Geomorphology and natural hazards in karst areas: A review

Geomorphology 134 (2011) 1–8
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Geomorphology
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/geomorph
Editorial
Geomorphology and natural hazards in karst areas: A review
Jo De Waele a,⁎, Francisco Gutiérrez b, Mario Parise c, Lukas Plan d
a
University of Bologna, Italy
University of Zaragoza, Spain
c
National Research Council. IRPI, Italy
d
Natural History Museum, Vienna, Austria
b
1. Introduction
Since human beings started to colonise the world, slowly migrating (in multiple directions) from the African Rift and ultimately
reaching the southernmost territories of the Americas, they have
interacted with the natural environment, using its resources and suffering from its hazardous processes. Survival of mankind was possible
thanks to its ability to adapt to an ever-changing environment and its
capability to learn and communicate the new findings. From the earliest times, geomorphic features and processes were an essential part
of social survival (Crozier et al., 2011). In karst terrains, caves were
used as shelters as well as burial and sacred places, playing an instrumental role in the day-to-day struggle for survival, especially during
the ice ages (Fig. 1). Spectacular karst landmarks, such as big cave entrances, blue karst springs, deep collapse sinkholes (cenotes) or rock
arches, just to name a few, have often become part of the natural
and “supernatural” heritage of our ancestors.
In prehistoric times the human impact on the karst environment
was very limited, like the probability of properties and people being
damaged by karst processes (e.g. subsidence, flooding). Both impacts
and hazards in karst terrains have increased dramatically over the last
two centuries, along with the exponential increase in population and
our capability to modify the natural environment, largely related to
the economic and technological development of the societies. An increasing number of scientists consider that humans are nowadays
the most effective geomorphic agent and a prime factor in landscape
evolution (Zalasiewicz et al., 2010; Price et al., 2011). In fact, the formal definition of the Anthropocene, as a new epoch of the Geological
Time Scale characterised by a significant and global human impact on
the Earth's ecosystems, is being debated. At the present time, around
25% of the Earth's population lives on or nearby karst areas (Ford and
Williams, 2007) and the increasing exploitation of karst resources,
such as water and building material, is leading to severe environmental impacts and unsustainable situations (Drew and Hötzl, 1999;
Gunn, 2004). Unfortunately, the number of karst areas affected by
water pollution, landscape degradation and other impacts is growing
very rapidly. Additionally, the damage caused by hazardous karst processes, especially subsidence sinkholes (Beck, 2003; Waltham et al.,
2005; Gutiérrez et al., 2008a), will most likely keep on increasing.
⁎ Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (J. De Waele), [email protected] (F. Gutiérrez),
[email protected] (M. Parise), [email protected] (L. Plan).
0169-555X/$ – see front matter © 2011 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.geomorph.2011.08.001
Exposed human elements augment and anthropogenic changes in
the karst systems frequently result in hazard enhancement. Karst
geomorphologists and hydrologists can play a decisive role in preventing natural disasters in karst areas, particularly those induced
by human activities; dams with leakage and sinkhole problems
(Milanovic, 2000; Cooper and Gutiérrez, 2011), mines and tunnels
affected by flooding and subsidence (Li and Zhou, 1999; Autin,
2002; Casagrande et al., 2005; Lucha et al., 2008), high-speed railways
built in sinkhole-prone areas (Guerrero et al., 2008) or development
of sinkholes at huge rates induced by lake level (Yechieli et al.,
2006) or water table (Sprynskyy et al., 2009) declines.
The importance of properly managing karst areas and mitigating
the detrimental effects caused by human activities on these inherently
sensitive environments has been boosted by a series of conferences
and projects since the early 1990s (Ford, 1993; Williams, 1993; Parise
et al., 2008; 2009). Raising public awareness on the need to protect
our endangered natural resources, especially in developed countries,
has promoted the production of karst-specific Environmental Impact
Assessments (Veni, 1999). Recently, several approaches have been proposed to assess the degree of human-induced disturbance in karst areas
(Van Beynen and Townsend, 2005; Calò and Parise, 2006; De Waele,
2009; North et al., 2009). Although these studies are essential for a
proper management of the karst resources, they may be futile if not followed by adequate administrative decisions and regulations.
