Introduction to Church Families

This introduction to church families is meant to provide
initial information about the manifold nature of the Christian
confessions in order that one might have a better understanding
of the richness of the various Christian families. We combined
aspects that are historical together with other aspects that come
Introduction to
Church Families
from either our self-identity or from ecumenical perspectives.
The historical scheme tries to show how the different Christian
churches grew from the base of the One Church, whose unity the
enlisted ecumenical agreements and documents strive for.
Edited by
Nagypál Szabolcs – Filip Outrata – Hans-Georg Link
Introduction to
Church Families
Edited by
Nagypál Szabolcs – Filip Outrata – Hans-Georg Link
Approved by the General Assembly (GA)
of the International Ecumenical Fellowship (IEF)
in Chevetogne, May 2011
Budapest, 2011
Contents
I. Orthodox Churches
1. Eastern Orthodox
2. Oriental Orthodox
II. Catholic Churches
3. Roman Catholic
4. Old Catholic
5. Anglican (and Episcopalian)
III. Churches of the Reformation (XVI. c.)
6. Evangelical-Lutheran
7. Reformed and Presbyterian
8. United and Uniting Churches
© Nagypál Szabolcs, Filip Outrata & Hans-Georg Link
IV. Churches from the XVI. c. to the XX. c.
Design: Szalamiki
ISBN 978-963-86946-8-3
More details and contacts:
http://www.ief-oecumenica.org
9. Historic Peace Churches: Mennonite and Quaker (Friends)
10. Baptist
11. Methodist
12. (Seventh-Day) Adventist
13.Salvation Army (Salvationist)
14.Hussite
V. Pentecostal and Black Churches (XX. c.)
15.Pentecostal
16.Black
Appendix I.:
Important Ecumenical Agreements and Documents
Appendix II.
Statistics of the Countries of IEF Regions
2
In this little introduction we would like to familiarize members of the
International Ecumenical Fellowship (IEF) and anyone who might be
interested with the Church families that they belong to and with other
Church families that they may learn about as they encounter other
Christians.1 We speak about “Church Families” in order to underline a
sense of personal belonging to the great Christian Family.
As we seek to introduce our different Church families, we have
combined aspects that are historical together with other aspects that come
from either our self-identity or from ecumenical perspectives.
We are fully aware of the fact that our introduction cannot but be a
compromise between the historical approach and the self-understanding,
which churches and denominations have of themselves.
The historical scheme used as a basic framework tries to show how
the different Christian churches we now have grew from the base of
the One Church. The final chapters about ecumenical agreements and
documents point to the striving for that unity of the One Church.
It is self-evident that this little booklet can only give an outline of
the big confessional families and cannot replace detailed knowledge of
these confessions. This introduction begins with “Orthodox Churches”
(I.), which see their origin going back to the time of the Ancient Church.
The term “Catholic Churches” (II.) is somewhat problematic, as
“catholicity” is part of the four notions of the “one, holy, catholic and
apostolic Church”, which mark every local and universal church over
against sectarian claims of exclusiveness.
In this document we use the term “Catholic” for churches which have
the term included in their own name, but also for the worldwide structure
of the Anglican Communion which sees itself as “Catholic and Reformed.”
To the “Churches of the Reformation” (III.) in a narrow sense belong
the Evangelical-Lutheran, Reformed and United churches. In a broader
view (IV.) they comprise also churches which have their origins either
in connection with the Reformation or with reference to it in later times.
1 Some of the chapters were partly based on http://www.oikoumene.org/memberchurches.html. For people interested in having more detailed information, Wikipedia is a
source of information about the different churches, and their statistical data. Also, there are
many books on the topic, for example: Kleine Konfessionskunde. Johann-Adam-MöhlerInstitut, Paderborn, 1999. Or: Frieling R. – Geldbach E. – Thöle R., Konfessionskunde:
Orientierung im Zeichen der Ökumene. Stuttgart, 1999.
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A special section (V.) comprises those churches which came
into existence in the XXth century with different presuppositions and
understandings. Finally, a special emphasis is given to important
ecumenical documents in the Appendix, which either led to communion
between churches or initiated them.
Our discussions before this structure was adopted made it clear that
we could have chosen a completely different approach. We hope that the
structure as it now stands will be a helpful first orientation over this
complex territory.
This little “Introduction to Church Families” is meant to provide initial
information about the manifold nature of our Christian confessions in
order that we might have a better understanding of the richness of our
various Christian families. The IEF Regions are invited to translate parts
or the whole into their own languages.
I. Orthodox Churches
1. Eastern Orthodox
A. Eastern Orthodoxy consists of several autocephalous (self-governing)
churches: the four patriarchates of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch
and Jerusalem; the four patriarchates of Russia, Serbia, Romania,
and Bulgaria; the Catholicosate of Georgia, and the churches of
Cyprus, Greece, Poland, Albania, and the Czech Lands and Slovakia;
it also includes the autonomous churches of Finland and Estonia. Its
membership is three hundred million.
They hold the same faith, that of the seven ecumenical councils, as
well as sacraments. The Patriarch of Constantinople is the Ecumenical
Patriarch, and has a position as “first among equals”. He convenes panOrthodox conferences, after consultation with the leaders of the other
Orthodox churches. His role is to be the spiritual leader of the Orthodox
world and a transnational figure of global significance.
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The Orthodox Church sees itself as the continuation of the Church
established by Jesus Christ and his apostles. The increasingly difficult
relationship between the sees of Rome and Constantinople led to a
schism in 1054; and the formal break occurred in the XVth century.
The dividing issues were the universal supremacy of jurisdiction of the
Pope, and the doctrinal issue of the filioque (“and the Son”), the phrase
inserted into the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed (381) in VIth century
Hispania.
While the Orthodox churches acknowledge seven sacraments, or
“mysteries”, there are other sacramental actions that make up liturgical
life. Baptism is by full immersion, and chrismation (confirmation) and
Eucharist follow. Children are baptized and chrismated as infants,
thereby allowing them to partake of the Eucharist. The bread and wine
in the Eucharist become, through the power of the Holy Spirit, the real
body and blood of the resurrected Christ, that offers full communion
with Him, forgiveness of sin and eternal life; Eucharist is received after
fasting and confession.
