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Adams, N.J. (2002). Race and local governance : theoretical reflections and examination of two case studies in the United Kingdom and South Africa: or #who said we weren't interested in justice, equality, democracy and freedom?'; emancipation in the ushering dusk of Black politics as White boys try to switch off the Enlightenment. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) City Research Online Original citation: Adams, N.J. (2002). Race and local governance : theoretical reflections and examination of two case studies in the United Kingdom and South Africa: or #who said we weren't interested in justice, equality, democracy and freedom?'; emancipation in the ushering dusk of Black politics as White boys try to switch off the Enlightenment. (Unpublished Doctoral thesis, City University London) Permanent City Research Online URL: http://openaccess.city.ac.uk/7617/ Copyright & reuse City University London has developed City Research Online so that its users may access the research outputs of City University London's staff. Copyright © and Moral Rights for this paper are retained by the individual author(s) and/ or other copyright holders. All material in City Research Online is checked for eligibility for copyright before being made available in the live archive. URLs from City Research Online may be freely distributed and linked to from other web pages. Versions of research The version in City Research Online may differ from the final published version. Users are advised to check the Permanent City Research Online URL above for the status of the paper. Enquiries If you have any enquiries about any aspect of City Research Online, or if you wish to make contact with the author(s) of this paper, please email the team at [email protected]. Race and Local Governance: Theoretical Reflections and Examination of Two Case Studies in the United Kingdom and South Africa or "Who said we weren't interested in justice, equality, democracy and freedom? ". Emancipation in the ushering dusk of Black politics as white boys try to Enlightenment. the switch off Research submission by Neville John Adams in fulfilment City University, Department of Sociology in May 2002 for a Ph. D. to Chapter 11 Race and Local Governance - the case of the `Target Borough' Given the prospective organisation of the empirical data outlined earlier in this chapter and the templateprovided by my brief overview of the initiation development initiatives in Lambeth, I want to try to of race equality and information the systematise on the target borough in terms of: an overview of the borough, inclusive of the seventiesexperienceof race; an overview of the developmentof race equality in what I have describedas the period of the positive racialisation of local governance;and on the basesof these,an interrogation of key episodes. This will seekto contextualise situate the main facets of the social reality correlatessummarisedin Chapter 9. 11.1 Target Borough Overview 11.2 Demographically The local authority was createdthrough the reorganisationof London local drawing Act, 1963 Government by Local the government sanctioned together under one geographicaland political boundary that which had being independent Despite been three classified as political units. previously being included in its borough', that category, London to `inner claim an defined commonly according not only to geographybut also indices of social deprivation, rests largely on its northern area. This on its eastand west its boroughs, London is two north side on and sides co-terminus with other in dividing line this The the Thames area of south the recognised river. with is a main arterial route which runs through four, including the target one, boroughs. The rest of the authority is very much an admixture of owner large interspersed post with occupied suburbsof varying wealth and status, industry, The housing mainly concentration of estates. war council is the is in light, the as to concentration of what could area, northern medium be termed high rise and heavy density council estates. As is common with had base industrial borough's inner local the London authorities, most degree experiencedover the sixties, seventiesand early eighties a significant 83 1 development the the By race equality time of the of of shrinkage. borough in the largest, thus were main employers, and programmes,the two the National Health Service, in the shapeof a large, but local, hospital, and has been there local itself. In terms of population, a steady the authority decreasefrom the figure of about 300,000 at the authority's formal inception, to just under 250,000 at the time of the take off of the race equality 832 This is in line London's the profile of overall with programmes. by However, for time the period. as experienced same population changes in increase London the world war saw a steady authorities, post second other Black population, mainly Afro-Caribbean and Asian, including in the aftermath of the Vietnameseconflict, a large Vietnamesecommunity. I 416 be because Black `increase' of some sort a presence could actually traced say back to sixteenth century Elizabethan days when the riverside area in the building facilities. both boasted By the early eighties and port ship north the proportion of the population which could be classified as `Black' stood at in Its borough the geographical spread exemplified the eighteenpercent. housing both in in borough the the the process racialisation of and negative be The Black to as a whole. main concentrations of country people were found in the north of the borough, and in a small area in the middle. In the large the presenceof Black people were due to number of inter-related north better the to the social exclusionary processespreventing access reasonsparts of the borough, including the council's housing processes;the related main, restricted access,therefore, to run down, cheaperproperties; and, over the years, the gradual and, on the part of the council, grudging accessto the more decrepit, hard-to-let, housing stock in the north. In the middle this concentrationwas influenced mainly by the availability of cheap,multiple occupancy,private dwellings for rent. 11.3 Politically Politically the borough had always been Labour; that is apart from the 1970 local government `blip' when many local authorities, traditionally Labour by in 1974 the Power lost Conservatives. to the regained was run, control Labour party in that set of local government elections. The profile of the Labour Party in the target borough was slightly different to that of Lambeth, showing then in the seventiesa greater emphasistowards middle class the due In of to the much this of nature suburban members. part was borough, and unsurprisingly, in relation to electedmembers,there was a high local The from the party the north of country. proportion who originated inner in being immune, from however, the changes reflected other was not influx in local Labour Party of university city constituencies,manifested an backgrounds, trade union activist educated,somewith community or members. The result of the 1982 elections, therefore, showed a sizeable number of elected memberswho could be, and often would themselves however, Lambeth, this Unlike be, `left to agreed classified as wing'. Spanning leadership. this large the group to control group was not enough in terms of the subject areathey either positioned themselvesin, or were so five if in terms their were a group convictions, of own political of placed, not Black elected council members. It would be true to say, at this point, that there was amongstthem a fragile unity brittly coheredthrough a general belief in some form of race equality, but often undermined through being `suckered' by the system,a term I'll explicate later on. There were , however, characteristicsof the Labour councillor group which were common in themselves the allegiance of sub-groupsto mainly to most, manifesting inter or intra-institutional networks and/or collectivities. The first, and the traditional in the this case pull of working was class, most common, 417 defined Labour that traditional constituency which class, white working in displays by itself defying loyalty, the of protection, rationale expressed certain Labour councillors towards the manual and craft unions in the be This blockage to a particular communicative was restraining council. the introduction and developmentof the equality policies and changesin the initiatives be the to which, at outset, appeared an anathemato those council, here The this appearedto be specific to the target second, and unions. borough, was the politically unhealthy overlap betweenthe grant funded voluntary sector in the borough, a funded voluntary sector which by the late seventiesand early eighties was predominantly white, and the Labour Party. Many of the leading figures in the voluntary sector were also prominent in the local Labour Party. This was not helped by an evolved practice in the borough whereby it was expectedthat local councillors would also become membersof the managing committees of council grant funded voluntary organisations. This resulted in the existenceof grey areassurrounding decision making, which should have been transparentlyaccountable, especially in relation to those decisions affecting the awarding of grant monies. There were, however, also decision making short circuits in areas like the appointmentsto key positions in the council administration, and in the selection of candidatesfor local elections. This fusion of the local Labour party and the voluntary sector was referred to by one of the in development in the sections prominent officials council's community terms of the voluntary sector being the Labour Party out of hours, and, by g33 fifth Party's local Labour being the estate. the another, as voluntary sector More details of this intertwining of the Labour party and local voluntary frame the to in be this the attempts which sector will section after provided late seventiesand early eighties developmentof race in the borough. One of the pivotal consequencesof this was that the Black voluntary sector was badly under funded, not only in terms of financial resources,but also in for decision it had terms of the communicative access to the political making a in the borough. Compared,say, to Lambeth, its impact on the polity was small, and often ignored. The Black communities' redemptive claims were thus made for, and on behalf of community, sometimeswithout their knowledge, through mediations of Black councillors, often claiming they directly has electedthem, or to which representeda constituency which not they are directly accountable,and through colonial institutions, like the local This had the effect of rendering the Black communities invisible CRC. becausethe communicative processeswere not direct, but shuntedthrough distorted in themselves, their voices. often contingent accesspoints which, This was not helped by the physical site of the borough's town hall, decision the political making chambersand core administrative comprising functions, in the middle, bordering on the south, part. Unlike Lambeth literal Black be there presence a visible of was people which could where hall, hall town the this from town the of windows appearedto seeand seen dormitories the to and council suburban white of the southern area of speak 418 itself faced building The borough. the southwards,towards the counties' `verdant pastures'just over the horizon. 11.4 Administratively Earlier I had describedthis particular authority's approachto the implementation of the Radcliffe-Muade's proposals on local government,as `inchoate'. Theseproposals envisageda more private sector oriented managerialisationof local government as one of the main meansto ensure that local government as `big business' becamemore efficient. By the early eighties, the time of the introduction of formal race equality structures in the council, the borough's political and administrative structuresand processesrepresentedmore of an admixture of traditional, orthodox administration with some of the proposalsgrafted on, mainly to the corporate does, I Dearlove is in that the tradition explained as centre, where sense used in the previous chapter. It was backed up by a view of structuresand processeswhich saw the basic personnelbeing electedmembersand have did because enoughtime not officers, multiple committees, members to consider all matters of the council, and a policy processwhereby policy initiatives stemmedfrom service departmentsand were ratified two-foldly Overall full the the their council. via respective service committees and role of the local council was seennarrowly as that of administering a try in to had been the and Attempts seventies made collection of services. A local from government. this perception and operation of move away Chief Executive's Department, with responsibility for both overall development the of appropriate corporate managementof council and Executive Chief with a In the early eighties a new processes,was created. traditional Overlaying this `modernise' to the remit council, was recruited. local government structure, primarily at the senior managementlevel, therefore, were the beginnings of a corporate structure, exemplified through like Team Team, Officers' like Chief and processes managerial structures, a Briefing sessionsfor different sectionsin the council. The extent, however, to which this initial phaseof the explicit managerialisationof local be X, borough to target proved government, actually permeatedthe whole of limited, very as the unfurling of the subsequentrace equality programme was disposition demonstrate. The the and of to council actual structure of in following is the out service and council committee responsibilities set diagram. 419 Council eetin Target Borough Structures 420 The Chief Executive's Departmentwas very much the corporate, information involving, the council, as well, the employment of and policy centre functions of the council through the PersonnelDivision. Within it, in its large policy responsibilities, was a of central policy unit. In terms pursuit it fed, via the relevant chief officers, of which, of political accountability from highest Chief few, Executive, the the there manager, apart were quite a directly into the Policy and ResourcesCommittee, the PersonnelSubCommittee, the full Council Meeting, and various other working parties. Included in the latter were, in the seventiesand early eighties, the Voluntary Sector Joint Working party and the Race Relations Working Party, about which more will be said later. The largest service departmentswere those of Housing and Social Services. In practice a distinction was made betweenwhat was regardedas `front-line' services, such as housing, and those required to help the departmentsprovide those servicesbetter, which were termed' support' services,e.g. Personnel. It is clear that the Chief Executive's Departmentprovided both the key infra-structural support servicesto the council, and, at the sametime, serviceswhich occupied an `frontline' financially for those ambiguousrole minded where more rigidly be it however, Overall, have `support'. can would always priority over inter-locked to that the said of which all of services council provided a range contribute to the welfare of its inhabitants, and thus contributed significantly to the extent to which such inhabitants were able to becomeparticipative is than have I This `welfare', wider earlier, citizens. argued as notion of that envisagedin welfare specific texts, which tend to concentrateon financial benefits and the more discernible elementsof services,like social holistically looks the is from It derived at services. a perspectivewhich impact of multiple services,including the mundane,such as refuse collection, on people, especially where these servicesare refracted through the prism of race. What this does is to both deconstructand thus focuses the framework into that on those contextualise a political services it because local posesquestions core, substantiveprinciples of governance about how and why such servicesare provided. Part of this questioning, becauseit relates to the quality of staff mediating those services,raises issues about the nature of the formalised hierarchy underpinning the council administrative system. This has evolved since the secondworld war through a processof intellectual symbiosis with the example of the Civil Service- and here regard must be given to the structure of the civil service indebtedness its the this to the and use antecedents of colonial and framework in the negotiating processesover the years with the local it be fairer fact In to trade would unions. say that the structure government local the side of of white collar government owes more to the and conditions The craft and manual worker side of conditions and civil service structure. By however, the early the employee separately. eighties, structure evolved hierarchy could be representedas shown in appendix...... It representsthe 421 hierarchy associatedwith the traditional notion of bureaucracywith the apex of chief officer gradually broadening out through principal officer, senior officer, administrative officer and clerical officer. Underlying this was a squashedhierarchy of craft and manual workers. The question now is how and why `race' came to enter on to the agendaof this particular local authority. 11.5 Race and the Colonial in the Target Borough late to seventies early eighties Race has been ever present in the socio-, political culture of this country for centuries, but makes itself explicit in the differentiating practices experienced by Black people. The issues and contextualisations raised earlier with regard to Lambeth apply equally, at the general level, to the target borough. That is to say that the broad sweep of then contemporary issues education, `sus', housing, extreme right wing activity etc. were Two episodes in the late seventies part of the fabric of race in the borough. and early eighties exemplify this, and are also highlighted elements in the The first relates to a decision by annals of anti-racist history in the UK. ILEA to hire out a local school hall to one of the extreme right wing parties. This resulted in a well documented anti-racist counter demonstration and eventual violent clash between the two sets of supporters. The second stems from a fire at a house in the northern part of the borough resulting in the deaths of a number of young Black people attending a party there at the time. The strong suspicion in the Black community, against the official findings of the police, was that this was the result of a right wing arson attack. One of the immediate consequences was a march, the like of which had never been seen before, involving thousands of Black people from not only other parts of London, but other parts of the country as well, from the north of the borough, through the city of London, and on to Hyde Park. This was a visible protest against the violence of racism, as well as against the perceived indifference shown by the then national government and institutions. Looking at local government within the theoretical context of the state, and situating that within the Habermassian notion of the state as a potential has the to and question resolver reconciler of socio-integrative problems, in borough this where all of this? asked particular was Target borough X was not immune in the seventiesfrom the range of by invisibility Black their the raised communities about vis-a-vis a problems involvement in local the of governanceand about their affairs positive it differentiating to when came racially practices. Key extreme visibility Housing latter Social the the concerns were and services, and the amongst important issue of the lack of apparentemployment of Black people by the it largest the two one since was of employers in the council, especially borough. The council, however, like Lambeth was already involved in 422 described been has as the managementof race through acting as what for level initiatives. a number of government urban steward and conduit These, such as the urban programme and section 11, were, as I argue earlier, both racialised, in so far as they stemmedfrom the racial fear of American `riots', and, at the sametime, marginalised and race style urban into Intertwined foray local this the with was council's overt marginalising. funding through their race as expressed of matters part of a local CRC, and their use of this particular body throughout the seventiesand early eighties as their main advisory and consultative resourceon issuesof race, including, formal contact with the Black community. Again, as with Lambeth, the Labour Party's explicit entry into `race' locally, was as much to do with the good intentions of some, as with the more strategic considerations,given the volatile context of race in the seventies,with that of political legitimation, especially as throughout the late seventiesand early eighties the number of Black Labour party membersin the local branch, grew. The CRC itself was createdin 1968, like Lambeth's; and like Lambeth underwent the period of transition through mainly white liberal involvement to, by the late seventies, however, involvement. distinguished Black What two, the was the mainly in Whilst from CRO the mid seventiesonwards. calibre and nature of the Lambeth this person was responsible for spearheadingthe creation of Lambeth's internal race structuresas well as allowing the CRC to play a key into Black disparate for facilitative groups co-ordinating and garnishing role in the be fairly the one the of said a samecould not cohesive consortium, target borough. If anything the concern here, to judge from the comments legacy his from by in Black attritional provided community and others the vis-a-vis the target borough's own Race Unit, once that was established,was with consolidating the power and influence of his own position and 834 fell that within The strategypursuedwas very much which organisation. down to the have I labelled the even one, what orthodox race relations One be CRO insistence that the assistant should white. apparenttactical line of argumentationwas that this reflected their own formal political however, Locally, Party. Communist British allegiances,which was the in the Black the organisations of amongstsome of more critical members target borough, they came to be known as `Ebony and Ivory', an eponymous by lyrical dire to the of matters race on collaboration musical and reference Paul McCartney and Stevie Wonder which was in the pop charts at that 835 brokered in borough The the the seventies, on time. relationship with been described Leader has "enlightened" the then the of approach of as what the Council, a description to which I shall return, was, on the part of the CRC, a mixture public facadism and `behind-closed-doors' compromise. That is to say that the CRC sometimesengagedin public condemnatory failing deliver for to the their council on race equality against utterances fairly time the maintaining same at whilst a cosy relationship responsibilities, This in basis. day late day the to especially to was so when mid on a formalised into Working Party Race this was a relationship on seventies 423 Relations comprised of certain politicians and the CRC, and serviced by the develop broad Unit. Its Policy Central to remit was and establish council's initiatives on race relations in the council and wider borough. Despite its `working party' status,inferring a greater degreeof opennessthan with other formal council committees,accessto the working party seemedto be tightly limited On few the this to council side was a politicians and controlled. be Black forum the to the on other groups' entry could only officers, whilst by, CRC. the to, the via gatekeeper role assigned or appropriated achieved The potential that existed for developing a wide ranging communicatively discursive forum on race intra- and inter- the council power relationships involving as many of the Black community as possible, seemsnot to have beenpursued. Yet the working party served a `greater' totemic causefor both the local CRC and council. It was cited in a 1982 CRE publication on CRCs as a good example of what CRCs could do locally. 836 For the council it enabledsomepoliticians and senior officers to not only hold it up publicly as evidence of the good work on race relations being carried out by that institution, but also use it as an alternative to ward off attemptsto createa Lambeth style internal structure. Ouseleynotes that at the turn of the seventies/eightiesdecadethis particular borough was extolling the positive virtues of their sort of arrangementbecauseit meant, as they claimed, that because doubt the the no race was very much part of corporate agenda; from that working party actual pursuit of any race relations recommendations had to be carried out by the Central Policy Unit. 837 The reality was some what different. Over the sameperiod, 1978 to 1982, the achievementsof this working party, when placed against that of Lambeth's internal race structures,were minuscule. There were no council wide equality systems Unit, Policy Central Corporately the an all white section at or processes. the time, could only devote half a policy officer to the issue of race. Its therein, head the both from that personnel to the and unit approach race, of liberal, the orthodox race relations model. was very much within mould of a To judge by the final report of the working party, the primary resourceof the Act, the Relations Race be 1976 not and to the unit would appear 838 implementation the Two to of Black approaches experiencesof people. The by then legislation emerging. that piece of anti-discriminatory were first was for institutions to adopt a reactive stand,only ever responding when look The to discrimination prosecondwas were made. complaints of its legislation to the with the view pushing normative parameters actively at be in had law. knowing to tested limit, full these that case the still to well That unit's approachcould be seento fall somewherein between. A by this model, confirmed relations race one of strand of nascent,emerging CRC, the was that of promoting what Phillips has the constituent activists of 839 is That to say the race equality termed the politics of presence. benchmark, if you like, was to be establishedin the proportionality of Black institutions local the It in of within governance. active was people and that time that from more substantivequestionsabout at the activist clear 424 democratisation inclusive and the associatedchangesto the racially institutions of local governance,were not part of the considerationsin any shapeor form. Race equality resources,in the shapeof specific posts, in limited to two advisers, one each the Housing and Social Services were departments,and a smattering of section 11 funded service specific posts scatteredmainly throughout the Social Servicesand Housing Departments. These,in any case,owed more to departmentalspecific initiatives, rather than that of the working party. The marginality of theseposts can be by gauged examining the job descriptions, institutional configuration and functioning of the two adviser posts. The content of both job descriptions shows that there was an expectationthat the relevant post holders would be providing advice on "ethnic matters and communities" to the respective Departments,but with no guaranteethat such advice would be listened to, or 840 implemented. The main remit of the posts was a concentration on even service issues. The posts thus reported to the secondtier of senior management,in this caseAssistant Directors, with no automatic accessto the departmentalsenior managementteam. Advice to those quarterswas dependentupon the conduit of that particular assistantDirector. Any reports written by the advisershad to be cleared first by that sameperson, including those destinedto the service committees,or even the Race Relations Working Party. There was, in fact, a tight managerial control exerted over the working and output of the advisers. It is no surprise then to find that in both cases an inordinate amount of time was spent on one off projects which had a tangential effect on the workings of that department, e.g. the production of a booklet on anti-racist practice for under-5 services. Further the posts were excluded from formal participation in key systemic processes and procedures in the council, such as those pertaining to the This latter occlusion has to be contrasted employment responsibilities. with the desire expressed by the working party, and exemplified by the council in its description of itself as an equal opportunities employer, for more Black people to be employed by the council. In actuality the life time level in increase the the had of of working party not seen any significant Black people employed by the council, nor, not surprisingly, had there been the development of any equality based employment systems and procedures, for example monitoring. The list could go on. It is more germaneto return to the argumentraised in relation to Lambeth's CRC structuresand council relationships that these could be describedas `colonial'. If that is the casewith what was in Lambeth an informal is it in borough this target the even more case with what, to relationship, judge also by the participatory activities and results, was a formalised issues The of race and racism was quite adeptly managedby arrangement. the two larger parties to this arrangementwithin the orthodoxies of a race the benefits, within unspoken mutual and strategic model such as relations describe I from what would as maintaining a relationship of status,accruing 425 force in the structuresof communication. The only recognisable discursive communicative spacefor Black people was possibly the Working Party. There was no guaranteeof a discursivejourney for the claims for by Black people which allowed equal consideration of those raised de Thus, in discursive In cases claims ended a cul sac. most raised claims. for example, with the inception of the new race equality structures,the race Unit discriminatory soon picked up on a number of race complaints equality from the few Black employeesin the organisation which had becomemired hope break The any of resolution. up of this arrangementowed without itself to a developmentand alignment of forces involving certain councillors, Black community organisationsand activists, and the examplesbeing set by other boroughs, such as Lambeth. Before detailing those, it would be appositeto illustrate the actual limited impact of the working party and the consciously employed boundariesof envisagedchangeemployed by some of those on the working party. In the early stagesof the commencementof the fairly initiated by the then new post working party race equality programme Race Equality Unit and Race Relations Committee, a strongly argued debate was taking place at one of the committeesbetweenmembersand Race Advisers over a race related employment change,which in some other boroughs was fairly standard. One of the membersconcernedwas the previous Leader who has been credited with starting the working party and During toilet `enlightened'. been I had a who, as pointed out earlier, called break with other membershe was overheardto say somethingwhich had the borderlines Labour on placed the encapsulated members many it, The changepossibilities in relation to race. person who overheard and Zambian Black by political the a who was not seen member concerned,was Unit' Support `Members' as an in the refugee who worked a section called but information, background by administrative officer. He, way of more by that lack achieved tangential the also as a of real change comment on large for the had in Zambia mining concerns of one working party, worked in charge of their personnel functions. He found that this experiencewas find his to by borough that attempts and not recognised the target professional level work in their personnel sectionswere unsuccessful. Speakingto the Head of the Race Unit, and principal researcherfor this had he that that member particular piece of work, after the meeting related Advisers) Race do (a know "I'm the to are they not reference why said: far is hard. to they In this are this going as this as so council pushing 841 , get. The decision to establish in-house equality structures in the target borough 1982 local the in the with early eighties, overlapping government occurred from By in the this time pressure examples set other election cycle. boroughs, including direct neighbouring oneswas building. There was, as GLC level 1982 the the structures at of similar the after establishment well GLC elections. In many of the London Labour controlled boroughs the 426 being internal develop changes to equality was and establish move implemented. At that time the London level Labour Party's co-ordinating directly left sympathetically wing and mechanismwas predominantly local level. Within target the the these at sorts of changes of supportive borough itself there was a loose alliance of councillors who wished to see both women's and race equality structurescreatedin the council. The included latter for the most of the nascentgroup of Black councillors support including later become first Chair Labour to the the group, of one who, on the Race relations Committee, already worked in a north London council as a Principal Race Relations Adviser. He had also gained a regional and national profile through other race related activities which involved, as well, attempting to gain a Labour candidacy for national elections, not something open to many Black people at that time. All of these addedto the influential statusof the person concerned,as well as imbuing him with a realpolitik appreciation of what could be done; not necessarilya `virtue' the principal researcher,as his lead officer, in another role, agreedwith. His `realpolitik' shibboleth type responselater on to blockages in the institution which, in the view of the Race Advisers could be overcome,was that "politics was the art of the possible." Neverthelessit is clear that he, as the prime mover for the establishmentof internal race structures,used regional in Party local Labour help increase order that the to the pressureon networks this might be achieved. Within the council the incestuousnetwork of Labour Party membersand/or councillors securing key policy type posts in other Labour councils, where it is clear that their political affiliations were ironically jobs, for those primary contributing sub-, yet unspoken,criteria few influential An helped of these the structures. also of secure creation including Department, Executives Chief the senior managementwithin the one who was an actual councillor in the local authority where the Adviser, Race Principal were Black aforementioned councillor was a the Party Working and the the arrangement arriving at conclusion that itself, in local was CRC operation of the within that arrangement, and damaging to the further positive development of race relations in the borough. In fact this person, and his post, would turn out to be the manager for the central equality sections,and, as emergedin the course of this there that were many there a perception was organisational management, in CV. kudos including be from these to one's areas earned career However, this critical view of the CRC was bolstered by the antipathy of a individuals, borough in the Black and organisations growing number of including council employees,towards what was seenincreasingly as an domination by the and on matter of race of pre-eminence position unjustified local CRC. In this the views of many in the Black community were similar Lambeth CRC by its local the late of perception community. to the seventies further. There was a growing borough this In the target actually went Black the part of on many activists and smaller anger and critical awareness Black organisationsin the borough in the early part of the eighties, especially 427 intended its known it became to that the council create own race when debilitating, at what was viewed as a excluding equality structures, domination of the relationship betweenthe council and the supposedBlack local fear internal by CRC. The the that these structures was community influence body. internal Already the that the under of come would also for 11 the they and requisites proposed posts, since were section processes funded, had gone through a consultative exerciseinvolving mainly the CRC. The CRC had by now, in trying to copy the Lambeth experience,fronted and facilitated the creation of an umbrella structure for some Black groups. Called a "Federation of Ethnic Minority Groups", the actual title was larger than its membership. Whilst this Lambeth solidaristic experienceamongst diverse Black groups reflected an attempt to forge a political alliance in which the individual claims to `ethnic' authenticity could not displace the overall aims of the umbrella organisation, the attemptsat federatedethnic politics by the local CRC in the target borough appearedto actually celebrate the claims to mutually separateethnic group identities. Underpinning this, as will be shown later, was a view from the CRC that the needsof the AfroCaribbeancommunity in that borough were mainly expressedthrough their cultural backgrounds,traceableall the way back to the different Caribbean islands and countries. To that extent only a person of Afro-Caribbean origin would be a genuine appointment to the council's proposedpost of Principal Race Relations Adviser. Apropos this the appointment of first head of the African, South be Black happened Race Equality Unit, to council's a who later African", South "white a rumour was post scriptively posted as a successfullytracked back to the local CRC. In someways thesemoves can be viewed as that of the CRC trying to anticipate the disengagementof the local council from its purview of influence by establishing its radical defront like credentialsthrough tactics organisation, or setting up a From anotherrelated 'nigrating' and de-'colourizing' its perceived rivals. both that perspectivethis anticipation probably acknowledged,as well, becauseof the likely race equality programme, and becauseof the council's for be consultative there that a need would urban programme requirements, initiatives involving the Black community. In direct opposition to these Black Black therefore, young mainly moves, other groups, and activists, form in borough, to in together the the an came voluntary sector workers its first including, Forum, People's Black the as organisation called be it BPF, Kobena The to Mercer. abbreviatedto, as came secretary,one, had an inaugural conferencein 1983 at the Town Hall to which leading leader'. invited, `enlightened Their demands including the were councillors from that meeting were simple - an end to the arising recommendations and limited, nepotistic relationship with the CRC, and a recognition that they 842 Black It the community. the of was at one and the same voice new were time a critique of the amoebic, grey relationship betweenthe local Labour had form to the sector which given rise voluntary a of patronage party and favouring the larger white voluntary organisationsin the borough. For 428 in the there time the organisation an umbrella voluntary was at example, borough, funded in the main by the council, which played a resourceand coin informally known "Labour Party It the the as was role.. ordinating 843 The formal relationship with the council was brokered voluntary sector". development in itself, Committee, Sector Voluntary the which oversaw via a funding development the grant and voluntary sector activities council's of In the early eighties part of the changesaccompanyingthe introduction of for structures a new post with senior responsibility community new equality affairs was also created. The expectation,then, from those in the `know', was that this was going to go to the person running the umbrella in organisation,who was also a relationship with a Labour councillor. However, the appointment had to go to an external Black candidatewho, on the day, according to both councillors and officers on the appointment's in head The then panel, was outstanding. of community affairs, a section the Chief Executive's Departmentwhich covered the voluntary sector, in did that the commentated councillors concerned the appointment not only in Black have had "never but a that they person seena not also any choice, for importance the it level "844 At to the senior position. attests another public sphereof the relationship between civil society, and the organisations therein. At this local level it is clear that the public spherewas skewedly Black detriment the Labour Party the of to conflated with the exclusionary the issue the is, There of nature about community. as well, a subordinate has the funding this the on affect conditions attachedto stategrant and balancebetween systemand lifeworld in civil society organisations. However, it is clear, that the emergenceof different voices through differing the of discourses egression time, only this not race equality confirms also at to issuances tied in are but subalternpublic spheres, also the way which such the politics of mal-recognition. As I shall show the appointment of not only a Black senior person in community affairs, but also one who was prepared to push on race equality, createda discursive spacefor Black organisations in the blurry boundariesbetweenthe local governancepolitical institution between the local white it As the relationship was, and public spheres. to the pointed though exclusionary, voluntary sector and the council, even local between inter-face discursive for future the potential possibilities about local public spheresand the political and administrative systemsof lights BPF leading the At later the of was a conferenceone of governance. bourgeoisie" lived "Black CRC its the who to the off to refer and satellites as 845 demands to these The Black was a the politicians response community. BPF be in the far that the they would one of promised so as accession partial fold, but brought into the the not only one. consultative umbrella groups from interview be from CRC the an The reaction can gleaned with one of the in their committee, and someone active management one of then membersof Their Federation's view was that thesepeople were constituent groups. the for had been involved did those respect enough show who not upstartswho in the borough for a longer time. Further they also held the suspicion that 429 the BPF had been encouragedby the Black councillor mentioned earlier 846 Whether or not that was true, this becauseof his own careeraspirations. dominance CRC fracturing the the vis-a-vis the council on of of actual helped for internal the the pave way creation of of race, race matters in structures the council. In a sensethen the coalition of forces giving rise to the creation of the race in borough the target are similar to those in Lambeth in the late structures difference is The that the configuration of key influences major seventies. within that coalition differs. It is thus both right and wrong when Ouseley notes that acrossthe key London Labour boroughs in south London the 847 had histories. What they had creation of race relations structures specific were similar confluencesof major influences as local governancepolitical institutions reactedto the acknowledgementof race as an explicit social justice issue within the domain of their responsibilities, but differing configurations of those influences rendering a patina of specificities. In this particular casethe fractured appearanceof the forces - it appearsalmost by chancethat the decision to establishrace equality structuresslipped through - seemsto illustrate further my argument about the colonial nature by the decolonising the released of staterace structuresand about potential One domain. democratic local into initiatives the move of race equality lifeworld further Habermas' of can argue notion about my racialisation of colonisation and the linkage, thus, between de-colonisation and post forces the doing, by specific conventionalisation, and, so attempt to read off ranged for and againstthe achievementof that. In pursuit, then, of my earlier argumentsin this chapter about deriving social reality correlates through referenceto evidence of technical learning for domination, one can derive, to borrow a term very much in vogue in current local governance highlighting discursiveness through benchmark indices managerialising, of the extent to which Black people and race were still marginalised in that borough at that time. Within wider concernsabout democracyand difference and my argumentsabout the `colonial', this can be situated within Phillips' notion of the `politics of presence' which is basedon the notion that the liberal capitalist order can be "reformed from within to better "the difference" through presenceof membersof ensuring accommodate disadvantagedgroups in the institutions of liberal democracy."848 Such an Black have the to proportion of measure schema would not only analytical institutions, in but the the processeswhich prevent or enable also people limits behind be Because the thinking the to this of their access achieved. do in "radical difference, Dryzek's terms, not countenance a notion of it liberal the the to attunes with order", capitalist overall aims of resistance bases On it these then liberal model. relations possible to the race key in borough in to the the the state pointers of empirical race summarise few Black in form late the a early eighties: and representatives the seventies Black themselves Black of whom saw all not as representing councillors, of 430 local to sphere society and public exclusively skewed civil a communities; justice; Party's Labour view of social a marginalised pursue a white Working Relations Party, with a marginalised constituent Race the structure, development the to of ameliorative measuresagainst oversee membership infra-structure limited discrimination; to a still-born race relations with race features; for few Black discursive employees redemptive with no avenue no justice dominant claims; a racial white approachto serviceswith a resolving few race specific projects grafted on to some services;more, importantly, a local governancestructure in which, what I have termed `the discursive journey', for Black people often end in a cul de sac. I would situate, therefore, the attemptsto open up and/or reconfigure the communicative forces in local governanceso that Black people can, on an basis, discursively equal redeemtheir claims, indicated by the initiatives of groups, like the BPF, within the argumentativerealm of social learning becauseit brings into the area of contestationthat of the conditions for deliberative democracyin a multi-racial society. On the other hand, with referenceto what I have describedas the shadowing technical learning processesof domination, thrown into sharp relief by race, one can point to the strategiesof communicative closure exemplified by the tactics of race management,e.g., pre-emptively boundarying the potential for change,status prioritisation, and the non-redemptible rhetoric of ethnic group needs,all used a meansof maintaining the statusquo, a situation I describeas the `colonial'. Outlining the argumentativecontext like this points to the fact that the new race equality structuresinherited a situation riven by differing discourses- an issue I enlargeupon in the following section - bearing in `diskourse' "constraining" between distinction and the mind my previous "enabling" `discourse', each of which exerted a differing, sometimes contradictory, pull on the issue of race. The result very often, and was lacuna facto de borough, that policy a certainly the casewith the target was in existed which the intent and direction of the new race structureswere both tentatively sculpted out of the orthodox race relations model reflecting weakly the aspirations of those wanting real change,and, more strongly, those desiring a greater degreeof race management. However, as Ouseley has identified, very often the driving force behind the race equality be Black the in to local the were programmes government context including those the structures, very samerace occupantsof community, and What be level they can existed. said prethe councillor structures,where is intention the the that the to, of, operation emphasis of and new emptively head incoming based the the the then of corporately part of on structures, in favouring be Unit, the expansion of the to Equality Race very much was issues that the cardinal so representation of race and political area of deliberation entered,not only the realm traditionally held to encompassthe be held to but the necessaryexpandedrealm of the also political, administration and political systems. 431 11.6 Overview of Race Equality Structures, Processes and Initiatives Throughout the eighties and into the nineties, evaluation of what I have termed the positive racialisation of local governancehas seldom, if ever, liberal democracy to, the posed alternatives of model questioned,or institutions in the which such programmeswere undertaken;even underlying from those who nodded in the direction of a transformative politics. In implicit in the those evaluative assessments normative model other words but level, looked local liberal democracy to the never extend and critiques at transform it. By the time of the near inception of the race programmesin the target borough, 1983, Ouseley could write about race and local did in but form that terms that to not one governance alluded a of socialism, involve the radical transformation of the political and administrative institutions of local government.849 This particular contribution to a for local collection of paperson socialism, embraceda generalyearning in interventions like the but, level other radical changeat this of governance, left Lambeth's local illustrated to arenaof with reference socialism, and as fine than to wing councillors, proffered solutions which amounted no more tuning the organisation. There is, with referenceto Ouseley, for example, these that local concludes which an analysis of governmentpower structures if The in solution, one reads are the control of the white middle classes. the next sectionson what local authorities should be doing with regard to displace but the is to deconstruct to those power relationships, race, not holders. black them post with white middle class occupantsand replace Little wonder then that his analysis of the functioning of the race advisers, local in innovatory orthodox though acknowledgedgenerally as relatively governmentterms, in relation to contingent Black collectivities, such as Black workers groups, is structured in terms of psychological support to bracketing the isolation. to What then of out their a minimise amounts administrative system from radical critique and radical alternatives, as institutions `colour' the to as a solution, wash of opposed a representative in the into later then five the of wake growing comes play again years beginning of the dismantling of race structuresin some London boroughs. At a conferencefor race workers called to discussthat issue, Ouseley, later for blames in letter to race advisers an act a national newspaper, confirmed a 85° In because felo-de-se in his too they, confrontational. a view, are of in from look local the eighties an early governance at race and retrospective blame Fitzgerald, Solomos the separately also and perspective, nineties in local from government mainly on national equality race retreat have key local initiatives centralised effectively many which government decisions affecting key service areasof responsibilities, like those contained 851 They arejoined in this assessment,by others, in the then CCT legislation. like Young, who goes on to implicitly criticise the "simple concept of an identity of interest among all ethnic minority citizens, attributing to them a 432 sharedblack experienceregardlessof their actual communal, religious or 852 For him the political affiliations". politics of race in the nineties are less to do with programmesand more to do with language,conceptsand individual identity formation processes. Again, as with Ouseley,there is a reluctanceto engagewith thinking that attemptsto go beyond the taken for granted boundariesof the polity and its institutions, in this caseliberal democracy. These analysesof eighties equality initiatives at the local level, though they on the whole tend to offer a positive governance valorisation of those endeavoursand a general conclusion that race will continue to play a part in this sphereof governance,provide only partial reasonsfor their attenuation and downgrading. Theserevolve around different dimensions of local government being `victimed' becauseof others' actions. Thus it is arguedthat either local government was effectively mugged by national government, or, as in the tendentiousargumentsof Ouseley, local government was mugged by `stroppy' race advisers, or, as Solomos and Fizgerald contend, local governmentwas mugged by the Labour party's legitimation concernswith increasing the white vote. These, even if they are valid separatelyor inter-relatedly, are what I have termed secondaryorder ones. None of the commentatorsmentioned raise primary level issuesto do with the substantivenature of modem capitalist society's institutions at the level of local governance. In so doing they unwittingly contribute to the ongoing marginalisation of race both generally and at the level of local governance,becauserace, in the logic of their argument, transcendsthe local context only in relation to strategic fine tuning of institutions contextualisedwithin a specific time period. It succoursthe in theoretically expressed wanting argument empirically challengedand 853 This premature `end terms of the of municipal anti-racism'. tendentiousnessreflects what appearsto be a conflationary, unholy alliance between supposeduniversalists, like Gilroy, the neo-conservativetechnicists inspired Bauman Labour, the post modernist of modernising new and dry freeze have Silverman854, to tried eighties speculationsof all of whom fixated located temporally on outdated anti-racism as a epiphenomenon Ouseley, looks if best, At the of then, examples at one meta-narratives. Solomos, Fitzgerald and Young, there is a tentative nod in the direction of in liberal deliberative has Dryzek the opportunities analysedas what institutions, particularly with regard to any general recommendationscalling for more Black involvement in the consultative processesof local liberal But, Dryzek those who uphold government. correctly argues, as democracy,even by default, as the above commentatorsappearto do and give it a facadeof deliberation, fail to appreciatethe extent to which deliberation is undermined by material forces, discoursesand their interIn fact this should, in my opinion, be read rather as the forces twining. inequality, discursive where the latter would include structuring material and defined `diskourse'. have I as what 433 I want to, therefore, provide the over view to the race equality initiatives in the target borough with particular referenceto a discourseof discursive democracywhich was either the active template for certain initiatives, or the normative template for others. It can be said that, as a general philosophical and political resource,Habermas,and the trailing pantheonof the Frankfurt School, were brought into the borough by the primary researcheroperating then in the role of first head of the Race Equality Unit in the council. That particular philosophical context had been the referenceback ground, since the early seventies,to researchdone on under developmentin Africa, and to practical policy interventions in the areaof race and local government elsewhere. At that point, the early eighties, the Habermassianframework, an implicit rather than explicit context, was expressedin the general belief that greater substantivedemocracy,where the latter was taken to mean a communicative action basedmore participatory process,was an integral part of achieving the race equality changes envisaged. Cross referencedwith race, this critical theoretical approach was explicitly summarisedfrom the outset in terms of the overall aim of the race equality programmeswithin that sphereof local governanceas being that of ensuring that the Black communities had a determining and, where appropriate, determinant say over resourceswhich had a material effect on the quality of their everyday lives. This was underpinnedby the rhetorical and symbolic use of two operational principles: that the solutions to racism local to the substantive government changes were often cutting edgepointers if local for that the counter-pointedly, necessary wider community, and, governmentwas not meeting the needsof the most oppressedsector of the local communities, i. e. the Black communities, then it is likely it was not be It the the the must communities. rest of meeting properly needsof he is, Habermas that stressed was, and not used, something rigorously warns his blue-print. Rather theoretical work was used as against, as some sort of a general reference context for exploring and pursuing real-world policy interventions within the arenaof local governanceaimed at securing the Unlike involvement Black therein. other race people substantive of to in boroughs, the in this there attempt one, was, equality programmes other link macro-level concernswith meta-theoreticalthinking on democracyin the local polity. This goes beyond, but doesnot erase,Mason and Jewson's in different between differentiation authorities equality policies mid eighties former liberal basis the they the referring or radical, are of whether or not on to a liberal, individualist emphasisof fairness,the latter to a collectivist 855 With the benefit of current work emphasisof equality of outcome. being undertakento use Habermas' theoretical insights in everydaypractice, for example the work of Forester and Bohman in the States,both of whom, in differing administrative institutional contexts, explore what it meansfor deliberative in bureaucracies more order to redeemvalidity making public it be claims, can said that those sorts of concernsunderpinned the Race Equality Unit's evolving discourseon the necessaryrace equality 434 856 The term `these programmes. sorts of concerns' can be given a firmer meta-theoreticalgrounding by referring to McCarthy's introduction to Habermas' "The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity" becauseit captures succinctly the thinking behind the general intent of the programmes,even if, at the time, they were not, or could not, be expressedin those precise 857 This is not the fanciful theoretical speculation afforded by the terms. luxury of retrospection. A few years prior to that, in the very early eighties, as an example of the way in which grand theories, even those which deny their own `grande' narrative framework, enter into, and affect everyday institutional practice, the primary researcher,then working in Lambeth on a researchproject on Black Children in Care, and also heavily involved in developing a trade union basedBlack Workers Group, was engagedin a heateddiscussionwith another researcher. Both the latter areasof work mentioned assumed,implicitly or explicitly, an `ought' contained in the immanenceof practice and underlying norms. The other researcher, relatively fresh from a Foucauldian emphasisedpost graduatecourse at Essexuniversity put forward the argumentthat this was a nonsensesince, to This approachwas carried over into his use his words, `therejust is". work which presenteditself as standardempiricism, and into his political choiceswhich saw, therefore, the Labour party as the only viable alternative. One can see,hence,why this form of `presentism', what I have termed `WYSIWYG', and `cryptonormativism' can be described,as Habermasdoes, as young conservatism. This illustratory slight digression with its two examplesof the counter-discourseof modernity in practice servesto return to McCarthy's introduction, in which he correctly sketchesout the main points of Habermas' counter discourse. He usesthe metaphor of `crossroads'which I want to appropriate later becauseit capturesas well the choices facing local government in the eighties in relation to the substantive inclusion of Black people. The `essential' basis of Habermas' counter discourseis, unlike the `posties', that the Enlightenment is characterisedby too little reason. That is there is an "ambiguity of rationalisation processes that has to be captured,the undeniable achievementsas well as the palpable distortions..(which)... calls for a reconstructeddialectic of enlightenment it. "858 This than totalised approachtherefore signposts of rather a critique two related crossroadscontaining paths openedbut not pursued. The first is "the construal of reasonin terms of non-coercive inter-subjectivity of mutual 859The secondis that understandingand reciprocal recognition". "philosophy must becomepractical, that its rational content has to be is in (in social reason viewed as social mobilised practice.... which).... interaction.. (and).. the potential of reasonhas to be realised in the . . 860 In opposition, then, to the life. , communicative practice of everyday `posties' wish to eliminate the subject, Habermasproposesa decentred in inter-action by language", where immersed "social mediated subject languageuse is "oriented to validity claims" which "can in the end be inter-subjective through recognition brought about by the redeemedonly 435 "861 force Such validity claims are, at one and the same of reason. unforced time, both `immanent' and `transcendent'because"they transcendany local context; at the sametime they have to be raised here and now and be de facto recognised....(so that).... the transcendentmoment of universal validity bursts every provinciality asunder;the obligatory moment of accepted validity claims rendersthem carriers of a context bound everyday practice.. .a moment of unconditionality is built into factual processesof mutual understanding- the validity laid claim to is distinguished from the social currency of a de facto establishedpractice and yet servesit as the foundation of an existing consensus." 862 I want to claim, therefore, and illustrate through the outline of the race equality initiatives in the target borough, that theseprogrammesattemptedto createthe communicative conditions under which Black people could make validity claims for racial justice within the arenaof local governance. Theseprogrammessought to remove, or attenuate,certain forces in the structure of communication so that Black people, could on an equal basis, engagein the social inter-action of "mutual understandingand reciprocal recognition", and, in so doing help realise the "potential for reasonin everyday communicative practice"; in this case`reason' being the unconstrainedconsensusformation on the issue at hand. For Habermas languagehas inherent three universal validity components:those that attest to truth, normativity and truthfulness. Only the first two can be discursively redeemed. The third relates to the genuinenessof the `speaker', which, in my opinion, I want to re-classify as the authenticity or not of the speaker. The structure and processof racism is such that for Black people claims for discourse. inherent logic by justice frequently that the of racial undercut are In other words, if you are not human, how can you be authentic. One of the key aims of the programmes,then, was to try to ground the authenticity of the Black experienceas a given so that the other componentsof the claims introducing the be For training race on courses could redeemed. example, programmesto staff were prefaced with giving notice that the reality of in battles include Other the for discussion. and examples racism was not up in that harassment the procedure complaints around establishmentof a racial be to in the complainant was particular council which the genuinenessof taken as given. It is only now that this principle, which I regard as crucial to communicative claims' redemption, has been given a degreeof `universal' Report. Macpherson Too the through the of acceptance recommendations for justice, Black the truthfulness claims racial making people as we of often shall show in the caseof the above mentioned complaints procedure, are destabilisedthrough the implicit, or even explicit, racist assumptions,such as those that structure race explicit claims as being symptomatic of the `chipin is It worse, as an syndrome, or exercise maliciousness. on-the-shoulder' this sort of force in the structure of communication which needsto be addressed,for if one of the three universal validity components,that which 436 from it because be discursively be the outset accepted cannot redeemed, must is de facto continually denied to one of the participants, no genuine discourse can take place. communicative 11.7 Contextualising the Race Equality Discourse Cross referencing the practice basedconcretenessof theserace equality initiatives with the overall project of Habermasreleasesthe concernsI have deal to attempted with in Chapter...under what I have termed the racialisation of Habermas' theory, i. e. the democracy of difference without difference. The micro-concerns of the pursuit of this race equality erasing programme illustrate, providing inclinations of, the necessarydevelopments in Habermas' theory if it is to deal with the issuesof difference and reason raised by Young, and co-opted by a commentating Foucauldian as a genealogy,are to be dealt with. Of coursethere were other discourses,not only of race and race equality and local governance,but also of those wishing to control or do away with any notions of race equality which might have been critically substantive. The attritional spacesopenedup by the intersection of theseoften releasethe social reality correlatesI outlined earlier in this chapter, often in the form of counter-factual statementsor arguments. Discoursesdo not, in this piece of work, enmeshand mug left from behind they that are with a minor emancipatory participants so interest reducedto merely weak resistance. Constraint, within the context dependent discourses, is, I upon the extent of would contrapuntally contend, to which discursive democratic practice can take place. The degreeto be in discourse than that rather process, can structure which participants I In it, from this by to socio-political context context. structured varies into late Wodak's Reisigl then, a critical theoretic entry and agree, with basedanalysis of the discourseof racism where `discourseis taken to mean "a dialectical relationship betweenparticular discursive practices and frames institutional including fields and social situations, specific of action( 863 like Contextualised this in they are embedded". structures) which discourses"as linguistic social practices can be seenas constituting nondiscursive and discursive social practices and, at the sametime, being 864 discourse, become `diskourse' by " In them. can other words constituted like in the that Discourses, of a setting especially versa. and vice institutions of local governance,`relate' to each other, even if, as will be forcibly to they run parallel with and made separated shown, are sometimes be 'interis That to their can conflictual, or relationship say each other. discursive'. Either way a measureof discursive changeoccurs. There is a far Dryzek's here so and most recent foray with my argument convergence into the field of deliberative democracy. In this he arguesfor a distinction between deliberative democracyas a general activity, which is too easily liberal discursive by democracy constitutionalists, and appropriated which has the more radical agendaof wanting to changethe state.865 But, it is his 437 definition and use of the concept of `discourse' that is important. Similar to mine and Reisigl's and Wodak's, his is that "discourse is a sharedmeans of making senseof the world embeddedin language", thereby generatinga sharedterm of referencewhich enables"those who subscribeto a particular discourseto perceive and compile sensoryinformation into coherentstories be that can or accounts communicatedin inter-subjectively meaningful ways."866 Discourse, thus, to use his metaphor can be regardedas institutional `software', comparedwith the emphasison the formal rules of constitutions, which can be likened to the `hardware'. Within the context his of critique of Habermas,which I have outlined earlier, amounting to a view that Habermas,in his BFN, has allied himself too closely to the liberal constitutional state,Dryzek highlights the processof democratisation. This is not the extension of liberal democracy,which would appearto be the limits of changeperceived by those in the Labour Party and which, as I shall show, occurs throughout the race equality programme in the target borough, but, rather, the extension and expansionof democracyin three dimensions. Theseare the franchise, i. e. who can participate in collective decision making; the scope, i. e. bringing more areasof life under democratic control; and the authenticity of control, i. e. "the degreeto which democratic control is engagedthrough communication that encouragesreflection upon Within "867 this three principled expansion preferenceswithout coercion. of democratisation,Dryzek examinesthe cardinal issue of discourseand the by he democracy deliberative terms the proponents what argumentsagainst focusses Young, he democracy. " `difference Because these on of do in issues to the so not need chapter..., and raised argumentsare similar discursive in Dryzek that a view, repeating. argues,correctly, my democracywould, similarly to my argumentsfor a transformative practice in deliberation, deliberate acrossdifference, but without eliminating difference. He thus admits story telling etc. as valid forms of languageuse, but only if form involve do These they that of they meet two criteria. any not are is latter The link the to the they general. particular coercion, and that important becauseit ties in with my argument about the problem/solution device the and still present saliency, solidaristic categorisationof racism, and `genealogy' the like Young's Against `Black'. of someone of using diskourse of democracy,Dryzek arguesthat what is required is "an account difference democracy that acrossrepressiveand emancipatory can address of identities and discourses....(so that difference democracycan now discursively be recast as the) contestationacrossdiscoursesrather than link discursive democracy identities, to a establish and so engagementacross democracy. deliberative "868 Further, liberal to constitutionalist as opposed Hindess, hard line Foucauldian, to the such as who arguesthat as opposed discourseis both hegemonic and all, thus constituting as well competing is life discourse, to Dryzek that there than more and politics argues views, 869 If difference democracywithin the context for example collective action. deliberation be discursive thought of as the contestation of reading can of a 438 discourses, the question that this prompts is what accountsfor discursive of shift. That is to say, more pertinently, how do emancipatorydiscourses supplant repressiveones. To answerthis, briefly at this time, requires a more refined analysis of discoursethan that provided by Dryzek. A more refined analysis can be found in someonelike Fairclough's interpretation of discoursechangeand displacement.870 In particular his notion that, following on from habermas' conceptualisationof `colonisation', that this processof domination is partially constituted by "'colonisations' in the societal order of discourse" where the latter `order' is "particular structuring 871 institutional discourse. , These may be of consttuent orders of destructuredas a result of social struggle. Fairclough, whose definition of discourseattemptsto syncretiseinsights gleaned from Foucault's account of discoursewith a more hermeneutic approach,where the latter also nods appreciatively in the direction of Habermas,notes that contemporary discourseorder is "complex, heterogeneousand contradictory". Neverthelesshe attemptsto make senseof this by writing into his analysis a transitive element that is not over powered by the hegemonic dimension. Three tendenciesare discernedwhich at the categorical level he labels democratisation,commodification and technologisation. Theseare useful because,by and large, they coincide with the two broad categoriesof `emancipation' and `repression' used earlier. even if his usageis tied more to empirical observation. Democratisation, then, refers to the "removal of inequalities and asymmetriesin the discursive and linguistic rights, obligations and prestige of groups of people.s872 Commodification, on the other hand, is concernedwith the process"whereby social domains and institutions (like the public sector) whose concern is not producing commodities in the narrow economic senseof goods for sale, come neverthelessto be organisedand conceptualisedin terms of commodity production, distribution and consumption."873 One can seethis in the discourseof consumerismwhich has replaced democratisationin the arena of the relationship between local government and the public. Technologisation, which Fairclough interprets in line with Habermas' theory be lifeworld by the the of colonisation of systemsof state and economy, can seenin those techniqueswhich seekto consciously structure discourse in in for desired to practice order obtain a example counselling control result, or interviewing techniques. Fairclough views theseas transcontextual, is which to say that they can be strategically used in a variety of contexts. I would rather describethe context as being reductively framed in line with what he identifies as commodification, so that the contexts are, in substance, different from that not each other. However, more importantly, technologisation requires experts, rather in the way that Habermasidentifies the trend of the `expertisation of cultures' to consciously weld together the language between knowledge connection and power with the aim of bringing Moreover, about "discursive changethrough conscious design". Fairclough is correct in identifying that this aspectof discourserequires the 439 simulation "for instrumental or strategicpurposesof interpersonalmeanings is inter-subjective " discursive That to the practices. say simulation of and communicative practices so that, as I identified earlier in my preliminary analysisof what I called virtual reality equality opportunity, a facadeof participatory processesis presentedwithout any substantiveyielding of power. Whilst, then Fairclough's work goes some way towards filling in the gaps in like Dryzek's use of discourse,it still does not answer fully the someone question about how discoursesare transformed and /or displaced. This is pertinent if, as I and Dryzek have done, discoursesare broadly classified into emancipatoryand repressiveones. Whilst one can accept at a general level the complex, heterogeneousnature of the order of discourses,this doesnot justify the theoretical lacuna, and for that matter action lacuna, disguised by analyseswhich attempt to discussdiscoursein terms of articulation and hegemony. One is invariably left with action that can only rise to the level of describing discourses,as Howarth does, and as someonelike Norval achievesin her attempt to provide a Foucualdian baseddiscoursesanalysis of South Africa. 874 Instead, in supporting Dryzek's notion of difference democracyas the contestationof discourses,I want to propose that `diskourses' are maintained as hegemonic through the closure, or in discursive Intertwined such spaces. maintenanceof control over, oppressiveand repressivediscoursesare, obviously, the configurations of inhibitors be in to themselves, severe can power and material realities which, discursive practices. Neverthelessstrugglesto open up discursive spacesin the structuresof communication, through the processesof will and opinion formation, and, which in the caseof race, as I argue, can also transform those in discourses dislodge such processes,provide the meansto transform and/or The introduction of the theoretical device of `discourse', the polity. interpreting framing for the relaying and provides the refinement necessary the empirical details within the context of highlighting the social reality identified the meta-theoreticalconcerns correlatesand relating those to earlier in this chapter. The outline of the developmentand implementation of the race equality for Black how discursive borough in target spaces will show programme the how before, had these and were existed people were openedup where none `de'-communication tied down through of strategies various closed Party Labour legitimation to the the to the white of claims ultimately discussion frame have I the to of race and already attempted electorate. local governancewithin tentative articulation of two broader discoursesthat of colonisation, or re-colonisation, and that of de-colonisation. Rebe in have I direct the can seen argued re-imposition of colonisation, which in inner is the tied very much with the rule cities political/administrative for Black discursive spaces people and their replacementwith closure of 440 technologisedpractices and devices. This is legitimated through the growing discourseof naturalisation which re-emergesin modern guise. It can be argued, for example,that the notorious `third way' of new right Labour is a simulation of giving meaning to a supposedlynew politics which in reality sanctionsthe inequalities and practices of capitalist globalisation. Within this the fiction is perpetuatedthat political nation states,including those of the metropole, can achieve little through political action. There is then an acceptanceof the `natural' order of reality. Help for those in the global order who are less fortunate includes, in all but name, as can be seen by the interventions in Sierra Leone and the analysis of some,recolonisation. I have made mention before of the view of certain protomodernising councillors in the target borough in the eighties who, because they viewed racism as something that will always be there, felt that not much could be done in the short term. At this point we can re-introduce the imagery of `crossroads'becausejust as Habermaspoints to the crossroadsof more enlightenment, as a counterdiscourseto the skewed reasonof capitalist modernisation, or less enlightenment favoured by the theoretical predecessorsof the post modernists, so I would contend that the period of the late seventiesand first for local The highlighted could governance. eighties a cross roads have led to the vision of a positively racialised form of local governanceI its it has in because Chapter...., as cutting edge questionsabout outlined fulfilling modernity. The other, the choice actively made by those in power, leadsnot only to an entrenchmentof capitalist modernity, as epitomised by new right Labour's conflation of capitalist modernisation with modernity, but also, I would argue, to the bolstering of this entrenchmentthrough the inherent political bankruptcy of action which is the legacy of post modernism as a `theory'. Finally, like myself, Reisigl and Wodal identify a deliberative, discursive that Benhabib's in line Habermas' democracy, as models, and with model of in increase for best hope the racism combatting politically which offers the in Western Europe. But their vision is till too general,paying insufficient deliberative is detail to a to the that of which necessary achieve attention democratic society from one which is heavily unjustly racialised and multifor but UK, just is becoming the the norm not racial, a situation which Europe as well. To that extent they underestimatethe extent to which Habermas' model, and Benhabib's variation on that, might prove not radical from My this not only the reading necessary stems argument, and enough. to sustain it, but also, the actual experienceof attempting to pursue the vision is this conditions, closer to Dryzek's. The argument under concrete of following quote not only summarisesthis position, but also servesas a useful initiatives in the the target borough. to the equality of race outline opener 441 I will argue that a defensible theory of deliberative democracy must be critical in its orientation to established power structures, including those that operate beneath the constitutional surface of the liberal state, and so insurgent in institutions. I refer to this more critical strand of to established relation deliberative democracy as discursive democracy, which (contrary to much inter`discursive' `deliberative' tends to use and current usage, which in from distinguish I the vicinity of to confined politics a model changeably) liberal constitutionalism....... I will that discursive democracy should argue ... be pluralistic in embracing the necessity to communicate across difference without erasing difference, reflexive in its questioning orientation to established traditions (including the tradition of deliberative democracy itself), transnational in its capacity to extend across state boundaries into settings where there is no constitutional framework.... and dynamic in its openness to ever for changing constraints and opportunities upon democratisation........ Unfortunately critical theory has itself become too its liberalism The by and state. closer association with compromised an ever critical edge needs to be re-sharpened. One way to do this is to ground deliberative democracy in a strong critical theory of communicative action, and to re-emphasise oppositional civil society and public spheres as sources of democratic critique and renewal.2475 11.8 Race and the Target Borough 1984-1989- Key Features This section will attempt to provide a key feature overview of the race background in the for that the order above period equality programme the interrogations in-depth in of aspects certain the of reference markers important One intelligible. the to of argument, which are come, are features of this period is the use of the appellation `race equality be to it the that the activities notion programme', which contains within described were planned systematically, as well as serving to distinguish `race banner before had the from of that which under those activities gone the the under the to The programme, start of action on race, up relations'. joint stewardship of the council and the local CRC, appeared to be very projects dependent disjointed hoc, unconnected seemingly upon and much ad It was marked, as well, by its controlled in different Directorates. link I to inclusivity vis-ä-vis the Black constituency, an excluding practice in inception its Despite CRCs. the coloniality syndrome associated with its between the race relations council and the mid seventies, this relationship I'll term be described refer and a as one of marginalisation, structures, can be the lack later. The contrasted with can of meaningful progress return to had like Lambeth boroughs by which programmatic progress made introduced new race equality structures in the late seventies. There is thus beginning the differentiate the basis to above period of out upon which a like boroughs Lambeth, Whilst, before. had then that gone which with that this to the more was possible, claim claim means evidential provided in be the the to new orientation of newly created central substantiated was Race Equality Unit. 442 11.9 The Unit The origins of this unit have been outlined earlier. Suffice to say that there indeterminacy degree of surrounding the proposedworkings of the was a in head, There Black three the the were only posts unit; a unit. Community's liaison post, the primary task of which was to administer a grants budget attachedto Race Relations Committee, and an administrative The based race unit was small compared post. with other existing centrally do in boroughs. indeterminacy The to units other state of was as much from it do defined the to unknown, as with with was expectationsarising discourses. it For specific example becameclear within the first few months of the start of the programme that there were roughly five i. key The the managers concerned, e. those within expectationsof new unit: the Chief executive's departmentand other Chief Officers acrossthe council, and certain leading councillors, mainly those I have come to label the protodiscretion; to managerial and control modernisers,wanted a unit subordinate council membersmore sympatheticto race equality, wanted a unit to pursue Black but the of existing practice; protocols within such a programme, in in institution bases the their were open experiences of employees,on the their hope for an up-front, dynamic unit not shackled by convention; the Black community's approachseemedambivalent becauseits relationship by be the to mediated that unit's administrative control over a with unit was local CRC, finally to budget; focussed the clinging still grants race equality its past influence in the Working Party arrangement,expectedthe unit to take its policy and practice cues from them. Yet that air of indeterminacy was discourses, because the competing also to prove the new unit's strength in whether weakly or strongly expressed voiced or alluded expectations, its the new unit and effectively cancelled themselvesout thereby allowing to a develop opposed as to programme, equality race a solidaristic resources discursive built through opening up on rights secured race relations one, its indeterminacy This for Black and potential notion of people. spaces by to the illustrated is for the reference race equality action, strength head the for the appointment of recruitment and selection procedure adopted then The the was researcher, the principal person appointed, and unit. of he in Lambeth Advisor Race council when covering employment working as Unbeknown invited borough to by hunted' `head apply. the target and was to him, but made clear on the day of the interview, was an additional linked to the test that criteria supposedly candidatessit a written requirement for the job. The `test' situation was devised by the managersin the Chief Executive's Department on the basis of the expressedview that the person high level deal be to with a competently of written concernedshould able in involved The this appointment went along with councillors policy work. the proposal. However, the principal researcherrefused to undertakethe test, arguing cogently that there were serious race equality implications 443 which had not been considered,and that both the appointment itself and the be if the work would compromised the test enteredinto the very nature of considerations. The basesof the objections were contextualisedwithin the in experiences the United Stateswhere the legacy of the civil rights movement in employment was effectively undermined by the introduction of written tests by employersas a supposedly`objective' meansof choosing candidates. Evidence existed to show that thesetests discriminated against Black candidates. Further, within the context of this particular recruitment and selection procedure,the very minimum that would need to be expected was that the organisation had undertaken some form of validation tests, as advised by the then `august' body on race relations, the Commission for Racial Equality, to ensurethat that specific written test was not racially discriminatory. Reactionsto both the refusal andjustificatory arguments varied. The managerswere of the opinion that the principal researcher's application should be thrown out, whilst the councillors, swayed by the arguments,wanted to continue considering the issue. The compromise was that the researcherwas invited to another interview, this time without a test. The appointment was confirmed at the end of that interview. What was clear was that if the recruitment decision had fallen solely within the purviews of managerial fiat, then it is likely that the appointment would have diktat. What occurred, to to managerial gone someonemore amenable however, was that the indeterminacy, carried over into the recruitment and selection procedure by the two main concernedparties, managersand involving discursive for to all open up space councillors, allowed a be to thereby made against certain permitting arguments concernedparties, head Within the that the that of of approach process, elementsof procedure. the unit to be was also clearly laid out and underscoredby that person's be if he, the to interview that the going was not appointed, claim within institution's "house nigger". Dramatic as that turn of phrasewas then, the fact of its utterance, its meaning, and the action of refusing the test, served both to give notice that the approachwas to be radically different from that by the councillors to politically appointment expected,as well as using do has to is There trope with which an underlying validate that approach. the control and managementof race in local governancethrough a strategy in I'll denying discursive more examine process space of marginalisation, a detail in one of the following sections,and exemplified in the approach from managementto the appointment process. This emerging discoursecan be further illustrated two foldly by referenceto the way in which the appointmentsto the headsof race units in the boroughs immediately flanking the target borough were handled, and to the way in in location the of central race unit the target which physical siting and borough was handled by managers. Both were Labour run boroughs and both, like so many in London at that time, establishedcentral race units. In the one to the west of the target borough, Black community activists had 444 taken a prominent role in pushing the council to createinternal race structures. Appointment to the head of the new unit was expectedto go to one of theseactivists. Instead an the appointment went to a candidatefrom the north of the country, someonewith little experienceof local government and community work. Much of the work of that unit, in those early days, becamemired in the politics surrounding that particular appointment and in the resultant bias of the appointeesto want to work on community issues. The internal workings of the council were, for the most part, ignored. In the borough to the east,two headsof unit were appointed, one to cover the `Asian community', and the other to cover the `Afro-Caribbean community'. Again the focus of the work of that unit was not trained on the workings of the council becauseof the unnecessaryessentialisingand problematising of the two main sectionsof the Black community, a strategy encouragedand pursued by that borough's local CRC. Race work in the borough was marked by ad hoc project work, exemplified by one of the headsof unit devoting a lot of time to an undertaking seeking to exposethe racism contained in the representationsof Black people through the use of the specific image of the `Golliwog'. It was to be another eight years before any substantiverace equality work was to be achieved in that council itself. In the target borough, despitebeing aware for some six months before new appointeestook up their posts, that new central equality and community developmentunits were going to be created,managers,for whatever reason, had not sorted out the accommodationfor those units by the time they came on stream. At the time it was deemedextremely important by those working in the field and those who `sponsored' such initiatives, that visible support for equality action should be seento be given by senior managers. In the initial period of their inception, making use of the bureaucratic hierarchy of statusand being an integral part of the Chief Executive's Department in order to promote the messagethat thesewere council priorities, as examplesof rhetorical devices,was seenas important by those coming into the new posts in those units. Since attenuatingthe hostility and isolation that goeswith work of this sort would be key in the initial stagesof the units' programmes,it was critical that the council's equality initiatives, by being be especially race equality, should not marginalised the seenas institution. It was with extreme ironic annoyanceand scepticism at the accompanyingexcusesabout lack of office space,that the principal found head that the new Race taking the of unit, researcherupon up post of Unit was initially to be accommodatedin the `lofty' attic regions of the Town Hall building in what had beenthe caretaker's flat. To make matters worse, the proposedrelocation of all the new units, sometwo months later, was not to be on the samefloor as the Central Policy Unit, within walking distance both Chief Executive's and Leader of the the of and shouting Council's offices, but half a mile down the high road in a residential establishmentpreviously used as a children's home. The Central Policy 445 Unit is brought into the equation as a comparatorbecauseof its then influential role as the council's and leading Labour members' strategy internal institution's house. It had the the was part of, and clearing ear of, elite. Over the next few years an almost doubling of its staff, equivalent to the staff numbers employed in the new units, did not result in a move from the Town Hall, as logic might dictate, if the reasonsfor moving those units out were to be believed, but a sidewaysextension into adjoining offices, where, miraculously, additionally spacewas found. Yet, this patent and blatant, visible marginalisation of the new equality and community developmentunits through, in a sense,`de-accommodating' them, cutting them adrift from the Town Hall, also contained hidden benefits for those units. That moment of indeterminacy contained within marginalisation whereby if you push away you also at the sametime lose a vital part of surveillant control, was exploited to the full by the new units, particularly the Race Unit. It helped permit the developmentof an approachto race equality which avoided being side tracked by the petty politics of bureaucracyand which placed a premium on locating and developing those key discursive spacesin the organisation,becausein a real physical sense, in isolated location together the one also had within placing all of new units it the potential for the creation of a discursive space. Thus throwing new `outsiders' all together in a crampedbuilding spacealso createdthe ambiencewithin which problems perceived took on a similar dominating joint in be the everyday networking sought shapeand solutions could easily in boroughs, Unlike discussions therefore, where that took other and place. in from in isolation tended to conflict even each other, equality units work between developed the together with each other, a strong ethos of working Race and Women's Units in the target borough. At another level being both inside the organisation,yet in a physical sense,outside of it, actually increasedthe scrutinising ability of the Race Unit, a quality vital for the the Additionally the these. of site physical proper working of units such as for Black it become Hall from Town the a resource saw new units away location its because both offered a the council within and outside of people degreeof anonymity and confidentiality which would not have been itself. Hall in Town located if had been the those achieved units Having argued,thus, that the commencementof the new race unit was I'll forceful, for indeterminacy by and, argue, a which allowed marked an develop, to certainly when compared unique programme of race equality be five features boroughs, key to turn to the out would a what year with other be There are roughly eight elementsto this. can now outlined. programme Theseare outlined as the back cloth to further critical interrogations of key is however, be What that the use of the term can said prefatorily, aspects. `programme' denotesa consciouseffort at the time to map out a planned just the whole council, but also the `whole covering not course of action inclusive the transitivised form of local context of a racially within council' 446 governance. This programmewas developedwithin the legal context of the then anti-discriminatory legislation, and framed pro-actively so as to establish and extend the concreterights and normative potential contained therein. It had, for example, annual work programmessetting out the key objectives and outlining the meansof achieving these,together with the accountability, review and evaluation mechanismsnecessaryto track these proposedchanges. Whilst, what is given as an example above, might today seemcommonplacein public institutions, in the early eighties in an organisation like the target borough which still operated,by and large, through the processualmedium of what I have called `traditional administration', this received mixed reactions ranging from the negative `itwill-not-work', through `it-is-too-radical', to qualified support. What might, thus, today be categorisedunder the general rubric of `strategy', because`strategy', a term for all seasonsused in most commonplaceway as a meansto boost the pseudo-importanceof any policy initiative, was not recognisedas such then. `Strategy', as a managementtechnique and device, was a strangerto the managerialprocessesof the target borough then. In fact the term `strategy' was hardly ever used by the Race Unit or associatedRace Advisers, even though the framing of the programme might lend itself to that interpretation. This is becausethe programme was much more than just being concernedwith the strategic, in the senseof action, issue of efficiency, which the common senseuse of the term in the public sector has come to mean. Rather the programme had an overt political, with a small `p' sense,dimension which was injected into everyday managerial decisions on race equality.. Suffice to say here that when, from a race equality perspective, it was claimed that much of the advice on institutional changesto achieve that objective was in fact `good management practice', it also carried with it the consequencethat it was good political practice. The programme, then, was built upon the following elements. 