2. Karst geomorphology
2.1. Karst processes
Karst is characterised by the predominance of rock dissolution over
mechanical erosion, and is typical of present temperate (cold and
warm) and tropical environments (Ford and Williams, 2007). In karst
terrains, surface and subsurface geomorphology and hydrology are
largely governed by dissolution of carbonate and/or evaporite rocks.
In the most classical (common) situation, surface waters, acidified by
CO2 from the air and soil, slowly dissolve carbonate rocks while percolating downwards and flowing down-gradient in the phreatic (saturated) zone towards the discharge points, typically springs. Dissolution is
greater close to the surface, in the so-called epikarst (Williams, 2008;
Palmer, this issue), and tends to decrease rapidly downwards. Multiple
papers address the problem of dissolution kinetics of carbonate systems
interacting with meteoric waters (Dreybrodt et al., 1996; Klimchouk et
al., 2000; Kaufmann and Dreybrodt, 2007). Karst also includes features
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J. De Waele et al. / Geomorphology 134 (2011) 1–8
Fig. 1. Archaeological importance of cave and karst sites: A. Palaeosinkhole fill in Atapuerca site (Iberian Chain, Spain). This palaeontological–archaeological site has yielded
the oldest human remains found in Europe (Photograph by Francisco Gutiérrez); B. Neolithic paintings, realised with guano and terra rossa, on the wall of Porto Badisco cave, Apulia, southern Italy (4000–3000 B.C.) (Photograph by Mario Parise). C. Approximately 3000 years old Anasazi basket maker culture graffiti in Slaughter Canyon cave (Guadalupe Hills,
New Mexico, USA) (Photograph by Lukas Plan).
resulting from dissolution of other rock types, such as halite (Frumkin,
1994), gypsum (Klimchouk et al., 1996; Calaforra, 1998) and quartzite
(Wray, 1997; Piccini and Mecchia, 2009).
The dissolution of carbonate rocks depends on many additional
factors, including temperature, rock type, structure and texture, as
well as hydrochemical conditions, just to name the most important.
For example, karstification is strongly enhanced at the interface between fresh and saline water, where specific cave types may develop
at high rates (De Waele and Forti, 2003; De Waele et al., 2009), or at
the mixing zone between vadose and phreatic waters, where isolated
cavities may form (Dreybrodt et al., 2009) under special conditions.
Flank margin caves, instead, develop at the boundary between the
freshwater body and the denser salt water in coastal areas (Mylroie
and Carew, 1990). Another possible mechanism of enhanced karstification is related to the rising of hot water or fluids rich in CO2 or H2S,
leading to the formation of hypogenic caves (Klimchouk, 2009).
2.2. The visible (surface) karst
Under normal conditions, dissolution is the dominant morphogenetic process in karst areas, mechanical erosion being hindered by
the prevalence of internal drainage and the consequent scarcity of
surface runoff. This is one of the reasons why carbonate karst areas
often stand in relief with respect to other zones underlain by more
erodible lithologies. Surface lowering in carbonate karst areas is
often one order of magnitude lower than in areas dominated by
other rocks (e.g. fine clastic sediments) (Gabrovšek, 2009) and erosion takes place mainly underground while the surface is modified
only slightly.
True karst areas with a well-developed network of erosional valleys are rare. The dolines are the typical landform in karst, in some
way equivalent to valleys in non karst landscapes (Sauro, 2004).
Dolines can range in sizes between a couple of metres to several hundreds, these last often having a rather complex formation (Gabrovšek
and Stepišnik, this issue). Other common large-scale morphologies
are poljes and uvalas, generally with more complex origin and
characteristics (Fig. 2; Calic, this issue). At smaller scales, dissolution
of rock creates a wide variety of forms known as karren (Ginés et al.,
2010). There are also several morphologies that result from dissolution in combination with other processes. Dissolution is often enhanced by biological processes, particularly evident in coastal karst
areas with the typical formation of the so-called “black phytokarst”
(Folk et al., 1973). The genesis and evolution of some of these polygenetic forms, like dissolution pipes typical in coastal calcarenites (De
Waele et al., 2011) and notches (Furlani et al., 2011), are still under
debate.
