is vertical. This is because the
impact of landing from the ballistic phase is absorbed
by bending the leg and consequently storing energy in
muscles and tendons. In running there is a conversion
between kinetic, potential, and elastic energy [8].
There is an absolute limit on an individual’s speed of
walking (without special techniques employed in speed
walking) due to the upwards acceleration of the center
of mass during a stride. If it is greater than the acceleration due to gravity, the person will become airborne as
his/her body vaults over the leg on the ground. Typically
however, animals switch into a run at lower speed than
this due to energy efficiencies [5].
Considerable number of people walk as a hobby,
and in our post-industrial times walking is recognized
as one of the best forms of exercising. The types of
walking include bushwalking, racewalking, weightwalking, hillwalking, volksmarching, Nordic walking and
hiking on long-distance paths [4]. Some people prefer
to walk indoors using a treadmill. In certain countries
walking as a hobby is known as hiking (this term is
typical for North American people), rambling (a somewhat old-fashioned British expression, but remaining in
use because it is enshrined in the title of the important
Ramblers), or tramping. Hiking is a subtype of walking,
generally used to mean walking in nature areas on specially designated routes or trails, as opposed to those
in urban environments; however, hiking can also refer
to any long-distance walk. More obscure expressions
of walking are: “to go by Marrow-bone stage”, “to take
one‘s daily constitutional”, “to ride Shanks’ pony”, “to ride
Shanks’ mare”, or “to go by Walker’s bus”. Search and
rescue responders, who prefer walking to riding, driv-
ing, flying, climbing or sitting in a communications trailer, are known as “ground pounders” [4]. Professionals,
who work on encouraging people to walk, come from
six sectors: health, transport, environment, schools,
sport and recreation and urban design.
Regular, brisk cycling or walking can improve confidence, stamina, energy, weight control, life expectancy
and reduce stress. It can also minimalize the risk of
coronary heart disease, strokes, diabetes, high blood
pressure, bowel cancer and osteoporosis. Modern
scientific studies have shown that walking, besides its
physical benefits, is also beneficial for the mind, as it
improves memory skills, learning ability, concentration and abstract reasoning, as well as reducing stress
and uplifting one’s spirits [9]. Health benefits of physical activity are well-documented in relation to weight
management and the prevention of chronic illnesses; it
is also an important factor in the process of improving
mental health and cognitive function [10].
In spite of above-mentioned, our knowledge of the
benefits of physical activity does not go hand in hand
with our understanding of how to get people active and
maintain activity level. There is an urgent need to develop and test strategies for non-trained subjects to
include physical activity into their lifestyle. These interventions need to be systematic, robust, and longer-term, incorporating different methods of engaging specific demands of intervened population groups [11].
A large number of factors influence physical activity behavior, yet there is limited evidence of the effectiveness of strategies to increase physical activity.
This is the case particularly in regard to booster programs, even though the little specific data available on
physical activity booster programs is generally positive.
Interestingly, lessons may be learned from the obesity
treatment area, which has made significant gains in
terms of promoting and improving long-term behavior
change [9, 12].
The 10,000 steps per day is a physical activity prescription that has been suggested to meet the minimum
recommendation for physical activity. Despite some
research, that supports walking regularly and completing 10,000 steps a day as enough activity to produce
positive changes in lifestyle and certain aspects of fitness and cardiovascular health, numerous researchers
have shown limited effectiveness of walking programs,
having questioned long-term durability of observed
changes [13–15].
Walking is among such forms of physical activity
which have proved their unique usefulness from both
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Václav Bunc
physical and psychosocial standpoints in the health
improvement program of the elderly people. However,
there are many barriers to physical activity for the elderly, including safety issues, access, support, and
health concerns. Community mall walking programs
have the potential to remove several of these barriers,
particularly safety and social support needs [6].
Effects of walking
Recent position statements have re-affirmed the bene­
fits of an active lifestyle [9, 10]. The current physical ac­
tivity recommendation for adults, aged between 18–65
years, to promote and maintain health is to accumulate
at least 30 minutes of moderately intense physical ac­
tivity on at least five days of the week. Promoting accu­
mulative, lifestyle physical activity is an ideal approach
to combat the high levels of inactivity evident in global
populations [16, 17].
Brisk walking has been suggested as the mode of
physical activity most likely to increase physical activity
at a population level [18] and is the most commonly reported mode of exercise amongst adults in many populations [11, 16]. It is available to almost all individuals with
little risk of injury, as a no-cost activity it can be incorporated into people’s daily routines [19]. Researchers
have identified that self-determined brisk walking, even
in short bouts of 10 minutes, for 30 minutes a day (including simple everyday walking activities such as walking
a dog) produce moderate physical activity at the intensity
required to achieve health benefits [20, 21].
Walking interventions can be effective in reducing
body weight, body mass index (BMI), waist and hip
circumference, body fat, blood pressure and the cholesterol high density lipoprotein (HDL) ratio [20–27],
and may be effective in improving mood, affect [25, 28,
30] and quality of life [31]. Conversely, some studies
have demonstrated that walking intervention as such is
not sufficient to affect any of these health-related outcomes [32–36]. The reasons for such equivocal results
are unclear, therefore determining the potential health
benefits that can be achieved through walking is crucial
to the public health message.
Whilst several meta-analytical and systematic reviews
exist that examine how best to promote physical activity
[37, 38], there is comparatively limited evidence on the
most effective methods to specifically promote walking.
A recent systematic review from Ogilvie et al. [6] examined the effectiveness of interventions aimed to increase
walking at both the individual and population levels. The
review concluded that the strongest evidence existed for
tailored interventions that were targeted at individuals
most motivated to change. The authors suggested that
future studies should also attempt to examine whether
walking interventions “are sufficiently frequent, intense, or
sustained to produce measurable outcomes in anthropometric, physiological, biochemical or clinical outcomes”.
A recent systematic review examined the association between pedometer use, physical activity levels and
a variety of health-related outcomes [39]. The authors
concluded that the use of pedometer was significantly
associated with increased physical activity levels and
reductions in BMI and systolic blood pressure. In 2006
the National Institute for Health and Clinical Excellence
(NICE) in the United Kingdom produced a review of
pedometer-based intervention studies between 1990
and 2005 [40]. Due to stringent incorporation criteria,
conclusions from this review were drawn from only four
studies. Both reviews provide support for the suggestion
that pedometers may be useful motivational tools for increasing walking. However, there are several limitations,
considering the volume of published studies in this area,
highlighted in these reviews. Studies were predominantly
of short duration (< 12 weeks) and based in the USA
with small samples consisting mostly of clinical sub-populations. The evidence seemed to be limited regarding
their effectiveness in non-clinical samples or in countries
other than the USA. Additionally, few studies reported
more than one outcome variable of interest. There was
a need for cross-cultural, sufficiently powered randomized controlled trials to further examine the effectiveness
of pedometers in a community setting.
In practice, a provider’s ability to promote physical
activity has been limited by time constraints, lack of
training in exercise prescription, concerns over monitoring patient safety, and lack of access to cost-effective
resources that help patients remain active.
The goal of this study was to assess an effect of
intervention program based on walking on physical fitness and body composition in groups without of regular
physical training differing in age.
Material and methods
Three age groups: children (139 with normal mass,
95 overweight and 65 with diagnosed obesity; mean
age 12.2 ± 2.1 years), middle age men (68 individu­
als; mean age 45.7 ± 3.6 years) and 53 healthy senior
women (53 individuals; mean age 68.7 ± 5.0 years) par­
ticipated in the study that was among a set of physical
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Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence
activity programs carried out by the Faculty of Physical
Education and Sports, Charles University in Prague. The
research was performed on subjects residing in the area
of Prague, without objective internal limitation. Before the
participation in this study, all researched individuals were
subjected to the medical evaluation and dynamical as­
sessment of ECG and blood pressure that was conducted
by a physician one week before the start of the program.
Selected anthropometrical and maximal functional
variables are collected in Tables 1–3.
Before the beginning of each movement diagnostics
it was necessary to verify the movement ability of sub-
jects (whether the particular subject was able to perform
the movement activity that would be under assessment).
This process could be divided in two parts [41]:
– s k i l l s : the level of movements decisive for diagnostics evaluation and resulted from absolved training,
– m u s c l e s s t a t e (morphological, strength,
etc.): strongly dependent on genetic predispositions
but under the influence of imposed training.
The maximal functional variables were determined
on a treadmill with the slope of 5% during a progressive walking test until subjective exhaustion. The initial
Table 1. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in adults
Variables
Before
BM (kg)
BM (%)
After
79.1 ± 7.9
100
75.6 ± 7.8*
95.6 ± 4.6*
64.0 ± 3.8
100
65.4 ± 6.7*
102.0 ± 5.2*
BFabs (%)
BFrel (%)
19.1 ± 3.1
100
15.9 ± 2.8**
83.2 ± 3.1**
BCM (kg)
BCM (%)
35.2 ± 3.7
100
37.0 ± 2.8*
105.1 ± 2.7**
ECM/BCM
ECM/BCM (%)
0.82 ± 0.03
100
0.78 ± 0.02**
95.2 ± 3.2**
FFM (kg)
FFM (%)
HRmax (b · min–1)
178 ± 7
VO2max · kg–1 (ml)
VO2max · kg–1 (%)
33.1 ± 5.3
100
38.7 ± 4.8**
117.0 ± 3.3**
176 ± 6
vmax (5%) (km · h–1)
vmax (5%) (%)
6.8 ± 1.1
100
7.8 ± 0.9**
115.0 ± 1.5**
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
Table 2. Selected anthropometric and functional variables collected before and after a movement intervention in seniors
Variables
Before
After
69.9 ± 7.9
100
70.4 ± 7.8
100.7 ± 5.9
43.7 ± 6.8
100
45.9 ± 6.7*
105.0 ± 5.2*
Fatabs (%)
Fatrel (%)
37.5 ± 5.1
100
36.9 ± 4.8
98.4 ± 3.9
BCM (kg)
BCM (%)
22.8 ± 5.0
100
25.1 ± 4.8**
110.0 ± 2.7**
ECM/BCM
ECM/BCM (%)
0.92 ± 0.03
100
0.82 ± 0.02**
89.2 ± 3.6**
BM (kg)
BM (%)
FFM (kg)
FFM (%)
HRmax (b · min–1)
134 ± 6
VO2max · kg–1 (ml)
VO2max · kg–1 (%)
%VO2max · kg–1 (%)
17.5 ± 3.0
100
67.4 ± 3.2
19.0 ± 3.2**
108.6 ± 3.7**
67.8 ± 3.0**
vmax (5%) (km · h–1)
vmax (5%) (%)
%vmax (%)
4.4 ± 3.1
100
73.3 ± 2.9
4.7 ± 3.4**
106.8 ± 3.3
72.3 ± 3.0
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01
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133 ± 5
Václav Bunc
Table 3. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass
state
Variables
Before
After
BM (kg)
BM (%)
BFabs (%)
BFrel (%)
(N)
44.0 ± 3.8
100
19.7 ± 3.9
100
45.4 ± 3.7*
103.2 ± 5.2*
17.0 ± 3.0**
86.3 ± 3.6**
BM (kg)
BM (%)
BFabs (%)
BFrel (%)
(OV)
52.6 ± 3.0
100
24.6 ± 3.1
100
48.4 ± 2.3**
92.1 ± 2.0**
20.8 ± 2.5**
84.6 ± 2.4**
BM (kg)
BM (%)
BFabs (%)
BFrel (%)
(OB)
63.2 ± 3.6
100
28.3 ± 3.1
100
54.3 ± 2.8**
98.4 ± 3.9
23.9 ± 2.9**
84.4 ± 3.1**
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity
speed on the treadmill was in range of 3–5 km · h–1
(in dependence on physical fitness state) and was increased each minute by 1 km · h–1. The cardiorespiratory variables were measured in an open system using an
on-line method by TEEM 100 (Aerosport). All analyzers
were checked before and after each test by a calibration gas of known concentration.
Time duration of intervention was 5 months. The
program was realized in spring or autumn.
The energy outputs were on the level of 1000 kcal
(4180 kJ) per week in seniors, 1500 kcal (6270 kJ) in
adults and 2000 kcal (8360 kJ) in children in accord
with the construction of individual moving programs
[42].
Age-related changes in body composition (BC)
have implications for physical function and health. The
redistribution and increase of fat and the loss of muscle
mass result in substantial decrease in functional capacity. Although BC, as well as the age-related changes in
it, has a strong genetic component, it is also influenced
by environmental factors. The primary influences are
nutrition, disease and physical activity [43].
Clinically, BC is viewed in terms of two compartments: fat and fat-free mass [43, 44]. Fat mass (FM)
plus fat-free mass (FFM) are made of proteins, water,
and minerals, equal to the total body mass.
Beginning in middle adulthood, FFM tends to
decline gradually both in men and women, primarily
due to the wasting of muscle tissue [43]. Similarly the
amount of FFM decreases with age the body cell mass
(BCM) in subjects without of systematically physical
training. This similarity is confirmed by a high significant positive correlation between these both variables
[44]. The BCM is the sum of oxygen-using, calcium
rich, glucose-oxidising cells. This variable may indirectly characterize the ability of human to sustain
a mechanical work.
Numerous tools and methodologies have been
developed to measure various BC parameters. The
bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) seems to be
among the most used methods in the field of conditions
[45]. Regardless of instrument chosen to assess BC,
the method happens to be as good as the measurement technique and prediction or conversion formula
applied. To remain valid, the conversion formulas and
prediction equations selected must be restricted to the
populations from which they were derived [43–45].
One of the basic themes in exercise science research has focused on the relation of exercise on
improvement of physical fitness, usually measured as
maximal oxygen uptake (VO2max). Physical fitness is
a broad concept, encompassing several specific types
of fitness including strength, flexibility and balance [46].
The actual physical fitness state of subjects is not only
the predisposition of better physical performance but
also the significant basis of their working capacity and
(especially in seniors) of independency.
When evaluating the influence of physical activity in
humans it is important to know the energy requirements
[47]. Positive influence is exerted only by physical activities, which guarantee that a minimal threshold is exceeded. The level depends on the purpose for which
these activities are performed.
The body cell mass is calculated using the FFM
and phase angle between whole impedance vector
and resistance α [44]. The extra cellular mass (ECM)
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Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence
is the difference between FFM and BCM – ECM = FFM
– BCM. The FFM was calculated according to modified
formula of Deurenberg et al. [47].
Resistance and reactance were measured at four
frequencies – 1, 5, 50 and 100 kHz (B.I.A. 2000M,
Data Input, Germany) on the right side of the body by
tetrapolar electrode configuration in accordance with
manufacturer’s specification. For the calculation of
body fat content we used the prediction equation that
was validated in senior women by DEXA method. The
energy demand of physical exercise was collected ac­
cordingly to Caltrac accelerometer readings together
with the assessment of the energy cost of exercise
from general relationship between the exercise inten­
sity and energy that he/she needs to cover this activ­
ity [47]. The differences between both methods were
lower than 12%.
According to our measurements, made in children
(n = 320), adult men (n = 154), adult women (n = 86),
and senior women (n = 106), the general dependence
of oxygen consumption on walking speed on flat surface in range of intensities 3–9 km · h–1 was established
in the below form:
VO2 · kg–1(ml · kg–1 · min–1) =
=5.7488* v (km · h–1) – 6.0561
r = 0.872, p < 0.005, SEE =
= 1.49 ml · kg–1 · min–1, TEE = 1.74 ml · kg–1 · min–1
For calculation of energy cost from oxygen uptake
mean energy equivalent for oxygen 4.83 kcal · min · l–1
(20.2 kJ · min · l–1) was used, neglecting the contribution of protein (about 15%) to the total metabolism [42].
Results and discussion
All participants were able to perform the recommended
content of intervention. The minimal volume of walking
ranged from 82% in children to 88% in seniors.
Basic data on the implemented intervention program:
• the amount of time spent on exercising at intensity
range of 80–90% HRmax in weekly volume ranged
between 90–250 min; walking time ranged between
80 and 220 min:
• the amount of time spent on performing other form
of physical activity ranged between 10 and 30 min;
rest exercises: home gymnastics, swimming, jog­
ging, cycling, etc.;
• the mean volume of daily steps ranged from
9 700 ± 310 steps/day in seniors to 11 250 ± 408
steps/day in children with normal body mass.
Mean values of selected anthropometrical and
functional variables are presented in Tables 1–4. The
initially values of BC and aerobic fitness were practically identical with the Czech population standards for
this age. After the 5-month aerobic training, both values
of aerobic fitness and BC were significantly better than
the Czech population standards [46].
The energy output of performed moving activities
in seniors ranged from 650 kcal (2675 kJ) to 1780 kcal
(7740 kJ); mean: 950 ± 230 kcal (3970 ± 960 kJ). The
Table 4. Selected anthropometric variables collected before and after a movement intervention in children differing in body mass
state
Variables
Before
After
vmax (km · h–1)
vmax (%)
VO2max · kg–1 (ml)
VO2max · kg–1 (%)
(N)
12.5 ± 1.8
100
44.6 ± 3.9
100
13.9 ± 1.7*
111.2 ± 4.2**
51.2 ± 3.0**
114.8 ± 3.6**
vmax (km · h–1)
vmax (%)
VO2max · kg–1 (ml)
VO2max · kg–1 (%)
(OV)
11.8 ± 1.1
100
33.1 ± 5.3
100
12.8 ± 0.9*
108.5 ± 0.9*
38.7 ± 4.8**
116.9 ± 1.5**
vmax (km · h–1)
vmax (%)
VO2max · kg–1 (ml)
VO2max · kg–1 (%)
(OB)
9.8 ± 0.3
100
24.5 ± 3.2
100
10.4 ± 0.4*
106.1 ± 2.2*
27.7 ± 3.3**
113.1 ± 3.6**
* p < 0.05, ** p < 0.01, N – normal body mass, OV – overweight, OB – obesity
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Václav Bunc
energy output in adults ranged from 1020 kcal (4264 kJ)
to 2250 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 1500 ± 290 kcal (6270
± 1212 kJ).
Results of the intervention with this energy content
were presented in Tables 1–2. Majority of followed
variables were better after the intervention programme
than at the start of evaluation.
In children we assess the effect of walking intervention in subjects differing in body mass state. Movement
program developed among children with normal body
mass concerned energy content ranged from 1360 kcal
(5685 kJ) to 2620 kcal (10952 kJ); mean: 1980 ± 310
kcal (8276 ± 1296 kJ).
In overweight children energy content ranged from
1650 kcal (6897 kJ) to 2310 kcal (9656 kJ); mean:
1920 ± 230 kcal (8026 ± 960 kJ), and in children with
obesity energy content ranged from 1940 kcal (8109 kJ)
to 2550 kcal (9045 kJ); mean: 2260 ± 290 kcal (9447
± 1212 kJ).
Results of these interventions are inserted in Tables
3–4. The changes of majority variables are presented
in relative description non-dependent on body mass
state, which means that the walking program causes
practically the same changes in BC and in physical fitness state. Of course the above values, recalculated
suitably to body mass, were worse in subjects with
higher body mass.
The proportion between the ECM and BCM ratio
may be used to identify fluid imbalance or malnutrition
and/or to assess the predispositions for muscular work.
The term “malnutrition” refers to the loss of structural
body components, which is most accurately reflected
by the BCM and an increase of the ECM [44].
The use of ECM/BCM for evaluation of physical exercise predispositions was confirmed by the significant
dependence of VO2max on this variable. The relationship
between VO2max and physical performance was often
presented in literature [e.g. 41]. In our group of subjects
this dependence was significant too (ranged from r =
0.792, p < 0.01 in seniors to r = 0.720, p < 0.01 in children). In practice this coefficient could be used as one
of important criterions for exercise program efficiency.