11.10 The Programme 11.11 Redefining the Problematic The first overall element was that the race problematic, which the creation of this new unit was to spearhead,was re-interpreted and re-titled by the new head of unit from that of being `race relations' to `race equality'. Thus what had previously been termed `RaceRelations Unit' and Principal Race Relations Adviser', which reflected both the influence of the CRC and the perceived need to meet the criteria for Section 11 funding, then becamethe `RaceEquality Unit' and Principal Race Equality Adviser'. Becauseof the indeterminacy surrounding the functioning of theseunits at that time, there was spaceto develop and get acceptedthe argument that the problem was between `races', but that this relation was already the that of relations not 447 prescriptively structuredby inequality processesof oppressionand exploitation. The state of `race equality' was taken to mean an overall objective, that is a normative template, achievablethrough the development of appropriate anti-racist action. `Race equality' was also taken to mean the pursuit, within the widest interpretation of the responsibilities of the council, of a social, and within that, racial justice programme. This was grounded in developing and securing the rights containedwithin the relevant anti-discriminatory legislation, both national and international, particularly the 1976Race Relations Act876. Weak as the latter was, comparedwith the task at hand, even if, at the time, it was the strongestpiece of anti-race discriminatory legislation in Europe, the pro-active potential of that law was still to be realised. As indicative of the way in which this particular discourseof race equality was being structured at the time, a discourse which will be dilated as the empirical details unfold, it atteststo the way in which `moral' questionswere brought into the everyday functioning of local government from the formal political level to the lowest reachesof the administrative level. It was recognisedthat there were basically two approachesto legislation, like the '76 Race Relations Act and the '75 Sex Discrimination Act. The first was to do the minimum and only react to complaints of discrimination. The other, the approachadoptedby the unit, was to explore the normative potential of the Act, and then devise meansto securethat. There were two main areasof potential. The first, mindful that much of the employment and service aspectsof the legislation was still to be settled through caselaw, was to explore the furthest dimensions of possible interpretations. The secondaspectof exploiting this aspectof indeterminacy,was to extend the latency of Section 71 of the '76 Race Relations Act through constantre-iteration and through innovative interpretations of that section. Basically Section 71 places a duty upon local authorities to eliminate unlawful racial discrimination and to promote equality of opportunity and good relations betweenpersonsof different racial groups. This was not drafted as a statutory duty which was enforceable,but rather as an obligation which local authorities should follow. Nevertheless, it because its legislative there even within obvious weakness was strength permitted the Unit to `marry' that section with the local Labour party's own race equality sectionsof their local elections manifesto in order to createa legitimating platform for a variety of race equality action acrossthe whole Securing thesewas obviously dependentupon sphereof council activities. the extent to which race as one of the political priorities could be maintained. Framing it as a racial justice problem, within wider concernsof social justice, also addressedthree aspectsof marginalisation which appearedto inhere in those late seventiesrace programmesin other boroughs. The first is that the race programme was not devised as a stand alone one affecting only Black people, a common enough reactive interpretation in the `white' bureaucracy. Rather it was interpreted and implemented as one that was the sharp cutting edgeto wider changesaffecting other sections of the 448 in This exemplified was one of the operational principles community. derived and noted earlier, viz. that if the council was not meeting the needs of the most exploited sector of the local community, it is likely that it was failing as well in meeting properly the needsof the wider community. Secondlythe race equality programme also pointed out structural failings in the way the council dealt with other issues. It had, if you like, the statusof a barium meal becauseit exposedall the hidden workings of the council. Thirdly allied to the previous two, the race equality programme, with the emphasisthis time on `equality', addressedthe issue of material discourses democracy, and a leit motiv which re-surfacesevery time the welfare state is debated. For example one of the other operational principles supporting the programmewas that which statedthat the race equality programme was about giving Black people a determinantsay over resourceswhich often had a pivotal material effect on their everyday lives. Thirdly addressingvalidity claims of racial justice not only brought into the equation the key moral question, but, becausethe programmewas aimed at all dimensions of the council's activities, ensuredthat this moral question entered into both the political and everyday administrative processesof the council. It was certainly more than just a `corporate' issue. For example one of the first tasks undertakenby the new unit was to changethe languageof race in the 877 By this is meant the way in which race generally and Black council. is in This in the talked council. and written about people particular were important becauseit begins to tackle the issue of conventionalisation, i. e. my earlier argumentsabout racism entailing only the `you', `he', `she' and `it' identification of Black people and not the `we' of inter-subjective solidarity. The languageof race in institutions, as part of the structuresof further therefore, conventionalisation gird under either communication, can, in facilitate its At deconstruction. the absenceof any guidelines the time, or there appearedto be two levels at which the languageof race operated. For the `elite' surrounding the previous Working Party on Race Relations, and the establishmentof the new race structures,the languagewas limited to that is the That describe to I accepted the say of what would ethnicity of race. as terminology on race, through custom and practice, including the identification and description of Black people, revolved around the usageof the term `ethnic minority'. For the rest of the organisation there appearedto be an open house with a proliferation of terms in use, including that of `coloured'. As a slight digression, but one that supportsthis point, as well Chief the new re-colonisation, as my argument about recursive racism and Executive, appointed to Lambeth Council in 2001 by what can be described borough, in Labour Blairite the now running a modernising councillors as talk to managersfrom acrossthe council, referred to Black people, here 878 Tackling that sort of meaning `Afro-Caribbean', as `coloured people'. distorted communication, in the target borough, meant in the short term, becausethe medium term would require the development of appropriate training programmes,targeting the institution's formal organisational 449 protocol machinery. This was to be found in the Committee Sectionhoused in the Borough Secretary'sDepartment; a departmentlargely chargedwith providing the council's legal services. The Committee Section, as their name suggests,not only administeredthe running of the council's formal it political committees, also produced and controlled the communicative administrative protocols of the council, known in that borough as `administrative circulars'. There was, for example, one on the structure and content of committee reports. A new circular was preparedby the head of unit covering appropriate,as well as inappropriate, race languagein the council. The recommendedlanguagerevolved around two inter-linked elements:self identification, and the use of the term `Black', in its general signifying political senseof `wrongs done to', to describethose previously deemed`ethnic minorities' by the organisation. The latter was derived not simply from the inclination the Race Unit, but from the nascentwishes of the existing Black employeesin that council, the experiencesin and around antiracist organisations,especially those in the trade union movement, and from the subalternpublic sphereson racism at that time, many of them with a large Black constituency. The debatewith the managerial elite, which included the then Borough Secretary,who was also head of the council's legal services,declaring that, "his Turkish friends would draw their (sic) if `Black"', described they as whilst not exactly productive, scimitars were was eventually won in favour of formally changing the race languagein the council. This was done at the level of the Chief Officers' Team meeting, a bi-weekly forum of all the directors of the council's departmentsand the Chief Executive to which the head of the Race Unit had equal accessand begins it be to pertain to In that participatory rights. one sense can argued the idea of equal communicative accessand participation and the force of the better argumentwinning. But this can only be sustained,as I shall show in the details surrounding the demiseof the programme, if one remembersthat from derived head the the that time the unit of of communicative equality at supporting force of the fact that race was still a very visible political priority and from the initial senseof indeterminacy. Additionally, and also importantly, at the sametime the administrative circular on reports was included the to that on a paragraph amended ensure all committee reports in hand the as well as the race matter race equality considerationsof implications for the council. In this way it can be seenthat the in being changed the council to open up communicative structureswere discursive spacesso that at the very minimum considerationsof race equality had to enter into the formal decision making processes. 450 11.12 The Programme's Scope The secondelement relatesto the overall scopeof the race equality formal dimension inequalities Up to the entry of specific as a programme. institution focus the that the the were, largely, of activities of of council, introspective, concernedwith the minutiae of everydaypublic sector bureaucracies; administrative a state they have, today, by and large returned to. The race equality programme, and this was statedin the first work programmeproduced for the Race Relations Committee, later re-iterated in every other one, neededto operateat four levels: a local one, a regional one, 879 international It was, at one and the same a national one and an one. time, a translation of the spatial and temporal vectors of racism into the latent possibilities of local governance. Thus acknowledging and acting on the globalisation of race before `globalisation' alludes to my previous allegory of Black people as time travellers, as well as further informing the operational principle of race as the sharp cutting edgeto what is to come. Whilst awarenessof today's late discovery of globalisation is often local, in itself be in " "think the can encapsulated maxim, global, act which constraining, introducing to this the dimension of race, in the context as set out, actually leadsto a spectrum of action with the above maxim at one end inter-relatedly local, Both by "think the act global". are and other captured `our' in from Black to to the people racist opposition embedded response here because `we', "we becoming the to you viz., are presence, ever part of were there." Additionally it is possible to seehow the argument about subalternpublic spherescan be sustained. In terms of local subaltern in fact, Negt these to as are, anti-racism, and public spherespertaining race developed imbrication Kluge around of public spheres and argue,part of an 880 This institutions local, regional, national and international governance. of level. be illustrated the the to regional work at can with reference part of Prior to the commencementof the work of the new unit, the council had Anti-Racist Council's in Greater London the to already agreed participate GLC the left labour 1982 In took over administration a new year activities. following the elections for such regional political bodies. Following the lead of Lambeth the GLC establishedits own in-house race equality Unit Minorities Ethnic focussed termed they through and an what structures Ethnic Minorities Committee. Their work led to the GLC declaring that The range of activities for 1984 in London would be `anti-racist year'. that year, both through the GLC and through the participating local in four levels. For drew example on constituenciesacrossall authorities the target borough an Anti-Racist Year Working Party was establishedas a head Committee Race Relations the the with of the race unit as sub-group of the lead officer, comprising councillors, cross council officers, and members informing Through local these the structures a range of communities. of involving initiating the council, local was organised activities anti-racist and from and participants all over the world. The community organisations 451 latter included a festival featuring an Aboriginal rock group from Australia. More mundanely, it involved, as an example of the way in which race can deconstructseemingly neutral processesand reconstruct a multi-'identitied', multi-dimensional ones,the council's Borough Engineer's Department beginning to examine for the first time how their burial and crematoria servicescould respondproperly to the needsof different religions, especially those associatedwith different sectorsof the local Black community. At the level of the local civil society, a temporary Anti-Racist Year Coordinator was appointed,working to the head of the Race Unit, with the brief to try and develop anti-racist networks in the community as a complementary strategyto the Unit's work in the council. The intention, even if the successof the venture was patchy, becauseof the short term funding for the for bed to try to the create post, was a local public sphereon anti-racism seed not only focussedon the council, but also on de-colonising and reconstructingthe local CRC into the form of a proper anti-racist organisation. The key point is that the example of some of the work at the regional level shows the way in which race, as an explicit consideration at the level of local governance,generatesdeliberations acrossother spatial dimensionsnot then normally associatedwith local government. There are international details levels, done the the of national and examplesof work at which will be explored in other sections. Suffice to say at this point one of the key examples,at the national level was the work done by the Unit on become did borough that time, that the target a secondary at not, ensuring locks into This immigration the my arguments service. agencyof country's be local inclusive for to the a principled governance about need a racially bulwark againstracism on the part of the state. It also, at the meta-level, illustrates part of the potential contained in the sphereof local governance for resolving thesetypes of problems of social integration. At the international level there is the example of the work undertakenby the Unit Race formal Party, the Working Anti-Apartheid the of a sub-group and Relations Committee. Whilst illustrating my contention that race and local, "think to the act global", apophthegm, globalisation gives rise as well it was also fraught with other contradictory difficulties which perhapslay at for It Party's Labour the the core of was always easier stanceon race. Labour councillors to rally to the causeof anti-racism, provided it was six thousandmiles away. Connecting that `distant reality' with that of racism a few hundred yards away in the Town Hall, or a mile away in the borough itself, eluded many of their consciousness. It also enabledsome of them to i. distant Black in hierarchy the people, e. of oppression which some erect a local i. help deserving the than reality. e. others, of reality, were more 452 11.13 Race Equality Structures 11.14 Race Equality Advisers The third element addressesthe problematic of the developmentof the race in equality structures the target borough. It should be more accurately because the thesestructures, equality as race structures and stated processes like other organisational ones,were embeddedin processesof human action. What made theseunique can be answeredbriefly by referenceto their counterfactualrealities at the time of the inception of the new programme. I have arguedthat the inherited race structuresin the target borough, and the way in which the then proposed enlargement,via the creation of a central in discourse. terms race unit, was conceived very much of a race relations This is evident not only when one examinesthe job description for the post of head of the unit, which is littered with referencesto ` promoting good race but looks `ethnic at the actual also when one relations' and communities', 88' structure and preferred managementprocessesenvisagedfor that unit. Theseare set out in the diagram labelled `RaceRelations Structure'. It can be seenthat the relationship betweenthe Race Unit and committees of the in Executive's Chief be brokered the to manager a senior via council was Department. There was no statedrelationship foreseenbetweenthe Directorate Race Advisers and the unit. Further those advisers' structural by i. directly in the a senior manager,was managed position organisation, e. to remain. This was very much a structure in which the balance of control by in those advisers to proffered advice which and was given over managers level. it before the have to run a managerial gauntlet political reached would Certainly the workings of the two then existing advisersin the Housing and Social ServicesDirectorates seemedto have been taken as the operational development In for terms the of race the then of new central unit. model in be interpreted as ones which equality, these structuresand processescan that goal would be marginalised becauseof what can be read as the I In justice instrumentalisation of racial one of the previous chapters claims. had traced the developmentof orthodox managementvia its Italian its horses, to `manage', to meaning control etymological origins of the word humanistic from developments despite more a current usagewhere, is discourses the still about using ultimate aim of such perspective, behalf i. that to to on of enact e. employees get others, power organisational in itself be That can the read as minimum of resistance. organisation with implemented in leit the the changes managerialist aim of motiv of a sub-text the public sector since the mid eighties where the `public' component is direct limited to of values aping of number simplistically reduced a -a focus to and more efficiently control multi-national practices- so as financial As through accounting management systems. employeeaction later to on, a more managerialist approachto the control of the was emerge be I the to those very much option of came councillors advisers unit and 453 have describedas proto-modernisers. This was a direct responseto the location in the structural and operational processesof the central changes unit, advisersand other race workers developedand put into place by the new head of unit. The intention of these changeswas intentionally the in those the `management'perspective. These contained opposite of sought,paradoxically if taken at face value, the mainstreaming of the race dimension through the creation of new structures and processes equality more germaneto the achievementof the organisation's equality aims, as well as providing an innovative basesfor re-examining the institutional relationships between administrative employeesand the formal political sphere,administrative employeesand local communities, and the formal political sphereand local communities. If one refers back to my previous argumentsabout critical management,a processwhich puts a premium on `de-hierarchalising' and a discursive communicative approachto solidaristic baseddecision making as the groundings for tackling emancipative concerns at that level, then the proposedchangesto the structures and processesof in be race advisersand workers can seen that light. There were two immediate separatepolicies developedby the then new head implemented in the which other advisers,and of unit, consultation with addressedrespectively the Central Race Unit and Race Equality Advisers, it is Before those, the as well addressing and other race equality workers. to give a brief outline of the policy processin local government, as was. The theory underpinning council policy development,which still holds true today, is that the electedrepresentativesare responsiblefor setting the policy framework, usually reflected schematically in local election manifestos, and the administrative officers responsible for developing them. This dichotomy of responsibility is also reflected in the next stagewhere final decisions on policy are the `bailiwick' of councillors and its implementation that of officers. In reality, however, the processis far more fuzzy and For the than that professional often example, very above. set out porous initiate both and core of senior managersand subordinatepolicy corps develop council policies, with political membersalmost playing a rubber informal be A the that groupings of would variation on stamping role. senior managersand senior councillors of the apposite service committee is in Up for drivers time, that to policies. what point certain who are the hardly had Black is the that a communities, communities, especially clear, in initiation development target the in the council policies of and role borough, apart from the few walk on roles relegatedto fora such as the t}e Voluntary Sector Committee Working Party on Race Relations, and lirpitedto input the organisation's perception of marginalisingly was where Nevertheless, for for those those within the communities. what was relevant in degree there and around policy matters, was a of organisation working indeterminacy over ultimate-policy ownership, an indeterminacy which was in days to the race, especially regard with early of the new unit's amplified 454 had have I Yet, this shown above, ambiguous,nebulous state as working. its own strengthsbecauseit allowed for changesto be pursuedwhich if have light day the the policy processwas seen of not would otherwise extremely controlled and water tight. Drafting the policy under those it Race the was not a problem; nor getting accepted at circumstances Relations Committee stageof the political decision making processes. At the officer stagedraft committee reports were normally circulated to relevant departmentsand officers internal to the initiating departmentfor comments before being submitted to committee. Under normal circumstancesthe issue, lead for the the that of report writer, manager or eventual officer would submit the report to the relevant senior manager for committee clearance. However, under the circumstancesof uncertainty pertaining to the new unit, the initial reports to the Race Relations Committee were not altered by senior managers,but allowed through with any relevant Committee, The Race Relations to the observationsappended report. however, was an advisory committee. Its terms of referencemirrored the its As for the such recommendationsto other role envisaged race advisers. committeescould be ignored. The statusof that committee and structural fora decision to the to the was political making council's relationship rest of be a continuing topic of recommendedchangefrom the unit for the duration later, I As this possibly that shall show and argue of unit's existence. facadic statusof the committee, i. e. it could be arguedthat despite its formal its to tantamount the a glorified was role council of position as a committee talking shop, also contained certain communicative potential which could be 882 Nevertheless,for a policy to be justice. harnessedin pursuit of racial it had binding to the therefore council, upon acceptedas council policy, and be passedby the powerful Policy and ResourcesCommittee. At that stage most councils had an equivalent or similar committee whose responsibilities, to final decision overview to the title resource and suggests,was provide a as the council. In the target borough its membershipconsistedof the chairs Leader by it the and vice chairs of all the other committeesand was chaired in their had own It powerful all the sub-committees, various council. of Personnel the in influential terms was of which, employment rights, the most Sub-Committee. Altogether this committee and attendantsub-committees decision the crucial areasof the over making acme of powerful represented the council's corporate direction and responsibilities. Returning to the two key policies, the first addressedthe structural head the the Advisers Race the the of unit via race central and of relationship levels the the the council, as well to as of and managerial political unit, in between the the the other advisers and unit central race relationship 883 The changesproposed in that policy report were not altogether council. basis because the the structural relationships already existed of new framework Lambeth in the the race equality way was established. elsewhere In that the advice and proposed changesfrom race advisers could go straight 455 to committee without being changedby management,although they could behind The it them. thinking this that on comment was obviously was important that the political representatives,whose manifesto priority it was, should receive thoseproposed changesin full without interference from It was an attempt to avoid the marginalisation of race in that managers. council. However, the relationship betweenthe central Principal Race Adviser and the Directorate basedadviserswas still that which relied on the hierarchy. That is to say the Principal Adviser was formally recognisableas the one at the top replete with the traditional command level of authority and power associatedwith this sort of bureaucratic set up. Underpinning this internally were generatedprocessesfrom the central unit which supported that state of affairs. Thus internal meetings between the Principal and the other advisersexcluded the other race equality workers who were not advisers. They were, so to speak,down the pecking order in the hierarchy. Further the relationship betweenthe advisersand the council memberswere mediatedby two particular aspectsof commonality which seemedto militate againsttoo radical a stanceagainstthe acceptedpowers. The first was the informal agreementbrokered by the incoming labour administration in 1978 and the Black communities in which there was a `trade off' betweenthe establishmentof the race structuresand Black support for the Labour Party. The then Principal Adviser was the key instrument in this in his previous role formal Officer. The Principal Community Relations the secondwas as political membership of most of the key advisersto the Labour Party, a factor which was instrumental in their appointment. These factors were, be `softly, for softly' read as an almost perhaps,responsible what could issues by the towards which over certain councillors approach advisers borough, have forthright In target the one. would warranted a more however, these sub-textual issueswere not there becauseof the conservative because by local CRC the all of the advisersappointed were and role played from outside the borough; and certainly, not formally affiliated to any political party. Additionally the intellectual thrust of the changesto the structure and functioning of the adviserswere premissedupon opening up the communicative potential on race. This was to be achievedby grounding these changesin practices and processeswhich actively discouragedthe hierarchy the the solidaristic and emphasised of administrative negative use practices furthering the achievementof rights underpinning the successful justice. Thus the policy recommendedthat the to validation of claims racial race advisers' and the central race unit's advice and recommendedchanges but by be altered management, should go unaltered to the political could not level for consideration. Further the reporting line of all the race advisers in directorate be day that to the to day officer most senior switched on should for leave issues, annual example requirements. Backing up administrative the recommendedchangesto the functioning of the adviserswas another be full to that advisers were given and equal membership of recommendation their respective senior managementteams in those particular directorates. 456 The practice up to then was to call them into senior managementteam meetingsas and when required; a `stepinfetchit' role which had to change. In terms of the relationship with the central race unit, a formal functional link was recommended,the purpose of which was to ensurethat the overall thrust to the council's race equality programme could be properly developed and co-ordinated. Thesewould be underpinned by annual work programmes. There was the principled argumentthat this would help createthe institutional spacefor advisersto come together to deliberate issuesof race equality, in so doing laying the basesfor mutual support and development,without the threat of organisational sanction, as well as the linked tactical thinking that race equality resourcescould be pooled and focussedon problem areasin the council where that need was perceived. The Race Advisers were also given formal accessto the Race Relations Committee. Written into the policy was a clear operational principle that the adviserswere not to be regardedas a dumping ground for all Black issues,a tendencywhich had developedpreviously and which managerssaw as fitting practice becauseit absolvedthem from facing up to their responsibilities. Rather the adviserswere there to provide the strategic overview and direction to the directorate race equality initiatives and programmesbacked up by targeted interventions in key processes. The idea was to createthe conditions for discursive spacesin which race equality issuescould be deliberatively discussedand resolved, as opposedto the previous practice of race advice being given which was then subject to managerial fiat. This modification to the role of the race adviser was also intendedto clarify the role of the adviser and managerin the processesof race equality deliberation and decision so that it becameclear that the dischargeof executive responsibilities by managershad to, with the advisers' help, have a race dimension, where that was warranted. The restructuring proposal was acceptedby the first Race Relations Committee and passedon to the Policy and ResourcesCommittee for ratification as council policy. At that the relevant meeting of that committee, the Chair of the personnel Sub-Committee,one of the proto-modernisersand also `member' of the it. However, Labourism, to one northern school of attempted speakagainst for impassioned in left the plea councillors stepped with an of new quickly accepting the proposed changesas a positive indication that the council was in Labour At time the that none of point serious on race equality. councillors present, especially after the latter speech,wanted to be seento be indeterminacy. initiatives. It to through, another victory opposing race went Alvesson and Willmott provide a critical template against which to assess whether or not organisationsare critical. By critical is meant that interaction in which distortion structures communicative are of organisations is either minimised or absentaltogether. This is a step removed from the from some one like Marcuse, where there is the neo-Marxist perspective human of assumption autonomy which is "frustrated and essentialised 457 deformed by the demandsof oppressiveorganisational structures."884 Rather the "focus upon communication side-stepsthe question of what is in fundamental favour human the to of an understandingof nature essential human issue (and)... then the communication critical of conditions .... becomeswhether particular structuresof communication allow these fundamental conditions to be fully realised; or whether relations of power in the form of capitalism, technocracy,consumerism,sexism, racism etc. systematicallyimpede this possibility by, for example, representingsuch impedimentsas natural or functional rather than social and enslaving.s885 Within the context of organisationsthey go on to identify strong and weak Habermassian type analyses. The strong version suggeststhat of versions "the truth, legitimacy, sincerity and clarity of statementscan be decisively 886 On the other hand the weak testedthrough a processof critical scrutiny. , version tries not to get rid of all communicative distortions or attempt to arrive at an ideal speechsituation, but attempts"to open up spacefor increasedcommunicative action with regard to beliefs, consent,trust, thereby challenging and reversing the tendency of work organisationsto devalue, corrode or appropriatethe values of the lifeworld. "887 With the being issue justice prefigured as a moral question, the substantive of racial in way which this piece of researchapproachesthesetwo organisational forefront in keep is first is the the to that very much a paradigms argue distortions to the type of pragmatic, to racist normative goal with respect latter. by the represented everyday communicative changes But the formal restructuring of the race advisers' role and functioning also between the relationship pivoted on changesto the processesassociatedwith formal in the to the central unit and other race equality staff, and changes in. In involved become terms to were operational proceduresrace advisers became largely that the an turned central unit on ensuring of processesthis institutional space,both literally and metaphorically, which could be used It development. for by their support and and accessed race equality staff For for key discursive became example thus, space such workers. a also, there were formal bi-weekly meetings co-ordinated by the central unit open This but was also all other race equality workers. not only to race advisers, forms boroughs different to of co-ordination where such practice other a in Participation the `elite' to the of advisers. race equality were restricted meetings was grounded on guaranteeingequal accessand partaking rights for all members. The former was securedthrough a brief `firefight' between in head this the the unit since was of managersand senior officers, and The latter formal the staff. race equality policy affecting other advanceof that to the through came characterise principles participatory evolved deliberative activities by, and in, the unit. But, it was not only meetings that took place. There were, as well, training and other support activities initiatives including The exchange with work other countries. unit arranged, becamea repository and conduit for race equality information and resources, 458 be by library, which could race workers. accessed such as a small Procedurally, the head of the unit ensured,through properly drafted and involvement that the and codes, advisers guaranteed were acceptedpractice in for crucial operational processes, example recruitment and participation disciplinaries, formal investigations. selection, grievance and service Involvement in this was basedon, and illustrates my argumentsfor, the is if That decisions reachedby managerswere not principle of non-closure. within the parametersof the council's own race equality policies and principles, despite advice form advisers,then that decision could not be implementedbut had to be referred to a higher level of decision making, right up to member level. This, as I shall argue in more detail in the next in had the section, affect of opening up communicative spaceson race certain key administrative proceduresnormally only subject to individual Underpinning discretionary decision this race equality making. managerial involvement in formal council proceduresand staff relational processesand be These, linked shall as principles. operational processeswere seven institutional interstices later, lubricated to create the of shown enlargement justice. for key of racial elements claims communicative spacesaround The first was that the head of unit, in particular, but also other race advisory hierarchy in formal to support race equality the their position staff would use based For there be there example conflict. protocol action where might were occasionswhen directorate basedrace advisers' reports were rejected in part or full by their respective service committee. The head of unit would then place these,and take responsibility for that action, on the agendaof the back that to Committee Relations the that particular go would report so race from formal the race time this recommendation a as service committee, only Relations Committee. The secondwas that dealing with race equality honesty degree high involved, behalf and those of a of required, on transparency,recognising that dealing with race often meant cutting across institutional and subject areasboundariesand borders thereby linking be It tologically can separated. spherespreviously categorically and on first the in not yet real, the one of that was sector public work equalities said For for `joined-up' thinking and action. acknowledged,primary sources Officers Chief items the head raised at of the unit was clear that example the Team meetings which had a bearing on race equality in the council and its it keep forum if to that confidential, should and wanted responsibilities, even be made available to other race workers and relevant people. would Towards the end of the programme the Chief Executive, to counter this, was in his to informal holding team to office which only meetings reduced invited senior managerscould attend. The head of the unit was never invited to these. The third operational principle was that `being liked' was in institution. for No be the to working successful area or criterion a never from from immune be to a race equality examination subject was `disliked' being Being the and/or running risk of subject to perspective. formal disciplinary action camewith the territory. A saying amongst 459 in daily The P45s their their they that worked with pockets. adviserswas fourth related to the clear view that the work being undertaken in furtherance in dimension that this cut acrossthe political, a sense was equality of race between distinctions formal the administrative system political and existing justice in both formally The of racial pursuit separatedcategories sphere. of action raised questionsabout power, resources,exclusion, exploitation They be could oppression. not simply and reducedto that the technical question of what good managementpractice was. In this, remedial action was taken explicitly to mean anti-racist action, the aim of which was race equality. Relatedly the fifth principle turned on clarifying, and making sure the institution came to realise, that the race advisers and race workers were not there as representativesof the whole, or particular Black community and communities. Race equality staff would not be put in the position of playing racial or cultural intermediaries. Someboroughs' race staff appearedto operateon those bases,which effectively relieved the organisation of having to communicatedirectly with sectionsof their own between dialectical This to relationship an almost communities. gave rise those race equality staff and certain Black organisationsand individuals in declarations latter from the to the was express which reciprocal expectation in decisions, This those often those resulted often staff. of ownership over in for the to aspects mired which were reasons relating resourceallocation, from Apart loyalties. which that would arrogateto of unaccountablegroup being those the communities. of representatives actual of such race staff role In terms of the target borough, the central unit's relationship was to some Relations Race function the the through of grant giving extent mediated Committee. Thesewere not large, capital resourcing grants, but small, one for level At this allowed one off type grants, covering small scaleprojects. Black between developed be distance the organisations to unit and a critical becausethe unit was clear that the criteria for awarding grants had to be in The the defined to. criteria were way which and strictly adhered clearly then in these in the were grants terms way which and restructured anti-racist tied into using them as a leverage for Black groups to gain accessto Instead task the in of be discussed the section. next mainstreamgrants will discursiveness, important in was this area of theserace workers particular in Black that being defined as people that of opening up the organisation so decisions directly demands to those made who the community could put their daily, on their behalf. For example a social work team in one of the designatedsocial services districts contactedthe unit saying that they wanted local Black liaison the improve their populace, and to and consultation with The Black help by the organisations. contacting relevant unit could list it from them that the with a provide of relevant could unit was response Black organisationsand individuals, advise them on certain ground rules, but that they would have to actually pick up the telephone,ring those contacts It in instances the those arrangements. was necessary only make all and for institution, the often political reasonswhich adversely affected when 460 itself be to to opened their own race equality priorities, was reluctant allow in frequently involvement, the that the to with conjunction unit, up public Women's Equality Unit, would take the initiative and launch a consultative belief The that, the sixth principle was given overall principled programme. that race was the sharp cutting edgeto wider concerns,then advisers,but the had lead in to ensure to the and support other race workers, as particular unit that its advice was contextualisedwithin a wider and sharperunderstanding of the particular areaworked on, and not just on action which would `Bantustan' race. For example advice on the equality implications of foisted initiative for tendering council services,an compulsorily competitive by local the Thatcher government,required the unit and government on It legal the to themselves context. and political with advisers over acquaint `expertisation' deconstruction both, the the time, of of a at one and same was this area attemptedby the council's legal and other policy sections,i. e. they `powerful', in `know' therefore the as well as organisationally and were be having Black to two the experienceadages,viz., confirming reality of "twice as good" and "keeping two stepsaheadof `whitey"'. Finally the be to the that going not programme was race equality seventhprinciple was defined or actioned in terms of ethnicity. Rather `Black' as an over arching be done firstly `wrongs to to' to was political signifier of the need address framework institution, the framework for the within and the opening up form in the these of were which questionsof ethnicity, especially where demandsfor resources,could be addressed. The main criticisms of this Black from Black the of majority employeesor, approachcamenot but its CRC local from post the satellites, and acolytic organisations,apart 1986, from two Black councillors whose political outlooks on race were firmly mis-focussedthrough `representational' ethnic lenseson essentialised This an Afro-Caribbean Asian generated the communities. and notions of but Unit, Race the towards also against each other's antipathy not only in blows the to council them two the that came of so much perspectives,so fractious committee meeting. car-park after one 11.15 Black Workers The penultimate part of the race equality structuresand processesthat need In the in the is Black be organisation. that employees to of addressed inadequateand small amount of academicliterature on this subject, the role is little Black acknowledged. or recognised workers of organisations and Indeed this dimension, if one examinesYoung's tendentiouspiece on the `proper' recommendedrole of race advisers,is absentbecauseit doesnot fit in with the `professional', managementhand holding, non-confrontational, 888 for he hierarchical conformist, capacity advocates this type of staff. However organised collectivities of Black workers are, and were, a crucial borough, in target the the structure supporting and race equality part of illustrating the secondoperational principle outlined above. Black people 461 formally institutions because as employees, and, yet, often of racism, entered borders in itself the cuts across categorical organisations, came to also which defensive, latent In terms and offensive, as a strategy, other utilise, roles. had interpretation, this the effect of actually opening up a number of of my communicative channels. In the target borough a number of Black formed, some of them with the senior management's employee groups were support, and even prompting, the purpose of which was to enable such staff to have a support resource in the directorate through which issues of concern could be raised directly with the relevant chief officer. There was a guaranteed access to that particular senior manager. The race equality staff were part of these for a, in some cases, also servicing them. Whilst these were helpful, their effectiveness did depend on the good will of the particular member of senior management concerned. Some Black employees dismissed these as a facadic managerial device the purpose of which was to create a safety valve talking shop thereby enabling Black employees with complaints and grievances to let off steam. Far more potent and, in a sense in local be formed Group Black Workers' the that to the came useful, was branch of the main officer union, then called the National Association of At the time of the start Local Government Officers, or NALGO for short. had NALGO branch local the then the something called an of of new unit "Ethnic Minorities Group". 889 This not only had no formal relationship horror but, in branch to the the the union, with executive, or other structures by branch its head had the the secretary white meetings serviced of of unit, final took the arbiter on what was and was not who minutes and acted as a possible. The influx of race equality staff to the council and membership of the union, and thus membership of that group, soon changed that colonial set Black its few to Within to the a name change group voted weeks up. a Workers Group, exclude the Branch Secretary, and to seek formal its have its branch for from to the existence and right ratification Branch Executive, the a constitutional change requiring a on representatives two thirds majority vote at a full branch meeting. With assiduous The Group, Workers' behalf Black this was achieved. of the organising on be time this Group to the opened, channel another enabled yet existence of In be justice for to reality, to resolved. claims racial via the trade unions, for example, what this meant, is that another solidaristic constituency, not its because but Black just union milieu, of also, people, comprised of only for key branch because the thus to agreement secure wider of need and For was created. negotiating action, of people supportive of race equality, forward by the those put employment, on example policy changes, especially had be to negotiated with the trade unions, could race equality staff which have largest be that the the views of union, would and main guaranteed now its Black members formally and equally heard in the deliberations. Certainly over the five years of the existenceof the official race equality in based that many crucial race council, equality employment programme Race Equality Targets' Policy, were, becauseof the as such policy changes, 462 this communicative channel in that union, ratified by NALGO, much to the chagrin, the race workers suspect,of certain managementwho might have beenhoping and expecting that thesewould be blocked by the trade unions. The Black Workers Group also becamethe site from which a more critical commentaryon the actions of the council could be launched,certainly more critical than the communicative protocol of the council would have allowed the race equality staff to voice. 11.16 Race Equality Workers The final element to the race equality structuresconcernsthat relating to what I have describedas the race equality workers, as a categorical contradistinction to Race Equality Advisers. Thesestaff were, for the most part, further down the bureaucratichierarchy occupying posts which were individual service specific. For example there were two `ethnic minority' specialist posts in the libraries' section of the Leisure ServicesDepartment whose brief was to ensurethat that section met the needsof the Black in in borough. Like the that all other race posts that council, communities including the race Adviser posts, thesewere Section 11 funded. Section 11 refers to that specifically numberedparagraphof the 1966 Local GovernmentAct which permitted local authorities to claim from the governmentup to 75% of the cost of posts which were oriented towards helping the children of new commonwealth immigrants, for this read Black, learn English. As the contentsof that paragraphsuggests,the bulk of the funding claimed by local authorities up to the late seventieswent into key There aspectsof which carried problems, attendant education. were in local into in the authorities used such monies other areas over way which to first tended The that the authorities was education of councils' services. budgets, in thereby effectively their the allocate monies non-specifically by budget. This the was compounded weak main education subsidising department Office, by Home the the government monitoring of grant use budget. The for that secondwas that even where administering responsible formally funded, these specified, teaching were often not posts were specific to form There was which was an underlying problem of subsidy. another funded this in late the posts when eighties and seventies surface more clearly in in both education and elsewhere way took on a more race equality role local authorities, which was that they cameto be held by white people not fully tuned in to the substantiveissuesof the black experienceand racism. The third aspectwas that theseposts, when they were race specific, even in their `teaching English as a secondlanguage' guise, were often separated All of these, from the rest of the services' main activities and planning. together with the actual assimilationist basis to the funding, contributed to the strong marginalisation of the actual work undertakenby those posts so Over the years, whilst the actual legislation remained intact on funded. the statutebooks, the interpretation of the criteria governing the 463 fund by Home Office the this of adaptedto the changing administration by increasing longevity the thrown up of the Black circumstances in communities British society. This was becauseboth in that government department,and in local authorities, it becamerecognisedthat this was the funding form of government only which could thought of as race specific. Thus, for example, in the aftermath of the Brixton disturbancesof 1981,the principal researcherthen working in Lambeth council as a race equality adviser covering managementand employment, met with the relevant civil servantsin the Home Office. Whilst reluctant to provide any assurancesin writing, they were preparedto give oral guaranteesthat all forms of race equality projects involving race specific posts, even oneswith an explicit anti-racist content, would be considered. In that particular local authority a phalanx of race specific posts were createin their Housing Directorate and sited in the various and many neighbourhoodand district offices spreadover Lambeth. But these,like the many similarly funded posts in other local authorities, including the target borough, were very much what could be describedas `bolt-on' structures. In the many conferencesthroughout the eighties convenedon the specific issue of Section 11 funding, a number of critical marginalising themesemerge. Thesewere also detectedby the new head of unit in the target borough in that council's race equality posts in his initial assessmentof what needsto be done. Thesewere, and they echo the fault lines in the way section 11 was used in the educational field, firstly that for dumping treated grounds as seen and service specific workers were often in This Black that the to section. particular people all matters pertaining could also mean being seenas the person, or persons,who would provide the linked, Secondly, Black there were no structural to and service users. communicative relationships which would enablethe expertise of thesepost holders to inform and changethe work practices of their colleaguesin those hierarchy filter the to or that up expertise specific services,and/or allow in Thirdly departments. to workers thesetype of posts often outside other isolated and alienated from the rest of their section and fellow employees. Fourthly managersof theseposts were often ignorant of the full dimension to the proper use of them, and/or unsympatheticto that potential, compounding the marginalisation felt by the workers, and in many casesgiving rise to harassment. into, bordering on, even crossing over managerialpractices Traces of all of theseproblems, some more amplified than others, can be In in in the the pre-unit. way which race adviserswere structured seen for, famed that time London boroughs, at and one such as a north other labelled, being a `socialist republic', theseproblems were reproud of, iterated by some of their race advisers in relevant cross London fora. In order to tackle these,and further ground the changesto the race advisers' borough, in head functioning target the the of the race unit structuresand developeda policy covering Section 11 funded posts in the council.890 There were four points to this, all of which were collectively gearedtowards 464 arresting and turning around the almost inherent marginalisation of these first The of theseaddresseda key communicative elementto section posts. 11 funding, one which was either overlooked by applying authorities, or short changedin some other way. This was that applying authorities had to had they that consultedwith the relevant black communities about the show In the target borough consultation had previously for the posts. proposed most part consistedof passingthe proposedpackageto the local CRC for comment. This was now changedto a proper consultation exercisewhich was to be co-ordinated by the Race Adviser and central unit, involving the principle of non-closure should there be objections from the relevant Black communities. The pre-structuring of the proposal also had to involve the relevant Race Adviser. Finally the post consultation proposal then had to securethe approval of the Race Relations Committee as well. The second key changewas that relating to the functioning of theserace posts. It was proposedthat they were not to becomedumping grounds for all race issues, but a resourcefor that particular section whose use would be oriented towards changing service practices by fellow work colleaguesso that the whole section would be responsiblefor delivering to the Black communities. Thirdly their reporting line, where this was not already so, would have to be to the highest level of managementin that service area. Fourthly these workers were to be given guaranteedaccessto Race Relations Committee and to their respectiverace Advisers, where such posts exist, as well as to the central unit. The key intention of the changeswas to upgradethe race discursive by functioning their to these access posts maximising equality of institution. The influence the statusof spaceswhich could and/or change thesechangeswas proposedin the form of a Code of Practice, aimed, as in the caseof the employment codesproposedby the unit which will be detailed later, at minimising managerial discretion, by official organisational In discriminate if through to an marginalisation. sanction, necessary, unintended surfacing of subliminal race undertones,one of the chief officers, whose departmentwas one of the worst offenders in misusing such workers, formally commentedon the report that it looked as if the head of the unit was 891 build', (sic). `empire trying to Unlike other race structuresin other councils which, to all intents and purposes,amountedto tenuously grafted on configurations whose primary inequality be through quantifiably changing to tackling aim appeared racial the hue of the council, those in the target borough had a more radical by head imagery These, the to the of unit then, used re-iterate objective. be to attachedto the central nervous systemof the council and to infect were it with the instinctual drive for race equality. The race structures and be transformative and not just additive.. to were constructed programme 465 11.17 Main Focus of the Race Equality Programme The fourth element concentrateson the main foci of the race equality defined five distributed for These the year period. are programme local inter-linked five areasof governanceresponsibilities, which amongst democratisation, services, extra-organisationalnegotiation, are employment, and pursuing the transformative potential. Whilst then it can be said that the outline of elementtwo provided the spatial dimension to the programme along a vertical axis, the details of element four provide categoriesof action horizontal The to a axis complete a matrix of race equality activities. along information relating to the race equality structuresare part of the work have I to termed the transformative potential. At the time pertaining what in the the start of equality programmes the target borough local of in by thought senior managersand councillors very much governmentwas of terms of orthodox notions of local governance. Even in that era of the borough halls, London left town take radical over of many supposednew hardly in Lambeth, intent by local Labour was parties, as was shown political ever translated into substantivetransformation of the administrative and holds This local even argument government. political processcontent of in be be left for to borough the the target a could said new where more balancedtri-partite segmentationof Labour group power, with the other two hand, by filled the being and out right one on proto-modernisers segments Within the Labour other. on right wingers and non-classifiables, old style this arrangementthe Black councillors tendedto sprawl acrossthe former two. To define the race equality programme in this way, an argument developed for holds the which women's equality programme as well which for issues the consideration at the time which alongside race one, raised beyond the the key of thought province managersand councillors some if to fifteen Yet, as on, years their some respective committees. advisersand emphasisethe pathfinder role of the pursuit of substantiveequality, as opposedto facadic equality, many of the categoriesraised above are now democratisation local and items the e. g. government, agenda of on common into Built the de-and re-construction of services. community consultation, in implicit framework, the temporal then, was a race equality programme, two operational principles underpinning the programme, and explicitly stated in certain policy documentsin the following terms. The first phasewas limit is This the the in `fine-tuning' the of much very organisation. seen as by fallacy, the to espoused type programmeswhich gives rise additive leading race lights, like Ouseley, of what I have labelled the BBOS is That i. that the Black Bums Seats. to say mere presence e. on approach, in in in Black the whether employment or people organisation, of enough in local is to to counter racism government. relation service use, enough Whilst not discounting this aim, the race equality programme in the target borough sought to in a linked transformative context triggered by the real limits to that former approach. Thus the points of resistanceand supposed 466 for i. limits type the the to constructions, additive programme, e. natural Black `there in people', as of are qualified not enough example employment, for be failure to taken the to the as catalyst recruit, could a response in deFor that the and re-construction of example a work area. considering dimension to reorganisations,the head of unit wrote: the race report on "Temporally it was, and still is, envisagedthat there were two steps to this (Le. the race programme). The first is a matter of "fine tuning" the organisation, or gearing it up to ensure that its policies, practices and systemsdo not racially discriminate against, oppress or exploit Black people. The second is to begin to look at restructuring as one of the means to tackling the fundamental reasons for race inequality at the local authority level. Race equality therefore is not just about the number of Black Chief Officers; or Black children in day nurseries; or the number of Black co-opteeson committees. It is as well about how things are run. This in turn touches upon the complexities of real change at this level. One of the dangerous fallacies therefore this council has to disabuse itself of is that which maintains that race equality can only be achieved by substantial additional growth.v492 One of the key contextualising struts to the overall frame of reference for the race equality programme, one that was used to constantly remind managers and councillors about the enormity of the manifesto commitment to race in turn to that the around, and casesover equality, was programme sought This in UK. development the hundred was a turn, a years plus of municipal history, which up to that point, had not consciously sought to move beyond the unspokenwhite, male norm discoursesguiding their everydayway of doing things. It was also a counter factual basedargument in support of a in be time and space allowed race programme which required that sufficient is This the develop. to it approach that contrary properly might order that Ouseley, field, in by was the opinion whose as such race argued others be to initiatives by brought type enough the changes would about additive To that in local for framework extent the government. racism ending secure kick the to start temporary, then current race structureswere only needed by This managersand upon seized was an argument organisation. keep firstly section to posts race all sought, marginalisingly, councillors who 11 funded becausethat type of funding was time limited, and secondly, two it, to ending of the means race programme, argue, as a years after the start of in be This the been had upon expanded that enough will achieved. already discourse contestation. on section 11.18 Employment Within those types of contextual arguments,the issue of employment in the target borough prior to the start of the race programme, showed in boroughs, like to were some parts similar other which, characteristics Lambeth before the commencementof their race equality initiatives. The 467 largest four fold: local the the authority as one of employers similarities were in that area; high Black unemploymentlevels; a Black population proportionately younger than the white one; a low level of Black in employment the council; and, not surprisingly, concomitant employment policies, proceduresand practiceswhich were not equality focussed. The processand systemswhich maintained that particular statusquo came to be describedby the advisersbeing those promoting the positive discrimination of white males. Further, unlike Lambeth which had an overt, dynamic managerial context to their employment functions and processes,as in concretised their Directorate of ManagementServices,the target borough still had an old style personnel function. This was executedthrough an administrative basedcentral PersonnelDivision, structured as a subdepartmentof the Chief Executive's department. It can be best defined then as sclerotic and ossified. Neverthelessit was formally linked to, and fed into, the PersonnelSub-Committee,one of the key powerful committees of the council, as future strugglesover the development of the employment sphereof the race equality programmewould show. There were four prefacing categoriesof deliberation to the developmentof the employment component:the initial environment of indeterminacy, the legal framework, the intended statusof the employment changes,and the its Whilst division the the workings. and envisagedrole of personnel PersonnelDivision and leading membersof the PersonnelSub-Committee Race Unit initial the the with wariness, of output establishmentand viewed to judge by their reactions, it is likely they neither voiced nor indicated any form of overt opposition becausein those early days it was not politically indeterminacy do Certainly, this to was useful to, of aspect so. expedient Committee through Relations by to Race a raft of the put unit and and used legal The in time. employment changes a relatively short spaceof framework centred on, and was grounded in, a reading of the 1976 Race Relations Act by the Race Advisers and workers, which looked to accentuate the most positive interpretation of its normative potential. This often put them in conflict with the organisation's internal legal resourceswho indicated However, legalistic interpretation. earlier, as preferred a narrow the processof taking apart this form of `expertisation' led to the opening up, in thitherto unknown communicative channelsresulting a and use, of deliberative in favour down decision a more of making of executive slowing later lies Therein technicised the too, marshalled reasons part of approach. internal features In the terms the of the relevant of race programme. against 893 focus. The first '76 Race Relations Act, there were two broad areasof indirect discrimination in direct the to and prohibition of related forms The to the of permitting certain second related of employment. in recognition of the cumulative effects of past action positive discrimination. Taking account of race under the positive action provisions of that act, meant trying to equalise conditions applying to Black 468 decisions did in It that any employment process. not mean participants taken at the point of selection for employment could use race as the sole or main determining criterion. That would be positive discrimination. There was a tendency for both managersand councillors to view the arenaof positive action as being the requisite one to addressthe employment needsof Black people. This was to some extent reinforced by the pronouncementsof then certain race `experts' and by the developmentin race pioneer boroughs, like Lambeth, of `Positive Action Programmes' to addressinstitutional race inequalities in employment. This was not helped by the GLC's race employment initiatives which placed a high premium on establishing 894 The view of the unit was that this positive action trainee schemes. tendedto relegate,representationallyand stereotypically, Black people's employment experiencesto being the victims of `disadvantage'. Concomitantly Black people entering organisationsas employeeswere blanketedunder the need for additional training before they could progress up the hierarchy. The view of the unit, and this is reflected in its policy and practice interventions, was that organisations,like the target borough, could do far more to ensurethat there was no, or little, direct and indirect discrimination in the employment field before considering the option of positive action. The emphasiswas therefore on the first broad area of focus of the '76 Act's employmentprovisions, with positive action very in be demonstrated being it last that action the much a resort once could had first the actually exhaustedall employment part organisation under for helped for This Black the tendency counter also possibilities people. in in the particular to the conflate, organisation other employees idea the this that tendentious of positive action occurs, way commonsensical for the discrimination the sotto groundings un-intellectual as with positive job been is has the "she/he behind-the-back given only commentsof voce becauseshe/heis Black. " The use of the '76 Act in this way also helped underpin the expressedview in the head policy the that the the outlined changes unit employment of of be the `sticky to to main edifice of on plastered' recommendationswere not be but should the core of a reconstructed employment responsibilities, This focussed required scrutinising and employment outlook. equality it Above all required a changing existing polices, proceduresand practices. fundamental changeto the way in which the employment responsibilities of the council were carried out. This meant that the orientation of the from had Division to to one, administrative a a reactive, change personnel for here (and I using that term), environment cross myself pro-active help This then would one. securethe sensitive, processual,and consultative for the there the not exception, only as norm, and women equality changes What `human Black the the term was use of avoided was people. and It describe the to changes required. was argued that the then resources' human of resourcesowed much to the new forms of arena newly emerging 469 internal organisational control emerging in the multi-nationals, substantively premissedon by passing and destroying trade unions. Whilst the equality developed in being be overlapped certain aspectswith what could approach termed the human resourcesapproach,i. e. a positive, pro-active evaluation of employeesas the organisation's most valuable resource,underpinned therefore by learning and developmentprogrammes,there was a critical grounding to the equality basedemployment initiatives which had the potential to allow for substantive`empowerment', as opposedto the facadic `empowerment' deriving from the human resourcesschool. The start of the race equality intervention into the employment responsibilities of the target borough were heralded in the first ever report produced by the unit. One of the tasks awaiting the then new head of unit was to draft a formal council responseto the CRE Code of Practice on Employment, a document which attemptedto set out the necessarygood follow for to to ensurethey did not directly or practice standards employers indirectly discriminate on the grounds of race.895 The legal statusof this type of code is that whilst it is not legally mandatory upon employers, failure to comply can be used as evidence in an industrial tribunal. It was, of course,a heralding stalked by vulturine shapedshadowskeen to seewhether like local had before, the that the which gone or not new unit could surpass Committee Race Relations had the as a co-opted crc which representationon by head Practice Code The the to the of the unit, race of member. response advisersand race workers, was to use that and the, as yet, unmeasured for framework for bases the the the a establishing categorisationof unit, as Practice, Code The CRE focussed of new equality employment approach. which covered every main aspectof an employer's employment responsibilities from attracting prospective employees,through to their in the organisation,to their eventual treatment recruitment and selection and departurefrom the organisation as an employee,was dis-aggregatedinto a for Thus there one covering were proposals number of codesof practices. disciplinary, training, conditions of and selection, grievance recruitment and the be These to the governing procedures main core were service, etc. by jointly developed be Each functions to was of the council. employment the PersonnelDivision and equality advisers,ensuring there was the relevant involvement and participation of employeesthrough the relevant fora. The statusof thesewithin the organisation was that they were mandatory for hoped it follow. doing In that anti-discriminatory rights to was so managers for all employees,particularly Black employeesand women, would be in discretion limiting by these crucial the arenaof managerial ensured be later limitation, involved This shall shown as on, areas. not employment but implied threat the sanction, also the opening up of organisational only in key stagesof eachprocedure. These spaces communicative by both Race Relations the Committee and accepted were recommendations PersonnelSub-Committee,the latter effectively confirming their status in the 470 organisation as council policy. Whilst policies require implementation, and the absenceof the latter could be read as reducing the respectivepolicy to dressing, neverthelessattaining the stature of `council policy' window should not be underestimated. It legitimated, for example, the organisational,some of them legally enshrined,rights of employees, particularly Black employees,to make claims for racial justice, as well as delineating the normative potential for those claims to be resolved. In this instance the target borough's recruitment and selection code of particular practice, which flowed from that policy report, provides a good example of why and how managerialpower, in this particular area of employment 896 The responsibilities, was made accountableto race equality principles. communicative spacesgeneratedin this de- and reconstruction of what had previously been an administrative task, the province of managerial, and in the caseof senior posts, councillor, discretion and subjectivity, will be detailed in the interrogative section on race equality spaces. This will illustrate how important they are in meeting the overall criterion that `all who are affected should be involved. ' The secondcritical intervention, one that sought to define an overall short to medium term goal for the above changesto the equality employment reorientation of the council, was to develop and establish a race equality 897 This also cameto mark the beginning of the overt targetspolicy. opposition to, ostensibly, certain aspectsof the proposedrace equality changes,by the what I have come to describeas the proto-modernisers amongstthe Labour group of councillors. These,primarily in the shapeof the Chair of the PersonnelSub-Committeeand many of her fellow councillors there on, cited the opposition of the manual trade unions to the for for to targets, ones as proposalsas reasons not so much not agreeing had have down This by the actual the would slowing process a year or so. idea. deliberate killing Added the to this misreading of the of effect intention of the targets proposal was the intervention of a newly appointed Chief PersonnelOfficer. Entering the organisation in a blaze of publicly including intentions liberal the an race equality priorities, stated vis-ä-vis `I'm-with-you-all-the-way' meeting with the head of the race unit, his in his Race Adviser issue the the post of commitment soon waned over division which had responsibility for employment. Despite the then new for functional the structures race changedreporting and council policy on Sub-Committee, he Personnel both Chair the the constantly and of advisers holder. impose the to post on regime a strict managerialist attempted Above all, the Chair wanted him to control the level and content of the race 898 being These to that committee. eventswere put up equality changes into the start of the race programme. The eight months about occurring details of the use by some councillors and managersof a combination of Labourism, as a dimension of the social labour perspective, and gut down to try to close emerging race equality spaces, managerialprerogative 471 interrogative discourse in be the section on contestation. will provided Suffice to say that the particulars provided above give a flavour of the attritional struggles for race equality spaceunderscoringthe final race by targets' the council. policy accepted equality The policy itself, building on those that had already been agreedin boroughs, like Lambeth, and by regional bodies, like the GLC, sought to achieve a number of aims: clearly defining the concept of `targets'; disabusing potential critics of the notion that this was anything to do with `quotas'; 899 The idea of `targets', the establishing necessaryoperational principles. at that time not even a recommendationfrom the CRE, was therefore rooted in the 1976 Race Relations Act definition of `under representation' which was taken to mean the proportion of Black people in the organisation is under representedif it is lower than the proportion of Black people in the communities from which the organisation recruits. Targets were something,therefore, for the organisation to aim at. Above all, within that borough, it was made clear that targets were not an end in themselves,but merely the numerical expressionof the short to medium term objectives arising from the equality changesbeing pursued in employment. It was stressedthat they were not quotas,but minimum expectedlevels of levels in Black thus these the could organisation, and prospective employees be exceeded. As a refinement on the way in which the numerical target was derived in other bodies, like Lambeth and the GLC where it was defined, in the former, in relation to the proportion of Black people in the borough and in the latter in relation to the proportion of Black people in London, in the borough under examination, it was defined in relation to the proportion of This local Black in the was communities. economically active people becausenot only would that be the age band of people from which an but because, draw its given that the also employees, organisation would Black population is proportionately younger, that age band is larger than the in local Black the communities, thereby people actual overall proportion of 21% Overall higher therefore at targets set target number. were releasing a levels five by the of the council's all across end of years achievable bureaucracy. However, cognisancewas taken of the differing employment framework by different directorates in target the as the overall using patterns the context within which individual directoratescould, given the specificities basis, histories, derive, their more achievable on an annual of employment targets. This latter refinement was the result of what I have referred to For Chief `attritional this the the policy. struggle' underpinning above as Officers of the council this degreeof local determinacyrepresenteda `compromise' from the perceived Stalinist' intentions of the Race Relations Committee and the unit and their `five year targets' plan'. However, the had Directorates in information to the release which order to additional derive their interim targets also permitted the unit, on the basesof previous for to out every section the number of Black people work appointment rates, 472 neededto be employed for that section to meet its targets. This was a concretenumber managers,and Advisers, where they were involved, therefore took with them into any recruitment and selection processfor a vacancy. The target's policy was therefore, at that time, unique in being both `global' and `local' with a defined relationship betweenthe two spheres. In fact one of the later Black councillors, someonewho came on to the council some two years after the policy was developedand who becameone of the unit's `ethinicised', (dare one say it) `bete noirs', worked, at the time the policy was being agreed,in a neighbouring borough in the local CRC. He obtained a copy of the policy, `tippexed' out the target borough's name, inserted his local borough's name, and presentedit to that council's Race Relations Committee. This was acceptedand agreed through that council's cycle of committeesso that there was an additional dimension of uniquenessderiving from the fact that two adjacentboroughs, 900 had identical then to unbeknown either, equality targets' policies. However, what was important was the level of changesto the configuration of employment responsibilities in the different directorates,in line with the equality recommendations,supporting the increasing level of Black appointments. Whilst the three componentsof the employment race equality changes describedabove, re-orienting the PersonnelDivision, the codesof practice and the equality targets' policy, marked the global dimension to the envisagedtransfigurations, there was a need as well for a commensurate accountability systemtying theseinto local managerial and administrative processesat the directorate level. More over the nature of the relationship betweenexpressedequality changesin employment and what effectively is their micro-implementation within the different directorateshad to, because of the principles guiding those changes,be critically different to the orthodoxies of command and control. These,therefore, had to involve the emancipatorypractice of opening up managerial decisionsto scrutiny, particularly by Black people, as well as ensuring their involvement in the various stagesof the changes. That did not mean,however, that the systemic use of power to control resourceshad to be ignored, for that would have turned the race initiatives into parallel `talking shops'. Instead those systemshad to be prised open to communicative influence and possible transformation. To achieve this the unit developedand got acceptedas council policy, again after an excoriating seriesof altercations with the proto-modernisers,a directorate level framework for carrying forward the implementation A similar framework and progress of anti-racist work. had been establishedin Lambeth. This, however, was entirely employment based,and, rather marginalisingly, was called `positive action 901 These, on an annual bases,detailed the action being programmes'. undertakenby Lambeth Directorates in furtherance of their employment equality targets. In the caseof the target borough the framework developed 473 by the unit and race workers was more substantive. This was called `antifor departments', and rather than simply concentratingon racist programmes in instead the to provide sphere of employment, sought managementaction an inter-locked accountability processacrossemployment, servicesand democratisation,termed in the basedocument as `Black community access 902 decision Thus: to making'. Programmes provide the structural and procedural framework which enables Departments to translate the Equal Opportunities Policy and concomitant policy backed race equality strategies into concrete action. One of the visible affects of this will be to increase the level of black participation throughout all spheres of the Departments remit. The programme provides the basis for Departments to adopt a systematic approach to institutional discrimination and within which antiracist strategies are developed and which have as their objective race equality. Whilst a categorical distinction is made between the main elements to such programmes, the programmes are premissed upon a homogenous approach, including positive action based employment initiatives, in recognition of the fact that all areas of a Department's responsibilities are interlocked when it comes to tackling institutional discrimination. Anti-Racist Programmes, as the last word implies, are keyed into targets and timetables. As such they must be an integral part Reprogramming at regular of the Departments' other responsibilities. intervals is therefore essential. This must be locked into the annual budgetting process and it follows therefore that Anti-Racist Programmes should be re-done at the same time. "903 "Anti-racist For each of the then eleven council departments,the antiracist programme initiative yielded a seriesof annual employment and service and policy democratisationaction sub-plans-. devise instance, in first to the The policy required the relevant management, the plans with the involvement of the race advisersand race equality Black for Black the and a employee requisite workers, and also with It the involvement establishment also recommended actions. community be department forum in comprised of would which each of an anti-racist including the department's from that remit, all sectorsof representatives trade unions, so that there would be the structural communicative meansto influence and evaluatethe programme on a rolling basis. Both as a global in but this the policy, also re-iterated council, recommendedchangeacross fully developing the for the establishing nascent and were recommendations in Unlike at monitoring attempts other employment monitoring system. become boroughs to the consuming se per appeared monitoring where other passion,this one was structured within the parametersof the race equality for Thus, example: principles. programme's anti-racist 474 The emphasisof any monitoring systemwill be on the sharp cutting edge to discrimination already recognised in the Council's priorities. Monitoring will therefore provide the quantitative information on the in the Council's employment practices and and sexism of racism effects 904 on the effect's of the action taken to remedy this The last key element of the employment considerationswere those relating to training in which two areaswere highlighted. Firstly training resources for had development, including to employee earmarked careerprogression, be targeted at Black employeeswhere there was evidence of under representation. Secondly sufficient overall training resourceshad to be allocated to programmesaimed at training managersand employeesin the nature of, and responsibilities arising out of, the race equality programme. The then current early eighties vogue for local authorities to buy in the attitudinal based`Racism AwarenessTraining' was rejected by the unit. Again this involved, as will be touched upon in a further section, an RAT local discourse type voluntary group selling attritional clash with a services,primarily to the council, which also had network overlaps with the then leadershipof the Labour Group. Instead training which emphasised,in the short and medium term, behavioural changes,was favoured, with the for discursive highlighted being the arenas possible as race equality spaces individual behind that this The was main reasoning attitudinal changes. distorting by historical communicative and everyday attitudes are structured forces which were often beyond the control of employing organisations, from Apart from behaviour in employees. except the matter of expected had in the undergone those council who the employees which, experienceof the awarenesstype training was anything but positive. There were, as well, complementarystrategiesaimed at changing the outlook of employees key For elementsof the towards the equality programmes. example, job the those affecting recruitment and selection process,such as descriptions and person specifications, had an explicit race equality dimension built in so that prospective employeeswould then be `tested' knowledge interview their the about through the communicative processof in both the issues, to post specific to, relation equality of, and commitment being applied for, and more generally. Whilst, then, what I have termed above the `accountability process', can be Departments' in be of the three action plan components represented seento in this key moments there communicative were anti-racist programmes, there be highlighted. In to to was a range employment relation which need in influencing `opening managerial episodes out' actions structuring and of before had been the there establishmentof the race not which employment, in For example recruitment and selection this started equality programme. its jobs its by to the ensure advertised the council and action undertaken with then new intentions on race equality were properly communicatedto the Black communities both in the borough and wider country, including in the 475 former circulating on a weekly basis the council's vacanciesto local Black organisations. It moved on to the involvement of Race Advisers in the recruitment and selection processproper itself, bearing in mind the principle of non-closure. Prefacing actions affecting that particular vacancy could have included the scrutiny of the department'sBlack employee forum, or might even have been subject to the influence of the other communicative channel of the union basedBlack Workers' Group. Finally, becauseit was an explicit recommendationin the policy report on anti-racist programmes, all summarisedaction, as representedin the anti-racist action plans, had to, on a six weekly basis, be reported to the Race Relations Committee. This would ensurethat the programmesand affiliate action plans would become public documents. The reactions of certain Chief Officers and senior managementto the latter was interesting. Bearing in mind that those chief officers were answerableto their own service committees and the uncritical near ubiquity today of `performancemanagement' in local government, together with a multiplicity of targets and actions plans, albeit a managerially technicised form of `performance' evaluation, those membersof senior managementresentedbeing called to account before a Race Relations Committee. Whilst they had less objections to the plans being put before their own respective service committees,there was a fear, as in `racial fear', expressed,to use their own terminology, that they would be subject to a `Star Chamber' type `interrogation' by the Race Relations Committee. 11.19 Services The service responsibilities of local government at that time were enormous. An audit undertakenby the unit as part of a race equality service monitoring different hundred types of servicesand subproject revealed over a 905 headings: broad those be These three under categorised services. could universally available, like street lighting and refuse collection; those with like `accessed' if knew they child them, you, or about universal criteria you Running housing. like discretionary, those care services; and which were throughout all of thesewas, however, a discretionary dimension which in Local Black to the government needsof people and women. pertained the UK was, then, a major componentof the welfare state,providing a wide tranche of serviceswhich had an ideological and material bearing on the large local sectors of people to perform substantively as capability of To that extent this contextualisation of welfare services,which citizens. labour the the of social utopia normative potential simply makes explicit guiding the original post secondworld war establishmentof the welfare state, strengthensas well the moral casesurrounding the race equality in Writing changes. explicit core considerationsof racism employment intended, the then unit meant trying to createa and race, and not marginal, as dethat systematically and reconstructsserviceswith race and programme By considerations. way of a retrospective framing, the as major women 476 head of the unit, in a policy document on race and reorganisations,could write a few years later that: In the absence of any overall policy and/or guidance on re- organisation, individual departments have evolved ad hoc practices in this area. Whilst in many instances "the provision of better services" (my emphasis) has been put forward as the justification for such reorganisations, there has been very little explanation precisely about how this was to be achieved; or more pertinently, within the context of this report, how the Black community would exactly benefit. It is hard not to conclude that reorganisation has become an unwritten charter in many cases for departments to lengthen bureaucratic hierarchies; upgrade existing managers, "empire" build, and entrench further 906 in professionalisation the council. Up to that point, both within the target borough and in other councils, work on race and serviceshad been marginalisingly ad hoc as well as mired in essentialisednotions of ethnic group needs. The neighbouring borough's dual Afro-Caribbean and Asian race structuresexemplify this. In the target borough an `etnik' project, brokered by the local CRC, involved establishing a day centre for the Afro-Caribbean elderly. This project, which was jointly run by the CRC and the Social ServicesDepartment and staffed by Section 11 funded workers, was also the highlight of that department's race equality initiatives. However, its geographical, service and political distancefrom the rest of the Department also meant that its impact on the rest of the department's servicesto the elderly, was minimally marginal. Therein lay the limitations to the thinking and action on race and servicesat that time. The unit's and race workers' solution, bearing in mind the limited race baying the infra-structure the at the through presence and resourcesavailable door of opposing discourses'jackals, was to establishthrough the anti-racist for baseline framework, a cross council, systematicminimum programme action. Action was built upon and around the establishmentof service good defor bases indicated have the These, I earlier, were as practice guides. and reconstructing servicesaround the axis of explicit race considerations. Two, linked, material and qualitative aims underpinnedthis "antidiscriminatory "non to access resources",and conceptualisation; discriminatory delivery of services". The guides built upon the between "a by to the that there commitment non gap unit was observation discrimination and the actual achievementof this." They would, therefore, "minimise the chancesof discriminatory service delivery", whilst being "encompassingenough to allow for flexibility of individual client disallow discriminatory but to or minimise explicit enough circumstances, in delivery. involved " The the service employees of part on action had involve "the Black to the community, specialist race guides creation of field Black and white workers, and relevant equality workers, 477 framework form The "907 the substantive guides would management. facets: develop the service monitoring to a number of related within which lynchpin Black the the of assessment community's needs as system;proper to wider objective criteria, thereby eschewinga pathological model; fair for systems resourceallocation and re-allocation; work related anti-racist training; involvement and participation of those normally only on the in developing and planning such services;widest services receiving end of possible advertising of services. In pursuit of the latter the guides were also to be "public documents" forming "part of the accountability 908 The main process". conceptualthrust behind the recommendationson servicesfrom the unit was to begin to wrest away from the council the evolved systemof bureaucraticand professionalisedfortification of services and open theseup to countervailing communicative forces from the people for whom these serviceswere intended. This attempt at a substantive later from a race perspective,prefigured councils' review of services,albeit concernswith developing and providing `quality' services,which then legislation Best Value into Labour's the and evolved current new right instruments for local government.909 The anti-racist programmesraised different issues, but from perspectivewhich a similar substantively focussed `customer' democratisation to as opposed of services, emphasised is, limit to the participant action consumerisationof services,which was, and in into different bifurcation initiatives. This the type routes quality improvement of servicesis, in my view, another social reality correlate flickeringly illuminating the Habermassianimagery used earlier of choices made at the crossroads. 