J. De Waele et al. / Geomorphology 134 (2011) 1–8
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Fig. 2. Surface karst morphologies: A. Bedrock collapse sinkhole, Iberian Chain, Spain (Photograph by Francisco Gutiérrez); B. Dabarsko polje (Bosnia Hercegovina), one of the most
beautiful polje of the Dinaric region (Photograph Jo De Waele); C. A solution doline with a small orchard in the outskirts of Logatec (Slovenia) (Photograph Jo De Waele). These
landforms have caused the urban pattern of this small village to be very complicated but pleasant; D. Huge doline in alpine karst, Hochschwab, Austria. Person on the horizon
for scale. (Photograph by Lukas Plan).
2.3. The invisible (subterranean) karst
The water that seeps and flows underground slowly dissolves the
host rock creating a network of enlarged fractures, fissures and bedding planes. Dissolution is the dominant process during the early
stages of subterranean karst development, when voids are too
small to sustain a turbulent water flow (White, 1988). These early,
normally phreatic, stages of speleogenesis can last tens of thousands
of years, depending on water availability, saturation index and the
characteristics of the karst rocks. Once critical dimensions are
reached, the flow turns into turbulent increasing its velocity and
small particles can be transported, boosting the mechanical erosion,
which may prevail against corrosion. Man-size conduits can evolve
in a matter of some ten thousand years, and continue enlarging rapidly as long as water is able to fill the voids completely (Klimchouk
et al., 2000). Landscape evolution can cause the base level of the
karst systems to drop episodically, leading to the development of
multilevel cave systems with a series of passage levels progressively
older as we move upwards. Also at a smaller (cave passage) scale,
local fluctuations of water levels can be reconstructed on the basis
of morphologies and cave deposits (Calaforra and De Waele, this
issue). Phreatic conduits evolve into vadose passages with
entrenched floors and shafts connecting different cave levels. The
study of these multilevel caves, including numerical dating techniques, often allows geomorphologists to reconstruct the main
phases of landscape evolution and their timing (Palmer, 1987;
Granger et al., 2001; Hauselmann et al., 2007; Piccini, this issue;
Wagner et al., this issue). In certain conditions, speleogenesis can
also develop per ascensum, due to sea level rise and aggradation.
These conditions were met during the sea level rise at the end of
the Messinian, following a long period of deep karst evolution during the Mediterranean salinity crisis (Mocochain et al., 2009).
The final stages of speleogenesis are characterised by sedimentation, alluviation and collapse processes (Farrant and Smart, this
issue), sometimes leading to the complete filling of the initial voids
(Fig. 3). These processes can protect cave floors and walls from the
dissolving and erosional action of flowing waters, leading to cave development by paragenesis (Farrant, 2004) or antigravitative erosion
(Pasini, 2009). The filled conduits may become relict records of past
geological conditions (palaeokarst) (Bosak et al., 1989), allowing scientists to reconstruct old karst cycles or mining engineers to exploit their
mineral deposits. These fossil karst features can also undergo reactivation by a new karst cycle (Ford, 1995). The “karst sedimentary record”,
composed of physical (detrital, clastic) and chemical sediments (speleothems), found inside caves (Fig. 4) is a highly valuable tool for
palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental studies, extensively investigated in the past 30 years all over the world (McDermott, 2004; Sasowsky
and Mylroie, 2004; Baker et al., 2008). These studies can also provide
important clues for the reconstruction of landscape evolution
(Luetscher et al., 2011; Meyer et al., 2011).