The significant positive ECM/BCM dependence on
age could be helpful for assessment of actual development state – biological age in seniors. In actual case we
compare real value of ECM/BCM with value that was
calculated according to general relationship that is true
for senior women.
In normal subjects of middle age, ECM/BCM ratios
are recorded between 0.75 and 1.00. Deviations from
such figures toward higher values are due either to the
erosion of BCM (catabolism) or to fluid expansion in extracellular spaces (edema). In the case of dehydration,
we can observe the opposite phenomenon where the
ECM/BCM ratio is reduced [44]. Because the diet of followed subject remained practically without any significant alterations during the whole 6-month period, the
significant increase in both FFM and BCM was probably caused by imposed training program.
The changes in VO2max induced by endurance walking program were practically consistent with those
registered by Proper et al. [49], who found in group of
senior men and women of similar age a 14% increase
in aerobic fitness, and significant increase in FFM, and
significant decrease in BF and total body mass. These
results were confirmed by our data but the changes in
BC variables were not so high.
There was clear evidence to show that the magnitude of the increase in VO2max was dependent on total
energy expenditure of exercise, and thus on frequency,
and duration of exercise. As previous investigations
have shown, the improvement is in direct proportion to
the number of weekly sessions [42, 49]. According to
the results of previous studies, VO2max as measured either in laboratory or in field was generally improved during the first months of conscription among non-trained
subjects [46].
The minimum training energy expenditure, required
to maintain an elevated VO2max, was not clearly established. For example the most recent ACSM prescription guidelines [50] recommended minimal energy expenditure of 300 kcal per exercise session performed
three days a week or 200 kcal per exercise session
performed four days per week.
Adequate energy output had its effect both on the
presence and on the absence of other influences, and
the beneficial relationship continues with advancing
age.
Conclusion
Physical activities based on walking could be imple­
mented without having to visit special sports facilities
and often expensive equipment. A major advantage is
that it could be implemented in virtually any weather at
the time acceptable by the individual. Walking could be
realized either as an individual activity or as a group
activity [51]. It is also essential that walking could be
realized within the family as a joint activity of children,
parents and grandparents. It should be also noted that
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Walking as a tool of physical fitness and body composition influence
walking at speeds higher than 6 km/h is already signifi­
cant burden on the body and therefore it is necessary
to precede all intensive intervention programs by the
medical examination of participants.
The condition required daily volume of physical activity about 10,000 steps as a means to move in fulfilling
everyday tasks such as working, leisure time activities,
regeneration. Another success is the regularity (at least
three times a week, at least 30 minutes and more), 10
to 20 minutes daily is preferable.
In conclusion it should be mentioned that walking in
energy expenditure ranged from 1000 kcal in seniors
to 2000 kcal in children per week may significantly improve the state of physical fitness, body composition
and motor performance (speed of running) in non-trained groups of subject differing in age.
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NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
FUNCTIONAL AND DYNAMIC ASYMMETRY
IN BOYS AGED 10–12 YEARS
(CONTINUOUS RESEARCH)
ASYMETRIA FUNKCJONALNA I DYNAMICZNA
CHŁOPCÓW W WIEKU 10–12 LAT
(BADANIA CIĄGŁE)
Marta Wieczorek*
* PhD, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Poland
Key words: functional asymmetry, dynamic asymmetry, boys
Słowa kluczowe: asymetria funkcjonalna, asymetria dynamiczna, chłopcy
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. Significant changes in motor and psychophysical development are observed during school
years. Lateralization is one of the developmental regularities. A lateralization evaluation is essential in cases of
diagnostics in children with speech dysfunctions, motor clumsiness, and problems with reading and writing.
Aim of the study. The cognitive aim is to observe and compare the functional and dynamic lateralization
in boys aged 10 to 12 years during research carried out on the same group of subjects. The practical aim of
this paper is to expand the teachers’ knowledge on lateralization, which is important for normal development
of human beings.
Material and methods. The research was carried out on a group of 30 boys and was carried out for 3 consecutive years. The first phase of the research was carried out when children were 10 years old (2006). The
next tests were carried out in 2007 and 2008. The Wroclaw Asymmetry Test, by Koszczyc and Sekita, was used
during the research.
Results. When we observed changes in functional and dynamic lateralization that occurred during the
two years, we can state that there were changes in functions of tested motor and sense organs and the same
changes in determined profiles. Changes in dynamic lateralization of motor capabilities were not observed.
Conclusions. Showing that the lateralization process in the investigated group of boys aged 10 to 12 years
takes place enables us to observe it, to diagnose it, and to employ a therapy, if necessary, to avoid developmental abnormalities. Physical education teachers are very important, since they can stimulate this process
through suitably selected exercises and games involving physical movement.
Wstęp. W okresie nauki szkolnej obserwuje się u dzieci znaczące zmiany w rozwoju fizyczno-psychicznomotorycznym. Do prawidłowości tego okresu rozwoju zalicza się lateralizacja, której ocena jest niezbędna zwłaszcza
do właściwego zdiagnozowania uczniów wykazujących zaburzenia mowy, zaburzenia motoryki czy też trudności
w uczeniu się czytania i pisania.
Cel pracy. Celem poznawczym było rozpoznanie, jakie zmiany zachodzą w asymetrii funkcjonalnej i dynamicznej u chłopców między dziesiątym a dwunastym rokiem życia w aspekcie badań ciągłych tej samej grupy.
Celem praktycznym pracy było wzbogacenie stanu wiedzy na temat znaczenia lateralizacji w prawidłowym rozwoju
człowieka.
Materiał i metody. Badanie, którym objęto trzydziestoosobową grupę chłopców, było prowadzone przez trzy
lata. Pierwszy etap zrealizowano, gdy dzieci miały dziesięć lat (w 2006 roku). Kolejne etapy badania przeprowa-
– 73 –
Marta Wieczorek
dzono w 2007 i 2008 roku. Do ich realizacji posłużono się Wrocławskim Testem Asymetrii autorstwa Koszczyca
i Sekity.
Wyniki. W opisie zmian asymetrii funkcjonalnej i dynamicznej, jakie stwierdzono u badanych chłopców ciągu
dwu lat, wykazano zmiany w zakresie ukierunkowania badanych narządów ruchu i zmysłu i tym samym w zakresie
występowania profili ustalonych. Nie stwierdzono natomiast zmian poziomu asymetrii dynamicznej badanych
zdolności motorycznych.
Wnioski. U osób w wieku 10–12 lat proces lateralizacji jest w toku, co umożliwia jego obserwację, szczegółową
diagnozę i w razie konieczności – wdrożenie terapii, zapobiegającej utrwalaniu się nieprawidłowości rozwojowych.
Ważną rolę mają w tej profilaktyce do spełnienia także nauczyciele wychowania fizycznego, którzy przez za pomocą
odpowiednio dobranych ćwiczeń i zadań ruchowych mogą skutecznie stymulować ten proces.
Introduction
The notions of symmetry and asymmetry are inherent
to human existence. They seem to be inseparable, yet
at the same time they are mutually opposing concepts.
Since ancient times symmetry has been present in the
artistic work of primitive peoples and in early historical
painting; it was also a vital element of Egyptian, ancient
and medieval art, as well as religious painting. Though
asymmetry was less frequently used in arts, to more
outstanding individuals it seemed to be mysterious, dis­
parate, engaging, and curious. In modern times, how­
ever, the issues of symmetry and asymmetry arouse
interest not merely in terms of aesthetics. As for man,
we know that asymmetry in the human, body both mor­
phologically and functionally, is considered a develop­
mental regularity; the process leading to its emergence,
defined as lateralization, is one of the aspects and at
the same time factors in the normal motor development
in children [1, 2, 3]. Lateralization refers to the prop­
erties of the human body situated between morphol­
ogy and function. This is a process closely linked with
the predominance of one cerebral hemisphere in con­
trol of certain human activities, and it is the outcome
of anatomical and physiological brain asymmetry. Its
development depends on the maturation of brain tis­
sue and neural pathways and takes place parallel with
maturation of the central nervous system [4]. The first
symptoms of predominance, which pertain to the hand,
may already be observed in infants beginning from the
ages of 6 to 7 months. Predominance of one hand over
the other becomes clear in many children about 4 years
old. As a rule, however, lateralization of motor activities
in hands becomes established between the ages of 6 to
7 years, to finally becoming developed at the age of 12
years. Concurrently, and parallel to development of lat­
eralization of motor activities, lateralization in visual and
auditory perception is also developed. After the age of
12, the majority of children present determined lateral­
ization in relation to the hand, eye, and foot, which is
connected with the level of CNS development, and thus
cerebral hemispheric specialization. With respect to
these facts, undetermined asymmetry is not considered
to be a developmental pathology in children who are
12 years old. Only its diagnosis after this age indicates
retardation or developmental disorders [4, 5]
To evaluate lateralization, when this process is fin­
ished or when we assess its status at a given develop­
mental stage, we refer to the notion of asymmetry, pre­
dominance, or sidedness. Body asymmetry in humans
may be seen in many aspects, yet in physical culture
sciences it is primarily presented as morphological (di­
versification in body build), functional (diversification in
function), and dynamic (size diversification).
Lateralization is an extremely important process in
children’s development. A defined level of lateralization
determines efficient operation. Delayed lateralization
leads to disorders in motor and mental fitness. Children
representing a low level of lateralization usually pres­
ent a low level of physical fitness and dexterity; they
have poorer motor coordination than their peers with
clear lateralization. Disorders of coordination cause
decreased velocity and precision of movements, which
translates into a lack of economy and harmony of ac­
tivities. Poorly lateralized children display difficulties
in learning to read, write, and count; in spatial orien­
tation; and in recognizing the sides of the body. Also
their spatial orientation is disturbed: such children have
problems with recognizing the right and left sides of
the body and difficulties in reproducing geometrical
shapes. These factors render activities, including both
intellectual and motor learning, less effective. Yet a high
level of lateralization affects cognitive processes, deter­
mines efficient action, and conditions the course of the
learning process itself [3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. At the initial stage
of research on lateralization, the disorders came down
to the problem of left-handedness. Today, views have
changed, and its course and status are investigated in
terms of model, pace of development in ontogenesis,
and its neurophysiologic background. Models of homo­
– 74 –
Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years
geneous lateralization are considered to be normal [4].
A look at a cross-lateralization model remains a moot
point. Spionek [5] finds that non-homogeneity in the
eye and hand causes poorer visuo-motor coordination
and translates into difficulties in learning to read and
write. Subsequent studies show, however, that approxi­
mately one-third of the adult population is left-eyed and
juxtaposition with approximately 90% of the population
of the right-handed people, makes the existence of the
cross-model pertaining to the eye and hand quite com­
mon [4]. Therefore, it may not be assumed that crosslateralization is a developmental pathology or a cause
of difficulties at school, as it may only accompany them.
We may talk explicitly about disorders of lateralization
in relation to the presence of an undetermined model.
At this point, our attention should be drawn to the notion
of so-called ambidextrousness. The view that ambidex­
trous children use one hand and the other equally well
is erroneous. A comparative study on manual motor fit­
ness in children that represented various degrees and
models of lateralization showed that dexterity of hands
in originally ambidextrous children comes close to the
dexterity shown by hands in “worse” children who were
lateralized early and strongly [5].
The information presented above indicates the
importance of lateralization for normal psychomotor
development in humans. From these theoretical con­
siderations follows the aim of the research carried out
for the purposes of the present work. The cognitive
aim was to identify the changes present in functional
and dynamic asymmetry in boys between the ages of
10 and 12 years as part of continuous research on the
same study group.
To define the empirical procedure, the following re­
search questions have been posed:
1. What were the changes concerning the direction
and profile of functional asymmetry in investigated
boys?
2. What were the status and changes relating to motor
abilities of the right and left sides of the bodies in
the investigated boys?
3. What were the changes in the level of dynamic
asymmetry of motor abilities in investigated boys?
Material and methods
A group of 30 boys were selected for the purposes of
the study. For 3 years, the tests were carried out at the
end of September and the beginning of October. The
first study took place when children were 10 years old
(fourth grade), the last tests when they were 12 years
old (sixth grade), respectively. The tests were per­
formed in a large town (more than 500,000 inhabitants)
in southern Poland. The selection of research material
was dependent on several factors. First, children at
this age undergo appropriate didactic and educational
procedures, and it seems interesting to observe physi­
cal development in children connected both with the
natural process of growing as well as that development
induced by specific didactic activities. Secondly, the
selected school age is a period of certain stabilization
in a child’s development, particularly in boys, before
adolescence [8]. Thirdly, according to the literature on
the subject, at about the age of 12 years, the direction
of asymmetry in children’s bodies is finally established
[4].
The Wrocław Asymmetry Direction and Size Test,
developed by Koszczyc and Sekita [9], was used for
the purposes of the study. It consists of two parts. First,
functional asymmetry is evaluated (qualitative assess­
ment of sidedness). Assessment is based on observa­
tion of unrestricted choice made by a subject of hand,
eye and foot to perform a given motor task. According
to the assumptions made by the authors of the test, the
credibility of the study is higher the more the subject’s
attention is focused on the performance of the task and
not on the choice of the limb or eye for its completion.
Thus, the description of trials and the manner of con­
ducting them was presented in the form of tasks. This
test is comprised of 10 tasks. Two test trials (the first and
the last) pertain to an activity subject to social control;
three of them are connected with handedness; three
with footedness; and two with eyedness, respectively.
On the basis of the qualitative analysis of performed
trials, the sidedness of subjects in terms of the hand,
foot, and eye is specified. Lateralization is determined
(right or left) when in all tasks pertaining to the same
organ or sense, a subject uses the same side of the
body. Sidedness is undetermined when, in trials con­
nected with a given organ, a subject uses the left and
right side of the body interchangeably. Subsequently,
on the basis of data concerning sidedness, the direc­
tion and profile of asymmetry was determined. The
direction is defined as the percentage of individuals
in a given population characterized by specific sided­
ness regarding the investigated sense or motor organ.
A profile may be defined as a system of sidedness in
the eye-hand-foot arrangement. The profile may be de­
termined as homogenous when the predominance of
all organs on one side of the body occurs (e.g., right-
– 75 –
Marta Wieczorek
eyedness – right-handedness – right-footedness). It
also may be determined to be non-homogeneous, or
in other words defined as a cross profile, when specific
side predominance is present, but on different sides of
the body (e.g., left-eyedness – right-handedness – leftfootedness) and undetermined when in at least one of
the organs unspecified direction of asymmetry takes
place (e.g., left-eyedness – right-handedness – un­
specified footedness) [4].
In the second part of the test, the degree of dynamic
asymmetry (quantitative evaluation of sidedness) is as­
sessed based on the difference in the results of tasks
performed by means of the right and left upper and lower
limbs. The evaluation refers to two motor abilities: strength
and velocity. The entire test encompasses four tasks:
1 Speed of movement: upper limbs [number]: the tap­
ping on the circles test [quantity].
2 Speed of movement: lower limbs [number]: the tap­
ping test by Fleishman [quantity].
3 Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]: throwing
a medicine ball (1 kg) in a sitting position [cm].
4 Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]: a one-legged
jump test from the spot [cm].
Analysis of obtained results was made with
Statistica program version 9.0 PL for Windows and
the Excel spreadsheet program. Analysis of functional
asymmetry was performed with the use of percentage
values. Analysis of results concerning motor skills in the
right and left side of the body was made using paramet­
ric techniques. Basic statistical values (arithmetic mean,
standard deviation, minimum and maximum values, and
variation coefficient) for analyzed variables in relevant
age groups were calculated. The value of Student’s t test
was calculated for dependent variables (result obtained
for the right and left side of the body). Statistical signifi­
cance indicated presence of a substantial level of asym­
metry and the value of the test pertained to its size.
Functional asymmetry in the examined group
of 10–12-year-old boys
In the examined group of 10-year-old boys, a rightward
direction prevails in terms of eyedness (40%) and foot­
edness (43%). As for handedness, unspecified direction
(53%) predominates. In 11-year-olds in all examined
motor and sense organs, the right direction is domi­
nant. This is most vividly seen in handedness (72%)
and footedness (61%). No subject displays an unspeci­
fied direction of asymmetry. In 12-year-old boys in all
examined motor and sense organs the right direction
predominates, which is very clearly marked in handed­
ness (75%) and footedness (72%). None of the boys
undergoing tests presented an unspecified direction.
A comparison of the subjects in terms of changes
in the direction of handedness showed that changes
were revealed in the decreasing number of examined
boys with undetermined handedness in favor of rightand left-handedness, that is, determined handedness.
Interestingly, a high percentage of ambidextrous sub­
jects are found among 10-year-olds, who become later­
alized to one side of the body a year later, although with
a substantial proportion of left-handedness (Fig.1).
The analysis of changes in direction of eyedness
in the examined group of boys shows that only among
those aged 10 years with unspecified direction of eye­
dness are present. Among 11- and 12-year-olds only
right and left-eyedness was observed (Fig. 2).
100%
80%
60%
53
Unspecified
0
Left
40%
20%
0%
25
28
72
75
11 – years
12 – years
47
10 – years
Figure 1. Comparison of handedness direction in researched group of boys
– 76 –
Right
Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years
100%
80%
60%
23
0%
43
37
Unspecified
Left
Right
40%
20%
43
40
10 - years
57
57
11 - years
12 - years
Figure 2. Comparison of eyedness direction in researched group of boys
A comparison of examined boys with regard to
changes of direction in footedness showed changes in
a decreasing proportion of subjects with undetermined
footedness and left-footedness in favor of right-footed
subjects (Fig. 3).
All things considered, it seems that in the investi­
gated group of boys, the biggest changes pertaining to
settling the direction of asymmetry took place between
the ages of 10 and 11 years. Among 11-year-olds there
were no subjects that represented an unspecified di­
rection of asymmetry in all examined organs. Changes
which appeared between the ages of 11 and 12 years
turned out to be only a few and related to an increasing
number of individuals with right-direction in the exam­
ined motor and sense organs.
What followed was an analysis of the status and
changes in the area of the profile of functional asymme­
try. In the examined group of 10-year-old boys, a deter­
mined heterogeneous profile (51%) predominates. Yet 19
% of them represent still an undetermined profile. Among
11-year-old boys, a still determined heterogeneous pro­
file (61%) prevails; there are, however, no subjects of
undetermined profile, and 39 % of the examined group
represents a determined homogeneous profile. In the
group of 12-year-old boys, a determined homogeneous
profile predominates (65%). In this connection, we can
easily observe that with regard to the profile of asymme­
try, similar to its direction, the biggest changes took place
between the ages of 10 and 11 years. However, between
the ages of 11 and 12 years, minor changes occurred
pertaining to the increase in the number of individuals
with a determined homogeneous profile (Fig. 4).
To sum up the changes in functional asymmetry in
the period of two years, in the examined boys, it should
100%
80%
60%
27
0%
Unspecified
Left
30
40%
20%
28
39
43
10 - years
72
61
11 - years
Figure 3. Comparison of footedness direction in researched group of boys
– 77 –
12 - years
Right
Marta Wieczorek
100%
19
35
80%
60%
0%
Specified
heterogenous
Specified
homogenous
51
40%
20%
Unspecified
61
65
30
10 - years
39
11 - years
12 - years
Figure 4. Comparison of functional asymmetry profiles in researched group of boys
be noted that they were observable both in the direction
as well as profile of asymmetry. This fact shows that in the
group of subjects aged 10 to 12 years, the process of lat­
eralization takes place and leads to occurrence of normal,
determined directions and determined profiles of function­
al asymmetry in an increasing proportion of subjects.
Dynamic asymmetry in the examined group
of boys aged 10–12 years
With regard to all investigated motor skills, boys ob­
tained better results using the right side of the body
then the left one. With age, the results increased both
Table 1. Results of motor fitness of right and left body side in tested 10-year-old boys
Feature
Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]
Speed of movements: lower limbs [number]
Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]
Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]
R – Right side
–
x – arithmetic mean
Min. – minimal value
Body side
x–
R
s
Min.