The worship services are held in national languages, though the
original liturgical languages may be used as well. The veneration of
icons plays an important role in worship, and prayers to the Mother of
God and the saints enrich the liturgical texts. Bishops began to be drawn
from the ranks of the monastic communities after the First ecumenical
Council, held in 325 in the city of Nicea (near Constantinople), but the
parish priests have to marry before ordination/consecration.
The Patriarchate of Constantinople initiated the role of the Orthodox
churches in the ecumenical movement, with its Encyclical Letter dating
from 1920 to “all the churches of Christ”. It called for a “koinonia of
churches”, which would work for charitable cooperation and theological
dialogue. The Ecumenical Patriarchate is a founding member of the World
Council of Churches (WCC). There have been permanent representatives
of the Ecumenical Patriarchate and the Russian Orthodox Church at the
WCC since 1955 and 1962, respectively. With the exception of Georgia
and Bulgaria, which withdrew in 1997 and 1998, and Estonia, all the
Eastern Orthodox churches are members of the WCC.
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B. The
Romanian Orthodox Church is a Church of apostolic origins,
born out of the mission of Saint Andrew the Apostle, who preached
the Word of the Gospel also in Scythia Minor, the territory between the
Danube and the Western part of the Black Sea. In 1885, the Romanian
Orthodox Church became autocephalous (self-governing) and in 1925
she was elevated to the rank of Patriarchate, being in dogmatic, liturgical
and canonical communion with the other sister Orthodox Churches.
Around 85% of Romania is Orthodox. The Romanian Orthodox Church
comprises six metropolitanates within the country, as well as three
others in Europe; an archdiocese on the American continent and a
diocese of Australia and Aotearoa–New Zealand.
The Holy Synod is the highest authority in all her matters of
activity. The Holy Synod is made up of the Patriarch as president,
and all metropolitans, archbishops, bishops and assistant bishops.
The deliberative central body for all administrative, social, cultural,
economical and patrimonial issues is the National Church Assembly,
made up of three representatives of each diocese or archdiocese (a clergy
and two lay persons). The central executive body is the National Church
Council, made up of twelve members of the National Church Assembly
(one clergy and one lay person representing each home metropolitanate).
2. Oriental Orthodox
A. The Oriental Orthodox churches, along with those of the Byzantine
tradition or Eastern Orthodox, belong to the larger family of the Orthodox
churches. The two groups are not yet in full communion with each
other. The breach, which occurred in 451, marking the first ecclesial
division in church history, was about the Christological teaching of the
Council of Chalcedon. In 1985, after two decades of unofficial meetings,
the two groups engaged in an official theological dialogue, which has
resulted in Christological agreements.
The Oriental Orthodox family is comprised of the Ethiopian, Coptic,
Armenian, Syrian, Indian and Eritrean churches, and the majority of
their members live in Ethiopia, Egypt, Eritrea, Armenia, India, Syria
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and Lebanon, but there are also large diaspora communities in Europe.
Historically they have also been referred to as non- or anti- or preChalcedonian, Monophysite, Ancient Oriental or Lesser Eastern. The
Oriental Orthodox churches, which are all members of the World Council
of Churches, represent some sixty million Christians.
The Oriental Orthodox churches are ancient churches which were
founded in apostolic times, by apostles or by the apostles’ earliest
disciples. Their doctrinal position is based on the teachings of the first
three ecumenical councils (Nicea 325, Constantinople 381 and Ephesus
431). The Alexandrian school of thought has guided and shaped their
theological reflection, the teachings of Saint Cyril the Great constitute the
foundation of their Christology. They are firmly attached to the Cyrilian
formula of “One nature of the Word Incarnate”. Their theology is Biblical,
liturgical and patristic, and is embodied in mysticism and spirituality.
The history and life of the Oriental Orthodox churches has been
marked by ceaseless persecution and massacres, and the sufferings have
had a profound impact on their life, witness, theology and spirituality.
They have significantly revived monastic life as a rich source of
spirituality, evangelism and diakonia for clergy as well as laity, women
and men. Sunday schools have become centres of intense activities.
Bible study seminars, courses for the Christian formation of laity, fasting
and daily celebrations of saints are vivid expressions of deep spirituality
and of evangelistic inreach and outreach, which nurture and build these
communities of faith. The whole people of God participate actively in
the life and witness of the church.
After centuries of isolation from each other, the Oriental Orthodox
churches finally met in 1965 in Addis Ababa. At this historic meeting
the church heads reaffirmed their belonging to one faith. The challenge
remains to give more visibility and tangible expression to the unity of
faith of the Oriental Orthodox churches. Since 1996 the heads of the
three churches in the Middle East (Coptic, Armenian and Syrian) have
put in place a framework for annual meetings at which they discuss
common concerns and issues. Several working groups have been formed
to assist the patriarchs with this process.
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B. Assyrian
Church of the East (Nestorian Church), formerly Syriac
Church of the East, belongs to the Ancient Churches of the East, but
separates itself from the Oriental Orthodox Churches, being historically
associated with the teaching of Nestorius and the Antiochene school
of theological thought. In recent times, however, the Assyrian Church
of the East dissociated itself from some elements of Nestorian doctrine
(1976, Patriarch Mar Dinkha IV) and entered into ecumenical relations
with the Roman Catholic Church (Common Christological Declaration
between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East, signed
1994). The Assyrian Church of the East now comprises about 400.000
believers mostly in the countries of the Middle East (Lebanon, Syria
and Iraq), in India, but also in North America, Pacific and Europe. The
church is presided from Chicago (Illinois, USA).
II. Catholic Churches
3. Roman Catholic
The Roman Catholic Church is the world’s largest Christian church, with
more than one milliard members. It is comprised of a variety of rites
in the Western (Latin) Catholic Church and in many Eastern Catholic
churches, autonomous particular churches in full communion with the
bishop of Rome. These churches preserve various liturgical, theological
and other traditions derived from their Eastern Orthodox or Oriental
Orthodox roots, while being part of the communion of the Roman
Catholic Church.
The Roman Catholic Church has her traditional centre in the old
Church of Rome, one of the five patriarchates of the old Christian
Church, and one that from the very beginning had a special importance,
due for the most part to its connection with two key figures of the
Christian church – apostles Peter and Paul. The centrality and primacy
of the bishop of Rome (later called “pope”), together with the teaching
of the unbroken apostolic succession, continually became one of the
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main distinctive features of the Roman Catholic Church and was given
a dogmatic basis at the Vatican Council I (1869–1870) in the teaching of
infallibility and universal primacy of the bishop of Rome. On the other
hand, many divisions in the history of Christianity were connected with
this teaching.