2.4. Karst deposits
Waters in karst areas can also become supersaturated with calcite,
leading to the deposition of this mineral from the solution. One of the
main reasons for supersaturation to occur is CO2-degassing due to pressure or temperature changes. At the surface calcite can be deposited by
hot (or warm) water (e.g. Pammukale, Turkey), or by cold water (e.g.
Plitvice lakes, Croatia). Calcite precipitation is often bacterially mediated, and these organic processes involved in tufa and travertine formation decrease with temperature (hot travertines being mostly inorganic
in origin) (Chafetz and Folk, 1984). Tufa and travertine deposits are important palaeoclimate and palaeoenvironmental markers (Jones and
Renaut, 2010; Corrêa et al., this issue).
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Fig. 3. A. Cave sediments: Italian's chamber in the St. Paul's Underground River (Palawan, Philippines), one of the greatest natural underground collapse chambers of the world (see
persons for scale) (Photograph by Riccardo De Luca, La Venta Esplorazioni Geografiche); B. House-sized breakdown boulders in POL-Monster-Doline, Hochschwab, Austria. (Photograph by Alexander Klampfer); C. Huge passage that was filled with Pleistocene gravel and subsequently eroded by running water (Dachstein-Mammuthöhle, Austria) (Photograph by Lukas Plan); D. Imbrication of flattened cobbles (flow direction from left to right) in Dachstein-Mammuthöhle (centimetre scale to the right shows 35 cm) (Photograph by
Lukas Plan).
Fig. 4. Geological importance of cave sediments: A. Sediments in a halite cave close to San Pedro de Atacama (Chile). The inset shows the small mammal bones embedded in the
deposit which allowed the dating of these sediments (Photographs by Jo De Waele); B. Plio-Pleistocene cave sediments in Račiška Pečina (Matarsko Podolje, southern Slovenia),
used by Zupan Hajna et al. (2010) for palaeomagnetic studies (white boxes show where samples were taken) (Photograph by Jo De Waele).
J. De Waele et al. / Geomorphology 134 (2011) 1–8
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In caves calcite precipitation is mainly due to CO2-degassing and
gives rise to a wide array of speleothems. Sometimes minerals different from calcite can precipitate from the solutions, giving rise to a
large number of cave minerals (Hill and Forti, 1997). Aragonite and
gypsum are the most important among these. Most of the time also
these chemical deposits can be dated (mainly by the U/Th method),
making them among the most powerful palaeoclimate proxies on
earth (Baker et al., 2008).
temperature and flow rate) normally allows us to retrieve important information on the characteristics of the feeding aquifer (Ritorto et al.,
2009). In some cases these studies can also reveal hardly perceptible deformation, such as slowly rising diapirs (Chiesi et al., 2010) and cyclic
vertical movements related to aquifer recharge and discharge phases
(Grillo et al., 2011).
3. Karst hydrology
The multiple hazards posed by karst processes need to be
addressed through specific investigation methods taking into account
the peculiarities of karst settings (De Waele et al., 2010b; Gutiérrez,
2010; Parise, 2010). In addition, hazards in karst areas are often directly or indirectly induced by anthropogenic activities (Parise and
Gunn, 2007). The increasing human occupation of karst terrains and
the frequent hazard enhancement caused by anthropogenic alterations, result in scenarios of continuously raising impacts and risk
(Parise and Pascali, 2003). There is an urgent need to reverse this
trend in many areas. In some cases this achievement is highly unlikely
due to the almost irreversible character of the anthropogenic alterations. For instance, the probability of occurrence of sinkholes on
the Dead Sea coast (Frumkin, this issue) will keep on increasing as
long as the water level continues to decline and greater volumes
of halite are exposed to the circulation of unsaturated waters
(Yechieli et al., 2006; Closson and Abou Karaki, 2009). In other
areas, although cost-effective risk reduction is feasible (Cooper et
al., this issue), proper investigations and administrative decisions
are needed, the latter frequently requiring unpopular preventive
planning strategies.
The most common and best studied hazard in karst areas are
dolines, often called sinkholes (Fig. 6). Besides solution dolines, that
rarely constitute a hazard, several types of subsidence sinkholes can
be distinguished based on the material affected by downward
gravity-driven movement (cover, bedrock or caprock) and the dominant process (collapse, suffosion or sagging) (Gutiérrez et al., 2008a).