Max.
52.40
9.43
38.00
69.00
L
45.57
6.91
36.00
58.00
R
46.30
6.38
35.00
59.00
L
44.20
6.31
34.00
55.00
R
370.52
52.48
211.00
449.00
L
344.33
45.05
278.00
410.00
R
111.34
12.01
97.00
145.00
L
105.71
8.93
89.00
126.00
L – Left side
s – standard deviation
Max. – maximum value
Table 2. Results of motor fitness of right and left body side in tested 11-year-old boys
Feature
Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]
Speed of movements: lower limbs [number]
Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]
Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]
Body side
x–
s
Min.
Max.
R
54.30
8.73
40.00
71.00
L
46.23
7.33
35.00
57.00
R
48.40
6.75
37.00
62.00
L
45.53
6.43
37.00
62.00
R
388.43
46.35
242.00
461.00
L
364.76
41.18
302.00
441.00
R
113.86
10.06
100.00
142.00
L
110.06
8.41
91.00
124.00
– 78 –
Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years
Table 3. Results of motor fitness of right and left body side in tested 12-year-old boys
Feature
Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]
Speed of movements: lower limbs [number]
Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]
Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]
Body side
x–
R
L
s
Min.
Max.
56.13
7.54
41.00
69.00
47.80
4.94
39.00
57.00
R
51.30
6.16
39.00
63.00
L
46.73
5.52
39.00
60.00
R
402.13
41.31
270.00
459.00
L
379.56
38.70
305.00
452.00
R
116.13
8.81
101.00
138.00
L
111.43
6.61
99.00
123.00
Table 4. Size of dynamic asymmetry and its changes among researched boys
Statistical significance
Feature
10 years
11 years
12 years
Speed of movements: upper limbs [number]
2.3456*
2.4879*
2.5467*
Speed of movements: lower limbs [number]
2.7423*
2.8873*
2.9789*
Strength of muscles: upper limbs [cm]
2.1257*
2.2345*
2.4436*
Strength of muscles: lower limbs [cm]
0.8734
0.9135
0.9812
* – statistically significant values (number of asterisks accounts for the degree of statistical significance)
in relation to the right and left side of the body (Tables
1, 2, 3). In every examined age group, with regard to
the speed of upper and lower limb movements and up­
per limb muscle strength, significant dynamic asymme­
try occurred at comparable levels. Only for lower limb
muscle strength did the difference in results between
the right and left side of the body occur to be statistical­
ly insignificant during all stages of the study. Analysis
of changes in the asymmetry level in the period of two
years, as expressed by means of the Student’s t test
value, demonstrates that its level increases with age;
however these changes are inconsequential. Lower
limb muscle strength did not reveal any substantial
level of asymmetry during the entire period of our study
(Table 4).
Discussion
In the literature many titles on diagnosing body later­
alization in children and adolescents in various age
groups may be found. The employed research meth­
ods are, however, quite diversified, thus preventing di­
rect reference of the results to those of author’s own
study. When diagnosing children and adolescents we
may face substantial diversification in the lateraliza­
tion system [4]. The upper limbs undergo the earliest
and most intense lateralization. The study carried out
by Koszczyc and Surynt [10] proved that manual func­
tion asymmetry is already completed in 7-year-olds and
subsequent changes pertain only to the size of dynamic
asymmetry. These results are not consistent with those
obtained in this paper, as more than 50% of the ex­
amined 10-year-old boys had an unspecified direction
of handedness, whereas the level of dynamic asymme­
try pertaining to motor skills, although significant, did
not reveal any noticeable progression. Such a state in
terms of knowledge on development of lateralization in
ontogenesis seems to be very alarming, yet according
to Bogdanowicz [4], the process of lateralization is com­
pleted at about the age of 12 years, and only then its
abnormalities may be interpreted as developmental dis­
orders. Also, interesting data were obtained in relation
to the number of left-handed boys. As many as 28% of
the 11-year-olds presented this direction of sidedness
in hand. Upon having reviewed the results connected
with the level of left-handedness, Bogdanowicz [4]
demonstrated their considerable diversity – scatter in
evaluation of the left-handed individuals percentage is
included in the 1–30% population range. Figures show­
ing a mean of 10% of left-handers in society prevail. In
relation to the above data, the examined boys present
a high percentage of left-handedness. Continuous re­
search connected with changes in body lateralization
was conducted by: Koszczyc [3], Drabik [11], Wolański
i Siniarska [12], Wokroj [13], Stokłosa [14], Wieczorek
and Hradzki [15], Rzepa, Wójcik [16]. In an investiga­
– 79 –
Marta Wieczorek
tion on children aged 7 to 10 years in terms of dynamic
asymmetry, Koszczyc [3] finds that fitness shown by
the right side of the body is better than in the left side
and the difference in fitness of the right and left side
increased with age. Similar results were obtained by
Wolański and Siniarska [12] in a study performed on
Polish population aged 2–80 years. Drabik [11] points
out substantial reversal in the direction of functional
asymmetry from undetermined to determined in chil­
dren aged 9–13 years. Stokłosa [14] in an investigation
on girls and boys aged 7 to 15 years with regard to
development of functional asymmetry claims that with
age the number of individuals representing determined
lateralization with predominance of rightward lateral­
ization, both relating to the hand, eye and foot, and
thus the number of persons with a homogeneous right­
ward profile increases. Similar results were obtained
by Wokroj [13] in her research on individuals aged 4
to 80 years. Wieczorek and Hradzki [15] in their study
on boys aged 14 to 16 years discovered that in terms
of functional asymmetry changes in settling of the pro­
file are still present, and that significant changes of the
size of dynamic asymmetry take place, even though
the subjects were examined at an age in which, based
on literature, the process of lateralization should be
completed. Bogdanowicz reported, however, that in
males the process of lateralization is completed much
later, which is connected with delayed adolescent
processes, as compared with girls and their nervous
system that only reaches full anatomical and physi­
ological maturity at the age of 20 years [4]. Rzepa and
Wójcik [17] conducted research among 6- to 10-yearolds in the area of changes in functional asymmetry in
relation to its stimulation through motor activities with
educational balls. The results indicate that determined
directions of hand, eye and foot asymmetry becoming
established with age, and these processes were more
vivid in the experimental group exposed to the appro­
priate factor developing lateralization with the use of
a specific tool.
The comparison of results of the present study
to those found in the literature on the subject shows
similar tendencies. The results confirm that in 10- to
12-year-olds the process of lateralization takes place,
which seems to be in line with the results obtained
by other authors presented above. The percentage of
subjects presenting determined directions and profiles
of functional asymmetry increases with age. In 10- to
12-year-olds, significant dynamic asymmetry oc­
curred to be particularly noticeable in terms of move­
ment velocity and muscle strength of the upper limbs
but in the period of two years, no significant changes
pertaining to its level took place. Having analyzed
these results it may be said that functional asymme­
try develops faster and more intensely, yet dynamic
asymmetry presents a significant level; however, its
size is not substantially modified between the age of
10 and 12 years in the examined boys. With regard to
the normality in nervous system development [4] and
figures obtained by Wieczorek and Hradzki in adoles­
cents aged 14 to 16 years [15] we may believe that in
subsequent years of life the level of dynamic asym­
metry of strength and velocity of the right and left side
of the body increase.
Conclusions
The biggest transformations in physical, mental, and
motor development take place in the scholastic period
of children and adolescents. Thus, a teacher should
be aware of functional changes in a child’s develop­
ment occurring at different stages of life. Depending on
a student’s age, motor experiences, as well as status of
motor maturity and health, a teacher should apply ad­
equate means and methods to determine the state and
changes of development. Lateralization is among the
regularities of development. Evaluation of lateralization
is particularly indispensable for diagnosing students
who show speech disorders, motricity disorders, or dif­
ficulties in learning to read and write. When diagnosing
lateralization, teachers should bear in mind the child’s
age, sex, evaluation of manual motricity, and orienta­
tion of the right and left side of the body.
The study and analysis of obtained results enabled
the achievement of the objective of the present pa­
per. Changes taking place in functional and dynamic
asymmetry in boys aged 10 to 12 years in the aspect
of continuous research on the same study group have
been identified. On the basis of the analysis of obtained
results, the following conclusions may be formulated:
during a 2-year period in the group of examined boys,
significant changes occurred pertaining to the orienta­
tion of motor and sense organs and thus in terms of de­
termined profiles of functional asymmetry. An increase
in the size of functional diversity of limbs in velocity and
strength took place; however, changes in the level of
dynamic asymmetry in these motor skills occurred to
be statistically insignificant. Taking the longer view,
a postulate may be formulated that the observation and
diagnosing of lateralization seems to be an extremely
– 80 –
Functional and dynamic asymmetry in boys aged 10–12 years
important area of operation for teachers. Physical edu­
cation teachers play a substantial role at this point, as
they may effectively stimulate this process by means
of adequately selected exercises and motor tasks, thus
preventing developmental abnormalities from becom­
ing established.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Siniarska A, Sarna J: Asymmetry of human body: a syn­
thetic approach. Studies in Human Ecology, 1980; 4:
217–241.
[2] Bergman P: The development and manifestations of
asymmetry in human being; in Jezierski A, Ogorzałek
A (eds.): Symmetries in science [in Polish], Wrocław,
Uniwersytet Wrocławski, 1993; vol. II: 317–329.
[3] Koszczyc T: Morphological and dynamic asymmetry and
the possibility of its shaping in children of school age [in
Polish]. Wrocław, Studia i Monografie AWF we Wrocławiu,
1991; 27.
[4] Bogdanowicz M: Left-handedness in children [in Polish].
Warszawa, WSiP, 1992.
[5] Spionek H: Impaired development of schoolchildren and
school failure [in Polish]. Warszawa, PWN, 1985.
[6] Wieczorek M: The speed of learning complex motor ac­
tions and functional and dynamic asymmetry in 10-yearold children [in Polish]. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport,
2001; 1: 105–114.
[7] Dellatolas G, Agostini M, Curt F, Kremin H, Letierce A,
Maccaris J, Lellouch J: Manual skill, hand skill asymmetry,
and cognitive performances in young children. Laterality:
Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition, 2003; 8(4):
317–338.
[8] Przewęda R: Determinants of physical fitness level of
Polish schoolchildren. Research workshop [in Polish].
Warszawa, AWF, 1985.
[9] Osiński W: Kinesiology [in Polish]. Poznań, AWF, 2003.
[10] Koszczyc T., Surynt A. Functional and dynamic asymmetry
of girls and boys aged 3–7 years [in Polish]; in Pohyb
a zdravie v hodnotovom systeme ludi na zaciatku noveho
tisicrocia, Nitra, 2000: 244–250.
[11] Drabik S: Physical fitness of children aged 7– 15 years with
a view to functional symmetry and asymmetry [in Polish].
Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport, 1984; 3–4: 57–71.
[12] Wolański N, Siniarska A: Age-dependent changes in
dynamic asymmetry in Polish populations 2–80 years of
age. Studies in Human Ecology, 1986; 7: 225–242.
[13] Wokroj J: Functional asymmetry and physical fitness.
Studies in Human Ecology, 1986; 7.
[14] Stokłosa H: Development of functional and morphological
asymmetry in 7–15-year-old girls and boys [in Polish].
AWF Katowice, 1998.
[15] Wieczorek M , Hradzki A: Functional and dynamic asym­
metry in youth aged 14 and 16 (comparative research).
Acta Univ. Palacki. Olomouc, Gymn., 2007; vol. 37, no.
1: 51–61.
[16] Rzepa T., Wójcik A. Making use of educational balls in
improving the functional asymmetry of children complet­
ing early school education [in Polish]. Antropomotoryka,
2009; vol. 19, no. 48: 61–72.
– 81 –
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
KNOWLEDGE OF DOWNHILL SKIING SAFETY
PRINCIPLES AMONG STUDENTS AT THE UNIVERSITY
OF PHYSICAL EDUCATION PARTICIPATING
IN AN OBLIGATORY WINTER CAMP. PART II1
ZNAJOMOŚĆ ZASAD BEZPIECZEŃSTWA WŚRÓD
STUDENTÓW AKADEMII WYCHOWANIA FIZYCZNEGO
UCZESTNICZĄCYCH W PROGRAMOWYM
OBOZIE ZIMOWYM. CZĘŚĆ II
Beata Wojtyczek*, Małgorzata Pasławska**
***PhD, Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in Warsaw, Poland
***PhD, School of Tourism and Hotel Management in Warsaw, Poland
Key words: skiing, security, health risks, courses
Słowa kluczowe: narciarstwo zjazdowe, bezpieczeństwo, zagrożenia zdrowotne,
szkolenie
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Introduction. The appropriate training of future instructors and teachers of children practicing downhill
skiing is extremely important to improve and ensure the safety of participants in this form of recreation. The
evaluation of the effects students participating in an obligatory winter camp received through the training
process included theoretical knowledge. The proper evaluation of factors ensuring safety and the limitation of
risky behavior is the basis for the appropriate education of future teachers.
Aim of the study. This work is aimed at the evaluation of the level of theoretical knowledge about safe downhill skiing obtained by students who graduated from downhill skiing training camp with positive results.
Conclusion. In the future we should put even greater stress on requiring knowledge of the theory of safe
skiing, that is, taking care of ski clothes and boots, health risks connected with mountain climates in winter
and with altitude sickness. This is especially true of pedagogy students, who are expected to guarantee the
security of children and youth at, among other places, ski slopes. At the same time it should be emphasized
that skiing is, according to the majority of the training camp participants, an exceptionally attractive form of
physical activity.
Wprowadzenie. Właściwe kształcenie przyszłych instruktorów i opiekunów dzieci oraz młodzieży zainteresowanej nauką jazdy na nartach zjazdowych jest niezwykle istotnym elementem poprawy bezpieczeństwa uczestników
tej formy rekreacji. Ocena efektów kształcenia studentów uczestniczących w obowiązkowym obozie narciarskim
obejmuje również ich wiedzę teoretyczną. Poprawna ocena czynników gwarantujących bezpieczeństwo i ograniczenie zachowań ryzykownych leży u podstaw prawidłowego kształcenia przyszłych nauczycieli.
Cel pracy. Ocena poziomu wiedzy studentów, którzy z pozytywnym wynikiem ukończyli obóz szkoleniowy
z narciarstwa zjazdowego, w zakresie teorii bezpieczeństwa narciarstwa zjazdowego.
1
Work financed by the Ministry of Science and Higher Education as a part of the I-36 research project of the University of Physical Education in
Warsaw.
– 83 –
Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska
Wnioski. W przyszłości należy położyć jeszcze większy nacisk na egzekwowanie wiedzy z zakresu teorii
bezpieczeństwa w narciarstwie, w tym na właściwy dobór ubioru i obuwia narciarskiego, a także profilaktykę
zagrożeń zdrowia w środowisku górskim. Dotyczy to szczególnie studentów kierunków pedagogicznych, którzy
w przyszłości będą zapewniać bezpieczeństwo (m.in. na stokach narciarskich) dzieciom i młodzieży. Równocześnie
należy podkreślić, że w opinii większości uczestników kursu narciarstwo jest wyjątkowo atrakcyjną formą
INTRODUCTION
The correct training of future instructors and teachers
of children and youth and in the field of downhill skiing
is an important element of safety while staying in the
mountains. The ability to eliminate and limit health risks
requires one to have definitive knowledge, including that
which concerns the specific environmental and climatic
conditions in the mountains [1, 2]. The attractiveness
of the mountains, their inaccessibility, and undisputable
value of the landscape are those things which attract
the majority of skiers, but are also those things which
constitute a significant health risk for people staying in
such areas [3, 4, 5]. It refers both to phenomena that
are typically connected with severe mountain climates
during winter – that is, the possibility of hypothermia,
frostbite, mountain sickness, or snow blindness – as
well as basic principles of hygiene concerning sleep,
nutrition, and the proper selection and conservation of
clothes and equipment. Optimal knowledge in this field
should constitute one of aims of full education of the
future instructors and teachers of juvenile skiers [6, 7].
RESULTS OF RESEARCH2
Recreational downhill skiing in light of the opinions
of physical education (PE) students of Józef Piłsudski
University of Physical Education in Warsaw (barriers,
values, dangers)
The researched students were asked to define bar­
riers and values connected with the discussed form of
physical activity. As many as 90% of them proclaimed
that skiing is an activity which requires huge financial
outlays, as ski equipment and ski passes are very ex­
pensive. It is the reason which explains the fact that as
many as 53% of the researched students do not have
their own skis. Regarding the value of skiing, the most
numerous group of the researched (43%) students pro­
claimed that the most attractive element of the sport is
the speed achieved while skiing down a slope. Such an
2
Research methods and characteristics of the researched persons are
presented in Part 1 (Antropomotoryka, 20011; vol. 21, no. 53: 69–78).
answer arouses some fear that it can be connected with
an inclination for taking risks and orientation for strong
emotional experiences rather than for the improvement
of skiing techniques. For 28% of the persons the most
attractive aspect of skiing is the very fact of practicing
that kind of physical activity – that is, skiing is perceived
as an aim in itself. Of all the researched, 22% declared
that the main value of skiing is the possibility of staying
in the mountain environment, in the bosom of nature.
The last two standpoints are confirmed by an answer
to the next question, which asked the respondents to
define what skiing is connected with for them first of
all: 88% of the persons declared that it is the pleasure
of staying in the mountains and an attractive form of
physical activity. From answers to the following ques­
tion it comes that as many as 77% of the women and
65% of the men would apply just those arguments in or­
der to persuade other people to take up downhill skiing.
Unfortunately, a portion of the researched men – 15% –
would try to encourage potential skiers by talking about
night parties and opportunities for daring demonstra­
tions of one’s own skills on a slope. In this respect there
appeared to be significant differences between men’s
attitudes and the women’s attitudes, because none
of the latter gave such an answer. The last analyzed
question from that group concerned the willingness to
continue skiing in future seasons. The majority of the
persons – 51% – proclaimed that they were going to
ski if only they had an opportunity, while 38% of the
persons declared that they would organize annual ski
holidays by themselves.
Afterwards, the students’ knowledge about health
risks resulting from staying in the mountains was
evaluated. They were asked about dangers connected
with mountain climates. In this regard, 38% of the re­
searched students chose the proper set of dangers,
which included hypothermia, frostbite, and snow blind­
ness. As many as 57% of the respondents marked the
answers sunstroke and muscle ache (Fig. 1).
Sunstroke as an effect of staying in the mountains
during winter is a relatively rare phenomenon, and
muscle aches are not the main danger for life and
health if we compare them with much more serious ef­
fects of contact with extreme mountain climates. The
– 84 –
Knowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education...
DEPRESSION, HEADACHES
0%
ANGINA, DIARRHEA
5%
SNOW BLINDNESS, HYPOTHERMIA
38%
SUNSTROKE,
SUNSTOKE, MUSCLE PAIN
WOMEN AND
MEN
57%
0%
20%
40%
60%
Figure 1. Health risks connected with winter mountains climate
researched students were then asked about informa­
tion about so­called mountain sickness. They were to
indicate from which height above sea level its symp­
toms should be expected to appear. The correct an­
swer – over 2,000 meters above sea level – was given
by 32% of the respondents. The most numerous group
(44%) thought that the risk of going down with mountain
sickness appears at the much greater height of 4,000
meters above sea level (Fig. 2).