The history of Roman Catholic Church is marked by a long series
of attempts of reform and renewal. These reforms have been initiated
by church leaders at various levels of ecclesial order, even at the highest
levels, such as in ecumenical councils; they have also been inspired by
charismatic individuals or groups whom the Holy Spirit raised up within
the Church to promote deeper conversion throughout the community as
a whole. To this long line belongs the Vatican Council II (1962–1965) as
an attempt for theological and spiritual renewal of the Roman Catholic
Church facing the challenges of the modern society. A universal and
ecumenical council in unity with the pope remains to be the privileged
source of authority in matters of faith and discipline.
The structure of the Roman Catholic Church is episcopal, with
bishops being the heads of particular churches. Bishops form a
communion, at the level of states represented by the conferences of
bishops. Traditionally, important place belongs to the bishop of Rome
as head of the whole church structure, serving the unity of the whole
community. The magisterium or teaching authority of the Church is
exercised by the bishops in union with the bishop of Rome. The
priests, successors of the ancient presbyters, are heads of local church
communities. Both the bishops and the priests are men who (in the
Latin Tradition) live in celibacy. Other ministries in the Roman Catholic
Church are deacons (men, married or celibate), readers, acolytes and
others. The teaching of the Vatican Council II laid special emphasis on
the universal priesthood of all believers and thus helped to rediscover
the dignity of lay persons in the Church.
The Roman Catholic Church acknowledges seven sacraments
(baptism, confirmation, Eucharist, reconciliation, anointing of the
sick, ordination and marriage). Eucharistic liturgy forms a central part
of the life of the Church. A deep spiritual tradition is present in the
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church, whose highlights are mystical experiences as well as a rich
and living popular piety (cult of saints, Eucharistic piety, pilgrimages).
The spiritual heritage of the Roman Catholic tradition is marked by a
variety of religious orders and communities, representing at the same
time an example of life according to the Gospel, for both ordained
and lay believers. Some of these traditions: Benedictine, Franciscan,
Dominican, Carmelite, Jesuit or Salesian, had a deep and lasting impact
on the society and culture. In many places and situations members and
communities of the Roman Catholic Church were and are striving for
justice, peace and reconciliation.
The Vatican Council II set forth the ecclesiological basis for Roman
Catholic participation in the ecumenical movement by affirming that the
many elements of sanctification and truth found in varying degrees in
various Christian communities separated from one another constitute
degrees of a real, though imperfect, communion. The Roman Catholic
Church takes part in many forms of the ecumenical dialogue; and in
the last decades this brought fruit in various fields (Roman Catholic –
Lutheran Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification in 1999, to
name one example).
4. Old Catholic
Old Catholics are a group of national churches, which at various times
separated from Rome. The term Old Catholic was adopted to mean
original Catholicism. Old Catholic Christians are composed of three
sections: the Church of Utrecht, which originated in 1724, when its
chapter maintained its ancient right to elect the Archbishop of Utrecht,
against opposition from Rome; the German, Austrian and Swiss Old
Catholic churches which refused to accept the dogmas of the infallibility
and the universal ordinary jurisdiction of the pope, as defined by the
Vatican Council I; and national church movements among the Croats
(1924) and the Poles in the USA (1987) have resulted in the establishment
of the Old Catholic Church of Croatia, and the National Polish Church
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in America and in Poland. The Polish National Church of America and
Canada left the Union of Utrecht in 2003, because of the opening of
the apostolic ministry to women. The Philippine Independent Church
established sacramental communion with Old Catholics in 1965.
The doctrinal basis of the Old Catholic churches is the Declaration of
Utrecht (1889). The Old Catholics recognize the same seven ecumenical
councils as the Eastern Orthodox churches, and those doctrines accepted
by the Church before the Great Schism of 1054. They admit seven
sacraments and recognize apostolic succession. They also believe in the
real presence in the Eucharist, but deny transubstantiation, forbid private
masses, and permit the reception of the Eucharist under one or both
elements. The Old Catholic churches have an episcopal-synodal structure.
Bishops, as well as the rest of the clergy, are permitted to marry.
All services are in the vernacular. Since 1996 the threefold apostolic
ministry is open to women. From the start, Anglicans have been close
to Old Catholics. They participated in an international conference of
theologians, convened at Bonn by Old Catholics in 1874, to discuss the
reunion of churches outside Rome. Old Catholics recognized Anglican
ordinations in 1925. Since 1931 they have been in full communion with
the Church of England first and later on with all the churches of the
Anglican Communion. An agreement on all important theological and
ecclesiological issues was reached in 1987.
5. Anglican (and Episcopalian)
The worldwide Anglican Communion embraces the Church of England
and thirty-seven other independent Provinces, with seventy million
members across one hundred countries. Each Province is self-governing
and has its own liturgy, but they are united by the common tenets
of their faith and share in one Communion, symbolically led by the
Archbishop of Canterbury. Anglicans speak a wide variety of languages
and come from many nations and cultures: its distinguishing feature is
its breadth, tolerance and inclusivity.
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Anglicans view the Bible as containing all things necessary for
salvation and as the rule and standard of faith. They understand the
Apostles’ Creed as the baptismal symbol, and the Nicene Creed as the
sufficient statement of faith. They regard as primary the two sacraments
ordained by Jesus Christ: Baptism and the Supper of the Lord (Holy
Communion) with the use of Jesus Christ’s words of institution, and the
elements are blessed by Him. Nevertheless many Anglicans hold to the
traditional understanding of seven sacraments.
Christian life for them is based upon what is revealed in the Holy
Scripture and the Creeds and expressed in the offering of prayer and
praise in worship, especially in Holy Communion, which is central to
their communal life. Baptism in the name of the Father, Son and Holy
Spirit is the receiving of a person into the fellowship of the Church and
makes her or him one with Jesus Christ.
Anglicans trace their roots back to the early Church, and their
specifically Anglican identity to the post-Reformation establishment of
the Church of England and later other Episcopal or Anglican Churches.
They uphold the Catholic and Apostolic faith – meaning that at the
Reformation, the Church consciously retained continuity with the past
in the Creeds, patterns of ministry, especially the historic episcopate,
and liturgy, whilst also encompassing Protestant insights in its theology
and overall liturgical practice. It has no Creeds of its own, only those
Creeds that are shared by all Christian churches.