11.20 Democratisation Whilst the third area of focus to the race equality programme is termed `democratisation', that is not the word used at that time in the development the intent Yet the and the the architect, programme's of of programme. from, derived in for done intellectual impetus previous authorities, are work that built impulse democratic the realisation experiental upon and cover, a the achievementof race equality is restricted by the limitations of to democracy. At that commitment stagea generalised representative fold democratic the into brings democracy, the of action which participatory bureaucracyof local government, underpinnedthe changesenvisagedby the "Black This borough. in entitled the target was approach race programme " Whilst decision to one can perceive such making. community access left in London late being the new municipal seventies part of sentimentsas boroughs, expressedin the various decentralisationschemesthat emerged, these,and I include Islington which implemented the most comprehensive boroughs, London decentralisation the of scheme all were neighbourhood by intended the to substantively centralist control alter afforded never borough, In democracy. had the target which one of the representative 478 weaker decentralisationimpulses,work by the Race and Women's Units on a involving Black people and women, was more participatory approach viewed with deep suspicion by segmentsof the ruling Labour Group, particularly those I have identified as the proto-modernisers. Part of this suspicion was fuelled by the intellectual and political circumscriptions surrounding the attemptsat consultation of, and involvement by, the Black community undertakenby the then recognisedleading boroughs. In Lambeth the participation was limited to those informing and supporting the RaceAdvisers, and thus communicating with the organisation through those advisory posts. For example the one covering employment co-ordinated a forum of relevant Black organisationswhich `spoke' to the organisation through that post. The exception to theseactivities was the work undertakenby the principal researcher,whilst working in the Social Services researchsection, on Black children in care and which resulted in the direct alteration of child care servicesthrough a participatory mechanisminvolving Black community organisationstalking and debating face-to-face with Social Service managers. This principle of getting the organisation to talk directly with the Black community and not seethe Race Unit and race equality workers as either representativesor ethnic/cultural intermediaries, was carried over into the thinking and action which I have termed `democratisation'. This was aimed at trying to open up the organisation to the Black community so that they could make their claims directly. At the day to day operational level in Departments,the action required was contained in the key recommendationsof the Anti-Racist Programmepolicy document. This was encapsulatedas: Black community access to decision making: This recognises that the Black community has been denied systematically accessto institutional power. Whilst structurally local government at the moment prevents all groups who suffer social discrimination from an effective role in decision making, even where some local authorities have arrived at consultative arrangements,nevertheless there is still much that can be done to ensure that local government and in particular, on a day to day basis, that Departments' decisions take account of the full parametersof The target borough Council's race equality policies. This will devolve upon Departments establishing as part of the Anti-Racist Programme mechanisms to achieve: f Regular consultation with Black community f Effective use of Black-staff forums. For both areas consultation and the actions that follow have to be substantive within the framework of the race equality policies. That is to say that where Departments decide to disregard advice and/or recommendations from the Black community and/or Black staff forums, this can only be done on the basis that the Department's course of action is more likely to further the stated race equality objectives. The way in which this will be achieved must be clearly spelt out 910 479 One can seethe attempt to build into these,though for obvious reasonsnot from then, the the practical arrangements arising acknowledged explicitly discursive principle of `the force of the better argument', and my complementarynon-closureprinciple. The work by the unit on democratisationincluded and extendedbeyond the above. For example two of the first participatory actions undertakenby the unit was to organise separateconferenceswith the then existing Black employeesand with the Black community organisationsand activists. In both care was taken to ensurethat, respectively, senior managersand relevant councillors fronted the meeting. For example the one with employeeshad all the relevant Chief Officers from the respective departments,present. For many of the Chief Officers, all white and male, this was the first time that had been confronted with, and had to speakto, a hall full of Black people. Their nervousnesswas palpable. The tone had been set by a four page overview intent by behind the programme sent the the produced unit of race equality out to all Black employees,not all of whom were enamouredwith the idea of 911 few, dissenting One the, voices, via an such a conference. of admittedly if know Black, identifying the unit themselves to as wanted anonymousnote was trying to "start World War Three", indicative perhapsof the pressurefelt by some Black workers from their white colleagues.912 The extreme expressionof that came in the form of anonymousnotes to the unit through the organisation's internal mail systemthreatening death, and other unpleasanteries. Neverthelesswhat was useful was the communicative for first forum in the time a range of that that allowing space openedup by decisions the made receiving end of employees,who were normally on managersfor whom there was only ever a remote name, to question and Chief For the their example when counter-claim against perceived wisdom. Officer responsible for the architectural serviceslamentedthe total absence he because, in thought, they were not Black the as council of architects he lacked the experience, was coming through the educational systemand/or immediately challengedby Black Afro-Caribbean women working in the lowest the Social Services, the of rungs as recognised manual sectorsof 913 bureaucracyin terms of pay, work experienceand working conditions. Their responsewas that many housesin the Caribbeanwere designedand built by lay persons,so to speak,to a specification that could withstand hurricanes, and thus they could not understandwhere this notion of `lack of but from. Not these counter claims were made that, only experience' came in `voices' and languagesexcluded from the and standardlanguagewhich It bureaucracy. the the was not so much that communicative norm of was this marked the emergenceof perspectiveswhich senior managershad not been aware of before, as the fact that thesewere perspectiveswhich senior be `Black had It that termed to what can said was consider. now managers which have I latterly decision labelled to and making', access community `democratisation', spannedover the four year period of the programme a initiatives which ranged acrossthe administrative and political of number 480 borough, including in former deconstructing in the target the the and systems spatially extending work done by race workers in key managerial processes and procedures. A key example of work in the formal political systemis the arrangementsdevelopedand put into effect to decide who were to be the co-opteesand observerson the Race Relations Committee. At that point in time local councils were permitted to appoint a number of co-opteesand Co-optees observerson to their committees from the local community. had the samevoting and speakingpowers as councillors, whilst observers in could participate the discussions,but not vote. The Race Relations Committee, given its statusas an advisory committee could actually appoint more than the other committees of the council. It was recognisedas potentially an important element in bringing more Black people into the decision making for a of the council. However, up to that point the system of making co-optee and observerappointmentswas also one prone to in and patronage cronyism which the formal political affiliations of the potential co-optee appearedto be a decisive factor. In terms of the Race Relations Committee, the position of the co-opteesand observerswas further complicated by three factors: the colonising deadweight of the CRC's previous involvement in the council's race structures,the differing alliances fact Black the that the their constituents, respective and of organisationsand Race relations Committee also had grant making funds and powers. The demonstrated by be factor last the actions of a Black the can relevance of councillor a few years on. He, prior to election, had been a leading official he hold local Black to position continued a when of a voluntary group, his Race both Using the to the positions and membership of elected council. Relations Committee he attemptedfraudulently to obtain a grant from the samecommittee. Money often instrumentalisesethical considerations. Whilst council membersof the committee would have gone along with a Vice have involved Chair the the and variation of old systemwhich would Chair taking a decision on who would be co-opted, the unit put forward and developeda range of options which were grounded in some sort of democratic accountability. In the other London boroughs co-opteesand be from Black to the organisedthrough continued communities observers informal, unaccountablenetworks which often gave rise to the claim from Very in Black they that the were unrepresentative. communities critics In local CRC. hands into the the the these of arrangements were put often developed borough had the target the an anti-racist already unit caseof framework to what could be describedas the local civil society. Arising out in GLC's by borough the the target the anti-racist year participation of key by head the a report of the unit argued that there was a need programme, for a complementaryanti-racist approachto be fostered in the local civil be facilitated involving through a structural mechanism could society which key actors and organisationsin the sphereof local governanceand inter-locking The forward thus spheres. unit and/or put overlapping for deciding the co-options and observersto the Race Relations options 481 914 Most of the options Committee with that recommendedcontext in mind. focussedon the need for their to be an explicit accountability process Thus "the co-optees. processof co-options would need such underpinning to recogniseBlack autonomy in determining the co-opteesand observersand 5 s9 Examples of the the accountability of such to the Black community. types of options put forward were "the Council apportions the co-optee and observerplaces betweenthe two main umbrella groups and asksthem to put forward nominated representatives",or, "a public meeting apportions the Co-opteeand observerplaces betweenthe two main umbrella groups and "all Black forward to them or, nominated representatives", put asks for the available places,those to organisationsare asked make nominations be decides to that chosen", or, people are which meeting people meet and "an annual public meeting to which all Black residents in the Borough are invited. Nominations for co-opteesand observersare taken at this and 916 In the end the third option was chosenresulting in a held" elections it is importance The that densely this of arguedmeeting. packed and demonstratedthat it is possible to move away from the often conflation of in Black `leadership' by justice the for those seeking racial rhetorical claims Black through that needs of collective of representation constituencies,and developing democratic processeswhich involve a greater degreeof democracy. deliberation that than associatedwith representative participative As I shall argue later, this conflation is often catalysedwhen those leadership directed through the major political Black the are community claims of parties, especially the Labour Party. 11.21 Extra-organisational Negotiating Role The final part of the programme's focus relates to what I have termed the `extra organisational negotiating' role of a local authority. This sought no last the two the early eighties to than elements of and extend radicalise more in CRE "their from local that the to combatting racial role authorities advice disadvantageis vitally important..(becausethey)... provide the bulk of leaders in in the of major employers any area, services our society, are often "917 financers the the sector. voluntary of major public opinion and generally This areaof work aimed to galvanise and focus the rhetorical weight of local for its in to other organisationswhich equality made race claims government builds At influence. this its the upon meta-level might enter sphereof Habermas' theorisation of the evolution of the stateas the resolver of social integration problems, as doesthe whole of the race equality programme, and in so doing brings it back into everyday consideration. As will be seenit illuminates partially the restructuring of local governanceinstitutions by the to released explicitly taking on normative potential necessary achieve board race equality, especially that contained in my argumentsabout the liminal local state's role vis-ä-vis the national state. The work undertaken by the unit over the four years therefore covered a number of areasin which 482 the council engagedin formal relations with other external organisations, including the national state. Some of the key areaswere those of grant funding, the anti-apartheid initiatives, contract compliance, the position of the council towards the extremeright, and the responseof the authority towards the increasingly racist nationality and immigration legislation of the government. To illustrate this a brief overview of two areasof work will be provided. I argued earlier that grant funding by the council had resulted in the evolution of a networked systemof allocation closely allied to had in bulk local Labour Party the the which resulted of membershipof had A funding to white groups. also practice established going authority grown up whereby local councillors were also membersof the management committeesof local groups, especially those who were the major recipients had, Black funding. Some the groups who of againstthe odds of council in double bind funding, found degree this themselves caught of of received a `networking' which usually boiled down to not wanting to bite the hand that fed them. This potential conflict of interest, when pointed out by the unit, especially within the context of the council's own race equality in The conjunction unit, working commitments,was not well received. devised the a three strand anti-racist strategy with community affairs unit Committee Relations Race in the tied the of grants which small amount funds £100,000 the to of the major grant a year, with controlled, amounting for Relations Race £... Firstly the totalling the criteria rest of council, 919 Committee grants were restructuredalong anti-racist principles. Secondlytheseprinciples were then used as the basesfor introducing an explicit equality and anti-racist componentto the council's main grant funding criteria. This amountedto ensuring that those groups funded by the developed for and adheredto an explicit costs capital and employee council framework the to infra-structure. Thirdly overall race equality an equality in Black funding devised and women's which was and grant voluntary sector funding, for and which required that all groups groups were made priorities Fourthly the new criteria. are rigorously monitored and evaluatedagainst be it because by Committee, funding Race Relations the no more could grant than non-capital, one off project funding, was designatedas `seedcorn' funding which should be consideredas staging priorities later on for main leverage funding. By the the council of power and using rhetorical stream it was possible to open up large voluntary groups which previously had been `all white' to access,and participation by, Black people. This was framed in a set of rights both legally enshrinedthrough the anti-discriminatory legislation and, and through the explicit expectationsof the council as the development funder. Backing the of what amountsto an antiup main in infra-structure in the three the the were sector new voluntary units racist However, had the to achieving this major reaccess. groups council which funding local non-statutory organisations' working and grant orientation of in difficult far the short time spaceof the race programme more proved because,in a sense,it involved the concretetaking apart of what was 483 perceived to be and practised as an integral part of the local Labour Party's legitimation processes. For example, in interviewing the person who was to becomehead of the Community Affairs Unit, mentioned earlier as one of the new corps of Black appointeeswhich included the Race Unit staff, he was clear that right up to the late nineties, when he eventually had to leave the council after a successionof redundancythreatening re-organisations,no funded by the target borough which had breachedthe voluntary organisation 919 had had its funding ever equality component of the grant criteria stopped. This apparentfailure doesnot, however, diminish the normative potential that exists for the local state in its negotiating role for race equality with other organisations. The other example of work in this areawhich should be mentioned because it ties in with the comparative work on South Africa and because,at the limitations both begins to the time, of what the Labour Party same elucidate is preparedto accept in relation to race and sketch out what appearsto be a for by level ANC. image, liberal The the support of notion of race mirror anti-apartheid initiatives by the target council appearedto be greaterthan that afforded to its own race equality programme. Unlike other London boroughs,this one had establishedan Anti-Apartheid Working Party It Councillors Labour relevant officers. was serviced and and comprised of initiatives develop Unit. Its by Race to the of a programme aim was advised the council could undertakewhich would help undermine apartheid in South Africa. Over the four year period the sort of action preparedby the unit from dis-investment of council by the council ranged and undertaken in South had interests banks, in which resources companies,particularly Africa, ensuring that the council did not purchasefrom companieswith such links, staging publicity and cultural events,and developing and launching the 20 is is interesting declaration. What that council's own anti-apartheid thesesorts of race equality initiatives experiencedvery little opposition or fact In from from the councillors. or either senior management obstruction key councillors concernedexpressedand showed through action, like in investment far local Shell this petrol stations, more emotional picketing did for they those components than the equality race programme , part of There institution they the sat on. political which were aimed at changing by for Firstly the the this. of problem presentation of were a number reasons both the ANC and the UK's Anti-Apartheid Movement was that of a denial full for Black would which enable people of political and social rights in South African The solution which was read off society. participation from this was the creation and developmentof rights which mirrored those in the UK. It certainly was not about the substantivetransformation of society. This certainly establishedthe mind set that the priority for action in South Africa that the work on race equality the UK amountedto and was it Secondly confirmed the view, expressedby one of the embellishment. Group i. Labour that this, the e. the statusquo, was as far as the of ex-Leaders 484 it Thirdly would get. accordedmore closely with the race programme ANC's version of race relations which was expressedin terms of `nonracialism', and which viewed expressionsof Black solidarity against racism, such as Black Workers' Groups, as racist. All three approachescontributed to an unspoken liberal political framework underpinning the anti-apartheid initiatives which facilitated the impression that for some a hierarchy of in South being Black Africa those more people existed with oppression deserving. This liberal accord tying in the ANC with the Labour Party on the limits to race equality, beganto unravel as soon as initiatives were put forward which were more radical. For example one of the outcomesof the GLC's anti-racist initiatives was the developmentof local government antiLabour declarations, amongst run authorities, which primarily apartheid intent. Up to that point the to those authorities an anti-apartheid committed ANC had developed the as the only recognisedpolitical cited so ones developed borough In target the the to the unit an apartheid state. opponent inclusive in its declaration recognition of which was more ant-apartheid those opposedto the apartheid state. A range of oppositional organisations Black Consciousness including included, those the therefore of were Movement. This was more in keeping with the range of opinions expressed to the unit by both Black South African exiles in London and by local Black it harmonises level that At could also one argue communities. another `involvement the the of all who are principle, participatory more with because had declaration, borough to Whilst the target the accept effected'. it was grounded more inclusively, the ANC refused to acknowledge it and boycotted the launch ceremony. With the Labour party, and with the ANC, is Africa, South in there I the a convergencearound section on as shall argue in These, is `manageable'. terms of their that ultimately a notion of race disavowal Labour, the trajectories, of what a of part represent,on respective they perceive to be too radical a version of anti-racism, and, on the part of `race' denegation through ANC, to the of a an opposition racist apartheid Both the disavowal and denegationare the symptomatic effects of both the of political parties part communicative exclusionary practices on legitimation in legitimation instrumentalised the a polity; aimed at seeking an that is increasingly simultaneously local, national and global. For the be however, legitimation liminal local inclusive can only state, racially in flickering inclusive, the the this unit's work the aim of communicatively local in the the authority's negotiating role. area of eighties 11.22 Equality Alliances The fifth element of the race equality programme relates to its relationship to borough. Both in the Race and the target work other areasof equalities' Women's Units were establishedand came on stream at the sametime. Both, were, as well, marginalisingly physically located in the samebuilding however, from Town Hall. From both the the outset, away units 485 decision took the to work together on issuesof relevance, consciously support each other, cross-tabulatemutual appurtenancesin any policy or practice processes,and support each other politically. Towards the end of the race programme's time period, the relationship could be summarisedin one of many discursive, deconstructiveresponsesthe race unit had to produce to counter the attemptsby the Leadership of the Labour group to unilaterally and `uni-communicatively' scrap the Race and Women's Units in favour of a broad basedequalities' unit. Thus: f It is obvious that a broad basedequalities approach either in the form of a committee or unit, would marginalise the achievement of race equality as a council objective Any anti- racist strategy mapped out to do so has to be basedon the clear understandingthat: racism cannot be conflated simply with racial discrimination f race inequality is structured continually in this society Any strategy adopted to fight this has to be done so within the political dynamics of Black people's struggles. Common goals of equality can only be forged therefore on the basis of political alliances and not through the subsumption and/or reduction of one form of equality into and/or to another All the Race Advisers and workers recognisethat it will be necessaryat times to work co-ordinately on broad equality issues. This is done at the moment on the two resourcedareas, i. e. race and women's equality. However this work is done an the clear understandingthat: f race and women's equality require differing strategies f co-ordinated areasare therefore mapped out distinct from the main race equality strategy92' Using the Race Unit's anti-racist programme framework, the Women's Unit developed advisers and parallel and complementarywomen's equality programmesand action plans for each directorate. The differing, but supportive strategiescould be seenparticularly in the area of employment for where, example, the emphasisof the women's programme was not so much on recruitment and selection, becausehalf of the council's workforce was female, but on career and retention issues. Interventions in the areas, therefore, like a safe working environment, key to retention of women dissolved the traditional technically focussedboundariesof employees, health and safety at work to include the socio-political dimension of sexual harassment,as well as racial harassment. Out of this was derived a specific harassment and racial sexual complaints procedure which, on the bases primarily of the women's advisers,argued the genuinenessof all 922 The implementation this complainants. of was delayed by the position legal department the council's of who were more concernedwith the rights of employeescomplained against, especially white males. Both sets of 486 advisersensuredthat spaceswere openedup within and without the organisation to communicatively pursue the achievementof that procedure, including, as can be seenfrom the above quote, a forthright exchangeof Women's Unit However, the the curve of members. views with council its in its the through existence the council - the same period of and staff, time period as the race Unit - standsas exemplifying the racial fear from feelings towards the the race programme negative propelling much of it inception, Unit Women's At the comprised three certain councillors. joint heads, Black two were white, and one who staff, membersof be happened joint heads One to the two an active also of administrator. inner borough, in London Labour the as well as a another party member of borough's Criticism that of that committees. co-opted member of one of from later, Three from the with money years memberswas muted. unit GLC's demise,the unit was in a position to expand. The two original headsof unit decided to pursue alternative careersin various policy roles elsewherein the council. Sevennew staff were recruited, three of whom from Thereafter head including Black Black senior criticism of unit. a were dramatically. In increased another rebuttal of managersand members head based form broad the to of the race equality unit, a councillors attempts is "it the that Leader that, the the to strange now council of unit wrote Council has a Black head of the Women's Equality Unit, that suddenly (something `beastly' advisers.... membersare complaining about s923 It WEU. head the there of was a white which).. .never occurred when interests in be to that relation race and women's equality common can argued divergence The Black the women. experiencesof coagulatedaround betweenthe two broad areasof inequality and equality actions, when it did time because the space closing, communicative about came occur, fear', `racial ensuredthat a mono-chromatic women's of compressing,vector for by be that some councillors, wished would equality programme, much as Labour, the then paradoxically new right crystallising senior managers,and both it Ultimately happen. the women's and advisers, was not could never focused fact that the a conflationary, convergence race, who separatedas discoursewas enactedby councillors and senior managerswith the express by developed two the both the separate spaces communicative closing aim of interbased, broad in favour equal variable, of a units and constituencies At differing the interpretation end, with struggles. equality of changeable the eventual demise of the Race and Women's Units in 1989, all of the staff in the two units had to leave the council, by one meansor the other. The in Unit, Women's then Party the Labour the ex-head of activist white, Central Policy Unit, becamefirstly, Head of the new Equality Unit, then, in Chief Executive. In hand, Assistant other an organisational sleight of boroughs, particularly in London, with the visible scaling down of race in borough, happened had the target that most of the mirrored what equality had leave For to the relevant councils. concerned example, race advisers boroughs four London looking to the adjacent at each other which when 487 infra-structures establishedrace at about the sametime, including the target borough, only one out of all the race equality staff spanning the four boroughs still works for a local authority. However, many of the white women's equality adviserswent on to other equivalentjobs, pay and status wise, in the council, including four who becamechief executives of local councils. The Black ex-headof the women's unit in the target borough, after a successionof lower paid jobs in the voluntary sector, a deliberate because her in local government had made her abjure any experience choice future employment in that sector, at last contact, taught English as a foreign languagein Cuba. 11.23 Evaluation Given the brief architectonic of race equality in a particular local governance context provided above, the question is how one is supposedto evaluateit. The race equality and women's equality programmesdid not experiencea natural organisational death. They were, after all, and that experiencewas in few local mirrored a other authorities, wrenched from that organisation. There was a period of acceleratingdiscord between equality advisersand senior councillors towards the end culminating in a `blood-and-snot-on-thewalls' aftermath of a serious discourseclash which concluded with the for had I In the the two using a closure of units. argued previous chapter four element construct of validity: triangulation at a meta-theoreticallevel, construct, `face' and emancipatoryvalidity. This would be very much in line with the sort of evaluation demandedby the overall aims of the equality discourseevolved, developedand actioned by the advisersand concomitant constituencies. On the other hand, as the development of the race equality programme gained momentum, senior councillors, those mainly whom I have identified as the proto-modernisers,becameincreasingly vociferous in `managerially to the the need control' race equality advisers, about discourse This the use of particular. medium of control and domination gave rise as well to a repeatedcall over the four years for there to be a review of equality work and infra-structures in the organisation. This call for an evaluation and assessmentwas never made in public, or posed openly to the equality staff, or, more importantly, to the relevant constituenciesof Black people and women both within and outside the council. Rather it was posed in the communicatively exclusionary meetings of the local Labour Group on the council and actioned via senior managers. Evaluation, under these circumstances,was never posed so nakedly as simply that of reining in the `pesky' equality staff. Instead it was `facaded' as the desire to expand the scopeof equality priorities to include age, disability, gay men and lesbiansetc., not, however, on the basesof more resources,but on the low level the of then existing equality resources. of already redistribution The nature of the evaluation both, in the way decisions about an evaluation directly involved, in linked those the and omitted criteria for assessing 488 `success'or `failure, ' was markedly different to that which the equality staff would have used. Theseattemptsby councillors to initiate a review is what I have termed in the previous chapteras an 'instrumentalised evaluation'. On the equality workers part such calls by councillors for `reviews' were met lack lack with counter claims of of political will robustly and of respectand recognition. We can treat thesecalls and counter claims as the visible and vocal symptoms of a discourseclash about equalities and the place, or not, of Black people and women in local governance. At another level it is as well in about my conceptualisationof race equality that period of local governanceas being akin to periods of de-colonisation and re-colonisation; lifeworld `hue'-manising Habermas' thesis thus, colonisation. on about, Its con tours mark out the attritional borderlines between social and systemic integrations and the relationship betweenthe two, oscillating over the four year period betweenglimpses of de-colonisation and the re-imposition of differing ideas local The two this of of nature of pursuit colonisation. inclusive of race, the other dominatingly governance,one emancipatorily be the subject of the next section which will trace the will managing race, `discoursewars' surrounding equality in that specific local authority, bringing in'more closely the theoretical constructs. We can prefatorily be last by to the this piece of equality advisers was citing what contextualise written evaluation work for the Labour politicians of the council, a critical by disbanding for the two the also units, and real reasons commentaryon infra-structure key facts the the to and about race equality reference some of outputs over that four year period. Thus: the draft report, written by the Assistant Chief Executive, that we ..... have been asked to comment on is not the result of a professionally constructed review process, but seemingly the subjective opinion of one The previous Labour Group report on the subject (5.12.88), officer. written by the then Chief Executive, was also a subjective opinion, with no attempt made to researchor consult on the contents. Indeed, attempts keep those contents secret from us and other interested were made to We view these actions as appalling practice and in direct parties. conflict with the stated core values of this Authority...... Paragraph4.1. of the draft report introduces the issue of the Council's commitment to other "disadvantaged Groups", as well as to black people and women. It goes on to cost an additional resource to cover lesbians and gays, justification disabled (one officer each - again no people pensioners and for this minimal number of posts) to be £82,000. However, it is clearly not a serious option or proposal for committee to consider, as we are told that, this "is not. a practical proposition in the current financial climate". In other words, the needs of pensioners, the disabled and lesbians and gays do not warrant the expenditure of £82,000 to finance a central resource in a climate of financial cuts. The financing of such a resource unit, must come from the deletion of women's and race adviser posts. Why is this proposal presented as though it were the only option? What 489 are the other options for consideration by committee? flow is it that £200,000 was 'miraculously' found to finance expansion in the Environmental Services Direct Labour Organisation in December, even though the Director of Finance informed Policy and Resources Committee that there was no provision for such expenditure, but not for meeting the needs of pensioners, lesbian and gay men and the disabled, without wiping out the posts and positive work of the Council's women's and race advisers. . However, money was found from the "contingency provision" (for Environmental services). Could not the Council, if it had so wished, dipped into this "contingency" fund to finance central provision for pensioners, the disabled, lesbians and gay men without having to abolish the Women's and Race Equality Units and the Advisers in Personnel?...... In our view, the report is seriously flawed in that it does not deal with the real issues of the best possible way for (target ... borough X)... to go about implementing equal opportunities policies in a climate of financial and political restrictions. It merely concocts a new failures the successes analysis of and of the current no structure , with (political, to the reasons as opposed to real and no reference structure financial) for this idiosyncratic proposal. Further, there has been no attempt to consult with staff who currently work on race and women's equality issues. We have been presentedwith a fait accompli. Indeed, the original report that went to the Labour Group of 5th December 1988 Chief by Leadership Executive. from kept the then the and secret us was This is no way to treat staff or the issues. We have no confidence that the proposed new structure will work, for all the reasons stated above. Structures do not have a life of their own; they are dependanton people, believe We that the political commitment to commitment. and resources the real issues faced by women, black people, pensioners, the disabled (and their carers), lesbians and gay men is seriously lacking in The target borough - and that is the issue. We also believe, that becausewe have had the courage and integrity to confront this issue, whilst being faithful to our job descriptions, some of us are being abolished and others been fail, has to set and a structure, virtually up new marginalised, little by know (without research or analysis) officers who concocted 24 dynamics issues and of equal opportunity work. about the Key facts about the race equality programme and structure therefore gain a between disagreements because it back the the clothes greaterpertinency equality workers and the politicians, especially over the respective evaluations of the programmes;the very samepolitical group who were the decision in the appointmentsof those staff employed makers originally main to develop the manifesto commitments on race and women's equality. These facts then are not simply the social construct of those who experienced the waxing and waning of the race priorities in that borough. They, by direct the many attempts certain of emerged as a result paradoxically, Comparisons to the structures. equality with other local councillors review In be had this process,even to etc. made, costed structures authorities though the equality workers were very often excluded, i. e. they `were done to', they themselveshad to put together information packagesfor those councillors supportive of and sympatheticto the causesof race and women's 490 equality. In one sensethe very starknessof some of the facts, in a for themselves,whilst at another level they speak comparative context, in confirm a real, everydayconcretesense,the progressmade; progress which can be said to be towards emancipation. All of the race equality posts in the council were establishedbetween 1981 and 1984. Thereafter attemptsby the Race Unit and Race Relations Committee to expandthe complementwere thrown out by politicians. The Race Unit comprised three substantiveposts during the course of its for `borrowed' and one post a period of two years. The rest of the existence, race equality posts numberedfourteen. All of theseposts were Section 11 funded, meaning that the council only had to find 25% of their costs. Out of all the inner London Labour boroughs, and some of the outer, the target borough was the lowest resourcedin race equality terms. Between 1984 and 1989the number of employeesin the council ranged between 9,000 to 7,000. The total budget of the council in 1988was £214,000,000. The total cost of the race equality infra-structure was £225,000. As shall be shown in the next section, these figures were to be a useful weapon in the fight againstthe proto-Blairite moderniserswho attemptedto construct an argumentaround the `major cost' of equality structures. In terms of work output the race advisers,and to a lesserextent, the race in equality workers specific service areas,spanneda range of responsibilities from highest level the tasks ranging policy work in the council to critical and interventions in key everyday operational proceduresand practices, not to mention the training aspectof the role or the community development elementthat was required. Whilst in the target borough the unit and for develop to a case the recognition of those types of advisersattempted responsibilities within the race equality context arguing that thesewere pathfinder portents of revising roles for local government workers, this was not forthcoming from the organisation. Insteadrace advisersand workers were continually constrainedby the deliberate orthodox organisational For interpretation their work. example the value of placed on assessment jobs in the council was at that stagedeterminedby a nationally agreedjob did for local flexibility; scheme which a allow someroom evaluation flexibility the organisation felt more comfortable exercising over the issue of in women's responsibilities local government. Thus there were stepstaken to review and revise the schemeto take on board traditional areasof in local work government, such as social care, and to try and women's issue however, The this of race, more appropriately. was recognise divisively ignored. Neverthelesswork undertakenby the then Local Government Training Board specifically on Race Equality Advisers, later to becomethe Local Government ManagementBoard, an organisation funded by local governmentswith the remit for catalysing the improvement of the human resourceaspectof local government, derived a list of over fifty key 491 employment attributes thought necessaryfor the job to be carried out 925 This was reflected in the extremely heavy workload equality properly. in workers the target borough developedor had foisted on them. For example,the unit had to service two committees of the council ensuring that the four meetings held in every municipal year had a full and proper agenda, often made up of reports on policy or evaluation topics they themselveshad to initiate. This is to be contrastedwit the other service and major committeesof the council which had the full resourcesof their respective departmentsat their disposal; a resourcenumbering anything from a few hundred employeesto over a thousand. Added to the work dimension of the equality adviserswas the political dimension that not only was this the first time local government had tried to introduce a programme of social justice to changeits own internal workings and external relations, but being the first theseprogrammesand associatedstaff had to battle against a hundred plus years of evolved local governanceorthodoxy. Thus over the four years eachRace Relations Committee had at least one major, substantivepolicy or evaluationary report on its agendawith council wide implications. In addition underpinning this were the everyday interventions, critically targeted, in operational procedures,such as recruitment and selection, disciplinary and grievance procedures,or investigations into service transgressionswith a race dimension. The one fed the other, and vice versa. If one bearsin mind the matrix constructed from the cross tabulation of the major levels to the race equality programme with the key elements,then eachbox contained a potential admixture of work ranging from policy developmentand advice on implementation to critical interventions in proceduresand practices. In turn each of thesewere include differentiated levels tasks which might advising a made up of of Black member of the community on a related complaint to arguing face-toface with councillors about the related policy implications or action the organisation should take. Despite, then, the minuscule resourcesdedicatedto catalysing the pursuit of developed borough had, target two the a years, within race equality, comprehensiverace equality infra-structure which, in the potential it had implementation if the actual even over the council was patchy, could provide the framework for jump starting the idealised racially inclusive form of local governanceoutlined earlier. In fact the infra-structure was inner by London two acknowledgedly copied other authorities, one an borough which in the mid eighties had createdan actual ethnic minorities directorate, the other a northern metropolitan authority. Interestingly, and dimension, it in to the comparative was cited a United Nations study, related undertakenby a prominent South African exile, as an example that could be in copied South Africa should, at that stage,changesoccur in that country. 492 In terms of actual output which can be directly attributable to the race programmes,the visible increasein the numbers of Black people involved in the council can be seenfrom the figures relating to both employment and servicesover that period. As the diagram below shows, the overall level of Black employeesin the council increasedfrom 12% in 1984 to 20% in 1988. As a direct result of the antiracist programmesexplicit service developments interventions and on the part of the different departmentsincreasedfrom two to twenty. Not included in the latter is the unit initiated developmentof a comprehensiveservice race monitoring system. Allied to this were, during the period of the race programme, a number of formal consultative, and/or participatory initiatives undertakenby the different departmentswith sectors of the Black communities. In fact acrossall the levels of work identified, local, regional, national and international, it can be said that for the four years of the programme, race, in the senseof the positive racialisation of communicative intercourseunderstoodas the opening up of spacesfor making and resolving claims of racial justice either there and now, or as For example race normative markers for future action, featured explicitly. equality was a standing item on most managementteam meetings,especially those of senior managementeither by conscious `pro-active' decision, or through the presenceby right of the relevant race equality adviser. Citing the `numbers' of the race equality programme servesthe purpose of demonstratingthat something in the organisation was going on; an activity to do with change. It is far more than Lansley's - ex Chair of Lambeth's Community Affairs Committee, and thus political tutelar of that council's race programmesin the early nineteen eighties - retrospective, apostate, dismissive swipe of race equality initiatives in local government as resulting in only slightly more than the revamping of the recruitment and selection processes. However much certain of the councillors in the target borough would have liked to have been able to make claims of `under performing' againstthe equality advisers,the actual evidenceof work via committeesand through their involvement in operational procedures,not to mention the by recognition afforded other local authorities, meant that that particular avenueof criticism could not be made. But perhapsthe evaluation of the race equality programme should examine other forms of indicators which might attest to the scale of changein the organisation evidencedthrough the irritant value of that programme and implicit in The `perverse' indicators the operational structures. are informing in the principles equality workers' activities the organisation, such as, for example, those of maintaining utmost honesty and transparencyon matters of race, or going about the everydaywork with the metaphorical P45 in the back pocket. They can be seenin totality in relation to the major influence on the council, disproportionate to its size and level of resources, the unit and complementaryrace equality structure had, and, in the constituent componentsrevealed, for example, by the high level of 493 disagreementswith councillors over the way in which certain decisions, and the substanceof those decisions,were taken. Comparedwith the neighbouring two boroughswhere accessto the ruling Labour group by the equality advisersof councillors was more restricted and more governed by the unwritten statusprotocol of "me-councillor-you-officer", the level of 926 in disagreements borough higher. It marked, as well, the target was open the fractious cross over points of two differing discoursesabout race equality, the one, in the caseof the councillors in the target borough, but also in evident the muddled thinking of some race units and programmes,tied to a managementof race through a modified race relations model emerging as a incorporatist labourism discourses, two viz. and neoof sub-creation focussed the to other an emancipatoryprogramme on managerialism,and demise devoted justice. In 1989 to the of the a union newsletter post racial head former the then of the Race Unit could race and women's units, defining in immersed "were the that too processof comment councillors Race workers as the council's `niggers in the woodpile'.... (and)... that if the Race Unit had indulged in race relations type activities, i. e. irrelevant public for in food, band `ethnic' the corner platform and a public a steel eventswith demonstrate few figures to their acceptanceof after a rum punches, senior Black folk and their `ways', we would probably still be in businessbecause that posesno threat to the statusquo in the council.... (instead because)...we butter' issues `bread deliberately to and concentrate on chose - employment, decision have Black to the making, the treatment of access people services, Black employeesin the council, the way in which resourcesare allocated etc. heart decision m-927 be the that of making. at we would always - meant 11.25 Border Wars: Razzias, Raids, Refutations and Transformations The outline of the race equality programme provided in the previous section back drop `quick-reference' the against which of purpose providing a served the con tours of the shifting terrain of the `discourse contestation' shaping The development and the race equality programme can be detailed. be the possibly race programme was not, as could establishment of interpreted from the back drop outline, a painless process. It rose and, not between disputation down, fell, torn the groups of as was result of a so much influenced discourses by differing within the overall actors pursued and local governance, and within the specific milieu of the target sphere of This bears on Dryzek's observation, made earlier in this chapter, borough. that difference democracy is the contestation of discourses, but also Fairclough's idea about colonisation, the structuring of institutional orders of In saying that I am re-emphasising the claim discourse and de-strtructuring. that the period of the race equality programme, and its preceding period, was the beginning of a form of difference democracy which, contrary to Habermas' fluctuating position towards radical change of the administrative 494 and political systems,but now apparentlyhardenedtowards a de facto being those only of as amenableto small scale reform becauseof acceptance the complexity of modern society, transformed those categorical boundaries and the contentstherein that were so surrounded. McCarthy then is right in his criticism of Habermas' capitulation to the almost impossibility of systems being transformed by communicative reason,pointing out that organisations internally towards all sorts of communicative pressures. I prefer are subject Alvesson's conceptualisationof organisations,or for that matter any other forms of systemic manifestation, as communicative structures.928 This accordswith my own views that such structuresrepresenta mixture of in latter the can act as a ossified and active communicative spaces which into for former life. By `re-booting' the the sametoken then the catalyst boundary line betweenthe administrative systemand the political systemcan It is this form of transformation becomeblurred and even dissolve. in borough discourse target the the sought, whilst on of race equality which the other hand, the discourse/diskourseof managerialism,associatedwith the discourse/diskourse Labourism, the of of senior managers, and perspective have I termed the proto-modemisers, sought to those associatedwith harden boundary line that as one of the principal meansof and accentuate depoliticising and neutralising the race programme. I shall expand later on the content of the latter two discourses. Above all it is worth re-iterating that I view discoursesnot primarily as objective or all pervasive forces the from involuntarily be the mugging experienced, presenceof which can only behind syndrome; but as being initiated, acted upon, developed,and used by in following The then, using the contexts. section people within particular backdrop, the the will as referenced race equality programme outline of in borough, discourse developed the target the that race equality argue democratisation it solution to substantive on a radical as was premissed local inclusion the governance,clashedwith the within sphere of racial facadic discourses the transformation, a of managerialism and emerging transformation, of Labourism into new right labour modernisation. Both the latter were agreedon one crucial point, which was that good local be to was equatedreductively with a narrow management governance In local this of resources. of effective use notion and efficient accounting be had to the redefined strongly as a politically system administrative process but in in the sense, political party neutral environment, neutral not so much the more substantivesensethat the only permissible ideology was that of be Further to that the only political action arenawas managerialism. In so doing inhabited by the key actors, in this casethe councillors. its legitimation be and could controlled contents once more strictly political fifties limited local the to vision of a modernising of re-invention again It that services. was, as children are of providing government as simply birth describe the their the to of past pre-dating colouration and wont "black I to the and white" years. a return shall argue, as well, experience, that this, in a sense`post-modernisation' of new right Labour's 495 modernisation of local governmentis substantively basedon the imaginary puissanceof `racial fear' showing how the de-emancipationof the race programme was substantivelytied to the drive to recastpolitical legitimation in a way that appearedto accord with the more baser instincts of the white electorate. It was, in Dryzek's terms, a replacementof an enabling discoursewith a disabling discourse;or, as I have neologised, replacing `discourse' with `diskourse'. This would tie in then with my recasting of the argument in terms of de- and re-colonisation, with the obvious preface to both being simply the state of colonisation. In framing the overall argument in broad Habermassianterms of bearing in mind that Habermaswas brought into the communicative power, target borough, so to speak,even if reconstructedto take account of race, and the implication therein of the emancipatorypower of the rationality so released,there is the potential for the accusationof naive idealism in the face of the reality of power within the structuresof local governance. For example, Flyvbjerg, in a critical evaluation of a Danish local government framed urban regenerationproject, concludesthat the asymmetrical between relationship power and rationality meansthat the latter will always be subordinatedto the former.929 At another level Flyvbjerg is also in Foucault Habermas the evaluating relative practical relevancy of and everyday local governmentpolitics in Denmark. The project, in his terms, innovative, it "comprehensive, coherentand and was basedon rational, was democratic argument." His conclusion, which leans more towards Foucault, also repeatsthe Foucauldian erroneousconflation of power with domination. Thus: "In sum while power produces rationality and rationality produces power, their relationship is asymmetrical. Power has a clear tendency to dominate rationality in the dynamic and overlapping relationship between the two. ParaphrasingPascal,one could say that power has a rationality that rationality does not know. Rationality, on the other hand, does not have a power that power does not know. "930 In advancing an emancipatory,transformative notion of power, power is not domination, but that the expression,as Stewart puts forward, of of simply "concerted action."931 Using Fraser he asksthe samequestions,onesthat are germaneto the cardinal issue in this project of race equality: "Why is domination be Why to ought resisted? struggle preferable submission? Only with the introduction of normative notions of some kind could Foucault begin to answer such questions."932 But, as Stewart points out power can is be discussed if issue `interest' the properly addressed. In only of emancipatory struggles as Stewart, using Benton, observes,there is the question "of the relationship between evaluativejudgements and normative judgements: that is, between competing conceptionsof the good society, on the one hand, andjudgements aboutjustice and its implementation, on the 496 933 The strength of communicative power in resolving this tension other. , lies in " `the agent's claim to rationality in disputesabout proposed collective arrangementsand how that claim makes him/her intersubjectively responsibleto others'.... (conditions which )... require that in generatingthe power of concerted action, agentscultivate their capacity to think reflexively interests their and the underlying values and needsfrom which such about interestsderive."934 Whilst the main weaknessof Habermas' theory, his conceptualisationof transformative politics, which is the particularly he answer tries to provide to the question "of the relationship between intersubjective, concertedpower and domination", leads me to prefer a reconstructedvariant of the recognition model, basedon the resolution of race as the unfulfilled condition of modernity, it is the latter point in the is preceding sentencewhich of importance now to the unfurling of the discoursecontestation. In practice, and this is true of the marshalling of race equality solidaristic resourcesin the target borough, Flyvbjerg, despite his Foucauldian tendencies,notes that "democratic progressis chiefly achievednot by constitutional and institutional reform alone but by facing the mechanismsof power and the practices of class and privilege more directly, often head on: if you want to participate in politics but find the for doing possibilities so constricting, then you team up with like minded people and you fight for what you want, utilising that work in your context to undermine those who try to limit participation."935 Linking thus White's Habermassianlevel conditions with Flyvbjerg's `real-politiking' rules provides us with a framework within which to start looking at the array and inter-action of discoursesin the target borough; particularly how those by discourse how Flyvbjerg's `rules' the are conditions met race equality and appearto describethe action context to its incursions and forays against dominating discoursesand their, in turn, counter-offensivesand razzias. As Fairclough aptly summarisesthe eighties and early nineties, "the increasing in discourse by is being transformations social salienceof matched... a discourse: bring in to to control concern about changes discoursepractices as part of the engineering of social and cultural change.....a `technologization of discourse"'936. This instrumentalisation of communicative practices, just latter is distortion the to, than the part refers more unconscious of which communication. Rather it is, over and above that, the deliberate adaptation hand, date, knowledge in technologies of second and use out of contexts, in this caselocal governance,substantively different to those for which they originally developed, i. e. the private sector. One can begin to seethe hear the echoesof the dominating processesof colonisation and simulation in this. So far, in outlining the race equality programme in the target borough, we have sought to place its discourseunder, but not necessarilyconflating with, the broad rubric meta- and meso-level umbrellas of `emancipatory' and 'deits intent by referring to the opening up to seeking encapsulate colonisation', 497 of communicative spacesfor Black people in that particular sphereof local is The is there question now governance.. whether or not an adequate discourse. To that end, attachedas an appendix, is a this summary of responseto one of the Councillors' razzia style forays into trying to `review' the equality structures,written in 1987 by the principal researcher. The vast majority of it is till germanebecauseit includes an overview of the aims it how be its the race programme, should pursued, of reception in that borough, the attitude and role of the polity, and, more over, the particular discourse's distinctiveness and emancipatoryadvantagesover race equality those secondhand, controlling onesthen being introduced by the political Leadership. It is marked by an open and frank style of languageand argumentation,together with a clearly statedintention of "not adhering to the between local that operates officers and authority protocol practice normal members;a protocol which in the context of race equality has often been debate define to out of questionsabout racism and majority group used decisions."937 It was, in effect, a `discipline me and be damned' response level it At capturesalso the unequivocal, transparent,and another as well. honestway in which the advisersattemptedto communicatewith both introduction issue Its the at of race equality. councillors and memberson this point is as a quick referencedevice which does away with the need to large `chunks'. The report was circulated to all quotation regurgitate later Leadership; the when a new and re-issueda year members,particularly Leadershipwas elected. There was no responsefrom any of the members. This discourseof race equality was not simply the creation of one unit, but, as I shall argue, was the outcome of a nascentBlack public sphere,or counter public, not just surrounding, but also prising open the book in In local the the on a eighties. spaces of governance communicative Black public spherein the United States,where `Black' is used to refer does biological American African to the which reduction people, -a solely Sphere Black Public from detract the their saliency of points -the not Collective define such a phenomenon,in a critical adaptationof Habermas' birth "a trans-national and spacewhose violent original concept, as, diasporic conditions of life provide a counter narrative to the exclusionary Caribbean States, Europe, United the the and of national narratives (and)... is one critical spacewhere new democratic forms and Africa .... diasporic movementscan enrich and question one another.... as a emergent from imaginary (drawing) the vernacular practices energy critical social ... ... of street talk and new musics, radio shows and church voices, (all with the task of marking) ... a wider entrepreneurshipand circulation, ... in intellectuals sphereof critical practice and visionary politics which can join with the energiesof the street,the school, the church and the city to constitute a challengeto the exclusionary violence of much public spherein the United States."938 With certain refinements and modifications to British the race context within the specific milieu of local governance, reflect 498 the above definition can serve as a framework to my claims about the public discourse from the race equality emerged. Further I have whence sphere is by Stewart, this that the public sphere cannot solely supported argued, and be a place/space for inter-subjective communication. Habermas' "conservative position as far as the democratisation of democracy is in his contention about the limits of action in ", concerned, and as reflected the public sphere must be extended to involve, as well, "an active model of but decision to tied contexts not only of communication, also of citizenship ... "39 making. What is required now is a brief corralling of the.relevant information from the section on the race programme in order to flesh out how the based discourse this of was race equality particular communicative power of "cultivate being to their capacity to think reflexively about able on agents their interestsand the underlying values and needsfrom which such interests derive." Further, as well, how this in real time experienceincluded "facing the mechanismsof power and the practices of class and privilege.... head on (fighting) for (teaming)... up with like minded people and ..... ...... in (was to undermine that work context wanted)...., utilising what.... .... those who try to limit participation." Thus in the early eighties if Habermaswas brought into the borough, he was brought in distilled via the to that the point up which experiences researcher; principal of experiences included being involved in the initiation and developmentof Black workers' in branches the different in trade as union, as well of a particular groups The inter-union Black other workers organisation. creation of a national dimension of the work experiencewas that of being an employeein local field. During in that time period of the equality race government, mainly the mid seventiesto early eighties it can be arguedthat there was a nascent Black counter public which, given the location of Black people, was largely Black description in the It the of above comprised, a shadowing of urban. intellectuals, in United States, the academic/activist public sphere Black like Relations, Institute Race the the emerging of organisations, including Black Black women's community groups, media, academicmedia, Arising therefore Black this, and out of organisations. worker groups, drawn into it, was the increasing numbers of local authorities setting up internal race structures. By the early eighties, then there was already the beginnings of associativepractices and groupings of race equality workers in local government. Within the London region this was given greater impetus by the co-ordinating role played by the GLC. Whatever criticism there might be about the details of the GLC's race equality programme's, `ethnic its term the minorities', the of notably unfortunate promotion and use its short time of existence,was to provide a within overall effect, level London for Black the at people acrossa range of communicative space dimensions impacting directly on Black life worlds. The writer Meer Syal's remembranceof this period as, in a counter point to those who 499 bases 'PC' like being initiatives these the of censorship, on grateful critiqued for the spaceit provided for her to be able to expressherself, sums it up Sao To talk about the Black counter public like this is also to talk about its implicit because force the of explicit and moral claims emerging rhetorical from it, and also becausethe resolution of theseclaims in some areaslike local governance,crossedover, without obstruction, into contexts "of decision making." In the target borough itself, whereasup to the early `force Black the public sphere's of argument' was channelledand eighties Working Party Race that the the through on was gate-keeper censored Relations, thereafter the institution was openedup to the panoply of influences, as well as developing within the organisation localised is `Black The the term a sphere' public use of communicative spaces. in describe to reality a number of counter what was necessarycatch-all There `race'. in the them area of around arising and public spheres,all of defining both divergences differences the of the problem and over and were the proffered solutions. For example, as has been shown earlier, some local authority race programmes,including the GLC's, becamemired in Even defined and solution. problem various shadesof an ethnically burgeoning there the were worker associations race equality amongst differences. One of them, the London Wide Race Workers Forum defined themselvesclearly in opposition to the perceived elitism of another between borders that associationand to the elision of associationas well as the Labour Party."' Within the reality of the local civil society in and around the target borough, in by internal some the race equality structures were viewed with suspicion The local CRC's intrigues were par for the course, the Black community. `radical' involvement. However, the wing of amongst given their previous in dubiety the there what Black was professed the organisations and activists, bureaucratisation together the with, or equality, of race as was regarded directly be belief the that the should race workers running alongside 942 that differences the But these sort to them. never of were accountable As fracturing Black described be the one race public sphere. as could in her it in the letter the to of aftermath manager a put succinctly worker destruction of the Race and Women's Units, ".. I did not always agree with the strategies employed by other staff in seeking to further race equality internally and externally..... but such disagreements never reached crisis in broad there because things the were no conflicts of of sweep proportions... interests.."943 One of the key architectonics holding up that commonality of interests in the target borough was the use, and insistenceof that as the main frame of This inclusive `Black'. term the a was contingent, referenceusage,of defining of the problem as that of being racism and in the conjoining of jointly invitation implicit to working out the solutions. Part experiences,an 500 impetus for the refining and maintaining an open ended `Black', of recognisedthen as having derived from the experiencesof racism in the seventiesUK, were the experiencesof the principal researcherin helping to createand develop Black Worker groups in trade unions. One of them, establishedon a pan union basis,the Black Trades Unionists Solidarity Movement, was split asunderbecausea Turkish worker, who defined herself as `Black', was refused entry to their national conferenceby somewho held belief to the that `Black' could only ever be `black', that is biologically on reducedto anthropometric features. In that borough, however, `Black' servedas a catalyst for bringing together and focussing differing voices which otherwise might have been speaking at odds with each other. For example the NALGO basedBlack Workers Group was extremely successful in providing the communicative spacefor Black employeesfrom a range of backgroundsand acrossa span of the hierarchy. This spacewas maintained by the inclusive nature of its criteria for membership,i. e. it was open to all employeeswho defined themselvesas `Black' on the basesof their its by internal discursive rules, i. e. no sexism or experiencesof racism; `ethnicism' was allowed; and by its minimising of the power of hierarchy to from debate i. hierarchy, there a cono stifle and participation, e. was apart ordinator, and all representativeson the branch executive were accountable to the meetings of the Group and subject to immediate recall and The importance of what I would describeas replacement,or rotation. discursive for the power, which the use of conditions maximum maintaining `Black' in its contingent mode helps allow, can be emphasisedby briefly been fate Lambeth's Black Having the worker group. of examining borough's in lines to the target the early eighties and on similar established having by the mid eighties, certain the moved on with original participants in hierarchy it be best decided the group to that erect a would members formal branch. A that the of wider union number of which mirrored `secretary' `chair' as were created,as well as a mini and such positions, behind `business' The that the this of the so reasoning was executive. it in fact be dealt What createdwas a efficiently with. group could more discursive diminution power of concentration of executive power and for individual holders to pursue, without mandate,closer post allowing leadership. The branch decisions the with compromising alliances and later, this though on the notion only emerged also premissed, changeswere that the group needed`leaders'. By the late eighties and early nineties a factions in there the were vying group which situation was reachedwithin for control of the leadershipmachinery, some of thesebeing constituted on distinctive `etnikfied' grounds. By the early nineties, then, the Group, its by Afro-centric logo an new outline, which sported exemplified transmogrified itself into one that accepted`black' only in strictly biological terms. In other words the Group had effectively `golliwogged' itself. By the mid nineties, in the face of major restructuring and redundanciesin the 501 council the Group debaseditself further by publicly accusing the council of favouring, as they put it, "Asian people" over `black' people.944 11.26 The Griot If, as I argue Habermaswas brought into the target borough distilled through race, part of this distillation processincluded Fanon, an author read by the principal researcherlong before Marx. Certainly in excavating the intellectual lineage of the pursuit of `leaderless' struggles, one consciously in adopted establishing the two Groups, Fanon's excoriation of the `leader' syndrome in anti-colonial struggles formed a substantivepart of the thinking. This `internalisation' of the colonising systemgives rise to unaccountable leaders. For Fanon, leaderscan only be legitimate if they arise from and are accountableto the `assembly' of people. Returning, however, to the issue of the public sphere,in the last part of the eighties there was, within the main public sector union, NALGO, a well developedBlack Workers' Group movement, with regional and national structures,as well as communicative channels. The substantivepart of thesewas basedon the use of an open, contingent `Black', whilst the structureswere far more inclined towards a involvement than participative, rather representative, milieu. Within the overlapping contexts of the public sector unions and the Labour Party generally, and as it was reproducedin the target borough, the outcomesof this discursive spacefor Black people ran the gamut from that of being able to influence decisions to being involved in decisions, where that involvement entailed raising questionsand claims of racial justice and having them validated within the communicative assembliesof the union. We can inscribe a similar pattern of overlapping contexts and fora for in development the the communicative of race equality structures the target borough. Earlier I had describedthe scope,content and nature of these structures. Thesewere basedon five operational principles which sought to ensurethat communicative spacesfor black people openedup bureaucratic that the these organisation and without extended, within interference, up to the formal political assembly. Overlapping with these structureswere a number of contexts and, within the overall Black counter public, a number of sub-counterpublics. A clear example is that of the Black Workers Group movement. Thesealso allowed the race equality in to move and out of a number of roles and scenarioswithin which workers the sameclaims could be raised again, even if their form differed slightly. Two elementsare key in this: the way in which the Black public spheredid boundaries the recognise of the administration and formal political not system,and the way in which the deliberative spacesand moments both formal the political assemblyin some aspects,as well as reduced it extended 502 in others. It can be arguedthat Black people, by their very experiences both outside of and within the organisation, bring in the Black public sphere in their immediate memories,and, as is the casenow in many local authorities, it remains at that level. In the caseof the race equality workers, in borough, the the target there was the institutional advisers, especially guaranteeof being able to `enable' that experience;to use it as the background and foreground for securing the conditions for Black people to justice, in or, rare cases,to raise those claims themselves. raise claims of Arising out of this, becauseit was integral to it, was the requirement, therefore, to ensurethat such claims were validated where they were raised and not carried over into anotherphaseunresolved. This processof non formalised, developing both through specific amending or closure was because in latter the and contingent, advisers, case,were procedures, issue by directly, to on an circuit managerial authority raising prepared short basis, specific matters with politicians and senior managers. In the caseof the target borough the role of the advisers during the period of the race be being to that a representativeof the of or wanting programme was never Black communities. Rather they were there to identify the institutional blockagesgiving rise to `wrongs done to' and articulate remediesso that those who experiencesuch racism could make claims for themselves. Their role was, in one sense,rhetorical in the way Mayhew usesthe concept. In this case,though, not so much to raise claims which were still to be be but pre-taken, as to raise claims about can upon which action resolved, the inequitable conditions surrounding the ability of oppressedpeople to bases for those the thus themselves, upon conditions are and make claims by be Unlike the taken. out put view propagandist which action should borough, just in that target the not managers, and senior certain councillors labelling the to too too as racist, people prone conflictual and adviserswere in borough the to the target advice within contextualise careful were advisers the parametersof the anti-discriminatory law and within the best action to the race commitment manifesto own politicians which could achieve in equality, as evidenced the official race equality policy reports emanating from that group of employees. They worked, therefore, within a normative framework, one that councillors themselvesoften forgot existed. By so being for first time the explicitly considered were political matters working, Prior in to this managerial the processes. administration everyday within by divine been had character prerogative afforded an almost authority because to the the those notion of adhered politicians either councillors bureaucracybeing neutral, or becausethe later `new left' councillors found it had do Managerial to undergo a to so. authority now expedient deliberative scrutiny within the parametersof racial justice. An disciplinary in the the procedure will role of race advisers examination of help illuminate further this point. 503 The disciplinary procedurerepresentsthe ultimate in organisational violence that can be experiencedby an employee. Becauseit is initiated by full it the weight of the organisation against the lone management, often pits he/she has where union representation. Despite clear even employee, from like ACAS and good practice advice from organisations guidelines for bodies, Institute Personnel Development, the the such as professional justice within many organisationsnot only ignores administration of natural the dimension of social justice, it conflates and fuses the levels, which should be kept separate,of the former. In the target borough, prior to the developmentof the role of the race adviser, employeescould find themselves being disciplined and having their caseheard by managersfrom within the from division; despite departmental that the arguments, unions, mainly same that there is an informal network often inclusive of all managersin that division, or section, which makes such practice flout the principles of natural justice. Contextually the head of the race unit and the other advisers,based in Lambeth, the argued that the target and changes pursued on experience borough's practice of having one managerhearing the caseand deciding the in justice, diluted the especially caseswith principles of natural outcome also for for The dimension. there were made change recommendations a race to be a minimum of a three person panel so that a greater communicative deliberative dimension could be brought to bear, as well as, if managerswere brought in from other divisions, ensuring more impartiality. It also allowed for the recommendationto be made that where there was a casewith a race dimension, then one of the panel membersshould be Black. Similar for be, there those was a cases where made, could and were, arguments issue however, dimension. Returning, to the of the race advisers gender head by developed is following the in the the the of this, created and role role This the the throughout race of period operational was unit. race programme. Role of Race Eauality Advisers in the disciplinary procedure. Race Equality Advisers will have the right to be involved in all disciplinary cases that have race dimension. But this is meant any disciplinary case involving Black employee or an employee where the is offence racism. alleged All such disciplinary cases must be brought to the attention of the Department based Race Equality Adviser and there is no such post the Race Equality Adviser (Employment). The involvement of Race Equality Adviser has to be sought through the Department's staffing Equality Race Unit is kept the that will also section; who ensure informed on a monthly basis of all such cases in that relevant Department. The Race Equality Adviser will also be involved where: (i) The employee asks for a Race Equality Adviser. (ii) Managementasks for a Race Equality Adviser. 504 (iii) The Trade Union/representative asks for a Race Equality Adviser. In any event it is strongly recommended that managers seek the advice of the Race Equality Adviser prior to the decision to initiate the disciplinary procedure. The role of the Race Equality Adviser throughout the whole of the procedure will be strictly advisory. He/she will ensure through advice that the manager/panelexplores fully the race dimensions to the case. He/she will be able therefore to ask clarifying questions during the proceedings and to proffer advice during the proceedings. The Adviser will not take part in the decision making, but will be present throughout the deliberations of the manager/panel. In all events the advice and recommendation of the Adviser should be recorded, explicitly and separately. Where the adviser feels that the conduct of the hearing and/or the decision of the manager/panel has not been held and/or reached in accordance with the Equal Opportunities Policy and/or race equality policies, then this advice has to be made available to the employee Black employees will have the right to discuss the general issues relating to alleged offence before the hearing. The formal notification of the disciplinary hearing must contain this statement. The Race Equality Adviser will not, however, represent the employee in a professional capacity. Any such action can only be done in a personal capacity. Where this does occur, that Adviser cannot act in any Advisory capacity for that case.94 It is clear from this that the adviser's role was that of ensuring the proceedingshad sufficient communicative spaceto enablethe fullest aspect of racial justice to be considered. This was an interpreting, prodding, rather than fully interrogative, though that would occur if the manager `opted' out, and advisory role. Whilst this role was bitterly opposedby certain manual worker unions, especially where the caseinvolved an accusationof racism against one of their members,for the most part the role enduredthroughout the race programme period; enduredin the sensethat senior managersand membersin the leadershipwere ambivalent about its continuance. Towards the end of the race programme this becamestrongly voiced because the intervention of the race adviser was cast in terms of it impeding managersgetting on with management. This was very much within the context of the explicit emergenceof neo-managerialismin the target borough. The then Chief executive favoured a post facto accountability, if that managerstransgressedthe equality policies and procedures, arguing they would be reckoned with after the event. For the head of unit and advisers this was tantamount to allowing racism to occur, and then dealing with it post event with accountability systemswhich had shown itself notoriously weak when it came to dealing with managers' actions. Instead they argued for a continuation and extension of the principles of the 505 built into the such as role of race advisers, accountability process, procedures,like disciplinary, becausethesewere pre-facto and both, at the It trans-facto. time, and was changing managementas present-facto same it was practised in everydaywork. Whilst the existenceof race specific posts or oneswith some remit for race in borough in lead had to the the target these the race programme up and invariably been ones createdin the race relations mode - in local in distinguished the race posts the race governmentwas not new, what equality programme period was their catalytic role which attemptedto ride being Charybdis between Scylla the the of a of populism and -the-tension I This Sorry) `tool'. tertiary way, would argue, oops! management function to the the of alternative outline of an as well, not only provided local government employeesto that of being the object of managerial it is the case, also, at another current which prerogative and prescription, level, was part of a democratisingprocesswhich extendedand changedthe limits of representativedemocracy. To unravel this further requires that into de-colonising the sortie analogy via another colonising make use of 946 Fanon. Earlier in chapter 7 in Sekyi-Otu's emancipatoryreclamation of in describe the to characteristicsof colonial society preparation attempting for the analogousframework with which to examine the thesis of the rebecause Fanon, deliberately I local not omitted governance, colonisation of he was not relevant, but becauseI would argue that his saliency lies more in the arguments,and structure of those arguments,he advanceswith regard to the processof de-colonisation. In using Fanon to frame this particular de-colonisation, I to race equality of ascribing wary am and aspectof redoes Fanon importance historical those level to the which of same workers involved in anti-colonial struggleswithin a very concrete and bitter historical in be drawn, Yet, and where, some analogiescan processof colonisation. instances,this might be deemedtoo much of an inflation of the role of race On the Fanon's as an allegory. operate narrative can workers, equality indivisible being himself there hand, Fanon either as regarded racism other is racism or there isn't. There certainly aren't gradations of racism, or for that matter, hierarchies of racial oppression. Just as there are various ways dead, it dying, the or you are not. end of you are either at of In running the analogy, I am drawing on Sekyi-Otu's interpretation of Fanon's views of the anti-colonial national bourgeoisie. There is some in local Black here the government at the managers position of with overlap time of the race programme who enteredthe organisation becauseof the framework the race equality programme and who of anti-discriminatory frequently espousedan overt commitment to some form of race equality. Overlapping this contextually, as well, was, and is, the view that the race be found in one this the and can advisers, particularly equality workers, by Young, that they are membersof seminal piece on race advisers 506 be managementand should accountableto, and part of the managerial 947 Ironically, this is in notion process. expressed another form by those on the self professedradical wing of the community who viewed the race advisersas part of a new race bureaucracystaffed by race managers. There, was perhaps,in certain local authorities somejustification for the latter assessmentbecauseof the way in which the race structureswere set up in because the way which those appointed either unquestioningly of and framework, that or becausethose appointed actively sought operatedwithin such a role. The caseof Islington's first race structures conforms to this. But there is another aspectof analogy which can be drawn, and that is in relation to the substanceof race equality changeenvisagedby many race equality programmes,staff and Black managers. This was limited to variations on the politics of presencethesis; that is that the mere presenceof Black people, in this caseemployees,especially in the senior levels would be limited This to evaluation of the sufficient guaranteerace equality change. possibilities of race equality changewas also the context within which Black involved bureaucracy through the which managerscould pursue a career increasingly internalising the organisation" values, particularly those of white management,whilst at the sametime using their presence,and allowing their presenceto be used, as evidence of commitment to race led instrumentalisation Black This to an over the experience of equality. internalisation of managerialismto the extent that when the going got tough, the `tough' Black managers,as previously cited, in one borough formed their in Black managers' group, proclaiming one meeting that the only way to own `they' be forget to to are. as corrupt as equal opportunities and get aheadwas This goes to the heart of my argumentsabout race being the lynchpin to the borough, being in because target that tasks repeated of modernity unfulfilled in being played out other authorities, were scenarioswhich echoedthe and "awesome he "enjoins Fanon task" the upon made about comments critical 948 Basedupon the experiencesof the principal humanity". postcolonial linking in local cross and overlapping authorities and other researcher institutions, as well as the theoretical back grounding in critical studies, it Black in that the politics a new earlier chapters was postulated one of "changes is Black `Black that anti-racist politics' cathexis' which requires a learning development to the processes of collective must contribute in "collectivity" Black, the redefining of the also and of within reflexively "we" (and therefore)... has to be better than that which maintains ... This Sekiin force the echoes structuresof communication". racialised Otu's interpretation of Fanon on this matter, viz. the "awesome task" is to `human West "from the the the of stewardship monopolistic condition' wrest in its concrete instanceas the modem project."949 There, instead,has to be "a radical re-ordering of the ends and instruments of a now irreversible if humanity"' in "obsequious `new this the a of service modernity mimicry be history The to avoided950. of the race and neurotic atavism" are borough, in in local the target as well as other authorities, is programme 507 littered with the apostaticalrace equality husks of Black managerswho were `suckered' by the system. This was not the casein the target borough where race equality changewas envisagedby the race equality workers more in dialectical between terms of a relationship substantively ends and means. Sekyi-Otu's interpretation of Fanon's views of the reformist nature of the is bourgeoisie's political programme apt. He writes: national "Bourgeois anti-colonial nationalism is accommodationist and reformist in deed to the extent that it is formal and bereft of substantive content in It namesthe nation as a simple and immediate union of racial word. subjects asserting a collective to independencefrom empire. The cost of this formal universality is a calculated silence concerning social and political ends. It is the mission of a radical anti-imperialist discourse to break this spell of form, this indeterminate invocation of a unity is by A radical anti-imperialist racial membership. given which commitment is precisely one that regards the national universal as a project to be achieved by virtue of substantive disputation and social interlocutors (insisting)... on the `internal pluralism' of contestable ....... ends and means.s951 In fact Fanon was excoriatingly scathing about the anti-colonial national bourgeoisiewhom he regardedas a "farcical version of a detestable if into "952 their to own they, metaphorically, archetype, and only able come Fanon's There of certainly elements were committed national suicide. desiredthanototic characterfor the national bourgeoisie in the way in which the race advisers operatedin the target borough; ways which put them in a As the of manager said one gleefully suicide. position of organisational demiseof the race equality structures,"What did they expect?They bit the hand that fed them." S3 I don't want to belabour this point to much, but they head that the were not the were clear advisers, and of race unit, certainly There in the way. orthodox, controlling, subservient part of management, forced by, latter that upon, or role was misappropriated was potential, where This `leader' for development trope. the the of some advisory structures, key in the those race advisory staff were also authorities where was apparent Lambeth's Party. Episodes in Labour the race equality of prominent Sekyi-Otu that this to comments characteristic. programme appear exhibit Fanon arguesfor the repudiation of "linguistic conventions which sanction driver, Thus, "the is The `leader' the them. of one rule" authoritarian do (because)... longer the today.... people not exists shepherdof people no ... did hand to driven.. "954 On be the they the to conform not other need is by "intellectual Fanon turned the maquisard" who ready of picture painted to "disavow his claim to rational knowledge", "embracing populism ... (and becoming)...... a sort of yes-manwho nods assentat every word coming from the people, which he interprets as consideredjudgements. "955 Elements of the latter view with regard to the race advisers could be discerned amongst certain Black members,particularly those who professed 508 hierarchical biologically essentialist and racially a notion of and pursued `Black', and amongstsomeBlack organisationsin the community. If there is to be an analogousrole vis-ä-vis the race equality workers to be derived from Fanon's writings on the de-colonising process,then it is that intelligentsia". he for "native he to the what refers as radical outlines which These form part of a Fanonianneologism, the `illegalists'956;those who are from The the expelled mainstream nationalist parties. of and/or critical Advisers in the target borough, unlike someprominent ones in other local be be drawn into, be to to part of, the main or seen authorities always refused it if Their that, was not to a term allegiance, one could political parties. In line, but to the of race equality. principled achievement party political it by the the counter razzia, principal researcher,attachedas an appendix, can be seenthat the race adviserswere viewed with hostile suspicion by leadership: in the councillors Certainly the almost daily transgressionof the informal `ethical' framework in from local behaviour time that and to expected government employeesat informal in local this the wake of the race equality period government, framework has been formally codified into a behavioural straitjacket of a `code of conduct' by many local authorities, breach of which could lead to dismissal- led many race workers to feel that within the organisation,they intelligentsia identifies that Fanon the the `illegalists'. as the role of were but between interface the "interpreters" not only colonial, who mediate of Sekyi-Out's discourses the people. and also reformist anti-colonial, description of this role is thus: "To put it another way: the post colonial subject's education in by is be the to enabled communicative responsibility and autonomy figure that of mediation we may call the modern work of harbinger be... the the of a new modem griot would griot...... be knowledge to planted and yet and action cultural harvested.. (who is).... the `incarnated voice' of popular national .. requirements rather than the servant of the ruling class"957 The griot has a key role to play in the processof de-colonising democratisationbecausethey enable,as Sekyi-Otu correctly theorises,the following: "In the dialectical ordering of the emancipatory process and of post belong, hegemony does metonymically, to a not colonial society, privileged part, the space of the collective subject promoted to a its by the of abjection or exclusion or extremity representative status it belong does in to But that a whole exacts unanimity neither suffering. The outcome of the defiance of manifest differences and discord. `meeting' is to be neither the reign of an undivided truth nor the disarray 509 local knowledges, but the generation of a common and wills of particular disputation and concerted action: universal understandings of vocabulary of contestable claims. It is to this common vocabulary this emergent structure, rather than to a paramount subject.. .that hegemony belongs."958 Moreover the griot doesnot operateor speak from a position of `epistemic historical but, is I the case of an subject, as rather contend, which privilege', interhas be derived from "to locational the the consent, which privilege of " In the the senseused, of assembled people. subjective agreement `locational' derives from the ability to manipulate three variables - space, time and place - to prise open the interstices of the organisational structure, Black to thus people configuration, enabling and power processes culture, in If the senseof an essentialised there was no epistemic privilege, speak. subject, there was an element of epistemological standpoint; one which made in its `Black' signifying senseas the context to the experienceof use of description the If the the of with above one compares racism. epistemological structure and positioning of the race equality programme, both in relation to the wider problems of local governanceand to the Black `constituency', and also comparesit with the operational principles guiding the work of the race equality staff, then there are distinct overlaps. The race transformative to as work attempted and workers advisers equality interpreters of the discoursesof racism, i. e. the racialised forces in the in discourses their the of anti-racism, as structuresof communication, as well broadestsense,trying to use the creative tension between racialised populism local institution this to of particular and unacceptablerace reform open up far doing, In as was possible, their everyday action was as so governance. the Black discursive in the and the counter-publics of practices grounded fora therein. Habermasappearsnot to have written much about the role of `leaders' or `the intelligentsia', apart from his critique in TCA of Even then his latest work, BFN, seems,as other critics `expertisation'. have pointed out as well, to cedetoo much to the `complexity' of modern large brackets thus sectorsof society, such as out almost societies, and beyond being the practical as system, administrative managementwithin democratic control. But if one is to get a glimpse of the modern interpretive German in his in the then public spherestandsout; a own role griot practice, been has in He BFN. his implied belies pessimism practice which in interpreting the influential translating arcanepublic across and extremely debates the the overlapping contexts of grounding of philosophical spheres into the more mundanespheresof post modernism and socialism modernism, is This to try used not analogy and and social change. political everyday but his that the workers, simply to equality of race equate practice with illustrate that even at the lowly level of a local government worker, the interpretive, translating, transmuting role; one which is important in opening forces, is democratising to the potentially there. political system wider up 510 I would argue that this overlap which can be read as an analogy, or even imagination is too stretched,allegorically, is far from being a the where simple coincidence. In terms of a theoretical underpinning to the critical local assessmentof governanceinforming the race equality work in the target borough, Habermasand the Frankfurt tradition was far more overtly situated in the consciousnessof the principal researcherthan that of Fanon. Yet Fanon had featured in the early seventiesreadings of racism and colonialism, and had beenpart of the theoretical framing of the first university research,together with Habermas,on Tanzania; especially the former theorist's revalorisation and humanisation of the peasantry. It is possible that sub-consciousremembranceof previous theoretical interrogations informed the work in the target borough. However, it is likely that two other scenarioshave greater weight. The first is Sekyimore Otu's discursive communicative reading and interpretation of Fanon which contendscogently for re-situating Fanon within the pantheonof those who for an emancipatoryuniversalism which is neither relativist or argue skewedly modernising. There are, thus, within this particular reading theoretical nodal points through which linkages with Habermas' theory can be made. This is particularly so in relation to both theorists' central concern with the linguistic basesto a discursive democratising emancipation under colonising conditions. In other words the links were already there, during the period of the race equality programme. awaiting excavation, The other scenario,of course, is that my theorisation of this period as encompassinga processof de-colonisation is valid and that, thus, what is being modestly evidenced in the target borough confirms Fanon's and Habermas' theorisation of colonisation and de-colonisation in their linked but differing contexts; not as a universal truth, but as a provisional fallibilistically subject to empirical validation. prognostication The question now is how exactly can it be argued that the race equality structures enlarged and extendedthe formal systemof representative The answer to this brings into the sphereof consideration democracy? the cardinal issue of emancipation. The argumentto date has, as a brief linked level at one unresolvedproblems of race and unfinished summary, local another and at unresolved of race and governance, modernity, problems increasing democratisation. Within this can be the resolution of with inferred a processof emancipation,though that in itself has not, as yet, been fully defined. In Habermasthere is a discursive grounding to emancipation arising out of the arresting and/or over turning of the colonisation of the lifeworld through discourse. Swindal's interpretation of Habermason this is that a distinction can be made between `communicative action', which involves any exchangeof meaning, and `discourse' which the "communication that discursively verifies propositions or norms. "959 There is a difference in the orientation of the actors, as well, in the two scenarios. In the former the actor understandsher/himself as one in a group of concrete 511 interactionswith others, whilst in the latter each agrees"on the reversibility of her/his perspectiverelative to all other possible participants..... (so that they).. allow the `unforced' power of the better argument.. to motivate their . . internal changeof attitude relative to the claim in question°'960 Because, therefore, discourse"extends the context bound nature of communicative individual beyond limit form of life", discoursepermits the of one's action 061 its full "rational and emancipatorypower. communication to achieve This interpretation appearsto omit, however, from the equation the question determines the ability of actors to participate equally in the of power which discourse. These are forces, like racism and sexism, or for that matter too Euro-centric a definition of rational power, which circumscribesthe freedom freedom discursively. Attaining to to act the people participate of certain is as important as the act which that freedom then allows. If that soundstoo Foucauldian, even if it is the later Foucault, then it can be rescuedby the is freedom be that this can purchased not a which normative qualification through the unfreedom of others. This has already been expressedin my device two the of principles' procedural of non-closure which elaboration discourse freedom in that the to engage communicative essentially ensures into for In bring terms of the the of others. claims unjust exclusion cannot freedom being forward, the the two elementsput concept of emancipation to act as well as acting - are ineluctably linked. The struggle for is forced `wrongs the which against unjustly collectivisation, recognition done to', is, as I have argued before, comprised of two elements- that of identifying the problem and that of defining the solution. One can overlay this template on the two fold schemataindicated above, viz. attaining the freedom to act, as well as the act itself, where the latter can be seento refer to that of discourse. However engaging in the first part of the be is the that second will part process no guarantee emancipatory is There traversed. no guaranteethat responsesto the successfully increasing colonisation of the lifeworld, and in the real sensecolonisation just that, a violent penetration and sequestrationof the colonised was lifeworld, will result in the further rationalisation of the lifeworld. The form be framed is therefore, some and might equally, outcome contingently formed Afro-centric by `etnikly' is indigenisation, the such as exemplified of lag between is It the two stages this and action nexus within perspective. one Labour leader that the role of the griot, the organisationaltrickster, or as in the target borough, with referenceto one of the headsof the two equality importance because it, loose `a some she/hecan cannon', assumes units, put help bridge prevent unfortunate short circuiting. can which an earthing act as Within the colonisation/de-colonisation/re-colonisationconceptual framework we can turn again, by way of analogy, to Fanon's articulation of an emancipatoryprocesswhich the colonised undergoes,and this is not, as him, have the therapeutic closure read unfortunately commentators some brought about through cleansingviolence. Rather this arises out of what I 512 have termed the Black cathexis,what Sekyi-Otu reads in Fanon as the `awesometask' he `enjoins upon post colonial humanity'. It is the "appropriation of a historical legacy not of our own choosing.s962 The is is "how `appropriation' the to answer question an autonomous processof invasive " It to the of an modernity consequences possible? relationship supersedesthe ambiguous,ambivalent outcome of an emancipatoryprocess it because is into dimension "an the activity of coming one's own race sans inviolate is to to, there self no native essencesto no primal return when had how " I In the appropriation of outlined chapter an earlier recapture. the coloniser's languagehas, as an emancipatoryprocess,overlaps with Habermas' languagepragmatics,which, in turn, if read through Fanon, has Habermas critique of and counter proffering of with my overlaps translatability and transmutability, especially in Fanon's vision of converting the coloniser's languagein the service a radically "new world of perception." One of the problems addressedand posed by this episodeof appropriation is how to generatecommon meaning in the face of social and political fragmentation. Within the target borough this was addressedthrough the inclusive `Black' tological the and on epistemological signifying, use of framework to a public sphereand its constituents. It is analogousto SekyiOtu's conceptualisationof the counter hegemonic communicative action institution whose role is "to createa narrative and 'olitical spacein which "96 the local freely bespeaksthe national-universal. Yet, Sekyi-Otu reasonsthat becauseFanon's attempt to read the processof be possibly empirically refuted, that thesenarratives can appropriation democratic "processes be entry of so much as accounts of should read not into moderni y, but rather of their historical and normative conditions of 4 i. e. as counterfactualities. But this is the sensein which a "9 possibility, distinction can be made between communicative action and discourse,and, borough from from to target the the seem would evidence which, apart I Earlier democratic be that process. appropriation can read as a suggest had argued that the race equality programme, catalysedthrough the race had existed equality workers, openedup communicative spaceswhere none before so that claims for racial justice could be made. The redemption of itself did if the these claims, even not always meet these actual process discourse be based the to as outlined of principles on standards,attempted Black During the the people, programme, equality race period of above. whether employeesor membersof the public, were emboldenedto speak,to been had keep to, to they spoken only and make claims, where previously instrumental face in by the that of closure space making communicative open referenceto the council's race commitments and/or utilising the presenceof the race adviser in that particular encounter. In numerous everyday interactions acrossthe council, such as the job interview, the supervision between Black employee,the service user and manager and session between disagreement Race Adviser the encounter, and councillor employee 513 at committee meeting, the processof appropriation as a democratic process was either occurring, or the potential for it to occur was there. The term `appropriation' is apt becauseit capturesthe feeling of taking and is in this the `freedom' to act, as well as the action There reconfiguring. then arising out of that freed act. Garber, in an article exploring the city as a heroic public sphere,i. e. one in which the project of modernity can still be is that there argues pursued, within the urban spacefour types of public 965 The first is that from which people act becausetheir identities, sphere. interests etc are materially intertwined with that space. The secondis the one where people act on spacebecausethey want to own and shapeit. The third is where people want to act in space,such as pursuing an agendafor free speechin local governance. Finally the fourth public sphereis where people make space,i. e. the "expansion or multiplication of the public sphere itself. " All four can be said to apply to the situations describedabove in local governanceinvolving appropriation in which Black people act from, in, it is But not just space,becauseone of the key control on, and createspace. is in vectors racism that of creating a temporal lag which has at its core the trope of progress from sub-humanity to humanity. This can be seenover in and over again the marginalising responsesfrom state institutions to issues inequality where pathologisation through constructions of `racial of race disadvantage' feed solutions sought through measureslike `positive action traineeships'. Harmonising the time difference is as important as spacein the processof appropriation. For this reason,positive action was always held by the race advisersto be the very last resort. Becausethat latter action has inherent an moral component,as I argue the claims for of appropriation have, is far lead discursive justice likely this to to more communicative racial if But, appropriation supersedesthe conceptualisationof even action. discourseput forward by Swindal, there is still no cast iron guaranteethat these sorts of discursive communicative practices will occur. 