Regarding symptoms of that disease the majority of
the respondents – 66% – marked the correct answer,
which mentions dizziness and headaches, general fa­
tigue, quickened breathing, and sleep disorders. The
rest of the researched students could not point out to
Figure 2. Medium height of getting mountain sickness
– 85 –
Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska
Figure 3. Illnesses that are contraindications against practicing downhill skiing
real symptoms of mountain sickness. The next ques­
tion concerned the positive health effects of a long­
term stay in mountain climates. In that case, only
34% of the respondents gave the correct answer that
a long stay in the mountains exerts an always­positive
influence on one’s health provided that the lifestyle
is proper and there are no medical contraindications
against practicing downhill skiing. The respondents
were to say whether it is necessary to consult a doc­
tor before skiing. The correct answer, which said that
medical consultation is necessary, especially if skiing
for the first time in one’s life, was given by 24% of the
respondents. The majority of the students proclaimed
that such a move is unnecessary, especially if one feels
Figure 4. Care of ski clothes and boots as a precondition for remaining healthy
– 86 –
Knowledge of downhill skiing safety principles among students at the University of Physical Education...
healthy. It is a false conclusion, because you can be
unaware of some ailments, and the effort required to
ski is demanding, specific, and intense to such a de­
gree that it requires certainty about one’s own state of
health. Before starting to learn to ski it is advisable to
get a basic medical examination. In a similar vein the
respondents were asked about illnesses that exclude
the possibility of practicing skiing in a safe way. The
final decision rests, of course, with a physician and
that is why medical consultation is so important. Such
an assumption was made by 50% of the respondents.
Cardiovascular diseases were pointed out by 47% of
the students as an excluding element. This is not a fully
correct opinion, because not all diseases of the car­
diovascular system (it refers, e.g., to controlled arterial
hypertension) exclude one from participation in recre­
ational forms of downhill skiing (Fig. 3).
Nutrition during ski holidays is a significant healthprotecting factor. Out of all the respondents, 84% cor­
rectly proclaimed that it is a very important issue in con­
ditions of increased physical effort, and 4-5 wholesome
meals should be eaten per day. According to 8% of the
respondents, one should eat only when one feels hungry
and the quality of a meal is not important. The last ques­
tion, connected with lifestyle and hygiene, concerned
care about clothing worn while skiing. The overwhelm­
ing majority of the students – 83% – maintained that ski
clothes and boots must be dried every time after ski­
ing. Unfortunately, 10% of the respondents thought that
that activity should be done only once in a while. It is,
of course, an assumption contradictory with a hygienic
lifestyle, and wet ski boots and clothes are an excellent
shortcut to getting cold and frostbitten (Fig. 4).
DISCUSSION
Downhill skiing is commonly regarded as a very attrac­
tive and fashionable sport. The researched students see
it in a similar vein. The possibility to stay in wintertime
natural environment is regarded to be its greatest value.
However, a portion of the researched students perceive
that form of recreation as a chance for testing oneself
and demonstrating one’s own bravado and speed (43%),
which – especially in the case of future teachers and in­
structors – is a worrisome phenomena. Similar values
and dangers of skiing are noticed also by other authors,
who observe various groups of skiers [8].
What seems a positive phenomenon is care for re­
specting the basic hygienic principles connected with
attention to optimal relaxation, a model of nutrition, and
maintaining equipment in a proper, safety-ensuring
state. Unfortunately, the majority of the participants of
the training camp (53%) did not have their own skis.
They used skis that are often selected in a random way,
which is, of course, a negative phenomenon. Having
one’s own equipment, which has been selected ac­
cording to individual needs and is properly serviced,
increases safety on a ski slope [9, 10, 11].
Nor did the majority of them (67%) have proper
knowledge about common dangers resulting from
the specifics of the mountain environment, which are
connected with low temperatures, increased ultravio­
let radiation, and low atmospheric pressure resulting
from high altitude above sea level. It refers especially
to various kinds of function disorders of the human
organism that are connected with altitude (mountain)
sickness. Forty-four percent of the respondents did not
know at what altitude its appearance should be taken
into account, although the instructor, when responsible
for skiers or other tourists, should be well aware of
the possibility of the appearance of the phenomenon.
The correct answer about the medium height of its
appearance (2,000 meters above sea level) [12] was
only given by 32% of the researched students. Results
concerning snow blindness, frostbite, or hypothermia
were similar [3, 4].
A mountain climate, especially in wintertime, demands
a lot from the human organism: factors that are connected
with the process of adaptation to changeable external con­
ditions and require increased thermoregulation processes
[3]. The organism is additionally burdened with specific
physical effort connected with difficulties with coordination.
Hence skiing cannot be practiced by everybody and in all
conditions included at every ski infrastructure (some ski
tracks are even 4,000 meters above sea level) without risk­
ing one’s own health or life. Hence, it seems reasonable to
take a physician’s advice, especially before the first ski holi­
days. The majority of the questioned students – 76% – ne­
glects that fact, or tries to solve health problems of potential
skiers on their own. It should be emphasized that a skier’s
insufficient psychophysical conditions is a potential factor
that causes injuries and other types of undesirable events,
which then endanger health and life [7, 13].
CONCLUSIONS
1. For the majority of participants of the training camp,
skiing is a form of recreation that is especially at­
tractive, as it takes place in natural environment in
winter. Some of them, however, perceive its value in
– 87 –
Beata Wojtyczek, Małgorzata Pasławska
displays of speed and bravado and in social attrac­
tions off the slope.
2. In the academic curriculum, greater stress should
be put on requiring knowledge about climate and
the environmental dangers connected with staying
in the mountains in winter.
3. The majority of the researched students have the
correct attitude towards basic principles concerning
the hygiene of sleep, nutrition, and proper selection
and conservation of clothes and equipment during
ski holidays.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Chojnacki K, Kusion Ł: Analysis of ski injuries in the lead­
ing Polish alpine skiers (1987–2000) [in Polish], Sport
Wyczynowy, 2001; 9–10: 441–442.
[2] Senner V: Equipment development and research for more
performance and safety; in Müller E, Lindinger S, Stöggl T,
Fastenbauer V (eds.): 4th International Congress on Sci­
ence and skiing. Book of abstracts. Salzburg, University
of Salzburg, 2007.
[3] Wojtyczek B: Selected aspects of hygiene procedures for
sports and recreation classes in environmental conditions;
in K. Klukowski (ed.): Physical exercise medicine with the
elements of psychology and pedagogy. Academic Handbook
[in Polish]. Warszawa, Wydawnictwa Dydaktyczne, 2010.
[4] Leach R.: Alpine skiing. Boston, Blackwell Scientific
Publications, 1994.
[5] Pasławska M, Wojtyczek B: Personal injury and fatal
accidents among child downhill skiers ; in Konieczny J
(ed.): Safety of children in emergency health [in Polish].
Inowrocław – Poznań, Garmond Oficyna Wydawnicza,
2009: 165–185.
[6] Blachura B: The role and tasks of downhill ski teaching in
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
– 88 –
the process of motor rehabilitation and social integration
from the perspective of visually impaired people [in Polish]
Antropomotoryka, 2008; 43: 59–65.
Sabat U: The value of mental training components in­
troduced into the programme of downhill ski teaching [in
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ing [in Polish]. Warszawa, AWF, 2006.
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first-time skiers, snowboarders and skiboarders. American
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Čillík I, Král L: Effectiveness of teaching downhill skiing
to beginners depending on ski length [in Polish]. Antropomotoryka, 2008; 43: 43–49.
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Prange-Barczyński T: Skiing [in Polish]. Warszawa,
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NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
LONG-TERM TRENDS IN CHANGES OF PHYSICAL
FITNESS DEFINED IN THE CONCEPT OF HEALTH
(H-RF) IN LIGHT OF RESULTS OF PHYSICAL FITNESS
ASSESSMENT USING T-SCORES
DŁUGOOKRESOWE TENDENCJE ZMIAN SPRAWNOŚCI
FIZYCZNEJ UJĘTEJ W KONWENCJI ZDROWIA W ŚWIETLE
WYNIKÓW ICH EWALUACJI Z WYKORZYSTANIEM
SKALI TENOWEJ
Jerzy Januszewski*, Edward Mleczko**
** Prof. Dr. Habil. (emer.), University School of Physical Education in Cracow, Poland
** Prof. Dr. Habil., Department of Theory and Methodology of Athletics at the University School of Physical Education
in Cracow, Poland
Key words: health-related fitness (H-RF), evaluation, ten scale, inter-generational
variation (secular trends), scoring tables for a ten scale
Słowa kluczowe: sprawność fizyczna ukierunkowana na zdrowie (H-RF), ocena, skala
tenowa T, zmienność międzypokoleniowa (trendy sekularne), tabele punktacji w skali T
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The goal of the research was to assess the scope and direction of inter-generational
changes (secular trends) of physical fitness components studied in the health convention (Health-Related Fitness), and using the authors’ point scales.
Materials and methods. The comparative analysis was based on the research results collected from 1993
to 2002 (a total of 23,600 people, including 10,600 girls and 13,000 boys) and on observations made from 2002
to 2011 (a total of 11,520 people, including 5,390 girls and 6,130 boys). The subjects were students at primary
and secondary schools in southeast Poland. Statistical analysis was conducted on both the raw measurements
and the scores converted into points on a T-scale. New point tables were developed using the materials collected at the beginning of the 21st century.
Results and conclusions. The proposed method of scoring on a T-scale, which consisted of calculating
a normalized ten scale jointly for girls and boys of all age groups, proved to be a good tool to capture both the
comprehensive dynamics of morphological, functional and motor development, as well as long-term trends
of changes in the components of health-related fitness. The results have provided evidence challenging current views on the existence of “opening scissors phenomenon” in the biological development of young Polish
generations. In the last decade, there has been a tendency for the desired inter-generational changes in components such as cardio-respiratory, musculoskeletal, morphological, and motor – all of which can be regarded
as positive indicators of health. Their scope has been so significant that it justified the need to update existing
point tables of physical fitness. Therefore, on the basis of the latest materials, new scoring scales have been
developed that utilize the authors’ calculations.
– 89 –
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
Cel pracy. Podjęto się zadania oceny zakresu i kierunku zmian międzypokoleniowych (trendów sekularnych)
komponentów sprawności fizycznej badanej w konwencji zdrowia (Health-Related Fitness), posługując się autorskimi skalami punktowymi.
Materiał i metody. W analizie porównawczej wykorzystano wyniki badań zebrane w latach 1993–2002 (którymi objęto łącznie 23600 osób, w tym 10600 dziewcząt i 13000 chłopców) oraz pochodzące z obserwacji przeprowadzonych w latach 2002–2011 (na 11520 osobach, w tym na 5390 dziewczętach i 6130 chłopcach). Badani
byli uczniami szkół podstawowych i średnich z Polski Południowo-Wschodniej. Analizie statystycznej poddano
„surowe wyniki” oraz przeliczone na punkty w skali T. Opracowano nowe tabele punktacyjne z wykorzystaniem
materiałów zebranych na początku XXI wieku.
Wyniki i wnioski. Zaproponowana metoda punktacji w skali T, polegająca na obliczeniu łącznie dla wszystkich grup wiekowych dziewcząt i chłopców znormalizowanej skali T (tenowej), okazała się dobrym narzędziem
do uchwycenia zarówno wszechstronnej dynamiki rozwoju morfologicznego, funkcjonalnego i motorycznego,
jak i tendencji długookresowych zmian komponentów sprawności fizycznej ukierunkowanej na zdrowie (HealthRelated Fitness). Wyniki badań dostarczyły dowodów podważających dotychczasowy pogląd na temat istnienia
„zjawiska rozwartych nożyc” w rozwoju biologicznym młodego polskiego pokolenia. W ostatnim dziesięcioleciu
stwierdzono tendencję do pożądanych zmian międzypokoleniowych takich komponentów, jak: krążeniowo-oddechowe, mięśniowo-szkieletowe, morfologiczne i motoryczne, które można zaliczyć do pozytywnych mierników
zdrowia. Ich zakres był na tyle znaczący, że uzasadniał konieczność uaktualnienia istniejących dotąd tabel punktowych sprawności fizycznej. W związku z tym na podstawie najnowszych materiałów opracowano nowe skale
punktacyjne, posługując się autorską metodą ich wyliczania.
Introduction
The work published in 2005 [1] proposed an original
way to analyze the norms of physical fitness develop­
ment presented in the health convention (Health-Related
Fitness), and how to calculate on this basis a normalized
ten scale, known in Poland mostly as a T-scale. The rea­
sons for undertaking the research were the results of pre­
vious studies by Januszewski [2]. These results showed
that the commonly recommended statistical procedure,
which consists of determining the relations between the
measurements of indices of biological development and
the arithmetic means of the results that are collected in
a sufficiently large normalization sample in the consecu­
tive classes of calendar age [3], has a limited application.
For example, the point values calculated in this way allow
for the assessment of the level of biological development
only in a certain age category of biological development
[4 –7]. Thus, an innovative methodological approach was
proposed [2]. It consists of the use of other reference
points in the conversion of raw test measurements to
standard results. It is assumed that the reference points
would be the arithmetic means of the results calculated
from the measurements made in the considered period
of ontogeny, not in a particular calendar age, as has been
done thus far.
The paper mentioned above [1] verified the validity
of this research approach. It turned out that the point
values calculated in the recommended manner on
a normalized ten scale (T-scale) extended the scope of
interpretation of the motor development of children and
adolescents. First of all, the designed point scales allowed for the characterization of the quantitative aspect
of somatic, functional, and motor development of children and adolescents in a particular period of ontogeny.
It was observed that using the proposed evaluation tool
of physical fitness in its American concept did not diminish the possibilities of interpreting the research results at a particular calendar age, but another there was
another possibility that appeared to also easily characterize the pace of development of different features and
somatic indices, functional features and motor abilities,
as well as their differentiation between males and females. A reduction of the number of point tables used
to evaluate physical fitness in a traditional way was
also of great importance, as it facilitated the research.
Several dozen separate versions of point scales for
girls and boys aged 8–18 years were replaced with only
two versions regarding the specificity of both male and
female development.
Based on the fundamental assumption of auxology
that says that human biological development is variable in time and space [8], the subsequent research of
children and adolescents from Malopolska attempted
to assess the scope and direction of changes in intergenerational components of physical fitness, studied in
the health convention (Health-Related Fitness), using
the previously proposed point scales [1].
The paper included the research materials collected
between 1993 and 2002 whose results were published
– 90 –
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
primary and secondary schools and living in villages
and cities found in the Malopolska, Podkarpackie and
Świętokrzyskie voivodeships. In the past decade, a to­
tal of 11,520 research cards – 5,390 for girls and 6,130
for boys – were collected (see Table 1).
The collected materials were divided into 11 age
groups, separately for both sexes. Chronological age
was an indicator of division: for example, girls around
10 years and 6 months old and girls around 11 years
and 5 months old were classified into a group of 11year-olds.
The study considered the results of the evaluation
of basic somatic features, morphological and functional indices, and motor abilities that were proposed in
2005 [1] according to suggestions connected with the
popularization of the concept of heath-related fitness
(H-RF), linking physical activity to health [10, 11], which
has taken place in Poland.
in two articles in “Antropomotoryka” [1, 9]. The first article presented a T-scale developed separately for girls
and boys attending primary and secondary schools
in three voivodeships, Malopolska, Podkarpackie and
Świętokrzyskie, with no division into the categories of
place of residence, while the second paper included
the preliminary observations regarding the influence
of urban conditions on the development and fitness of
children and adolescents.
In clarifying the studied problems of this research, it
should be noted that on the basis of the collected materials, and by utilizing suitable tools and techniques,
the following research questions were attempted to be
answered by using a sufficiently large normalization
sample:
1. Can the proposed development of a ten scale
(T-scale) be a good tool for studying the specificity
of long-term trends of changes in the components of
physical fitness, studied in the health convention?
2. Does the scope of inter-generational changes in
the population of children and adolescents from
southeast Poland create a premise for updating the
tables of the T-scale?
A. Morphological fitness
• HEIGHT – Body height.
• MASS – Body mass.
• BMI – Body Mass Index (Quetelet Index) [12].
Materials and methods
B. Musculoskeletal fitness
According to research methodology, a researcher who
intends to prepare the development norms and point
scales while performing the measurements with a cer­
tain tool is obliged to take into account results obtained
in a sufficiently large normalization sample that is de­
rived from a population from which the people using the
results originate. The percentage composition of the
normalization sample in our study reflected the struc­
ture of the studied population with regards to sex, age,
place of residence, and education. In this paper as well
as the 2005 publication [1], it was sought to maximize
the number of assessed girls and boys when select­
ing the research materials. Therefore, the results of the
studies of the girls and boys aged 8–18 years that were
collected from 2002 to 2011 were compared with the
materials collected from 1993 to 2002. Observations
included students in southeastern Poland attending
• LBM – Lean body mass (difference between the
total body weight and the content of the “passive”
body fat, calculated from the percentage of fat in the
body mass); this content can be estimated by using
the following:
• ∑ T+S – Sum of 2 skin folds on triceps muscle of
arm and subscapular muscle [13].
• PF – Percentage of fat. The calculations were based
on the regression equations of Slaughter et al. [14]
• FLEXIBILITY – A forward bend test according to
Eurofit [15] IB.
C. Metabolic fitness
• VO2 max · kg –1 – Maximum oxygen consumption
As modified by Januszewski [16], the Margaria test
[17] was applied in the assessment.
Table 1. The number of students studied each year divided into girls (♀) and boys (♂)
Age
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
Sex
♀
250
290
614
723
718
583
535
670
424
397
186
Sex
♂
255
405
550
749
842
781
738
736
417
501
156
– 91 –
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
these tables allows for the absolute results mea­
sured on different scales (in: kg, cm, ml and s) to be
calculated, and then expressed in points from 0 to
100, thus normalizing and comparing them.
D. Motor fitness
• JUMP – Dynamic strength of muscular contraction
in lower extremities. Standing board jump using
both feet test according to Eurofit [15].
• THROW – A backward overhead 1 kg medicine
ball throw test. A test to assess dynamic strength of
muscular contraction in upper extremities and trunk
according to Eurofit [6,7].
• R-50 – Time of 50 m run from a standing start posi­
tion (running speed).
• TAPPING – Frequency of upper extremity move­
ment. Plate tapping test. Time of 15 cycles in Eurofit
test [15] modified by Szopa et al. [18].
• ORIENTATION – Space orientation. Duration of 49
tasks recorded in “free” series on AKN-102 cross
device.
E. Cardio-respiratory fitness
• R-1000 – Time of 1,000 m run. A trial evaluating
running endurance according to the rules of run
play by Mleczko called “Punctual train,” i.e., running
ten times along the perimeter of a square with sides
measuring 25 m [19,20].
The material collected in the course of the measurements and tests has been developed using the basic
statistical methods [21]. The following were calculated
for the age groups (aged 8 to 18 years) of both sexes
and for each variable:
− arithmetic mean (Me), standard deviation (SD), co­
efficient of variation (V) and extreme values (minmax);
− weighted arithmetic means and dispersion indices
for the whole material, regardless of the age of the
subjects, separately for girls and boys, were calcu­
lated from the obtained data;
− the above findings of the last decade (2002–2011)
were contrasted with the results of similar obser­
vations from 1993–2002, which are presented in
Table 2. The highlighted differences between the
compared weighted means were evaluated using
the previously developed T-scale [1];
− as a result of this comparison, the discrepancies
(especially among boys) were revealed, which con­
tributed to modification of the T-scale in existence
since 2005 (according to the rules: Me ± 5 SD; Me
= 50 points; 1 point = 0.1 SD) [14]. These data were
summarized in Tables 3 and 4. Using the data from
The resulting differences between the weighted
means after verification at 0 and 1, and also with the
T-scores on the 2005 scale, were considered statistically significant with a significance level of at least 5%
(p ≤ .05) [22].
Results
The comparison of the arithmetic means of both sexes
from 1993–2002 (A) and 2002–2011 (B), as seen in
Table 2, allows the size of differences and their direc­
tion expressed in different units of measurement to be
shown. In assessing the development – possibly either
regression or stabilization – of the various components
of fitness, which we assigned to the idea of H-RF, it
should be emphasized that with a few exceptions there
was a smaller or larger increase in the weighted means
in favor of the studies of the last decade. They concern
the small values of the Quetelet Index (R = –0.31 kg/m2)
and the 50 m run (–0.32 s) by 1 and 3 points on T-scale,
respectively, and the stabilization of body mass (–0.01
kg) in girls and flexibility (–0.24 cm) and oxygen con­
sumption (–0.16 ml/kg) in boys.