The roots of the Church of England go back to the time of the Roman
Empire when a church came into existence in the province of Britain in
the third century, but the invasions by the Angles, Saxons and Jutes in the
fifth century destroyed much of the church in England. In 597 a mission
led by Saint Augustine of Canterbury landed in Kent to begin the work
of converting these pagan peoples. The Ecclesia Anglicana was the result
of a combination of three streams of Christianity, the Roman tradition,
the remnants of the Romano-British church, and the Celtic tradition.
At the Reformation it was among the churches that broke with
Rome. The catalyst for this was the refusal of the Pope to annul the
marriage of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, but underlying this
was a Tudor nationalist belief that authority over the English Church
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belonged to the monarchy. The religious settlement that emerged in the
reign of Elizabeth I after 1558 resulted in a church that consciously
retained continuity with the Patristic and Mediæval periods in terms
of the Catholic creeds, pattern of ministry, buildings and aspects of
liturgy, but which embodied Protestant insights in its theology and
liturgical practice: the Church of England sees itself as both ‘Catholic
and Reformed’. The Toleration Act of 1689 has remained the basis of
its constitutional position: it has been the established church with
legal privileges and responsibilities, but with increasing rights being
granted to others. It has also become the mother church of the Anglican
Communion.
The Evangelical tradition has emphasized the significance of the
Protestant aspects, stressing the importance of the authority of Scripture,
preaching, justification by faith and personal conversion. The Catholic
tradition, reshaped by the Oxford movement in the XIXth century has
emphasized the continuity with the Early and Mediæval periods. It
has stressed the importance of the visible Church and its sacraments
and the belief that the ministry of bishops, priests and deacons is a
sign and instrument of its Catholic and apostolic identity. The Liberal
tradition has emphasized the use of reason in theological exploration,
and the development of Christian belief and practice in order to respond
creatively to wider advances in knowledge, and social and political
action in forwarding God’s Reign. Finally, the Charismatic tradition
has emphasized the importance of the Church being open to renewal
through the work of the Holy Spirit.
III.Churches of the Reformation (XVI. c.)
6. Evangelical-Lutheran
The Evangelical-Lutheran churches, most of which are members of the
Lutheran World Federation (LWF) – A Communion of Churches, emerged
from one of the prominent strands of the reformation movements within
Western Christianity in the XVIth century. Justification by faith through
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grace alone became the decisive issue and the hallmark of EvangelicalLutheran teaching: God redeems human beings from the power of sin
through the cross of Jesus Christ and confers God’s own righteousness
upon them.
The Evangelical-Lutheran tradition considers the preaching of the
Gospel and the administration of the two sacraments, received and
responded to in faith without any human merit, as central to the life
of the Church. The Evangelical-Lutheran confessional writings, the
Augsburg Confession and Martin Luther’s Small Catechism, interpret
core convictions regarding the significance of the Gospel for individual
and common life in faith. The Bible is affirmed as the sole rule of faith,
to which all the creeds and other traditions and beliefs are subordinated.
Varying forms of worship have developed over the centuries, in
interaction with local cultures. Evangelical-Lutheran worship tradition
has sought to maintain liturgical continuity with the ancient Church, in
the reading and proclamation of the word of God and in the celebration
of the sacraments: baptism and Holy Communion.
Evangelical-Lutheran churches strongly emphasize religious
education as well as theological study and research. The doctrine of
the two rules of God states that God reigns both in the secular world
through secular and church government by means of law and in the
spiritual world through grace. Attempts have been made to reinterpret
this teaching as a basis for critique of injustice, authoritarian regimes
and destructive societal developments.
7. Reformed and Presbyterian
The term Reformed refer specifically to church bodies, which have
theological and historical roots in the French and Swiss-led Reformation
(Jean Calvin, Ulrich Zwingli and Heinrich Bullinger). The Reformed
family has churches from the historic Reformation era, which now share
much in common with other mainline Protestants. It also has churches
from pietist and separation movements, whose recommitments to
Scripture and the Reformed confessional documents continue to influence
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their values today. Some were also influenced by the Evangelical and
Pentecostal traditions. Thus there are four international groupings of the
Reformed family.
The risen Jesus Christ is the only head of the Church. Thus there
is no stress on a special elite person or group that has received through
direct revelation or by the laying on of hands extraordinary powers of
authority. Doctrines are governed by the principles of Sola Scriptura,
salvation by grace through faith in Jesus Christ, God’s sovereignty, and
the calling to be agents of transformation in the world. Worship is usually
simple, orderly and dignified, with an emphasis upon the hearing and
preaching of the word of God. The level of education required for the
minister is high.
The Reformed churches generally adhere, with some variations, to
a form of ecclesiastical polity in which the Church is led by teaching
elders (ordained pastors) and ruling elders or presbyters (lay persons)
who are organized in various “courts”. These include the local church
level (session), the regional church level (presbytery or classis), the
wider regional or national level (synod) and the national or highest
autonomous level (general assembly or synod). Synods consist of
members of several presbyteries within a large area and in some cases
constitute the final legislative body. Usually the general assembly or
synod is the supreme legislative and administrative body. The Early
Church had four different offices: pastor, doctor or teacher, deacon, and
presbyter or elder.
8. United and Uniting Churches
United churches are those which have been formed through the fusion
of more separate churches, of different or the same confession. They
have arisen over the past two centuries as churches have sought to make
the unity given them in Jesus Christ fully visible. In union, churches
move beyond cooperation and partnership to a degree of mutual
accountability, which can adequately be expressed only by life within
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a single ecclesial structure. There are some fifty united churches today,
found in all regions of the world. Many of these incorporate churches
that were themselves formed from earlier unions, so that the total
number of “uniting actions” may be as many as hundred-fifty.
United churches form the most diverse family of churches
worldwide. The first distinct types are the earliest unions bringing
together Reformed and Evangelical-Lutheran churches in Germany,
Austria and Czechoslovakia in the XIXth and early XXth centuries (the
Old Prussian Union of 1817, later the Evangelical Church of the Union,
in Germany). The united and uniting churches have not formed their
own Christian World Communion, not wanting to become „another
denomination” and perhaps fearing that such a move would lessen their
zeal for further union. Many united churches have maintained contacts
to the world confessional bodies of their constituent churches.