11.27 Appropriation and Emancipation Finally one can loop back to complement and support the earlier argument through the notion of appropriation that instrumental action can be seenas ossified communicative action. Appropriation, because,as Fanon theorised, it involves a revaluation of endsand means,takes and revivifies parts of instrumental action systemsbringing them back into communicative action; and, within the specific context of race, does so in ways that are more likely to be discursive. We have already seenhow, through examplesof the disciplinary the and selections process and process,previous recruitment areasof managerial sole discretion were at key points in their processes, just from to within the formal openedup communicative action; not but from institutions, like the trade also parallel overlapping organisation, union, through the fora of Black Workers Groups. Within theseprocesses, with the catalytic agent of the griot, the common vocabulary of the discourse 514 of race equality, as developedin the target borough, vies for hegemonywith other diskoursesas expressedand pursuedthrough the formal political party and senior managers. As can be seenin the appendixedreport establishing race equality as a dominant discoursewas not easy. It could not rely on the top-down authority of the politicians and senior managersstriking the right public pose, the orthodox mantra of official race equality institutions, such as the CRE. Whilst, in the stagesof the inception of the programme public from is those quarters obviously important in creating the initial support conditions for dealing with internal organisational opposition, it can never be the only form of momentum for any race equality programme. What is given by way of succour from an authorising power can easily be taken back. In the target borough the race equality discoursewas sustainedthrough ensuring that the race equality infra-structure and programme becamethe for means opening up communicative spaces,and trying to catalytic maintaining these,acrossthe full range of local governanceresponsibilities. Returning to Habermas,appropriation imbricates with one of Habermas' between distinctions idealised forms two categorical of citizenships. Stewart draws attention to these in terms of citizenship as received distinguishable or as achieved membership, membership, as well as `power 966 In sum the distinction betweenthe two is that in over' and `power to'. "this latter organisational model, ultimately isolated individuals are subject to surveillance within a contractual relationship which regulatesan exchange functionally for benefits specified contributions .... (whilst) ...... the ... of imminent.. model emphasisesin contrast that political autonomy - as an irreducibly relational phenomenon-'is a purpose in itself, to be realised not by single persons in the private pursuit of their particular interestsbut rather by all together in an inter-subjectively sharedpraxis (where)... citizen ... by is status constituted a web of egalitarian relations of mutual 967 The difference betweenthe two theorists, and this is a recognition"'. difference which stems,I contend, from Habermas' misconceptualisationof is that "Habermas' concern with the possible and culture, race, racism liberal in irrationalist face the procedures of movementsof erosion of traditionalist nostalgia leads him to an overly conservativeposition as far as the democratisationof democracyis concerned."968 I would argue, then, that the race equality discoursepursued in the target borough sought to extend the radical implications of Habermas' conceptualisationof achieved ironically, as the only way, within the context of race, to ensure citizenship, that irrationalist forces do not predominate. This radicalised version of is in keeping citizenship more with the notion of appropriation. On active the other hand it can be, and will be, arguedthat the notion of received in the way which the organisation citizenship accords membership with through the proto-Blairite councillors and many senior managerssought to frame the acceptablelimits of employee,particularly Black employeeand those within the specific race equality field, participation in decision making. 515 But there are other democratising implications which arise from this as well. Stewart accusesHabermasof politically promoting no more than a brake he because liberalism drawing the of conservative puts on refurbished too radical an implication from his own theories. In this Stewart echoesthe Habermas McCarthy, my own, regarding seemingly over and of criticisms infatuation with systemstheories. However, there is another dimension to Stewart's critique which is germaneto this researchproject. This concerns the point I raised above to with attaining the freedom to act as well as the act itself. For Stewart "political struggle focussedon emancipatorynorms is imperatives lifeworlds but between border to and wars systems not confined is a pervasive aspectof structural hierarchies."96 He goes on to argue that Habermas' restriction of the possible parametersof radical democracyto the between civil society and the statevia the appropriaterelationship line is limiting. Habermas' impact too of weak public spheres, cumulative history in the too of the emergence particular caught up of reasoning remains "enormous does in Europe, Western the thus not recognise and of modernity late the of configurations asymmetriesof power which characterise political for "conceptualisation is To "970 the there that of need a extent modernity. diverse domination both the struggles and of the structuring of and resistance for empowermentarising therefrom. "971 On thesebasesStewart, using Blaug and Spinosaet al - and at this stagewe have to rely on his interpretation of those theorists - arguesthat Habermas' theory is incapable breakouts' the `democratic dealing experience characterise which with of basedreal politics of ordinary people trying to constitute the `power to'. This is the notion that "real democracyis not an ideal but an empirically real in breaks `that particular among people out occasionally phenomenon 972 is the to For Blaug the "' then sustain are skills required what situations. Thus, democratic the thus movement. reproduction of empowerment,and in line with the criteria of fallibilism and contingency, any written democratic "replace is ongoing cannot constitution which genuinely discursive capacity."973 For Spinosaet al this argument is extended framing type that the actually their public sphere through observation in by loss of practical expertise people engaged contributes to the democratising. For them the highest form of political discourse,rather is being than communicative rational argumentation, what they term interpretive speakingwhich is "rooted in the concrete experienceof the lifeworld. " The genesisof the idea of interpretive speaking appearsto be limitations Habermas the thinking to of race and about very much similar my This be in transmutability. translatability can seen and about my arguments Spinosaet al's three part substantiationof interpretive speaking as being it to because "forces true the to concrete remain people significant different the their and respect acknowledge sub-worlds, of experience for in their opportunities seek and sub-worlds, crossexperiences "974 from sub-worlds. other practices appropriating 516 Thesecriticisms of Habermasare valid, not becausethey identify major fault lines in his theory - indeed a radical reading of Habermas' could conceivably do but because Blaug Habermas' the arrive et still at point al appearsto have chosen,on practical grounds, the `softly-softly' range in the possible interpretations his to spectrumof own conceptualisations. For example Blaug's point about the need for skills in maintaining and sustaining the democratic momentum is underlined by the experienceI have recounted of the Black workers group in Lambeth. On the other hand it also highlights Habermas' meta-concernabout the contingency of the outcomesof increasing rationalisation, and my more prosaic point about the need to distinguish between the defining of the problem and proffering of solutions. Freedomto act doesnot guaranteefreedom as an outcome from the act itself. Even if Blaug et al's concernsderive in part from acknowledging that in an defining in democracy the globalisation, parameters of radical relation era of to the nation statebecomesincreasingly irrelevant, that does not rule out the The state as a communicative structure which arisesto resolve se. per state increasingly complex problems of social integration, need not be locationally imprisoned in historical definitions. In fact globalisation might, as Magnussonand Isin et al have argued,re-invigorate and re-emphasisethe importance of the polity in the form of the city state.975 I have arguedthat becausethe communicative conditions for race equality is inextricably tied distorting forces and attenuating which are one and the up with eradicating sametime historically unresolved social constructions and material, that the important resourcesite for the resolution of such social state, as an integrative problems, will continue to play an important role. Thus the lifeworlds, between civil society and the state,mediated relationships through public spheres,where no presumption is put on the limits of action have high for The those spheres, public still a valency race equality. within discourse in borough the the target then of race equality was not so concern be democratic break interpretation though outs, such an could with much democratising like the Black worker group movement, on moments placed but, becausethe discourseaimed at changing the institutions of local be including the trade therein, that they unions so could governance, inclusive, democratic break ins. was concernedwith substantively racially Thesewere the substanceof the border wars and counter razzias framing the hegemonic struggles betweenthe race equality discourse,aimed at tying in contexts of communicative action with decision making, and the dedemocratising diskourses,aimed at closing down communicative spacesand limiting decision making, that eventually came to predominate. One can provide a graphical illustration of the contestation acrossthe major between discourse the the of race equality programme elements of race equality and those that sought to limit or do away with race equality as a below. that project, such as political 517 PAGE NUMBERING AS ORIGINAL e-map on discourse contestation Polmps ofpresence 2L24 Transformation Practical sco eofinitiate es Deconstrudin semces krms New ofaccournabild PoM s of nssence Keaims Transformation meN ofemloo Taets ARrerammes j Practical sco eofiMiaines Neer forms ofaccountabildY Suortsstems Services Democratic resource use Race, difference, identity and semcesTheonsatioc , Public subaflems administrow sphere, and change/ i Employment Alfematire toneo-managenalism ý.Theonsation Possibility forms loerrelal ofnew ofworker-em Rebranding semcesý Consumensin :ur semces ",-ýý. ýý=s Mministratrýe sstems and praxis Labounsm asuniversalism Black lereserrt but eo no resence e diskourses Maoa erialisf coolrol erialism and neo-mana ±Frr ", f Substantroe democrabsahon /l1 Creaünq discursm spaces Main areas ofdiscourse Committee arrangements Coosukatne exercises contestation I ýIRiS Bringing incommunities employees and RE Practical inniaines Mancing the sco e of rhetoncal power ofI CataI iddiscursive role ofREworkers Participation exercises interface democratic aofuser/semce limioal state Ddereoce democracy Transformational democracy AN democracti ascomoooerrts ofdiscursne R reseaiafne democrat asall Facadina forms other ofimrohemeN /I\ luencinglchanging insins. partner Challen inmtercedin rdfh state Think local adIobal Local ones rTactical ofinrtiatnes scope ones reionaUnational il DemocrAsaion irrtemational ones 4 LG RE as rhetondcian State inte socio and rat The moral and norms Theorisafioo Local state and national LG forlabour asvehicle diskourses Cone with eoce state local state asmaoaaer Consumensation 519 These are very much categorical distinctions. What is not being implied is that thesewere the outcome of vast conspiracies,though in the eventual case of the conscious decision to downgradethe race equality programme a large degreeof `behind-closed-doors' deliberation and decision making did take place. Rather ideas and values received prominence, primarily through the from hierarchical arising power positions which enabledthe communicative information agendato be instrumentally controlled, thus facilitating the and emergenceand sustaining of certain discourses/diskourses. As indicated earlier I want to concentrateon two, that of `labourism' and that of `neomanagerialism', becausetheseare identified as those from within which the legitimation for opposition to, and eventual displacementof, the race equality discourse,came. I shall argue that these did not promote or contain expressionsof, or values which could be construedas, overt racial and racist hostility, except on the odd occasionsaround the fringes in a few skirmishes with the manual trade unions. Rather they encouragedand promoted action which, in regard to race, sought to close down communicative spacesrecently excavatedthrough the race equality programme, and/or control those spaces,and/or prevented the emergenceof further spaces,thereby de-politicising race. Further this choice of diskourse, where active choice is more evident in neo-managerialism,did not incorporate `neutralise' it Instead I that and race. coincidentally shall argue because largely adopted of a perceived need to control and managerace, was increasingly became viewed, especially after the Labour Party's which debacle in the 1987 election defeat, as a threat both to electoral legitimation and to the legitimation within the organisation of formal political power. This enabledrace to be moved out of the formal public political arenaof legitimation and to be subsumedwithin larger concernsof managementand at first a broad, all encompassinglet's-accord-equal-value-to-all-oppressions equalities approach,then more latterly, the even more distant social exclusion. 11.28 Labourism and the attempt to silence race At the inception of the race equality programme the main obstaclesto its development and implementation arosefrom the opposition emerging from be called the main promoters of the Labourist tradition, a mixture what could local branches Labour party councillors and mainly of the manual trade of unions. Towards the end of the period of the race programme the basesof the opposition to race could be seento be emerging from the growing dominancewithin the organisation of the neo-managerialistdiscourse. From 1984 to 1989 there was not so much a switch in discourse/diskourse from Labourism to neo-managerialismas a changein emphasis. In many ways Labourism came to be subsumedin neo-managerialism. 520 The way in which `labourism' is used here differs from its usagein other labourism labourism and/or and race. There are no orthodox studies of Marxist pejorative undertonesexpressinga `sighed' disapproval of the Labour Party's betrayal of the working class, or, as a variation on that failure the of `labourism' with a notion of socialism still to counterpoising be achieved.976 Neither is it a Foucauldian inspired use of `discourse' in be done `labourism' to anything said, comes and/or textualised which which 977 from Rather `labourism' is used in this the Labour Party. emanates denote labour based to a variant a social social evolution of of study research in theory type which class, as the primordial grounding for political society is for integrative the still problems, main pivot social and political social in Because, this version, the social learning evolution of society is action. labour, development to the the working class still of social still reduced if it is in status, even now a constrained, retains a subject-of-history form requiring not so much emancipationas controlled nurturing. attenuated It has a vision of socialism, but one formed within what is recognisedas the social democratic mould. It thus renouncesany attempt to overthrow the instead but to reform and control seeks of production, capitalist relations them through the democratic captureand exerciseof political power. The in is labour form from the this social concretely expressed of utopia development to welfarism which seeks attenuateand and of establishment is It for the the social and material ravagesof capitalism. compensate justice has This a conceptualisationof social working classes'pay off. Fraser's both, is to use categorisation,redistribution and recognition which based;the latter being a taken-for-granted, subliminal rather than overt is Redistribution the through the edifice of achieved primarily expression. hand, Recognition, to the the common applies on other only state. welfare background values of the lifeworlds of the white working class. Whilst by to thesevalues are maintained some extent those they exclude - the `other' - they, more pertinently in the realities of a racist multi-racial society, incorporatist to through approach and an assimmilationist succoured are by other social groups; especially where theseare claims recognition intertwined with redistributive claims as well. Assimmilationism is the labour In UK this the social communicative silencing of appropriation. be in Labour Party, the trades' to the and unions embodied came variant institutionalisation of their mutual relationship. But there is no simple interplay identified their two those with and protagonists conflation of `labourism', becausethe values they came to exemplify, and the action they democratic imbue background fabric to the social value came of sanctioned, the welfare state and public sector. The intellectual analysesof both spheres,the Labour party and the tradesunions as well as the welfare public by have been the almost absenceof any systematic to marked up now sector, it by histories the trying to to situate within of way race reference of the in has The been, those which race way spheres. of evolution and is being, 521 from the explicit parametersof the changedebatewithin the expunged current Labour Party's fast evolving stanceon local government, as well as wider national concerns,meansthat this omission is more than just over is if The New Right Labour has a vision and then question sight. programme of action which will attain no more than a society which is a refurbished version of neo-liberalism, how far off from that is Habermas' version of a refurbished liberalism.? Moreover is the logic of Habermas' "emphasis upon the need for self restraint on the part of those participating in a range of public spheres"becauseof hisfear of "the possible erosion of liberal proceduresin the face of irrationalist movementsof traditionalist nostalgia", a more sophisticatedrestatementof New Right Labour's communitarian framedfear and expunging of race from legitimation concerns? In the target borough the `labourist' approachhas been identified with a have I categorisedas later becoming the protogroup of councillors whom Blairites. These, at the start of the race equality programme, held influential positions in the leadershipof the Labour Group on council as well important holding the chairs of certain committees, such as the Personnel as Sub-Committeeand the Direct Labour Committee. The latter two were the formal political conduit through which control of all of the employment formal by The the agreement affecting workforce was exercised. policies thesecommittees to any action sanctioning the institution to reconfigure the employee-employercontractual relationship, would be key. There were, then, certain characteristicsof this group of councillors which are interesting. All were white. All had northern, working classbackgroundseven if their then current educational levels and work placed them more in the middle class bracket. That, coupled with their relative newnessto London meant that their own personal experienceof Black people, other than the Black limited. limitations These was extremely applied as well to councillors their exposureto race equality arguments,and even where they were borough's the that own race programme, to the as was case with exposed, sympathywith which they greeted such arguments. For example one of the leading councillors, Chair of the DLO committee at the start of the race described became leader the equality the council, who also of programme, into for local three the programme, at a conference, some years race advisers 07 On another authority direct labour organisations,as "the misfts. he in discussion the with advisers was quite adamantthat any kind occasion be `rainbow tolerated. A would not of a politics of a coalition' of notion few of these councillors had also, in their studentyears, been membersof Trotskyist political parties, such as the SWP. But these other political framings also permitted those councillors to try to claim the moral high ground. 522 This prioritisation of the lifeworld values of the working class, as envisioned in the heroic `Northern' sense,as the seedbed for the local discourseof labourism, was affected not just through the formal positions of the councillors concerned,but, as well, through the traditions of the manual workers' unions in the public sector all of whom in the boroughs which had startedon developing race programmes,displayed varying degreesof atavistic working classhostility to what they perceived as a form of "foreigners-taking-our-jobs." Thesetraditions were sustainedthrough the network of councillors, certain senior managersin the Direct Labour Organisation, local trade union officials and local Labour party, and informally cementeddaily in the leisure fora of the local public houses,the tradescouncils and the local Labour Club. A similar pattern of be in borough the the to the west, could observed neighbouring relationships it in I where, as shall show, resulted a blatant over expressionof racism on the part of the tradesunions concerned. In both boroughs, and too some extent in Lambeth as well, there was a connection that could be made betweenthe membership of the manual unions in local government, in local traditional white working class areasand the electability of residency from that area. In the target borough not only was the DLO councillors headquartersphysically sited in the southernpart of the borough, that part of the borough was also the hinterland for large swathesof council estatesin few brooked. in Black As Lambeth at the start of the residents were which large had initiatives, the sectors of manual and craft workforce almost a race dynastic dimension with membersand friends of families finding work through word-of-mouth recruiting. It is little wonder that in 1984 the 979 in just 5%. Black DLO people the over stood at percentageof I want to outline, briefly, how this discourseof labourism, sustainedin the target borough by the positioning of key councillors, certain senior managers and trade union officials and the closed off- to Black people and the race described discourse the communicative channels of network, as equality implementation drag the a negative of the race equality exerted on above, delay just implementation This to the was not of an attempt programme. the race equality programme. There was, consciously underpinning the discourse displace to to the act, an explicit attempt race equality reluctance labourism. discourse However, to the of more amenable as shall one with be shown, this was not done in a manner of communicative transparencyso that claims made could be deliberatedupon by all concerned. Rather, as it labourist discourse, the the was surreptitiously and sustaining of with behind doors institutional the closed of clandestinely nurtured power trying, in so doing, to avoid any possible interstices which would afford appropriation by Black people. I want to outline this arenaof discourse development by to the and creation contestation reference of the Equal Opportunities Working Party in the target borough. 523 Whilst I have made a categorical distinction betweenthe race equality discourseand the labourist diskourse, for heuristic considerations,it cannot be inferred that the race equality discourseand its proponents were unsympatheticto the trade union movement, or at a contextually more in intersection level, the uninterested of class with race and thus substantive labour influence The the of social on emancipatory concerns. race with in borough discourse the target was, after all, partially sustained equality through the communicative spacesopenedup in one of the trade union branchesthrough the developmentof the Black Workers Group. The issuesof class as well as women were part of the everyday considerationsof that group, especially as those related to black women. What the Group hostility Noachic to the of expressions opposed were and race workers were from times, certain trade unions and their officials out right racism and, at towards the race equality initiatives and Black people. Often this was interaction, language in that the occurred. when mediating of exemplified Time and spacedistancing conventionalising terminology, maintaining the `he, she' it' "othering" was common, exemplified in the favoured use of `coloured' to refer to Black people, especially those of an Afro-Caribbean background. Thesewere mainly the craft and manual trade unions. Both in had local in had, tradition the government, grown up which sets of unions joint their of memberswith and equal supervision almost an exercised in institution their trade For the on many cases, relied, example, managers. from had its information the to to which originated employees unions convey in local largest itself. Their the trade union relationship with organisation from differing be NALGO, the then can gleaned called government, interpretationsplaced upon the common description of it as a `white collar' distinction it in To the craft and manual unions was a class many union. betweenthose who sat behind desksand those who did `real' work. Whilst Officers' Government Local Association `National reflected the the title of local developing imposed been had the on original civil service model which deemed between distinction it those government, also captured a real `officers' and those who were not. This was reflected materially in differing terms and conditions for the two sets of employeeswhich saw the `officers' with the much better pay and conditions structures. Despite this development in local which the seventiesexpansionof government, a branches, Labour Party inner city mirrored the changing membershipof from them to the influx committed many of universities, of people an created The end result was a radicalisation a socialist vision. public sector within had been from inner branches in NALGO those a rather what city of Contrary form `officer the to associations'. of road comfortable, middle of Trotskyist demonisation these of as evidence the radical changes of `entryism' into local government, though many activists were quite open branch the their parties, majority of such political of membership about Labour Party boroughs, in the were members. However changing officials this obvious developing split between a widening vision of local government 524 branches in in inner NALGO many socialism, as exemplified and city local government institutions, and the more traditional labourist versions, as by differences the the and craft unions, manual exacerbated expressed which had existed before. For the latter unions it was further evidence of the NALGO. There of was one thing upon which the class nature middle influenced Trotskyist the and more activists in manual and craft unions NALGO were agreed,and that was in their macho, working class epithet dismissal of NALGO as a "mickey mouse" union. However, it was NALGO that the collective claims of previously neglected through primarily be like Black workers and women, could made to the council. groups, Further, as I have shown before, through the existence formally such group in NALGO the and was supportive of race equality programme, structures, indicative in But that the this of a council was support. of ahead many cases like form by branches this to any of retrenchmentof the wider approach decision individual be because this that or council's of public sector, whether becauseof national government initiatives. For many councillors, in the target borough, NALGO was a headache;a power structure that had to be broken. For all of thesereasonsthen, the councillors I have identified as being key in perpetuating the labourist discourse,were therefore happier One develop the to manual and craft unions. closer relations with wanting boroughs, to the the such as above context applying can seevariations of Lambeth and the two immediately adjoining the target borough on either side. Within this scenariothe initiation and developmentof the race equality had from by Race Unit the outset the explicit parametersof the programme first For involve the the trade to policy example all of unions. wanting CRE Code by defrom the the of reconstructing and unit, which, report Practice, laid out the framework for the approachto race equality and it employment contextualised thus: The Code addressesitself in part 3 to the responsibilities of Trades Unions. There are two areasof action: (a)to ensurethat individual employeesof the Council are aware of these (b)to ensure that employees engaged in Equal Opportunities negotiations with unions are aware of these. Both should be covered in the section meetings. In addition, however in it latter is that the engaged such management recommended with dual in the responsibilities placed such negotiations should make clear former, In both the employees should be employers and unions. upon encouraged to raise in their unions the expectations and lawful requirementsof the Code. It is expected that many of the employment issues raised and recommendations made, will have to be looked at in terms of Equal Opportunities initiatives i. e. race, gender, class, people with disabilities, sexual orientation. In all, the dimension of Black women 980 be an explicit component will 525 In order to give concreteexpressionto thesesentimentsthe report have because the the structure to "(a) that council should recommended include the trade unions in the equal opportunities process,and (b)regularly examine and review existing policies, proceduresand criteria.", that the following should be established: A review/monitoring committee be established on a joint develop basis help the policy; to union monitor and management/ with this committee, (i. e. Race relations Committee) to be comprised of representatives of all the unions; the Personnel Division; the specialist advisers; Black and Women's Staff Forums members. This should be seen as complementary to, but not part of, the established 98' consultation and negotiating machinery. Whilst similar review/monitoring committeeshad been establishedwith including in boroughs, GLC, degrees the none of of success other varying them had representativesfrom the organisedgroups of Black and women become Equal behind The to the thinking what was employees. Opportunities Working Party differed as well from the other boroughs. In this caseit was very much attempting to develop within the organisation,the formal influence for the structural space a mini-public spherewhich could but like the within which actors could negotiating machinery, action areas, debates. in formal their the roles and engage claims and shacklesof cast off It was envisagedthat a structure like this would not only last the duration of the equality programmes,but would provide a working model of new develop forms to an active sought which organisational communicative hopes, These de-hierarchical mode of working. consensualmode and however, reckoned without the discourseof labourism. The recommendationto establishthe Equal Opportunities Forum went 1984 in the the without any sign of middle part through relevant committees informed The that towards the advisers were year. end of of action until informally through the Chairs of the Race and Women's Committeesthat the leading councillors, identified as under girding the labourist discourse,had decided to form a similar body with only themselvesand the trades unions include: the Further, this the terms would of of reference as members. identification of all possible areasof discrimination, viz. class, gender, race, disability, the pay etc., review of status, marital orientation, sexual age, development by being the the council, of a undertaken equality measures the equal opportunities policy, revising of action, programme comprehensive the identification of the meansby which the council and tradesunions can back to to the majority the the and report action, effectivenessof review in for approval any action undertaken pursuit of the terms of reference. group What this effectively proposedwas to remove the responsibility for the Race from Women's the the and of remit programme committees equality 526 and the equality workers, and to re-position it within the closed circuit of communication and power of the selectedcouncillors, trades unions and the it In so proposing also envisageda role for the Equal majority group. Opportunities Working Party which in assumingresponsibilities for developmentalaction and negotiation, was far removed from that put forward by the Race Unit. The original proposal that was acceptedby Race Relations Committee did not seea role for membersat that level because their role could be exercisedthrough the formal political and negotiating in This initiative the to the of council. attempt suck equality structures and it behind doors in implied "service the closed was reflected, as well, control fodder for the working party" role for equality advisers and in the total from having the Black to of any reference representatives silencing omission Workers Group or Women's Group. A senior managercommentating on the proposal to include membersfrom the race and women constituent be by that this to was unlikely accepted the trade unions groups commented because"they, the trade unions were the only recognisedrepresentative bodies for all staff and..... they were capableof looking after their Black and female members."982 In a letter to the relevant Labour membersall the equality advisersthat they body, disturbed" by "extremely the pointing out of such a establishment were that they had not been formally informed and that there was a deepconcern that "this group will be making proposals for the development of equal be " The the we and yet will not represented at working party. opportunities letter went on to highlight the confusing and potentially damagingrole the proposedworking party would play. "We have made it clear to members in the past that we consider it essential to establish a broad based equal opportunities forum. The experience of other Councils, notably the G.L. C. has been that such a group is vital to the development of equal opportunities. We have proposed that such a body should consist of representativesfrom the Trade Unions, equality workers and representatives from the departmental black staff forums and women's groups. We therefore wish to re-state our advice that such a broad based group, which should be a non-negotiating body, is essential if the Council's into is be to to practice. Such a effectively put commitment equality body is essential to develop a co-ordinated approach to equal opportunities. The constitution of the present working party effectively silences the equality workers. We are not prepared to service a body at which we have no representation and therefore no right to speak. We have not even been formally notified of the working party's existence, its terms of reference or matters discussed We consider that the limited composition of the equal so far. opportunities working party, can only serve to confuse the development of equality policies and practices. It is not clear to us what the status of the new group is and how it relates to the 527 established committee structure or existing trade union negotiating machinery. "983 The responsefrom members,primarily becausethe letter had the support of the Chair of the Race relations Committee and the tacit support of the then Chief Executive, was to agreeto allow the equality advisersto participate. Even then, however, over the next six months there were numerous flash in between the the way which advisersand members,primarily over points the latter allowed the more reactionary tendenciesin the trade unions to dictate the agendaof the day and the pace of events. It becameclear that from the craft and manual workers' trade representatives, unions certain intent on using the working party as a stalling unions primarily, were It was apparentthat memberswere preparedto go along with mechanism. had further, to those to that the a this, and, unions equality advisers confirm in did help It that these samememberspersisted not marginalised role. holding up the limited equality practices of Wandsworth, then the ConservativeParty's `flagship' borough exemplifying the new right changes in local governance. This fractious context, one in which councillors and trades unions were happier looking to Conservativemodels of equality practice, whatever that boroughs, in Labour being developed those than was other run was, rather developed, had, by 1985, in the the mid working party way which very much because their to trade own attempted create unions and members primarily for leadership through through that a structure equalities role and ownership instrumentalised This discourse. the strategic and equality reconfiguring of insertion of power into that forum distorted and disrupted the communicative deliberative to process a proper prevented effectively and relationships burgeon. The networks of labourism also allowed for the working party to be by passed,thereby further reducing its formal role and capacity to that of in discussions despite having the For facade. working ongoing example a include for a a proper monitoring systemwhich would party about the need Black base if headcount, and of number seenas essential a proper mandatory from be the to established, councillors, under pressure white employeeswas the trade unions, outside of the environs of the working party agreedto a implementation back the of number of measureswhich effectively put late 1984 the by In to with go ahead a proposal a year. monitoring headcountpart of the monitoring systemwas supposedto be implemented. Without warning the members,all of them identified with the labourist discoursedecided to postpone it the night before the survey at the behestof been had in Their trades the the already made views clear unions. certain of initiatives They time as a waste of and such regarded party. working hostile it. In to that their were a veiled threat to members money, warning link fate the their to with membership possible sought which of councillors the Labour Party in the local elections, their written comments concluded: 528 "In deciding to impose monitoring on an unwilling workforce the Council took a political gamble of much greater magnitude than that breakdown from individual the of relations in the borough. resulting The fact is that the vast majority of the workforce, particularly, among the manual workers, also live in the borough. As such they reflect the views of the electorate as well as being important opinion makers it their own Community. So it is more than likely that the suspicions and concerns of the members towards ethnic monitoring which the trade union leaders in the borough attempted to pass on to you were equally the views of many voters in the local communities. We hope you were better at winning the voters to the ideas behind ethnic monitoring than you were with your own workforce." (My emphasis)984 In another sensethis confirmed the gut feeling amongstthe advisersat the time that for a number of reasons,especially the expedient one of electoral advantage,the councillors were happier cultivating the white working class constituencies. At another level it helps evidencethe existenceof the labourist discourse. The responsefrom the advisersto what was seenas a capitulation to racism was equally forthright. In an exerciseof counter discourseboth the race and women's adviserswrote to the councillors concernedas follows: "We have received notification that the proposed second monitoring head count of the target borough employees has been postponed. As equality advisers employed to advise the Council on the meansto achieving race and women's equality, we wish to register our strongestobjections to this move. Monitoring, of which this proposed exercise is but part, is one of the basic planks to achieving genuine Equality Opportunities. This particular exercise is doubly important too because it is the first to include questions on gender. We are well aware that the leadership of certain local unions opposes vehemently the whole issue of Equal Opportunities. We are also aware too that these very same unions do not represent the views of their Black and women members. Within the context therefore that one of the other planks to a successful Equal Opportunities Policy is the commitment of members to their lawful. and principled responsibilities, we are appalled that, over such a basic issue as monitoring, their appears to be an appeasementwith bodies that are institutionally racist and sexist. We are aware that the manner in which this decision was reached, including the timing, has damaged the work already begin on Equal Opportunities, and we would urge therefore that the decision is rescinded and the proposed survey carried out as soon as possible, 085 The council members concerned,for reasonsalso to do with those of expecting to be accordedcertain respectand statusbecauseof their political positions, this despitetheir avowed socialist intentions, tried, as part of the rewriting of the race equality discourse,to portray the advisers, especially the race equality ones, as being `unruly' and as therefore alienating the unions. In fact on a number of occasionsduring the life of the Working Party the leading councillors head to the attempted get of the Race Unit disciplined 529 becausethey did not like either the advice or the way in which it was proffered. However, as another reality correlate, the then Chief Executive was so appalled by the decision to postponethat he wrote as follows to the councillors: This morning I heard that at a meeting on Friday night it was agreed to defer the secondmonitoring exercise. Leaving aside the problems caused by attempting to defer an exercise like this at such a late stage, I am writing to place on record my strong disappointment and anxiety at such a move. The Council decided many years ago before I arrived that surveys of the racial composition of the workforce should be undertaken. I wont rehearsehere the reasonswhy managementinformation of this nature .is crucial to an Equal Opportunities Policy as I am sure you are familiar with the arguments. Some unions have steadfastly maintained their opposition to any monitoring. As a concessionsto this it was agreedthat the method used should be a management head count, and the first monitoring survey was completed earlier this year. The arrangements for the second exercise have all been made and monitoring was due to I can see no reason why it should not have been start today. successfully concluded. I feel that to postpone it at this late stage is not only very disruptive to the exercise but also will give the appearanceof completely undermining the Council's commitment to race equality. If exercises such as this which are fundamental to race equality and where substantial concessionshave already been made to the union, can be reversedat this late stage it will give the impression that the Council is not serious about equal opportunities and that the implementation of policies in this field is a voluntary activity. The implications of thus will be, in any view, serious and far reaching. I would therefore ask that urgent consideration be given to the exercise to continue as soon as possible986 Six months later, in the borough to the west of the target borough a similar lampooned by the manual proposal was racistly and crudely monitoring in form the of questionnairewhich askedquestionssuch as: unions "If American Indian, pleasestateyour tribe: Apache/Blackfoot/Cheyenne/Sioux? And, "Are you of mixed race: Father black, Mother white/Mother black, Father white/Father brown etc.s987 530 This questionnairewas distributed with a covering letter which came from their own Equal Opportunities Working party. The Labour run council, which in terms of demographicmake up, distribution and the evolved in be thrall to the to tested yet structures was even more political power threat of manual worker employeestranslating their opposition to council initiatives into borough electoral political choices, employment equality decidedthat the racist questionnairewas a basis for negotiation. The Black Workers Group, in that council, and the race advisers issued strong letters condemning such a move. We can see,therefore, that at the beginning of the race equality programme in the target borough, and in others, which includes Lambeth where only the direct intervention of Ted Knight prevented a similar scenariotaking place, the discourseof labourism provided the value meansto try and subvert, discourse. being in the the case examined,re-write race equality prevent, or, In the target borough this attempt at `palimpsesting' the race equality discourseis exemplified in two episodes. The first relates to the issue of from There the trades to these, targets. overtly was opposition race equality from labourist The the councillors. recommended covertly unions, and follows: issue the targets as contextualised policy on There is often a confusion in people's mind between quotas and targets. Apart from being unlawful, quotas are rooted in the "fair shares" basis is leave discriminatory The to this to to race equality. approach This in black intact, to to white. people preference and employ systems if for known discrimination. Thus is a quota example, as positive process by have is black this 25% to meet simply employees set, organisations of discrimination, through up to the proportion set. positive employing Quotas, therefore do not have to be exceeded.Such a course of action is reactionary because: * it sets a maximum ceiling * it does not address discriminatory systems and therefore institutional racism * it leads to tokenism. To summarisetherefore targets are not about: * quotas * positive discrimination * tokenistic action. However targets are about: * quantifying the desired outcome of the race equality strategy * setting this quantification within set time periods * basing this quantification upon minimum levels i. e., they can be exceeded * being the concrete outcome of a strategy which seeksto dismantle racially discriminatory systems and erect racially and socially fair 88 ones. 531 Despite this very clear situating of targetswithin a context of tackling discriminatory systemsand not simply that of being tokenistic positive discriminatory action, unions continued to representthe initiative as one of in dubious Black through people means. Whilst the getting quotasand councillors did not support theseviews, they did regard the targetting policy less determinate They being `hard'. too preferred a more vague, pliable, as be level interpretation. to open managerial and member policy which would That would be a means,in their view, to appeasethe unions. As one joint Women's it Personnel Race Relations, and at a put councillor Committees' meeting, specially convenedto agreea number of equality if don't feels "We targets that as we was one, want advice measuresof which have been struck by an axe in the middle of the forehead."989 This indeterminacy permitted the unions to continue making and ambivalence disparagingand communicative distorting claims about the equality in forum a supposedlyset up to clarify whilst participating programme issues. Earlier I had highlighted the opposition to the race equality discoursefrom the then Chief PersonnelOfficer and Chair of the Personnel Committee, one of the key movers in the sustaining of the labourist discourse. During this period of the Equal Opportunities Working Party, Committee Race Relations in agreedemployment previously one which it be for fought for in be had to to acceptedas council policy, order policies discourse, labourist because the the of countervailing claims of primarily coursesof action agreedwithin the context of that working party, were often hidden through agendasvia pursuing overturned councillors undermined or it At targets the then, when appeared of power. a stage, channels other Personnel Chief last, long the to approval, going get council policy was, at from Chair instruction, he later the the of claimed, as under officer, Personnelsub-committee,wrote a paper for the Labour Group meeting in terms targeting of one which was vague wholly new policy, a proposing in Black levels terms the of generous of employees, expected implementation time table, and non-specific in relation to accountability lines and processes. It only came to the head of the Race Unit's notice, on left had inadvertently because day that the a the meeting, senior manager of key page in the photo-copier. A Black employeewho found it and Unit. Within it in Race handed the to the the space significance recognised by Race Unit, be had briefing the to prepared papers of an afternoon counter for Black body for Labour the the the the other of group, whole one latter In that: the the the point unit emphasised councillors. "It seemsyet again that some members are prepared to give the expediency branches of certain trade unions a cosy relationship with reactionary a of higher priority than that of their supposed principled commitment to race idea. Targets Both they claim, some new radical are not, as equality. been for have in they around some time. For and practice conceptually example it is good managementpractice to set objectives, and to establish some means of evaluating whether or not after a set time they have been 532 in Employment Targets employment are an extension of that. achieved. targets are an integral part of the U. S.A. experience in Equal Opportunitiesfor its known In Britain idea the socialist politics. country not of a been has targets around since the mid seventies and ironically employment has come through personnel consultants working with private industry. One in targets the seventiessays: them about writing of "Target setting and timetables should not be used as a justification for delay in taking action. To quibble about the target or timetable would be to waste time when most organisations have not even begun to move in the right direction. Targets which can be renewed are the aim, not quotas." The question then is why supposed socialist members are indulging in for institutional blockages forward such as, other organisations when putting hardly have "socialist", American gone multinationals, which are example, further It is clear from the above that the employment targets recommended for The target borough are not that radical. They are only the beginning. If these are watered down The target borough will be even further behind"990 The result of this last minute intervention by the unit was that the Labour Officer. by Chief Personnel the the to report group agreednot proceedwith Insteadhe, through the relevant line managementstructure, was instructed to One forward. head the targets the taking the policy of unit on work with interpretation which can be placed upon this turn of events is that the `force this However, better the regarding the circumstances argument' won. of discourseclash could hardly be describedas conforming to Habermas' interpretive had The the `ideal to make griot speech' situation. vision of an intervention in absentia,relying on the interpretive force of the literally textualised argument and on the transient communicative solidarity of a Black councillors who, under other circumstances,often of small group directly hand On this disparate the action, course of other agendas. pursued been have Labour to the possible councillors, would not making claims the to the the affecting structures, communicative changes without head introduced by between the the of advisersand members, relationship labourist by The the councillors, albeit through the unit. action undertaken down these to close the surrogatedwritings of a senior manager,sought in doing, through post a strategic stealth, and so communicative channels Race Relations for labourist that, these councillors, visible marker Committee, and all it represented,was one that could be treated with non illustrate, begins disrespect. However, to this as well, episode recognising how and why the race equality discourse,grounded in the promise of the in hegemony fragile had force the a action, of communicative emancipatory target borough. It also shows, using the Labour Group as the example becausethat forum, only open to Labour Party members,was, in many in body local decision important the the arena making of policy respects, hierarchies de-colonising that within appropriation acts of of governance, break ins. democratic power are also concernedwith 533 The other episodic example of key actors within the labourist discourse,and those at their beck and call, striving to rewrite, in this caseliterally, the race equality discourse,relates to a draft equality strategy' produced by the then Chief PersonnelOfficer. Again this camewith the post facto disclaimer by that managerthat he was "acting under instructions form the Chair of the PersonnelCommittee."991 In reading the document it becameclear to the advisers,and some other senior managers,that, far from being the output of it author, appeared,rather, to be the ghostedreproduction of quite a a single few labourist voices being channelledthrough a single narrator. Its importance lies not in the impact it had on the race equality and women's discourses, because it had none, effectively being dealt with at a equality joint meeting betweenthe advisersand the report's author at which, because of the argumentsmarshalled againsthim, he had to withdraw large parts of it, and by that senior manager's own line manger who, becausehe thought it factually inaccurate,misleading and vexatious, ordered it to be withdrawn, but in the committing to paper of what can only be describedas the labourist version of equalities. Like the other strategic interventions which sought to initiatives, the this one was produced and of equality capture control intercalated into the discursive processessurrounding the equality discourses without warning. As with discoursesof this type it drew its primary strength from the `denigration' of the `other', in this casethe conventionalisation of the race equality discourseand its key actors. Despite that, it proffered glimpses of an alternative which are interesting because,at that stage,they prefaced what was to becomethe basesfor a full blown assaulton the race equality and women's equality initiatives. In briefly outlining this `neo-equality' discourse,one which can be almost describedas a proto new right Labour equality discourse,attention will be drawn to the main elements,inserting where appropriate a critical counter is from It the start of the paper that its main clear commentary. despite in `equal the term using generic opportunities' the title, protagonist, is the race equality discourse. Thus the author writes that his main area of is discrimination" "that of racial and that of the concomitant "highly address far. "992 The to the approach problem so paper was actually procedural inception in 1985, the mid one year of the race equality after written At in that there stage were race equality policies various programme. implementation, some of which were premissed positions of agreementand development the of employment procedures. However, these upon in those areasof employment managerial action were envisaged procedures before. based They none existed upon the positive embedding were where distorting and control of potential communicative forces. Perhaps of rights the author was unwittingly providing an early echo of Jay's criticism of Habermasthat his utopia was that of a utopia of procedures.993 Nevertheless the paper goes on to describerace equality as simply another organisational has for "compete to which resources..with other goals, especially the goal 534 needto maintain a good working relationship with the manual trade unions who have goals and agendasof their own."994 This, in a nutshell, was the by labourist the of race councillors, as one conceptualisation marginalising amongsta multiplicity of gaols. The Race Relations Committee, the central Race Unit and other advisershad, on the other hand, been clear from the be that should consideredas the core and sharp cutting race equality outset from local the which, organisational. substance and of which, around edge introductory deTo the conclude and reconstructed. are part of governance the paper, five motivational drivers are identified as the reason for the first Three In the which stand out. on equalities. action council pursuing identifies the the as a motivation and then marginalisation, paper compounds it legislation describing belittle the to as anti-discriminatory goeson favouring a "gradualist approachto changeas positive or reverse discrimination."995 As the senior managerchargedwith interpreting and in legislation the council, this egregiousmisreading applying of employment The for legislation the the worrying. was, advisers, anti-discriminatory of implicit in "an identifies the socialist philosophy moral obligation second in (which in the the the council.. .. approachof majority group underpinning this context)... meansequality of treatment betweenraces and sexes.."996 As the adviserswere quick to point out it actually is an explicit moral obligation in terms of the legislation, socialist or not, and that in terms of socialism, the implicit had to nuanceon equality an explicit moral componentrelating In be the acknowledged. should explicitly and gender race or not whether light of the argumentsand debatesboth generally in and around socialism, Party, institution Labour the the of political and more specifically within for implicit the that to advisers, was, consideration as an maintain attempting in labour his councillor another own senior manager,a serving and even borough, totally disingenuous. The third aspectof motivational drivers that from Black in is the the the communities was which pressure way standsout Both as an example of marginalising conceptualisationand acknowledged. functionalist reasoning the author opines that "from the point of view of the its to the avoidance of social unrest contribution perceived realities, political (as experiencedin Brixton) is perhapsone of the strongestmotivators of the target borough's policies."997 This was certainly not the motivational inspiration for the Race Advisers, Race Relations Committee, and other key discourse in the whose prime equality race public sphereparticipants be be the to the moral claims of racial of said redemption could stimulus justice. Within such a framework of instrumental reasoning,as demonstratedby what I have taken to be a textualised example of labourism, it is perhapsclear why race equality should only be warranted an implicit to. the subscribed of socialism within pantheon obligation moral It is at this stagethat the author of the paper indulges in a wild, caricatured discourse the the race equality race advisers, and the representationof it definition adheresto, as well as the analysis of British of racism supposed 535 is brought in because it. The `British' it is it term supporting used society by the report's author, but used in a way that seeksto distinguish the real inclusive lifeworld Britishness, of a common values' situation of interpretation of British society, which he and the labourist councillors have, i. lack. Notes `outsiders', the those obviously e. race advisers, at which and the time by the head of the Race Unit reveal that he viewed this particular it " "offensive" "paranoid, the summarising and report as part of badly fired Frankenstein "to the attempt create a clay so as metaphorically 98 " In the report the claim is it be that can shatteredwith an air gun pellet. from `naturally, the the that came race and women's advisers made `voluntary sector' with either a `bitter experienceof the prejudice they are fighting or at least a strong personal involvement.'999 Consequentlythese lead to difficulties within the organisation becausetheir supposed inexperiencein local government causesfrustration and despair at the slow dealing "not Organisations, to with as well, are used pace of change. do inside the conventions and protocol of not only not accept who activists 000 "' in instances the organisation but... many wish to overthrow them. Another Race Adviser summedup this position as strongly implying that "anti-racists equal anarchists". One detectsin this pasquinade,of course,a by the conflation of two caused stereotypes variation of racial the the the the on chip savage with and noble savage viz. anthropophagii, instance, in the to both together this create welded are of whom, shoulder, inability by her/his intentioned frustrated inexperienced, savage nobly naive, to come to terms with the complexity of modem local government institutions, and thus railing and flailing with her/his clubs againstthe however, bind him/her. The that to was reality, seek civilising conventions five had had All the years the on average of race advisers opposite. quite job in the local to government experience other authorities prior previous lack local displayed held. If government then of a anyone they currently from direct had been the it the recruited who report's author was experience, National Health Service where he had spent the major part of his careerup to in jobs held the labourist Further the that point. councillors, most of whom had their primary experience tertiary educational sector or voluntary sector, for back, that local through their went political office, and government of '°°' first 1982 they to them, elected. were when of many Becauseof this purported background context to the advisers,the report then flawed British they to analyses of society operatewith a goes on speculate, borough. This British is to the target then analysis of projected on which in is from is derived their which power racism of analysis society keep few hands in to try other racial groups out of who white concentrated a Race Advisers being to fact the In as their attributed what was power. definition of racism, and thus their view of British society, was a version of the Racism AwarenessTraining analytical schema. In this racism is reduced to an equation like "prejudice plus power", a position only attainable by 536 white people. Thus, the false reasoningdisplayed by the paper's author goes,the only way to changesocieties is "to seize the centresof 002 hierarchical the "' power.... and rigidly enforce authority ... to new ends. This alien view is wrong because"British society is a liberal pluralist democracyunderpinnedby conventions of acceptanceof dissent and opposition... and the target borough is far more plural than most parts of this it is 991003 But not only the adviserswho are guilty of not society! understandingor wanting to acceptthe British way of doing things because "Black people may rightly feel that the wait for progress has been too long (but)... this past delay has mainly been causedby their lack of already... willingness to overcome objections and resistance by discussionand argumentwith all concerned."1004 The advisers' responseto this, at the meeting convenedto discussthe report with its author, was that this was yet again an attempt to pathologise Black people's responseto racism by blaming them for the failings of this "liberal democracy."' 005 At another level the reduction by the report's author of the argumentto a nationalistic one, as an exclusionary differentiating technique, goes to the heart of my in Habermas' notion of the unnecessary ambivalence of critique `constitutional patriotism', and the counter need to talk only of the principles of constitutionalism. This representationed,risible pastiche of the advisers' views and the interchanging of adviserswith Black people as a homogenouswhole, so as to blame them all for the lack of progressbecausethey are, essentially,not has important communicative insights. Firstly, becausethe rational enough, Black being people not about patient or rational enough emergedat point later points from the then Chair of the Direct Labour Committee in discussionwith other councillors, it is clear that some Labour labourist here Secondly talking this were at point. none of the councillors councillors or managerconcernedhad actually bothered, despitethe fact that they had more power to do so, to open a communicative channel with the advisers about their views and analysesof racism and the wider society. This is exemplified by the fact that it was the adviserswho had to call for a discuss his it demonstrates Thirdly, level to own report. at another meeting how easyit can be for Habermas' original construction, which is one without the full consideration of the race dimension, of the conditions for rational discussion and the substanceof that rationality, to be subornedto support a racially exclusive monologue. That is to say that making a claim for all involved, be to as the report later goes on to do, without the concerned proper communicative procedural safeguardswhich prevent racism taking during deliberations, the or as a continuing outcome of those place deliberations, is not sufficient to satisfy the claims of racial justice. Certainly both the way in which this labourist argument was constructed,and the way in which it was brought forward as a claim, are redolent of breach They closure. one of the two principles I theorised communicative 537 device i. to the of non-closure, e. "such procedural earlier relating if communicativeprocessescannot close the outcome disadvantagesthose future in that contributes at or some and point to the question participants breachingof the principles of communicative discourse." But this sort of closure is precisely what the report, in representingthe discourseof labourism, goes on to advocate. In the final section an is is alternative equality strategy outlined which then recommendedas the ipso facto, the the to equality and, race programme, one replace has four discourse. This down the of race equality communicative shut based brief hagiography of the main which are on a main recommendations labourist councillors, with their modus operandi serving as the `philosophical' basesto those recommendations. Thus it is related that the Committee Personnel Chair Vice-Chair the then the and of approachof - and in the latter casethat vice chair was also chair of the Direct Labour Committee - has been the most successfulin involving all the employees becauseit has involved all the unions. The manual unions, in particular, had always arguedthat they had been left off the equality agenda,and the borough in `pluralist the target the nature' of power councillors, recognising been had branches local fact In including the them. manual workers were first initiatives, the the such as earlier attemptsat equality consultedabout head count monitoring exercise. Further their own unions had begun to tackle the issue of equalities nationally through the appointment of specialist Nevertheless development this the policies. of and advisers equality involvement of all people was premissedupon Black people not displaying a `lack of willingness to overcome objections and resistanceby discussionand be based To ' that the upon: strategywould end argument. Having the Equal Opportunities Working Party, as set up by the labourist councillors, as "the major focus for improvementstowards in " employment. equality f Arguing, by allowing the inference to be drawn, for the Black and Women's groups in the departmentsto be shut down because"there is feelings lead to that these of resentmentand groups some evidence (by, being treatment amongstothers)... white afforded ... special males.." f Ending the developmentof more equality policies f Concentrating the equality resourceson the Direct Labour 006 Organisation f Despite the supposedcommitment to having `all involved', all this strategy hijacking been have have the of the equality achievedwould would Direct Labour, them through personnel and re-routing and programmes, doing likewise. In the all of the other multiple so control shifting 538 communicative points of entry into the race equality discourse- the Race Relations Committee, the Black worker groups, the Black communities, the RaceAdvisers, the actors and developmentsin the public spheresupporting the race equality discourse,would effectively be sealedoff. It is clear that that discourse,and those primarily making claims for and through it, i. e. Black people were seenas disruptive, threatening perhapsthe renewal of a , legitimating constituency for the labourist councillors. Both from these from the senior managerwho `authored' the above quoted and councillors, report, came a strongly voiced sentimentthe race equality programme, and Over that first year those the advisers,had to be more strongly controlled. samelabourist councillors, on a number of occasions,usually at the same time that requestswere being made for the head of the race unit to be disciplined, also made requeststo the senior managersconcernedfor the race equality programme to be more `effectively managedand controlled.' Those managerswere, at thosejunctures, quick to point out that they, i. e. the Labour councillors, had agreedto the policy whereby the Race Advisers direct, interface managerially uninterrupted communicative could open a labourist These the the same politicians. councillors associated with with discourse,despite having beenparty to the decision affecting the communicative structural location of the race equality workers, then pursued back Race Advisers this to the via the and was conveyed a parallel strategythen Chair of the Race Relations Committee - in the Labour Group of its basis Unit have instituted Race the the to and a review of on work seeking that `it was not delivering'. It can be said, as part of the evidence of my fragile from late discourse had hegemony, that the that equality a race claim 1985 onwards the Race Equality Unit, Advisers, Black workers, certain Black councillors, and others in the race equality discourse's public sphere had to fight a number of rearguardbattles at attempts,primarily through calls for a review launched in the communicative closed forum that was the Labour group in the target borough, to close down the race equality Within Labour Group, by 1985, the that the same of end programme. labourist the councillors to re-write and control the race equality of efforts discoursehad failed primarily becausethe communicative force of the spaces like including in institution, the the griot and channelsopenedup interventions by the race advisers into the political domain of the Group, discourse's that attenuation. prevented By the end of 1985, and in the run up to the April/May 1986 local it be boroughs, London can said that the race government elections affecting in had, discourse borough therefore, managedto attain a the target equality degreeof organisational hegemony. It can be arguedthat the discourseof labourism's key participants attemptedto make claims for racial justice on behalf of Black people in trying to write an equality strategy and implement it, but because"the relationship between evaluativejudgements and is, between judgements, that competing conceptions of the good normative 539 judgements hand, justice the society, on one and about and its implementation, on the other" was effectively conflated with a paternalistic `shepherding' of white working class interests,their "claim to rationality in this dispute about proposed collective arrangements"failed. It did so becausethe claim, in that form did not make them intersubjectively but to only partially so. One can contrast the responsible all others, `democraticbreak-in' approachto communicative participation which arose from the race equality discoursewith the `democratic limitation' mode of labourism, that despite their facadic claims to want to involve all. Further the implied new way of `doing administrative things' which is flagged up by their ostensiblerecognition of a plurality of power in the target borough and of wanting to involve the trade unions, is contradicted by their pursuit of traditional, hierarchical power configurations so that institutional violence, in the shapeof the employment disciplinary process,can be meted out to some RaceAdvisers becausethose councillors did not like being told that certain coursesof action they wished to pursue would be an abrogation of their statedrace equality responsibilities. Values, meansand ends is a issue in the emergenceof neowhich resurfaces again substantive in borough. local May 1986, By the target the time the of managerialism half initial to two the after one and a years some policy and elections, procedurerecommendationswere first acceptedby the race relations despite labourist and attemptsto subvert these,the crucial committee, had been the to equality race programme acceptedas overall elements being implemented. included This the supposed and were council policy implementing the equality targets' and associated of vexed question being finally Despite `imposed' and processes. on the systems monitoring local leadership of the manual worker unions, their promised countervailing threat of electoral damage,did not emerge. Instead the Labour party was increased in 1986 the an number councillors elections. of returned with The Equal Opportunities Working Party was quietly wound up, not by the by for forum in its but the a original conception, adviserswho still wished in longer trying to control the strategic merit no saw any who councillors body. discourse through such a race equality 11.29 Neo-managerialism and race: attempting to reconstruct the discourse of sameness The immediate post 1985period saw the consolidation of the race equality discourseand programme in the target borough. Partially this was because the communicative openings developedwithin the administrative and for force justice the to be moral claims of racial systems allowed political framework This for evolving made acrossmultiple points and sites. facilitating acts of appropriation also ensuredthat the argumentsfor agreeing the initial phaseof the race equality programme was won against the counter instrumentalised tactics of those pursuing the labourist and arguments 540 discourse. However the 1986 local elections' and the subsequent1987 national elections' processescauseda strategic hiatus to develop in the attention Labour councillors could give to the race equality programme becausemuch of their time was spent on trying to ensureLabour dominance in both. In terms of the 1986 local elections, the race equality programme further discourse was strengthenedby the request of the Chair and vice and Chair of the Race Relations Committee, in the run up to those elections, for the head of the Race Unit and some of the Race Advisers to assist, informally, in the drafting of the relevant section of the manifesto of the local Labour Party relating to race equality. Without claiming any cause it is interesting to note that Labour was returned with effect relationship, and an increasednumber of councillors, including a few more Black councillors. One of the reasonsfor the communicative shut down threats on the part of the labourist councillors, i. e. that race would prove to be an electoral disadvantage,was shown, therefore, probably to be wrong. However, this does not mean that at this time in the target borough, the local discourse labourism's the that the actors and elections, of of aftermath developing discourse disappeared. In the race equality arguments against fact the 1986 intake of Labour councillors showed an increase in the number local be 1986 described labourist. The those elections post as who could of leadership of the Labour Group reflected this with the previous Chair of the Direct Labour Committee, and a prominent councillor in the labourist discourse, became Leader. Other labourist councillors either retained their Personnel Committee, Chair the the or of as with previous positions, key There Chairships the of council committees. was as well a assumed few prominent councillors, all of whom were supportive of the race equality included Race did This Chair the the of who not stand again. programme, Relations Committee who can be credited with being the main force behind Whilst there the creation of the central Race Unit and Race Committee. increased Black councillors, not all of these were number of were an For to the example one, or structures. race equality programme sympathetic in a previous role as head of a local ethnic based voluntary organisation, had been involved in dubious practices relating to an application for grant money from the Race Relations Committee. The subsequent refusal of his being despite did him Race Unit. Another, to the not endear application involved in the plagiarisation of the Unit's Equality Target's Policy for interpretation biologically local reductionist authority, pursued a of another `Black', in this case conflating it solely with Afro-Caribbean, as a basis for hostility towards the Unit's members of staff who were regarded as not being Black enough. A third had been a previous member of a Militant type Trotskyist political organisation and still harboured a plethoric hostility towards what he regarded as the elevation of race above the primordial location of societal change, i. e. class. Unlike the previous group of Black councillors, with whom the equality advisers and the Black workers had 541 beenable to develop episodesof temporary participatory and decisionistic action basedon the solidaristic, inter-subjective framework of `Black' as a forms cognitive signifier, such of action was to prove more difficult with the new group of Black councillors. Black councillors faced a number of least is pressures, not contradictory of which being prefixed with the identifier `Black'. Some,and there were a few in the target borough, eschewedsuch categorisationspreferring to be thought of simply as a Those identification the who appropriated councillor. of `Black' made claims at the sametime about having a constituency over and above that of the membersof the electoral ward who electedthem. These other constituentswho were also representedwere those of the Black in These were, many cases,rhetorical constituenciesbecause communities. few of these councillors had bothered to develop supplementalaccountability structuresand processeswith theseother constituents. Formal firmly remained with the political party of which they were accountability membersand which was the actual organisational body that got elected. Apart, then, from the first Chair of the Race Relations Committee in the target borough, none of the Black councillors had either a prominent community profile, prior to being elected,or any kind of activist basein the local Black communities. Any degreeof community conspicuousnesswas becoming Labour The of councillor. as a result a referenceabove attained to temporary episodesof solidarity is an acknowledgementthat the force of action under the umbrella of `Black' could be easily communicative instrumentalised force by the of political party career subverted discipline. Black in There the second or were councillors, advancement, initial support of the race equality programme, expressedalso wave, whose in the frequent contact with the Race Advisers, waned with the offer, and Chair Chair of vice and positions of various council acceptance, subsequent itself in interposing Often this the manifested of the committees. hierarchicalising distancing device "meprotocol of and communicative The advisersusedto refer to this process,whereby member-you-officer" the initial enthusiasticsupport for race equality, often loudly voiced by new Black councillors, tails off during and after the political market deals by "being the suckered appointment of committee positions, as surrounding the system." With the new Black councillors, then, there was a greater key in local Black the participants solidaristic work of with other chance de-legitimating For being disrupted tactics. through sphere public Trotskyist had the persuasion, mentioned councillor of above, who example, in local dispute Labour Party long had the with the a running political also Committee, Chair Race Relations the was quite prepared to enter of previous labourist the councillors to support, as a `Black with an unholy alliance Race Equality Unit for the of and Race Relations calls a review councillor', 1007 The formal political context then to the race equality Committee. local in those the elections was not as conducive to the wake of programme initiatives, if the momentum for opening up the even of race equality support 542 in interstices the of the organisation was of communicative spaces developing as a result of that programme. I want to argue, now, that the discourseof labourism did not go away, incorporate its discourse. Rather it to the race equality attempt especially was absorbedby the discourseof neo-managerialism,and, in turn, transformed by that absorption, into a skewed universalising, depoliticising discourse. In so doing it representeda new responseby a social democratic had been the to the traditional post utopia of welfarism, which political party harm inflicted to the on the compromise world war emancipatory second working class by the capitalist system. It also represented,equally, a justice. de-utopianise In the target the to claims of racial attempt renewed borough the threat of racial fear was as important, if not more important, in the attempts to reconfigure the relationship betweenthe formal political development local The the system, and civil society. administrative sphere, involving deliberate discourse the this choice was explicit and conscious, of of a course of action over and above others which were considered. Included in these others were a radical variant of the social labour argument, discourses. The by the those race and women's equality represented and focussed I for this primarily on the most choice, shall argue, reasons level to effective and expedient means enhanceand securesecondary legitimation for the local Labour Party in the target borough. These Any Group. however, Labour to the only considerationsextended, had did take that who a concern, occurred post place with others consultation facto; and then only with those within the labourist public sphere,like the form limiting This communicatively closing and manual and craft unions. involve did Black decision the than people, other making not of political Black councillors, or seekto use the communicative networks established through the race equality discoursein any kind of attempt to securethe equal in Rather deliberations. Black the people participation of a wider group of this new universalising discourseat first ran parallel with the equality ones, I This, to them. then shall argue, was part of a calculated absorb sought and local level, `reasoned' Labour Party this the the which at part of move, on important far than that of trying to the that maintaining more white vote was bring in Black people on a full, equal and inclusive basis. In my summary I beginning key this the theoretical the of chapter complementsat of by formation "the this consensus of configuration as recasting portrayed damage be to that the excluded without much marginalised could calculating the government's acceptance." The nomenclature"neo-managerialism" is used to distinguish that process from what can be termed the traditional, public sector form of management. As I argued in the overview, managementhas, since the sixties, been a local issue This issue has the governance. of within sphere recurring in distinction between been framed terms the management of a always 543 bad in local cast government, as according to changing criteria, processes dynamic, the that cast as and private sector, good and thus for the of and local in line `managerialise' latter. This has to the government with need importation in the of private sector managementtechniques periodic resulted into local government, as evidencedby the corporate managementideology highlighted in Cockburn's the and analysesof Lambeth. seventies, of However, there were two characteristicswhich distinguishes the early local `managerialise' to government, and the period I have attempts describedas neo-managerialism. The first is that the solution of local had, to government up to the mid management perceived problems of been by Management, proffered national government. as always eighties, by local Certainly, issue, hardly taken up politicians. was ever an explicit in boroughs have I the radical of the early eighties there were no shown, as from kind deto any of socialist view and reconstruct management attempts i. Dearlove Rather, to end, an e. as argues,managementwas a means point. furthering the "cause of the proletariat." There are elementsof this justification in the discourseof labourism pursued in the target borough. Secondlythe introduction of new managementtechniqueswas piecemeal, instead, lack local the the of political will, and permitting, reflecting perhaps, in having discretionary key the senior managers prerogative of exerciseof the surrogatepower to introduce different systems. Within the target borough, at the beginning of the race equality initiative, I had describedthe in being inchoate the practices of and still mired as stateof management traditional management. This reflects Dearlove's description of such "incrementalism; muddling through; satisficing; as, management fragmentation; specialist management;professionalism; vaguenessof limited failure the to the analysis of explicit; make policies objectives and alternatives; short term planning; the absenceof monitoring and review of 1008 " performance. The period of `neo-managerialism'within the context of local governancein the target borough, on the other hand, has, I contend, a number of key distinguishing characteristics. Firstly it was introduced by and received the full stewardship of the local politicians running the council. Secondly it was introduced as a technical solution to what was a perceived political from be legitimation i. to the the accruing costs seen recouping of e. problem, from local the race and government on onslaught government national its internal Thirdly universalist assumptionsare equality programme. including being to applicable all areas, universally explicitly championedas is Fourthly the this explicitness overt part of a related equalities. best "neutral", the this meansto achieve the and processas presentationof Fifthly this universalisation of and economy. efficacy of efficiency, goals `management the to of management' of process rise managementgives discourse, through a panoply of training and as a managerialism, whereby including interventions, `manager' the explicit validation of vocational 544 through academictype qualifications. Sixthly this universalisation of neomanagerialismpunishesthe "pursuit of competing agendas', counter instead, pursuing, a limited, reductionist range of techniquesand forms of `expertisation' which are deemedsuitable for all types of occasions. All six characteristicsgive rise to the discourse,including the actors therein, becoming consciousof itself as management. Managers in local longer are government no recognisedas such simply becausethey hold hierarchical positions of power over people and resources. Instead competencyand capability have to be explicitly demonstratedthrough the if demonstration to, the not of, knowledge and experienceof particular claim managerialtechniques,e.g. performancemanagement The introduction and pursuit of the race equality programme in the target borough through the race equality discoursewas not done without any referenceto management. In fact it can be argued, and shown, that the race basis for both first bringing into focus the the was equality programme pertinent issue of management,especially in relation to the achievementof for introducing, its through and objectives, anti-racist programmes equality and allied policies, a systemised,explicit form of management. This `pro-active' a stance,as well as meansof evaluating and reviewing required action all of which had to be inclusive of the participation of Black people. It was a form of performancemanagement,but one in which accountability fora. but deliberative to tied to a management accounting system, was not In this it pre-datedAlvesson and Willmott's articulation of the aim of critical theory vis-a-vis management,which is not "to indulge in the Utopian project from hierachy... from the other or separation of management of eliminating forms of work", but, ".. to foster the developmentof organisationsin which less distorted by are progressively socially oppressive, communications .. is dimension Additionally "1009 there the relations of power. asymmetrical brought to - if one temporarily brackets out `management'-'getting things done' which is exemplified in the processesand practices of the race equality in for 1985 Thus, the the the municipal year example, at end of structures. Head of the Race Unit produced a review of the previous year's work and 10'° in borough. This, the target equality prefaced, the progress on race departmental "problems the that the observation on progress with section facing the implementation of race equality in Departmentsare a ... immanent in those the managementstructure and of combination institutional racism.... (where)..the former is a good breeding ground for the latter."1011 It went on to diagnosea "lack of good basic managementskills issue deal the to of race equality", and that the effectively with necessary target borough "appears still to be operating in the 1960's... and not that 1012 local 1980's. ', authority of the expectedof an avowed progressive Solutions were offered to the identified problems in terms of both developing the appropriatepolicy and review systemsas well as the need to "make managementmore accountableto council policy.. more specifically . 