Moreover, it was observed that parallel, decreasing
standard deviation values (SD) and dispersion indices
(V) did not exceed 20% Me in almost all kinds of fitness
reductions, with two exceptions: the overhead 2 kg medicine ball throw and spatial orientation (ORIENTATION)
in girls and boys in both study periods.
These development trends (in assessing the
T-scores on the 2005 scale) indicate the significant increases in morphological fitness: body height (HIGHT),
mass (MASS), and active tissue (LBM) in musculoskeletal fitness (for boys only) – by 4 points respectively,
and (for both sexes) in 1000 m run – 6 points ♀ and 11
points ♂ in cardio-pulmonary fitness and spatial orientation (ORIENTATION) – 10 points ♀ and 7 points ♂ in
motor fitness of a coordinating nature. Other variables
are less progressive (by three and two points). For girls,
they include: TAPPING, LBM, HEIGHT, FLEXIBILITY
and JUMP; for boys: TAPPING, THROW and JUMP
only with a rating 2.
Thanks to the above findings, it was decided to develop a revised T-scale, the figures of which are given
in Tables 3 and 4. Based on the presented values and
– 92 –
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
Table 2. A comparison of weighted arithmetic means of both sexes for all the collected materials
Girls
Parameters
Me
SD
V
MIN
MAX
R
1.67
HEIGHT (cm)
A
151.02
6.78
4.50
120.00
181.00
B
152.69
5.70
3.73
124.40
180.50
MASS (kg)
A
43.73
7.70
17.60
15.00
79.00
B
43.72
6.35
14.52
18.40
84.00
BMI (kg/m2)
A
18.73
2.57
13.70
8.60
30.60
B
18.42
2.19
11.89
10.59
32.19
LBM (kg)
A
34.71
5.81
16.70
10.30
63.20
B
36.19
4.41
12.19
15.90
55.10
FLEXIBILITY (cm)
A
56.21
6.42
11.40
30.00
80.00
B
57.15
5.95
10.41
28.00
84.00
V02 max/kg (ml/kg)
A
44.28
8.50
19.20
24.40
77.80
B
44.47
6.83
15.36
30.60
77.09
JUMP (cm)
A
150.10
20.64
13.80
70.00
250.00
B
154.23
18.45
11.97
67.00
225.00
THROW (m)
A
5.69
1.42
25.00
1.30
12.50
B
5.87
1.53
26.00
1.30
13.20
R-50 (s)
A
9.29
0.93
10.00
14.00
7.20
B
9.61
0.92
9.62
13.90
6.90
R-1000 (s)
A
349.24
47.12
13.50
540.00
200.00
B
321.00
45.29
14.11
479.52
170.00
TAPPING (s)
A
8.04
1.59
19.80
14.00
5.00
B
7.54
1.07
14.21
12.87
4.26
ORIENTATION (s)
A
95.77
24.32
25.40
215.00
43.00
B
71.61
16.28
22.74
160.00
39.00
T-SCORE
R
50
2
52
–0.01
50
0
50
–0.31
50
-1
49
1.48
50
3
53
0.94
50
2
52
0.19
50
0
50
4.13
50
2
52
0.18
50
1
51
–0.32
51
-3
48
28.24
51
6
57
0.50
51
3
54
24.16
51
10
61
Boys
SD
V
MIN
MAX
R
T-SCORE
R
HEIGHT (cm)
Parameters
A
153.26
Me
7.28
4.80
123.00
188.00
2.87
50
4
B
156.13
7.07
4.53
125.20
198.00
MASS (kg)
A
45.03
8.28
18.40
18.00
83.00
B
47.06
8.04
17.09
18.00
87.00
BMI (kg/m2)
A
18.57
2.51
13.50
11.00
29.90
B
18.86
2.42
12.83
11.33
30.90
LBM (kg)
A
37.94
6.26
16.50
11.10
68.00
B
40.18
5.63
14.02
17.10
68.22
FLEXIBILITY (cm)
A
53.80
6.49
12.10
24.00
76.00
B
53.56
6.48
12.10
23.00
85.90
V02 max/kg (ml/kg)
A
51.51
9.53
18.50
23.00
81.50
B
51.35
9.14
17.81
23.00
80.46
JUMP (cm)
A
166.66
21.75
13.10
73.00
270.00
B
171.92
20.24
11.77
77.00
270.00
THROW (m)
A
7.08
1.77
25.00
2.00
15.40
B
7.52
1.72
22.89
2.00
15.50
R-50 (s)
A
8.84
0.84
9.50
13.00
7.00
B
8.77
0.86
9.86
12.88
6.10
R-1000 (s)
A
309.84
44.24
14.30
500.00
180.00
B
263.27
30.94
11.75
409.00
198.00
TAPPING (s)
A
7.83
1.36
17.40
13.50
5.00
B
7.61
1.20
15.82
13.40
4.17
ORIENTATION (s)
A
94.99
25.88
27.20
216.00
40.00
B
77.02
18.73
24.31
168.80
39.00
A – research in the years 1993–2002
B – research in the years 2002–2011
Commentary – see Methods and Materials
– 93 –
54
2.03
50
4
54
0.29
50
1
51
2.24
50
4
54
–0.24
50
0
50
–0.16
50
0
50
5.26
50
2
52
0.44
50
2
52
0.07
50
1
51
46.57
51
11
62
0.22
51
2
53
17.97
51
58
7
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
– 94 –
9
10
1.3
1.4
1.6
1.7
1.9
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.8
3.0
3.1
3.3
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.9
4.0
4.2
4.3
4.5
4.6
4.8
5.0
5.1
5.3
5.4
5.6
5.7
13.9
13.8
13.8
13.7
13.6
13.5
13.4
13.3
13.2
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.6
12.6
12.5
12.4
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
479.5
475.0
470.5
465.9
461.4
456.9
452.3
447.8
443.3
438.8
434.2
429.7
425.2
420.6
416.1
411.6
407.1
402.5
398.0
393.5
388.9
384.4
379.9
375.3
370.8
366.3
361.8
357.2
352.7
348.2
343.6
339.1
334.6
330.1
325.5
11
12.8
12.7
12.6
12.5
12.4
12.2
12.1
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.6
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.6
12
151.4
149.8
148.1
146.5
144.9
143.2
141.6
140.0
138.4
136.7
135.1
133.5
131.8
130.2
128.6
127.0
125.3
123.7
122.1
120.5
118.8
117.2
115.6
113.9
112.3
110.7
109.1
107.4
105.8
104.2
102.5
100.9
99.3
97.7
96.0
94.4
92.8
91.1
89.5
87.9
86.3
84.6
83.0
81.4
79.8
78.1
76.5
74.9
73.2
Point
8
Space orientation
30.1
30.8
31.5
32.2
32.9
33.5
34.2
34.9
35.6
36.3
37.0
37.6
38.3
39.0
39.7
40.4
41.1
41.7
42.4
43.1
43.8
7
65.7
67.5
69.4
71.2
73.1
74.9
76.7
78.6
80.4
82.3
84.1
86.0
87.8
89.7
91.5
93.3
95.2
97.0
98.9
100.7
102.6
104.4
106.3
108.1
110.0
111.8
113.6
115.5
117.3
119.2
121.0
122.9
124.7
126.6
128.4
130.2
132.1
133.9
135.8
137.6
139.5
141.3
143.2
145.0
146.9
148.7
150.5
152.4
Plate tapping test
10.5
10.8
11.0
11.2
11.4
11.6
11.9
12.1
12.3
12.5
12.7
12.9
13.2
13.4
13.6
13.8
14.0
14.3
14.5
14.7
14.9
15.1
15.4
15.6
15.8
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.7
16.9
17.1
17.3
17.5
17.8
18.0
18.2
6
Shuttle run
1000 m
18.3
19.0
19.6
20.2
20.9
21.5
22.1
22.8
23.4
24.0
24.7
25.3
25.9
26.6
27.2
27.8
28.5
29.1
29.8
30.4
31.0
31.7
32.3
32.9
33.6
34.2
34.8
35.5
36.1
36.7
37.4
38.0
38.6
39.3
39.9
40.5
41.2
41.8
42.5
43.1
15.9
16.3
16.8
17.2
17.7
18.1
18.6
19.0
19.4
19.9
20.3
20.8
21.2
21.6
22.1
22.5
23.0
23.4
23.8
24.3
24.7
25.2
25.6
26.0
26.5
26.9
27.4
27.8
28.3
28.7
29.1
29.6
30.0
30.5
30.9
31.3
31.8
32.2
32.7
33.1
33.5
34.0
34.4
34.9
35.3
35.7
5
28.0
28.6
29.2
29.8
30.4
31.0
31.6
32.2
32.8
33.4
33.9
34.5
35.1
35.7
36.3
36.9
37.5
38.1
38.7
39.3
39.9
40.5
41.1
41.7
42.3
42.9
43.5
44.1
44.7
45.3
45.8
46.4
47.0
47.6
48.2
48.8
49.4
50.0
50.6
51.2
51.8
52.4
53.0
53.6
54.2
54.8
55.4
56.0
56.6
50m shuttle run
4
Backward
medicine ball
throw
3
Standing board
jump
LBM
Lean body mass
2
VO2 max . kg–1
Max oxygen
consumption
BMI
Body mass index
1
124.8
125.3
125.9
126.5
127.0
127.6
128.2
128.8
129.3
129.9
130.5
131.0
131.6
132.2
132.7
133.3
133.9
134.5
135.0
135.6
136.2
136.7
137.3
137.9
138.4
139.0
139.6
140.2
140.7
141.3
141.9
142.4
143.0
143.6
144.1
144.7
145.3
145.9
146.4
147.0
147.6
148.1
148.7
149.3
149.8
150.4
151.0
151.6
152.1
Flexibility
Body mass
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
Body height
Point
Table 3. The T-score for evaluation of the morph-functional features of girls
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18.4
18.6
18.9
19.1
19.3
19.5
19.7
20.0
20.2
20.4
20.6
20.8
21.1
21.3
21.5
21.7
21.9
22.1
22.4
22.6
22.8
23.0
23.2
23.5
23.7
23.9
24.1
24.3
24.6
24.8
25.0
25.2
25.4
25.7
25.9
26.1
26.3
26.5
26.7
27.0
27.2
27.4
27.6
27.8
28.1
28.3
28.5
28.7
28.9
29.2
29.4
36.2
36.6
37.1
37.5
38.0
38.4
38.8
39.3
39.7
40.2
40.6
41.0
41.5
41.9
42.4
42.8
43.3
43.7
44.1
44.6
45.0
45.45
45.9
46.3
46.8
47.2
47.7
48.1
48.5
49.0
49.4
49.9
50.3
50.7
51.2
51.6
52.1
52.5
53.0
53.4
53.8
54.3
54.7
55.2
57.2
57.8
58.3
58.9
59.5
60.1
60.7
61.3
61.9
62.5
63.1
63.7
64.3
64.9
65.5
66.1
66.7
67.3
67.9
68.5
69.1
69.7
70.2
70.8
71.4
72.0
72.6
73.2
73.8
74.4
75.0
75.6
76.2
76.8
77.4
78.0
78.6
79.2
79.8
80.4
81.0
81.6
82.1
82.7
83.3
83.9
84.5
44.5
45.2
45.8
46.5
47.2
47.9
48.6
49.3
49.9
50.6
51.3
52.0
52.7
53.4
54.0
54.7
55.4
56.1
56.8
57.5
58.1
58.8
59.5
60.2
60.9
61.6
62.2
62.9
63.6
64.3
65.0
65.6
66.3
67.0
67.7
68.4
69.1
69.7
70.4
71.1
71.8
72.5
73.2
73.8
74.5
75.2
75.9
76.6
77.3
154.2
156.1
157.9
159.8
161.6
163.5
165.3
167.2
169.0
170.8
172.7
174.5
176.4
178.2
180.1
181.9
183.8
185.6
187.4
189.3
191.1
193.0
194.8
196.7
198.5
200.4
202.2
204.1
205.9
207.7
209.6
211.4
213.3
215.1
217.0
218.8
220.7
222.5
224.3
226.2
5.9
6.0
6.2
6.3
6.5
6.6
6.8
6.9
7.1
7.3
7.4
7.6
7.7
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.3
8.5
8.6
8.8
8.9
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.5
9.7
9.9
10.0
10.2
10.3
10.5
10.6
10.8
10.9
11.1
11.2
11.4
11.5
11.7
11.8
12.0
12.1
12.3
12.5
12.6
12.8
12.9
13.1
13.2
9.6
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.2
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.9
321.0
316.5
311.9
307.4
302.9
298.4
293.8
289.3
284.8
280.2
275.7
271.2
266.7
262.1
257.6
253.1
248.5
244.0
239.5
235.0
230.4
225.9
221.4
216.8
212.3
207.8
203.3
198.7
194.2
189.7
185.1
180.6
176.1
171.5
167.0
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.0
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.4
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.8
4.7
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.2
71.6
70.0
68.4
66.7
65.1
63.5
61.8
60.2
58.6
57.0
55.3
53.7
52.1
50.5
48.8
47.2
45.6
43.9
42.3
40.7
39.1
37.4
– 95 –
Shuttle run
1000 m
3
43.7
44.4
45.0
45.6
46.3
46.9
47.5
48.2
48.8
49.4
50.1
50.7
51.3
52.0
52.6
53.3
53.9
54.5
55.2
55.8
56.4
57.1
57.7
58.3
59.0
59.6
60.2
60.9
61.5
62.1
62.8
63.4
64.0
64.7
65.3
66.0
66.6
67.2
67.9
68.5
69.1
69.8
70.4
71.0
71.7
72.3
72.9
73.6
74.2
74.8
75.5
Flexibility
2
152.7
153.3
153.8
154.4
155.0
155.5
156.1
156.7
157.3
157.8
158.4
159.0
159.5
160.1
160.7
161.2
161.8
162.4
163.0
163.5
164.1
164.7
165.2
165.8
166.4
166.9
167.5
168.1
168.7
169.2
169.8
170.4
170.9
171.5
172.1
172.6
173.2
173. 8
174.4
174.9
175.5
176.1
176.6
177.2
177.8
178.3
178.9
179.5
180.1
180.6
Point
Space orientation
Plate tapping test
50m shuttle run
Backward
medicine ball
throw
Standing board
jump
VO2 max . kg–1
Max oxygen
consumption
LBM
Lean body mass
Body height
1
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Body mass
Point
BMI
Body mass index
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
Body mass
BMI
Body mass index
LBM
Lean body mass
Flexibility
VO2 max . kg–1
Max oxygen
consumption
Standing board
jump
Backward
medicine ball
throw
50m shuttle run
Shuttle run
1000 m
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
125.0
125.7
126.4
127.1
127.9
128.6
129.3
130.0
130.7
131.4
132.1
132.8
133.5
134.2
134.9
135.6
136.3
137.0
137.7
138.5
139.2
139.9
140.6
141.3
142.0
142.7
143.4
144.1
144.8
145.5
146.2
146.9
147.6
148.4
149.1
149.8
150.5
151.2
151.9
152.6
153.3
154.0
154.7
155.4
22.5
23.1
23.8
24.4
25.0
25.7
26.3
27.0
27.6
28.3
28.9
29.6
30.2
30.9
31.5
32.2
32.8
33.5
34.1
34.8
35.4
36.1
36.7
37.4
38.0
38.7
39.3
40.0
40.6
41.2
41.9
42.5
43.2
43.8
44.5
45.1
45.8
46.4
47.1
47.7
48.4
49.0
49.7
50.3
51.0
51.6
52.3
52.9
22.1
23.0
23.9
24.8
25.8
26.7
27.6
28.5
29.4
30.3
31.2
32.2
33.1
34.0
34.9
35.8
36.7
37.6
38.6
39.5
40.4
41.3
42.2
43.1
44.0
45.0
45.9
46.8
47.7
48.6
49.5
50.4
76.8
78.8
80.8
82.9
84.9
86.9
88.9
91.0
93.0
95.0
97.0
99.1
101.1
103.1
105.1
107.2
109.2
111.2
113.2
115.2
117.3
119.3
121.3
123.3
125.4
127.4
129.4
131.4
133.5
135.5
137.5
139.5
141.6
143.6
145.6
147.6
149.7
151.7
153.7
155.7
157.8
159.8
161.8
163.8
165.8
167.9
169.9
1.8
2.0
2.2
2.4
2.5
2.7
2.9
3.0
3.2
3.4
3.6
3.7
3.9
4.1
4.3
4.4
4.6
4.8
4.9
5.1
5.3
5.5
5.6
5.8
6.0
6.1
6.3
6.5
6.7
6.8
7.0
7.2
7.3
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.6
12.6
12.5
12.4
12.3
12.2
12.1
12.0
12.0
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.4
11.4
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.8
10.7
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.2
10.1
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.7
9.6
9.5
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.1
9.0
8.9
8.9
411.8
408.7
405.6
402.5
399.4
396.3
393.2
390.1
387.0
383.9
380.8
377.7
374.7
371.6
368.5
365.4
362.3
359.2
356.1
353.0
349.9
346.8
343.7
340.6
337.5
334.4
331.3
328.2
325.2
322.1
319.0
315.9
312.8
309.7
306.6
303.5
300.4
297.3
294.2
291.1
288.0
284.9
281.8
278.7
275.6
272.6
269.5
266.4
13.5
13.4
13.3
13.1
13.0
12.9
12.8
12.7
12.5
12.4
12.3
12.2
12.1
11.9
11.8
11.7
11.6
11.5
11.3
11.2
11.1
11.0
10.9
10.7
10.6
10.5
10.4
10.3
10.1
10.0
9.9
9.8
9.6
9.5
9.4
9.3
9.2
9.0
8.9
8.8
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.7
168.8
166.9
165.1
163.2
161.3
159.4
157.6
155.7
153.8
151.9
150.1
148.2
146.3
144.4
142.6
140.7
138.8
137.0
135.1
133.2
131.3
129.5
127.6
125.7
123.8
122.0
120.1
118.2
116.4
114.5
112.6
110.7
108.9
107.0
105.1
103.2
101.4
99.5
97.6
95.8
93.9
92.0
90.1
88.3
86.4
84.5
82.6
80.8
78.9
17.3
18.1
18.9
19.7
20.5
21.3
22.1
22.9
23.7
24.5
25.4
26.2
27.0
27.8
28.6
29.4
30.2
31.0
31.8
32.6
33.4
34.2
35.0
35.8
36.6
37.4
38.2
39.0
39.8
40.6
41.4
42.2
43.0
43.8
44.6
45.5
46.3
11.1
11.4
11.6
11.8
12.1
12.3
12.6
12.8
13.1
13.3
13.5
13.8
14.0
14.3
14.5
14.7
15.0
15.2
15.5
15.7
16.0
16.2
16.4
16.7
16.9
17.2
17.4
17.7
17.9
18.1
18.4
18.6
17.1
17.7
18.2
18.8
19.3
19.9
20.5
21.0
21.6
22.2
22.7
23.3
23.9
24.4
25.0
25.5
26.1
26.7
27.2
27.8
28.4
28.9
29.5
30.0
30.6
31.2
31.7
32.3
32.9
33.4
34.0
34.6
35.1
35.7
36.2
36.8
37.4
37.9
38.5
39.1
39.6
– 96 –
Point
Body height
Space orientation
Point
Plate tapping test
Table 4. The T-score for evaluation of the morph-functional features of boys
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
18.9
19.1
19.3
19.6
19.8
20.1
20.3
20.6
20.8
21.0
21.3
21.5
21.8
22.0
22.2
22.5
22.7
23.0
23.2
23.5
23.7
23.9
24.2
24.4
24.7
24.9
25.2
25.4
25.6
25.9
26.1
26.4
26.6
26.8
27.1
27.3
27.6
27.8
28.1
28.3
28.5
28.8
29.0
29.3
29.5
29.8
30.0
30.2
30.5
30.7
31.0
40.2
40.7
41.3
41.9
42.4
43.0
43.6
44.1
44.7
45.2
45.8
46.4
46.9
47.5
48.1
48.6
49.2
49.8
50.3
50.9
51.4
52.0
52.6
53.1
53.7
54.3
54.8
55.4
55.9
56.5
57.1
57.6
58.2
58.8
59.3
59.9
60.4
61.0
61.6
62.1
62.7
63.3
63.8
64.4
65.0
65.5
66.1
66.6
67.2
67.8
68.3
53.6
54.2
54.9
55.5
56.2
56.8
57.4
58.1
58.7
59.4
60.0
60.7
61.3
62.0
62.6
63.3
63.9
64.6
65.2
65.9
66.5
67.2
67.8
68.5
69.1
69.8
70.4
71.1
71.7
72.4
73.0
73.6
74.3
74.9
75.6
76.2
76.9
77.5
78.2
78.8
79.5
80.1
80.8
81.4
82.1
82.7
83.4
84.0
84.7
85.3
86.0
51.4
52.3
53.2
54.1
55.0
55.9
56.8
57.7
58.7
59.6
60.5
61.4
62.3
63.2
64.1
65.1
66.0
66.9
67.8
68.7
69.6
70.5
71.5
72.4
73.3
74.2
75.1
76.0
76.9
77.9
78.8
79.7
80.6
171.9
173.9
176.0
178.0
180.0
182.0
184.1
186.1
188.1
190.1
192.2
194.2
196.2
198.2
200.3
202.3
204.3
206.3
208.4
210.4
212.4
214.4
216.4
218.5
220.5
222.5
224.5
226.6
228.6
230.6
232.6
234.7
236.7
238.7
240.7
242.8
244.8
246.8
248.8
250.9
252.9
254.9
256.9
259.0
261.0
263.0
265.0
267.0
269.1
271.1
7.5
7.7
7.9
8.0
8.2
8.4
8.6
8.7
8.9
9.1
9.2
9.4
9.6
9.8
9.9
10.1
10.3
10.4
10.6
10.8
11.0
11.1
11.3
11.5
11.6
11.8
12.0
12.2
12.3
12.5
12.7
12.9
13.0
13.2
13.4
13.5
13.7
13.9
14.1
14.2
14.4
14.6
14.7
14.9
15.1
15.3
15.4
15.6
8.77
8.7
8.6
8.5
8.4
8.3
8.3
8.2
8.1
8.0
7.9
7.8
7.7
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.2
7.1
7.0
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.6
6.5
6.4
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
6.0
263.3
260.2
257.1
254.0
250.9
247.8
244.7
241.6
238.5
235.4
232.3
229.2
226.1
223.0
220.0
216.9
213.8
210.7
207.6
204.5
201.4
198.3
195.2
7.6
7.5
7.4
7.3
7.1
7.0
6.9
6.8
6.7
6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2
6.1
5.9
5.8
5.7
5.6
5.5
5.3
5.2
5.1
5.0
4.9
4.7
4.6
4.5
4.4
4.3
4.1
77.0
75.1
73.3
71.4
69.5
67.7
65.8
63.9
62.0
60.2
58.3
56.4
54.5
52.7
50.8
48.9
47.1
45.2
43.3
41.4
39.6
37.7
– 97 –
Shuttle run
1000 m
3
47.1
47.9
48.7
49.5
50.3
51.1
51.9
52.7
53.5
54.3
55.1
55.9
56.7
57.5
58.3
59.1
59.9
60.7
61.5
62.3
63.1
63.9
64.7
65.6
66.4
67.2
68.0
68.8
69.6
70.4
71.2
72.0
72.8
73.6
74.4
75.2
76.0
76.8
77.6
78.4
79.2
80.0
80.8
81.6
82.4
83.2
84.0
84.8
85.7
86.5
87.3
Flexibility
2
156.1
156.8
157.5
158.3
159.0
159.7
160.4
161.1
161.8
162.5
163.2
163.9
164.6
165.3
166.0
166.7
167.4
168.1
168.9
169.6
170.3
171.0
171.7
172.4
173.1
173.8
174.5
175.2
175.9
176.6
177.3
178.0
178.8
179.5
180.2
180.9
181.6
182.3
183.0
183.7
184.4
185.1
185.8
186.5
187.2
187.9
188.7
189.4
190.1
190.8
191.5
Point
Space orientation
Plate tapping test
50 m shuttle run
Backward
medicine ball
throw
Standing board
jump
VO2 max . kg–1
Max oxygen
consumption
LBM
Lean body mass
Body height
1
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
Body mass
Point
BMI
Body mass index
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
86
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
– 98 –
Body mass
BMI – Body mass index
LBM – Lean body mass
Flexibility (cm)
Maximum oxygen consumption
VO 2 max . kg–1
Standing board jump
Backward medicine ball throw
50 m shuttle run
1000 m shuttle run
Plate tapping test
Space orientation
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Me
Body height
Parameters
1
No.