A special ecumenical model within the churches of the reformation
is the Evangelical Church in Germany (Evangelische Kirche in
Deutschland, EKD). It consists of three branches of churches from the
reformation: the Evangelical-Lutheran ones with their common body: the
United Evangelical Lutheran Church of Germany (VELKD), the Reformed
ones, together as Reformed Covenant and the in earlier times already
United Churches of Evangelical-Lutheran and Reformed congregations,
today represented in the Union of Evangelical Churches (UEK). Their
common theological grounds are the Augsburg Confession (1530),
the Barmen Declaration (1934) and the Leuenberg Agreement (1973),
which was signed 1999 by the EKD. Since then the EKD is no longer
only a Covenant, but a Communion of churches of the Reformation with
different confessional background. In this way the EKD is a “communion
of their Evangelical-Lutheran, Reformed and United member churches”,
in a strictly theological sense a real church, as their member churches
share in full communion of word and sacrament, including mutual
recognition of ordination leading to concelebration.
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IV.Churches from the XVI. c. to the XX. c.
9. Historic Peace Churches:
Mennonite and Quaker (Friends)
A. Mennonites
derive originally from the non-violent Anabaptist
movement that emerged in Europe as a radical expression of the
reformation. Mennonites take their name from the Netherlands reformer
and early influential leader Menno Simons (1496–1561). Migration, due
initially to persecution, and mission spread the movement around the
world.
At the centre of Anabaptist-Mennonite faith stands Jesus Christ as
Lord, Saviour, and model of life. The Church as the body of Jesus Christ
continues Jesus Christ’s life and ministry in the world. Three features
shape the Church in Anabaptist-Mennonite perspective. The Church is a
community of believers, who seek to follow in daily life the teaching and
example of Jesus Christ. Believers who voluntarily confess the lordship
of Jesus Christ receive baptism as the sign of the new covenant and of
their commitment to a life of discipleship.
Believers’ baptism means also membership in the Church and
responsibility for its welfare. Autonomous from the state, the Church
lives under the authority of the word of God as set forth in the Bible.
The text is best understood in the context of the community of disciples
inspired by the Holy Spirit. Social and personal ethics in a life of
discipleship is a core part of the Gospel. Followers of Jesus Christ live in
the world to serve humankind through action and proclamation.
Love of enemies and refusal of violence in the struggle for justice are
understood as New Testament imperatives. Rejection of seeking wealth,
and acting in favour of economic sharing, is frequently emphasized.
Mennonite and related churches claim unity with all believers who
confess Jesus Christ and seek to live the way of discipleship. Many
cooperate with other Christian churches, especially in peace-making,
service and mission.
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B. The Religious Society of Friends (Quakers) date their origins back
to 1652 in North-West England and deem George Fox, an itinerant
preacher, their founder. Together with other seekers, he brought into the
tumultuous times the message of the direct personal experience of God,
informed by the Scriptures. His theology was related to that of Anabaptist
groups of the time. This direct personal experience of the Holy Spirit
has been characterized as the Inner Light or that of God in Everyone.
Following on the sense of the Reign of God in the present, and the
aversion to killing that of God in anyone, Quakers have refused military
service and are generally pacifists. On behalf of Quakers worldwide, two
Quaker organizations were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize in 1947, in
recognition of international Quaker relief work.
Buoyed by a strong evangelical fervour, Quaker ministers (all
unpaid) spread the message throughout Great Britain, Ireland and
Northern Europe. In 1682, William Penn received a royal grant of
Pennsylvania, and founded its capital, Philadelphia, which remains a
centre of American liberal Quakerism. As Quakers grew in numbers and
moved Westwards with the expansion of the USA, different influences
affected both their faith and practice. Today there are four strands of
Quakerism, which are evangelical, pastored, conservative, and liberal
unprogrammed, who worship in silent waiting. Liberal unprogrammed
Friends predominate in Europe.
The organization within the Religious Society of Friends begins
with the local monthly meeting or church, which belongs to a wider
gathering called Yearly Meeting. There are umbrella organizations known
as Evangelical Friends International, Friends United Meeting (pastored
tradition) and Friends General Conference (liberal unprogrammed
tradition), which regroup several yearly meetings.
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10. Baptist
The modern Baptist Church was founded in the Netherlands in 1609 by
John Smyth, a clergyman who had broken away from the Church of
England. He maintained that the Church should receive its members by
baptism after they had consciously acknowledged their faith and thus
he opposed infant baptism. His followers established a Baptist church
in London in 1612, its pastor being Thomas Helwys, who believed in
religious toleration for all people, including atheists and pagans.
The spread of Baptist churches was greatly influenced by the revival
movements during the following centuries. In 1891 the General and the
Particular Baptists were united in the Baptist Union of Great Britain and
Ireland. The Baptists are the largest denomination in the USA, and there
are significant Baptist communities in Great Britain, Romania and the
Ukraine.
Interpreting the New Testament, Baptists stress that the Church as the
body of Jesus Christ is a communion of the faithful who have personally and
voluntarily made a decision for Jesus Christ, and because of their personal
confession of faith become, through baptism, members of Jesus Christ’s
Church. Baptists recognize only the Bible (and no creed) as binding authority. Under the guidance of the Holy Spirit each community may interpret the
Scriptures and design the life of its community. The pronounced congregational constitution does not allow for a centralized church structure, but
promotes unions and conventions of individual communities.
11. Methodist
Methodism as a form of Christian belief and practice derives from a
movement that began with the life and ministry of John Wesley
(1703–1791) and Charles Wesley (1707–1788), who desired to bring a
greater spiritual enthusiasm to the life of the Church of England. Their
efforts transgressed the canonical boundaries of the established church,
resulting ultimately in the emergence of a separate church.
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Theologically, the Wesley brothers held to the optimistic Arminian
view that salvation, by God’s grace, was possible for all human beings,
in contrast to the Calvinistic ideas of election and predestination that
were accepted by the Non-Conformists of England. They also stressed
the important effect of faith on character, teaching that perfection in
love was possible in this life.
Methodist churches claim to be part of the Church universal,
believing in the priesthood of all believers and following a pattern of
organization established by John Wesley when he organized pastoral
oversight for the societies of Methodists which developed as a result of
his preaching. The weekly class-meeting for “fellowship in Christian
experience” played an important part in the beginnings of Methodism.