545 to thosewho suffer from racism; giving accessto those who experience racism to the decision making forums with power; and ensuring that resource 013 is built into decisions"' involving the participation of those allocation Black people. Within the context of the race equality discourseand the operational principles outlined guiding the practice of the Race Advisers, it can be seen that appropriating interventions in managementpractice and structureswere very much part of work. Theseinterventions attemptedto achieve a These of aims. were to: uphold the legal and organisational rights number of employees,especially Black employees,emphasiseand reinforce that `management',generally and specifically within the target borough, have particular social and political histories; undermine, therefore, the shibboleth that managershave a `divine right to manage'; initiate and sustain deliberative fora around the axis of racial justice in key parts communicative decision procedures and making processes;contextualise, of management therefore, and diminish managerial discretion in the to want to discriminate; for forms be the catalyst alternative political of accountability of and Under the aegis of the race equality programme appropriate managers. designed for training packages were also managersand other equality employees. Taken together, this race equality focussedattempt to human in to the management strived situate managers actors as reconstruct local political and environments of governancewhere race real social This a priority. meant rethinking their power relationship with was equality the employeesthey managed,and with the communities they were employed to `serve'. At the time the unit coined a neologism to try to describethe just `cyborgs' being This transformation that as attempted. was managerial described be as technologically enhancedorganisms,so the aim was to could develop `equorgs', or equality enhancedmanagers. Backing this up was the example being shown by the new patterns of working and new by being organisational power usageand negotiation shown relationships of the race equality structures. This has been outlined earlier in the section on the overview of the race equality programme, and in my arguments `griot' the the use of analogy to situate the race advisers. surrounding Gauging the successor not of theseattemptsat managerial transformation difficult if by the conventional organisational meansof one went prove could because The Race Advisers, of the nature of the work and measurement. the way in which that was operationalisedin the target borough, were always Whilst the quality of the work was grudgingly recognisedby attack. under in in further development in the the the which centre, way senior managers the organisation was pursued by that group of workers was deemed "unsmiling. " This latter term is used to exemplify the more general feeling in by the complaint one senior managerthat the which was essentialised Head of the Race Unit "never smiled." This perhapsexpressedthe intimated, but unvoiced feeling that Race Advisers would be primarily 546 engagedin hand holding race relations type exerciseswith management. On the other hand it attests,as well, to the way in which the recursive anthropophagii, in this case`too much attitude', mal-structures any potential inter-subjective relationship through casting doubt on one or more of the three validity claims underpinning speechacts. For the advisers, and other race equality workers, the measureof success,however, was to be evaluated by the extent to which Black people felt able to launch their own acts of appropriation. Thus, within the organisation,the increasein the number of grievance complaints, or harassmentcomplaints, or group complaints by Black employees,was taken as a sign that those employeesfelt confident enoughto embark on coursesof action which previously would have been seen,and dealt with, as acts of institutional suicide. Externally the increase in the number of Black people and their organisationsmaking representationsto the council over matters of racial justice, or resources,or both, were taken as signs that the discretionary powers of the organisation, devolved through their managers,to discriminate in any way, was being broken down. I want to show now, by referenceto key documents,how the discourse/diskourseof neo-managerialismwas consciously introduced into the target borough as a meansto renew the legitimation basesof the local Labour Party vis-ä-vis local governance. The processof this renewal depoliticisation involve the of the administrative systemthrough the would over valorization of `managerialism' as the only recognisedvalue context therein, and the linked re-emphasisof the formal political systemas the only for Whilst the this move can act politically. which ostensiblereason one increasing by to the as a pragmatic attempts the response was portrayed Conservativenational governmentto control and restructure further local documents show clearly that the racial fear of losing the government, allied if In an equal, played not greater, part. vote many ways the white introduction of the discourseof neo-managerialisminto the target borough in Fairclough's to thinking the about way which organisationsand conforms institutions displayed the transparentneed to control discoursesat the close i. bring in "to the e. eighties, about changes discoursepractices as part of of the engineering of social and cultural change.....a `technologization of 1014 The documentsreferred to were the crucial policy papers discourse"'. drafted by the then Leader of the ruling Labour group on the council in responseto the then perceived `crisis', and the counter discursive responses from the central Race Unit and other participants in the local Black public like Black Workers This Group. the particular councillor was a key sphere, in labourist discourse, the and one of the prime movers at the `behind player doors' in to attempts rein the race equality programme. What was closed in borough, this time, the target at was the willingness of the Leader unusual, of the Labour Group to commit ideasto paper. Whilst some senior managers,like the Chief Executive, or other senior managerswho might 547 have dual Labour Party membership/councilofficer hats, might be involved in the consultation and drafting of such papers,normally the restricted and closed communicative channelswithin which such papers are drafted and developedwere maintained. It was equally unusual, therefore, for a critical commentaryto be provided by what was no more than a third tier officer, i. e. from the third top `managerial' rung in the hierarchy, and, who was one further more, for that commentaryto be circulated to the whole Labour Group in an attempt to persuadethem otherwise. But this is precisely the basis upon which the head of the Race Unit, utilising the communicative channelsopenedthrough the race equality structures,tried to counter the diskourserazzias with repulsing acts of discursive appropriation. As far as possible, I will allow the papersand counter discoursesto speak for themselves;or, more relevantly within the theoretical context of this research project, to speakto each other. The production of thesepolicy papers,which set the framework for the introduction of a technologisedneo-managerialistdiscourseinto the target borough, and their discursive, antithetic rebuttal, through the ability of the race equality advisersto engagein acts of communicative appropriation, further contextualisation. At one level, as the drama is unfolded, requires it provides a glimpse into the emancipatorypossibilities of a fully fledged discursively framed democracyof difference, as envisagedby Dryzek. Further contextualisation of that time, the period of the mid eighties up to 1987,will provide a brief overview of the pressuresfor changebeing brought to bear on local government. 11.30 Neo-managerialist Context As I have argued in Chapter 5, the Conservative national government of the time had distinct plans with regard to the welfare state, and inter alia, local government which was still a major controller of, and provider of welfare back Whilst ostensibly portrayed as rolling and cutting the costs services. for her/his individual the the more responsible welfare state, and making of intention levels. be two the substantial read can at complementary welfare, The first was the transfer of legitimation costs of local governanceto the bringing level it thereby within the control and remit of national national in Legitimation was reconfigured terms of `good government. housekeeping' which for local government was epitomised in the core for i. them, e. the three `E's', economy, managementaccounting aims written efficiency and effectiveness. The secondcomplementarylevel is a shadowing one of technical learning for dominance and has to do with racial fear as a motivator for wanting to depoliticise local governance. It is re-colonisation through the displacementand replacementof political spaceswith administrative 548 systems. Whilst, at this time, the national government appearedquite happy to sponsor,and even indulge in, attacks on the `profligacy' and `lunacy' of Labour run councils' equality initiatives, it was also happy, in a direct funds to towards `on the ground' race initiatives. state quieter way, For example, the principal researcherwhilst working in Lambeth, had to deal in fund Section 11 the Home Office. the the officials administering with They were very clear, especially in the aftermath of 1981, that, despite the 1966legislation's restricting criteria, the money could be spent on a variety including those with an anti-racist remit. There was of race related posts, for local CRE, CRCs. However, given through the as well, encouragement, the marginalising, intermediary construction of section 11 and community it is reasonableto supposethat a substantial element of councils, relations "indirect rule through `native' structures" type thinking lay behind this twin incompatibility. the appearance of mutual with strategy This processof the nationalisation, if you like, of local government legitimation through depoliticisation, presenteditself in a number of legislatively backed. There initiated them strategies,many of government both local funds through to the government available reduction of was decreasingthe amount of government grant available and at the sametime limiting the amount that could be raised through local rates. There was the `quangoisation' of welfare serviceswhereby servicespreviously under the body was shifted to one made up of government a political of control GLC's Many the servicesendedup with this arrangement of appointees. if for There the example, was opting out scenariowhereby, post abolition. local residentsof a local government housing estateso voted, they could 1015 housing There was the privatisation transfer control to a association. legislation in tendering the compulsory competitive processexemplified (CCT) whereby, on a rolling programme basis determinedby national local have be to to tranches out put of government services government, 6 10 However, tender in competition with potential private sector providers. there was, as well, another aspectto government intervention which sought, local the to content of and restructure managerial again, re-focus government. There were two overlapping strategiesto this refocussing and restructuring, both of them basedin private sector managerial ideologies. The first was to local the government managementa quintessence of establish as is base in usage solely evaluated which resource managementaccounting through the three `E's' -economy, efficiency and effectiveness. The it in this through to a number of managerial wrapping secondwas support initiatives aimed at securing a value and culture changeboth within the In the to themselves. early mid eighties this part managers and organisation local in interventions the governancewas spearheadedby government's of the Audit Commission. In terms of its own description of its activities: 549 The Audit Commission was established in 1983 to appoint and regulate the District external auditors of local authorities in England and Wales. Auditors were first appointed in the 1840s to inspect the accounts of Auditors ensured that safeguards authorities administering the Poor Law. were in place against fraud and corruption and that local rates were being used for the purposes intended. The founding principles remain as relevant today as they were 150 years ago. Public funds need to be used wisely, as in as accordance with the law. The task of today's auditors is to assess well expenditure, not just for probity and regularity, but for value for money as 1017 well. It is the added `value for money' element of the remit that provides the grounding for the Commission's management accounting focussed interventions into local There are other parts of governance. managerial this statement which are value laden, yet pose as commonsensical, taken-forfunds `facts', "public This begs such as need to be used wisely". granted the question about who decides the criteria for defining `wisely, and, more importantly, how those criteria are developed. That is, it elides the issue of democracy. One of the first managerialist forays into local governance launched by the Audit Commission in 1984, was to promote uncritically the findings of the then newly published American management book, "In Search of Excellence, "'o'8 as the managerial discernments to be followed by This was picked up by the Local Government Training local government. Board, (LGTB), later to become the Local Government Management Board, (LGMB), a body funded by local authorities and whose brief was to devise improvement interventions for local In practise a authorities. appropriate joint venture with John Stewart of the Birmingham University based Institute for Local Government Studies (INLOGOV), a series of seminars for senior in local in These, government was organised. a mild criticism of managers the Audit Commission, attempted to make "In Search of Excellence" more for It local the and relevant sector, public especially government. palatable between American to reach a pragmatic compromise attempt an was an The UK localist local and a government. version of managerial solution in LGTB "Excellence Local the contained publication, and result, Government", unfortunately owed a greater intellectual debt to `Excellence', than to Stewart's then nascent attempts to develop a localist paradigm for 1019 This bears on Dearlove's criticism of university local governance. basedlocal governancebodies, like INLOGOV and its leading acolyte Stewart, whom he describesas acting as if they are limply the "servants of 1020 power". 11.31 Neo-managerialism in the Target Borough In the target borough `Excellence' formally enteredthe considerationsof Personnel the Division, which through the training of section managers document LGTB the referred to above, and through the circulated 550 intervention of the then Leader in the Chief Officers' Team Meeting. This described labourist the above. At one of the councillor oriented was invited he in 1987 to speakabout the managerial was meetings early direction he wanted the council to go in. This, he achieved by comparing the content of two books. The first, which he misrepresentedby caricature, 102 Way Run Railroad". "What This to a a entitled, was was a slim volume from left, from the the too mistakes arising of organisational a critique, based in interpretation and application of collective working an simplistic highly `excellence' Whilst the school of critical of organisations. dismiss but forward it did the tout management court, put not management, be defined "crude that should not as power or authority, management view but as relative authority which is neededif complex tasks are to be carried be)... "1°22 It (and to the was whole. should accountable which out.... however, being by Leader the the then need statement about as a portrayed, for collective working. The other book was "In Searchof Excellence." The latter was held up as the way forward. In terms of the audience,all the Chief Officers and the two headsof the two equality units, it was only the headsof the two equality units who criticised the approach,pointing out that his misrepresentationhad createda straw dog which could be easily torched. Further, it was also pointed out, there were other sourcesof local local to authority, socialist government renewal, more amenable an avowed Finally like Stewart. Hogget, be and even accessed, which could `Excellence' was heavily criticised by the headsof the Race and Women's Units for its complete lack of any kind of equality dimension. At this point in discourse the beginnings neo-managerialism over an overt clash the of leadership the borough to and senior target were starting emerge,with key hand, the the participants equality advisers and one and management,on in the local public spheres,on the other. late key findings is distillation Excellence" the Search "In of a of of by into American the the top undertaken companies seventies research key the Waterman. In Peters a near sycophantic summary of and authors, interrogative question, Stewart, in the LGTB paper, says that the "question do is " This "what is beautifully excellent run corporations simple. posed.. . have in common which distinguishes them from less well run corporations? 023 The answer comes down to What is the secret of their excellence? "' These key are: attributes. eight 1.Bias for Action i. e. do it, fix it, try it. 2. Closeness to the Customer i.e. listen intently and regularly to the in and reliability response to the service customer and provide quality, customer need 3.Autonomy and Entrepreneurship i. e. innovation and risk taking as en doing things rather than conformity and conversation. of expectedway 551 4. Productivi through People i.e. employees are seen as the source of quality and productivity S.Hands-on, value drivers i. e. the basic philosophy of the organisation is well-defined and articulated 6.Stick to the Knitting i. e. Stay close'to what you can do well 7.Single form lean staff i. e.- structural arrangements and systems' are simple with small headquartersstaff 8.Simultaneous loose-tight properties i.e. centralised control of values, but operational decentralisation.'°24 As Stewart summarises,the implications of these attributes are, "a central feature of excellent businesscorporations are the component beliefs and 025 its "' The role then of managersis the cultures. sharedvalues within managementof culture. This involves, opines Stewart, "revolutionary in local define the their own role."1°26 most government way officers change This `revolutionary change' applies only, initially to senior managers. From be identified a "strong leader" who, in the initial stages these will amongst drive determination "provide the and and the core values and strategic will, is " But to the that meaning company's activities. only vision which give ideas be built `Excellence' These have the to equation. and values of part into "the organisation's structuresand information systems,into its its incentive " into systems. and socialisation systems, reward and recruitment Taken together, and they have to be taken together, thesetwo features developing holistic in The `excellence' to solution a organisations. present in its for first to that time time the quick point out at a were when, advisers history, the institutions of local governancewere being openedup to a from local the values communities, that an attempt to multiplicity of internal is base the control value of what a and reduce artificially create, In smacks of crypto-fascism. addition whilst the organisation, political base be of a private could reducedto a sector organisation cultural value inter-related day, because, there the the of of variables at end number single be dominant i. the same said about a value, could not e. profit, was only one local democratically basedorganisation, like local government. However, it was the NALGO Black Workers Group in the target borough `Excellence' the trenchant the most paradigm. critique of which produced The issue of management,particularly what was regardedas the insinuation into borough, had been debated in `Excellence' the target the the model of looking into A the undertaken small research project was group. background of the companieslisted in the book, which included ones like Boeing, Hewlett Packard and Macdonalds. The outcome of this is in `Excellence' from 3: It both appendix contextualises reproduced a It from the local Black emerged socialist and race equality perspective. local local the sphere of entered wider governance. This public sphereand for `way doing things' more relevant a of claim counter appropriating a was 552 to that of race equality. In a spoof of the LGTB paper's cover, this one was for Excellence Finding Excrement". "Looking and entitled, At about the sametime, and unbeknown to the BWG, Silver in a critique of Excellence as an example of Reaganiteneo-conservatism,was coming to the 1027Pointing out that Excellence was derived from the sameconclusion. inspired Experiment Hawthorne the managerial progeny of sameschool of human relations, but with one important difference. Whilst this school of thought, devoted to showing that improving the quality of life of employees in work increasedproductivity placed a high premium on participation, Excellence abandonsthis. Instead it is "the attention to employees,not 028 impact "' It has dominant that the on production. se work conditions per in instil for to try the this creation of ersatzvalues order and on relies is intent lives. Thus, Silver "the in to notes, as meaning employeesworking forces `unleash the thus to of changeworkers' attitudes- and `psychological the meansof production' - without entrepreneurialism', job, increasing the the worker of without.... nature changing "seeks it Reaganism Temporally "1°29 to which with accords participation. °30 " roll back the post war gains of working people. It is difficult to say whether or not this counter critique of `Excellence' both by the Race Advisers and the Black Workers Group had a bearing on but, in borough, developments, the preferred target the subsequent in that thereafter as way crass a proffered so were not managerial changes literature. Instead Search Excellence" in "In the a similar of contained form of neo-managerialismwas advocatedby both the political leadership Orientation', Service form `Public This took the of and senior managers. (PSO). PSO emergedfrom INLOGOV via its chief architect, Stewart, at brokered being `Excellence' that time with was conceptually about the same PSO intellectual is from that It the of architectonic clear select authorities. it owes a large cognitive obligation to the key ideas contained in `Excellence'. It can be arguedthat it representsStewart's attempt to make `Excellence' more conformable and germaneto the public sector, is the local There the creation on concentration government. particularly be described the culture within an ersatz as can of what nurturing and by key defining the essential of a core purpose supported organisation; `strong focussing through this the values and purpose on embedding values; leaders' and value inculcation via selection and socialisation processes;the identification of the need to develop a closer relationship with the customer. For Stewart PSO is "based on three simple ideas": 1.Local authorities exist to provide services for the public. 2.A local authority succeedsor fails by the quality of service it provides. 553 3.Quality of service demandsclosenessto the public - as client, customer and '03' citizen. The purpose of local government is then redefined and, in so doing, contractedby Stewart. The justification for local government is that it provides a public service and that it is close to its public in so doing. PSO is then put forward as a local government panacea. PSO can help to provide purpose to the workings of local authorities but only if ideas are turned into action. PSO is an orientation a guiding philosophy or 1032 vision. PSO is basedupon providing servicesfor the public and not to the public. In the latter the authority knows best, whilst in the former the authority has do It `customer'. `client' the develop can to or a closer relationship with this by adopting the following: to to service received attitudes surveys establish public regular -hold how in to the can services of suggest a variety ways encourage public and -invite be changedor improved - or new servicesprovided1033 This relationship with the public is the key to developing better quality Thus: services. But the authority can learn and find out if it is close to the public As client and customer - for the public are entitled to good service judge for the authority to the entitled public are electors, as citizen The public as client and customer has:is to their to needs geared a good service which right -the buildings to to and services access -the right convenient and easy helpful to reception arrangements, right -the listened to and heard be to right -the level the information nature and to about of services and explanation -the right in general and about the treatment of their own individual case. 554 The public as citizen is entitled to more than just a good service. The local authority should show by its actions that it regards clients and customers not merely as such but also as citizens who have rights as partners in the government of the community:know decisions has to the the why and are made right citizen what be fairness, justice is to the met with equity and citizen entitled know have to they to the right what services are entitled citizens how know to they them. their can enforce rights and are entitled citizens The rights and entitlements of the citizen reinforce the values of service to the customer and client. Concern for the customer and client as a citizen requires that:local authority place emphasis on the the the and procedures of practices citizens rights and entitlements the the that training reception customers people who wait at emphasises staff desk - are electors and as such are the people to whom all officers and councillors are ultimately responsible. it in its the to that expects the same relation staff obligations accepts authority its staff to show the public. Staff cannot explain unless they are given an '°34 explanation. Finally PSO as a strategy can be achieved if the following is developed. PSO is about changing the organisation. It requires strategy for change, which include: should key in (from by the the officers chief concillors and actors authority commitment -a downwards). barriers to to the the the public. service organisation and of of understanding -an the culture. of understanding -an -an analysisof services. -an actionplan. 1035 from learn to action. capacity -a There was nothing radical or new in the content of PSO. In borrowing from `Excellence' it displaced `profit' with `services' and erected around that the need for local governmentto develop a set of limited values. One of these,again mirroring `Excellence', was that about getting closer to the 555 in did The this was constructed which relationship not way customer. inequalities between issue the the of power service users address substantial it for local Instead the opted a governance. of organisations and limiting the that role of the citizen to already existed which of refurbishment a passive recipient of rights who can only exercisethe political element through the ballot box. In Chapter4I had critiqued this localist position as being `facadic' becauseit offered "a form of democracythat in terms of a include Black people and women nonparticipatively can content which different from Further is little what's available now". conventionalisedly, "it doesnot offer a `re-invention' of what is, but merely a fine tuning." It local did be the time, that the at equality advisers can argued, as well, as if because just the is that were services, providing about not government forms be to the then of organisation, why other ask would question next case, like the private sector ones, couldn't provide them. This reduction in the being is to a role and scopeof what a political organisation one of simply fifties be the to to the time, an attempt recreate service provider, seemed,at image of local government, one that was untroubled and untrammelled by the `disruptive' influences of race equality. 11.32 Neo-managerialism and Labourist Councillors Within the contextualisation provided above, we are now in a position to labourist drafted by defining then the the set of policy papers examine Labour leader which effectively set the seal on the introduction of a form of The into the control and absorption of race council. neo-managerialism i. in just another variable a greater universalising cause, e. equality as two explicitly to the only emerging papers, main a sub-text was management, in a third paper which, though involving all the departmentsin the council, the of participation without prepared clandestinely and surreptitiously was the equality advisers or committees. formally is borough in issue target the first In the of management paper the the Commission Audit if the in on to, paper of, not critique raised response begins the It local London of analysis an with government. managementof Thus: problem. Over the last few years there has been a clear expansion of the services that we increasingly become has It obvious provide and a proliferation of new policies. implement far to policies so agreed that as an organisation we are poorly equipped let alone adopt yet further policy initiatives. In essence, the Council ..... has infrastructure in invest failure the from to so necessaryto put a serious suffered here I to the into appalling state of our management am referring practice. policy information financial systems, telecommunications, staff accommodation and and Without doubt decision if incredibly processes. making cumbersome any our Council in in be the is the transforming performance to of made meeting progress be taken. There is then action consistent must and urgent community needs inefficiency, in incompetence..... intrinsically (and waste, or socialist nothing 556 therefore).... a great deal still remains to be done to change the organisation into for local becomes that socialist policies and practice at a local level. a vehicle one In effect, we are suffering from the failure to invest in infrastructure services in .... '036 loss. faced 1960s 1970s that the with making good and we are now and There is a resonancewith some of the analysis of the problem with that in his 1985 head Race Unit by the the review of race equality of undertaken fact borough. In in the samecouncillor was part of the target the progress former Race Chair the the the of with about review preliminary meetings Relations Committee. However, there is a resonancein parts of the document. The part of not really wanting another analysis, as well, with Officer's 1985 Chief Personnel the paper more new policies echoeswith discussedearlier in which he argued- or, in reality, as this councillor had be that there that no more should were sufficient equality policies, arguedimplementation. to that emphasisshould switch produced, and According to this councillor's paper, this version of local socialism was to be be "without that an through can achieved nothing recognising attained by that officers members and cadre and a recognition management effective instrument to but is absolutely necessary an evil not a necessary management 037 Managementis then "' achieve policy and service objectives. inclusively and exclusively defined as follows: Management is simply getting things done. There is nothing new in managing. It is our reluctance in power nationally and locally to consider seriously issues has implementation opened our which of management change, or policy has issue The nothing to of management criticism. policies and our practice ideologies All do ideology and to or philosophy. with whatsoever began, Since in implemented time have be to an effective way. philosophies humans have been 'managing'. The construction of the pyramids, landing on the moon and World War II are classic feats of management.The problem with many socialists' views are that they assumethat somehow the need to manage democracy. industrial by be control or a version of workers' replaced can However, the ultimate in industrial democracy still requires that decisions by the be have by to the and organised co-ordinated taken workers 1038 managers. The fact of the matter is that it is not so much the failure to get to grips with full failure begin to, the to to the and parameters consider management,as implications of, what a socialist form of `management'would be. Again it be badly that tactic can so edifice constructed the specious of erecting a dismissal `industrial brief is done in his down, to, torn and of reference easily democracy' as a solution. We are left then with managementsimply being identified is A to transform the then `neutral' authority need activity. a London.... is (and) because "this class part of working a very managerially is less than a rip off. -)4039 to well nothing money communities' use our not .... 557 In effect what is being raised and defined there is the issue of political legitimation defined solely through the potential responseof the white working class community. The paper then goes on to repeat,and recommenduncritically, the thinking behind, and coursesof action identified in, "In Searchof Excellence." Thus he writes that "change cannot be achievedby desire alone but-through determined and consistenteffort to transform the culture of ... the a Council". ' 040 And this comesdown to adopting the eight attributes of `excellent' organisationsidentified in the book. Whilst this was more of a Group discussionpaper, the subsequentpaper contained a set or recommendationswhich, if agreed,tied the group, and the in to to the a neo-managerialist solution very similar council, one outlined the first paper. What is noticeable in the secondis that the emphasison `excellence' is now replacedwith an endorsementof PSO as the way forward. It is worth repeating that in the intervening period the only critical commentary of the `excellence' model was to be heard from the advisersand the Black Workers Group. This secondpaper was prepared in June 1987 in the immediate aftermath of the then general election. The paper attempted to portray a crisis in the target borough, not only becauseof the Labour defeat nationally, but also becauseof the Conservative government's in local hinged interventions These government. on pursuing the renewed details of their strategy of nationalisation of local government legitimation borough hub detailed facing At the target the the above. of crisis concerns, is financial to the the time, the paper, according position of the precarious at he "is Thus that there, wrote absolutely no possibility that we can council. let immediate budget the year current and making process, alone the survive is five the without years, penalty of surchargeunless spending reduced next increased. "'oat Taken income together with the national government and interventions the solutions to the problems do not include bringing the is into Any caricaturedly strategy a wider campaign. such community dismissed. Thus, despite in his previous paper, portraying the borough as a he dismisses likely their class enclave, support againstthe working government. "This is not scare talk, it is the reality we face. There is, of course, an alternative. We could choose to ignore that reality, or to depict it as a fantastic creation of the capitalist state designed to deflect us from our steady progress to the socialist millenium. We could offer ourselves in sacrifice, martyrs to the cause of defending jobs and services in the interest of "the class". We would, of course, expect and require "the class" to rise up in our support and defend us from the common foe and, together, kick Tories the through come victorious, out, and continue on we would have foundation in the concrete Such a remote unhindered. a strategy may forces in, say, parts of Scotland, balance the of of reality and/or assessment 558 but what does such an objective analysis tell us about the current situation here in The target borough?" 1042 The answerto the last question is, despitethe fact that Labour won the local 1986 elections with an increasedmajority, very unlikely. One can seeagain the instrumentalist communicative tactic of erecting a straw person so as to here. fact The it, torch was that there were a plethora of at work easily been involving local have the which communities could alternative options if it lifted from just that an orthodox which reads as were considered,and not Marxist primer on classwarfare. To support this dismissal of that supposed is drawn Wandsworth with an admiring comparison radical alternative, local Conservative determined it is the government of pursuit opined, where, for in increased level has that party, so much of support resulted an policies into Tory in Wandsworth "have turning they, a virtually succeeded so that borough as we have failed to turn the target borough into a Labour borough." To support this sophistry attention is drawn to a survey commissionedby the target borough which examinedpeople's perceptions of the council services. The poll, undertakenby one of the national companiesusually highlighted at times of national elections, did not include any particular equality Black being to than people were part. ensure weighted other components, The Head of the Race Unit attempted,in the preparationsand planning for brief included have the to the survey, to a section on equalities and widen is What focus. This from the was unsuccessful. sole services away interesting is not the overall results, becausethey showed the council to be in but from in the the terms `middling' way which community, of support findings. Thus the the of one of uses some selectively paper's author findings that he items the together obvious with accentuates, unsatisfactory is is high like thus: did that categorised one rates, not people Waste money/do not spendon right things/ too much spent on minorities Further on, in responseto the survey question, "Are there any other groups for? ", be doing top Council the the and think more should you people of 3% Black to of only people where most prominent answer category relates broke This for done be that that community. the sample think more should down into 1% of white people and 11% of Black people thinking that. There is a similar breakdown for women. Finally, in answerto a specific did know. 30% loyalties, there who not were question about political party The interpretation placed on this by that councillor is that this indicates a local Labour Party. Hence: for legitimation the crisis profound "The prospect is such that, unless the government is deeply unpopular in 1990, and if we remain on an unchanged course, we will experience great difficulty in holding control of the Council. For certain, if we do hold on, the 559 be for but against the government, and not voting us will majority of electors if we do not, I fear that we may never regain power locally. s1044 This potential crisis was occurring despitethe fact that the target borough has not been slow "to adopt the equivalent socialist local government first Tory " In Wandsworth's the to was overt ones. what policies indication of support and praise for the work undertakenby the equality highlight he including to to the prioritisation of equalities, goes on workers, the fact that, "The target borough has been in the forefront in promoting in in services, establishing equal opportunities policies recruitment and labour direct initiatives, and other areasof the and expanding employment 045 That laudatory outburst, when examined in Council's workforce. "' later, discussed be light in the third the was of paper, which will retrospect for football Chair the like the of support of a club's public expression rather despite by The that the was paper's author, problem, as analysed manager. because implementation difficult the of was actual adopting socialist policies in The the earlier of result, a repeat sclerosis of action. an administrative Again deficit is diagnoses, one can of action. a surfeit of policy and paper's link the to up excesses and gumming the equalities with policy attempt see have "we forward The that made sufficient must must ensure way works. Labour level have to the victories to ensure support of positive won progress in both East and West The target borough." This will involve the following: "The only way we will have a chance of achieving this in the face of an ideological and clearly directed attack, given our weakness in terms of lack current of support and the shortcomings of our service our resources, delivery is for us to agree upon a clear and relatively simple strategy that we Members, identify officers, craft and manual and adopt, with can all for both the short term and also That strategy, which will serve us workers. have future for foreseeable it develops three major elements. the would as Firstly, a thorough restructuring of the budget; secondly, a bias for action finally Members a the and and employees; the part of organisation on within definite orientation towards public service."1046 formal key the this to The paper then goes on recommend,as strategy, " The "produce PSO the to support. results and earn means as adoption of Stewart's for to borough then version of word word committed, target was PSO. Hence: 1.The target borough Council exists to provide services FOR THE PUBLIC. 2.As a local authority, The target borough succeeds or fails by the QUALITY OF SERVICE it provides. 3.Quality of service demandsCLOSENESS TO THE PUBLIC - as client, 1047 customer and citizen. 560 Finally, in an effort, like the Conservativenational government's to relocal legitimacy the of governance,a tactic of political nationalise later ten some years when Labour finally convergencewhich will echo achievesan election victory, he concludesthat: The strategy outlined above provides us with a prospect for survival but have far We than that. a window of opportunity over this next more also period to re-establish local government at the core of socialist activity and to play our full part in achieving national political power for our Party 1048 beliefs. and our Apart from the self congratulatory pat on the back with regard to equalities handed clapping exercisegiven the actual obstruction to race one an almost is in labourist had indulged there this no and other councillors equality is in This Black this a particularly strategy. people and women mention of identified in Labour the the party's constituencies as glaring omission legitimating bases,and in those with whom they want to consult over the local Further the with communities was everyday relationship proposals. be to politically redefined, as more explicitly confirmed, not so much through PSO, as that of being no more than a client, customer or citizen with liberal democratic negative rights. Whilst earlier I had identified the theoretical and action lacunaeover the issue of administration being shown by the new left in local governance,in this caselocal socialism was being deconstruction and reconstruction of equatednot with a radical `management',but with a private sector originated and oriented improvement'. A `service refurbishment of managementcentred on being through adopting a ossified was communicatively problem political in later, fifteen Some technical an plus years management. solution of deserting Socialist intellectuals French the party, one are article on why don't "politicians that needphilosophers any wrote commentator "loa9 (because). today of management. was a matter politics more... . .. The omission of Black people and women was deliberate, a conclusion in light third by the the the paper of workers equality advisers and arrived at by the Labour leader in the target borough, one which also purported to deal in Equal Achievements "Major This `crisis'. the one was entitled with Opportunities", a title which belied the way in which the report was 1050 backwash be in This the to the specific was contents. produced, as well leadership's Party Labour borough to the target accusationsthat the national in London had damaged the `London the chances the party's region. effect' This was a not so subtle code for actually referring to the equality initiatives, by boroughs. London fact In the pioneered equality ones, particularly race initiatives themselves, to the as to the right wing so much referencewas not The distortion interpretation these. report, as the response of and media from the equality advisers shows, was done in secretwithout consulting the Because it attemptedto provide equality workers or respective committees. 561 a financial breakdown of what was spent on equalities within individual departments,it must have involved the relevant senior managersin those departments,but, deliberately excluded the race advisers. It was only some two weeks later, after the report went to a particular group meeting, that the adviserscaught sight of it. Fortunately it was, at that stagea draft report, from the rest of the local Labour party. comments awaiting The report's recommendationsattempt to tie in the new service prioritisation with the identified `need' to curtail any further equalities' expenditure. Thus: f That Members recognise that in view of the general election result and the restrictions now placed on resources,hard choices will need to be made if this Council is to survive the next 3 years and win the next local elections, f That Members agree that the provision of services should be our priority for the future and that equal opportunities should be an integral part of service delivery. f That Members recognise that an effective equal opportunity policy rests upon the commitment, time and effort of management as much as it does financial financial the and given on restrictions resources Members are asked resources to agree that there should be no financial growth in provision for equal but a more effective use of existing resources. (My emphasis)'os' opportunity By way of backgroundjustification the report's author goes on to reasonas follows: f This Council was elected on a Manifesto committed to a policy of equal opportunity both as an employer and as a provider of services to the have The Race Relations Committee Women's Committee and community. established specialist units to work towards meeting the needs of women and black people both as employeesand in the community. f This Council has also allocated substantial resources to ensure implementation of its equal opportunity policy throughout those services by departments by the voluntary sector through those and provided provided funding fA socialist equal opportunity policy has often been seen as wasting money by the tabloid press and Tory opposition and indeed in the run up to the general become known it became has associated as the "London with what election Effect" which has seen traditional Labour Party support deserting the Labour Party for the SDP and even the Tory party as was shown in the Downham by-election and the General Election result.1012 The report then went on, using the information provided by departments,to try to createa picture of immensespending on equalities. In so doing the deliberately twisted and misused the information, or author either report's totally misunderstoodthe nature of the equality initiatives being undertaken 562 in the target borough. For example the Social ServicesDepartment, because from its the most `disadvantaged' sectorsof the come service users many of local community, is cited as intentional spending on equality. Within this distortion the position of Black service users is totally over estimated. Thus: "A large proportion of services provided by the Social Services Department will be for black people, women, people with disabilities or gays and lesbians." The race equality advisersand workers had to formulate a reply within a day Unit drafted by head Race This the the after consultation with of was or so. the equality workers. Again, using the communicative spacesopened through the structuring of the race equality infra-structure, the reply was in is Labour Much this to members. of reply reproduced circulated all being it because 4 the to adopted strategy contextualise attempts appendix then by the Labour party, how this was, in large part, an attempt to silence `race' and what exactly the race equality programme and discoursewere it In that the representeda racist misuse of responseargued sum about. information; that after over a hundred years of local government and only three years of explicit equality initiatives it was extremely premature to how is has been done; "race that that about equality .... enough conclude Black people at the local level can have a determinant say in the allocation have their everyday on effect a material of resources which and reallocation lives", and that "if a managementis "neutral" or simply about "doing things" then the greatestfeat of managementwas processingthe twelve to eighteen five the Jews through year a gas chambersover and other nationals million period." The responsefrom the Race Advisers then went on to deconstructthe in information, demonstrating the that that stage at of councillor's misuse development of the equality programme,just under three years since it was infra-structure the or planned equality started, not much was spent on either Two initiatives. elementsof race equality spendingwere equality identified. f Initiatory race equality resources- that is spending on race equality such is initiate to change. purpose as specialist posts and structures whose f Overt and planned allocation and re-allocation of resources to race is is that which planned with that equality on race spending equality because likely in than comes about of the more objective mind and which initiatory resources.'°53 Information, it was argued, on the last element was difficult to ascertain becauseof the lack of adequateinformation systems. However, the developmentof the anti-racist programmeswere a suitable framework within for to example, the amount of time spent on race equality. which work out, 563 With regard to the former, it was shown that at the time the overall council budget was £214,000,000,whilst the money spent on the race equality infrastructure was merely £225,000. The conclusion reachedwas that: In conclusion therefore the actual spending on race equality according to the information available is minuscule. It will be a few years yet before we can do the type of exercise Cllr. "X" is attempting. Any attempts now therefore which aims to prove major spending on equality opportunities will be premature, misleading ' 54 totally tendentious. and The responsehad the desired effect. As reported back by the then Chair of Race Relations Committee to the head of the Race Unit, the councillor "X"'s draft report, becauseof the responsewhich had been circulated to all Labour members,was withdrawn. It is clear from the key policy reports developedand agreedby the Labour Group in the target borough in 1987 that the discourseof labourism came to embraceand be replaced by a discourseof neo-managerialism. This was in develop legitimation base local to the a strategy as a retain and undertaken involved A this trying to assuageracial substantial part of communities. fear through curtailing the developmentof race equality in that council. In hoped it limit doing to the profile of race equality through was absorb and so better for in It of services everyone. was, another sense, a new universalism the prototype `modernisation' of the Labour Party's labourism. This was a decision made against a backcloth of competing political options. conscious The race equality discourseand programme were public knowledge, involving as well the circulation of the appendixedpaper. There was, as Group Labour to the radical alternative was circulated which well, one other in his leader. by These the time, the were two same councillor role as at by Paul Hoggett. is That to say that the papers commissioned specially local Fordist the of post analysis mid eighties problems of nascent likely deliberations the the of the also of solutions were part and government Labour Group. 11.33 Rejecting the Post-Fordist Option In reading the two papersby Hoggett, it is clear that councillor "X" adopted '°55 for There key `pic-`n-mix' to these. are, example, approach phrases a taken word for word from the two papers,yet used in the councillor's is in that totally out of context with Hoggett's intentions. ruminations a way But, there is another reasonfor finding these earlier papers interesting. That is that despiteHoggett's attempts at applying to local government the it, sort of analysiswhich sees at that time, still mimicking the Fordist scale of `ends he of and means' basedon the attempts an also analysis production, Frankfurt school of thought. Whilst there is within the papers a certain 564 ambivalenceand ambiguity with regard to the issuesof `organisational culture' and `management',weaknesseswhich might facilitate selective is there the an identification of a problem, the eclecticism on part of others, main points of which overlap with my diagnoses. Leaving aside the post Fordist attempt to read off organisational forms of local governancedirectly from analysedchangesin the capitalist economy, which I have already in 3, Chapter he identifies the the that Labour in nub of problem critiqued general, and its variant local socialism have tried to apply administrative is I to problems, political one agreewith. It was obviously one solutions dismissedby the Labour leader in the target borough at the time. Thus, for example, Hoggett's mid eighties prognosis is that "local lumbers its that on, aware previous methods of massproduction government (viz council estates,comprehensiveschools, etc) have brought standardised improvements at the cost of much consumerdisenchantment,but not able to bring itself to conceive of how it needsto changeto becomemore modern"; is logic "problem logic that the the the thus of welfare combined with of and local just which produced a centralist government was not massproduction 056 just bureaucratic but Byzantine."' There is a but massified, not has be done. For to theorists that something other with convergence Habermas provides a more substantivecritique of the welfare state. example On the other hand at the more prosaic level of local government in the UK, Stewart also conceivesof a similar problem. On one thing Hoggett is clear, though, attempting, at the time, to do a `Wandsworth' on any of the putative local socialist oriented authorities is not acceptable. Whilst the changesin the then Tory flagship council were radical, they were not the sort of initiatives have imitate because, "Conservative radicalism socialists should been greatly facilitated by the fact that it's easierto dismantle or abolish a disagreeableinstitution than it is to transform it. "1057 The difference then, have local is Thatcherism he that and socialism a combination of as argues, I local Re-politicisation to agreewith and government. re-politicise served have argued for previously. However the de-colonising struggles of local Black communities have been as much a contributor to the re-politicisation factors. Hoggett's local argumentsthen that as other governance of heart The saliency. of solutions are not enough gain greater administrative the problem with this course of action lies within Labour's tradition of technologising politics. Thus, "for Labour's activists it is but a short step from talking about the `party machine' to the `machinery of local "058 What this then leads to is a situation in which, for government'. in GLC, Livingstone Labour's the to the of power period prior example thoughts on how it should be run "were confined to the pursuit of `sound Labour is, demonstrate London that that to could run as administration', "1059 business Hoggett the commerce. and of as party seesthis as soundly the failure to view organisationsa systemsof living culture. There is some because this of my analysis of organisations as with agreement 565 communicative structures. However, his failure to develop further this aspectof his argumentmeansthat it is open to conflation, as councillor "X" obviously did, with Petersand Waterman's `excellence' conception of culture. Hoggett's solution, and here he draws heavily on the Frankfurt school, is for there to be a re-evaluation and re-moralisation of `ends' and `means'. That is to say, in a severing of the linkage in Labour's thinking and practice which up to then had made a political virtue of the socialist ends justifying the means. He is thus very clear that dipping into and borrowing from the over stocked private sector school of managementis unacceptable. "A number of'realist' left Labour councils now realise that if socialists cannot run a local council by'leaving it to the experts', neither can they do so through bypassing or undermining them. The danger is that they reach out for help from the 'progressive end' of managementand in the process inevitably end up misrecognising themselves and the problems they face......... This split also finds structural expression in an absurd division of labour within the welfare state itself in which 'ends' become the domain of politicians and 'means' the domain of managers and technocrats.As a result Labourism has colluded with and reinforced the technocratic impulse to exclude questions of values (ie moral questions) from its agenda.....But we would be mistaken to think that this problem boils down to the supposed'political neutrality' of the state functionary. The issue is not simply the espousedpolitical ideology of state officials (and hence the need to populate state institutions with 'our people') for we need to challenge the deep and often unconscious technocratic inform the practice of socialist and conservative which values functionaries alike."1060 The answer then lies in the re-introduction by Labour of the moral into the in is interest "an that there meansand political and administrative systemsso in it is language, which neither of administration nor management, which a its for how done (and)... discover that things own concern are realise can ... far from being its (i. `ends'), of value, purpose and objective e. of questions become for those who work must also a vital concern own prerogative, find "1°61 Organisationally this the can and politically welfare state. within is in decentralisation, bottom that there a up substantive so expression development, in developing the top policy and continuing and approach blurring betweenthe executive and legislative. In terms of the latter it beyond packing the sensitive upper reachesof management meansmoving have i. I Labour Party `our already argued that members. people', e. with the re-politicisation and de-colonisation of local governancerequires a fuzziness betweenthe relationships betweenthe political systemand the between the administrative systemand civil system and administrative Labour These new right separations, under and under the proto society. borough labour in then, were re-enforced target the administration, new through the development of strict boundary lines. For example in the target borough, and later on in Lambeth - and in the latter casethese changeswere forward Herman by Chief Executive, Ouseley- it becamea the then put 566 disciplinary offence for any employeeto initiate contact with an elected line the than through strict management of authority. Finally, member other in what amountsto a plea for more substantivedemocratisationthrough decentralisationHoggett addressesthe opposition of councillors, like the Labourist ones. "Some councillors believe that this will undermine their power to set in is it is better All I that to share ownership of can say reply policy. policies that have a chance of being implemented than to retain exclusive possession of sacraments that do no more than scratch reality's surface."1062 Whilst Hoggett did not addressthe issuesof race or women's equality in his be basis fact in the could accusedof of a separate article on and papers, local level, issues the the vision of those government at misunderstanding local governanceoutlined in his two articles referred to above is one which is communicatively more open than that adopted in the target borough. The notions of the politicisation of the administration, of the moralisation of have bottom democratisation a greater resonancewith up endsand means,of the aims of the race equality discourse. There are, however, as I have fault lines in Fordist the argument. post still racially exclusive argued earlier, Neverthelessthe consciousdecision to introduce a neo-managerialist discourse/diskourseinto the target borough as the instrumentalisedmeansto brought is legitimation form that with of political preserved, a narrow ensure it an accentuationand augmentationof forms of unjust domination in the instrumentalised Cooke Strategic argues,raises action, as and organisation. 063 ' in is, It the three the other speechact. validity claims of only one of being `neutral' Defining managementas words a communicative silencing. is an attempt to immunise those practices from its moralisation and thus to is technologisation the that an unquestionable of management confirm is further between The the ends and means rupture of relationship absolute. by Fairclough lengthened between the two the what gap acceleratedand identifies as the "technologisation of discourse" associatedwith the way in be described this as a course of action was adopted;what could which double technologisation. 11.34 Pursuing Neo-managerialism In the target borough from the late 1987 onwards a deliberate programme of implemented. The developed resources and neo-managerialismwas level displayed high by the this, to the of political will profile and allocated leading councillors and Labour group has to be contrastedwith the sporadic "mood This afforded approach race equality. swing" contradictory and new diskourse renovated existing patterns of authorial control within the there to that manage,unquestionably, and were managers so organisation 567 in issues, to especially relation equality even when questioned, only post facto, whilst politicians were invested in the only recognisablepolitical authority. Externally the relationship with the communities, particularly those who used council services,was to be reconfigured through a in far model which rights extend only so as that of customer/consumerist having a good service, and not that of being involved in the way that service is structured and delivered. This new consumerisationof the council was in decision devising to the the through rebrand council a new exemplified logo and set of corporate colours. This in effect meant reprinting the council's stationery, repainting the council's vehicles and signs, and being boundaries the signs of within of geographical repainting other visible the authority, such as lamp posts. When the race adviserspointed out that the enormouscosts of such a dubious exercisecould have been better spent furthering the race equality programme, they in turn were rebrandedas being `negative.' The beginning of an accelerateddrive to closed own the began. by the race equality programme communicative spacesopenedup This was evidenced in the increasing number of conflicts and clashes between race equality workers and managementand/or council members. In one caseit resulted in a Race Adviser pursuing a complaint of race 1064 discrimination againstthe Chair of the PersonnelSub-committee. Between the end of 1987 and the end of 1988 three other race equality directly disciplinary found themselves charges as a result of on workers differences with management. Internally the council adopteda limiting range of six `core values' which These base be the the were not to authority. explicit of new, value were derived from any consultative or participative processesinvolving employees leading by decided Rather they and senior managers were and communities. be be to They to the was which action values around were also councillors. in it featured Equalities, this cluster of values, was whilst clustered. '065 be As `equal that to shown, equalities shall of opportunities'. reduced One Ia be the that existing equality workers. excluded recast way came to "a NALGO later, that very narrow set of comment newsletter could a year imposed been has that the employees' views are organisation, on values insidious form loyalty that tests these, to of a very and against subject "1066 In the is that the of public year member same a norm. now censorship local had that the to the consultation complaining paper written parent and by transfer the the of educational over authority undertaken exercise "akin to the consultation under the was under enacted responsibilities from far the core value of being Ceausescuregime in Romania"1067; cry a One could almost argue that the changesbeing put `closer to the public'. into place amountedto the Stalinisation of the administrative and political first batch initiatives 1988 beginning the By the of service of systems. developedunder the PSO programmewere agreed. This was also about the time that the first round of council wide departmentby department anti-racist 568 being brought to committees for approval. These service action plans were were detailed plans aimed at redirecting and/or reconstructing major tranches of serviceswithin the race equality programme's parameters. They had taken two years to develop, being the joint work of the race equality workers, the unit and the individual departments. The relative easeand celerity of the appearanceof the PSO initiatives were as much to do with the political backing they enjoyed as with the superficiality of their content.1068 These concentratedon the action that neededto be undertaken in order to improve the service reception areasof the council's departments. They amplified the `skin deep' criticism made by Hoggett of the `administrating' of political by problems Labour. However, a greaterproblem was being identified by the head of the Race Unit. This was that the PSO initiatives and work undertaken on the antibeing programmes service were undertaken,deliberately, by racist departmentsas separateareasof action. Six months earlier the Race Equality Adviser with responsibility for employment had written to the then Chief Executive warning about the way in which PSO was being implemented, in particular the training aspect. The process to achieve excellence is too simplistic and crude to really meet the complex issues,needsand processeswhich operate in a local authority. Bias for Action with its emphasison the end product rather than the process , into be translated the work of a local authority. The emphasison new cannot has been always at the centre of anti-racist work. The need to management consult the black community and the need to consult black workers forums and black employees on service delivery and employment issues has always been paramount. In employment e.g. it is essential for a new management integral issues that to good management ensures equality which are an style and employment practice. The new priority seems to be to create managers who are 'winners', who will inevitably be white and male. Which race are we supposedto be winning?........... Recent discussions in various departments have highlighted the lack of commitment to race and women's equality, it is perceived as being a low priority of council members....... I as especially understand the course (A training course in PSOfor all managers) will be (who in for PO the managers range will be in the main, white and middle run male) by two white trainers from the North East London Polytechnic. Are the needs of the black community again going to be discussed by white people and how will this course relate to current policies and practices on race and it information is issues. My It is that these not address will equality. women's interesting to note that I have been consulted again at a very late stage,where the only course I have left is a reactive approach, which I believe is being interpreted as being negative. I am unhappy that having been put in this position that it will be a purely tokenistic gesture to participate now in discussionswith the trainers.1069 In fact the PSO was being allocated more departmentaltime and resources. In one of the final briefing notes to key members,the Head of the Unit 569 from direction in for the neo-conservatively away argued a change follows: it In PSO. as essence argued constructed It is clear that the politicisation of local government is no more than that of is level that this to as one about of government reconstitute attempts democracy and local choice and control over resources. It is certainly within this framework that the problems of race and women's inequality have been tackled. That is, if one can attempt to summarise these initiatives in one in in local the try to to government a power relationships restructure sentence, in determinant Black the control of say a people and women way which allows Certainly their to solutions to race and women's meet needs. resource usage inequality have not been seen in terms simply of being an administratively technically one in which managementis somehow "neutral". Instead "means" is been have that "ends" change; a process seen as part of a process of and democracy, key in the public sector and the of socialism, values rooted community needs. 11.35 The Displacement of Race and Women's Equality In April 1988 a new leader of the council's Labour group was elected,but last. The the in the processof organisational as political mould same one disengagementfrom the race equality programme continued. There were Committee Unit Race Relations Race for the and a review of renewed calls from the labourist councillors on the group. In a related move, but without leader the that Race Relations, Chair the then the proposed of consulting four from be Committees two Women's to Race a the cut and meetings of into brought this to The that also went group proposing policy paper year. it in However the the issue was it the council. work of equality a review of it in latter the leading to the was which way subsequent and action, up events interesting. It that by the clear, was are which report's author, rationalised that the the to advisers, race and particularly equality advisers, unbeknown being from disengagement the was race equality programme the processof its in Thus by the paper notes assiduouslypursued some councillors. introduction the following: Three distinct aspects of the Council's equalities work have come to Group in Equality Race the First the the of of work of a review question recent months. Unit. Second the question of the frequency of committee meetings and thirdly the unwillingness of Members to serve on the "equalities" committees as been dealt in items have The third with not second and presently constituted. been for have because largely they seized on use any structured or rational way in political points scoring exercises. However the paper circulated by Councillor "Z"in respect to the first issue has raised much more fundamental have deal I to. Group to given a great of thought need respond questions which heavily has I last the most with weighed me. these cannot to one very and points in in isolation. for the I am justification area of work race our reviewing see a deal review which will therefore recommending a much wider with all our the Group'070 three to of areas of concern all and encompass equalities work 570 The paper referred to in the above paragraphwas one the head of the race Unit had to do outlining, yet again, the work undertaken by that unit and the RaceRelations Committee. Thesewere all committee agreedpolicy and practice reports, and so should have been common knowledge to Group had been members,all of whom subject to a briefing sessionby the Unit when they were first electedsome one and a half years back. It is clear from the responsefrom the then leader that the call to review the work of the had other undertonesand agendasother than a supposedinterest in the unit quality of the work. However, later on in the paper, whilst admitting that "the British Labour Party is a racist Party", he goes on to argue that "we have shied away from difficult debates.... becauseof a misguided deferenceto membersof oppressedgroups - this cannot continue - simply being black doesnot mean being right". 071 Whilst this was symptomatic of what I have tenonedthe de-moral-ising of race equality - and in this particular instanceit is the racist atavism of pathologising Black people's interpretation it their experiences-, was also contrary to the council's own then existing of policy and procedureson racism. In other words, once again the into Black of people's claims are called question, placing them authenticity in the sub-humancategory. The council had adopted,not without a major debatewith the equality advisers,a racial and sexual harassmentcomplaints in had be the to procedure which allegation and of racism sexism or policy taken at face value and treated accordingly. In other words it mirrored, fifteen issue the this earlier, years recommendations on of the some Macpherson Report. In a confirmation of the de-politicising and dedemocratisingway in which the formal political institutions of local in begins to explain the current viewed, was and a way which government democratic deficit operating in the Mayor and Executive Committee by labour, being advocated new right a speciously argued structure justification for reducing the number of race and women's equality do is forward. This to a samecouncillor went on committee meetings put joint project with INLOGOV and the LGMB which proposed and advocated the adoption of an American style Mayor structure and the creation of one Executive Committee in the council as the main decision making committee. Thus: One of the most empty arguments between socialists must surely be about Committee structures and I find attempts to gauge the degree of commitment of individuals to fighting oppression from their views on a particular structure quite untenable. Council Committee structures are merely vehicles for giving some formal agreement to political decision. What matters is the policies decided by the Party and the Group, and the degree to which we provide staff and resources to implement them. To a large extent the committee structure 1072 Officer structure should be a reflection of the 571 With regardto the proposedreview of equalities' work in the council, the recommendationwas to bring in outside consultantsso that "an objective" picture could be obtained. Again it was left to the Race and Women's Advisers to provide a formal Both Race Women's Advisers rejected the the to and proposals. response the notion of outside consultantsarguing that: To speak of bringing in consultants "to obtain a maximum degree of objectivity" is not only insulting, it is also passing the buck. The Race and Women's equality Advisers do not and have never provided advice on the basis of subjective feelings. We are more than capable of advising on shortfalls and appropriate structural changes...... in terms of our experience, knowledge base and compared with like in other Local Authorities or so in field, the then this Council has some of the best advisers in called experts the country and that is an objective assessment.It would be extremely difficult, therefore, to contemplate working with or recommending so called from Apart being consultants. a waste of rate payers money, the outside opposite is true i. e. we are asked for our advice by outside bodies and this we give freely. We do not believe in privatising the race equality struggle. At the end of the day it does not matter which structure you have, or how well if it is, members are not committed or held accountable to their resourced 1113 the then problems will persist. own manifesto commitments, The race advisers,in responding to the two other key issuesraised above, following the points: made Black people and women experience not only oppression, but exploitation level is the societal at structurally determined. The experiences which which different lump from To this to are other which suffer groups oppression. arise everything under "oppression" is another way of trying to reduce different being definable The "simply to that one variable....... statement experiences Black, does not mean being right", is dangerous. Black people have a history of experiences encompassing, the racism of oppression and, exploitation and the accompanying liberation of political struggle. Thus at the individual level The Black that experience. person's political socialisation will mediate a "truth" that emerges out of any dialogue with a White person will be a White depend the person's own political on which process will complex appreciation of racism, the linguistic and organisational safeguards to ensure that "rigorous debate" can take place without downgrading the Black person's is he but saying. the or she what of addressing political veracity experience, Very often, however, "truth" is determined by those in power. If the systems determination Black for truth the of peoples proper existed which allowed in be in Borough, The Target the position not we would experiences existed in Cllr. "Y"'s from Apart the which paper came today. way which we are itself belie it the drafting that existence of the statement simple and of about, (about Such committee meetings) are only arguments such systems....... is downgrading if the committee of meetings alongside a running empty Black democracy to the aims give community a which process of participative determinant say over decisions effecting resource usage. This is obviously not happening in The Target Borough. Thus like it or not committee meetings are 572 "substantive" in helping to implement and monitor policy decisions. They are also, in the absenceof any other democratic process, a visible sign that the Council still holds race equality as a priority. 10a Thesecommentshad part of the desired effect becausethe Group did not agreeto the use of external consultants,but did agreeto a review.coordinated by the Chief Executive. By October 1988 the increasingly obvious disengagementby the Labour from both the race and women's equality initiatives was plain for politicians all to see. The work could not be progressed. A joint letter from both the Race and Women's Equality Units, and signed by all of the equality staff was sent to all Labour members. It speaksfor itself. As Race and Women's Equality Advisers and service specialists working for The target borough Council, we have taken the step of writing to-you collectively because of the extent to which this council appears to be retreating from its equality commitment and responsibilities. Over the past year it is our considered view, given our area of expertise that there has been a rapid deterioration in the commitment towards and implementation of the council's equality policies. This has been compounded as well by the rumours and counter rumours surrounding the reasonsfor, and decisions about the proposed "Equalities Review." We feel very strongly that the purported justification for the review is specious; that it is falsely structured; and is thus totally unnecessary. It has to be asked therefore why senior equality advisers were not consulted about the review, and why, when these officers recommendedthat they take the lead in conducting that part of the review pertaining to Race and Women's equality (the Chief Executive having declined to do so) this was rejected by the Leader. Instead it has been proposed that rate-payers money will be wasted on employing external consultants to perform a review which the council's own staff are far better equipped to carry out. We reject totally the ideas that somehow there are problems in equalities work in the Council because of inadequate equality structures, "negative oppositionism" and the "personalities" of individual equality workers. If there is a problem surrounding equalities in the Council, then it is that of the lack of political will and courage necessary to carry through such a programme which by its very nature entails unpopular decisions being taken. We contend strongly, however, that the proposed review is signalling an increasing ambivalence on the part of members towards equalities' work at a time when the most oppressedand exploited in the community are suffering severely from the effects of central government legislation. This has been exemplified in some instancesby the unwarranted personalised attacks on some equality advisers by some members at open committee meeting, and which is, therefore, contributing rapidly to a situation in which equality advisers feel that they can no longer function according to the job descriptions to which they were appointed. Whilst we recognise fully that it is members' political prerogative to decide which policies are to be carried forward and that this is being made more 573 difficult by the enormous pressures on local government now and in the foreseeable future, nevertheless it is our opinion that the action to date is reneging by default on manifesto commitments made to Black people and women in the Borough; and is creating an offensively unacceptable working environment for equality advisers and workers who, apart from having a personal, professional and political commitment to equality, were appointed to advise the Council on how best to achieve those very same manifesto it be if As things there were a clear stand now would preferable commitments. political decision which said: "No: We no longer wish to pursue programmes of race and women's equality." Consequently becauseof the seriousnesswith which we view this situation be is for because there seeking an solution, we shall a need an open and '°" Leadership. urgent meeting with the The proposedmeeting with the Leadership did not occur becausethe developed diaries'. No `full review took suddenly concerned politicians its but the two the units and equality closure of a report recommending place, by focussed broad the then one was written with a equalities replacement Assistant Chief Executive. As the Adviser's commentedat the time; On July 25th, 1988 The target borough Labour Group threw out a proposal in be brought by Cllr. forward `B' to undertake a that consultant a put review of equalities issues, but agreed that a Council wide review should take place and that the Chief Executive should co-ordinate this review. No by draft Thus, has the the taken written report, place. such review Assistant Chief Executive, that we have been asked to comment on is not the result of a professionally constructed review process,but seemingly the Group Labour The report on the opinion of one officer. previous subjective by Chief Executive, (5.12.88), the then was also a subjective written subject opinion, with no attempt made to research or consult on the contents. Indeed, attempts were made to keep those contents secret from us and other interested parties. We view these actions as appalling practice and in direct '076 Authority. conflict with the stated core values of this Both the senior managersconcernedclaimed that were acting under instruction from the Labour Group. But, as the adviserswere quick to point the the the council, of and protocols of conditions employment out, under Labour Group is an outside body and cannot instruct employeesto do is is important However, to this situate what was stage, at what anything. happening within my overall contention that the communicative force of the deliberative down by blunted discourse the the of closing was race equality in it had the up organisation. opened previously spaces communicative This pattern of re-assertingdominancethrough ossification is, in part, demonstratedagain by the way in which this report recommending closure from i. in the equality prevented advisers way which e. a was prepared, Group, in to future the the as well proposals and critiques placing counter fold the of neo-managerialism. It is overall siting of equalities within in direction in further the report for equalities the recommended evidenced, 574 to continue in the council, and in the background to the chief actors made responsiblefor carrying this out. The Assistant Chief Executive, at the time, had, nine months previously, been a lowly policy officer in the Central Policy Unit of the target borough. However he had also been a Labour councillor in a neighbouring borough up to the mid eighties. His entry into the council as a policy officer also post dated the two headsof the equality units. His suddenelevation through the from policy officer to Assistant Chief Executive was questionedat the ranks time by the equality advisersas being further evidence of the still prevailing hidden system of positive discrimination for white males. At the time the his Labour Party connectionswere the that advisers were of view equality for his promotion, just as they were convinced that thesewere responsible the samereasonsfor him taking on the responsibility for the report, and for the recommendationsthat followed. In effect the report recommendedscrapping the Race and Women's Units, and the two equality adviser posts in Personnel;and demoting the two race in Housing Social Services and posts so that they now reported to a adviser lower tier of managementand lost the accessto members.1077 In the place level be two the the units central would one equality unit which, on same of of resourcesas the Race and Women's Units would cover race, women, gay lesbians, inequality. disability There pensioners and and areas of men be head have unit a of which automatic accessto members, would not would but would have to go through the line management. Further, the remit of the in the two departments,would only be services. The advisers unit and other equality staff would not be allowed to work on employment, or deal with individual employee or community complaints. It was, thus, an actual diminution in the real and communicative resourcespreviously available to fact the that the work of the authority had especially given race equality, in doubled in the size with assumptionof education responsibilities almost that sameyear. It was, in effect, an edifice basedon communicative closure in which the political systemis kept sterile, away from any direct claims to justice, and administrative systemcontains and controls the work on racial from from thereby preventing such claims arising any within that equalities, firmly Work, then, well. as on equalities was sited within the overall system discourse, and the specific element relating to council neo-managerialist PSO. In Chapter 5I had arguedthat the moral status of equalities in local have I termed the period of positive racialisation, was post what government that of being a virtual reality entity. The transmogrification of equalities in the target borough achievedjust that; a form of race equality which was it from the people was supposedto `benefit'. It communicatively closed off becamea technical problem, amenableto managerial solutions, and thus, only ever able to make one of the three validity claims. This was made symbolically, as a legitimating gesturethat the council was still interested in 575 equalities, but without any substance. This trend towards communicative bureaucratic hierarchical control, erecting a cordon closure - re-asserting from direct communicative claims, neosanitaire around politicians into key `our posts - continued putting people' equalities, managerialising with the appointment of the first head of the new equalities' unit. This was head in The Labour Party internal the end. new was a appointment, an in local had been, another authority, a co-opted member of a member and committee. Shehad worked in the Central Policy Unit of the target borough for developing been had PSO the the given responsibility programme. and A NALGO newsletter issuedjust before the new head was appointed, made the critical point that there was a climate in the council in which that post in "equality "nu-speak" through the neo-managerialist of advertised was but, fast hands then this track on experience... and management.... quality..... is also a climate in which recruitment to `fast track' managementposts .. being hidden have to a member a number of selection criteria, such as appear in Party, Labour the preferably someprevious capacity as a councillor, or of 078 "' being friend a personal of membersor senior manager. and/or co-optee 11.36 Conclusion The fate which befell the race equality programme, structuresand discourse in the target borough was unique only in the way in which it was played out. Between the late eighties and mid nineties, similar processesof de1987, in local In the at authorities. other equality occurred race establishing initiation of the head of the race unit in the target borough together with local borough in the target other and other race advisersand workers the nascentpublic spherearound race were using made, attempts authorities, from develop local to race more solidaristic responses governance, and happening be in local to to authorities what appeared equality workers other in their and other councils. A briefing note, as an introduction to the subject issues, discuss invitation being the to hand, to was a meeting as an well as at circulated. This Conservative government has already announcedits intention to continue be inner This Labour will onslaught city authorities. the onslaught on run directed at those very two areas which underpin our work: viz. curtailing the level local democratisation the and curtailing the government at process of level of resourcesavailable. Whilst not denying the reality of the crisis, this is being compounded by the Labour Party's accommodationist response as its Their terms. the to national election own on attacks opposed confronting is loudly trying to the class echoing working at the white refind strategy of local authority level as Labour councillors look: to the forthcoming local. by inner is There these now many of attempt city Labour a conscious elections. left", "loony image to non profligate non of the produce a sanitized groups down do To their commitment to race they scaling so requires run. councils equality on the assumption that something as vague as "equal opportunities" is in Birmingham for Thus the blame for losing to example easier sell electorally. 576 five Labour seatsat the May 87 local elections is being laid at the doors of the Race and Women's committees. These have now been abolished and replaced do Equalities Personnel to plans are committee whilst afoot and a with likewise with their Race and Women's Units. In Camden there were plans discussed before the national election to the effect that if Labour lost the be first to the then go would a number of the posts some of general election Race, Women's and other equality advisers' leaving a small rump which would be formed into an equal opportunities unit. Similar discussions are now taking boroughs. inner In London in addition measuresare other, of a number place have disastrous being effect on many race a will considered which also equality initiatives being undertaken. In sum the reactionary side to the in light is be the to a way which will given green pressureson our work going 1079 functionaries. Bantustan reduce our role to that of That was written in 1987. By the early to mid nineties, of the eight inner London Labour run boroughs which had establishedsome form of race intact. had including that infra-structure, a central unit, only one still equality All of the rest had either wholly or substantially disestablishedtheir internal in left broad based the At centre. was rump equalities a most structures. Out of the five outer London Labour run boroughs, which had also erected is This had to bar them. presented extirpated all, one, similar structures, borough in happening target the to was not that equality race was what show justifications in is the form made of aberration; a claim which redolent some by the councillors primarily responsible for its destruction. Thus, for find face, dramatic in councillors, who previously could not volte example, a fault with the work of the two equality units, even though they did not like briefing the media to the effect that the changes the operational style, were delivering', `were the because forced the them and/or not units upon were boroughs in beastly'loao. Yet, `too the mentioned other all of were advisers from the expulsion and eventual of marginalisation above, a similar process differing had being Whilst these each of enacted. organisation, was discourse they suffered eventually styles, all and operational race structures, here being What fate. was not a collection of witnessed was the same had implementation but similar the many which a strategy of coincidences, ingredients as those in the target borough. This is not to shout `conspiracy' facilitated indicate a set of changing circumstanceswhich so much, as to from borough the What target the out, apart stand makes those actions. discourse the discursive programme race equality the underpinning of nature fact is it that these diskourses the like the encountered, razzia and boroughs. At be the taking to of other place ahead contestationsappeared limited the level the utopia of welfare the of rejection the meta outcome was labourist included the the consensus, as well as closing which compromise, down of the race and women's equality utopias. At the macro level it was had theseutopias at which problem the neo-managerialisationof a political its heart. At the micro level it was what occurred in the target borough. Thus it moved from a brief period of repoliticisation and decolonisation, in form local inclusive of governancecould be which glimpses of a racially 577 gleaned,to an administrative re-assertionof party control through depoliticisation and recolonisation. What occurred in that target borough can be seento be replicated at national level in the new government. One and a half years after the destruction of the race and women's equality programmesin the target borough, the Independentran a praising article entitled, "The Borough Where Labour is Working. "los' This noted that the council had cut its workforce by some 2000, including its refuse collection from 160 to 60 "forcing the dustmen to work so hard workforce which went that residents are treated to the sight of men stripping to the waist literally borough the emptying the council's new wheelie bins."1082 running round The then Leader, the samewho posed the need for a permanentquestion interpretation Black people's of their experiences,responseto this mark over hard it, he had thinking that, about after come to the conclusion that was 083 dustmen four In this "making our times as hard is a socialist act."' work dislocation of meansand ends,the echoesof `freedom through work' and `Gulag(ing)' for the motherland resonate. 