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
♀
Sex
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
♂
29.67
29.42
29
17
29
27
24
30
27
35
24
29
26
30
47
49
46
43
22
19
40
38
27
23
15
13
8
34.00
35.83
32
33
37
35
33
43
32
43
30
35
30
36
48
49
47
44
25
24
42
40
30
28
22
20
9
40.33
39.83
45
41
44
42
46
45
39
43
39
42
37
40
48
49
47
44
32
32
43
41
35
32
29
27
10
Table 5. The average level of the studied morph-functional variables expressed in the T-scores
42.92
44.50
49
50
47
47
48
49
44
47
41
43
40
45
48
49
46
45
37
40
44
44
37
38
34
37
11
46.17
48.83
53
55
52
53
50
50
46
50
39
46
44
51
50
48
47
46
41
45
46
48
43
46
43
48
12
50.58
52.92
55
59
54
53
53
51
49
51
48
54
50
53
51
51
47
49
50
50
49
51
49
54
52
59
13
Age in years
55.50
56.00
60
62
59
61
57
53
54
52
52
52
57
56
52
52
51
52
56
56
52
54
56
59
60
63
14
57.67
57.75
58
59
58
61
58
58
57
57
59
52
63
56
36
48
51
55
67
63
55
56
63
62
67
66
15
61.75
60.08
60
60
57
59
60
58
60
58
68
60
68
57
47
48
53
56
72
73
57
58
67
66
72
68
16
64.08
61.42
56
58
55
57
61
59
64
62
71
66
68
58
54
50
59
58
76
74
59
59
71
67
75
69
17
65.75
62.33
56
56
50
58
63
58
67
63
73
66
71
60
59
53
60
60
76
74
61
60
75
69
78
71
18
50.27
50.00
49.27
50.27
50.27
50.36
49.00
51.00
49.45
49.55
50.36
49.27
49.09
49.64
50.36
50.18
50.36
50.00
49.82
49.91
50.27
49.45
49.73
49.18
Me
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
100
Badania 2002-2011/
2001-2011 research
90
Skala T (pkt) / T-scores (point)
80
70
Badania 1993-2002/
1993-2002 research
60
Zmienne (patrz: Materiaá i Metodyka) / Variables see Materials and Methods
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
30
20
10
0
Figure 1. The example of a comparison of the range of T-scores, limited by the extreme values of the variables, in both decades of
the studied girls
previously obtained arithmetic means for the 11 age
groups (from 8 to 18 years old) of both sexes and 12
components studied during 2002–2011, the data of
Table 5 were compiled. The range of all 12 parameters,
restricted by the extreme values (min-max from Table
2), observed in both decades for girls is shown as an
example in Figure 1. Logically, this kind of restriction
of the T-scale range should be stochastic, regardless
7
6
Skala T (pkt)/ T-scores (point)
5
4
3
2
1
0
Wiek / Age
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
-1
Badania II 2002-2011 / 2002-2011 research
Badania I 1993-2002 / 1993-2002 research
Figure 2. The example of a comparison of dynamics of annual increases of the means of all variables in both series of studies of boys
at the points of T-scale
– 99 –
Jerzy Januszewski, Edward Mleczko
of the fact that the dispersion of individual data for the
analyzed variables is similar to the Gauss curve (see
Table 5), in which the mean of the following parameters
oscillate around 50 points and are based on a significant
number of studied girls and boys (Table 1). However, it
exposes the shift on the scale from 0 to 100 points.
The image of curves on Figure 1 illustrating the
span between the lowest and the highest points on the
scale is similar (in spite of intersections) in the case of
the girls examined during 1993-2002 to the case of the
girls assessed in the last decade (2002-2011), which in
some sense undermines the logic of considerations on
the randomness of the aforementioned restrictions.
Body height marked with number (1) is characterized
by the greatest range (on the sketch), and the “group”
of the variables evaluated with seconds: 50 m run (9),
1,000 m run (10), and movement speed of a more dextrous arm – TAPPING (11) as well as spatial orientation
(12) in both decades of the study, is characterized by
the smallest range.
The modified T-scale, calculated separately for boys
and girls, also allows (in the same units of measurement) for the assessment of fitness development over
the years: morphological, musculoskeletal, metabolic,
cardio-pulmonary, including many motor skills and their
dynamics. It also allows for the comparison between the
observed girls and boys. These procedures are especially facilitated by the data in Table 5 and an example
comparison of the dynamics of boys’ development over
two decades of observation, as illustrated in Figure 2.
In analyzing the data presented in the aforementioned Table, it can be actually observed that the mean
values (Me) of the 12 analyzed variables (from 8 to 18
years old) of both studied sexes from 2002 to 2011
have a characteristic form. In the early school years,
i.e., students aged 8 to 10 years, there is no clear differentiation between the values of evaluation, but from
11 to 14 years old, it is mostly girls that dominate – thus
indicating the accelerated pubescent process – and after leveling with boys at the age of 15 years, boys are
clearly ahead of them one year later. Of course, similar
analysis can be also performed on all variables.
It is also interesting to compare the dynamics of annual increases in mean values of all the assessed kinds
of fitness of boys in both series of tests (Figure 2). In
the last 10 years (2002–2011), the acceleration shaped
a jumpy downward curve, with three distinct trends to
increase between the ages of 9 and 10 years, 13 and
14 years, 15 and 16 years, and two distinct declines
(aged 10 and 11 years, 14 and 15 years). The last low-
est rise of 1.7 T-scores indicates that the inhibition of
development has not happened yet for the observed
subjects. The acceleration curve and curve of the previous findings (1993–2002) look like a sinusoid that ends
with a dynamic regression that manifests the cessation
of growth.
In both cases, the greatest increases are noted in
the early years of the research and between 12 and 16
years old, which can prove – after all – the same effects
of development.
Summary
The presented materials and their analysis allowed two
of the formulated research questions to be answered.
First, it is assumed that the proposed method to de­
velop a ten scale (T-scale) can be a good tool for study­
ing the specificity of long-term trends of changes in the
components of physical fitness, studied in the health
convention. The results of a comparative analysis of
the arithmetic means of components of physical fit­
ness in the health convention of girls and boys aged
8–18 years from small towns and villages in southeast
Poland, studied between the years 1993–2002 and
2002–2011, showed the size and direction of differ­
ences, expressed in different units of measurement.
The observed development trends (using the T-scores
in 2005 scale) indicate the significant increases in psy­
chomotor and cardio-pulmonary fitness, and a smaller,
but statistically significant differentiation in favor of the
research in the components of morphological fitness
conducted in the decade of the 21st century. The fol­
lowing rank order can be created:
10 points (♀ and ♂) – spatial orientation (ORIEN­
TATION);
6 points (♀) and 11 points (♂) – cardio-respiratory fit­
ness (VO2 • kg–1 );
7 points (♀ and ♂) – visual-motor coordination;
6 points (♀ and ♂) – 1000 m run (R-1000);
4 points (♀): height (HEIGHT) and body mass (MASS)
and active tissue (LBM), musculoskeletal fitness
(THROW), (♂): musculoskeletal fitness (THROW);
3–2 points – (♀): TAPPING and LBM, (♂): HEIGHT,
FLEXIBILITY and JUMP, TAPPING, THROW;
2 points – JUMP (♂).
Such a trend has not confirmed the previous view
that the phenomenon (“opening scissors phenomenon”), which consists of a significant improvement of
the level of somatic development and decrease of the
– 100 –
Long-term trends in changes of physical fitness defined in the concept of health (h-rf) in light of results...
functional and motor development indices [23, 24], can
be observed in the inter-generational variation of physical fitness of children and adolescents. This is an optimistic observation, although it may only have a regional
range. The smaller or larger increases in the weighted
means in favor of the research from the last 10 years
may also provide proof of the non-accidental nature of
the observed trend.
The presented differences between the “developmental” arithmetic means of the particular components
of physical fitness, which occurred at an interval of
ten years, were statistically significant in most cases.
Therefore, there were grounds for considering the suggestions expressed in the second question to develop
a new scale, building on the results of the research carried out at the turn of the century. Such an application
form was completed and supported by the attached
current point tables, based on the ten scale and the
authors’ approach to the concept of reference points in
the conversion of raw measurements to the standard
results.
LITERATURE • PIŚMIENNICTWO [1] Januszewski J, Mleczko E: Ewaluacja rozwoju morfo­
funkcjonalnego oraz motorycznego dziewcząt i chłopców
z wykorzystaniem skali T – implikacje praktyczne. Antropomotoryka, 2005; 31: 23–38.
[2] Januszewski J: Propozycja nowego podejścia do rela­
tywnej oceny sprawności motorycznej. Antropomotoryka,
1998; 17:163-173.
[3] Hornowska E: Testy psychologiczne : teoria i praktyka.
Warszawa, Scholar, 2007.
[4] Żak S: Tabele punktacji Międzynarodowego Testu Spraw­
ności Fizycznej (ICSPFT) dla młodzieży w wieku 12–18
lat. Wyd. Skryptowe, Kraków, AWF, 1977; 32.
[5] Żak S: Zdolności kondycyjne i koordynacyjne dzieci
i młodzieży z populacji wielkomiejskiej na tle wybranych
uwarunkowań somatycznych i aktywności ruchowej. Wyd.
Monograficzne, Vol. II, Kraków, AWF, 1991; 43.
[6] Pilicz S, Przewęda R, Trześniowski R: Skale punktowe do
oceny sprawności fizycznej polskiej młodzieży (Wartości
wyników Testu Międzynarodowego, aktualne do roku
2000). Studia i Monografie, Warszawa, AWF, 1993.
[7] Pilicz S, Przewęda R, Dobosz J, Nowacka-Dobosz S:
Punktacja sprawności fizycznej młodzieży polskiej wg
Międzynarodowego Testu Sprawności Fizycznej. Kryteria
pomiaru wydolności organizmu testem Coopera. Warszawa, AWF, 2004.
[8] Malinowski A: Norma biologiczna a rozwój somatyczny
człowieka. Warszawa, IWZZ, 1987.
[9] Januszewski J, Mleczko E: The sharpness of social gra­
dients at the turn of the century in Małopolska (Galicia)
in light of the physical fitness assessment, a test on the
concept of health (H-RF) using scale of the T-scores.
Antropomotoryka, 2011; 56:
[10] Osiński W: Tendencje w tworzeniu testów sprawności
fizycznej w ramach koncepcji “Heath-Related Fitness”.
Antropomotoryka, 1998; 17:155–193.
[11] Osiński W: Sprawność fizyczna a badanie nad motorycz­
nością człowieka: sporu o konstrukt podstawowy wcale
nie ciąg dalszy. Antropomotoryka, 2004; 28:103–107.
[12] Gołąb S, Chrzanowska M (eds): Przewodnik do ćwiczeń
z antropologii. Podręczniki i Skrypty, Kraków, AWF, 2002;
2:22.
[13] Pařrizkowa J: Mereni podium aktivni hmotu a tuku
v lidskem tele a jeho wyznam ve sportovni praxi. Teorie
a Praxe Tel. Vych., 1962; 5: 273-279.
[14] Slaughter M, Lohman G, Boileau RA, Hiorswill SA, Sillman
RJ, VanBemben DA: Skin Fold Equation for Estimation
of Body Fitness in Children and Youth Human Biology,
1988; 60(5): 709–723.
[15] Eurofit. Europejski test sprawności fizycznej (translated
from English language by H. Grabowski and J.Szopa)
Wyd. Skryptowe, Kraków, AWF, 1991; 103.
[16] Januszewski J: Pomiar zdolności wysiłkowej dziewcząt i chłopców w wieku szkolnym zmodyfikowanym
testem Margarii. Wychowanie Fizyczne i Sport. 1981;
1:3–12.
[17] Margaria R. et al.: Indirect determination of maximal O2
consumption in man. J. Applied Physiology, 1965; 20(5):
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[18] Szopa J., Mleczko E., Żak S. Podstawy antropomotoryki.
Wyd II, Kraków–Warszawa, PWN, 2000.
[19] Mleczko E: Gry i zabawy bieżne, wytrzymałościowe.
Szkolenie i Trening; 114. Lekkoatletyka, 1983; 8:
16–17.
[20] Mleczko E: Metodyka nauczania biegów średnich i dłu­
gich; in Mleczko E (ed.): Lekkoatletyka. Podręczniki
i Skrypty, Kraków, AWF, 2007; 30: 71-73.
[21] Guilford JP: Podstawowe metody statystyczne w psycho­
logii i pedagogice. Warszawa, PWN, 1960.
[22] McCloy C. H., Young ND: Tests and measurements in
health and physical education (3rd ed.). New York, Appleton–Century–Crofts, 1954,
[23] Przewęda R, Dobosz J: Kondycja fizyczna polskiej
młodzieży. Studia i Monografie, Warszawa, AWF,
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– 101 –
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
ANTHROPOLOGICAL EVALUATION
OF THE INFLUENCE OF SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS
ON THE DEVELOPMENT AND PHYSICAL FITNESS
OF RURAL BOYS FROM LUBLIN REGION
ANTROPOLOGICZNA OCENA WPŁYWU CZYNNIKÓW
SOCJOEKONOMICZNYCH NA ROZWÓJ I SPRAWNOŚĆ
FIZYCZNĄ CHŁOPCÓW WIEJSKICH Z LUBELSZCZYZNY
Helena Popławska*, Krystyna Buchta*, Agnieszka Dmitruk*
* PhD, Faculty of Physical Education and Sport in Biała Podlaska; Józef Piłsudski University of Physical Education in
Warsaw, Poland
Key words: boys, socio-economic conditions, body height, body mass, BMI, motor
abilities, time changes
Słowa kluczowe: chłopcy, warunki socjoekonomiczne, wysokość ciała, masa ciała, BMI,
zdolności motoryczne, zmiany czasowe
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Aim of the study. The aim of the work was to evaluate changes of the influence of family socio-economic
factors on the level of the somatic development and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years
1998–2007.
Material and methods. The research included 547 boys in 1998 and 484 boys in 2007 in selected categories
of boys aged 10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years. Physical development of the subjects was evaluated on the basis
of body height and mass measurements, which were then used to calculate BMI. Motor fitness was defined with
the use of Eurofit tests. Taking into consideration the level of education of parents and the number of children
in families both in 1998 and in 2007, two groups were distinguished according to socio-economic stratification
(SES), i.e., with a high and low SES status. The values of somatic parameters and the results of motor abilities
tests were normalized for the arithmetic mean and standard deviation in particular age categories.
Results. In both 1998 and in 2007, higher normalized values of body height, mass, and BMI were noted in
subjects belonging to the group with a high SES status. Only in 17–18-year-olds from 2007 were higher values
of body height and mass observed in the group with a low SES status. As far as physical fitness was concerned
in the categories of those aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years, higher normalized values of the majority of the
analyzed motor tests occurred in boys from families with a low SES status, both in the research from 1998 and
from 2007. However, in the age group of 14–15-year-olds, in the majority of the analyzed motor tests higher
normalized values were observed in boys from the group with a high SES status.