Throughout its history Methodism has had an active concern for both
personal and social holiness, and through its centralized organization,
has been able to make coordinated efforts in these areas. Methodists in
USA in 1784 constituted themselves as the Methodist Episcopal Church,
and Methodism today is found in over hundred and thirty countries.
The first World Methodist Conference was held in London in 1881. It
met every ten years until interrupted by the Second World War; and
following the war the Conference agreed to meet every five years.
12.(Seventh-Day) Adventist
The Seventh-day Adventist Church is a denomination of conservative
evangelical Christians. The church arose out of the eschatological
expectations (epitomized by the Millerite Movement), but was only
formally organized in 1863. The Millerites had set October 22, 1844, for
the return of Jesus Christ. One of the small Adventist groups adopted the
Seventh-day Sabbath, reinterpreted the events of 1844, and became the
Seventh-day Adventist Church. The roots of Adventism go back to the
Church of the New Testament and the Reformation.
Seventh-day Adventists accept the Bible as the inspired word of
God. In essence, the Bible is their only creed, though they do have
a statement of twenty-eight Fundamental Beliefs, which is subject
21
to revision at any General Conference World Session, as new light is
received or better language is found, under the guidance of the Holy
Spirit. These beliefs include the Trinity, believers’ baptism, spiritual
gifts, death as an unconscious state until the resurrection, and the New
Earth as the home of the redeemed after the millennium.
They are creationists and believe that woman and man were made
in the image of God as the crowning work of the Biblical creation week.
With the entry of sin, God’s plan of salvation was put into effect. In
Jesus Christ’s life of perfect obedience to God’s will, his suffering, death
and resurrection, God provided the only means of atonement for human
sin, so that those who by faith accept the gift of salvation may have
eternal life. They have been consistent advocates of religious freedom
for all, and have taken a lead in its international promotion, including at
the United Nations (UN).
Global mission and evangelism are essential elements of their
ethos. The Church is intent on sharing the good news of justification,
righteousness by faith, salvation through Jesus Christ, and his imminent
return. As a result, the Adventist Church is the most widespread
Protestant denomination, with work in over two hundred countries.
Adventists wish to live lives of service to God and humankind. To
help achieve this goal the church owns and operates many institutions:
schools (from kindergarten to university), hospitals and health-care
facilities, publishing houses, and health food factories. Media centres
(worldwide satellite television and radio) have been established in
recent decades. Adventists believe in a healthy lifestyle, which includes
a good diet (many Adventists are vegetarians) and abstention from
harmful drugs, including alcohol and tobacco products. Adventists also
promote public health. The church operates the Adventist Development
and Relief Agency, which works on behalf of disaster victims and third
world development projects.
The Adventist church sees herself not as a federation of local or
national churches, but as one world church. There is an effective form
of representative government. The church’s polity provides for four
key organizational levels: the local church, a united body of individual
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believers; the Conference, a united body of local churches; the Union
Conference, the united body of several conferences (a larger territory,
often a nation); and the General Conference, the worldwide body,
whose constituent units are the approximately one hundred Unions.
The General Conference operates through its thirteen Divisions (branch
offices). The office of the General Conference is located in Silver Spring,
USA. The Seventh-day Adventist Church is comprised of twenty-five
million Adventists.
Adventists “recognize those agencies that lift up Jesus Christ before
women and men as a part of the divine plan for the evangelization of
the world”. They enter into fellowship with other Christians and practice
open communion. They believe that they are a prophetic movement
with a time of the end message centring on the “eternal Gospel” to
give to the world. While they welcome opportunities to dialogue and
reach better understanding, they have not formally joined the organized
ecumenical movement by becoming members of councils of churches.
They do, however, in many cases have observer, consultant, or advisor
status. Adventists wish to preserve and protect their unique identity and
give life to their God-given evangelistic and service mission.
13.Salvation Army (Salvationist)
The Salvation Army (Salvationists) is an integral part of the Christian
Church, although distinctive in government and practice. The Army’s
doctrine follows the mainstream of Christian belief, and its articles of
faith emphasize God’s saving purposes. Its objects are the advancement
of the Christian religion and education, the relief of poverty, and other
charitable objects beneficial to society or the community of humankind
as a whole.
The movement, founded in London in 1865 by William Booth
(1829–1912) and Catherine Booth (1829–1890), has spread to many
parts of the world. The rapid deployment of the first Salvationists was
aided by the adoption of a quasi-military command structure in l878
23
when the title of Salvation Army was brought into use. A similarly
practical organization today enables resources to be equally flexible.
Responding to a recurrent theme in Christianity which sees the
Church engaged in spiritual warfare, the Army has used to advantage
certain soldierly features such as uniforms, flags and ranks to identify,
inspire and regulate its endeavours. Evangelistic and social enterprises
are maintained, under the authority of the general, by full-time officers
and employees, as well as soldiers, who give service in their free time.
The Army also benefits from the support of many adherents and
friends, including those who serve on advisory boards. Leadership in
the Army is provided by commissioned officers, who are recognized
ministers of religion. The headquarters of the Army are located in
London. There are fifteen thousand local Salvation Army churches
(including corps, outposts, societies, new plants and recovery churches)
with close to one and a half million Christians (senior soldiers, junior
soldiers and adherents).
All Salvationists accept a disciplined and compassionate life of
high moral standards, which includes abstinence from alcohol and
tobacco. From its earliest days the Army has accorded women equal
opportunities, every rank and service being open to them, and from
childhood the young are encouraged to love and serve God. Raised to
evangelize, the Army embarked on schemes for the social betterment of
the poor: such concerns developed in practical, skilled and cost-effective
ways. Evolving social services meet endemic needs and specific crises
worldwide. Up-to-date facilities and highly-trained staff are employed.
The need for modernization and longer-term development are under
continual review. Increasingly the Army’s policy and its indigenous
membership allow it to cooperate with international relief agencies
and governments alike. The movement’s partnership with both private
and public philanthropy will continue to bring comfort to the needy,
while the proclamation of God’s redemptive love offers individuals and
communities the opportunity to enjoy a better life on Earth and a place
in Jesus Christ’s everlasting Reign.
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14. Hussite
The Czechoslovak Hussite Church (CHC) grew out of the Modernist
movement in the Roman Catholic Church and was founded in 1920. Its
teaching is based on the Holy Scripture and on Christian tradition, it
professes the tradition of the Early Church, that of Cyril and Methodius
and of the Reformation – both the first, especially the person of the
Czech reformer Jan Hus, and the second one. It is a liturgical church,
administering seven sacraments. It is a Presbyterian church with
episcopal elements: its administration is composed of both the laity
(elders) and the ordained (preachers, deacons, priests and bishops).