11.37 Epilogue - Post 1990 The de-politicising and re-colonising trends identified in the researchabove closing, medium silencing of race, a neo-managerialist communicative -a for promoting `better services' as the new universalism bonding all facade a virtual reality of technical good governanceas a communities, for democratisation, its from critical equalities cut off substitute base instrumentalised thus and sign existing as an communicative described his Ouseley In the one of more prescient observations, continues. in in local the mid nineties, as race government vis-ä-vis equality situation, 1084 in This much is true of having regressedto the situation the seventies. the way in which equalities, particularly race equality, retrocededin the target borough in the nineties. This can be briefly outlined with regard to four facets: the race equality infra-structure, which had been theorised as being a key catalyst for opening up the communicative spaces;the for the agent new power coagulating entrenchmentof neo-managerialismas loudly by the the the wearing of reality of so announced changes councillors; the `new clothes'; and the fate of Black people within and outside of the organisation. The structure of the new central equalities set up was already characterised by the distorting forces re-imposed over its operation, viz. the scaling down its into formal its re-insertion equality components, respective a of its hierarchy, ligaturing the of communicative channelswith its managerial supposedconstituencies. There were, as well, other aspects. For example, Race Relations Committee was reducedto two meetings a year. Its agenda, been had substantivecovering a multi-levelled scope, as always which once 578 outlined in the earlier sections,was substantially reduced. Non-voting cooptees,in the mid nineties, now consistedof membersof the manual trade local CRC from from CRO the the the a and representative unions, 1085 The ex-RaceAdvisers noted that if they had Forum. Pensioner's have they would run the serious risk of an agenda, produced so meagre formal censure.1086 In terms of content, one that was now limited to service issuesand grant funding, the former had relapsedinto project mode, one that Whereas intermittent. the anti-racist service programmes,which were was framework discarded, which were createdwithin a cross council now in back the vein of ad changes, services were again promised substantive hoc, one off projects. Responsibility for generatingthe race equality dimension to employment fell to the PersonnelDivision. One of their first for back the achievementof the employment the time to period acts was put targets. The result was that by 1994 the target of achieving 21% Black 1087 from The the now recommendation original stood. still employees defunct Race Unit was the achievementof the sametarget by 1988. The anti-racist employment programmesand action plans were rewritten, and `ameliorated', into positive action plans. In thesethe primary sorts of The for Black be training to managers. ones,particularly action appeared detailed action of the previous plans, which addressedsubstantial Action and evaluation were now were omitted. organisational change, limited to monitoring and praise for departments. Above all the language back The `ethnic term to the minorities' replaced seventies. of race went `Black'. In terms of the infra-structure, the race adviser post in Social Servicesbecamevacant in 1989. It was never refilled. By 1994the Equalities Development Unit, which had replaced the Race and Women's Units, had merged with the Central Policy Unit to becomethe Central Policy 1088 became Unit head the Unit. The the Equalities also equalities of and head of the new unit. By 1998 it had reverted to the generic Central Policy Unit, losing all aspectsof an explicit equalities dimension. In the early local had decided the to crc, the and re-fete refocus council nineties including the public awarding of a council `honour' to the CRO, the very Party dominated Working the had tried to the new sabotage and samewho Race Unit. By 1999 the crc was closed becausethe council had withdrawn 1089 On the council website, in 1998, the then Leader of the council, funding. the very samewho had pushedthrough the neo-managerialistchanges,could 1090 boast that at long last they had rid themselvesof the equality structures. In the nineties a plethora of neo-managerialistsub-diskoursesand associated techniqueswere introduced into the running of the target borough: quality displacement the of `personnel' by techniques;performance management; `human resources'; appraisal and supervision procedures;businessplanning. In this the target borough was being matched by other local authorities as introduced similar programmesof controlling the and more more For local in governance. example, of systems a three year administrative 579 time lag, Lambeth introduced the sametype of managerialist programmes together with a complete erasureof their internal equality structures. As with the target borough there was a heavy investment in managerial training. These changesin other boroughs reflected, as well, the internal changesin the Labour Party nationally with its adoption of the `new' preface, distinguishing it from its old, bad past, which were, at that time being played out in the local parties. In Lambeth, for example, from the mid nineties local Labour Party was firmly in the hands of new the control of onwards Labour supporters. This, in turn, was manifested in the political outlook and calibre of Labour councillors running the council. There were similar in local the authority directly to the west of the target borough. In changes borough but the target particularly where thesemanagerialist all, had been in operation the longest, the relationship with the restructuring local populace was now mediated through the publication of visible signs that the council was performing. This took the form of performance targets, measuresand evaluations of how the council was achieving those goals. All this expressed,at the technical signifying level, was that, as with the nationalisation of legitimation processes,there were hidden costs. Both the'neo-managerialisationof a political problem and one aspectof that problem, viz. privatisation, whilst premissedon the three `Es' of resourcesas be than the they to cost actually more resources were supposed a solution, in For example, the target borough, new managerial accounting saving. be developed, for, implemented. in had These, to terms of paid and systems the amount of time afforded to employeeand financial control, increased boundaries This the extension of managerial action and of significantly. devolution built the were of previously centrally on expectedcompetence human finance responsibilities, such as resources and and on the controlled technoligisation of managementas a discourse/diskourse. Privatisation of local did government services, such as refuse collection, not remove certain the cost of those services from local government, or, as was claimed, make those services cheaperto run. Compulsory Competitive Tendering (CCT) by 1988 Government introduced Local Act the specifying a rolling was local had be to government services which of put out to programme 1091 The first batch affected areas,such as cleaning, catering, refuse tender. in fact in those etc., all which the majority of workers were collection introduced based It organisational split also a quasi-market manual. whereby that part of the organisation concernedwith specifying the context to, level and quality of service was called the commissioner, and that part With the the contractor. regard to the with providing service, concerned servicesmentioned the contracting side was referred to as the Direct Service Organisation (DSO) which, along with outside contractors had to bid for the tender. Apart from the ethically dubious practices which now grew up loss leaders, or bribes, the council around public sector contracts, such as for the services,even though a private firm might have was still responsible been bought in to run it. This meant that the local authority had to invest 580 heavily in the creation of a `shadow' bureaucracywhose function was to monitor and evaluatethe way in which the contract was being executedby the contractor. Thus, for example, a contract for cutting the grass in public parks required, as part of the specification, a clear indication of the height of had be by This to measured and checked council grassexpected. in borough, however, is What the target the extent to stands out evaluators. in import both to the embraced, relation was of which privatisation domain the techniques previously sole of the private sector, and managerial in relation to actually privatising what were regarded as constituency fodder is by latter By those the meant services which were viewed services. labourist councillors as being significant in the political legitimation battles. Most of the staff in theseserviceswere, what was classified in local `manual The "work them terms as, workers'. strategem of government harder for socialism" was taken to its next stagewith the use of the by legislation certain councillors and senior and climate privatisation i. DSO, to e. not a which then won the a private company, managers establish tender to provide key council services,like the refuse collection service. The main councillor concernedwas the ex-Leader who had been mainly instrumental in bringing in the neo-managerialistchanges. As then directors of the new company the senior managershad to resign from the in The company was successful subsequentlywinning a number of council. in The these councillor concerned, service areas. contracts other councils' however, remained in his political post causing senior staff in the legal departmentand the then chief executive to advise of the potential dangersof image. harm do interest the that to the council's and would a conflict of Whilst the councillor concerneddid eventually resign, in the late nineties he borough. Leader the back of and now putative mayor as a councillor, was This is not just a rupturing of the welfarist utopia; it's a jettisoning of it and does different by totally not rely on any which relationship replacement a In the the surrounding war or consensus. phoney compromise of notion labour in introduce intention the the to mid eighties, privatisation announced borough, in including Leadership the target those the were of movement, it bad how demonstrating dedicated information to would network part of an be for workers under a privatised regime. It is ironic, therefore, that those indicators identified, such as worse employment conditions samewarning discrimination, increased hours, longer lower of chances pay, and contexts, indices being labourist transmogrification, this of used as new are, under by in fact In the to work mid nineties able provide cheaperservices. LGMB1093, EOC1092 those the the earlier warnings confirmed and academics, likelihood discrimination for the of worse and pay more of worse conditions, is form But in CCT there the of privatisation. another workers caught up . dimension to this, which is that it presageda now common belief in bringing in the private sector to running local government on a formal acknowledged basis. This partnership with the private sector is informally negotiated through explicit networks, such as the new local government network, and 581 involves politicians, local and national, key new, modernising local governmentacademicsand private sector organisations. It is a partnership in a trade which, in 2001, could yield the private sector £30 billion extra revenuea year. A critical member of Labour's national executive commentedin a recent article that one of the academics"Corrigan sharesan interestwith the putative mayor of the target borough, Councillor "X", a former director of local government contractorsAb, in promoting the idea of electedmayors and local cabinet style government.... (which)... has its in by think yellowing pieces the late, and aridly Thatcherite, provenance former minister Nicholas Ridley."1094 This convergenceof right and left far from being local government, a `third way' reflects the recursive over local being that of municipal services. government of as simply notion Thus: "The fusing of businesswith government may still confuse Labour supporters. They may find themselvesthrown by the managementgobbledegook that is the network's stock in trade. By now it may be dawning on some that any notion of `conflict in interest' is as old fashioned as clause four of the Labour Party They may conclude that private greed has simply replaced constitution. public need as the new, yet also very old, ideology.s1095 At another level it could be arguedthat this makes formally respectableand informal between the the the public and corporatism of seventies acceptable by Smiths Poulsons T. Dan the the evinced sectors activities of and private of the time. These instrumentalisedchangesrequired, and generated,a dynamic branding its interface the with visibility council mediated with which and re-branding the public. The local communities now have to negotiate glossy media learn interact borough, trend target to very a about, with or even, productions in local is But this other symptomatic of, and authorities. much evident feeds into, a growing specific oeuvre of `public sector management' from knowledge different levels in the categorisationof at society, mirrored this at university levels, including associatedqualifications, to the numerous in dedicated the tendency's that to this recognition subject and publications bookshops. There bookshelves in labelled are even academic separate itself `marketing' the this, with one of which concerns sub-disciplines within local derives This `public local of governance relationing' government. of from the decisions taken to reconfigure a political relationship with the local This is is into that new relationship one consumerised. given communities de-democratisingsanction in the new political structuresbeing pursued by in being form borough, through the the target pushed and of some, as legislation, by the national government. Cabinet style government and deliberative from local component substantial a electedmayors removes in governmentwhich existed the old style committees. But this form of in late the there eighties and early seventieswhen critique was already 582 Dearlove, correctly, identified that those calling for an abolition of the committee structure for being "too slow and cumbersome" did so on the 1096 flimsiest of reasons. Further this form of reductionist restructuring simply replaced what had been a comparatively horizontal form of control through multiple decision sites, with a single hierarchically structured decision and accesspoint. Thus those multiple democratic accesspoints to local government have been reducedto one. Even within that solitary all decisions taken are merely the rubber stamping of encompassingcommittee, decisionistic action of previous groupings, not open to the public, such as scrutiny committees which are attachedto the new cabinet. The meansof Black that the communities were present,visible and even ensuring participating at service, or other committee meetings,where important be discussed decisions happened to taken, and were policies as previously, have disappeared. Important public political spaceshave been closed down and replaced with virtual reality `signs of progress'. Yet, despitethis refurbishing, revamping and renovating of the organisation to createa more visually palatable product so that the consumers,at the local election, can `buy', the end results are still minimal. In a scenarioof being hoist with their own petard, the Audit Commission's annual releaseof local authority league tables showing how they have performed against a variety of indicators borough, Lambeth that the target reveals with performance 1097 bottom, is in lowest A the the till up rungs. recent, very much propping this millennium, report showed that its refuse services,still being run by the is in because it is trouble company mentioned not above, sameprivate 1098 is One likely targets. outcome that more resourceswill meeting agreed have to be invested in the neo-managerialinfra-structure, as well as the is `what-we-have-done-to-resolve-the-problem. " There an of marketing here Habermas' with argumentsabout the public relations exercises overlap displacing communicative democratising impulses and Debord's notion of 1099 My contention is that this atteststo a wider political the `spectacle'. democratisation by, to, of yet postponed a not amenable problem technicisation of the solution, just as racism atteststo trans-epochal fulfilling key to unresolved communicative problems whose solutions are modernity. The fate of Black people in the target borough, and other local authorities in the nineties, was being sculpted as a processpresenting itself as the town halls `re-whitewashing' themselves. The sub-text to this, as exemplified in the redefinition of equalities by the target borough, was to presentthe period of the eighties as the profligate excessesof equal opportunities. Problems happened in in Lambeth, the nineties, as often were portrayed as encountered from borough, legacy In the mid nineties onwards, this the of eighties. a there appearedto be an assiduousprogramme of ridding the organisation of people, especially managers,who were too closely associatedwith the having in in then, terms terms of support for the of worked or eighties, either 583 equality policies pursued then. One Black managerinterviewed, swearsat having seenat the centre in the then Chief Executive's office, a list of `suspect' managers,many of whom were Black. " 00 Whether true or not, the fact is that in this authority most of the Black managersappointed in the eighties and early nineties had, through one meansor another, left by the mid to late nineties. In one Directorate, which had been very successfulin appointing Black employeesthroughout every level of the hierarchy, over a three year period, lost most of their Black managersthrough processesof redundancy,resignation or disciplinary action. There were a few who simply resigned becauseof the changesoccurring, without having another job to go to. There was a very strong atmospheregeneratedby the done through what was and said, felt by Black employees,that organisation those appointed under the equalities period, were suspectin terms of their suitability for the job. Reorganisationsof work areasmanagedby Black displacement their were common. Their replacements,for the people and just had In borough, I the target white. were part, most as argued increase in that an complaints of racism by Black people can be previously level in increase in as a sign one of confidence at appropriation, so read an the disciplining of Black people is an indication of silencing. By the mid nineties, according to their own internal monitoring figures, over 30% of ' 101 disciplined being The appointment rate for Black those were Black. decrease from that time, the period when at same showed, a marked people the two separateequality units existed, so much so that their own monitoring it is its in "for that the targets to not sufficient concluded council meet report the foreseeablefuture." But the fate of Black people in the organisation can be best represented through the experiencesand testimonies of Black people themselves. Earlier in this chapter, I had drawn attention to the appointment of a senior Black managerto run the section dealing with voluntary sector grants at Regarded time the two the same equality units came stream. as on about being liked, by both as well membersand management, competent, as very his career trajectory through the organisation can be contrastedwith the latter, Women's Unit head The the the time. as appointed at same of white head to the replacementequalities set up at the centre, above, went on shown then the Central Policy Unit, and then endedup as assistantChief Executive. The last two promotions were through re-organisational sleight of hands and were not subject to any equal opportunity considerationsof advertising inviting One Black and applications. employee,who worked externally covering one of the new race posts at the time the new equality unit merged her Central Policy Unit, the questioned openly equality credentials with given the way in which she then cameto acquire the enhancedmanagement ' 102 head Equalities. Under the previous of Central Policy and post of equality arrangementsthis sort of critical interrogation was part of the job, as Unit's by Race the the questioning of the appointment shown ex-headof 584 for decision the then Assistant Chief Executive. He, on the process and issued hand, disciplined and other was with a final written warning, i. e. any further organisational transgression would result in dismissal. However, over this same period of the nineties, the Black head of community affairs found himself, despite showing and performing well according to the indicators' `performance subject to various reorganisation's own in himself and his section being moved to two organisation which resulted departments, in being demoted. the and separate process, effectively other Eventually, in the late nineties, a final re-organisation made him 1103 He in to the nineties of was able confirm a growing pattern, redundant. Black voluntary groups having their funding withdrawn by the council. In fact no new Black group was funded in the sixteen years that he worked for the council. He highlighted a growing culture of not accepting criticism by the council, both internally and externally. Organisations in the voluntary informally, it told, that that visitors are shown were when around sector from is be there to to them that complain not enough grant wise would not Further, with the advent of the executive style structure and the council. decision making, spending decisions were delegated to groups not accessible to the public. His professional assessment, was that a significant factor in deciding who gets funded is the evaluation by these members of those who had have Thus the ever whilst no groups political mainstream. support their funding withdrawn for not upholding their equality conditions of grant, This, for them the as such council action. of now would qualify criticism the local law centre found to their cost, is nu-speak entitled `reprovisioning', i. e. shifting the provision of those services to new organisations, which in long but This be the term ones. critical, essential service private might local community, has been cut, and its services advertised under for local had locally been It to enabling people a means reprovisioning. In the those their council. rights, even of appropriation against claim Croydon, as another example, the private provision of race equality services local Black being the groups, as a wishes of considered, much against was is is local His CRC. that there the a view means of re-constituting like is look based, "modernising to them make which agenda convergence team new Labour. " Another Black manager,working in "X" Social Servicesin the nineties job, a without new stating that she would rather work washing resigned, dishes etc. than carry on. Her observationswere that the target borough was factitious like itself through representations, extremely good at promoting brochures,and other media forms, but that the reality of working in the intolerable. She Black too noted that the vast person was organisation as a ' 104 majority of appointmentsto other managementpositions were white. There are other testimonies, as well. The key point is that the details of thesedraw attention to the technical learning for dominancetrends identified 585 in the body of this chapter. Theseare to do with the depoliticisation and relocal the of governance,one of the main impetusesfor sphere colonisation of fear'. Under the changesidentified above in `racial that which was of be to the sector can seenthe authoritarian attempt to close voluntary relation down the local public spheres,particularly the subaltern ones, so that the identified by important in Labour the new citizenship, new as active is dimensionally in arrangements, constituted one accordancewith new right Labour's protocol of what is good participation. We are back in the field "house " territories of and niggers. anthropophagii 586 Chapter 12 Race and Local Governance - The Case of Cape Town in South Africa 12.1 Introduction Making Connections the - The meta-, meso- and micro-level contextualisation of empirical data prefacing the chapter on the UK is very much that which will be applied to the information on the South African casestudy. Thus in the section on `methodology' I argued that because"race `internationalises' the core issue" it "tests the main theoretical explanatory framework, i. e. Habermas' theory, both at the `real' level of global application, and given its universalist level", `norm' is the a comparison made with a local authority in principle, It is still the case,as it was for the chapter on the UK that: South Africa. "the data, and organisation thereof, thus seeksto support a critical, multilevel epistemological frame of referencewhich can be expressedin the sense flowing following the concentric outwardly categories: of circles covering race, local governance,race and local governance,the state and multi-racial society, the meta-theoreticalconsiderationsto thesemediated through Habermas and the argumentswith post-modernism,and finally, Habermas in " However, as argued the chapter on methodology, becauseof and race. the time and spatial disjunctureswrought by racism, there is not a time between international is Rather the two the cases. comparison synchronicity basedon the similarities betweenthe types of race equality problems and in local level being the changes at governance pursued the proffered solution two countries in differing time periods. The emergenceof this at in different time zonesattestsnot only to the uneven developmentof racism as but phenomenon, also to the need to make this more explicit a global in Habermas' model of societal evolution, especially given my normatively contention that unresolvedproblems of race are the touchstoneto the both between In that completion a of modernity. scenarios, substantive `developed' country and that betweena `developing' one, progressis foundationalist to teleological notion of progress, not according a measured but rather that of progresstowards a deracialisedpost conventionalisation. This framework moves beyond, though it also includes a consideration of, the orthodox comparative model which examinesstates,societies and policies. The details of the theoretical complementsto key social reality correlates provided in the UK chapter are relevant as well in this one. However, there is one major qualitative difference. Whilst the empirical data in the UK section had large component derived from a `researcherin situ' component, 587 the samecan not be said for South Africa. Instead data was collected from field trips combined with the marshalling of relevant secondary a number of sourcesin both countries. As such this chapter is not as comprehensiveas the last one, being more concerned,becauseof those practical considerations,with providing the outlined basesupon which a comparison being draw be to to able certain conclusions. There is, as pointers can made is that the changesreferred to are still consideration, which as well, another is, in in Africa. There South later anticipation of a argument, unfurling being decision the crossroads of a confronted, scenario with about another being debated. to take still which route 12.2 Key Contextualisation Issues Whilst the framework employed in this chapter includes, without repeating, the theoretical componentsto key social reality correlates,it will, as well, briefly examine both the history of the South African state and the major including, frameworks the thus, either theoretical state, of progressive directly, or by implication, the local state,available as the knowledge baseto the emancipatorily oriented part of the changespectrum. This is done, in in 9,10 Chapters that the undertaken and similar exercise acknowledgement, 11 were oriented more to the UK experience. On the other hand, as shall be shown, the overlaps and similarities in the nature of the theoretical begin to that the strengthen argument a comparison and constructions figuring is denoting the of conclusion possible, as well as convergent Further these the paradigms were, nature about of globalisation. arguments knowledge the reservoir of available to those concernedwith and are, part of There in South Africa the the through are a at moment. changes working be important, but the can put, questions which prefacing obvious, of number in different frameworks. indicated the to are outlined or answers which Hence: f Is there, in South Africa, a trans-epochal unresolved problem of race? f Is this reflected in the history of the state and in the role of the state as the resolver of socio-integrative problems? f In the late, positive attempt to fulfil this role, is there an immanent inclusive state? model of a substantively racially f Is there, therefore, an identified period of a cross roads in which learning for increased i. technical that the opposite route, e. of dominance, is also visible? Whilst the framework I am going to briefly outline is derived from one have, its I have already multiple references or accessed. source,many of The framework, derived primarily, though not exclusively from O'Meara's 588 key debates framing the theoretical recent of epistemological of the apartheid because he is usesthe samemeta-level categorised state convenient mainly "°5 do. Thus he "focuses on three aspects the ontological, I matrix as .... 106 "' There is another similarity with the epistemological and the normative. in is Chapter 4 the argument which that O'Meara reflects my structuring of his analysisof the key theoretical debatesoff the mirror of the weaknessesof the orthodox Marxist interpretations of the South African polity which differences however, The in 1970's. the with mine, are twofold: emerged the first is that my argumentwas shapedwithin the context of the Habermassiancontentions about the limitations to the universals of human development posed by the social labour, not a term he uses,variant; and the is despite is the actual real situation, an explicit that race not, second his identified I therefore trends, shall use some, not all, of consideration. In 1970s the these with some among white of my own. and supplement between debate in African South universities a vigorous ensued a academics "disparate group of Marxist scholars", not to mention amongst themselvesas liberal those the thesis on their who upheld protagonists who were well, and South Africa. I use the qualifying `white' description not as a form of disparagement,but as a statementof fact. This `fact' atteststo the reality that, in the seventies,those universities locked into the Anglophone international knowledge and human resourcenetworks were almost A to then the these up revisionists of number of radical white. exclusively dominant liberal historiography were able to complete their researchstudies in the metropolitan countries through this network. One of the first is in fact a Canadian. At the sametime it atteststo the reality that those Black, by South African Marxists were, university educated,and sometimessited, institutional because being the this racism of of network and part of not Anglophone in Africa South the centres,effectively excluded and academia, from this debate. O'Meara's own work of that period, whilst critical even is by Marxists, the oriented towards the state and omissions structural then of is, history Saunders There key or analysis as points out, not a the players. 1107 But in this the this Black peculiarity of exemplifies context. actors of in `race' the theoretical construction of alternatives the status and situating of by theseprogressiveswhereby `race' and `racism', as I have argued in Chapter 1, are treated as epiphenomenalto more substantivesocietal determining forces. In the caseof the Marxists mentioned, this is the labour. development the to social of universals reduction of societal Whilst O'Meara is critical of their reductionism as well, this criticism does He is the include the subsumption with of race. associated reductionism not fault lines in in identifying however, their three reductionist right, functional being to the treating capitalist system; apartheid as arguments: instrumentalising the state as a vast monolithic, uni-dimensional entity; and being fractions to that of specific classes agents or of of reducing actors those classes. O'Meara identifies a later eighties and nineties group of South African state theorists the aim of whose work is primarily concerned 589 Here flag democratisation the to the state. again, prefatorily of up this with issue,the resolution of the problem of democratisationand race is reducedto that of the achievementof a universal, unqualified, non discriminatory franchise. But then this accordswith the African National Congress' is it doctrine to through their to which wish away racism approach race and level is because At `non-racialism'. such a response understandable one of the enormity and obvious `in-your-face', everyday reality of racism and the oppressingracist stateprovokes a counter replication of race and racism as a is just doing However, `non-racialism' that; screen. smoke masking is disaffirmation It the communicative of nothing about race and racism. " in "I As to talk such, says am not going about race. effect, race which, despite O'Meara's criticism of the liberal paradigm which basically argues foisted South upon that race and racism were, and are, some aberration African society by misinformed and bad faith actors, in this casethe Afrikaaners, he, the Marxists and state democratisershe identifies, actually be by is That doing they treat the race as a product which can same. end up is found. deeper In the to the the caseof cause solution once resolved liberals the market, unfettered by the shacklesof `apartheid' are the key. In in Marxists, that the the the caseof rise of capitalism South who argue Africa is intertwined with the creation of statesystemsof racial dominance, the the state as a means of controlling seizure of and exploitation, oppression in Black through war which people are a class production means of Black the the class, and white working classes working or with synonymous `unite and fight', is the answerto the democratisationof both the state and the economy. O'Meara's later arguments,which are a Gramscian in Marxist the thus the and not so simplistic on analyses, sophistication be dealt in he theoretical the the main examination of with sees, will solution arguments. 12.3 Origins of the South African State In detailing the origins of the South African statemost of the commentators theorists - start with the systemic edifice sociologists, political -historians, introduced by the Europeancolonists. In part this is due to the reasoning from both liberals and Marxist radicals that racism developedafter the state did, the taking start of mineral exploitation with off only really and economy late industrialisation in twentieth incipient the and early nineteenth and by few Very that this the was an artifice reasoning start analysis centuries. foisted upon the then existing indigenous meansof resolving sociointegrative problems. I have argued earlier in this researchpiece that "I see integrative that systemic and social of a wedge.... of new this processas between is bifurcation Black in there white and a sharper which at actions the socio-integrative level.... (whilst).. systemically new structures of imposed these were on power societies which and administrative economic traditional the systemsaccording to priorities some of realigned and ruptured 590 determinedby a dynamic located elsewhere,.....social integrative institutions just by disrupted the penetration of new as well not were and processes forms of systemic action, but by the imposition of social integrative action that consensualisednorms hierarchicalising white over Black, which were instrumentally applied, and therefore experienced,and therefore experienced domination. " The be have in direct to the same process can seen applied as South African case. In examining colonial South Africa and the origins of the racial order, Keegan arguesas follows: "In a European dominated world in which race came to permeatethe social orders it by is colonial regimes, superfluous to argue about the origins of the established South African racial order. Racial hierarchies were present from the beginnings of settlement at the Cape. Europeancolonisers brought with them stereotypesand prejudices which did not amount to a racial ideology so much as an inherent ethnocentrism. These were activated into a social system of racial hierarchy by the struggle for control of resources against native peoples, and by the labour 108 based depend. "' on coercion, on which the colonisers came to systems, This accordswith my argumentsabout the nature of trans-epochal is It thus with this contextualisation of the problems of race. unresolved in be defined to the as the resolver of process which state comes racialising key the strandsto systemic-integrative one of problems, white socio-and briefly is I Black that to the the want outline exclusion of peoples, which from imposed South African to the the systems state of colonial evolution democratic constitutionalism. of state The South African state,that is a political entity with political authority over the geographical span known as South Africa and peoples therein, was from legal 1909 South Africa Act, the the the auspicesof created,under four Cape, in 1910 the the then self settler colonies: of governing merger Natal, Transvaal and the OrangeFree state. The state becameknown from that date as the `Union of South Africa'. Klug arguesthat what this created because Constitution bifurcated "the Union granted the white state was a it democracy, the on other subjugatedthe parliamentary while minority 109 "' South Black Africans to autocratic administrative rule. majority of There were contained in the 1909Act defined "differential spheresof 110 for "' `European' `Native' populations within one territory. and citizenship The latter together with their lands and where they were to live were to be the subject of the exerciseof authority by the `Governor general in council'. Up to 1931 with the passing of the Statuteof Westminster by the British Union's by the the parliament was restricted sovereignty of parliament, legislation tying it to the British state. Thereafter, even with `full dominion in being the theory, parliament of South granted sovereignty' Africa remainedprocedurally bound by the entrenchedclausesof the Union Constitution. Two of the important entrenchedclauses,the outcome of four in between the the original participating colonies compromises 591 conferencegiving rise to the 1909Act related to the Cape franchise and the legal parity of English and Dutch (later Afrikaans). Repeal or changeof any of thesewould require a two thirds majority of the parliament. In effect the judicial be to subject review. In 1961 the Union became constitution could a republic when it left the Commonwealth. In terms of the "western derived constitutional arrangements"this changewas not the simple replacementof the Governor general with a President,as presentedby O'Meara. Rather, as Klug argues,it reflected the end of a long term for by Government National the time the of parliamentary struggle judiciary. four The the over settler colonies which came sovereignty together to form the South African statehad differing and different influences. In Cape Natal, the arrangements and and with the constitutional influence of English constitutionalism, a qualified, supposedlynon-racial franchise had been introduced basedon property rights. This, as Klug for in immigration, European a context of encouragement was, shows, Black In Cape, to to the manipulation people. constant with regard subject for example, in the late nineteenth century, allocation of individual plots to African families was, through legislation, divorced from the criteria for the franchise. In Natal the different conditions attachedto the franchise meant that in 1907 99% of registeredvoters were white. In the Cape the franchise, whilst giving the majority of white adult males (and later in the 1920s) females the vote, also enfranchiseda growing number of Coloured Cape Franchise This In the was constitutionally entrenched. people. former Boer republics the franchise, despitebeing constitutionally defined as before law, the equal and thus unqualified, was constitutionally males all difference level At to the this white adult males. another reflects restricted between, what was to becomea folkloric remembranceand retelling of, English and Afrikaaner racism. Despite this constitutional guaranteeof limited Black political participation through the ballot box, from 1910 limited to this the parliament assiduously attempted remove onwards franchise. In this the battle betweenthe courts and parliament for legislative In 1950s the attemptsto remove sovereignty was played out. Coloured voters from the roll by allowing a simple majority vote in the From Court by Supreme the struck as unconstitutional. was out parliament, there on the government resortedto a number of strategieswhich included legislation allowing them to pack the Appellate court with their sympathisers in Act 1956 South Africa Amendment the which excluded of and culminated the jurisdiction of the courts and reinstatedthe 1951 SeparateRepresentation for from Black Act Voters the the of which allowed voters removal of 1956 Act Key that relating to the sovereignty paragraphs of common roll. "" included. the courts were over of parliament It can be arguedthat challengesto the legitimation of the state's authority through pursuing to its logical conclusion the limited normative potential of the Constitution was one strategy employed by Black people. For example 592 the legal challenge to the 1951Act was launchedby four `Coloured' voters, in in their them own right the subalternpublic sphereof active each of 11 12 ' On the other hand it mirrored, as well, the then `Coloured politics. its legitimation base, in to this caseby expelling government's need control because The legitimation their of race. concern with opponents potential describes it, O'Meara the South African statepost 1910 that whilst, as means "enjoyed a long notoriety as the incarnation of constitutionally entrenched did dismissal this to constitutional entrenchment not give rise a racisms1113, for legitimation the amongstthe Black populations; the requirement of is legitimation Rather requirements which outright repression. of corollary `constituencies: three the white electorate,amongst covered and strategies for divided, Nationalist Party the was support and certainly not whom Black the populations whose political and economic aspirations monolithic; had to be controlled through meansother than just repression;and, related to this, the international community whose growing repugnanceof and hostility towards the racistly violent excessesof apartheidthreatenedthe economic clientalist status of the country. The relevance of the above is that it had a direct bearing on the post Second in Thus, South African 1959 the state. and of world war evolution Government Self Promotion Bantu 1961, the of apace after rapidly continued This "took the logic of land reservation a step by setting Act was passed. islands Union Constitution lands the those as cast reserved which same aside in in future Africans `tribal' the exercise areas which would governanceas of their political aspirations... .as foreign citizens exercising full political rights 114 framework. "' In South African the other words constitutional outside of the start of `Bantustanization'. The position of other formally designated legitimating like `Coloureds' the the on remained groups, population look different Whilst to up government commissions,set political agenda. into this, rejected the notion of a separate`homeland', a potential answerwas in 1984 the constitution. proffered The 1984 constitution abandonedthe Westminster model. It was the direct Nationalist in legitimating the the government of strategies result of changes both the time, the within and outside the changing scenes reflecting of itself The the constitution were constitutional changesand country. language in technocratic of expertise and portrayed a new local to government, talked about and with regard even, professionalisation, `participatory democracy'. Though the latter's meaning under the Nationalist party nu-speakwas entirely different to common notions about describes democracy. O'Meara the new constitution as "a participation and highly centralised and complex presidential regime built around an executive legislature defined tri-cameral and a nebulous advisory presidency,a racially body with limited powers known as the President's Council. "" is Additionally the Provincial Councils, which had allowed for a limited degree 593 of federalisedautonomy, were done away with and the powers of those by assumed the President. The racially segregatedtri-cameral component representedthe attempt by the apartheidregime to bring into the national government fold the `Coloured' and Indian peoples through allowing those groups to elect their own MPs to their own separatechambersin the new set for The thesewere boycotted by the different groups. elections up. Finally the new constitution of South Africa, finalised in 1996, allows for a quasi-federalistpresidential government in which the previous four have been provinces expandedto nine. This is a two house legislature elected on a mixture of proportional and regional representation. What is important is that parliament doesnot have sole sovereignty. Instead the constitution has establisheda constitutional court to `watch over' the Rather being than there constitution. a democratic constitutional state, there should be, so the theory goes, a state of democratic constitutionalism. The details of this will be broachedlater with regard to local government. 12.4 Recent Theories of the South African State O'Meara identifies six broad tendencies in the new literature on the South African state and the change potentials associated with these. I want to four, including his on own, which I regard as being more concentrate germane to this study. However, I want to add one other which is hinted at, '116 from O'Meara's In addition in summarising his but missing study. `summary', I want to re-examine, briefly, his meta-level critique through the interrogator of `race', which he does not do. In fact a reader would be hard how feature `race' in he `racism' to the understand and analyses pressed looks at, other than the obvious statements, here and there, that this was a is for But this that the that the not surprising given state. references racist book, as well as the ones he examines, have very few devoted to either race or racism. In the trends he identifies O'Meara deals with the South African variant of Since he the criticisms voices are similar to mine post-Fordism. functionalist and economically determinist -I am not going to include that. The implied dimension of race within the post Fordist explanation of societal changewhich I outlined in Chapter...applies even more in the context of South Africa. The key question is what does it mean for the Black person interface between her/his lifeworld the colonising and the economic and at "into the systems emancipatory or absorption action political generalities of the exploitation contained within the valorisation of labour." This, however, is a question which can be put to all of O'Meara's identified tendencies. 594 12.5 State-centric analyses1117 Theseanalysesprovide a more sophisticatedexamination of the way in is which power garneredand usedwithin the state apparatus;that is it is not reducedto an almost automatic reflex of capital. For O'Meara this because it has takes real politics seriously allowing for an merit approach examination of the real politics of the apartheid state rather than the imposition on thesepolitics of the "abstract logic of the author's own theoretical model." However the weaknessof this approachis that it accords,and comes close to the liberal school of politics, too much power to individual actors. This perhapslies in the concomitant weaknessof the main theoretical source,Theda Skocpol. Skocpol breaks with what O'Meara describesas explanations of the stateas manifestations of social relations between collective actors. Insteadthere are three principles guiding her conception of the state: a non-voluntarist structural perspective,the framework of state action, and the potential autonomy of the geopolitical state. The weaknessesrelate firstly to her adoption uncritically of the neoHobbsian, ahistorical realist school of thinking on the state and international is international In "anarchic this there an systemin which relations. 8 locked in deadly for a struggle survival and power." egotistical statesare Within this realist perspectivethis systemis absolutely autonomousfrom In terms of O'Meara's on tological and outside. social actors interrogations, he comesto the conclusion that with regard epistemological to the former, that such an approachhas not adequatelytheorised the because, be the autonomy of politics within state as can supposed demonstratedunder apartheid, autonomy is relative, rather than potentially because With latter, to the regard analysesare only ever post absolute. facto retrospective, Skocpol unwittingly appearsto subscribeto the rational Policy Model of explanation whereby statepolicy permutations are "more or less the purposive acts of unified governments." Be this, as it may, the insights O'Meara garners from the state-centric his little by critique and offer way of advancing the questions approach for inclusive form the conditions realising a racially of governance, about includes democratisation the areas of obviously associated and which institutions. bifurcated deliberate In the there the state racially was political hierarchicalisation and of two on tologies and construction social Black begging that that the of white people and of people, epistemologies, how differences the of manufactured could be resolved. normative question The most obvious criticism that can be made of the state-centric approachis that it cut itself off from the experiencesof subjugatedBlack to the state and how the staterespondedto this. This responsewas not just physically in for the caseof the state's reaction to the 1976 student as example violent, boycott of and demonstrationsagainstthe Afrikaanerisation of school lessons,but also involved a range of long term, violent colonising intrusions 595 into the lifeworlds of Black people, including those of reformist based designed legitimating to accommodateBlack people to strategies political Counter domination. responsesto conventionalisation cannot, as I racial have argued before, be predicted, and thus cover a range of possibilities, including post-conventionalisation. 12.6 Discourse Analysis1119 O'Meara's categorisation of this trend testifies to the growing, yet still very have drawn theorists who on the `linguistic turn' to try small, group of social to analyses the South African condition. As he observes the category he 1120 by far disparate difficult Part identifies "is the most to categorise. " and key derives from his the this own misunderstanding of confusion of theoretical influences. He thus lumps together post structuralists, post Marxists and critical theorists, and concludes that they share post modernists, a consistent epistemological orientation with a paradigm that privileges discourse and symbolic rituals. In terms of the singular most important theoretical source, this lies in the work of Foucault. However, as I have is diskourse, in is discourse there there and other chapters and argued Habermas and there is Foucault, and whilst the twain do meet, it displays an ignorance of their differences and thus of the conditions under which they do As I them together. to try and simply shall show and argue merge overlap, in my own category, there is a critical theoretic version of the South African influenced but Habermas based theorists. and other on, not exclusively, state, These, then, need to be extracted from O'Meara's messy inclusion. In terms determining is Foucault I his there the agree with: over much critique of of from i. discourse, the e. experience of a mugging and constituting powers of behind, the consequent absence of space for a politics of change, and, a point he does not make, the related impossibility of a normative perspective. However, not all of the Foucauldian derived insights can be dismissed out of hand as not resonating "with a real sense, or feel for what politics (or life) " His like apartheid. was, after all, a privileged white experience under was does Foucauldian based Norval, life. analysis grand scale who attempt a of developments, discourse, 1990 the on argues, an eye post with of apartheid that a radical notion of the democratic politics of difference "would refuse to imposed by limits itself the structural requirements to unambiguously resign "1121 There are, within this, echoes of my point order. particular of any about resolving the on tological and epistemological antinomies of the bifurcated state, as well as the earlier arguments about the principle of constitutionalism rather than that of constitutional patriotism. 12.7 O'Meara's "non-deterministic, materialist theory of politics. "1122 At one level there is much in O'Meara's attempt to derive a nondeterministic theory of politics and the stateto recommend it. There are, 596 key the moments which echo the earlier elements various schematic within like he Habermas, have theorists, when must grappled concernsof critical historical legacy However, O'Meara's the theoretical of materialism. with insistenceon signing off with what amountsto classical historical Black the question over position a mark and role of still poses materialism his his The in his to materialist aspect of analysis relates analysis. people insistencethat before discussion,i. e. communication, human beings need to in human beings feed that, themselves, and various ways which clothe and "to themselves ensurethe production and reproduction of organise these...necessarygoods shapesthe conditions under which they live their lives, develop ideologies, engagein politics. "1123 On the basesof this, then, specific answersto specific questionsabout specific historically South African the the state circa as situations, such political contextualised late 1980s,for example, cannot be theoretically pre-given, but can only be "arrived at through detailed empirical analysis." But, on the other hand, in help by themselves, they showing us can theories, whilst are not an answer for look the answers. to where There then follows an exposition of the four key constituent elements to his be briefly These the theory summarised very will of state. reworked because it is not so much their details which are in question, as the overall theoretical framework. The first is the historical specificity of the modem individual framework, in the that of specificity state general, and, within This the The to the state. of structure and autonomy second relates states. is tied to the first element because they will influence, for each state, the "complex, evolving, inter-dependent inter determinate totality" from which for respective states the "structural limits of state power and autonomy can be read. The third element is to do with the processes of agency, power and from in O'Meara, In to this situate change away an attempt representation. the over determinism of structural accounts of the capitalist state, reasons different between the the and the state and civil society that relationship types of power the two sectors can mobilise, are crucial to understanding Within this the socio-political and socio-economic action areas of change. The final bureaucracy and class have to be investigated empirically. The itself term the and change. of crisis notions with concerns element `crisis' needs to be carefully thought out and applied if the problem, he identifies in some analysts, of circular reasoning, i. e. the chicken and egg bifor he Gramscian be To is that to opts a end avoided. conundrum, differentiation of crisis as being separately organic and conjunctural. The first calls into question "the overall structure of society, the state and "incessant the to the and persistent efforts to second relates economy, whilst defend.. to the these and conserve or structural contradictions overcome . " order. existing 597 I am not going to repeatthe critiques, put forward in earlier chapters,of Marx's historical materialism and its universalist base,social labour, Sufficient to to say that these apply as well these race. relate especially as to O'Meara's historical materialist framed theoretical outline. Ultimately there is a teleology of progresshidden within this in which changerelates to based historical `enlightenment' consciousness of subjects, a philosophy of defined. In the crucial arena of emancipatory if these are empirically even democratisation from his I to then, work relates assume which change, - and the question of whether or not this is still solely state focussedremains to be is his key how, the parametersof paradigm, the question within answeredinclusive form local in South of governance a racially of what constitutes Africa, to be answered? My view is that the "objectivating attempt to in has teleology ultimately a productivist which governance ground ..... immense difficulty in reconciling the subjectivist experiencesof those (still level determining forces in deeper this playing out of participating ... has gaps through which)..... Black people fall.. " The answer to this is in last South African lies the theory the statewhich a of problematic critical theoretic one. 12.8 A Critical Theory of the South African State The previous theory of politics and the state in South Africa readsas if it is falling into form to the succumbing over a of post modernism or of verge on the temptations of out right empiricism. Holding it theoretical cohesion together is an admixture of `autonomy' and specifically defined specific is is is because That `empiricism'. to move what a required of episodes historical Habermas' level to abstraction. attempt reconstruct of another based his theory the capitalist on a of modem state materialism, and linguistically framed bi-action abstraction,is one. This I have used, as set local UK 1,5,6,7, 11, in the to state and and re-examine out chapters The the of colonialism. well as re-think structuring as government, despite Habermassian the the contrary, of criticisms of a approach, strengths is that "he has outlined a detailed theory that attemptsto link individual, and, under certain circumstances,collective agency,with wider structuresand forces." As I interpret it, from life world to system. Within this his dominating being authorial power or of as either power conceptualisation in bottom for to a up approach analyses which the possibility power allows is less likely. falling His the theoretical Black through gaps people of theorisation of the inadequaciesof social labour, and its organisational form, the `mode of production' in explaining social evolution, and thus the need for a complementarytheorisation of social interaction, is key becauseit foregroundshis social integration-systemintegration, communicative action distinctions. The between type relationship the action, rational -purposive two arenasof action are not pre-determinant. However, becausethis is from historical level of abstraction materialism, but one that posed at another 598 privileges communicative action, it doesmean that theoretical outlines are even more accountableto empirical fallibilism. My reading of this, as I try to outline in the methodology chapter, is that this calls for a critical form of empiricism, one in which the claims of `emancipatees',so to speak, are built in. Within the limitations, therefore, of this project, whilst this will be but a theoretical outline subject to further empirical validation, it is one the democratic potential of which will be used, as was done with the UK, as a comparative referencepoint to South African state developmentsand to their interpretations. The key question I posed in the Introduction, regarding the basesfor complementarity and which is more eloquently put by Amy Gutman, is again relevant to South Africa's past and present,providing of differentiated the also consider my rider of unjustly society. coursewe "What does it mean for citizens with different cultural identities, often based on in to the way we are or race, gender religion recognise ourselves as equals ethnicity, 124 in "' treated politics? The key argumentsraised in the chaptersquoted above can be briefly basis South to tentatively theory the a outline a critical of summarisedas African state. Firstly with regard to Habermas' theory of the statehe argues that the modem capitalist state can be understoodin relation to internal and internally is "result the the where of the aspects modem state external differentiation of an economic systemwhich regulatesthe economic (and)... through the conditions the process organises market production .... under which the citizens as competing and strategically acting private 125 "' The the statethus vouches safe on production process. carry persons the conditions - civil law, money systemetc. - for the continuing existenceof free from depoliticised economic process moral norms and use value a because Externally, of the nature of the evolution of the orientations. European state,the political autonomy of the state "is basedon a reciprocal force... despite is by the the threat that of military sanctioned recognition international law... for is " The the that of problem core state of agreement legitimacy which is "the worthiness of the political order to be being its devolves "1126 This to the state able secure social upon recognised. integrative responsibilities at the sametime that it guaranteessystemic integration. Colonialism I have theorised as being a socio- and systemic integrative in forcefully dynamics the country, metropolitan reside and wedge, whose invasively thrust into other societies. This results in a number of possible deleterious socio-integrative outcomesfor the indigenous societies from total displacements. This invasive to of socio-integrative a spectrum collapse form `colony' the the takes organisation, of a socio-political process which dominating, exploitative relationship between the a overseesand mediates `colonial This, the for indigenous that society, relationship'. and metropole 599 depoliticised, bureaucratic is through a mixture of out played people, administrative meansand the naked violence of military superiority. Where in is delegated degree to the colony, terms of direct of autonomy a dominating rule, and/or a degreeof internal democracythrough a franchise, for then the the conditions exist conditional, qualified development of a colonial state. This globalisation of racial dominance, one learning forms first the the globalism, represents underbelly, shadow of of dominance, forces the technical expansion of productive which of processes is overseenby the developmentof new forms of social learning in the but one's which are metropole's political, social and cultural spheres, disabled by the exclusionary processesof the former. This is exemplified in the position of white citizens of `empire' but Black subjects. Finally this involving lifeworld is the a colour racially mediated colonial colonisation of integrative forced hierarchical, systemic socioand re-alignment of coded, implosion intra-psychic is There a range of possible outcomes: processes. defensive internalised ethnic consolidating assimilation, and acquiescence, in indirect rule, offensive ethnic counter assaults, preservation, as `etnikfied' claims, coventionalised social nationalism, coventionalised movements,post conventional social movements. The beginning of this critical theoretic outline of the South African state transitional that the the was replaced with nineties version early with starts Keegan describe This I 1994 the state. as a colonial elections. one after has argued that whilst the origins of the hierarchies of racial order came with South did the these over of not remain, evolution the white colonisers, African societies, in their atavistic state. Rather they changedwith the intertwining of the developmentof capitalism and the South African state. My argument would be that whilst the form in which such racism was themes that the their can means core character recursive changed, presented, be traced back. So it is as well with the colonial state thesis. The dominant follows. The be the of order political as can constructed argument dual, latter's because the yet contradictory socio- and of capitalist state, in legitimating develops integrative to tasks, remain strategies order systemic in power. The evolution of the capitalist state from the sixteenth century in in hand hand the evolution of a world system which with onwards goes Black people are exploited and dominatedwith the periphery of the in form This being the time, the of colony. situated, over state metropolitan dominating rule is sanctionedby the interplay between a social learning humans developed in the are whilst at the potential of white process which learning learning, technical the time productivist processesare the ones same to which Black people are subjugated. The colony's value orientation and The is between the towards metropole. relationship the systemic alignment land in `foreign' indigenous this the and socio-political organisation society, human denotes is `civilised the where sub-human, as which classed west is 600 defined by the capitalist's state's demandfor recognition, sanctionedby a range of violent forces, and thus ultimately military force. Even where the into develops a colonial statewith a degreeof internal democratic colony processesand institutions, theseare reservedfor white people with the Black being defined in accordancewith the the people still with relationship violent principle of recognition the metropolitan state demandsof external nations. In other words Black people are foreigners in their own lands. They are subject to rule, and do not have the statusof being participants in the defining of governanceof that society, or for that matter the metropolitan Vestiges of that relationship continue today whereby citizens of society. living descent British overseas,who retained their citizenship, can cast white their vote in British national elections yet certain Black people resident in the UK cannot participate. From the experienceand view of Black people in South Africa, the relationship betweenthem and the South African state, be described, 1994, to therefore, as colonial. Further this, if can right up combined with Habermas' thesis of life world colonisation, is a double edged colonial relationship. The growing subjugation of Black people in South Africa, reaching its acme under the formal apartheid years with the bureaucratisation between the them of race as mediating experience extreme and the state, means that this can be interpreted as a conscious attempt by the life in Whereas their to the evolution of the capitalist world. colonise state state the separation out of the steering sub-media of money and power occurs beyond just the conscious threshold of participants and against a almost is homogenous, imposition background the which mostly growing of value the colonial state is a visible forced entry into Black people's life worlds. This is a racially and racistly mediated violent transposition and relocation of integrative `alien' to processes on an socio-integrative process. systemic Violent, in some case because of the physical force involved, but violently intra-psychic damage inflicted. forcible because The the of removal always from traditional lands and catapulting into an indentured and for wage labour bureaucratically location in job the steered a racially segregated system, defined, bureaucratically the racially managed progress through market, second and third rate educational systems, were socio-integratively in is for South Africa believed this that many white people who consensual be For Black from the that reaction can and right. people amongst a natural indigenous Whilst do socio-integrative set out above. value systems range intact, they are not subject to the constant attack from not, obviously, remain in imperatives background the come same which clothed values. system Hence the strong possibility of ethnic or etnik mobilisation against such is systemic pressure always there. Keegan's analysis of the origins of the racial order in South Africa which focusseson the Cape Colony, is interesting becausehis indepth historical help illustrate to pointers which many provides study my argument. The first the delegation of powers then colonial state with, nascent colony, and 601 through a gubernatorial office, and then, combined with that a limited franchise and assembly,pursuedthe racial subjugation of black people for capitalist gain through a number of techniques,e.g. military, indirect rule, forced labour etc. Habermas' identified the tasks of the modern capitalist being business "shaping that as of a state policy that ensuresgrowth, influencing the structure of production in a manner oriented to collective needs,and correcting the pattern of social inequality."1127 In its mid form in the the Cape could be seento be century colonial state nineteenth first the two. The last one, on terms of being key to grappling with legitimation strategiesfocussing on the evaluation of the electorateon is the political order worthy of being recognised,comesto whether or not important increasingly the growing question amongst economically play a stratified white constituency. It's resolution lies in the growing economical benefits bottom to those the accruing at of the white class and psychological hierarchy from the racial segregationof the economy. I am here using from base from into the to nineteenth century as a which extrapolate pointers the twentieth century, simply becauseof project limitations. But there is a in is This this. that with the growth of the white cardinal point contained fairly development into the the twentieth century of a complex, and polity institutional developed state a arrangements replete with sophisticated infra-structure by and a mass public sphere serviced national economic for legitimating that strategies the various political orders of media, meant the South African stateplayed an increasing important role. The simple idea of maintaining a racially unjust order for private gain required increasingly complex legitimating interventions. There are three aspectsto this. Internally the class and cultural cleavageof white South African but homogenous legitimation had to that society, serve not a society meant The how differing the to order. maintain notions about racial one with history of the internal differences betweenthe Afrikaaner communities and the Anglophone white communities, not to mention the sub-differences dominant to testify that the those, classes within arrangement, and of within that. Externally there are two dimensions,one outward looking, the other internal. Externally the original linkage with the colonising metropolitan legitimate to the colonial statewith that external the need and country into developing becomes displaced the time arenaof over constituency international law. Thus that relating to racial discrimination post second United Nations, do international institutions, the the such as world war, and home influence. Nearer the to recognising sanction of military some exert is in But but Angola. is this the an extension of case of as used, violence the seconddimension which relates to the fact that the Black people in the in `foreigners' The height their own country. are effectively of this country logic is contained in the creation of the Bantustanswhich facadesdemocracy for certain `culturally' distinct `African' peoples through formally designatingthem foreigners to the South African state. Whilst recognition is sanctionedthrough violence, this cannot be the only strategy for pragmatic 602 in from Others Black people to which are put place attempt seek reasons. the recognition of the white South African state,not as citizens, but outside fact legitimate itself as being fit The that the to try to state seeks subjects. to rule with Black people doesnot mean that Black people accept the legitimate, being a conflationary basedcriticism made by political order as historical materialists of other attemptsto createa legitimating explanatory 1128 One legitimating African South the can see state. such paradigm of South African in developing in the the political order of action and attempts implementing their `Total Strategy' of the late seventiesand eighties. Encasedin a technocratic, supposedlyneutral language,it attemptedto its 1984 the as constitution, such with racial tricameral changes, portray included in light to the a potential audiencewhich structure, a progressive Black population. In many ways the planning and implementation of that strategywould fit in These description discourse. Fairclough's the technoligisation of of with differences, then, within the white polity and against the white political in be terms the their can of concept of pursuit examined and polity, `discourse' as used in the previous chapter. That is `discourse', unlike the Foucualdians, is not all, but is subject to changeand reflexive distancing by, diskourses There thus, the various were, part of, participants. and on domination Black the the populace, as and of unjust racialisation supporting There liberal from the advocating change. perspective, within well as ones, `discourses, them, of emancipation,such as against ranged well, as were, Within by Consciousness Movement. ANC Black the the or those pursued thesewere the potential to develop a discursive model, as conceptualised in Differing if it that time the way. not articulated was at previously, even diskoursesof race managementwithin the South African context of the fact African in South that the the the state are evident political order of led in inception 1910, Afrikaaner Union from the the was of government, diskourse Party The in fifty Nationalist the of rule. six years of culminating latter was apartheid, self consciously describedby that party as "the Afrikaaner's divine mission in Africa. " What is very evident in applying this form of theorisation to the South African state, an interpretation which in is forward that these the chapter.., put originally contention supports diskourses,particularly that of the National Party government, remained hegemonic becausethe statewas increasingly adept at keeping close, or had down the potential to enlarge, that those or opened shutting from in discursive the polity which a challenge to that spaces communicative hegemonycould be enlarged. The most obvious example is the assiduous Second World War, the to crisis, post constitutional point of even of pursuit, the limited number of Black people who still had, under the qualified franchise, the right to vote. The white opposition was limited, by legal form liberalism. It is to that of pursuing a very narrow proscription, in the to talk white polity, and even subaltern sphere a public about possible 603 for public spheres those espousingchangewithin the parametersacceptedby the government. In terms of the latter, exemplified concretely in examples like the liberal press, such as the Rand Daily Mail, their subaltern nature meant running the risk of closure and/or contraction becauseof state interference. However, there is another dimension to the public sphere have to those to operateoutside of the repressivelegal who which relates framework of the state, and which involved often, an international dimension. This impinged more on the legitimating aspectsof the state from derived international law and approval. It the to accountability which discursive fluid helped the amniotic provide within which post or trans also be is To this could raised. given the term `samzidat' apartheid alternatives democracy, Difference sphere. within the milieu of apartheid South public Africa, then takes on a different hue to that outlined in Chapter... This is deliberate does that not acrossdifference, but instead talks about one differences. On hand the other within the normative vision of essentialised the liberal opposition, and for that matter the ANC, as well as the Marxist is South African theorising the state, about a version of and neo-Marxist democracy that deliberatesacrossdifference by eliminating differences. Within the formal white polity of South African society it is still possible to talk about secondaryand primary level legitimation, as was done for the UK, day, former the to the the the refers of political order of recognition where institutions latter to the the the the recognition of principles of political and Africa, There South their a was, within apartheid organisation. and development level legitimation, the as uneven of secondary modicum of between Cape in Town City the conflicts council and the national evidenced implementation the of certain pieces of apartheid over government legislation, as well as the notion of `the liberal tradition' in Cape Town. However the managementof race, as a legitimating strategy for the white its the requisite over economy,with constituency and sectorsof bureaucratisation- three parallel administrative structures for each of the `non-white' population groups - as well as the over militarisation to sanction internally and externally the recognition of `foreigners', induces crises tendencies. This is becauseof the burdensomecost to the state and because for in turn, those strategies, motivational cries amongstthe are responsible Black populace leading, again, to reactionswhich require further state intervention. It can be argued that the changesin the early nineties were not brought about becauseof primary level motivational crises amongstthe level but had the of secondary ones which acme as the constituencies, white leaving African South liberal the the economy the state, reform of solution hands. Amongst in the radical opposition, as opposedto white still mainly the liberal opposition, could be discernedan alternative proposal which level degree This crises. motivational of primary of a alternative was spoke form in of socialist state and society conceived very much some structured by ANC's lines, the nascentproposals. as evinced along orthodox 604 Habermashas argued that legitimation can either be technocratic or legitimating be It that the said strategiesof the South can participative. African state, given its racial divide from the outset of those who should bestow recognition of the political order, was technocratic, not only because it but because Greenberg `techniques' the sought, also as employed, of illegitimate. The legitimate the to crises provoking the changes argues, for its had 1990 the therefore within purviews option considering a post deracialising reconstruction of the state, and thus local government. This in South African the the context. cross roads marked opportunity window of Whether or not, and this is germaneto the post 1996 South Africa, there was the conception, therefore, not so much of a post-colonial society but of a trans-colonial society, remains to be seenbecausethe latter would require thinking about deliberative democracyacrossdifferences without eliminating them. In conclusion, then, this very brief outline of what a critical theoretic it is African South that tries to the to show statewould cover, approach back from life to theorise to again without world system,and possible is bring Black do To to the to experiences so resorting notions of autonomy. into play as a central consideration,something the state down approachesof in do, do than the way of attempting Marxists other not the and neo-Marxists to postulate the importance of the Black proletariat. However, other South legitimation based have to of analysis attempted construct a theorists Africa, using, in differing degrees,Habermas. But, apart from Ray, the failure to inquire more deeply into the theoretical basesto Habermas' work degree have tended the that of exhibit a resulting analyses means functionalism in which the key actors are those within the white polity. This it level blue At functional is this can print. preliminary piece of work not a bearing in for further the empirical mind consideration, areas out map only fallibilism qualification, but always attemptsto provide markers to how domination and shadowing of communicative action contains systemic One these it the areas, possible. of changes outline of normative within interface the was often with systemic-life world given that under apartheid local how is local to than show government, with the national state,rather in form of political mediation governancecontent and structuresoffer a be better inclusive can realised. politics and governance which racially Atkinson's summary of the situation as follows, is therefore correct. "There is no strong tradition of city basedpolitics in South Africa. National have issues 1910 concerned the central structures of since political Until 1980s, the the the of state. mid ownership ethnic and city government identity their too within nation wide concerned with residents were 129 dwellers identity "' thought. much as city movementsto give their The following section therefore looks at the history and context to local focussing Cape, Cape Western in Town. the particularly on governance 605 12.9 The Context to and Specificity of Race and Local Governance in the Western Cape The Western Cape, and Cape Town in particular, are apposite choices for because for this the geographical area marks entry point white examination into South Africa. here It that the sociowas penetration colonialist first developed into the then of colony was erected, structure which political the nascentcolonial state in the Cape in the eighteenthand nineteenth centuries. Within this the political sub units of municipal governancewere forms The this creation of stateand early of municipal also created. it be from in the the separated race and way which governancecannot is be development This that to the of state and social order. permeated both because the advancement of was predicated upon the racial expected Black people. of subjugation 12.10 Origins of Local Government in the Cape In the late seventeenthcentury, the Dutch East India Company through Cape first the the was exercised, colonial of white occupation which form `landdrost' `heemraden' the to system which was a and established basis of a rural systemof local government in the Cape. These,thus, later demise Councils into Divisional the to the of which existed up evolved formal apartheid. In 1867, under the auspicesof British colonial rule, Cape Town was the first local authority to be granted full municipal status. At Council Cape Town City the the covered time new geographical span of that foot Table harbour immediately to the the of the area and up surrounding Mountain. Over the following thirty years separatemunicipalities were in the settlements series of consecutive running along a established by Cape Town. However, 1927 these to the were west of and peninsular later Council. In Cape Town City years separate amalgamatedunder in to the the to the of city either north reaction created were municipalities high property rates or the more liberal political stanceof the Council. In fragmented by Cape Town, the the mid eighties systemof a terms of greater local government existed with different parts of what should have been one local Divisional Council, by City Council, the and smaller city administered 1130 authorities. 12.11 The 1910 Settlement and Local Governance Heymans summarisesthe legal statusof local government in South Africa, in between 1910, formal tiers the government of other with and relationship incorporation of the four separatecolonies into a unitary state, and 1983 as follows: 606 From 1910 until 1983 the de jure relationship between the various tiers of follows: acts of parliament promulgated what power; as government was had. Provincial ordinances created local authorities and councils provincial defined the scope of their legal jurisdiction. The regulation and control of municipal affairs occurred through such provincial ordinances Local authorities could make laws only within the parametersof this legislation. The doctrine of ultra vires was strictly applied; viz. that local authorities may perform a statute only if it is specifically authorised by a higher tier of government. This doctrine existed to prevent local authorities from exceeding their powers or from spending money without authority. No court of law was competent to pass judgement on the nature of powers that had been devolved down to local authorities. This applied equally to acts of parliament and provincial ordinances........ Unlike certain countries such as West Germany, where the in local the constitution, the South African are government enshrined rights of local has had form government never any of constitutional of system safeguards. Neither the South Africa Act of 1909 nor the 1961 Constitution ' 131 local to to the right of government exist. made reference Different provinces were delegateddifferent powers leading to differing local government forms. In the Cape,however, the Provincial administrator had a number of powers over the local authority. He/she had to approve all by-laws; fixed the monthly allowances of councillors; controlled municipal determined lend the pay of the to grants; money or allocate authorities ability town clerk; could dictate to a council to passa by-law which if not done, in for by Town, In Cape be the example, province. promulgated would 1981 the Provincial Council passeda by-law taking away from the CTCC the The Province to the their to power own staff. assumed appoint right CTCC's Service Commission, Chair Manpower the the the of appoint Subsequently body. a government supporterwas appointed. personnel This measurewas taken as a direct result of the CTCC's perceived antiThis overall picture of a parliamentary sovereign, strong stance. apartheid by been directing local has intervening compared, and government state, in UK. the the situation as resembling some commentators, In terms of structures councils either developedor adoptedthe management decision had the the main making committee aforesaid as committee, which in there the structure which were or a multiple committee council, of numerous committees, each one coinciding with a specific area and service had CTCC bureaucracy. Up the to the sixties a multiple mid section of forced, it Thereafter to the under protest, adopt was structure. committee direction the of the provincial council. managementcommittee set up at In terms of finance white local authorities had to be largely self financing, fixed from derived income being taxes the their on properties, sale of with licensing, fines water, and and rental. services and goods, such as electricity 607 12.12 Cape Specificities and Post 1910, Pre 1948 Developments Historically there are three areas,two contextual to local governancein the Cape,and the third the inter meshing of those two with the processof brief detailing. They are relevant to the way in which require governance, which the changeoptions post 1990were posed and pursued. These areas are the history of the political discourseof Cape liberalism, the history and local Black i. the politics, of e. those of the `Coloured' people, and contours the way in which the two aforementionedareasinteracted with, and influenced the growth of racial segregationin the Cape. Up to 1990 one can speakof a political discourseof Cape liberalism which had a direct impact on the direction of Cape Town City Council. Within the context of white apartheidpolitics it occupied the acceptablelimits to `opposition'. fairly Even the as was regarded orthodox Marxist what local governancein the Cape acknowledgethe influence of such analysesof it `ideology', being to theorise without able properly within the a political description logic However their thinking. the of of `acceptable overall implies, fundamental there under apartheid as actually was, a opposition' heart discourse. the this at of contradiction Davenport, in a text examining the immediate contextualising milieu of South African liberalism, one that aroseout of an academically focussed liberalism, for Marxist framework to criticisms of outlines a reaction liberalism, Cape he which regards as a unique political understanding form. 1132 The argument is that whilst there are European origins in the four basic elements of liberalism - access to justice, freedom of speech, economic freedom and political rights - these acquired a particular trajectory in the Cape. The period of Dutch colonial rule up to 1795 was marked by an overt racial based indigenous but in the not only of also centre on slavery, peoples, order imported slaves,primarily from the Dutch East Indies. At the periphery it by forcibly it Black the to attempt subjugate came people characterised was into contact with. The changesbrought by the assumptionof British be Liberal in four the to the can seen, according argument, rule colonial firstly Thus there the century was abolition of, early nineteenth elements. the slave trade, and then the actual emancipation of the Khoikhoi, followed by the slaves. This contributed to ensuring that the principle of accessto justice was there for all the people. Equality before the law proved found because freed different the themselvesin a highly slaves altogether disadvantagedsocio-economic and political situation. For Davenport the humanitarian solidaristic resourcesand impulses to liberalism were provide by the presenceand activities of the evangelical missionaries in the cape at that time. In terms of freedom of speech,this was certainly a principle and 608 Cape to members of society, and exemplified in the practice open white growing number of periodical andjournal publications by the close of the nineteenthcentury. Economic liberation, by which Davenport means freedom of trade, was achievedby 1860 in the Cape. In the twenty years after that the Cape government actively promoted Black entrepreneurial if it linked "especially was with the erosion of pre-colonial political activity deemed to endangerthe security of the white community." then structures Representativegovernment was granted to the Cape in 1853 basedthen on a franchise linked to property rights. Whilst there is some argument qualified about the extent to which race featured in the original calculations, the actual distribution of electoral power lay overwhelmingly with the white community. Further, with the incorporation of two densely `African' in Cape later the Ciskei ten to thirty the areas eastern some years populated level Transkei the of qualification was progressively raised so as to and `African' By the turn of the century, effectively representation. exclude with the re-emergenceof Dutch/Afrikaaner political power in the Cape,the Black franchise, both `African' and `Coloured', increasingly becamethe for jockeying the power of the two white communities. In 1909, pawn of Cape Assembly, debating South bill draft Africa (the 1910 the the was when in its liberal for it, bloc the entirety political spoke so much so constitution) that even Davenport could conclude that the "liberals were more concerned in the final resort to preservethe dignity of the Cape in its relations with blacks. " than the rights of colonies other Keegan, however, provides a differing assessmentof Cape liberalism in its "rhetorical there that was an ambiguity reflected commitment arguing to equality and freedom''and yet "its fundamental compatibility with cultural 133 domination... "' His study shows imperialism, class and racial subjugation. how, for example, the London Missionary Society "the seedbedof humanitarian thought" in the 1820sand 1830sin the Cape,had, by the 1850s become "infected with racial sentiment."1134 His conclusion is that "the humanitarian vision of a society in which indigenous peoples were free of in in dream a colony which a substantialwhite oppressionwas always a pipe dominant itself had already established as a class,with control population 135 dispossessed labour. "' and resources over If there is, then, to be a distinctive colouring to Cape liberalism, one that was 1990 heirs the to to political and when up spiritual apparent right certainly Cape liberalism had control of Cape Town City Council, it is the full towards the granting of political rights to Black ambivalence shown fundamental the the political principles they context of within people in been has This exemplified the compromisesand espouse. have had to reach with a systemof extreme racial they accommodations subjugation. 609 The largestpopulation group in the Western Cape are the so called `Coloureds', a term devised by and applied by the South African state and its disparately heterogeneous It to refers a colonial predecessors. group of in from Khoisan descended the original people the Cape, the east and people West African, Madagascanand Dutch East Indian (an area roughly day Indonesia) to slaves,as well as the miscegenated equivalent modem offspring of the relationships with white colonists and slave owners. Lewis, in his study of `Coloured' politics defines them, using another individuals heterogeneous "a collection as of commentator's observations, `lumped together for administrative purposes' by a white supremacist 136 in 1930s "' Two the commissions, one and the other government state. in failed to agree on a the the the of apartheid state seventies, auspices under definition of a `Coloured'. The problem of definition for a racially heterogeneous in knowing the the caseof make where, segregatedstatewas began. 