Sinkholes are very frequent in evaporite terrains (Farrant and Cooper,
2008; Gutiérrez et al., 2008b), causing enormous economic losses in
densely populated areas (e.g. the Ebro basin, Spain, Galve et al.,
2009), but can also constitute a significant hazard in limestone
areas (e.g. Florida, USA, Brinkmann et al., 2008). Although these features have been profusely studied for decades, and international conferences on sinkholes have been held biannually since 1984 (the 12th
Multidisciplinary Conference on Sinkholes and the Engineering and
Environmental Impacts of Karst took place in January 2011), often
local geologists and engineers still misinterpret their formation and
evolution, and apply corrective measures with adverse effects, sometimes enhancing sinkhole formation and growth (Parise, 2011; Parise
Dissolution of rock at and near the surface leads to the formation
of permeable pathways that transfer surface waters underground.
Karstification caused by groundwater over long periods of time creates a three-dimensional system of conduits, that together with solutionally enlarged discontinuity planes (fractures, bedding planes) and
primary rock porosity, form a complex three component permeability
aquifer (Worthington, 1999; White, 2002). Furthermore, unlike aquifers in other rocks, karst aquifers may change rapidly through time,
making their study even more challenging. Karst hydrogeology has
made great progress in the past decennia, but still needs to be investigated in more detail and by applying new approaches (Goldscheider
and Ravbar, 2010; Palmer, 2010).
One of the main characteristics of well-developed karst aquifers is
the rapid transfer of water and pollutants from the recharge areas to
the discharge points, making these hydrological systems highly vulnerable. Contaminants and sediments can also be trapped inside the
karst system (Fig. 5) and subsequently flushed out during flood
pulses (Mahler et al., 1999; Goldscheider et al., 2010). During extreme events, flow rates at springs can easily increase by two orders
of magnitude, causing severe flooding in adjacent areas (De Waele,
2008; De Waele et al., 2010a).
Due to all these characteristics, karst aquifers are often extremely
vulnerable to pollution, and special care should be taken when
exploiting groundwater resources and developing human activities
at the surface. Multiple approaches have been developed to estimate
vulnerability indexes which allow characterising the behaviour of
karst aquifers in different geographic and geological settings
(Butscher and Huggenberger, 2008; Ravbar and Goldscheider, 2009;
Vias et al., 2010). These methods can provide an objective and quantitative basis to the decision makers for the proper management and
protection of karst aquifers and springs.
Hydrological investigations also provide information on the properties and functioning of karst systems, due to the different geochemical
and hydrodynamic behaviour of the three hydraulic conductivity components: fractures, conduits and intergranular porosity. Relatively simple continuous monitoring of karst springs (electric conductivity,
4. Karst related hazards
Fig. 5. Wastes and contaminants in caves: A. Bussento swallow hole (Cilento and Vallo di Diano National Park, Campania, S. Italy) with solid waste (left) (Photograph by Tommaso
Mitrano) and, B. the highly polluted underground stream (right) (Photograph by Norma Damiano).
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Fig. 6. Karst collapse features: A. Active cover collapse sinkhole affecting human structures in an abandoned camp site at En Gedi, Dead Sea, Israel (Photograph by Francisco
Gutiérrez, January 2011); B. View of Vora Nuova Spedicaturo, Apulia, southern Italy. The sinkhole opened in Quaternary calcarenites in March 1996, in an area already affected
by other sinkholes (one is visible in the background, highlighted by vegetation) (Photograph by Mario Parise).
and Lollino, this issue). Our capability to mitigate sinkhole risk is increasing thanks to the application of new methods. The trenching
technique, mostly developed in paleoseismological investigations, allows us to obtain information on the precise limits of specific sinkholes, the subsidence style and kinematics (progressive vs. episodic)
and calculate subsidence rates if numerical dates are available
(Gutiérrez et al., 2009; Gutiérrez et al., this issue). Synthetic Aperture
Radar Interferometry (InSAR) provides subsidence rates and deformation time series in large areas and with a high spatial resolution
(Castañeda et al., 2009). The development and independent evaluation of sinkhole hazard models allow generating reliable predictions
on the probability of each portion of land (pixel) to be affected by
sinkholes of different sizes (Galve et al., this issue).