V. Pentecostal and Black Churches (XX. c.)
15. Pentecostal
The Pentecostal movement includes a number of denominations,
independent churches and organizations that emphasize the work of
the Holy Spirit in the lives of believers. It emerged in North America
at the beginning of the XXth century, when members of the Wesleyan
Holiness Movement began to speak in tongues and identified it as the
Bible Evidence that they had been baptized in the Holy Spirit. This
provided power for living an apostolic life and engaging in an apostolic
ministry that included the charismas. The movement has gone by such
self-designations as Apostolic Faith, Full Gospel or Latter Rain. One of
the centres of activity emerged under the direction of William Joseph
Seymour (1870–1922), and the Apostolic Faith Mission in Los Angeles
in 1906.
The earliest Pentecostals drew from their Methodist and Wesleyan
Holiness roots, describing their entrance into the fullness of Christian
life in three stages: conversion, sanctification, and baptism in the Holy
Spirit. These stages were understood as separate and datable crisis
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experiences. Other Pentecostals, from the Reformed tradition or touched
by the Keswick teachings on the Higher Christian Life, view sanctification
as an ongoing quest. This debate resulted in the first schism among
Pentecostals. Groups such as the Church of God in Christ, the Church
of God, and the International Pentecostal Holiness Church teach the
former position, known as Holiness. The Assemblies of God and the
International Church of the Foursquare Gospel hold the latter position,
called Finished Work.
A second schism developed between 1907 and 1916, in discussions
over the apostolic baptismal formula. Most Pentecostals argued for the
classic Trinitarian formula, while others contended for “in the Name
of Jesus Christ”. By 1916 a new group of churches known as Oneness
or Jesus’ Name churches had formed, among them the Pentecostal
Assemblies of the World and the United Pentecostal Church. Many
of them embraced an understanding of God in terms that border on a
modal understanding.
All three segments of Pentecostalism, Holiness, Finished Work and
Oneness believe in the imminent return of Jesus Christ, and therefore are
highly evangelistic and missionary driven. Pentecostals have tended to
identify with the Evangelical movement, and to join Evangelical structures.
In 1947, Pentecostals representing all but the Oneness groups gathered
in Zürich for a Pentecostal world conference. Since then, leaders have
gathered in Pentecostal world conferences where a small presidium has
discussed items of mutual interest and concern. In 2004 the organisation
formally took the name Pentecostal World Fellowship (PWF).
Although some of the Pentecostal churches became members of
the World Council of Churches in the 1960s, the majority of Pentecostal
churches have chosen not to participate in any ecumenical organization.
This is because of their restorationist perspective on the history of the
Church that views existing churches as having fallen away from God’s
intentions through compromise and sin. Another reason is the way so
many existing churches have marginalized and rejected the Pentecostals
when they attempted to share their testimonies of what God had done in
their lives.
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The emergence of the World Evangelical Fellowship (now Alliance)
in London in 1951, and the work of David du Plessis (1905–1987) have
created a Pentecostal openness to limited ecumenical contact. Groups
that participate in the Charismatic Renewal and have maintained
membership in their historic denominations have often formed positive
relationships with the older classical Pentecostal churches. Similarly,
churches of the Third Wave (charismatic groups like the Vineyard) and
many New Apostolic groups are related to classical Pentecostalism.
Classical Pentecostals number eighty million, Charismatics two hundred
million and Neo-charismatics three hundred million.
Pentecostalism has been able to meet the needs of many on the
margins of society and Church. It has been effective in bringing people
into a personal relationship with God through Jesus Christ, in the power
of the Holy Spirit. It encourages its members to share their personal
testimonies with others, to live their lives with an eye to holiness, to
embrace good works as part of the Spirit-filled life, to be open to the
sovereign movement of the Holy Spirit through charismas, signs and
wonders, and to support the work of the Church through regular tithing.
16.Black
Under the heading Black Churches, African Churches and Caribbean
Churches are included partly independent Churches, partly members of
larger predominantly white denominations. The development of these
churches was influenced by black liberation theology (James Cone).
The number of Black Churches and denominations being very high,
they can be found in the United States of America: African Methodist
Episcopal Church, African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church, National
Baptist Convention, Church of God in Christ; and in Africa: Zion
Christian Church, Christ Apostolic Church, Nazareth Baptist Church and
many more. The Caribbean Conference of Churches (CCC) has a variety
of member churches both within the WCC and not being its members.
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Appendix I.
4. Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification
Important Ecumenical Agreements and Documents
The Joint Declaration on the Doctrine of Justification (JDDJ) was
officially signed October 31st 1999 in Augsburg by representatives of the
Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran World Federation. This was
the result of a thirty year process of convergence in the understanding
of justification. It was the first time since the reformation period, that a
“consensus in basic truths of the doctrine of justification” (§ 13.) could
be formulated between the Roman Catholic Church and the Lutheran
tradition.
The JDDJ comprises the Biblical message of justification, the doctrine
of justification as an ecumenical problem, the common understanding
of justification, the development of the common understanding
of justification and the importance and perspective of the reached
consensus. “In faith we together hold the conviction that justification is
the work of the triune God. (…) By grace alone in faith in Christ’s saving
work and not because of any merit on our part we are accepted by God
and receive the Holy Spirit, Who renews our hearts while equipping and
calling us to good works.” (§ 15.) “Lutherans and Catholics have the
common goal, to confess Christ in every regard, whom alone we have
to trust to over all things as the one mediator, through whom God in the
Holy Spirit gives Himself and grants His renewing gifts.” (§ 18.)
One result of this declaration is that the mutual condemnations of
the XVIth century concerning the doctrine of justification “do not strike
the partner of today” (§ 13.). Further consequences are envisaged: “Our
consensus in basic truths of the doctrine of justification has to affect and
to be proved in the life and teaching of the churches.” (§ 43.) The Annex
speaks about the doctrine of justification as “measure or touchstone of
Christian faith”: “No doctrine is allowed to contradict this criteria.” (§
3.) The Official Common Statement to the doctrine of justification states
the goal: “to reach full church communion, a unity in diversity, in which
remaining differences would be reconciled and no longer have a divisive
force.” (§ 3.) So the Joint Declaration is a first “decisive step forward on
the way to overcoming the division of the Church.” (§ 44.)