1950 `white' `African' The the ended and community, up of Population Registration Act which attemptedto divide up the population into defined `racial' groups, confirmed through the mandatory racially coded identity card, could only define the group in question by referenceto bureaucratically Kafkaesque The now near mythical, physical appearance. `pencil test' whereby those in the twilight zone between `Coloured' and `white' would have a pencil put in their hair by state officials to seeif the basis in has in, i. i. `Coloured', `white', fell, some e. e. or stayed out, pencil reality. If the term `Coloured' exists as an ersatzcreation of the South African and identity? The is it to talk about community and possible colonial states, fixed identity in is the that and are not sense community answer only forms dependent but contingent, moving contentsand essentialisedentities, level historical At that the contexts. socio-political and economic upon However, the the use, at sounds meta-level, obvious. observation an such `Coloured' the term provides an almost perfect case of ownership abuseand life Habermas' demonstrating for the world colonisation of relevance model base history `Coloureds' describes Lewis the and of so called thesis. value however, This, being that was no simple caseof acculturalised. of as Rather my contention that within colonising of white values. assimilation displacement, is it is to talk which a socio-integrative possible about contexts better way of explaining the situation. Within a history of state forcible differentiating interventions basedon racialised conventionalisation and differentiating strategies,there was a swell a socio-economic associated displacement Some and appropriation reactions. socio-integrative of range For had these example whilst many within the groundings. religious of `Coloured' `community' becameChristians of every conceivable denomination, there was also a sizeableMuslim community at whose core imported from from descendants the the old Dutch East those slaves were Indies. The Dutch in the eastIndies had a tendency to enslave and export to 610 the Capethose who opposedtheir colonial rule. This is still known as the CapeMalay community. The history of the political reaction to this in both to, prior and the subsequentperiod of the processof colonisation formation of the South African state, is thus as varied, ranging from the innovatory to out right conservatism. This in effect mirrors what I would describeas the first political attemptsto go beyond increasing official boundariesbeing defined for so called `Coloureds' to try to forge a greater Black collectivity, to onesthat acceptedthe strategic need for a `Coloured' These two the thus tag, state. accommodation with racist and ethnic tendencies,and the range of `moderate' options in betweenthem characterise the history of `Coloured' politics in South Africa. This is the summary by term that the to the commentators made other observation context `Coloured' is detestedand hated by most, but not all, of that identified group ' 137 The detailed history of this is beyond the scopeof this of people. in been has This two recent than covered more adequately project. historical endeavours. Lewis provides a detailed historical analysis of the history focusses Goldin the thrown on up, whilst politics and organisations `Coloured' the to the the creation of and economic contexts political of identity. I want to use these as the basesfor briefly sketching out the con in 1948, Cape development Black to the the with up tours of of politics local its the state. on with relationship particular emphasis The first Black political organisation in the Cape, the African People's Organisation (APO) founded in 1902, reflected the dual tendenciesidentified in `coloured', late Cape In the term the to the nineteenthcentury mid above. to to Goldin refer all people who were not was used generically shows, as `European'. In this it reflected the American usageof that term. Yet a franchise in interventions the and political spheresof combination of state in Social Darwinism together the rise of with rights and economy, by for had justification the thinking segregationist policies, as a government `Coloured' `coloured' the the of with accelerated conflation turn of century from For `African' the that the thus category. example of exclusion and had British the to the elicit made great efforts government and state colonial during Boer `Coloureds' the the to their promise war with cause of support kept because This terms the of was not promise enfranchisement. greater of in fact left the that undecided, matters and such the settlementof conflict implications were that the white society would benefit more politically and founding background, brief APO, With the the this the of as economically. founding its principles, reflect the changing circumstancesaffecting the and `Coloured' `community', as well as holding out hope of a greater `coloured' both "unity Those talk the about promoting principles constituency. between coloured races", as well as defending the "Coloured People's social, 138 In effect its political aims were to "' pursue the political and civil rights. justice liberties and economic rights, of political contained normative vision liberalism. Over Cape the the next thirty years the APO of promise within 611 immediate institutions, its through the political pursued aims such as the City Council, and through attempting to link up with other emerging Black ANC. because This, the such as of the `Coloured' political organisations, focus of the APO and the Africanist perspective of the then ANC proved fruitless. Unfortunately it is in its dealings with the state that the interests of the `Coloured' `community' were either promoted or secured,above those This done, `African' the people. was either consciously of or interceding in the attempts the their attained as outcome of compromisingly by the stateto impose some form of blanket segregation. Thus for example, their first intervention in municipal matters was against attemptsby the Cape Town City Council, influenced by Social Darwinist type stereotyping of i. diseased and people's, e. those who were not European,to criminal introduce residential segregation. At this time the APO could use as a bargaining chip the enfranchised`Coloured' voters. They securedthe from intended for `Africans' the that the authorities segregationwas promise `Coloureds'. the not and Whilst this limited franchise was sufficient to securethe APO five by Cape 1920s, Town the the the pattern of the state on council councillors interventions in to the economy to secure preferring adopt social engineering the white community's recognition continued. This was particularly in in War, First World the the the aftermath of and the ending of apparent long decline of the world economy right up to the beginning of the Second World War. Thus, for example, in the 1920sthere were a seriesof legislative acts which in effect excluded `Coloureds' from employment job for After the time those the areas whites. same reserving at whilst in `Coloured' 1924 these the and of acts percentage of of one passage `African' workers in the public sector, including the council, fell dramatically, whilst the percentageof white workers rose equally dramatically. Throughout this increasingperiod of state sponsored became APO to the trying that the more and more role of of segregation by `Coloureds'. little the the gains secured political and economic protect Its tactic was to ally itself with the dominant liberal white political party in influence from It Lewis that to position. was, change as an attempt but one that tried to extract racism, an acceptance of white observes, however, Afrikaaner By the the thirties, rising nationalism mid concessions. fuelling the growing racial segregationin all walks of life together with the `Coloured' the community meant that the position of worsening economic APO's relevancewas coming increasingly under question. Those most vociferous in their questioning were a group of young radicals, like the leadershipof the APO, drawn from the `Coloured' elite. They had liberalism, Cape but in in 1910 the the growing of pre era not grown up Most segregation. of them were drawn of racial and reality atmosphere from what Lewis describesas "the upper echelonsof the Coloured 612 community in Cape Town"; at that time primarily from the ranks of teachers, being them graduates. In summarythe difference between with many of their political aims and the APO were that the latter's "choice between evils in of collusion preserving white privilege at the expenseof the smacked interestsof all blacks", whilst the former aimed at "complete social, political 139 for Europeans. "' Thesenew non-Europeanswith and economic equality founded an organisation called the National Liberation League. radicals Their intellectual outlook was influenced by the wider socialist debates occurring elsewhere,and with in the organisation itself two factions favoured The one a more theoretical approach,influenced in the emerged. main by the writings of Trotsky. The other had a more pragmatic outlook by evidenced their working alliance with the Communist Party of South Africa and their willingness to adopt a seriesof practical interventions in the South African polity. These included the pursuit of political office, such as important The member and even member of parliament. point, council however, is that the politics espousedby the NLL marked a changefrom the Underpinning this was a seriesof political principles period. previous but the the only marked out not nature of change, were also the reason which for factional differences within the League. The first was the championing democratic for irrespective full rights all of race and without any of `civilising' conditions. The secondwas the insistenceon the membership being open to all races. The third was the principle of non-collaboration with racist state structureswhilst racial segregationwas still in place and/or being promoted. In and around this were conducteda number of secondary debatesfeeding into political practice, such as the call by the pragmatic between black for the unity white and working classes,and the section insistence by one element of the radical wing that leadershipof the League hands. in be Black The in `Coloured' this upshot of realignment should interventions in dimension the that the took was polity on another politics included that of trade union organisation and the new one of which from institutions. All racially segregated political of this was withdrawing back in had introduced the ground which government a set against increasingly stringent controls over the influx of `Africans' into the western facto de `Coloured' thereby establishing an almost preferencepolicy. cape, One of the highlights of the League's existencewas its ability in the late thirties to organise massopposition to Nationalist Party inspired Provincial local issue forcing by to to authorities an ordinance segregate race attempts their residential areas. Part of this programme of opposition included Cape Town City the council to vote against the ordinance. persuading However, throughout the war years and into the immediate follow up of that introduced increasing Party United the government, an conflict number of economic and social segregationalmeasureswhich, such as the segregation has have been described beaches, to amounted what might of as petty but also compoundedsignificantly the acts of humiliation daily apartheid, 613 in intellectual by `Coloured' those the people, especially experienced elite. In 1943the UP government announcedthe intention to separateoff that part dealing Coloured the with people and to establish a administration of Coloured affairs department,and a nominated Coloured Advisory Council which would advise the government accordingly. Initiated as a gesture of thanksto the `Coloured' people for what was regardedas their support and loyalty during the SecondWorld war, it actually enragedmany in that `community'. This was seenas further evidence of the state's segregationist intent with regard to `Coloureds'. Two organisationswere formed, fight had NLL, from to those through the this who come amongst primarily Non Anti-Coloured Affairs Department These the the and were move. EuropeanUnity Movement. By 1944, according to Goldin, the "Anti-CAD had penetratedvirtually every Coloured community and claimed the support 140 had "' The NEUM Coloured the of people.. a more radical majority of black "forge to a united against all segregatory of seeking programme into draw by "to the the trying community struggle, prepare measures" in fight direct for them the onslaught against oppressionand ally masses a 141 "' In this the `Coloured' identity would be submergedin a for liberation. hand On Black the there were also moderatemembersof other one. greater the community, again drawn from amongstthe ranks of teacherswho opted for a strategy of engagementwith the reality of the CAD and its allied body former doing Advisory Council. In the Coloured these people, who so the in denounced `quislings' `collaborators', effect accepted as and organisations by being `Coloured' identity the state. moulded the of Thesetwo tendencieswithin `Coloured' political reactions to state sponsored beyond the the to move manufacturednotion one seeking segregation, racial box, ballot the tinged `Coloured' through or which action rejected racially of that form to the other seeking confirm representation; and proxy of any identity through engagementwith the `dummy' institutions, comesto to the to the mid segregation up right of opposition nature characterise issue focussed because Anti-CAD In the of sole on an effect, eighties. because NEUM Coloured to the the to was unable and community concern front Indians, Africans its to of and a united translate commitment `Coloureds' into reality, and thus largely mobilised `Coloureds', Goldin heighten both to the that also notion of a contributed unintentionally argues `Coloured' identity. Further its membershipand strata from which it drew its activists were, on the whole, from the enlarging middle professional class in the `Coloured' community - primarily graduateteachers,but also doctors Its lawyers. the to cross section wider of a community mobilise ability and being CAD last the the campaign probably with effective was sporadically it support could muster. successfulgarnering of cross community Irrespective of that, the political aims of the organisation at least had within its normative vision a wider Black collectivity. At the time its analysis, mobilisation of people against specific government measures,praxis 614 principle and concomitant tactics employed were certainly more radical than that of the ANC. In terms of the local council, however, apart from the increasing few Black the councillors, state and provincial presenceof a direction of local authorities with regard to racial segregationinitiatives, locally the the to ward power community could wield political neutralised By 1948 left that such racism. all was effectively or attenuate was the off limited, qualified franchise. Even the worth and merit of this was, by the late forties, coming under attack from political organisations like the NEUM who argued that participation in this racially basedtruncation of full political form be It of collaboration. can argued that the rights as simply another CTCC, through its differentiated responseto stateracism vis-a vis the `Coloureds' and `Africans', and through its own initiative measures,such as the creation of municipal housing schemesfor lower income `Coloureds' `Coloured to the as well notion of a community' as a only, contributed distinct ethnic group. There is another level of argumentwhich highlights the secondarylevel in facing UP legitimation the government through the thirties crisis growing increasing forties. The enlargementof the white constituency eligible and to vote, increasing pressurefrom the growing Afrikaaner nationalist Black to the above and perceived need protect white people over movement, depression, factors deleterious from the the which when are effects of people South African the the racialisation of overall context of within considered local intervention in increasing the of affairs meant state rationalisation like local in Cape, This the the where so regions, was especially governance. Black community had managedto organisesome degreeof local influence liberalism the that the the of the ruling normative potential of council so over have We be in to their needs. political party could realised relation some of legitimation in here to costs are race, where again relation a situation full level that to the political problems, such as transferred national so democratic rights for Black people, can be `solved' through administrative prescriptions. 12.13 Post 1948 Developments The Nationalist Party came into power in 1948 with racial identity as its leitmotiv, in particular the divine right of the Afrikaaners to rule and their divine mission to determine a racially shapedfate for Black people in South Africa. More strategically, however, it also came to power with only a five it limited being `Coloured' key The as was, was seen as vote, majority. seat in sevenseats. Furthermore thesevotes invariably went to the then `Coloured' With UP. to the the people, the regard opposition party, fixing disenfranchisement, `Coloured' the threefold: ersatz was strategy identity through legislatively backed geographical, social, welfare and biologically restrictive measures,as well as economic differentiating ones, 615 and seeking recognition through a mixture of repressionand political in Disenfranchisement was achieved relation to national placebos. in by 1956, and relation to municipal elections only by 1971; a elections in itself local to the the to extent which on state was able control comment fix With to the to the `Coloured' population in regard attempt government. intention framework, Nationalist Party the the of was not to undo an ethnic the previous government's racial segregationalmeasures,but to extend them. In this regard key to their strategywas to control the residency and into For `Coloured' Black areas. people this people urban movement of be be to through to pass controls, which was achievedprimarily not was for but Group Areas Act `Africans', the which codified the reservedsolely There were other racially restrictive of urban areas. segregation racial like life, accessto education,public all aspects of affecting measures transport, leisure etc. Fixing the biological boundaries of the `Coloured' Africans, `down' i. `up' to to the was to whites, or e. movement population, be achieved through the legislative meansof the Population Registration Act, Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act, and the Immorality Act. Securing the recognition of the political order was to be accomplished through a mix increasing the repressivepowers of the state and coursesof from `African' buy `Coloured' designed to people off economically action for job but segregation whites. within a context preferential people, Generally this was disparagingly referred to as the `amper baas' (almost boss) strategy. Key amongstthese sorts of action was the legislation defining in the 1950sa Coloured labour preferencepolicy in the Western Cape together with state ordinanceswhich restricted severely the influx and Areas Act Group Politically in `Africans' the that samearea. residency of back ideological Nationalist cloth which was party envisaged,against a homeland, idea `Coloured' that those residential areas the of a toying with designatedfor `Coloureds' only would becomethe geographical sites for `Coloured' specific local government structuresin the future. The reaction from the local Black population to this barrage of racist forties fifties late in by the the and split along state segregationalaction ideological grounds. The NEUM stuck to its principle of non-collaboration denied form boycott that that its the of action arguing and weapon of choice the state the meansto target participants. The ANC and CPSA attemptedto This front hoc broad specific measures. was ad campaignsagainst organise in the the against community mobilising successful marginally disenfranchisementmoves on the part of the state. By the sixties, however, banned had fled into leading their or arrested or either activists were most of by largely NEUM The unaffected such repressivemeasures,a was exile. their their of political condemnation strategy, or of vindication ineffectiveness. However, taken together with the ANC's decision in the late fifties to concentratetheir campaigning efforts on the pass laws, thereby by passing the immediate concernsof the `Coloured' people, it meant that 616 the NEUM, up to the mid eighties, becamethe de facto leading oppositional in Western Cape. the political group In relation to local government in the Cape, three themes emergewhich The to the the growing political up mid eighties. characterise period disengagementof the local state from the Black population both as a result democratic legitimation basis, to the create a white's only state's attempt's of is focus The Black theme. the organisation, of political one political and local `dummy' is the the government state's parallel, nature of second institutions for `Coloured' people and their almost total rejection of these. The third is the role of the official, liberal political order in the local Taken Cape Town. to together they a up added all of governance for both `Blacks legitimacy the only' sponsored state substantiveproblem of local government structures,as well as the `liberal' Cape Town City council. The 1962 Group Areas Amendment Act set out how local government from developed be in `Coloured' to residential areaswere structures full later to and consultative committees partially representative full becoming finally representative representativemanagementcommittees, CTCC the to Whilst the the oppose was of approach councils. municipal its feet dragging its Areas Act Group through and amendment substantive Cape by is fact implementation, that the its the the sixties mid matter of over Town was totally segregatedresidentially as the act intended. Todes and Watson are right to describethe attitude of the council towards segregation 1142 by However, too 'ambivalent. they functions its store much put as of In from liberal the many the councillors. stanceof the opposition resulting Province by the the or state of expediency was overcome opposition cases different implement in to aspects the relevant powers order simply assuming became local The government structures parallel of the apartheid strategy. in by local those because the these the areas, people of of rejection moribund both low by the voters actual percentageof eligible something acknowledged for in the committees the taking management elections part and registered different by CTCC, jurisdiction the government and of under the in looking into `Coloured the the mid seventies. question' commissions There is a similar trajectory of advisory and then partially representative for `Africans', though established were structures which urban council details beyond historical full frame. this The different time are of within a local to the than context overall noting, as part of this project, other World War, Second in South Africa that they too were post government Local Authorities Black Act 1982 For the totally rejected. example financial responsibility to `African' transferred administrative authority and ' 143 However the absenceof a sufficient commercial and local authorities. industrial tax basemeant that they were almost entirely dependenton service inherent income. This, for their together with unpopularity chargesand rent 617 becausethey were viewed as part of the apartheid structures, ensuredthat they had very little legitimacy in the `African' urban areas. The effect of all of this was that white local authorities, which provided servicesto Black communities via these `dummy' structures, as well as the proxy administration of sectionsof the apartheid strategy, were, in terms of disengaged from those communities. This was a political structures, indirect of rule and, at the sametime, a political space colonial relationship waiting to be filled. 12.14 Post 1980's Developments The 1976 uprisings and subsequentstaterepressionof that set in motion three chains of eventswhich have a bearing on local government in South Africa which are, in parts, still germaneto the changesin local governance impetus for in These the there. are, not any order of priority, occurring by Nationalist Party, the the reform of apartheid state constitutional including local government; the emergenceof the `Civic Movement' in Black urban areas;and allowing in the eighties the environment to develop in which radical alternative proposals for local government changecould be made. Taken together, the government's surprise at the scale of the 1976 uprisings, the repressionof that and the international condemnation,the development `Coloured' Consciousness, Black the people with of alignment many and of the latter movement, causeda major strategic shift in the thinking of the Nationalist Party. This emergedas the `Total Strategy', one of the key aims domestic included the to of reform substantial commitment a which of legitimating processesof white rule. Thus: Through policies that substantially altered the apartheid edifice-what its to commitment to reform-Pretoria pursued government referred as four primary objectives (1) to free the economy from the bottlenecks imposed by apartheid; (2) to black socioeconomic strata with material and status interests that would be threatenedby radical transformation; (3) to co-opt a significant segment of the black population into the for by framework available opportunities making of power existing black economic and social advancement and by ameliorating living conditions of the urban black townships; and (4) to "normalize" South Africa's status internationally by bringing its domestic sociopolitical "44 international into line standards. with arrangements The 1983 new Constitution with its tricameral, consociational arrangements for the three racial groups of `white', `Coloured' and `Indian', can be seento be directly derived from that earlier vision of `domestic reform. ' Invested in that reform is a notion of group rights stemming from the Nationalist Party in 80s South Africa the as a society of minorities. This re-intellectualising 618 brings to mind Habermas' rejection of group rights as essentialising and conservative. However, containedwithin the whole package of constitutional reform was a substantialreworking local government basedon the devolution of administrative functions. The corner stone of this was the establishmentof Regional Service Councils at the metropolitan level which key by local twenty then take one services controlled over authorities. would Governmentjustification at the time turned on the need "to achieve increase by duplication the and efficiency reducing of scale of economies joint basis improve infra-structure by in to them the on a providing services Black communities and to facilitate multi-racial decision making."I145 Other commentators, however, concluded that they were "an elaborate holders level at central control whereby power will gain crucial of system influence at local level (relying on)... co-opting subordinate elites into new ... decision "1146 making structures. multi-racial What is important is not the details of the then new constitutional reform of horizon, because by 1990 the when real changeappearedon government, RSC's were not fully implemented. Apart from which Black people in The boycotted those structures. any substantialparticipation effectively importance lies in the fact that thesechangesprovided the climate in which both could critique the proposals and proffer more other commentators democratic alternatives. These are consideredlater on. Feeding into that expressedneed for alternatives was the developmentof the Civic Movement in South Africa. Murray tracesthe developmentof the Civic Movement to the immediate aftermath of the Black Consciousness Movement with their emphasis"on inward looking strategiesof community development..(which).. crystallised in a flowering of `self help' grassroots 147 level"! Three the township of early, and most at organisations In Cape. Elizabeth in Port Soweto, the and prominent, were established Again, Action Committee. Housing Cape location last this the was the Murray seesthese local movementsas making popular "the idea of non interests the of ordinary people partisan popular organisationsrepresenting 148 The 1984-'86 lives. "' directly their that uprisings affect on matters because into the the the agenda many of political middle of civics pushed them affiliated to the United Democratic Front (UDF). In the Cape rejection the tricameral the constitution and the state of strategy municipal parallel of helped fuel the 1984-'86 uprisings. Not only was there a branch of the UDF, but also another "mass basedBlack unity alliance, the National Forum. The UDF, the larger of the two, broadly followed the lines of the ANC Charter. It contained a broad range of ideological viewpoints, which, `non-racialism', tenet the actively sought white central of convenedaround into its It burgeoning the membership also pulled and participation. support Black trade union movement. Its aims, modestly framed, were for a `free, democratic South Africa'. The National Forum, on the other hand, pursued 619 a more Black Consciousnessline which excluded whites from positions of leadership. It was opposedto "ethnic divisions amongst Blacks, and suspicious of the collaborative tendenciesof the black middle class."1149 It rejected outright the new constitution, as well as capitalism and apartheid it inextricably intertwined. It proposed the "establishment of which saw as a democratic anti-racist worker republic in Azania", its name for South Africa. One can seein the Cape how the two major tendenciesin radical opposition to the racist South African state also manifested itself in the civic movement. One cannot draw a straight genealogical line from the NEUM to the New Forum, but simply point to the overlaps in similar political outlook; that is apart from the use of the term `Azania'. The importance of the civic movement is threefold. Firstly, as Murray persuasively argues,civic associationswere social movements,a definition justified be according to three criteria. Their executiveswere which can directly local to their accountable elected and membersand supporters. Their organisational structureswere basedon active grassrootsparticipation by their membership whilst their resourceswere derived directly from help donations. Lastly "they alone possessedthe capacity to and voluntary define local grievancesand assumesole responsibility for deciding which 150 local "' Further, context. strategiesand actions were appropriateto the local, issues, these associations organised around specific such as whilst had demands they to transpose these etc., also on to a wider services, rent, linked to the changing of the apartheid regime; a task political plane facilitated through co-ordinating organisationslike the UDF and NF. The importance is that these civics came to assumemuch of the of area second de-legitimated by the apartheid municipal abandoned responsibilities in by These the covered a range of administrative, put place state. structures decision judicial functions. They making, policing and representative, local in The Murray third then as concludes, a government waiting. were, important element is that from within the civic movement, basedon their local different came vision a radically of government, one experiences, local For in interviewing into the example nineties. which carried over in had had Cape the contact with the civics they who government planners local that two governmentwere on the table: the one clear versions of were from the ANC favoured a larger metropolitan structure governed through the from liberal democratic the the process; whilst other, orthodox representative favoured local government structuresgoverned movement, smaller civic through a participatory form of democracywhere representativeswould be directly accountableto the people and subject to immediate recall should 151 This dichotomy will be expandedupon in they not perform as mandated. the following sections on options for local government change. 620 12.15 The Situation at the Turn of the Eighties/Nineties Decade In the immediate period in the run up to the turn of the above decadethere level legitimation for Nationalist the secondary crisis a new so much was not Party's political order, as a heightening of that which gave rise to the `Total Strategy'. There was, as two commentatorshave put it, "a beleaguered 52under pressureexternally from the international siege economy"' from internally the near ungovernability of the Black urban community, and had leant legitimating In those who powerful previously addition areas. for Afrikaaner those the capital, were now controlling government, support key factors for As those there was a change. a result of also clamouring for in "the in ruling group opted an a sea change, which shift strategy,not inclusive ideology". This would see,and has seen,political power pass into Black handswhilst economic, bureaucratic and military power is either still in white hands, or does,and will, rely heavily on that community for some time. In many ways it echoesthe experiencein many American cities in the the the term advent of which saw civil movement rights of aftermath medium Black mayors and other senior city officials whilst the economic power still from is, itself in This and was, a resonance remained under white control. the formal de-colonising experiencein African countries whereby did not guaranteecontrol over economic assumptionof political power it be To to that the that used analogy colonial argued can extent power. describethe relationship betweenthe state and Black people internally however, This "negotiated during time, the revolution". and after continues it is appositeto talk about a neo-colonial relationship, one in which dominance and oppressionare mediated through a Black elite controlled largely divisions in therefore, the exist as an still old racial polity, and which begs is There the thus which question an opportune unresolved problem. in the the to early settlement of negotiated won out who exactly answer nineties. With regard to local government and race equality in South Africa the highlighted in the early nineties, of changes, political promise and prospect in in UK far the than that the greater of opportunity window provided a delegitimation Africa South In late the effective seventiesperiod. similar Black by to those apartheid, opposed especially of the whole state apparatus people, offered the real possibility of a radical restructuring within a dead because the time, weight of which something, relatively short spaceof in Even UK. the tradition, possible not was simply of orthodoxy and limited inertial drag for the the continuance of white privilege of allowing into built the the possibility of creating a settlement, negotiated was which be local form inclusive there to still was realised. governance of racially Forms of this possibility are hinted at, or are implicit, in some of the options for local government changewhich emergedduring this period. Other because however, the racial enormity of apartheid, were of options, change 621 liberal democratic satisfied with a re-jigging of the apartheid state. Both, however, are limited by their under theorisation of `race' and the underestimationof the extent to which the racial legacy would endurepostby lack their of critical attention to the instrumentalising apartheid,and processesof local government. Given the extent to which the `neutralisation' of the latter has, and does, contribute(d) to the maintenance in of colonial relations the sphereof local governancein the UK, it can be askedwhether or not this would also be true of South Africa in its period of change. 12.16 Cape Town City Council at the Turn of the Decade - Key Contextual Issues In relation, therefore, to local governance, and particularly that of Cape Town City Council, in the period being considered, it reflected the local reality of the consequences of a racially structured siege economy. A study in Cape Town latter the the area part of the eighties concluded that "the of life by large of experienced a proportion of Cape Town's population quality is extremely poor, and in the short term, at least, is worsening. "1 1S3 Given the deteriorating trend of the South African economy through the nineties it be life that those the argued aspects of quality of relating to economic can hardship have continued. The study referred to above identified three for development Cape Town the problems metropolitan area: major increasing unemployment and poverty, housing supply, and spatial inequalities. In terms of unemployment in the immediate period leading up to the nineties, this was increasing amongstthe Black population. The primary causeof this the study puts down to the weak economic baseof the city, the result of being predominantly service industry focused, in itself the legacy of a historical development interventions by the apartheid state. of and mixture The key facts at that time, were however, that there was evidence of `Coloured' Thus `African' the amongst and poverty populations. extensive "some 97% of `African' and 74% of `Coloured' headsof household received 54 below datum line. "' incomes a poverty Like other metropolitan areasin South Africa, Cape Town's Black housing There problems. experienced severe were two populations dimensions to this: actual housing shortages,and conditions affecting then direct housing. Housing were a shortages result of the apartheid existing Group Areas Act the which gave rise to the destruction particularly policies, housing levels `Coloured' stock, and to the attempt by the of of significant levels in Black Cape the the to through restricting of population control state housing resources. The actual cost of running such housing is high. in This, terms of actual rent paid and the fact that proportionately very 622 the majority of `Coloured' and `African' housing schemeswere, as a result located on the periphery of the Cape Town City area, of apartheid policies, meant that the infra-structural costs, such as transport to work etc., were high. actually Cape Town's urban structure in the late eighties, a structure which endures today is characterisedby a high degreeof spatial racialised inequality "which imposessignificant costs on the lower income groups"' 55,i. e. Black people. This is the result of a combination of four factors: the state's apartheid policies of residential segregationand industrial de-concentration,so as to discouragethe influx of Black workers; the urban land market; and the legacy of a history of town planning practices which favoured a multiple large Consequently tracts of to city, approach. suburban, as opposed a one the city, mainly those for Black people, are, in effect, dormitory areaswhich leisure distant from of work, and shopping, and poorly and areas are separate "are hand in On the the terms transport. white areas other of public served facilities in located to general and major relation work opportunities, well 56 The ever increasing reliance on the private motor car transport routes."' key linking developed to these the white areas motorway system well and like leisure terminals, the airport, means transport and major sites of work, that those differences are even more exacerbated. The effects of this state is differences, to not reinforce racial sponsoredcreation of racial ghettos only acrossthe socio-economic spectrum,which the study referred to divide but the and within socio-psychological also across concentrateson, the `camps' so established. In the areasdifferentiated out and marked by in is thus there reduction, a proportionate reproduction, and racial criteria, terms of allocated resourcesand quality of key servicesranging downwards Theseare education,health and other welfare from white to `African'. services. 623 624 By the late eighties this reality of urban racial segregationand concomitant deleterious socio-economic consequences,was aggravatedby Black people's de-legitimation of racialised local government structuresthe government inclined its liberally in Despite to political stance, attempted put place. Cape Town City Council was effectively disestablishedfrom its `Coloured' from its legitimation `African' garnering resources only communities, and the white population. Thus, although the council had publicly announced its opposition to key elementsof the state's apartheidpolicies, like the Group Areas Act, SeparateAmenities Act, the removal of `Coloured' voters from the roll, etc., thereby challenging the colonial relationship local government had to have with its Black communities which was being foisted upon them, the reality was that this relationship could, under the apartheid system,only had being `paternal'. That to to change. state of affairs progress ever By the turn of that decadeCape Town City Council's formal political division based the of city, eachwith ward upon a seventeen was structure devolved The the upon an of city two councillors. political administration four standing committees each were executive committee under which the under administrative services of relevantly grouped a range covering is below The represented structure control of a senior manager. diagramatically. --------sari << iý}Nf4: :ýt., 1a ýX UTIrýaowrrn RIUNNWAL c{ s{y. OOIAMý It 4c. r y+x ýý º. : e' uff. -1 Y j: a J, - '' akr ýd_r"W" city F-- cry n.... "w a wousw CHOP WURCUTME CLNAK cwmcm a TOWN __ v city E unmas - NlALTN of "Gem V-c ut +... +» Ä a. wd _, syr. #; ; , =ri;. L HOW 2. A*. l r &P cd. } I .a`7. 43AW aTIMT. IJAws New $vvV t. oww" y. u. uq t. T .I ft THE CITY rho Cky of Cape Town. A Nrwy. 1158 Pew. t .. a. ww. 4. CMO A- 4. CMr4rdon t. dM Icts tYWm paw" 70 rw 1 swan Carmel trwwn .f $IMCI. " Ts . rs a Ms I&Trl Mii 2. IY ".CMRMU cm Cwo t.. w. runs tJ%V NiPde 7ýgip S.thi ss t. #MACwý 10. Tn111a ºais IS ADMINISTERED SupP. m nt to Flnrwid r.. er. a Msýrw w. rem aA+ab, amr..r. a 91 & Faso 4. rru tJlwr t. sk ow twv. 7. sWwmnM w. b t. Wrr A: a. t. aant ww.. t. Asýrr... wer SMlnI ..l-r.. a.ºwm rro.. +os 4. M! Cwrd OFRC! Of THE TOWN CUM drk liumb m To" 2. W Odres L0\M ". tiOaW " Olllwr GA016 7A. Wift AWN 1 1906 625 SLMSs In addition tacked on to the structure was the `ManagementCommittee' set up for four `Coloured' areas. The council employed over 15,000employees. Racially there was a sharp division betweenthe white collar administrative staff and the manual worker former in The the was predominantly white, especially sections. latter 100% Black, with the the whilst was almost managementechelons, largest grouping under that categorybeing 'Coloured'. ' 159 Certainly in terms of the white collar side, the fact that recruitment was under the control inhibitory factor in Services Commission Manpower the was an of employing more Black people. The services, as is evident from the detail of the diagram, were mainly `technical' ones, as opposedto `human' services. This representeda mix of discretionary Despite this technical slant, many services. ones and statutory if developmental framework, these within a can services, contextualised of be seento be essentialto the overall welfare of local citizens, and, in the South African case,subjects. In sum, by the end of that decade,allowing for the racialised structuring of local governanceas outlined to date, the key resultant problems facing Cape Town local government can be briefly bullet pointed as follows: f Across the wider metropolitan area of Cape Town, a structure of fragmented local authorities separatedby political complexion and race f Effective delegitimation of all of these structuresby Black people f Fragmentation of servicesacrosslocal authorities and different tiers differential accessto, or receipt of, as well as racially of government, such services f Core principle of self sufficiency to municipal authorities means Black parallel oneswould never achieve that status,whilst racially larger, benefit from to more unable were smaller separatewhite ones financially sound ones, like CapeTown City Council. f Democratically unhealthy powers of intervention in local levels by held the provincial of the state. and central government fA potential Black constituency in which race is denied, either through organisationslike the UDF where race is `non-race', or through organisationslike the National Forum where race is universalised through a class analysis. 626 12.17 Change Options at the Turn of the Decade In 1988 an academiccommentatoron local government could put the problem of local government in South Africa concisely in terms of "here" Here "there". was: and f -the existence of separate,racially defined local authorities; f" the lack of political legitimacy accorded to the black local authorities by most black residents of townships-this is shown by low voting polls, attacks on the persons and property of councillors, rent boycotts, the collapse of several black town and city councils, and the establishment of alternative organisations to represent the political aspirations of black communities; f" unstable, inexperienced, ineffective and financially deprived black municipalities; f" coloured and Indian managementcommittees, reluctant to accept from but prevented assimilating with the autonomous municipal status, nearby white municipalities; f" white municipalities, who face a problem of popular apathy, financial difficulties and an inability to respond appropriately to the political pressuresemanating from the nearby townships; f" vast disparities in wealth and standard of living between the different racially defined communities; and f"a lack of communication, comprehension, co-ordination and cooperation within each town, due to the existence of totally separate local institutions. ' 160 On the other hand "there" would be: f" Political legitimacy: any government depends on the willing coif its the participation and possible, enthusiastic of subjects. The operation, has demonstrated black local the amply of authorities experience difficulties causedby popular frustration and apathy. f" Democracy: local governmentscannot satisfy the needsof residents unless councillors and administrators know what those needs are. Nor can local rulers' actions be constrained unless they are accountable to their constituency. Furthermore, in the context of 20th century political values, democracy is a sine qua non for governmental legitimacy. f"A minimum of political stability, ensured by the ability of strong, legitimate and accessible local institutions to deal with conflict quickly and into disagreements erupting violence, civil without effectively, disobedienceor passive resistance. f" The decentralisation of political power and administrative control, to allow greater community participation in the shaping of local institutions 627 and decision-making. This may also help to ensure stability, as it would expedite the resolution of conflict. Issues would not have to filter through the bureaucratic empires of the central government. f" The removal of racial discrimination in local government, according to a constitutional formula acceptable to the majority of local inhabitants. Again, the context of generally accepted political values in the imposed legally discrimination today rules out of any kind. world western f"A minimum of administrative efficiency and financial effectiveness, and the elimination of duplication, waste and red tape. This implies the dismantling of racially defined municipal institutions, which are expensive to maintain. f" Redistribution of wealth, to ensure a reasonable standard of living to underprivileged communities. This would enable those communities to make a more sophisticatedcontribution to the political, social and economic life of towns.116' Whilst the `negatives' of the `here' characteristicsaccord with my in Cape local towards the end of the eighties the of government assessment decade,the general framework provided by this version of the `fact' and `norm' of local governancealso summarisesthe parametersof changethen differing frameworks, but Similar with political emphases,can envisioned. be identified for different setsof participants in the general debate. Thus local ANC's look briefly the studies, of vision some academic at we can form local the this time the of of civics position on a new and governanceat Cape Town be This to the contextual precursor examining will governance. City Council's own responseto the emerging changeagendain the late 1996, interregnum to the the through up negotiations, and period of eighties, the year in which the first `non-racial' local elections occurred. At the academiclevel Watson's approach,at that time, bearshighlighting becauseof the proposals for changeshe outlines and becauseher empirical 1162 in her is Marxist Whilst done Cape. the origin analysis on work was in a class basedsociety local government servesto maintain capitalist social level if that the capture of state class working relations which can change her follow logic from do her the of not necessarily solutions, which power her interesting. There two to vision are aspects theoretical underpinning, are first is in developmental to The that situation, applies which a change. of South Africa, local government can play a critical role in trying to ensure justice, for local framework is the there and political that socio-economic a former through redistributive measuresand the latter through substantive democratisation. Achieving this will turn on changesto the systemsof local government representationand financing, as well as the need to define local level What the of government. she geographical apposite properly internal in fact both `representation' the structure and processes terms covers in is local the to be which political way well control as as government of favours latter In the she a more participatory, non-hierarchical exercised. 628 form of representation,which is immediately accountableto a range of in full turn through the exercise executive control which council, groups, kind intermediary than through of any managementcommittee. For rather this she draws primarily on the immediate post war Yugoslavian experience body "a but local of self as managing community", also on the of governance forms of the civics. Under the former model services emerging organisation were organised as self managing entities run by committees of producers, i. e. the workers themselves,and those who use the services. The key point to this was to have a form of local governancein which the citizen's is participation paramount, rather than that of the political representative. In terms of local government finance, whilst not having specific proposals for is local "the the that spelt out principle authority should be able to change, facilitate a redistribution of resources"1163.This links into the final aspect is do to with the appropriate geographical and political level of local which Thus, though acknowledging that re-organisation into larger government. in itself is inimical is democratisation to a solution and not greater and units level local for be favoured the government metropolitan of can autonomy, like financial base, first functions, the tier authorities with smaller some covering other areas. The last point, given the more radical participatory elementsof her proposals is puzzling. However it is clear that in interviewing her in 1990 that at that local in debates the emerging on government changes South time many of Africa were being done with an eye on, and with the hope of catching the ear likely be force in ANC to the the main political was as which recognised of, the changing South Africa. During the eighties the ANC favoured a local disparate because the authority of metropolitan structure, not only it because but had be to was also rationalised, structures and systems local At for that transformation. point, sized vehicle a suitably as regarded 1990, the ANC as a political organisation emerging into political legitimacy in South Africa becauseof the `unbanning', but with leading figures who had spent a considerabletime in exile, had a wary eye on the civics with their demandsfor a more participatory form of local governance. Nevertheless for internal had the civics, as the ANC to of and support power the recognise be This like UDF. in the seen can rapprochement represented organisations in the first conferenceon local government organisedby the ANC in 1990. Participants in this conferenceincluded the academiccommentatorsreferred for local formal first The the recommendations to above, as well as civics. in from ANC the the to new political climate emerge government changes 1164 framed to those therefore outlined above. similarly very were At this time the resolutions for change,as with all of the options being included the the ending of all racial of precondition considered, discrimination as a sine qua non. I want to concentrateon those concerning democratisation,finance and levels of local government structures. In terms 629 of democratisation,which was pre-conditioned to the principle of `nonbe based to this on the `one person, one vote' principle of was racialism', balance Further be that, whilst a suffrage. should universal maintained between local and national governments,local issuesshould be delegatedto local authorities. Added into the recommendationson democratisationwas one which committed the ANC to programmesof affirmative action in that sphereof government. It remained to be seenwhether or not `affirmative democratisation be to elements of as a political was action' realised, or interesting it The technical, as managerial activity. whether would emerge a There to the the role of, and relationship with, relates civics. were section three recommendations. Theseset out that: civics should be autonomous independentof local government, but could enter into political alliances with issues improve that to the life of the on seek political organisations community; they should act, on behalf of communities, as watchdogs over local government; and People's Assemblies should be establishedas open forums outside of local state institutions to facilitate public participation on 1165 implementation. from development It this that the was clear and policy direct being the was seen as outside of civics power configurations of role in be left decision to to the political party making which was affecting In limited Participation this the to was effectively consultation. power. Yet Watson's. less democratically than substantive proposals were even in for the the conference opted what they termed a three workshops of some tier model in which local governmentrepresentativesare elected from civics, local from governmentwill emergecentral government representatives. and In this way accountability lines run from the civics via local government, to -ý, finance back. The city were recommendations on national government, and finances, better base, for tax such public scrutiny of a single general, calling desired from In for to the relation national government. subsidies and forward. level local level the metropolitan was put of government, structural This was because it could "accommodate urban growth, reintegrate urban for be facilitate city co-ordinate and responsible redistribution, communities, broader development for democratic over control wide services and allow 166 decisions. "' The best context againstwhich to comparethe ANC's initial local is its to yardstick, so speak, that of government changeproposals, normative its own Freedom Charter. Adopted in 1955 at a Congressof People, "it in South history first African for the time the authoritatively concretised belief in a nation united in a unitary, non-racial, democratic South 167 It was taken as the founding principles for the new South "' Africa. Africa in the early nineties. Six core principles are identified: that of democracy; democracy; that of a pluralist that of participatory representative human that that action; of rights and the of equality and affirmative society; democracy. Against benchmarks, it law; these that of social and can of rule be arguedthat the local governmentproposals appearto be meeting the 630 democracy and pluralism, where pluralism here principles of participatory democratic "plurality to the organs of self and autonomy of refers bodies trade collective and community enterprises" unions, government, between The to this extent which early apparent schism superficially. only the perceived need to have in place political structures of control over local local desire for by the participatory recognition expressed urban areasand by from is be the proposals emanating real can gauged citizens, constituent the civics and the reaction to these from the ANC throughout the nineties. The civics marked not only a new chapter in the history of opposition to in South Africa, they also, within the specific and apartheid segregation Cape dimension. different In Cape, the political the the added a context of identifies, from `Coloured' Lewis the to community, as opposition apartheid for both ANC from This `middle true the the classes'. was came mainly focussed The NEUM the ones. rise of the civics and centred opposition formal into the the the oppositional political spotlight on emergence marked There the was, as well, the other working classes. ordinary arenaof independent the trade the whose sphere merged at unions of arena political boundarieswith that of the civics. In the mid eighties in Atlantis, one of the Cape Town periphery dormitory areascreatedfor lower income `Coloured' by National African by South the the state, a rally organised at people Forum, the principal researcherwas able to witness the testimony of ordinary `Coloured' people, those whose voices in the past were normally silent. By for involving the this organisations, the early nineties movement of civic developed had Black a national co-ordinating people, most part ordinary This (SANCO). Civic Organisation, National South African the structure, local in key the to government affecting negotiating process part was play a in future Murray in three the scenarios possible outlined nineties. changes the mid nineties in the face of the then likely development of parliamentary democracy: on the basesof a coherent developmentand democracy local to to a watchdog; of government acting as outside remain programme into to similar or remain parties; with politically alliances strategic enter for local to themselves to unaffiliated any political party and enter candidates 1169 Both Murray and Fine, who identify the new government elections. interest in the theory and practice of the discourseof civil society in the future likely describe Africa, South that three of option changing society of the civics in terms of a `cleft stick' dilemma. Murray askshow this liberal `framework be fine the theories of of under might which approach, democratic rights' can be "reconciled with not only the deeply entrenched but forging institutional the also challenge of power realities of class and diverse and sometimesrival interest groups into a common socialist 170 in limitations Fine's betrays, The "' the case, certainly question project.. Marxist, the etatist privileging approach,as well as the orthodox of its is bases. labour The theoretical which of social answer universalisation is is This them, three that a combination or of options, possible. all of course 631 is certainly true if the communicative discursive potential of the civics is to be realised. This would have direct implications for the form and content democracy, beyond limitations the which ones move of of parliamentary democracyas conceived of by the ANC. To this end, Mayekiso, first chair leading in SANCO Johannesburg'sAlexandra Township and a activist of civic, points to many civics' participants calling for the establishmentof a 1171 lines Brazilian This occurred of the one. workers party, along the becauseof the perceived concessionsthen being made by the ANC in because the ability of the South African Communist to negotiations and forms New that was questionable. of political organisation were achieve because of the need to securethe "development of a vast network of needed democratic organs of popular participation in both the economy and the leadership the of the working class." political systemand Whilst there is a similarity in the key aspectsof local governanceidentified be if to those need which changed, even within the approachesoutlined as differences in there are emphasesaccordedto specific elementsor above, is these, there one overall aspectwhich appearsto be the combinations of is in `race' This to that the which notion of employed applies all same. three approaches. Race is not so much dealt with, as also dealt away with, by the qualifying sine qua non used in all three, that non-discrimination will be the norm, a moral framework which allows for the specifying of 'nonSimply be that stating racism municipalities. and race will not racial' determining forces in the new local governance,and substituting a new being `non-racial', brokering the this through of state of or even universalism the subject of the `worker', as some of the civics did, appearsto be identification No recognition of racism and racialised group as sufficient. how beyond is to that, or analyses problem, of move provided. an ongoing Yet, as can be seenwith the `Coloured' people in the Cape, and will be is issue be later, by this the an ongoing which cannot wished away shown is declaration South Africa `non-racial'. level, it be At that one can simple like blind too this the sounds of much a renovation colour approach. argued, To that extent the absenceof an anti-racist and anti-discriminatory mode in thinking and `doing' about race, which has the advantageof transitivising the here and now to the object of the norm of `non-racial', also betokensthe lack local in for dimension the the government of recognition options change. of All three approachesare concernedprimarily with the powers of its disposal, local have at government can and with the redistribution democratic meansto achieve this. But, building in the dimension of be because, like it they whether should essential or not, claims recognition for racial justice by ordinary people will be mediated in the short to medium term, through the racialised identities of the South African milieu. This in local for form discursive the which communicative of governance a calls for This allow would a processof consensually spacesare maximised. basedlegitimation in which ethnic and etnik claims can be discursively dealt 632 We can seenow the extent to which Cape Town City Council's with. in responses the nineties to the changeagenda,and the national framework to local governance,put in place by the 1994ANC dominated government of `national unity', actually met those conditions. 12.18 Cape Town City Council in the Interregnum The `liberal' political tradition in the Cape,which has been examined earlier, was a phenomenonmade great play of by the white liberal political parties which came to control the Cape Town City Council. By 1990 this was in the form of the Democratic Party. In a politically sanctioned `fact-finding' UK in by USA 1989 the the tour two of the leading managers,a and of city series of resulting proposalswere adoptedto try "to meet and acceptthe 172 in Cape Town. "' These challengesof re-integration a post-apartheid included the need for the council to continue to promote its 'nondiscriminatory' stanceand to develop the role of moral leader in relation to non-discrimination. Public council promotional publications of the time history on portraying a premium an almost unbroken of opposition to placed by its from days the to the then present. council earliest racial segregation As has been shown, this is only partially true, with Watson describing the being best `ambivalent'. to the apartheid over years as approach at council's However, by 1990 the council had "firmly believed that the only acceptable form local is direct of government representationof all its and workable irrespective City Council the present of their race, and without citizens on 173 kind. "' discrimination of any However, interviews with two of the leading white councillors at the time, independent liberal, ex-mayor and and the other the then one an alderman, Democratic Party, the and member of mayor reveal a slightly current There was a different complexion to their concept of non discrimination. free force in discrimination to the to market as a ending racial commitment the extent that they opposed the tactic of economic sanctions. Further, in in South Africa Cape `affirmative to the the emergence and of relation ills, the to they stressed the of strategies past social redress action' as one based, be, its for have to this to at core, meritocratically, and any not need in discrimination. forward But, terms their of carrying of reverse elements intentions on non racial local government, the impression was gained that the 1174 DP was awaiting its cue from the ANC. The interregnum period, from the onset of negotiations in 1990 through the 1994 first national `non-racial' election and the sanctioning of an interim first `non-racial' the to through municipal government of national unity, by for interim in 1996 in CTCC the was seen councils, main actors elections for local `non-racial' the governance. Within this preparation period as interim legislation to the was enacted oversee arrangementsfor local period 633 included This ensuring that there were elected councillors government. from the Black communities previously disenfranchised. Given, however, temporarynature of that set up, there was still a great degreeof questioning The legitimacy those the political structures and arrangements. of overall of in key documents the then, the as stated one of council's at council aim of the time, was to develop amongstall the people in its constituency "75 To this end, given also the boundaries,the legitimacy of the council. kept ANC, being the there were three main elementsto this on watchful eye development legitimacy. These the of a strategy of were programme of development the the of an affirmative action civics, engagementwith in towards, the and of a council, and evolution position programme in level local Cape. for, the of government a metropolitan proposals Complementing this, and influencing it at key moments,were a series of from ANC. These developments the the were new stemming national South Africa, the the of equality and antiemergence of constitution discriminatory legislation, the quick evolution of a radical programme of developmentalreform, and the developmentand concretisation of the ANC's local There were, and still are, certain elementsof government. on position legislative like level the constitution, equality the national programme, developmental the programme which provide a normative components,and backdrop against which to measurethe changesto local government. Achieving progresson the new legitimacy for Cape Town City Council was dependenton the interplay betweenthe new forces in South Africa, which in DP ANC, this the the the the case and old establishment, and civics were bureaucracy, Cape bureaucracy. Apropos the the the region council's and branch of the South African Municipal Workers' Union describedthe its follows: there, and elsewhere,as well as position, as situation SAMWU, as the largest Union in the municipal sector, has a very in interest the restructuring of municipal special has in fact The power meant of political seizure administrations...... bureaucracies because the to the old remained masses nothing intentions frustrate intact the to political good able and were virtually SAMWU At time the the same the as and ruling party new of ........ debate issues, democratic to these the starting are movement rest of the existing authorities are busy restructuring the internal it be This to allowed continue and cannot obviously administrations. both by the trade progressive union a massive push require will halt forces Let democratic to this process........ movement and other levels two this viz. staffing policies/practices and on address us decision making/control. The working conditions of our members throughout South Africa range from absolutely horrendous to fairly acceptable. The wage gap and other conditions of employment between black and white local authorities, rural and urban local differently graded municipalities all contribute to a and authorities Add definitely but to this the situation. unacceptable confusing very have labour and you a situation crying relations practices very archaic 634 In respect of the structure, the out for drastic restructuring.......... traditional form of administration is highly bureaucratised with an extremely fragmented job classification(designation) and a very sharp is in The Town Clerk the this system central power pyramid. grading with Heads of Department having almost equal power within their own domains. Empire building is not an uncommon feature within local authorities. This bureaucracy determines the goals and the it's on own. Skills enhancement, participation- in products service decision making, advancements are almost non-existent for the majority of local authority workers. The treasury is also centralised and exercises a major influence over the activities of the different departments. 1176 There is a real sensein which the criticisms voiced above echo those made by the Race Advisers of the bureaucracyin the target borough in the UK. Yet, just as in the UK casestudy, there were in Cape Town City council also key people with the communicative spaceto act. Whilst the upper bureaucracy Black there the one were almost entirely white, was of echelons function, in the who used space of a small policy and research charge person, degree Whilst to catalytic great of power. not a a exercise available independent he described himself ANC, the socialist with as an member of leanings towards the NF position. Additionally there was the planning departmentwhich, with its job requirementsto consult the public, attracted a from the university of emerged planners who primarily politicised of number Cape Town's planning department. The latter had conducteda number of influential studies of Cape Town City council and the options for change, including the one referred to earlier. One of the key staff in the council's branch, local ANC department the member of was also a prominent planning by body One Forum, City its being the set up a representativeon as well as future in discussions involve the the to of about relevant parties the council local governance. This is mentioned to show how the growing public local local `non-racial' the state. overlapped with government spherearound In some ways this was similar to that which occurred in the UK over race identified These to local play an above came people government. and between in interpreting, like the mediating council and and role griot almost local people's organisationsover the proposals for changeand how these important implemented. They be to members critical of also were were internal working parties and committeesset up to develop the council's own how i. local the to `non-racial' was on council e. government, on position legitimacy Black its people. with establish 12.19 Engagement with the Civics In the eighties CTCC's political leadershipstill made claims for legitimacy based limited franchise for involve the the to on people, all of which sought its `Coloured' the opposition to some people and on certain sectionsof legislative aspectsof apartheid. Despite this then, as Todes and Watson 635 point out, it had done very little to nothing about establishing new forms of contact with the `Coloured' and `African' communities. In the rapidly changing scenarioof South Africa in the late eighties this was acknowledged by the white politicians as an oversight which neededto be changed urgently. In pursuit of that a consultant was engagedto both begin establishing the processof constructive dialogue with the civics in the Cape and to advise the council of the changesnecessary. The consultant, who was white, had worked as a political journalist and in organisationslike the "77 Sash. Her work, which had begun when the eighties state of Black emergencywas still in place, initially came up against the twin difficulties of the fact that some key organisationswere bannedand the strong noncollaboration culture of `Coloured' political struggles in the Cape. Whilst the local white politicians displayed a lot of good will, there was little politicisation. As a result of both the factors above, a lot of `toing' and `froing' negotiations took place betweenthe civics and the council mediated through the consultant, resulting in a gradual thaw as the changeevents began decade. importance The to the turn that unfold at of nationally of this work is that it resulted in the first formal structuresbeing established between the civics and the council, such as the internal Constitutional SubCommittee, and in terms of an external focus the `One City Forum', as well initiatives. Above of other all the messagethat came out of the number as a be by to accepted the politicians at the time, was that this civics and seemed had be to of engagement participatory. process One of the key subsequentdevelopmentswas the decision to establish a Community Liaison Unit in the council in 1993.1178This was very much the initiative of the senior Black officer mentioned above, drawing together the linked initiatives, of other such as the work of the consultant.. This strands in line it developed the that view with council's perceived "liaison with was the broader community to be of importance, especially during the transition integrated it City. s1179 However to was acknowledgedthat the an period main thrust of the Unit's work would be directed to those sectorsof society had been from previous under governments, systematically excluded which, is i. Black What communities. noticeable is that the governance, e. justificatory report omits the race dimension, but talks about "working class it initially " However was only createdon a temporary basis. The areas. had three core elements:public involvement, a the strategy underpinning unit communication campaign, and a sub-strategyto make Council servicesmore 180 In reality, as the review outlined below showed, `customer' oriented."' the work devolved upon a range of activities: capacity building, facilitating liaison between conflict resolution, participation, civics and council public officials, researchfor both the latter, co-ordinating needs' analyses. Three years on, in 1996, a formal review and evaluation of the unit's work "8' The framework review's acknowledged firstly that the was undertaken. 636 challenge facing civil society at that time in South Africa was how to make an impact on the "formal political systemand to ensurethat demandsare met through channelsof government,particularly local government."l lag Secondlywith regard to the latter, local government neededto strengthenthe "organs of civil society" and both neededto "work towards creating a space where communities can impact on the functioning of local government.."1183 Thirdly the framework whilst acknowledging the inherited problems from the apartheid era local governmentswere facing, `deadwood' in `dead' bureaucraciesand the racially basedspatial `mal-structuring' of cities, situated the main goal of community participation as being that of transferring power to disadvantagedgroups. The evaluation of the CLU be in therefore, should, seen terms of the extent to which it had succeededin trying "to remove power from politicians and bureaucratsand place it in the hands of communities." Thus because"elected representativescannot, or do not, adequatelyserve communities, another goal of community is foster from to a gradual shift representativedemocracyto participation 1184 democracy. " participatory The details of the review are both interesting and important. There are issueswhich are identified which have a strong resonancewith the critical ones raised through the attempt to develop a race equality discourse in borough in the target the UK. This is not so surprising programme becausethe CLU in CTCC was very much involved in trying to open up in communicative spaces the council so that local Black people could make justice for racial which would be both redistributive and recognition claims based. The one key difference is that, unlike in the UK, there was no internal framing interventions. Both, however, seea those policy strong merging of civil society and the administrative and political systemsat the boundariesto give a new form of democratisation. Thus overall the review had CLU that the come to win the trust and support of the concludes communities, and were able to work with the community. They were seen by the communities as "a facilitator of community particiation in civil 185 local "' The government. society, and ... a changeagent within be issues, had to worked through with the oneswhich contentious in to to those that the UK. appear very similar emerged constituencies Firstly there was the need to `unromanticise' the community. The Black diverse, communities were presenting a number of potential obstacles:the lack of representivity of certain civics; self appointed `leaders' acting as gatekeepers;conflicts arising out of party politics; crooks, thieves and doorway targeting to state resources. as a what was seen vagabonds Secondly there was the issue of the relationship between the CLU and the hand `biting Again the that feedsyou' emerged. As the trope of council. the review states,"the CLU exists within the council but acts on behalf of the communities.... (and this)... often places them in the precarious position 637 186 There were two aspectsto of criticising their employer, the council."' this: that pertaining to their relationship with the bureaucracyand that to their relationship with councillors. With the bureaucracythe litany of critical factors relating to the administrative systemseemvery familiar. The CLU was seenas a threat becausethe boundariesand content of the administrators' accountability was being changed. The council was physically inaccessible. Officials in the council were too conservative,still living in the old South Africa, and thus ignorant of the parametersto change then being pursued. There was as well the problem of professionalism and territorialism, leading to the criticism of the CLU's employeesas not being "technically qualified in a whole range of professions in which they operate."1187 Finally the CLU was perceived to lack status in the organisation, especially one in which there was a rigid hierarchical pecking This helped by the temporary statusof the employeesin the was not order. unit. The review identified the main difficulty with the then elected councillors as the fact that "the CLU seeksto extend participatory democracywhile we have a representativedemocratic democracyin place."' 188 Achieving the former would mean that accountability for councillors would be a continuous process. There were thus similar issues. For example new councillors were `suckered' by the systemand viewed the CLU as troublesome becausetheir failed those to link effectively with the community. who work exposed Civics identified that where the councillor failed to link with the communities, the CLU, through providing effective information, filled that gap. In conclusion the review argued for an expansion in the role of the CLU to take as well an overview of the budgetting process,equality and race equality, and work with the councillors to transform the bureaucracyso that it does not "run government irrespective of elected councillors." There is a final dimension to the state of play with the civics by 1996, the time of the first, proper non racial municipal elections in the Cape. This is to do with the development and adoption by the 1994 government of the Reconstruction and RedevelopmentProgramme,(RDP). Marais notes that the "RDP emergedas the most concertedattempt yet to devise a set of social, economic and political policies and practices that could transform South Africa into a more just and equal society.... (which) aimed at completely ..... 189 "' There were to this, five re-ordering politics, the economy and society. basic Meeting Needs; Developing Human Resources; sub-programmes: Building the Economy; Democratising the State,and Implementing the RDP. The RDP originated from the trade union movement, building in, as it by It ANC its the the civics. was adopted as core framework for evolved, legacies the of apartheid shortly before the 1994 election. In overcoming 638 the CapeANC canvasserswere issuedwith leaflet size guidelines to the I 9o Saul, cited by Marais, notes that the RDP changedfrom being the RDP. democratic forces becoming framework for to the a policy programmeof doing became In "less what it is, the so programme national government. 191 it become. "' In other words despite the compromises than what might forced on the RDP through `governmentality', it still had enormous As Marais "... base document (of the the summarises, potential. normative RDP) remains both relevant and valuable, not as a blue print but as a benchmarks development that arose from a consultative process complex of distilled ideals had in the that propelled the and which, many respects, 192 in "' Further, an areawhich representsmy struggle against apartheid. democratising between local the the overlap public spheres, argumentsabout local is the state,which also contra the conservative civil society and interpretation of Habermas,he concludesthat approachesfrom below, i. e. those from civil society have "to penetrateand build alliances with the (progressive) (because)... that counter-poses civil a schema strictly state.... is bankrupt theoretically to the and practically self state society 193 The implementation of the RDP at the local level relied on "' defeating. 1194 the establishmentof RDP forums which drew directly from the civics. In the interregnum period in the Cape when the council embarked on its local CLU, legitimacy, through the the work of especially programme of RDP forums were the prime mediating organisations for council access to both in Cape, These, the ranged across communities and vice versa. `Coloured' and `African' communities, including those of Cross Roads and Khayelitsa, the unofficial squatter camps. In concluding this section on the it be 1996, in CTCC the that to the can argued up period and civics beginnings of a process of democratisation of the local state had begun. More particularly the search for new and better forms of legitimacy had fora for Black development in the people and new communicative resulted the linkage of these to the communicative channels influencing the local both democracy locally The and arguments around participatory state. RDP, in South Africa, the through such assumed as programmes societally that this form of democratisation would shift the relationship from `influence' to actual `change'. Whilst there is no explicit mention of deliberative democracy as part of this democratising change, the discursive in I the that, notion of participatory resides would argue, of potential democracy, and is evident in the examples of engagement with the civics. 12.20 Affirmative Action and CTCC 'Affirmative action' enteredthe lexicon, policy and practice of South African local government through a number of routes, some of them interknowledge Access to the available of race remedial global connected. GB in USA the were available to politicians, and measuresundertaken 639 in helping Its ANC. to restructure a changed the potential unions, and SouthAfrica was being mooted by the ANC in the eighties. In terms of local governmentthe developmentof anti-apartheid declarations,policies local but London by UK, authorities, within the overall mainly and practices into fed those the visions of the of councils, race equality programmes by developed ANC. Durban City being In the the case of alternatives Council, returning ANC activists who had been exiled in the UK, assisted local trade unions in brokering an affirmative action policy with that council. In that casethe policy actually read like a UK local government equality UK's 1976 for Race the of of word adoption parts policy, replete with word 195 ' Act. Relations In relation to CTCC the drive for an affirmative action policy derived as for forms legitimacy, liberal from the of search new white politicians much There largely SAMWU. from Black it did trade the municipal union, as Employees, Association Municipal South African the of was another union, (SAAME) which served only the white employees,and which was facts legacy However the the this. of of apartheid silent over particularly into divided CTCC bureaucracy for The themselves. seven of was spoke hierarchical bands,which when defined in terms of pay, showed that 94% of those in the two lower bandswere Black, whilst 100% of the highest band 1196 late highest band The 95% the eighties visit were white. second of and by key senior managersto the UK and USA came back with specific By the turn affirmative action policy. an on establishing recommendations institutional decade the the obstacleto establishing such a one major of CTCC the regaining the control over their overcome with was policy from Manpower decisions the services selection recruitment and Commission. To affect the creation of an affirmative action policy, both the to research subject area and come up were employed consultants 1197On the basis of this CTCC agreedan Equal Employment with proposals. Opportunity and Affirmative Action Policy in 1991, with a commitment to in the trade this unions; a negotiated agreementonly secured with negotiate 1994.1198 The policy is telling, both by the limitation of its application and by the in UK. The EEO AA developed the those and policy similarities with development. It to employee and selection, applied only recruitment and identified three target `disadvantaged'groups, where `disadvantage'was defined in terms of those "deprived of rights, career, ... inadequate discrimination the to on grounds of race, gender past or subject schooling... 199 in `equity EEO The "' disability. employment through actively meant or is AA discrimination", temporary at aimed measuresto whilst prohibiting improve discrimination the representativenessof employees and past redress in CTCC according to race and gender. At the heart of this policy was the incorporation of the concept of `merit', which meant "the capacity or 640 200 job. " The implementation competencyto meet the requirementsof the be to the sought through the establishmentof an Affirmative of policy was Action Board comprised of equal numbers of relevant managersand function from the trade unions, whose would be to oversee representatives the developmentof the policy; the appointment of a specialist `Affirmative Action Officer', basedin the Personneldepartment;and the creation of targeting evaluation and monitoring system. There are two major problems with the EEO and AA policy, the first of it has borrowed from fact is that the uncritically other national which it developed field. is The in this that was without any second experiences being to considerations and changes pursued. wider political reference Apropos this last point one of those interviewed in the council criticised it for its apolitical foundation and purported technical character. As the it became in in Africa South the nineties awashwith unfurled changes in The ANC both internally from the of world. and other parts consultants the eighties was as unpreparedfor governanceas the Nationalist party was for relinquishing power. The net result was that there was, in the is, heavy degree for of uncritical application a changes,and still preparation knowledge The `affirmative hand technologies. notion of of second is in A South Africa those. one of critical commentary as evolving action', is CTCC but Durban to the the one, applicable equally policy, which on described it as "inadequately thought out... and disempowering"; this in be by `E's" three to underpinned should policies which contradistinction described "1201 What was as empowerment,emancipation and enablement "Mynah bird" policy developmentwould prove disabling in the South African context. Pointing out that similar policies developedin the UK bureaucracies large fine "are USA tuning so that racial minorities about and (in "Black") the term Black the can sense of possible widest people of White for jobs... (and)... terms with people or near equal, on equal, compete it Black is to majorities of people who are so racial relevant whether or not treated is another matter... (becausethere is)... the question .... whether or not this particular type of changewill simply entrench the rights of a 1202 " It goes on to to historically privileged White minority community. identify the marginalising conceptualapparatusand practice of `affirmative be in UK USA, that the should unquestioningly why and and asks action' transposedon to the South African context. Thus use of terms, such as `disadvantaged', `merit', `affirmative action', etc. all give the impression that in human in terms policy and practice, and terms of of resource what exists the bureaucratic structure, are normal, requiring only a few tweaks , here and language Further Black in the to people. there, order accommodate of the date drafted to that unwittingly pathologise and up affirmative action policies `victim' Black people so that, for example, the inference can be drawn that Black people thus require `additional training' before they can work in such There in far additional problems, were ups. as set well, so as administrative 641 therewas an unquestioning adoption and implementation of a race monitoring systemwhich relied on the apartheid racial categories,a move which had the potential to entrench further conventionalised identification. Those sorts of criticisms set out above actually speak of a greaterproblem, which is the way in which the EEO and AA appearsto be divorced from the wider changes,such as the RDP. One of the weaknessesidentified by the review of the CLU was that it was not properly contextualised and structurally situated in an equalities environment tackling the whole council. The samecan be said of the EEO and AA policy, viz. that it doesnot seek to changethe conditions of inequitable and unjust employment policies, practices and structures,but rather fine tune them. In other words equality basedemployment policies and practices should becomethe norm, not the addedon exception. It's answer to racism is the BBOS approachwhich, whilst desirable, can never be the solution. Post 1996 there are thus important questionsto be askedof the EEO and AA, especially in the light of the country's constitutional and equality legislative developments. 12.21 Pursuing the Metropolitan Option The metropolitan level of local government, by which is meant deciding on the degreeof amalgamationof the many, fractured local authority structures by into the apartheid years one, was favoured by the ANC and, in generated their preliminary deliberations, CTCC as a vehicle for legitimacy. In this caselegitimacy arosemainly out of the ability of such a structure to play a developmental The role. extent to which the civics, the only substantial base of Black people at that time, actually supportedthat real organisational is questionable. To that extent the proposalsput forward by CTCC in the first part of the nineties have to be assessedin relation to its democratising for it be legitimation involving through those that would processes proposals the communicative participation of all concerned,would be enacted. The actual proposals emerging from CTCC covered four main areas:the in democratic form and content; the tiers the the new set up; number of 1203 financial framework. I want to systemsand services, and the first the two. In terms of the number of levels to the on concentrate for the there to be two tiers structure, was metropolitan recommendation local level of primary and a metropolitan authorities comprised which would have a co-ordinating role and responsibility for certain services. The degreeof devolution or decentralisationwould the outcome of negotiations. Above all, with regard to the relationship, the CTTCC came down to concluding that "becauseof the perceived need that accountableand its local government at optimum when it is constructed works participatory is there community clusterings, coherent a strong casefor the around local in the metropolitan area."1204 In terms authorities retention of primary 642 local democratisation the the of new of government arrangements,three forms of democracywere considered:representativedemocracy, democracy delegate democracy. The last and participatory one, used at that time in the Witswatersrand metropolitan area,requires that delegatesare in before their with constituents continuous communication articulating a responseto policies. CTCC recommendedthat "democratic practice would be best servedby a combination of all three models in a public culture .... 1205 " Likewise a which maximises public participation and accountability. `hybrid' of electoral systemswas recommendedcomprised of a fifty-fifty being first-past-the-post through a elected mode, and split of candidates proportional representation. Accountability of those mandatedwould be securedthrough a number of possible mechanisms:recall elections, plebiscitory petitions, referenda,a code of ethics for elected officials, `open be laws, This the would existence of an ombudsman. government' complementedthrough action to support the council's belief that "if civil it democracy, in be is to a will a participatory play meaningful role society build the organisational capacity of communities and to necessary leadership."1206 The extent to which these very radical proposals - radical in relation to what in light UK before, the the of and radical when considered existed in in local Cape the the were actually government actioned experience interim in South African the the affecting period processes negotiating is for CLU's is debatable. There that the no evidence, example, work polity, included issue future detail, the the of metropolitan actual programme and ideal have been for Yet this would an vehicle pursuing that structure. like forums, One City Forum Whilst the there which were other agenda. involved the civics, the actual substantive negotiating forum was that of the Cape Metropolitan Negotiating Forum. This was established under the instructed legal auspices of the 1993 Local Government Transition Act framework legislative to the work of unification of the the which set 1207 Part of this unification work allowed for the fragmented structures. be interim for `non-racial' there would which of councils establishment for local in Cape. in The 1996 the other governments act allowed elections in forums, including the to participate and civic observers and organisations local the structures of political associations, residents' associations and local from Cape, In the the of participation political parties, apart parties. inclusion of the other organisations was variable. Bond is less sanguine He "because his that that notes of period. national characterisation about ANC negotiators were wary of grassroots democratic instincts", they adopted the code of `building trust' to "justify the highly circumscribed character of interim "1208 The in transition. the arrangements, as set out elite municipal legislation, were designed "to force together powerbrokers from white for five into radical camps, straitjacketed years unsatisfying conservative and "1209 compromises. 643 By 1996,the time of the first `non-racial' local elections in the Cape, even if the structure of local governancewas still to be determined, it can be argued that there was in place, in terms of a framework of intent, locally and incipient in terms the of practices evolving, the basesfor a nationally, and legitimation of local government the discursive inclusion of those affected. To that extent the voice of CTCC, if not the actual practice, was speaking form legitimation. Given the history of the Cape in totally new of about a relation to the growth and separationsof racialised populations, as well as the concomitant political responsesfrom thesepopulations, this discursive inclusion would have to involve questionsof recognition and how these is issue It to the not only of posing such related questionsof redistribution. having heard but For them also and resolved. example, one of questions, the contributors to the CLU evaluative process,who was from a local RDP forum basedin an `African' area,statedthat: "you get poor whites, poor disadvantaged blacks, but the was the poor most coloureds and poor blacks... (and)... therefore government needsto focus on the basic needsof the most disadvantagedblack areas."121° Here was an example of how the it, in develop in I "Black", that the signifying wrongs sense collectivity of done to, at the sametime invites the discursive resolution of identity claims de-colonisation is in It this that the the those sense constituents. who are of I between Black `colonial' the the which state and subjects, relationship of be discursively the and earlier, can apartheid state existed under deconstructed;a processdemocratically more substantivethan mere in for elections representativepolitical officials. participation 12.22 Post 1996 - Beyond the Crossroads? With the advent of the first `non-racial' local government elections in the Cape in 1996 for a local government which had the potential for a discursive legitimation as outlined above, it would be expectedthat the direction taken However towards the enhancement. communicative would crossroads at this was not to be the case. The window of opportunity presentedby not having to be imprisoned by the tradition of local governance,as in the case in developments by UK, the the civil society, was and as confirmed of lies in 1996. The this the to why occurred answer actually closing post in ANC developments the nationally which came to over shadow political the route taken by CTCC. 12.23 National Developments Bonds, and separatelyMarais, provide a well argued charting of the ANC's downward spiral into the arms of economic neo-liberalism. Bond argues that "macro-economic managementduring the 1989-1993late apartheid 644 depression became a model for post-apartheid policy. 91211 Part of the reason for this is because "when the ANC was unbanned in 1990, it had no for an eight decade old liberation economic policy, a peculiar situation organisation despite the efforts internationally to train a cadre of ANC exile initial s1212 Its economic response was contained in the mantra economists. `growth through redistribution', reflecting the influence at that time of the However, into this economic vacuum stepped the SACP and COSATU. surrogate priests of neo-liberal economic orthodoxy: the economists of South African corporate business, the World Bank and the IMF. The extent to filled be by Kentridge's conclusion, this was can gauged which vacuum quoted by Marais, that by late 1993 "the language and tone [of ANC and business policy documents] are so similar that at times they appear 1213 Whilst Marais is unsure of the factors that led to the interchangeable". ANC's apostasy and fall into neo-liberalism, Bond locates this as residing in 1990 "plethora the post unleashing of a of corporate scenario primarily 1214 by leading business South African the conglomerates. planning exercises" These, according to Bond, "reflected the desire of the masters to and hand deal to than picked participants come up with a rather a carefully 1215 Their prime concerns were to get accepted: the "shared good analysis. " demand that economic policy had to become grounded in relationships of trust, negotiation and consensus building... "; "the need for macro-economic in efforts at social restructuring, an outward oriented restraint stringency, facilitating (as and a opposed to regulating) state.."; the economic economy Ishmael status of "any attempt to ground economic future policy in the dynamic of growth and redistribution. s121 My mutually reinforcing be `being that this the reflected another variation would of argument ANC In by the the situations of power, which system' syndrome. suckered found itself in, which are underscored by a legitimating process of' leader' discursive form but the not popularity, and nature of the peer popularity, its This facilitated by the mutual accountability, changes. was and group, largely ex-exile make up of the ANC's leadership. For those more used to the comradeship of activists in the seventies and eighties apartheid South Africa who were drafted into the negotiating set up, the transmogrification by from The that that changed greater. peer group characterised much was `jeans' to that characterised by `suits'. Likewise legitimation from that new degree importance. That greater of peer group assumed a greater and transformation is that much more highlighted where access to state power leads to increased economic privilege and wealth. This was exemplified by funeral journal Robben Island business time the report of of a one prisoner, a turned merchant banker: "Once Andrew Mapheto's comrades would have dresses. in jeans, T-shirts Indian Now they watched and print arrived bans in dark A behind twin sets. phalanx of BMWs ray suits and silently "217 former A Mercedes the cemetery verge. stood on activist attending and is quoted: "I am a good capitalist precisely becauseI was such a good Adam "1218 et al note that the elite of the ANC "borrowed the communist. 