Conclusions. No substantial changes in the influence of socio-economic variables on the somatic development and motor fitness of rural boys from Lublin region in the years 1998–2007 were observed.
Cel pracy. Celem pracy była ocena zmian w oddziaływaniu czynników socjoekonomicznych rodziny na poziom
rozwoju somatycznego i sprawności motorycznej chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998 – 2007.
Materiał i metody. Badaniami objęto 547 chłopców w 1998 roku i 484 w 2007 roku w wybranych kategoriach
wieku 10–11, 14–15 i 17–18 lat. Rozwój fizyczny badanych oceniono na podstawie pomiarów wysokości i masy
– 103 –
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk
ciała, na podstawie których obliczono wskaźnik BMI. Sprawność motoryczną określono za pomocą prób wchodzących w skład testu Eurofit. Biorąc pod uwagę wykształcenie rodziców i dzietność rodzin, zarówno w 1998 jak
i w 2007 roku, wydzielono dwie grupy, tj. o wysokim i niskim SES. Wartości parametrów somatycznych i wyniki
prób motorycznych znormalizowano na średnią arytmetyczną i odchylenie standardowe w poszczególnych kategoriach wieku.
Wyniki. W 1998, jak i w 2007 roku wyższymi wartościami unormowanymi wysokości, masy ciała i BMI charakteryzowali się badani zaliczeni do grupy o wysokim SES. Jedynie u 17–18-latków z 2007 roku wyższe wartości
wysokości i masy ciała zaobserwowano w grupie o niskim SES. W przypadku sprawności fizycznej w kategoriach wieku 10–11 oraz 17–18 lat wyższe wartości unormowane większości analizowanych prób motorycznych
wystąpiły u chłopców z rodzin o niskim SES, zarówno w badaniach z 1998, jak i z 2007 roku. Natomiast w grupie
wieku 14–15 lat w większości analizowanych prób motorycznych wyższe wartości unormowane zaobserwowano
u chłopców z grupy o wysokim SES.
Wnioski. Nie zaobserwowano wyraźnych zmian w oddziaływaniu zmiennych socjoekonomicznych na rozwój
somatyczny i sprawność motoryczną chłopców wiejskich z Lubelszczyzny w latach 1998–2007.
Introduction
Society’s changing living standards stimulate the need
for multivariate analysis of physical and motor develop­
ment in children, adolescents, and adults. Typically, so­
cioeconomic, ecological, and cultural factors are listed
amongst environmental determinants of development.
In the case of anthropological studies, the size and
character of social environment, parental education
level and profession, as well as the number of children
per family are usually taken into account [1, 2, 3]. All of
these factors can be identified objectively; furthermore,
the results of a study based on the aforementioned
criteria can be assessed in view of other findings. In
some cases, other elements of the living environment,
e.g., the size of the farm, family type, the form of child’s
vacation, as well as the sport activities of children and
their families, are also considered as determinants of
motor development in children and adolescents [4].
In most well-developed countries, no observed ef­
fects of the environmental variables on the develop­
ment and physical capacity of children and adolescents
have been noted in the past several years. Thus, the
so-called “biological classlessness” is postulated to oc­
cur in such countries [5, 6]. In contrast, disparities in the
degree of somatic development and physical fitness of
children and adolescents originating from groups char­
acterized by various socioeconomic statuses can still
be observed in Poland. Many authors have noted that
a superior economic status along with a higher level
of parental education and a lower number of children
per family are associated with higher average values
of somatic parameters in the representatives of a given
social class [7, 8, 9]. However, the results of recently
published studies examining large city environments
point to a lack of significant social variable-dependent
differences in the developmental parameters [10, 11,
12].
The research presented in this paper pertained
to children and adolescents from rural areas of the
Lubelszczyzna region. This region, at the end of the
20th century, was characterized by the low educational
levels of its inhabitants and a high number of children
per family. Furthermore, social inequities were ob­
served in terms of somatic development and physical
fitness of children and adolescents from Lubelszczyzna
[13, 14].
The principal objective of this study was to answer
the following question: was there any variation on the
impact of the socioeconomic factors on the degree of
somatic development and motor capacity in children and
adolescents from the rural areas of the Lubelszczyzna
region in the 1998–2007 time period?
Material and methods
This cross-sectional study was performed in 1998 and
2007, and included 547 (1998) and 484 (2007) boys
from selected age categories, i.e., boys aged 10–11,
14–15, and 17–18 years, corresponding to various edu­
cational levels (primary, grammar, and secondary). The
participants attended rural schools located in north­
western Lubelskie province. In 1998, the investigated
schools were selected at random from a register listing
all rural schools, kindly provided by the Department of
Education in Biała Podlaska, and in proportion to the to­
tal number of schools of a given type in the former Biała
Podlaska province. The schools in Janów Podlaski,
Klonownica, Konstantynów, Leśna Podlaska, and
Rokitno were selected. In 2007, the study was repeated
in the same schools. The survey intended to examine
all school children whose parents expressed their con­
– 104 –
Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...
sent, with the exception of individuals exempted from
physical education classes. At the beginning of the
study, the parents of participating children were asked
to complete a questionnaire. Aside from parental con­
sent to include their child in the study, the questionnaire
asked for the date of birth of each child, the number of
siblings, and paternal and maternal educational level.
The study included anthropometric measurements
of basic somatic parameters taken using Martin’s tech­
nique [15]. Body height was measured using an an­
thropometer with a precision of 0.1 cm. Body weight
was determined with an electronic medical scale with
a precision of 100 g. Based on these values, the body
mass index (BMI) was calculated for every participant.
The somatic measurements were taken during morn­
ing hours. The children were examined individually,
dressed in their gym suits and barefoot.
Selected motor abilities and flexibility were deter­
mined using a set of trials included in the protocols of
the European Test of Physical Fitness [16]. Explosive
leg power was determined based on the length of stand­
ing broad jump and the strength of the trunk based on
the number of sit-ups performed in 30 seconds. The
evaluation of agility was based on the time obtained
in 10 x 5m shuttle run, and the speed of upper limb
movement was based on the time obtained in the plate
tapping test. The sit and reach test was employed to
assess flexibility [17]. The motor capacity of examined
boys was measured at the sports facilities of participat­
ing schools during physical education classes.
Three variables describing the family situation of
the examined children, i.e., the level of paternal and
maternal education and the number of children per
family, were selected to assess the socioeconomic
status of the participating families. These variables are
widely accepted as indicators of socioeconomic status
of the family, and thus allow for comparative analyses.
Furthermore, parents report their education data and
the number of children more eagerly than other char­
acteristics, such as economic status of the family or
domestic relations.
The level of parental (paternal and maternal) edu­
cation was classified into three categories: 1) primary
and vocational training, 2) secondary education, and
3) post-secondary education. Similarly, three catego­
ries were recognized within the “number of children
per family” variable. The first category included fami­
lies with one or two children, the second – with three
children, and the third – with more than three children.
For the purposes of this analysis, two groups located at
the opposing extremes of the socioeconomic spectrum,
high or low socioeconomic status (SES), were distin­
guished. The first group (high SES) included children
and adolescents of parents with secondary or post-sec­
ondary education and originating from the families with
one or two children. In contrast, the low SES group was
comprised of school children from multi-children fami­
lies (at least three children per family), with the mother
and the father possessing educational levels lower than
secondary.
The data recorded in 2007 was compared to that
data obtained in the same region in 1998 in order to
analyze the effect of changes in the factors indirectly
evaluating the socioeconomic status of the families on
the degree of somatic development and motor abilities
of boys from rural areas. Both studies were performed
by the same research team, employed the same meth­
ods of somatic development and motor ability assess­
ment, as well as the same criteria for the parental edu­
cation level and the number of children per family.
Statistical analysis was carried out using Statistica
6.0 package (StatSoft). Individual values of somatic
parameters and motor tests were normalized for the
individual age groups by arithmetic means and stan­
dard deviations. Each parameter was presented in
T scale, where T = 10z + 50, where z is the normal­
ized value of measurements; and in timescale, where
T = 10(–1) + 50. The normalization procedure enabled
the amalgamation of all the categories of boys aged
10–11, 14–15, and 17–18 years.
The variables possessing the most significant im­
pact on the basic somatic characteristics, motor abili­
ties, and flexibility of our participants were identified
using multiple regression analysis. Additionally, the
significance of the differences between the normalized
values of somatic parameters and motor tests deter­
mined in 1998 and in 2007 in groups characterized by
high and low SES was analyzed using the Student’s
t-test. Statistical significance of all tests was set at
p < 0.05.
Results
The SES structure of examined children within the ana­
lyzed age categories is presented in Table 1. Analysis
of the data presented in this table indicates a consider­
able variability in the distribution of high and low SES in
1998 and in 2007. In 1998, all of the analyzed age cat­
egories were characterized by a relatively small fraction
of individuals with high SES and a high percentage of
– 105 –
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk
normalised values
56
*
54
*
*
52
50
48
46
44
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
54,2
54,0
52,8
low SES 1998
49,3
48,6
48,5
high SES 2007
51,2
52,7
52,7
low SES 2007
47,6
47,5
48,4
Figure 1. Normalized values of somatic features of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)
those with low SES. In contrast, the opposite was ob­
served in the SES structure determined in 2007.
The results of regression analysis, expressed as
beta coefficients, and the percentage values of ad­
justed coefficients of determination (R2) illustrating the
degree of the variability of each dependent variable as
a result of the effects of the socioeconomic characteris­
tics included in this study, are presented in Tables 2 and
3. The values of standardized beta coefficients suggest
weak (insignificant) associations between the paternal
and maternal education levels and somatic parameters
in both time periods of the study. With regards to the
paternal education level, only the positive correlations
pertained to body height and weight in boys from the
youngest age category analyzed in 2007. Significant
effects of the “number of children per family” variable
on the somatic development was revealed in the cases
of the boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years analyzed at
the end of the 1990s. However, a comparable relation­
ship was not documented in 2007. The socioeconomic
variables examined in this study explained only a small
fraction of variance in the analyzed somatic parame­
ters (approximately 5% in the case of body height and
nearly 8% for body weight). More frequently, the effects
60
55
*
*
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
48,3
53,7
56,1
low SES 1998
50,6
49,7
48,7
high SES 2007
50,6
51,2
51,0
low SES 2007
42,1
42,8
47,4
normalised values
*
50
45
40
35
30
Figure 2. Normalized values of somatic features of boys aged 14–15 (T scale)
– 106 –
Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...
normalised values
56
54
52
50
48
46
44
body height
body mass
BMI
high SES 1998
50,2
49,1
48,9
low SES 1998
49,3
48,2
48,5
high SES 2007
50,4
50,5
49,9
low SES 2007
54,8
53,4
48,8
Figure 3. Normalized values of somatic features of boys aged 17–18 (T scale)
of socioeconomic variables were observed to influence
the development of motor abilities. Based on the results
of regression analysis, trunk strength, explosive power
and agility proved most “sensitive” to the effects of so­
cioeconomic situation. The following relationship was
documented in all age categories analyzed in 2007: the
smaller the number of children per family, the worse
the results of trunk strength development. Additionally,
paternal and maternal education had a considerable
impact on the development of trunk strength. In particu­
lar, in the case of the category of the 10–11-year-olds,
higher levels of paternal education were associated
with poorer results of the trunk strength test, while a re­
verse correlation was observed with regards to mater­
nal education. In total, the analyzed variables explained
between approximately 5% and 20% of the variability
in the strength of the trunk. Socioeconomic status vari­
ables explained variability in the explosive leg power to
a lesser extent (up to 4% at the most). Level of paternal
education had a significant impact on this parameter,
but the direction of this relationship was different de­
pending on the parent’s gender. Similar phenomenon
was also observed in the case of agility of participants
aged 17–18 years examined in 1998, in which case
normalised values
60
*
*
55
50
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
47,2
49,2
45,5
47,4
51,0
low SES 1998
50,8
50,5
51,3
51,6
49,6
high SES 2007
46,8
49,6
44,7
49,6
48,0
low SES 2007
47,8
47,6
52,9
52,7
54,1
Figure 4. Normalized values of the analyzed motor abilities and flexibility of boys aged 10–11 (T scale)
– 107 –
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk
65
*
normalised values
60
*
55
50
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
54,8
50,7
48,3
54,8
53,4
low SES 1998
51,5
49,9
49,6
49,7
49,7
high SES 2007
49,7
48,8
46,3
49,2
49,5
low SES 2007
59,1
47,2
58,8
47,9
46,8
Figure 5. Normalized values of the analyzed motor abilities and flexibility of boys aged 14–15 (T scale)
the socioeconomic variables explained approximately
9% of variability in the results of 10 x 5m shuttle run.
The number of children per family was the only vari­
able which significantly affected the speed of upper
limb movement; this association proved significant in
the category of 14–15-year-olds examined in 2007. In
contrast, no significant effects of environmental vari­
ables were observed in the case of the results of the
flexibility trials.
65
normalised values
50
*
*
60
55
Normalized arithmetic means of somatic indices
and motor tests (in T scale) in boys from extreme
socioeconomic groups studied in 1998 and in 2007
are presented in Figures 1–6. When the variability of
somatic development was considered, higher normal­
ized values of body height, body weight, and BMI were
documented in individuals with high SES belonging to
categories of boys aged 10–11 and 14–15 years. This
aforementioned relationship was observed both in 1998
*
*
45
40
35
30
flexibility
explosive
pow er
trunk strength
agility
speed of upp.
limb movement
high SES 1998
47,1
48,0
47,9
46,7
50,4
low SES 1998
51,7
50,5
49,0
50,9
49,1
high SES 2007
47,9
46,7
46,5
54,5
50,7
low SES 2007
54,5
59,5
60,6
52,2
52,0
Figure 6. Normalized values of the analyzed motor abilities and flexibility of boys aged 17–18 (T scale)
– 108 –
Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...
and in 2007, the only exception pertaining to the body
height of 14- to 15-year-old boys who were examined in
1998. In 1998, slightly higher values of somatic devel­
opment parameters were documented in the group of
boys aged 17–18 years who were characterized by high
SES. On the other hand, the intergroup SES-related
differences in body height and weight were markedly
more pronounced in 2007, and a reverse relationship
was observed, i.e., individuals with lower SES were
characterized by higher values of those parameters.
The SES-related intergroup differences proved sig­
nificant in categories of those aged 10–11 and 14–15
years, more often in 2007 (Figures 1–3).
When physical fitness was related to socioeconom­
ic variability, both in 1998 and in 2007, better normal­
ized results of most analyzed tests were observed in
boys aged 10–11 years and 17–18 years from families
with lower SES. In contrast, such evident relationships
were not observed in the category of 14–15-year-olds;
however, in the case of the majority of the motor tests
performed in this group higher normalized values were
documented in boys from the higher SES group. The
most pronounced differences between various socio­
economic groups pertained to body flexibility and trunk
strength examined in 2007.
Discussion
Lubelszczyzna is one of the most eastern regions of
both Poland and the European Union. This province is
included in the group of provinces that are most endan­
gered by poverty and is characterized by low education­
al levels of the rural population. At the end of the previ­
ous century, nearly 60% of rural inhabitants had only
primary or incomplete primary education; farmers with
secondary or post-secondary education corresponded
to 13.4% of this population, whereas the corresponding
fraction in Poland is 21.4% [18]. Additionally, the inhabit­
ants of this region were characterized by a high number
of children per family. More than 30% of families had
four or more children [19]. Poland’s entrance into the
European Union markedly improved the economic situ­
ation of families living in this region. Moreover, a grad­
ual improvement with regards to the educational level
was also observed; nevertheless, the level of education
is still below the country average [20].
Families’ changing socioeconomic situation may
indirectly influence the level of somatic development
and motor capacity of children and adolescents.
However, our analysis did not reveal any considerable
changes in the effects of socioeconomic factors on the
biological development of boys from the rural areas of
Lubelszczyzna studied in 1998 and in 2007. Boys from
families with high SES are still characterized by higher
values of body height, body weight, and BMI as com­
pared to their peers from the low SES group. The only
exception pertained to the participants from the oldest
age category (aged 17–18 years) studied in 2007 in
whom higher values of body height and weight were
documented in individuals originating from families with
low SES. However, Student’s t-test showed those dif­
ferences to be insignificant. The results published by
Table 1. The structure of selected SES groups in the examined periods
Years of research
N in total
High SES status
N
%
Low SES status
N
%
X2
10–11-year-olds
1998
186
12
6.5
98
52.7
2007
195
54
27.7
38
19.5
54.7*
14–15-year-olds
1998
165
12
7.3
61
37.0
2007
181
80
44.2
9
5.0
98.0*
17–18-year-olds
1998
196
32
16.3
61
31.1
2007
108
39
36.1
8
7.4
* – statistically significant dependence, p < 0.05
– 109 –
31.4*
Helena Popławska, Krystyna Buchta, Agnieszka Dmitriuk
Table 2. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 1998*
Explosive
power
Trunk
strength
Agility
Speed of
upper limb
movement
0.287
6.2
Body
height
Body
mass
Father’s level of education
Mother’s level of education
0.233
0.312
4.8
7.7
Variable
Flexibility
BMI
10–11-year-olds
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
14–15-year-olds
Father’s level of education
Mother’s level of education
0.241
0.219
0.213
4.9
6.5
3.6
Father’s level of education
–0.165
–0.247
0.330
Mother’s level of education
0.226
–0.219
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
1.0
5.1
9.0
Explosive
power
Trunk
strength
Agility
Speed of
upper limb
movement
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
17–18-year-olds
* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table
Table 3. Determinants of somatic features, motor abilities and flexibility – research from 2007 *
Variable
Body
height
Body
mass
0.176
0.215
–0.215
–0.430
0.169
0.223
0.231
BMI
Flexibility
10–11-year-olds
Father’s level of education
Mother’s level of education
Number of children
Corrected R2 (%)
1.1
–0.263
4.2
3.2
19.9
1.0
14–15-year-olds
Father’s level of education
0.245
Mother’s level of education
–0.166
–0.255
Number of children
–0.163
–0.161
Corrected R2 (%)
3.9
7.3
2.4
Father’s level of education
Mother’s level of education
17–18-year-olds
Number of children
–0.264
Corrected R2 (%)
8.4
* – only statistically significant standardized beta coefficients are included in the table
Strzelczyk [21] suggest that an association between
maternal and paternal education and somatic charac­
teristics of children and adolescents from rural areas
is weak. In the case of maternal education, positive
coefficients of correlation were documented solely in
younger girls (aged 7–10 years) with regards to body
weight and height as well as chest and knee width.
Additionally, paternal education was found to be cor­
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Anthropological evaluation of the influence of socio-economic factors on the development and physical fitness...
related mostly with the somatic characteristics of older
boys (aged 11–15 years).
The socioeconomic situation of a family influences
the manner of spending leisure time, including the
amount of time spent on physical activity. Charzewski
[22] observed that the differences in the levels of
physical activity in children resulted from belonging
to a given social class, but occurred irrespectively of
the degree of urbanization of the place of residence.
Children from families belonging to higher social
classes participated in additional sport activities,
including sport clubs at school and other organized
forms of sport activities, more frequently than those
from lower social classes. Also, research of Blanksby
et al. [23], Brodersen et al. [24], and McVeigh et al.
[25] confirmed this aforementioned relationship, while,
in contrast, it has not been observed by BiałokozKalinowska et al. [26].