1. Leuenberg Church Fellowship
The Leuenberg Church Fellowship – Community of Protestant Churches
in Europe (CPCE), based on the Leuenberg Agreement of 1973, unites
now up to one hundred and five Protestant churches across Europe.
Almost all Protestant churches, including classical Reformation churches
as well as some pre-Reformation churches (Waldensian church) and a
number of South American Protestant Churches are member churches
of this community.
2. Meissen Agreement
The Meissen Agreement, signed in 1991 in both London and Berlin, is
the first formal Agreement between British and German churches: the
Church of England and the Evangelical Church of Germany. It has a form
of a declaration, an acknowledgment of ministries of the partners in the
agreement, a commitment to common life and mission, participation
and theological dialogue, Eucharistic hospitality, as well as ecumenical
partnerships on local level (parishes, diocese, Landeskirchen).
3. Porvoo Agreement
The churches that signed the Porvoo Agreement (1992) are the
Evangelical-Lutheran Churches of Estonia, Lithuania, Sweden, Norway,
Iceland and Finland and the Anglican churches: the Church of England
and of Ireland, the Church in Wales and the Scottish Episcopal Church.
Two churches from South Europe also belong to the Porvoo Communion:
they are the Lusitanian Church in Portugal and the Reformed Episcopal
Church of Spain. The Evangelical-Lutheran Church of Denmark signed
the Porvoo Declaration in 2010.
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29
5. Charta Œcumenica
6. Mutual Recognition of Baptism
On April 22nd 2001 the Charta Œcumenica: Guidelines for the Growing
Cooperation among the Churches in Europe was signed in Strasbourg by
the presidents of the Conference of European Churches (CEC), in which
Orthodox, Reformed and Free churches work together, and of the (Roman
Catholic) Council of European Bishops’ Conferences (CCEE) in order to
“commend this Charta Œcumenica as a Basic Text to all churches and
Bishops’ Conferences in Europe, to be adopted and adapted in each of
their local contexts”.
The Charta Œcumenica begins with a short summary of the shared
Christian faith under the heading: “We believe in one holy catholic and
apostolic Church”. In the middle we find proposals “on the way towards
the visible fellowship of the churches in Europe”. The most detailed
last part formulates “our common responsibility in Europe”. There is a
special accent laid on “strengthening community with Judaism and on
“cultivating relations with Islam”. (§ 10–11.)
The Charta is divided up in twelve sections, each resulting in a way
of self-commitment: “We commit ourselves”. In this way it underlines
the practical and ethical dimensions of ecumenical cooperation. The IEF
in its Písek declaration of 2007 on the occasion of its fortieth anniversary
has adopted the Charta: “We welcome and acknowledge the Charta
Œcumenica, and recommend a closer study of its commitments.”
The Charta understands itself as a basic text inviting Christians,
congregations and churches from the lowest up to the highest level to
adopt and to put into realisation its self-commitments. It enables also
to develop a common standing against state bodies, to stand up for
minorities and to heal painful memories. Fine results in connection
with the Charta are Local Ecumenical Partnerships (LEP), which are
especially spread in England and Germany.
In order to ground the ecumenical communion of Christians and
churches on a sacramental basis, a mutual recognition of baptism was
celebrated on April 27th 2007 in the cathedral of Magdeburg, where the
oldest baptismal font North to the Alps is to be found. The declaration
was signed by eleven member churches of the Council of Churches in
Germany, amongst them the Armenian-Apostolic Orthodox Church as
well as the (Eastern) Orthodox Church in Germany, the Evangelical and
Roman Catholic Church, the Moravian and the Evangelical-Methodist
Church, but not yet by representatives of Baptist and Mennonite
congregations.
The short text The Christian Baptism emphasises that baptized
persons take part in the salvation of Jesus Christ; it formulates mutual
recognition and underlines the common sacramental basis: “As a sign of
the unity of all Christians baptism links to Jesus Christ, the fundament
of this unity. (…) Therefore, we acknowledge every baptism performed
according to the mandate of Jesus (…) and we rejoice in every baptized
person.” Finally, the text recalls the fundamental convergence document
on Baptism, Eucharist and Ministry (BEM), that was passed by the
World Council of Churches’ Commission on Faith and Order January
12th 1982 in Lima. It quotes from the text on baptism (§ 6.): “Our one
baptism into Christ constitutes a call to the churches to overcome their
divisions and visibly manifest their fellowship.” This is realized in the
ecumenical celebrations of the renewal of baptismal vows, as they are
recommended by now from most of the churches.
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31
Appendix II.
Statistics of the Countries of IEF Regions
1. Belgium
47% Roman Catholic; 6% Muslim;
others: Protestant, Jewish,
Buddhist and Hindu.
2. Czech Republic
27% Roman Catholic, 1% Evangelical
Church of Czech Brethren,
1% Czechoslovak Hussite Church.
3. France
64% Roman Catholic, 3% Protestant;
9% Muslim; 1% Buddhist;
1% Jewish.
4. Germany
30% Roman Catholic, 30% EvangelicalLutheran, 2% Orthodox, 0,5 % Free
Churches (Baptist and Methodist),
Old Catholic; 5% Muslim;
0,1% Jewish; others: Buddhist and
Hindu.
5. Great Britain
45% Anglican, 10% Roman Catholic,
5% Presbyterian, 3% Methodist;
3% Muslim; 1% Hindu; others: Sikh,
Jewish and Buddhist.
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6. Hungary
55% Roman Catholic (out of that
3% Greek Catholic),
16% Calvinist-Reformed,
3% Evangelical-Lutheran; others:
Baptist, Orthodox; Unitarian and Jewish.
7. Poland
89% Roman Catholic, 2% Orthodox;
others: Jehovah’s Witnesses,
Evangelical-Lutheran and Pentecostal.
8. Romania
87% Orthodox, 6% Roman Catholic
(out of that 1% Greek Catholic),
6% Protestant; 1% Muslim.
9.Slovakia
65% Roman Catholic
(out of that 4% Greek Catholic),
6% Protestant, 1% Orthodox.
10.Spain
73% Roman Catholic, 3% Protestant;
2,5% Muslim;
others: Jehovah’s Witnesses, Jews,
and Latter-day Saints (Mormons).