Flooding is a relatively common and frequently underestimated
hazard in karst. Karst springs can have extremely variable flow rates
changing rapidly after intense rainfalls (De Waele, 2008; Maréchal
et al., 2008). Surface flow in karst areas is often absent during most
of the year, and flood-prone areas like poljes, sinkholes or valley bottoms may remain dry over several decades. Human development is
becoming more frequent in these areas with favourable topography,
eventually impinged by floods caused by surface runoff concentration, water table rise or high discharge from springs or estavelles. In
some cases, storm-derived flash floods may even result in the loss
of lives (Polemio, 2010).
Generally the environment is adapted to human needs, causing a
more or less heavy impact (e.g. deforestation, landscape changes
due to dam construction, etc.). Quite often these adaptations of the
environment have shown to be unproductive, economically, environmentally and socially devastating, and irresolutive. It is about time to
learn our lessons, and find new and innovative ways of “conquering”
the space around us. The word “eco-sustainability” has found increasing use in official and technical documents, and often the environment can be a valuable resource to be used wisely and safely,
without putting in danger the sometimes fragile natural equilibria.
We therefore should start living with karst, rather than living on
or in karst. The increasing knowledge on karst geomorphology and
hydrology offers the opportunity to tackle the scientific and technical
problems derived from human impact in a better way respect to what
was done in the past. The sustainable use of our karst resources, the
most important of which is water, will be increasingly important in
the near future.
To reach these goals, education and direct involvement of anybody
who lives in karst territories is crucial. If people realise that the actions carried out at the surface are rapidly perceived underground,
often with negative if not irreversible impacts, the frequency of potential polluting or impacting events may be reduced. Creating an environmental consciousness, directed toward safeguard of karst and its
resources, is therefore the first step in the process of building-up a
sustainable development in these sensible environments.
5. Conclusions: living with karst
Acknowledgements
Human beings, thanks to their adaptation capability and ability to
“domesticate” the natural environment, have colonised almost every
region of our planet, including areas with extreme environmental
conditions. Frequently, the disturbances caused intentionally or inadvertently by human activities on the natural systems cause severe impacts and induce hazardous situations with unforeseen detrimental
consequences. These circumstances are particularly common in
karst areas due to their peculiar characteristics: (1) Prevalence of underground drainage through aquifers in which water and pollutants
may circulate very rapidly. (2) Hidden character of the underground
conduit network, which makes extremely difficult predicting the response of the karst system to multiple human-induced alterations
(e.g. leakage in dams, flooding of underground excavations, and occurrence of new sinkholes). (3) Low resilience (high sensitivity) of
multiple geomorphic and hydrological components of the karst systems when affected by external perturbations (e.g. collapse of unstable cavity roofs, diversion of groundwater flow paths). (4) High
solubility and low mechanical strength of evaporite rocks, favouring
rapid cave and sinkhole development. (5) Proper management of
karst systems, due to their complexity and peculiar behaviour, requires a commonly obviated expert advice.
This special issue of Geomorphology collects a selection of contributions presented at the karst session NH8.2/GM8.8 “Geomorphology
and Hazards in Karst Areas” of the 2010 European Geosciences Union
Assembly held in Vienna, enriched with some invited papers from
leading world karst specialists. Many thanks to all participants who
made this karst session successful. Special thanks to Prof. Adrian Harvey, chief editor of this special issue, for his admirable patience and
exceptional editorial skills. We are also very grateful to the referees
involved in the review of this collection of papers, who have helped
significantly to improve the quality of the papers. The work done by
F. Gutiérrez has been supported by the project CGL2010-16775 (Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovación and FEDER).
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