Furthermore, the studies of physical fitness in chil­
dren and adolescents representing groups with high,
moderate, and low SES documented variability in the
results. Gołąb [27] analyzed children and adolescents
between 8 and 18 years of age living in Nowa Huta
and observed that the best results of standing broad
jump and envelope agility run were obtained by boys
with high SES and girls with moderate SES. In most
age categories, the best levels of relative strength
were documented in boys and girls characterized by
moderate socioeconomic conditions. In a study by
Mynarski et al. [28], conducted in the Upper Silesia
region, significant differences between girls and
women qualified to groups with moderate and high
socioeconomic status were documented only in the
case of Flamingo balance test and maximal oxygen
uptake. In boys and men, significant socioeconomic
status-related differences pertained to the results of
handgrip, strength endurance, shuttle run, and bal­
anced walk tests. Based on the results of their study
of adolescents from Cracow, Mleczko and Ozimek [10]
revealed that the groups of participants from families
with poorer economic status showed higher levels of
motor capacity (with the exception of some coordina­
tion skills) in most age categories. Also, our study
documented a similar tendency in categories of those
10–11 and 17–18 years of age. Participants from the
group with lower SES had better results of most motor
tests. This phenomenon may result from the fact that
currently children from families with higher socioeco­
nomic status spend higher amounts of time learning,
more frequently participate in extra-school classes
and, thus, have less time for physical activity. Both
in 1998 and in 2007, a higher level of motor capacity
was documented in boys originating from families with
high SES. This may be the result of earlier maturation
of boys from parents with higher education levels, as
suggested by the results of Wilczewski’s study [29],
which was examined a rural setting.
Conclusions
1. Similar tendencies with regards to the influence
of socioeconomic variables on the somatic de­
velopment and motor abilities of boys from the
Lubelszczyzna region were observed in 1998 and
in 2007.
2. High socioeconomic status of families from rural ar­
eas correlated with high values of somatic develop­
ment parameters in examined boys.
3. Low level of social stratification was most common­
ly associated with higher values of analyzed motor
abilities and flexibility.
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REVIEW  PAPERS
PRACE  PRZEGLĄDOWE
NR 57
AN­T RO­P O­M O­T O­R Y­K A
2012
THE MOVEMENT OF A HUMAN BEING
IN THE MEDICAL EXOSKELETON –
THE ANTHROPOMOTORIC ASPECTS
PORUSZANIE SIĘ CZŁOWIEKA W EGZOSZKIELECIE
MEDYCZNYM – ASPEKTY ANTROPOMOTORYCZNE
Emilia Mikołajewska*, Dariusz Mikołajewski**
***PhD, Department of Rehabilitation, 10th Military Clinical Hospital with Polyclinic SPS ZOZ in Bydgoszcz, Poland
***MSc, Department of Informatics, Faculty of Physics, Astronomy and Informatics, Nicolaus Copernicus University
in Toruń, Poland
Key words: rehabilitation, physical therapy, exoskeletons, biomechanics
Słowa kluczowe: rehabilitacja, fizjoterapia, egzoszkielety, biomechanika
SUMMARY • STRESZCZENIE Exoskeletons are mechanical constructions attached to particular parts of a human body, supporting its
movement with the in-built effectors. Exoskeletons are promising solutions as rehabilitation devices and as
tools, supporting patients, medical personnel, families and caregivers in everyday life activities. They may be
particularly helpful for the people with deficiencies and those who suffer from pathology of the central nervous system (CNS) in result of, for instance, a stroke. The aim is to improve the quality of life of such people
by supporting and expanding their motoricity. As for today, the knowledge and understanding in the area of
adaptation of a human being to walking and performing everyday life activities in combination with such robots
as exoskeletons are limited. This article is aimed at estimating to what extent the possibilities in this field are
being exploited.
Egzoszkielety są konstrukcjami mechanicznymi mocowanymi do poszczególnych części ciała człowieka,
wspomagającymi jego ruch za pomocą wbudowanych efektorów. Egzoszkielety stanowią obiecujące rozwiązania
zarówno jako urządzenia rehabilitacyjne, jak i wspierające pacjentów, personel medyczny, rodziny lub opiekunów
w czynnościach codziennego życia. Mogą być szczególnie pomocne u osób z osłabieniami oraz cierpiących z powodu patologii ośrodkowego układu nerwowego, spowodowanych np. udarem. Celem ich funkcjonowania jest
poprawa jakości życia tych osób przez wsparcie i rozszerzenie ich zdolności motorycznych. Aktualny stan wiedzy
oraz zrozumienie zagadnienia adaptacji człowieka do chodzenia i wykonywania czynności życia codziennego
we współdziałaniu z takimi robotami, jak egzoszkielet, są mocno ograniczone. Artykuł jest próbą oceny, w jakim
stopniu wykorzystuje się dziś możliwości w tej dziedzinie biomechaniki.
Introduction
The medical exoskeleton, defined as a power suit at­
tached to particular points of the user’s body, allowing
him to expand his strength and motor capabilities (in­
cluding the lost or limited ones) constitutes a promis­
ing solution in the field of medical robotics (including
rehabilitation robotics) for the people with deficits of the
central nervous system or with the weakened muscle
power. The exoskeleton is an excellent solution for the
disabled, seriously ill and elderly people not only in the
area of their mobility (replacing wheelchair and expand­
– 115 –
Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski
ing its capabilities) but also as a rehabilitation device
interacting with the user all day long in the course of the
standard exploitation of the device. Therefore, the im­
portant element is the analysis of the exoskeleton and
the interaction between a human being and a machine
both on the bio-cybernetic and biomechanical levels,
which overlap here. It seems particularly significant
also from the viewpoint of introducing the steering of
exoskeletons with brain-computer interface (BCI). One
of the research projects conducted nowadays in this
area is MindWalker [2, 3]. In the market, there are al­
ready first two commercial medical exoskeletons: HAL5
and ReWalk (versions B1/B2); and the consecutive one
– eLegs – is to be available in the middle of 2012 [4, 5].
In the course of clinical trials and the development of
knowledge on the exoskeletons, the dynamic growth of
their clinical applications is predicted.
Two main basic groups of the applications of the
exoskeletons are being under consideration here:
• r e h a b i l i t a t i v e m o d e – the use of the exoskel­
eton in case of severely ill people, the disabled and
the aged as an ultra modern equivalent of a com­
bination of today’s wheelchair with a rehabilitation
robot, and the tele-medical system (for instance,
tele-supervision); the aim of using the exoskeleton
may be here of a dualistic nature: providing the con­
stant support of everyday life activities and mobil­
ity by replacing, strengthening and supplementing
the particular functions’ parameter or else – when
the exoskeleton is used temporarily – training the
above-mentioned functions (e.g. while gradually re­
ducing the support), so that – when the using of the
exoskeleton has been completed – those functions
are performed by a patient in an improved way;
• a s s i s t i v e m o d e – the use of the exoskeleton
as a supporting device for medical personnel and
caregivers of the severely ill people, the disabled
and the aged, particularly in case of the activities
requiring a great physical effort: the change of a po­
sition, moving over, assuming the upright position or
reeducation of walking, bathing etc. [6, 7, 8, 9, 10].
Scientific research on exoskeletons focuses primar­
ily on the understanding of biomechanics, nervous con­
trol, and energetic cost of the movement of a human
being in the exoskeleton and without it. It may supple­
The Alternative for a Wheelchair:
The two-limb alternative (the exoskeletons only for lower limbs)
The four-limb alternative (the exoskeletons for both lower and
upper limbs)
Supporting many
everyday life activities
Necessity to develop safety
and emergency systems
Reducing energy cost
of a movement
(e.g. in case of enfeeblement)
Possibility of compensation
(also temporary)
of the OUN deficits
Complex procedure of the
user’s adaptation
and training
Advantages
Disadvantages
Adjusting the steering
to the kind and level
of a deficit
The possibility of steering
with the help of the brain-computer
interface (e.g. the MindWalker project)
Individual
choice
Not fully examined
long-term effects
of the exploitation
Exoskeleton is a
mobile rehabilitation
device and
a platform for telemedical equipment
Figure 1. Advantages and disadvantages of using exoskeletons in rehabilitation
– 116 –
The movement of a human being in the medical exoskeleton – the anthropomotoric aspects
ment the knowledge and experience already acquired
in this area through, among others, reeducation of the
function (walking, the function of upper limbs) lost in the
result of neurological deficits in the course of rehabilita­
tion and neurological physiotherapy, through the impact
of repetitive exercises on the effectiveness, through the
speed of the return of the above-mentioned function, or
through the use of the rehabilitation robots.
Steering of the exoskeleton
From cybernetic viewpoint, the healthy people while
attempting to make a movement – depending on the
intention to make a movement and the conditions of the
environment – modulate the patterns of the activation
of muscles. Various functional tasks require develop­
ment of a set of various patterns, including the sequen­
Number
of articles
625
tial activation of particular patterns, and stepping up
the power of muscles and its direction. Some disabled
people (e.g. in result of a stroke or damage of the spi­
nal cord) have limited capabilities in this area or even
their total absence, as far as particular muscles are
concerned. It is most often caused by the damage of
the nervous system in the way that prevents the patient
from conducting the above-mentioned modulations in
a controlled way.
Exoskeletons are being equipped with an inter­
face of the user, in traditional understanding of that
concept, although exoskeletons ReWalk, eLegs and
HULC possess partial interfaces for the choice of the
work module. The user is steering the exoskeletons in
the process of an interaction between a human being
and a machine, cooperating with the exoskeleton via
human-machine interface. HMI interface, working in
Comparison of the frequency of the phrases’
appearances
76
50
23
exoskeleton
7
robotic
robotic
robotic
robotic
exoskeleton exoskeleton + exoskeleton exoskeleton
biomechanics
+
+
rehabilitation
physical
therapy
Figure 2. Results of investigation of the PubMed database (U.S. National Library of Medicine) [11]
– 117 –
name of
the
phrase
Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski
real time on neuro-muscle level, may lead to intuitive
steering of the exoskeleton and the user’s full integra­
tion with it. The user perceives the exoskeleton then,
as an extension (expanding the capabilities) of his own
body [12].
In the simplest sense of the term, the full cycle of
the steering of the exoskeleton covers the following
stages realized in the real time:
• reading from sensors the intention of the user to
make a movement,
• interpretation of that intention while taking into ac­
count the up-to-date behavior and the programmed
patterns of movement,
• interaction of the exoskeleton movement with the
user’s movement while simultaneously strengthen­
ing the power, reducing the support or even replac­
ing the deficient part of the user’s body (according
to needs),
• analysis of the final position, and launching the suc­
cessive cycle [6, 7, 8].
The proper realization of the above-mentioned al­
gorithm is being fulfilled by the subordinated detailed
functioning of the whole (most often doubled) exoskel­
eton steering system. It ensures at the same time:
• maintenance of the movement and particular po­
sitions within the frames of natural patterns or the
patterns close to natural for a particular user – the
most interesting aspect from biomechanical point of
view,
• comfortable and bearable use of the exoskeleton in
a long period of exploitation, at altered effort, and
multiple repetitions [8].
Human-machine interaction
Below a description of the chosen solutions to the area
of human-machine interaction used in the contempo­
rary exoskeletons is placed.
Myoprocessors [12] are realized in the course of
HMI computationally as the real time models of all the
muscles covered by support. These models, work­
ing in combination with the functioning muscle, allow
conducting the anticipatory identification of which of
the muscles – and in what way – will be successively
activated. By that means, one can – on the basis of ki­
nematics of the joints and levels of the activation on the
neuronal level – anticipate, for instance, the moments
in joints. It is also possible, due to the fact that each
user has at his disposal the source of natural move­
ment patterns, either fairly limited or relatively close to
the natural. The set is also learning in the process of
adjusting the exoskeleton to the user’s needs and in
the process of its entire exploitation. These patterns
enable creating the internal database for the needs of
HMI, which allow the calculation, for example of the ini­
tial stages of each movement and the assessment and
eventual correction of the supporting of the movement
by the exoskeleton. These procedures are quite com­
plicated and they require the involvement of artificial
intelligence (for instance GA – genetic algorithms, and
such complex muscle models as Hill phenomenological
muscle model). The recent studies have indicated high
effectiveness of that kind of solutions, as sufficient tools
for practical use [12].
For the time being, the most common type of con­
trol is steering of the exoskeleton with simultaneous ap­
plication of all solutions or the ones chosen from the
following solutions:
• electro-myographic sensors,
• gyroscopic sensors of the position,
• sensors of the power of pressure on the founda­
tion,
• sensors of acceleration,
• sensors of the angles of bending the joints of
limbs,
• ultimately (during the research): brain-computer in­
terface and steering of the exoskeleton as the com­
prehensive and advanced neuroprosthetics [1, 2, 3,
13].
Conducting electromyography [14] is commonly
used, due to the fact that EMG signals reflect directly
the intention of the user to make a movement. Various
solutions are examined in this respect:
• the exoskeletons for lower limbs with various levels
of the freedom of movement (from level one up­
wards) in the knee joint, less frequently also in the
ankle joint (although it is very important for the prop­
er walk) – mostly used for supporting the movement
of the disabled people,
• the exoskeletons for lower limbs ankle-knee-hip
with the artificial (according to needs) substitutes of
all important muscles – mostly used for re-educa­
tion of walk, including the patients with hemiplegia
with the regulated relieve of both the paralyzed and
the healthy sides,
• the exoskeletons supporting also the movement of
the upper limbs: the movement of an arm and the
movement in the elbow joint, less frequently in the
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The movement of a human being in the medical exoskeleton – the anthropomotoric aspects
wrist joint – used mostly to support the movement
of the disabled people,
• the advanced exoskeletons equipped with the sup­
port of a palm, including 16 joints – four for each
finger – used in the reeducation of the everyday
activities, also after surgeries.
In steering the exoskeletons, particularly the pro­
totype ones [15], the steering devices equipped with
neuro-fuzzy controllers can be helpful since their easy
adaptation to the EMG signals of the user [14, 15].
Optimizing the power [16] is still a matter of interest
since the values obtained from experimental research,
however useful, require additional modeling. A very pre­
cise reflection of the natural power is not necessary here
but its optimization in the given application is important.
It concerns all the muscles and functions, walking includ­
ed. To calculate the optimal powers in the real time, one
needs to follow quite complicated operational mathema­
tical procedures, often solving the problem of numerous
contradictions and inter-relations with the simultaneous
movement of other muscles. One of the methods allow­
ing the assessment of the muscle power on the basis of
the EMG signal analysis, the Bogey’s and co-workers’
method [17] is often used in different variants.
The presupposition of involuntary reduction in hu­
man strength in the human-machine interface [18] is
reflected in the hypothesis formulated by Lewis and
Ferris that users cooperating in the human-machine
interface involuntarily lower the power of muscles and
the moments in joints, which influences the resultant
moments of the user-exoskeleton interface. In effect,
these values may differ from the natural ones achieved
by the same human being. As for today, the research in
this field is being conducted and the initial results do not
confirm the above hypothesis, however, the effective
implementation of commercial exoskeletons requires
full explanation of that problem.
The improvement of the exoskeletons’ inertia [19] as
one of the means aimed at providing the exoskeleton
movements with the agility natural for a human being,
particularly in the area of the upper limbs movements,
has caught the researchers’ attention. It is believed
that the exoskeleton numbness disturbs naturalness
(also lowering the natural frequency) of the exoskeleton
movements of the human-user. Particular role may be
played here by great accelerations given to some ele­
ments of the exoskeleton, among others, in the substi­
tutes of the hip and knee joints which can sometimes
cause the so called jerky movements of the exoskeleton
while attempting a quick acceleration of a walk by the
user. Hence, the attempts to create the compensation
algorithms in that area are in interest [19].
Proportional myoelectric control [20] intensifies the
process of the user’s adaptation, both the one with
deficits, and the healthy one to steer the exoskeleton
also in case of the necessity to reduce and to diminish
the energy consumption. It is what makes the above
method the leading one in the market. In this method,
the value of powers of the particular muscles is pro­
portional to the amplitudes of the equivalent EMG sig­
nals. It should be noted that EMG signals have to be
processed here in the real time. It is suspected that
the precision of movements in this method may not be
an effect of a certain specific action of the descending
stimuli but may rather depend on the long-lasting exer­
cises, proprioceptive feedback or mechanics of joints
(e.g. the movement in the elbow may be less precise
since the associated movement in the wrist will expand
it) [20, 21, 22].
The control of an individual muscle [23] is realized
mainly by the “individual muscle-force control” sup­
ported by the exoskeleton which allows obtaining much
broader spectrum of data than with the help of such
conventional methods as gripping or pushing the han­
dles. In the controlling of groups of muscles, there may
arise problems with coordination of the movements
of the synergistic muscles both in case of the healthy
people and the people with movement deficits in that
sphere. Although in exoskeletons the issue of the arti­
ficial “muscles” construction as such is of a secondary
importance, the choice of the appropriate pneumatic or
hydraulic elements as well as electric actuator may sig­
nificantly influence the algorithms of steering itself and
the construction of the steering system, e.g. in the field
of the energetic optimization or using the numbness of
the limbs movement.
In accordance with all above-mentioned, two cru­
cial problems should be taken under consideration:
1. Education and coordination of the user-exoskeleton
interaction in the situation of a temporary using of
the exoskeleton (e.g. for the time of convalescence
in case of weakening of the user, and also while us­
ing the exoskeleton as the support of the weakened
muscles with its gradual reduction) as well as the
estimation of the influence of the exoskeleton’s pe­
riod of exploitation upon the possibility of returning
to the natural (self-reliant) patterns of movement.
2. Not sufficiently examined effects of a long-time stay
in the exoskeleton in case of using it as an alterna­
– 119 –
Emilia Mikołajewska, Dariusz Mikołajewski
tive for a wheelchair (i.e. even 11–14 hours a day)
resulting primarily from:
• enforced repetition of the movement patterns,
• the lack of natural reflexes implemented in the
exoskeleton software,
• the effect close to the human being lost in vir­
tual reality: will the too profound trust in the ma­
chine not make the user too much dependent
on the machine, hampering or even preventing
him from functioning without it? Nowadays, for
instance, the stabilization of the balance of the
human-exoskeleton set is entrusted to a human
being, since the proper automatic realization of
that function is complicated. On the other hand,
it is not known whether, for example, the auto­
mation of keeping the balance by the exoskel­
eton will not contribute to the weakening of this
function in the exoskeleton’s user.
Moreover, the significant part of the research is con­
ducted on the population of the healthy people, also in
the area of a possible influence of the exoskeleton upon
the changes in the movement patterns. It is caused, in­
ter alia, by the fact that the origins of the research upon
exoskeletons were of a military nature, focusing on the
use of exoskeletons for expanding the endurance and
lifting the capacity of individual soldiers. Additionally, in
case of research on people with deficiencies, there is
a whole range of types and levels of deficits, to which
the tested exoskeleton would have to be individually
adjusted. Also the research is being conducted on the
development of the reliable indicators in the area of
compliance of the cooperation of the exoskeleton set
with the elements of limbs while making a movement,
both in the form of a simple 3D analysis of the move­
ment and the coordination, speed and chronology of
the rotation in the joints for whole limbs. One of the pos­
sible solutions is the registration and the measuring of
the position of a limb and the forces while making the
specific movement [24]. That research is particularly
important also for further development of the stationary
rehabilitation robots. An interesting solution for getting
rid of some of those problems is an attempt to develop
HAL exoskeleton for one leg (hemiplegic) – particularly
for patients with hemiplegics [25].
Conclusions
In the coming years, one can expect the results of the
European clinical trials on the use of the HAL 5 exoskel­
etons in rehabilitation, launched in 2010 in (among oth­
ers) Odense University Hospital in Denmark [26]). Apart
from the progress in therapy, particularly of neurologi­
cal disorders, the research may bring the improvement
in understanding of physiology, biomechanics, nervous
control and the energetic cost of the human movement
both in case of the healthy people, and the ones with
deficits. Nonetheless, taking into account the coming
implementation of the commercial exoskeletons, one
has to identify and analyze today, the problems and po­
tential threats, particularly in the area of biomechanics.
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