645 definition of equality from the whites... anything less than a white bourgeois lifestyle (was).. unequal."1219 This phenomenonof the imitative and ... in simulatedequality appearedas well the period of the race initiatives in the UK when criticisms from Black workers about race advisers chasing higher from the with response salarieswas met one of the best known that no one complainedwhen white managersobtained more money. Bonds sums up this transformation by referenceto Fanon: "In its beginnings, the national bourgeoisieof the colonial country identifies itself with the decadenceof the bourgeoisieof the West. We need not think that it is jumping ahead;it is in fact beginning at the end. It is already senile before it has come to know the fearlessness, the or the will to succeedof youth."122° petulance, The ANC had, belatedly, set up the Macro-Economic ResearchGroup, (MERGE), in 1991 to develop a more relevant model for South Africa in line with the party's then thinking. By the time `Making Democracy Work' was delivered in 1993,much of the ANC's leadershiphad already been seduced by the blandishmentsof corporateneo-liberal South African business,and this died an unnatural death. In 1996, as if to confirm that the only growth in the South African economywas the increaseof acronyms,the government its "drawn by own macro-economic strategy, up a coterie of published "1221 This was called `Growth, Employment and economists. mainstream Redistribution', (GEAR). It was drawn up, however, without any in COSATU, the party, or with allies, such as outside of the consultation despite fudge It issue, to the was, government attempts a neo-liberal party. dissimilar to the previous apartheid regime's late eighties, early not strategy, The hinged investment, plan on major proposals. private and thus nineties Some in spending. of the core elements a reduction state concomitantly drastically to this therefore, to research were, cut state more relevant by to encourage wage restraint workers, to createa more `flexible' spending, job market, and to speedup privatisation. However, more importantly, the development implementation it RDP the the to and on of was saddle effect brake. The contextual a macro-economic government's 1994 RDP with dilution base document, the which. as a of epitomised this, was white paper, in disfigured,.. incoherent "... a critical commentary as, and summarised 1222 " Marais arguesthat in the government's "RDP's post fragmented. 1994 theory and practice was a perspectivethat predicated reconstruction free development liberalisation, markets and the cultivation of on and investor confidence..... (and that).... developmentand reconstruction would 1223 " in occur terms of those priorities. There were, then, two versions of equality developing in the new South Africa of the nineties - the one redistributive basedand centred on the RDP, have `white labelled it, based the commentators equality', as other other, and Whilst both liberal fail to take in the notion of equality. classical on properly the other core component of equality, recognition, the tensions 646 betweenthe two equality versions are reflected in the main equality legislation enactedby the South African government in the nineties. At the 1224 1996 South Africa. the this In many centreof stands new constitution of ways this is a remarkable,radical constitution. Its founding provisions include the recognition of eleven official languages,establishing as well an institution to develop thesetogether with the Khoi, San and sign languages. It also calls for the promotion and respectof other named community languages,such as Hindi, Arabic and Hebrew. The cornerstoneof the constitution, and democracy,is the inclusion of a Bill of Rights. This has direct applicability to some t 25+ different areas. I want to concentrateon two sections. Firstly its specific equality component defines equality in law, defined to the enjoyment of rights, and the rights not to be relation discriminated against on a number of grounds, including race. The only last is discrimination is in form the the to one where of measuresto caveat redresspast or presentunfair discriminatory practices. Secondly, whilst local government and its powers, duties, membership,terms etc are clearly defined in the constitution, as crucially is its autonomy vis-ä-vis the levels important the national of government, and element relating provincial to participation by citizens is disappointingly restricted. Thus, local involvement "encourage the should only of communities and government community organisationsin the matters of local government." Post 1996, and up to 1998, there were two further excursionsby the South African government into the arenaof anti-discriminatory legislation. Both intention to pursue affirmative action remediesin the private and reflected an intellectual The both, however, sectors. architectonics owe a great of public debt to the British consultantsbrought over through the auspicesof the British government to co-ordinate and help with their drafting. The first Employment Equity Act 1998.225 This the of act requires that was by actively promote equal opportunities eliminating unfair employers discrimination. Those employerswith over 50 employeesand a turnover that exceedsthe defined threshold, are subject to affirmative action. The latter is structured within a targeting framework as the basis for the development of measuresto ensurethat suitably qualified employeesfrom Black communities, where the act defines `Black' as those from the African, Coloured or Indian communities, have equal opportunities and are equitably levels. 1998 The White Paper all was a government at second represented 1226 in Service. Action Public That Affirmative the paper sets out the on defined in for in the service, action public almost solely affirmative need terms of representivity, as well as providing a detailed framework for developing and implementing affirmative action strategiesand plans. Two key aspectsare telling. Firstly the justification for affirmative action is cast in businessterms. Thus "the casefor affirmative action must be firmly department's business (which in the goals... core will require).. rooted sustainedeffective marketing and communication... (to enable).. staff to see 647 for tool achieving the organisation's core affirmative action as a positive businessgoals."1227 Secondly the intellectual content, languageand like bought from UK. the the a off shelf solution read remedial prescriptions In this casea solution which is framed in terms of the technicised `business in indication in Further, for the an of way which opportunities. equal case' in inequality being to to appeared proffered a neo-managerialistsolution implementation the of affirmative action was prescriptions, government framework, firstly `human a resources' and within that a situatedwithin `performancemanagementone. It has to be questioned,whether or no, in framing in USA, UK developed initiatives their the the and which equality had implementation tension to the of marginalisation contradictory ride and be become to to trying applied should so uncritically a mainstream, whilst for the there establishing equality policies as was opportunity situation where it be To that the the norm, and not extent, can arguedthat these exception. 'BBOS' The initiatives transformative. not and were additive, equality bureaucracies. did transformation and of employment not envisagea solution There was no linkage, for example,with the RDP. Equality, in this case, be individuals down the to to the grounds of on selected solely right of came further did In for this the not go any equality measures employment. merit than the CTCC equal opportunities and affirmative action policy of the early nineties. 12.24 CTCC -1996 to 1998 By 1998 the potential for reconstructing a more inclusive form of local but have in 1996, had been to all appeared evidenced governancewhich disappeared. Interviews with those I had tentatively identified as playing a in interpreting developing CTCC type and role within similar griot in drastically local to situation changed governance,revealed a alternatives 1998. There were three key, inter-linked dimensionsto what can be describedas a retrograde transformation of `transformation', all of them from imported being in other national and characterised, some way, as to the then current milieu of uncritically applied and contexts, sector private local governancein the Cape. Thesethree dimensions were the rise of neodemocratising decline to the complements alternatives or of managerialism, denial `race' democracy, the based of persisting and representative party through the adoption of diversity conceptualisations. The senior Black manager,mentioned earlier, who had been involved at the legitimacy, 1990 initiatives CTCC at creating the aimed a new post core of including being responsible for establishingthe CLU, describedthe 1998 benign Thatcherism, form being the in that of result, as a as council situation he analysedit, of the negotiations between "the oppressedelite and the elite key highlighted. A "1228. changes were of number of the oppressors. What had been the City Administrator post, equivalent to the Chief 648 Executive in the UK, had been changedby the new incumbent into a `City Manager' post. He was describedas white, and an `ANC man'. He was for drafting the and negotiating the local government also person responsible in The in the change emphasiswas exemplified constitution. new chapter by his insistenceon `outcomes', that the `talking was now over', and that `inputs' were therefore less important. This approachto `doing things', `getting things done' strikes a ten year echo with the `managementis neutral' in borough in leading UK. There, the target the the councillor of arguments again, that approachwas predicated on the contestableassumptionthat there were/was enoughpolicies/talking, and all that was required was action departmental A `doing'. tranche towards of senior new managers oriented had been recruited, all of them from outside of local government. These directors', `executive where the prefix was as and rebranded were retitled Again the to similar changes orientation. meant emphasise action/doing directors in Lambeth the when associatedwith early nineties were pursued the `old, bad, equality era' Lambeth were displaced and replacedwith `executive directors', on vastly increasedsalaries,but also with enhanced, Lambeth Many `manage/do'. these to of changes, powers neo-managerial including the new Chief executive who misrecognisedBlack people as `coloured', came from outside local government. In CTCC, at that time, in framed being form the generally terms of of neo-managerialismwas be from `centralised, that to would regulationist' approach one a moving 1229 One seesin this form of problem analysis and `interactive and flexible'. derived solution the direct influence of post-Fordism, which, as Bond argues, Sussex in Raphael Kaplinsky 1990 in Africa South of with and when arrived 1230 University came to co-direct COSATU's Industrial StrategyProject. Thereafter the South African version of post Fordism, in which apartheid in ANC Fordism', `racial to part came play a prominent was re-analysedas `global There thinking. emphasis on was an over post-apartheid fascination hallmarks the the of with concomitant and a competitiveness' facaded (my i. term) workplace e. product quality, era, post-Fordist democracy,such as `quality circles', and Japanesestyle production and inventory control techniques,such as `Just-in-Time'. In the target borough in the UK, at the time when the neo-managerialdiscoursewas gathering being in techniques these the of sorts were mid eighties, momentum introduced and pushedthrough the DLO, the leading councillor's power base. Within the South African context, and the specific one of CTCC at that time, an emancipative gloss was given to these sorts of managerial `transformational labelling the them the through skills', with as of changes `executive directors identified above, being categorisedas well, in differing 1231 This `transformational managers'. was very as managerial scenarios `liberation' Peters the term in to of the mis appropriation of mode much 1232 he describethe form of management was then extolling and advocating. As Alvesson arguesthis makes use of a mystification metaphor, in this case `liberation', and `creativity' to make promises that those ideas being pushed 649 can "`liberate' managersand employeesfrom the drudgery of traditional ideas in impose (yet)... these a new set of effect patternsof work... disciplines upon employeeswho are encouragedto equateprocessesof liberation and creativity with unequivocal dedication to corporate values and fellow induce their to they employees regard workers as objectives as in language Certainly CTCC `nu-speak' "1233 the new was and customers. displacement from to the statements, core values, mission of `users' evident, by `customers', both internal and external. This trend was given extra impetus by the employment of a consultant recruited direct from IBM to CTCC departmental the at that time. and managerialrestructuring oversee Her approach,as describedin her interview, was through a project `unbundle' the old set up and reconstitute the new to structure, management CTCC organisation via `clusters' of areasof responsibilities. This was not into bureaucracy hierarchical transformation something more of a a democratic, but a reconfiguration of departmentaland inter-departmental Underpinning into hierarchy. these changesas a new relationships power the overt expressionof the CTCC's policy planning and implementation 1234 One framework, was the adoption of the `businessplanning' model. business UK the the the where experiences parallels with can seeagain local is de most authorities. with rigueur planning model now Despite the statedintention to want to move away from centralisation to a `leader' flexible, the the cult of was structure, manager as creative more identified as emerging. The new City managerwas seento be over keen to favourably decision the the to of city status quoting making, centralise want in invested in is deal Zealand New of power cities where a great manager their hands. The Black managerconcerneddescribedthis as a variant of freedom' in `speculative the `super which the surveillant state'; one for local in his the the post apartheid planning role associatedwith His in to the was now severely curtailed. mid nineties early government be his to then unfortunately situation, realised one current of own assessment forced There he being later, the that are out of organisation. was was year in borough, UK, the target the and others, not so much with again parallels `Race Advisers' those to the with play a as who come of posts specific with in irritant such organisations. role catalytic, However, it is with the area of substantivedemocratic enhancement,as by CTCC for in the the government adopted metropolitan proposals outlined had These had that the retreat the occurred. significant most nineties, mid of the potential, I contend, for not only influencing the steering of local for, but Dryzek the argues need actually generally also, as government, deliberative local local the through participation of government steering in 1996, had by local forums, RDP 1998 The active very communities. been allowed to stagnate. The expressedattitude and opinion of the city it talking time to that about participation and to start stop was was manager 650 'doing'. 1235This was backed up by the argument that becausethe defining local had included the RDP and of government not constitutional spokeonly of `encouragingparticipation', a definition he had had a hand in, the RDP, or for that matter wider forms of political participation, could not be consideredas `core business'. Even where participation was raised formally through the policy process,this was effectively strangled in its implementation stagebecauseit had to be force fed through the neoin hand. For example the senior Black manager then managerialprocesses had developeda policy paper on public participation, structuring it very initiatives. had been in light RDP This type the of previous approved much by the council. Yet, in having to translatethe into the then current `actionese' of a businessplan, it had emerged,as he himself describedit, as a Thus: gobbledegook. of piece The Development Facilitation Unit (DFU) is meant to support the Community Development Cluster in achieving its Mission/Objectives in terms of the Organizing Principles and Core Values that inform the Cluster's purpose. The DFU constitutes the "glue" that holds the Cluster together. The Community Development Cluster (intra cluster) and Council (inter cluster) as a corporate entity requires a functional means/mechanismto ensure that its responsesto the various dimensions of city life maintain an internal coherence.The DFU as facilitating agent ought to perform such a role. This role has been defined by the workshops and discussions that produced the Interim Strategic Development Framework. It must be emphasizedthat the DFU's role as facilitator apropos the comments from the Institutional Transformation Managers on 1997-06-27 must be seen as being supportive of line functionaries and not as an encroachmenton their duties and obligations 1236 keepers "gate vis-a-vis communities". , and certainly not as This approachhad been reinforced by the new councillors, who the Black interviewed, Black thought not to employees and other mentioned, manager be of a `high calibre'. In their assessmentthe new councillors, apart from in democracy. interested be This to two, was not not appeared or one helped by the remuneration systemwhereby councillors were actually paid. They were, thus to all intents and purposes,employeesof the local state, in At 1998, had R10,000 time, that they mid a month. also some earning In the themselves early nineties critical car allowances. awarded South African equal opportunity policies mentioned nascent commentary on difficulties had that the political would emerge warned author earlier, between catalyststype posts and the political system,not then, but with the This through one person, vote a one system. councillors was election of identified, by Black A be that true. to was growing schism proving had been between through the party system,and those elected who manager, betweenthose who had been, and were then still, active in the civics and RDP. In many casesthe former were unknown to the latter. Generally, if identifies, key it Marais there was any siphoning off of civics personnel, as 651 in One the the towards public services. sector paid can seeagain the was in similar problem emerging a representativedemocratic set up whereby thoseBlack people selectedthrough the party system,and eventually elected, in best, UK, the can, at only make rhetorical claims as occurred, and occurs, to representthe Black communities. Consequentlytheir accountability to those communities is always mediated through the potential side tracking by being `suckered the system'. processesof By 1998 it was clear that the EEO and AA policy had been "ineffectually implemented."1237 The sporadicprogresswas due to a number of reasons. Firstly, as the critical commentarymentioned earlier had warned against, direct from Affirmative Action Posts, a copy establishingunquestioningly the UK experience,would lead to those posts being dumped with the This implementing the policy. certainly occurred responsibility of actually in CTCC where a combination of managersnot wanting to assume had being for for two the years, vacant equality and post responsibility in lack Secondly, IBM the the as consultant, to whom of progress. resulted the responsibility for that policy had beenpassed,had confessed,equalities had been `put on the backburner' becausethe priorities over the previous two including local been had the the of six previous authorities, absorption years 1238 The policy, and new post two `African' ones, into the CTCC structure. holder, were to be integrated into the new project managementsystems. But, there was another dimension to the policy, and to race generally, which both being itself. This that were subsumedunder the was presented `managementof diversity' category'; a category that was far from being in diversity' The `management defined. term of appeared properly `South the of on equality, under catch-all and acts government white papers .Africa is diverse it, being interviewees It the put as one of society'. was, a interrogating by Deputy President, Mbeki. In this the then promoted holder, Affirmative Action the the new post consultant and with concept different `appreciation the that this on of cultures' variation out pointing if is ideology, further like that the too all and, old apartheid much sounded diverse then there is no diversity, it was clear that, from their answers,this borrowed from being that uncritically other one was concept was another 1239 This was confirmed by the solution sought to a problem which contexts. had manifested itself in the council. Tension ridden differences between `Coloured' workers and `African' workers were beginning to emerge. In `valuing diversity' training to this courses on were potential problem, answer bought in from external consultants,who, as their course content revealed, had brought and bought in the training content from the USA. Their core legacy far from the racism, apartheid addressing and the recommendation, "participants had South Africa, identities that concluded of a enduring information lack "124° cultural about and one personal another. of general Yet, there were other solutions to this problem which were, at that time, being explored. In an earlier interview one of the Black employeeshad 652 voiced the opinion that racism was never openly discussed,and that the issue Another, `skirted who worked as a training officer in the around'. was humanresourcesdepartment,was of the opinion that the new regime, in issue had locally `fudged' the the council, and of race and nationally racism. In trying to addressthat, and using the communicative spaceshe had through the union and her own post, she was using the dimension of by Black to to racism attempting establish a women's group. gender address This was seenas the best meansof discursively addressingthe apartheid legacy socially constructeddifferences between `Coloured' and `African' bases from which to engagewith as providing a solidaristic women, as well the organisation. In sum, in talking to those responsible for the EEO and AA policy it was clear that `valuing diversity' provided a means,one fully forge to a common co-terminus with a neo-managerialistapproach, doing it identity for In logical CTCC so was a employees. organisational from `non-racial' the conceptualisationof a post-apartheid progression deny, because both by ANC the assumean absenceof, or society employed deleterious legacy its the of offspring of group racism, and underestimate identities heavily influenced by the history of South African racialisation. Yet the equality legislative and constitutional framework to South Africa, RDP, the such as provide a normative and associated programmes, framework against which the government can, and should be made for In relation to civil as rallying principles society. as well accountable, local governance in 1998, the government published its white paper on local 1241 The intent by described the the of white paper was government. Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa as, "local government in all regions of the country must have the administrative and financial justice its to constitutional obligation of social effectively meet capacity through the practice of good governance. "1242 It defined developmental local government in terms of its redistributive and capacity building role, dimensions. both latter to the socio-economic and community referred where More importantly, in relation to democratisation, it stresses "that councils by democracy and participation marginalised groups, promote must actively both it RDP back "1243 To the this up makes mention of especially women. between documents, if As tension the the these two GEAR. to play out and democratic power of local government is assigned almost totally to the form internal local democracy, the processes of whilst of representative `performance be through to management' and structured government are indicators'. is The key `performance developing then through question develop: in South Africa local towards governance will way which instrumentalised systemic steering, or communicative systemic steering, as framework. in the normative promised 653 12.25 Conclusion In assessingthe radical interpretation of the trajectory of race through South African history, especially over the last decade,it can be argued that the has Marxist orthodox position silenced race both through the social labour baseduniversalisation, and thus tactically as a responseto the oppressive racialisation of the South African state. There has been another silencing as latter inability to the to predict the changesthat analyses' well, which relates occurred, and seemingly `omerta' over subsequentdevelopments. One Black academichas chargedsome of the once leading Marxist academic critics of apartheid of becoming apostatepolicy `wonks' for the ANC's neoliberal embrace,either becauseof their work for the government, or because 1244 is, in his ANC inexcusable. their reticence over criticising the view, With that in mind, and my previous criticisms of the Marxist approach, in especially relation to its faulty theorisation, and inclusion of race, I want to argue that the empirical analysisprovided above supportsa Habermassian type theory as the better interpretive framework, both specifically vis-a-vis the UK and South Africa, and comparatively. This Habermassiantype theory is the variation I have tried to develop which is fully inclusive of race is in tied that that explicitly and centrally with a resolution of problem so discursive modernity still to run its full path. The three inter-linked part analysis of the UK experienceof race and local in for deI the eighties whereby argued a colonisation, governance framework, is similarly applicable to the and re-colonisation colonisation in in local Cape South Africa. This is a the governance scenario of race and `colourisation' of the extent to which `race' negatively or positively can steer the system. Under colonisation there is a direct, negative racialisation of de-colonisation, discursive a positive, steering mechanisms; under steering discursive influencing the the of system, under re-colonisation, part whilst or is silenced and there is a facadic positive influencing of the system. The differences between the two geographical scenarioslie in the temporal arc of the different phases. Thus up to the late eighties it can be arguedthat there was an extendedphaseof colonisation of Black people in South Africa. From the late eighties to roughly the mid nineties, there was a period of dein in colonisation which which previously oppositional civil society, and the in spheres were a position to previously samzidat and/or subalternpublic begin the continuous processof the discursive engagementwith and transformation of the local statethrough a discoursewhich had the potential for a discursive democratisation. Within the potential of this, I would argue, lay the potential discursive resolution of `race' in South Africa. The period is forming, refers to the mid nineties onwards of re-colonisation, which still implementation of neo-liberalism, and its technicised progeny, neoThis seesnot only the withdrawal of the state from key managerialism. its discursive control and abandonmentto the economic areasof potential 654 democratisation but to that of representative the narrowing of system, also democracy. Within the latter processparticipation, which still commands literature, is in government reducedto consultative mention official influence. Across the discursive gaps causedby this communicative closure is thrown the accountability bridge of neo-managerialistfinancial accountability discoursesand systems. Legitimation comesnot be based on a discursively grounded consensus,but on various instrumentalised including `diversity tactics, management'. strategiesand The ANC's embraceof neo-liberalism, and the Fukuyama model of modernity, has not been without the severestcriticism from within and its for legitimation Black i. Yet the people, claims amongst e. party. outside to be recognised,can still draw on the high credit levels accruedduring the it importance its legitimation seeking But to the attaches apartheidyears. from the South African corporate sector, the international financial institutions, Western governments,like the USA and UK, and its elite peer high levels in is the of clientalism, corruption, group, publicly exhibited 1245 bling' displays of wealth. hyper sensitivity to public criticism and `tiling, There is a question mark, then, about the extent to which the `enjoyment' of this particular configuration of statepower can over ride the calls for more if lack intervention in the the economic system, especially state control and in heed to these calls results a re-animation of those extra parliamentary of forces mobilised in the eighties againstthe apartheid state. The ANC is in danger of using up a large part of this credit becausethe legitimation tactics `non-racial', homogenising the whereby exemplified adopted strategy rest on in the appealsmade to the generic `oppressed',`people' and `community', has inscribed in it "the very categoriesthat it sought to transcend." This has not only been shown in the Cape,as Marais contends,becauseof the in `Africans, but between `Coloureds tensions and also supposedexplicit has ANC `African' the tended to treat them to the as where people relation in has been Cape, What the expressed with a an undifferentiated mass. large number of `Coloureds' supporting the Nationalist Party or Democratic Party, was simply the historical reality of differences which were present in the processof the social construction of racesand identities in the Cape. In terms, then, of the political profile, there would have been many `Coloureds' left ANC in tradition the and of positions, of non-collaboration also, who, have Black the above, who would mentioned manager senior such as Suppressing differences for left these party. voted a minority abstained,or through communicative closure, and increasing the facilitation of lifeworld lead Marais to society mobilisation, civil as and Bond more colonisation, can hope for, becausethe Black communities' and those who fought against fresh. On hand it the that other could also are still apartheid memories of lead to increasedetnik, modernity averring claims, as in the political Muslim in Inkatha, the those sectors of certain community or responsesof the Cape, or to the continuation of racism, or, paradoxically to claims of 655 facadic Thus, rallying point. within an article which contextually racism as a backgroundsthe silence over the killings in the early nineties of Black hostel dwellers in Natal by Inkatha impis as racist, Heywood makes the following observationsabout the ANC government: "When the ANC and its allies fought apartheid and turned it into a global it fought for life, highlight tried to every racism, every against struggle indignity. But before the current champions against racism, particularly .... those in our government and the plethora of human rights commissions jump up and agree: read on. Particularly tragic is the way in which the longer domain, `whites a only' which elite, no new political and economic does have the power to both prevent and repair, seemsto have internalised is it into that towards transmuted peoplecallousness poor a or racism little different in its consequences. By default it now mimics the actions of its predecessors. s1246 On the other hand, a Bishop, who had been active in the churchesantifor "being too ready the current government struggles, excoriates apartheid to pull out the race card when criticised, when making a messof things.... (and that).. .whilst it has been customaryto describethe `critical between the the of and church as one government relationship it be to theologically speakrather appropriate... more would solidarity', ... "1247 but the the poor. government, with of our critical solidarity, not with Finally Seepe,concludesa similar line of criticism of the ANC government by quoting from Cornel West: Moral and logical reasoning is required if we are to liberate ourselves from the dubious black leadership. Such an approach morally racial guilt of opposing will lead to `a framework that encouragesmoral assessmentof a variety of the black based black held by those on views people and selects perspectives dignity and decency that eschew putting any group of people or culture on a pedestal or in the gutter. Instead of a closing-ranks mentality, a prophetic framework encouragesa coalition strategy that solicits genuine solidarity with those deeply committed to anti-racist struggle'. (Cornel West on The Pitfalls of Racial Reasoning).1248 In sum then, in responseto Alexander's identification of a solution lying in the forging of a substantivecitizenship, as the West quote above also talks Habermas' Marais communicative refinement approvingly recommends of, on citizenship that: the nation of citizens does not derive its identity from some common ethnic ... from but the praxis of citizens who actively rather and cultural properties, 1249 exercise their civil rights. 656 Chapter 13 Conclusion Reflexively looping back to the "Introduction", this `conclusion' can be crystallized around the two key featuresof that initial exploratory section. The first relates to the key stone question about the basesfor complementarity and commonality betweenthe claims to differing forms of life that are racialised, and the secondflows from the answersto that, social which, following Habermas,should be "structurally related to possible in " There terms of this thesis, three parts to those are, emancipation. answers. Theseare a gutting and refurbishing of key parts of Habermas' theory from a perspectivewhich puts race centre stage,thereby critically inclusiveness his the of universality; an exploration of the examining institutional implications of the insights gained in which a substantively form local is inclusive of governance postulated as a crucial means racially to realise the communicative programming of the centre from the periphery; life, in `testing' these the claims of new validity empirical, real and, local by two casesstudies of race and governance,separated experiencesof distance,time and history. In a sensethen the more prosaic aspectsof `conclusions' write themselves, in this case. The theoretical insights gained from a `racialised' theorisation key Habermas, the theoretical to complements garnered social reality as of have institutional implications for local the governance correlates,and been in set out Chapter 9, as a prelude to the two casestudies. The already has diminished those the two studies not of concrete case exploration theoretical contentions. If anything they have reinforced and under girded them in outlining the real life playing out of counterfactualities, whether they be those of learning for social domination, or those of learning for emancipation,within the context of race equality and local governance. Moreover they have supported,and not detractedfrom my claim for a transcolonial modernity basedon my contention that the resolution of `race', as a trans-epochalunresolvedproblem, is the touchstoneto the proper completion of modernity. Further the conclusion to the South African casestudy argues that the colonising, de-colonising, and re-colonising paradigm developed from the racialisation of Habermas' work, can be applied as a comparator framework to local governancesituations of changesome six thousandmiles in different if time periods. There are, these were occurring apart, even however, two additional theoretical areaswhich had to be, respectively, developed in the course of examining the empirical evidence. and enhanced 657 The first relatesto the brief enhancingexcursuson `discourse' and `diskourse', a shorthandneologism I use to distinguish between enabling and constraining discourses. Within the contexts of Dryzek's notion of discursive difference democracybeing about the contestation of discourses imagining it in Bohman's that of a reflexive administration, was shown and both casestudy scenariosthesebattles took place. Thesewere around the local idea race equality and governancemeans,and about core of what whether or not this was ultimately emancipatively enhancing or dominatingly constraining. Further the dialectical relationship between `discourse' and `diskourse' is exemplified when the `discourse' of race equality in the diversity in i. becomes `diskourse' the the nineties, e. of eighties, essentialiseddifferences shorn of rights. This transmogrification, as opposedto transformation, occurs becausethe communicative spacesopened by pursuit of discourseof equality, which allowed those principally affected to participate substantively in the debate,are closed down. This was local in in UK to the the equality race and case relation certainly be South Africa, to there to a similar appears government, and, with regard have described I being As this all, enacted. a catch now scenario in both Thus discursive `MBA the convergence'. action as ossification of by some six thousandmiles, the reseparated geographically contexts, imagining, or refantasising of good local governance,where `good' is in in is limited `audit inclusive, to that the society' of some measure,racially by is democratic the transforming accountability substituted a which technocratic meansof neo-managerialistcontrolled financial accounting development dominance between distinction The the of this and systems. `orthodoxy' in local governanceand previous ones,as outlined in Chapter 11, is that this all embracing `way of doing things' is politically sanctioned but both driven, such changes, also as a means as a meansof advancing and in is There a real sense which the public sector, of silencing alternatives. develop knowledge it legitimate in to a of repository once an area which was in from distinct the sector, which, private and and practices which were terms of its value base,held out the hope of a more democratic by its is being that totalitarianally to private colonised citizens, accountability is displacement Africa South the In the of public sector ethos metal sector. louder because that radical alternatives to apartheid are more wrenchingly into limited horned a neo-liberal shearedoff as changeoptions are shoe As an example of this phenomenonof globalised reduction, the paradigm. local in both scenarios of governanceare now policy and planning processes limitingly framed within the national governments' sanctioned`business incompatibility between democracy It the and reinforces planning model'. by by be the absorptive steering of one resolved capitalism which can only the other. Moreover, in both the UK and South Africa there is an official diskourse `racial the to the subliminal which extent of of underestimation fear', where in each scenariothis was, in their own ways, a reaction to the fear of the processof emancipation from racialised communicative forces, 658 played a key motivating force in initiating and/or accelerating this conflationary, communicative spaceclosing process. Both converge into common strategiesof race managementwhich find their expressionin the 1250 `diversity'. neo-conservativenotion of The secondhas to do with the introduction and development of the term `griot' to describethe role of the equality workers in the sphereof local interpreters `griot' "who mediate the interface the are governance,where betweennot only colonial, but also reformist anti-colonial, discoursesand the people", and helps generate"generation of a common vocabulary of disputation and concertedaction: universal understandingsof contestable 1251. This is the antithesis of the elitist notion of leader,whether in claims" its national political context, or, as is now being assiduouslydeveloped in the `modernising' debateabout the meansof control in the public sector, in its is different `feminise' It to to the attempts context. also neo-managerialist the diskourse of managerial leadershipinto the acknowledgementand 1252 intuitive 'leading'. Both of more ways of examplesomit acceptance from their perspectivesthe cardinal emancipative issue of democratised in `griot' In UK the term the whilst was used casestudy, authorial power. in this to the was no way a reserved,exclusive equality workers, relation if Black, in There the who, not organisation, many were other workers role. by dint of formal job description, but by meansof being able to excavate in to similar roles pursuit of race communicative space,managed play in bears Beck's This that the type contention on of activity equality. individualised society eachperson has to be responsible for his or her actions disadvantage, to and that the equalities and so as avoid consciously, freedomswhich potentially inhere in this individualisation can be realised if there is an orientation towards a solidarity, especially that which emerges 1253 In Cape Town City council it can be seen from sub- and counter-politics. that one of the key Black managers,whose experiencesthroughout the in device, found himself tracking caught up nineties was used as a change being `griot'. We a can seethe of similar circumstances comparatively flickering developmentof this in the activities of individuals, all white, in their Town Planning department,who in the eighties' apartheidyears, in inhering the the consultative requirementsof potential normative pursued inclusive form of local the to their work, put on agendaa more racially by in Black It the training the attempts echoes, as well, governance. discursive Black to as group, a communicative women's manager establish a legacy the of apartheid's racialised continuing meansof overcoming But theseare not the preservedactivities of the conventionalisation. have I Therefore, argued. perhaps,more subject, as collective essentialised importantly, bearing in mind the need for an inclusive modernity's journey, into focus it brings factual `modernising' the trip, to counter as opposed a discursively democratised local in the those a of administration role of form `reflexive' local The tours this of con of governanceand government. 659 administration, one that is racially inclusive, is briefly sketched out in Chapter 7. This standsin contrast to the `modernised' role being mapped out for the public sector employeewhich appearsto be curtailed to that of being the over audited cipher, as part of the legitimation fodder for national government. Within this `equality' becomes`diversity', becomessimply `good for business'. The question then is whether or not these escalating social reality correlates learning for dominance technical prove Habermas' conservative stance of when it comesto the issue of transforming democratically the administration, is if this conservatism one of pragmatism and not principle. After all even in both situations, but particularly in the UK, the democratic pursuit of race dislodged from institution the and systemic steering equality was strengthened. The answerto this must be "no". If one examinesthe paltry disproportionate impact thesehad to the committed race equality, resources on the institution, and the way in which it took the full weight of the establishmentto re-assertthe statusquo, then within this de- and rebe colonising processcan seenemancipative counter factualities. These can be realised by a regenerationand realignment of solidaristic resources,and if inclusive is be `must' the aim, modernity realised. This stressed a racially developed `colonial' I the gains greater saliency when paradigm obligation in the course of this work in the nineties, is `measured'against the playing is My before it that argument recent global events. of a globalisation, out became `fashionable', has long beenpart of Black people's experiences becauseof the time, place and spacevectoring forces of racism. This has found its in imperialism, concrete expression colonialism, globalisation forced migrations, and in the learning techniquesand technologies sustaining those practices. The `new' globalisation, new only in the sensethat it is foremost in it is Western the consciousness, consciously whilst now triumphantly celebrated,or simply pragmatically acknowledged as `fact', but be `new', that to a re-inscription of old globalisations, all of not appears them structured in some way through race. Both pre- and post the 11`" September,2001, commentatorson the international politics of the new 1254 have 'colonial' Labour government pejoratively to describe used the term the pursuit of a communitarian basedvision of a new world order in which the `moral' is not discursively derived, but imposed- particularly on third `spade, foreign Calling `spade' a senior a a policy adviser world countries. to the new Labour government has come out openly in advocating a new is In "what the to this stability. answer world as ensure needed colonialism is a new form of imperialism, one compatible with human rights and is because "1255 Of this not new, course values. such rights in cosmopolitan the West have always gone hand in hand with colonial domination. What is being consciously occluded in the re-iteration of a lop sided modernity is the fact that "occidental rationalism also produced the cognitive positions that Eurocentrism. towards "1256 take to attitude a self-critical allows us 660 Internally this modernising modernity is replicated in the government's interventions on questionsof citizenship, refugees and criminality moralistic deliberative without recourseto those so affected. This, as I argue, is part of the processof recolonisation. Thus it is that "the geographical and lines of oppressionand exploitation that were establishedin the era of racial colonialism and imperialism have in many respectsnot declined but increasedexponentially." 1257 Given that I have argued that this domination debt to the technical learning derived of owes a reinscription from the era of colonialism, it is pertinent to ask, and in so doing also learning level Black to to the extent manage of local contend, what people at in helps inform UK, the new international colonial the governance level description, At I agreethen with the of general alignments. Bhattacharyyaet al's summation of the current state of play vis-a-vis global racism. "Globalisation has reconfigured social relations and there have been some losers as a result, but whiteness in its new global guise remains powerfully intact. Some of the old codes associated with privilege may have been language dress) but (e. around and g. many of the mechanisms of questioned, white privilege.. remain. '1258 The facadeof `equality' to this `mechanismof white privilege', often legitimating foil `diversity', to accusationsof as a counter expressedas is racism or colonialism, maintained through the control and closure of Hardt Negri spaces and resources. and voice a similar communicative imperial by "the lives they that write machine producing a when conclusion forward to complexities, put of equlibria and/or reducing pretending context intensifying the toward this citizenship and end a project of universal its intervention over every element of the communicative effectivenessof local "1259 (My In to relation, more emphasis) pertinently relationship.. by body UK the to the census of councillors successor a recent governance, Local Government ManagementBoard, found that modern councils were "old, white, male, and irrelevant". Its findings showed that the proportion fallen, had Black those caring responsibilities councillors and with whilst of the proportion of white male councillors had increasedto 71%. Further the Local Government Association had warned that "even those councils who have female trouble to councillors minority and ethnic managed attract keeping them... (because)... the aggressivenature of politics and the increased have that under the new political racism and sexism perception in All "1260 this the of within a context which the culprits. structureswere but in in day South Africa UK, the the applicably also of where government in being `public the relations' new, my opinion pursued, similar changesare de-democratised,local governmentpolitical structures of streamlined improving local democracy, mayors as and elected executive committees diversity. promoting citizenship, and valuing 661 However, the question of democratisationand what it meansboth globally and locally, or locally and globally, should be an inherent and explicit part of any responseto the recursive expressionof the old anthropohagii. Unacceptableas thesenew forms of old dominating practices are, it is simply not enough to counter accusewith chargesof racism and colonialism, dragging in with thesethe reprise of the victimed, collective subject. In other words, it is not just a `white problem'. One cannot strive against by image upholding a mirror conventionalised subject. conventionalisation Thus, for example, whilst the criticism of Zimbabwe by the West contains leave it is to those opposing the not sufficient colonialism, old vestiges of 1261 level issues There interventions at that are substantive of critique. of democratisationwhich have to be addressedwithin that particular context of despotismin which all of those affected have to participate. Likewise in the UK, colonially crassas the interventions are by the government into the issues there religion, are, as well, substantive arenaof citizenship, race and have Black identity democratisation, communities and participation which of to address. These, for example, find expressionnow in the claims and counter claims around religion and criminality affecting two particular 1262 What these speakto, both locally and globally, is a `communities'. in processof post conventionalisation which the answer to the question of being fought is incorporative, dominatingly it be out. still whether or not will In both casestudies, in the UK and South Africa, others have referenced their acknowledgementof the problem via a recourseto Habermas, indicative of the need for a recourseto universality, whether on the grounds face in the of the reality of global or pragmatism of principle, interconnectedness.Marais' posing of the problem of the processof defining South African citizenship through Habermasconcluded the chapter future UK In Africa. the South the of a recent extendedexamination of on but issue to the of politics and representation, with regard race concluded, it looked I that there to the other areas at, argue with regard would equally local "district the governments a commissioner" part of national and was on is in "the Black there the towards of which approach communities mentality favours who men rather than women, elders rather than the colonial officer 90263 It development.. than tradition offered, as a solution, rather young and democracy follows: Habermassian of as referenced enriching a "Genuine deliberation involves acknowledging the realities of such mistrust is just it. Democracy than to taking system more steps reduce conscious and for organising the election of governments. It is also a theory that all citizens are of intrinsically equal worth and that all should be able to 264 "' decisions in that affect them. participate the making of Edifying, as that is, a racially inclusive, non incorporative form of post keep-in-the-forefront linked trans-colonial to a conventionalisation, from I theorisation as argue my and research,a more requires, modernity, for discursive dethe the of conditions proper and reconstruction radical 662 inclusion of the other. This will need to be built upon a critical research programme,one, as the term `critical' implies, and as this researchattempts to do, builds in the political practical intent, but also qualifies it through empirical fallibilism. In particular the following areascan be highlighted: f The contingent collective subject, for which I would still argue the relevance of the term `Black', as a basis for identifying done `wrongs to' and as a discursive racialised collective unjustly resourcein the public sphere. f Linked to this the active pursuit of race and gender inclusive procedures,practices and structures in the sphereof governanceand the public sector which reinforce the aim of a discursive democratisation, not managerialisation, in the administration, between in the the two. relationship structures, and political f The development, therefore, of subaltern public spheres `joining up' sectors of civil society, academia and activists to explore democratic alternatives to the technicised, auditing accountability of forward. being the only way presentedas governance f In a racialised world order, examining the conditions for developing counter discursive solidaristic resources as part of the for inclusive, democratised substantive global struggle an governance. These are modestproposalstowards practically realising a deracialisedtransin is fleeting the captured radicalnessof which colonial modernity Habermas' reflections, and to whom the last word is given. "My reflections point towards the thesis that the unity of reason only remains perceptible in the plurality of its voices - as the possibility in principle of how from language to that, another passage one no matter passing -a occasional, is still comprehensible. This possibility of mutual understanding, is is and realised only transitorily, now guaranteedonly procedurally, which forms the background for the existing diversity of those who encounter one "1265 fail to they each other. understand another - even when 663 Appendix 1 Responseby Race Equality Advisers to First Attempts by Members to Review Equality Structures RACISM, THE REVIEW AND RACE EQUALITY IN THE TARGET BOROUGH, STRUCTURES 1. Introduction The seemingly innocuously entitled "Review of Race Equality Advisory Posts" belies the substantial issue of racism and how the target borough, it. in Indeed the tackling to are committed majority group, and particular the review has been constructed on a falsely grounded "objectivity" has been hallmark: institutional the of white responses to which perceived so-called "race problems" Such a review therefore goes beyond instead but, poses serious questions a simple administrative exercise, intentions this council's on race equality. about This is therefore written as an open responseto this initiative-- open in the senseof not adhering to the normal local authority protocol practice that operates between officers and members; a protocol which in the been has define debate to equality often used of race out of context is, It therefore, about majority group racism and polices. questions germaneto pose a number of questions about the origins of this exercise. Thus . f Why only two and a half years after the establishmentof the central race is and women's equality units such a review necessary.(Especially given the fact that The target borough was one of the later boroughs to establish such units) f Why is this taking place at the same time that rumours are circulating based Equal the embracing all equality of an establishment about Opportunity Unit. f Why was this decision taken without reference to the Race Equality Unit, Race Equality Advisers, or, more importantly, Race Relations Committee. f Why has responsibility for the review been placed in the hands of handle to this? not qualified managementwho are 664 f Why have the arrangementsfor the review been framed in such a way that minimises the input of the Race Equality Advisers'? f Why on such a crucial issue of race equality are all and sundry, i. e. being to comment, consulted qualified not people The answersin general point to this exercise not being divorced from the wider socio-political context of the British Labour Party political local On the that to stance. group's and within majority responses racism the other- hand the answersin particular point to this being a calculated in institutional racism. exercise 2. The wider context of the Labour Party and racism The Labour Party's responseto racism has been late, and in most cases because is despite, in formulated. This being little, too of or more aptly, Britain's colonial and imperial past. Previous Labour governments' legacy, have been the positive one abysmal with records on race equality limited as it is, being the 1976 Race Relation's Act. The parametersof the debatecan be characterisedby a three point matrix: down the numbers -keep best uniqueness cultural or at appreciate -assimilate., inequalities by caused structural problems possible social -assuage through "race relations" exercisese.g. Urban Aid These have been and still are the parametersof "acceptableracism" or as has been statedeven at the target borough level, "at least the Labour party is less racist than others". Gradations of racism as an option has become it is late i. But Labour then the only of e. the mid process. political part of both "racism" that conceptually and as a political seventies onwards ideology in practice has forced its way into the considerations of the Labour party. Forced insofar as the debate has been set by the struggles local level (No Black the the at community of Saul-on-the-road-to-Damascus-conversionon was this! ) Having been forced out of the national political scenepost 1979 it is only at the local Labour Party has been in inner level that the areas urban city and political both Black: bosses The workers of against struggles politically active. incursion Black the trade the the unions, of of racist responses and importantly, in Party, into Labour the the the more and, uprisings activists 665 Black: community have tattooed the problem of racism on to Labour's political agenda. Whilst it t is s true that post 1979 has seenthe debateabout socialism and into in the open the Labour party and that this socialist practice emerge has been reflected in particular at the local authority level, it is the described has milieu above which seen race equality particular political being defined over the past six years or so as a political priority in many inner city local authorities. In so doing the experiences of Black people have been brought into the equation; experienceswhich are forged daily in the fight against racism. There is a twofold but interconnected,level to this - that of Third world struggles and the way in which Black peoples struggles in the Metropolitan countries have used this as their framework: As such there is a history of radical politics which differs to that of white into bringing By this the labour movement Black working class politics. its helped have re-radicalise vision of socialism to meet their people needs. The responseof the Labour Party on the other hand has been to re-define the problem, to accommodateit within its traditional parametersof race. In essenceto attempt to ligature the defining of the problem by Black people and by so doing to try to sanitize the necessarysolution The latest variant hovers between white academicderived ethnicity not .to mention that amorphous stepchild "the ethnic minority" - and in horizontal inequality a spectrum of equal value swamping race inequalities. Common interests are then prescribed for all through the "discrimination". Firstly, of ethnicity sophistry and political. reductionist framework Black the this a means promotes of articulating within does in issue the not address a way which of a structural presence inequality which is systematically maintained. Secondly a broad equality approachprovides a neat and superficial attractive meansto reconcile the demandsof Black: people with traditional, often reactionary interests of the white working class whilst at the same time allowing other interest (but discrimination not exploitation) the means might suffer who groups, to ride the coat tails of Black peoples fight for equality. Thirdly "discrimination" allows the exploitation and oppression of Black people What is to be reduced simply to one of perceived difference. is discrimination in deliberately is that case, some racial misunderstood, but one of the effects of an exploitative racial capitalism; that Black history have dynamic its this a and of against struggles own; people's that the strategies derived from this differ to those arising out of, for lesbians, disabled, the or gay men women, and white precisely example, becausethe reasonsfor racial discrimination differ substantively. Finally 666 in no way can this forced collectivisation of discriminations be justified banner "socialism". the of under Catchwords as a formulaic response to substantive political issues is a left. failing British lazy full Thus the of white whilst a common and blown discourse on socialism is not appropriate for this issue, if, on the be highlighted, hand, to of socialist political practice are elements other for ill banner justification this thought then the out move, cannot be as a for that matter, wrong ones that are the wrong ones, or unfurled on If as well. we are to spotlight that which would summarise misconceived it is is then that about the oppressed and exploited which socialism, having control over society in a democratic way that satisfies their individual group's collective needsfor equality. If therefore such socialist it be denies Black struggles and aspirations, will no effectively practice more than another version of a Militant Tendency type prolet-Aryan is designer In the socialism what we are seeing an era of solution. being class struggle repackaged to male working conventional white bring into the fold on a falsely constructed consensual basis not only Black people and white women, but post-modem liberal "Yuppies", and discrimination but degrees of not exploitation. groups who suffer varying However such an assortment can only voice common interests on the basis of political alliances which recognisesthe mutual right to differing from derive differing because needs particular which of strategies basis from is far This the of cry collectivisation on a struggles. discrimination. Otherwise the idea of such a misconceived all welcoming Black for is managing manipulating and a strategy equalities approach international in Internationale for the that the ensuring people; and Eurocentric. skewedly remains 3. Local context It is pertinent therefore to look at the dynamics of race equality structures borough in level local the target the within particular and authority at this.. The experiencesof race equality advisers, and especially the Black key. These be be can charitably race advisers and workers, are inability by on the part of the majority group and an characterised broad its to terms to commitment to race equality with organisation come is far As implications Black detailed this. the of out possible arising and in define have terms the to solution of an anti-racist sought race workers is derived from the political to which and equality race approach Black people to racism. of experiences The response from the majority group and the organisation has been to into this to acceptable and unacceptable racism and redefine attempt conversely acceptable and unacceptable strategies; or more pointedly 667 "good" and "bad niggers". (For Black people however racism like death is indivisible) Key to this response have been the attempts to manage behavioural through practices bordering on, and, in some race workers into, harassment. Whilst over crossing race workers have on some cases the agenda freedom from oppression, the organisational responseseems to be acceptably managing oppression. The talk therefore of a broad basedequality unit and committee must bows seen as the latest move to by blunting its political edge.. Such a thrust the of race equality control be backward, but institutionally only not politically also would move inequality become inequality in Race therefore would not only one racist. a pot-pourri of other "equal value" inequalities, but also, as previous deprincipled has and depoliticised negotiating shown, a experience element.. "O.K. I'll trade you good industrial relations for an equalities Not from this will race equality". only cut off race equality package sans Black people's political experiences,it will remove the moral precept of "non-negotiable" which the minimum parameters of social justice demands. On the other hand this could simply be a pre-emptory and in the to the motion the on part of majority group set move cynical back: level. disguised to the this of resourcesto cut on as review, process, losing in Labour Party the the the event of race and women's equality it far fetched is This sounds as not as conspiratorially general election. has document Camden to that effect. that prepared already given With the run-up to the national election this tendency within the Labour Party will be exacerbated.Oft quoted Kinnock's new realism meansjust that; a reality void of conflict. Hatches will be battened down. Readily identified excrescences(no McGoldrick's here) lopped off and individual is if launched Black And the or earmarked. vote careers parliamentary delivered, it will have worked. But it will work: only if the mistaken and is little Black that people are children waiting to racist assumption made be led. An equality unit will be seentherefore for what it is -a cynical and racist is that to manipulate and manage race equality within a way attempt in The to way which the group and the white society. acceptable it be There has this. simply confirms must a gone about organisation the ability of white managersto carry over mark placed question serious furthers in that the substantively addresses or a way out such a review legitimacy the therefore over of such a review. causeof anti-racism; and In fact it has to be seenfor what it is - an institutionally racist responseto the political struggles of Black people. 4. Race Equality Structures in the target borough (a) Background 668 In the target borough Race Equality Advisers have not been "welcomed" into the organisation. Any influence and structural location of influence insofar is it decision making to as able significance, significant in the organisation has had to be bitterly fought for. Prior to the establishmentof the Race Equality Unit and additional race worker posts, and apart from the two previous lone Race Adviser posts in Housing and Social Services, the maximum acceptance afforded the issue of race equality was bounded by the Labour Group and senior management's tolerance of it, provided of course it did not threaten their workings. Such a framework therefore generatedexpectations of not only a race equality strategy subordinateto expediency,but also of race equality workers who would subordinate their experiences of, and expertise on, racism to the pragmatic considerations of members and management. The fact that Race Equality Advisers and workers have not been preparedto mortgage their principles for nothing more than an easy life and regular "pay has in to situation given rise a which advisers are subject at cheques" times to treatment from both members and management which is institutionalised racial harassment.If one posits as a working definition institutional racism the structures,, policies, practices and procedures of harass discriminate exploit, against organisation which oppress, and of an Black people, whether intentionally or not, then the behaviour of certain Labour members towards race equality issues -issues which manifesto backed - shows that the fight against institutional, racism has to be taken into the Labour group itself. This behaviour has been characterisedby a deliberately to thwart the of power which attempts cynical exercise development and pace of race equality in the council. Examples of this have been: three the years past over f deliberately under-resourcing race equality structures in terms of staff and budgets. f from Race implementing Relations Committee advice policy stalling on f deliberately manipulating council structures sand procedures, such as decisions to secure which prevent the open council committee meetings discussion of race equality issues. The effects of such actions against Black workers, who are Race Advisers too, actions which other senior white management are not harassment to, and oppression. constitute clear racial subject The Labour group seems unable to realise that it cannot cut itself off from the local authority as an institution (if we are addressingthe issue of 669 institutional racism) on the assumption that it is disinfected by its itself is integral because intent, the an group part of that socialist institution. It is not surprising therefore that the approach from some members, in Direct Labour in Personnel, Leadership, the those and particular has been by its deliberate lack characterised management committeesand despite Thus imagination. the the perceived pronouncement about of been have to to mangers quite content allow members nirvana, socialist in divine " to their the manage" and so right shibboleth of operate under doing have displayed their own preoccupation with short term issues detailed the than goal of new managementstructures and pursuing rather demand. the equality priorities practices which (b) New Management The concept of "new management"has arisen over the past 5 to 10 years higher by both the educational. establishments relevant realisation out of local forward thinking government practitioners that the nature, role and 10 have local. functions the years plus past overgovernment of and Whilst far the change. a reaching undergoing undergone and are still from interplay derived for the the of national and change are reasons local statesand the economic system, what is important for the purposes form demand is that the a view this such changes awareness paper, of is The local to and content scope government: management. sand content for it. Suffice being books therefore written about can and are such that the purposes of this report to point out that the role, structure and functioning of Race Equality Advisers falls within this paradigm. "New based is local the to traditional on government management"as opposed following the to realities: need cope with f greater degreeof uncertainty f financial constraints due to :Little or zero growth growing state centralisation f increasing unemployment and poverty f from Black the oppressed groups e. g. system political greater pressureon community f local the therefore government context of greater politicisation 670 There is, in summary, a new polity in which choices cannot be solved by the easy option of growth,, but instead, solutions have to be proffered on the basis of political decisions about the reallocation of existing is Nowhere this more pertinent than to the issue of race resources. local Such the that out of a management arises realisation equality. based is NOT sector and market organisation, and government a public therefore managementhas to expressthe values of a local government in be These changes cannot confined to past environment. a changing limits and culture. organisational Traditional managementis incapable of doing this becauseit is based on the passive politics of consensus grounded as they are in structures false hierarchical through to control a universalism of geared "professional expertise and knowledge". The key operational principles hierarchical bureaucracy through that and control of organisational are therefore fitting problems to a functional framework of thinking. Such an deal flexibility learning to the with a and necessary organisation prevents for local The in there government. certainties are no clear situation which in is is based terms that the of set agenda on ensuring management new the following objectives: f to breachpowerful traditional organisational walls f to bypasshierarchies which will or cannot learn f to open up therefore countervailing channelsof communication f to treat politics as the policy directive to recognisetherefore the politicisation of the structure f f have be to to tasks that rise new which give new priorities above all tackled through new organisational forms.. It is true that the organisation has recognised that there is a problem is be has to that necessary yet what achieved. about management; and However this necessity has not been defined in a way which seeks a long between the term objective of and organisational change continuity local socialism; but rather has been framed in a reactive way which seeks in the to term problem of electoral popularity solution a a quick short is It led not surprising therefore that criticisms. period of government the reaction to the recent Audit Commission report on local authorities has been such that it accommodated rather than confronted Tory ideology. If the prescription for management is therefore being sought 671 through an American based study of dubious intellectual pedigree. "In Search of Excellence" is an American book which arose out of a survey of the most successful firms in America; and what exactly contributed to their success. (These included MacDonalds and Disneyworld! ) The fact. that solutions are being sought through Reaganite management is lamentable. The fact that the conclusion of the book-which incidentally is its lack by complete of reference to equality, equalcharacterised is Black that the most successful people and womenopportunities, companies are those whose management practices come, closest to the Japanese, should be worrying. (Unless "working for the community" now imposed through such a common goal consensus, an means obtaining ) Marks Spencers MacDonalds mentality and all. and and neo-fascist designed be but their this is at a cleverly marketing good of wares, might in industrial the which unions are non existent relationship cost of an at in which organisational norms are generated and maintained through and industrial Take Leader to us your paternalism. post authoritarian an is dangerous This altogether. assumes a new meaning shortcut. a action The target borough is not only a public sector authority it also supposed , to be a socialist led one. Solutions to problems, even management ones , have to be defined in those terms. It is cheap sophistry to try to dismiss this as impracticable on they basis of a comic book, anarcho-syndicalist '266 style. It is within the context of new management that the Race Equality Unit has sought to establish and redirect the race equality structures in the body In to the not as some alien entity on other words grafted council. local government, but as the precursor to the new organisational forms and managerial content necessary to meet the council's priority of race have The racist actions and which greeted these marginalising equality. for the superficiality of only volumes speak not at restructuring, attempts but to commitment race equality, also about members' and management's the crude racist assumptions made about the reasons for advisers pushing have been based These assumptions on not wanting such restructuring. to engage with the issue in a substantive political way, but instead have individual issue traits to the that of personality of advisers -a reduced " the uppity-nigger - with-the-chip-on - the shoulder" on variation is is because Perhaps there the subliminal premise that that syndrome. Black people are incapable of rationalising their demands in the fight in a way which not only addresses the political agenda of against racism local in but Britain the of context government specific also socialism, today. (c:) Basis to race structures 672 The key features to the race equality structures can be summarised as follow: f All race equality workers to have a crucial catalytic role for race equality change f Race advisersto have direct accessto members f Race workers(other than Advisers) to have a direct managerial link: to the highest point of managementand direct accessto DMTs f Race equality workers to determinetheir work priorities f The Race Unit to have a co-ordinating link: with race workers Thesehave been done with the following objectives in mind: f Race Advisers achieving a critical/independent role to management f Race advisersbeing able to bypassblockages f Race workers being able together to articulate a political strategy to race is based the in the of the aspirations on political which council equality Black community f functioning the be To organisation's able to scrutinise every aspectof f To be able to advise accordingly To ensurethe organisation delivers f f To secure therefore the political priority of race through the necessary structural, procedural and policy changes f To bring into the decision making process therefore a politically Black. presence articulated In the absenceof any precedencesuch structures have given rise to post holders needing a range, and level of skills and to carrying out a range of The in posts. actual problem of the other tasks which are unmatched any development of race equality structures has been recognised by those in has been done Work by themselves. DAMN i. field the workers race the e. Race Equality Advisers across the count y (and in which The target borough was formally represented)together with the Local Government Training Board on this issue. Quote " the role will need to be developed 673 by the post holder according to her or his experience and the issues and , in is be " This to expected a changing environment in context analysed. developmental. is by It their nature : are a pity therefore, which such posts that some memberswish to curtail deliberately that development because interests do term to the of short political which are with the expediency of largely white electorate and trade union set up. advantageof placating a The decisions that have been prematurely and racistly put about race in have been done a way which will elicit a response structures equality likely to regressthe advancesso far made. It is likely that the council will low it level that and so structures a of resources race equality end up with is bound to fail and achieve nothing more than a flag wave in the gestural be This Labour the will group. a new neo-colonial set up of politics designedto manageand assuagethe demandsof Black people. The irony is left trumpet the that those the who wing causeof the group situation of issue, done have., this the the so conscience socialist on of guardians in a way which places them in an unholy alliance with the real-politik both for broad based Both to approach; call equalities moderateactivists. have devised a strategy which will not empower Black; people, but managethem. 5. The Way Forward (SeeAppendix for further details) The structure and terms of reference of the. review effectively prevent an best honest the of means to strengthen the race assessment open and local If in the the authority council. race equality at structures equality level is about redirecting resources to the Black community then the have be done initiated to to the on secure above organisational changes is basis thought the out anti-racist strate and not, as the of a clearly hoc basis the ad adaptive responseto national an of either case now, on basis localised initiatives to securing a coalitions of or as government ARE THESE BLACK PEOPLES LIVES in Labour the group. power THE ORGANISATION IS PLAYING WITH. For the purpose therefore of strengthening the race equality structures in the council immediate action should be (indeed as advised it should have been taken a long time ago) taken in the following areas: f f Making Race Relations Committee a full subcommittee of Policy and Resourceswith the equivalent powers of Personnel Subcommittee Increasing the executive powers of Race Relations Committee by initiate budget to action sufficient a -allocating its terms of reference to include powers to demand reports -expanding from departmentsand to summon Chief Officers to account 674 f Strengtheningand increasing the level of Race Advisers in the council; as advised f Strengtheningand increasing the level of Race workers in the council as advised. f Allocating initiatory budgets for all race workers f Member led backing for race initiatives and staff which create a framework for trip non harassmentof such workers.. f Reaffirmation of race and women's equality as THE equality priorities It is within this framework that a review should be mounted; with consultation targeted on existing race workers, Black employees and the Black community. RACE EQUALITY WAS PUT ON THE AGENDA OF THE COUNCIL BY BLACK PEOPLES' STRUGGLES: IT ISN'T THE LABOUR GROUP'S OR MANAGEMENTS RIGHT TO TAKE IT OFF. (This report has the support and help of other- Race Advisers in the council. 3rd February, 1987. 675 Appendix 2 Key Memoranda from Equality Advisers to Labour Members on Equal Opportunities Working Party 1. "We have made it clear to members in the past that we consider it essential to establish a broad based equal forum. The experience of other Councils, opportunities notably the G.L. C. has been that such a group is vital to the developmentof equal opportunities. We have proposed that such a body should consist of representativesfrom the Trade Unions, equality workers and representativesfrom the departmental black staff forums and women's groups. We therefore wish to re-state our advice that such a broad based group, which should be a non-negotiating body, is essential if the Council's commitment to equality is to be effectively put into practice. Such a body is essential to develop a co-ordinated approach to equal opportunities. The constitution of the present working party effectively silences the equality workers. We are not prepared to have body service a at which we no representation and therefore no right to speak. We have not even been formally notified of the working party's existence, its We terms of reference or matters discussed so far. limited that the composition of the equal consider opportunities working party, can only serve to confuse the development of equality policies and practices. It is not clear to us what the status of the new group is and how it relates to the established committee structure or existing trade union negotiating machinery." 2. "There are however a number of crucial points arising out of the meeting of the E.O.W.P. on the 4th March, which need to be considered within the context of this council's own political commitment to race equality. 1) Questionnaire 1 do not agreethat the question on race should be shifted to the penultimate slot. The point isn't simply to elicit the information; of equal importance is the way in which it is done. As pointed out in our report on monitoring the Council's the should reflect priorities i. e. race and questionnaire help if doesn't key members publicly It therefore gender. confirm to certain unions apparatchiks their prejudices that in 676 their minds race, and for that matter race equality, is a controversial question. I must advise therefore that the position in the must of question remain as set out the draft questionnaire. In tackling racism the council cannot afford to operate on the basis of hidden agenda for to do so would be compound the institutional Strategically therefore the of racism. politics continual holding up of a certain Conservative borough's E.O. by as good practice some members is not conducive to practices arriving at that which would be regarded as appropriate for The target borough The equal opportunity strategiesof that borough reflect very much the political context in which those strategies be developed. As have to a Labour authority, and therefore now in terms of Socialist political practice, the presumably in Labour this area are of more authorities of other experiences if it is felt necessary to hold up good models of relevance; Equal Opportunities Policies and Practices. 2) Priorities: In ensuring that the Equal Opportunities Working Party works properly as originally advised, members will need to remember that they ultimately are responsible for the implementation Council's the of race equality successful strategy. Within a forum such as the E.O.W. P. members will in determining leading to the pace and outcome a play role need business depend This the upon, of such meetings. will of however, the following: members having a clear idea about the priorities in terms of race equality and women's equality. f members having a clear idea about the strategies being developedto achieve these. f members having a clear commitment to a timetable dates for therein target and achieving these objectives. f This would be a far better framework within which to assess from hoc that to came unions at such proposal and respond ad R. E. U. The the and advisers are already race equality meetings. back framework, bone is the of within such a which working the report on the CRE Code of Practice. It does help prevent a keenjerk responseto union requestsfor reports etc. Where such be therefore these the clear should are necessary, reports Department. Where Personnel the such reports of responsibility have or demand a clear race equality dimension, the race have in strategic advisers will a role advising the equality 677 Personnel Department on achieving that: but not in actually doing all of it, lock stock and barrel." 678 Appendix 3 Responsefrom Target Borough's NALGO Black Workers Group to Council's `Excellence' Initiative RUMOURS OF EXCELLENCE Local authorities are under attack in a way which threatens to level local the this choice which government at politics of eliminate is, or at least should be, all about. Self proclaimed socialist councils from twofold tension: that therefore generated under a operate from be that the generated should and what pressures, external logic the of their political commitment principled action which dictates. What is one therefore to say of such "principles" or "logic" diagnosed having let "politics" "commitment", a when, alone or is in "management" the solution sought what amounts to of problem for Perhaps American song multinational capitalism. a valedictory that it is the same old story of the Labour Party reeling under the blows of the right-wing shadow boxing, seeking desperately to hot left" ideological "loony the and the audit air of accommodate in these than a way which seeks a confronting commission rather continuity between socialist principles and socialist practice. However such an abrogation of political responsibility by Labour it is have to pick up the that us as workers who means councillors tab; becauseit is precisely us who will bear the brunt of this attempt to foist American style big private corporation managementpractices on the workforce. So what exactly does this entail? Well it goes under the name of "In Search of Excellence", and it is a book done by two American itself based into book The was on a survey managementconsultants. the twelve most successful companies in America in an attempt to distil the key reasons for that success. A basic framework of diagnose to an effective organisation and whichused concepts was lock, later used stock and cliches uncritically surprise! surprise!- was by the Audit Commission. At a general level apart from elevating the commonplaceand trite into "grand theory" the book is marked by its complete lack of referenceto- and I'll put it in alphabetical orderBlack American, Afropeople, equality, equal affirmative action, discrimination, discrimination, trade unions sex opportunities, race and women. The question then is what is all the fuss about? Well these are given below. They represent the eight crucial attributes of excellent 679 r- companies. Or in sum "excellent corporations are characterised by having organisational cultures which carry and sustain sets of ideas for One excellence". should ask therefore at and values necessary this stage "Which are these excellent companies?" and "What is the evidenceof their excellence?" Contextualising excellence The companieslooked at included the following: Bechtel, Boeing, Caterpillar tractor, Dana, Delta Airlines, Digital Equipment, Emerson Electric, Fluor, Hewlett and Packard, IBM, Johnsonand Johnson,MacDonalds These companies share another common characteristic-apart that is from making bucks and more bucks-and that is that they are all in Excellence therefore shines out a world economy multinationals. facing its gravest economic crisis since the 1930's because such global corporations are able to shift capital resourcesrapidly around the globe, cut workforces while increasing output and not worry has Excellence the effects on workers consumers and others. about For it; those to the of product eight attributes. end another side law by national example such organisations are almost unfettered be chosen which offer the greatest advantages. and countries can More often than not these are Third World countries offering the female large workforce and/or corrupt regime to a of advantages keep labour in check. Above all such corporations use their mobility lines international to weaken national union action production and through: f transferring production overseas f threatening to move to countries with lower labour costs and a more controlled workforce f dividing workforces in different countries f discouraging the formation of unions in the workplace Post industrial action therefore "In Search of Excellence" seems to be -but then perhaps that is giving the kitchen cabinet more nous than they deserve.(A reference here to council wide strike in 1987 in ) housing workers. of support If excellence goes in searchof low wages and lax controls here are a few examples of how some of the listed corporations hit the news recently. IBM in South Africa. based Even largest U. S. the operation eighth ---is disinvestment local than to the more no a sellout much publicised in IBM the company which new will still sell and management wares. 680 Hong Kong firm for factories in through a an order ------placed Malaysia, then cancelled leaving both out of pocket andjobs in Guatamala liquidation the company major where military ------a of trade unionists ensuresa quiescentworkforce being for leak as responsible a major of poisonous ------cited in chemicals Silicon Valley California. In Silicon Valley 80-90% of jobs labour are done by women of whom 45-50% are operative and of Hispanic and Asian origin. Digital Equipment largest Pushes Japanese third computer manufacturer. -----World's in far techniques east plants. Workers condemn this as management divide to and manipulate workforce. attempt Caterpillar Tractors (2) in loss U. S. down Scotland(l) the and shut with of --------Plants 3000 jobs. Internatonal Metalworkers Federation condemns managementincompetence Bechtel for South Korean government construction of -----Overcharges nuclear power stations by 6000,000 dollars in but Indonesia using migrant workers ------Construction projects for In trouble they subsequent makers. were screened only after dispute allowed military to intervene against workers. Now laying off workers. Boeing increase wage gap between skilled and contract which -----forces leaked from U. S. Air Force At time workers. same memo unskilled Secretary says that government will make every effort to ensure that they do not pay negotiated wage settlements to weapons producers Hewlett and Packard U. S. 85 In Singapore to plants cope closes all with slack. -----In leave 6 to to avoid cutbacks.At the months unpaid offers workers up implemented 10% time cut pay company wide same Silicone Valley producer. ------ The list of corporation practices on a day to day basis can go on. "Excellence" and its total irrelevance to a socialist led public sector detailed by look best be has been more a can shown at what authority described as the archetypal "In Search of Excellence" corporationIBM. IBM IBM has a workforce of 405,000 and a reputation for virulent anti is Its simple, almost naive, but which which philosophy unionism. has has status of a cult according to a multinational something also 681 trade union study severe negative consequencesfor its workforce. The three basic tenetsto this are for individual the -respect highest the to the standard of customer -service life the attainment of excellence as way of -the Sound familiar? In reality as one IBM worker put it "You have to give up a little of in here". In other words a narrow come when you yourself is it But to the then corporate philosophy. made clear that conformity be discharged the company's ethics will violates who any worker longevity. is It a corporate culture close to regardlessof position or the Japanesemodel. IBM argue that the absence of a trade union levels However the company. wage signifies worker satisfaction with it is difficult determine to treated whether as a company secret so are found Richard Hudson IBM this out the rate. pay above going or not to his cost. He was an employee for 17 years with IBM and an dismissed in in Workers Alliance. US IBM Black He the was activist 1983 for distributing confidential IBM wage guideline documents in discriminating Black IBM to that was against prove an attempt in determination is There no collective method of pay employees. IBM. IBM claim to have a full employment philosophy. In practice this is incentive freeze, vacancy out what with a retirement not working labour. doing the of subcontracted away and schemes IBM operatean appraisal scheme which has been describedby IBM Workers United thus: "the whole point of the appraisal system is to fearful degrading, is intimidating, that that tone the and makes us set is if indebted IBM. It to that made clear we want a good and better had play the game...........when the company appraisal we but from IBM talks teamwork and co-operation, us wants something its in then one-to- one the privacy of the when we want something but filled Internally through advertised are not are vacancies office". drawn by lists based suitable people of up on promotion do have form in IBM Employees not any of collective management. for handling therefore negotiated procedures no and representation involve Personnel close monitoring of policies grievances. it"... Lunch breaks 42 As are minutes put one employee employees, filling they out time sheets and checking are sticky about exactly... has Chief "(So of a sudden our all own why notice... written without Executive taken to playing the flying flexitime monitor?) Finally IBM says it is committed to an international set of principles that foster the highest standardsof businessconduct in each country that it has business in. The practice is different, since a number of its industrial relation practices are not in conformity with the minimum OECD ILO declaration the guidelines and of on provisions 682 As a one time corporate personnel companies. multinational it from day I "It the was clear arrived that being union executive put free was one of IBM, s objectives." The Black Workers Alliance of IBM employeeshas waged a long battle against IBM's mistreatment in is (Perhaps IBM Black that workers wages and promotions. why of there is no mention of equal opportunities in the search for fights is key One their of against the company practice excellence). during "involuntary attrition" which recession times means that of Black workers are more likely to be fired than whites. This then is the concrete reality of the management and industrial identified in "In the eight attributes arising out relation actions Search of Excellence." If one strips the hype away from the rusty is left is lying then a managementphilosophy what underneath glove that is anti worker organisations, anti Black and women, crypto fascistly paternalistic and a good flag wave for Ronnie and Maggie's ON DOING THE HELL IS IT WHAT industrial BUT order. new THE AGENDA OF A SOCIALIST LED PUBLIC SECTOR ORGANISATION? 683 Appendix 4 Responsesfrom Equality Advisers to Labour Members' Attempts to Curtail the Equality Initiative "Race Equality Advisers' response to `Major Achievements in Equal Opportunities.' f f f f f 1.0 Introduction. 1.lAs Race Equality Advisers employed to provide advice on the best meansto achieve the target borough Labour Party's Manifesto bound commitment to race equality, we wish to express our dismay and revulsion at a travesty of a report entitled profound "Major Achievements in Equal Opportunities" and circulated by Cllr. "X". It is a pity therefore that none of the equality advisers before or after the report was completed. were consulted either Indeed it is only by accident that one of the equality advisers it had been the circulated to a week after report obtained a copy of the Labour Group and Party. Given the acute implications this further development has for the and achievement of race report fact information formally Council the that the was and equality be disingenuous departments it from would not to conclude sought that the omission of the equality advisers was deliberate. This in latest Cllr. in "X" to the the claims of stark contrast stands he (internal journal) "Briefing" that council employee edition financial the the staff about crisis and openly with consult would the way forward. 1.2The recommendations of the report rest on an inaccurate and initiatives information in the Council; on equality racist misuse of and above all a misconception of race equality within the context detail in Comments local are therefore provided government. of below and these are in two parts. falsely the constructedassumptionsto the report on details the of the report resource specific on 2.OFalseAssumptions: There are four key assumptionsimplicit in the report. These are: that there have been major achievementson equal opportunities in the target borough that local government is simply about providing services that race equality at the local government level is just about faces Black "bums" Black and seats on office at public counting desks counter 684 f that "loony left" equal race equality, therefore why not bury it. 2. Major Achievements in Equal Opportunities. All the race equality advisers and race equality specialist workers are agreedthat there have been some achievementin this area since the inception of a strategic and co-ordinated working about three it is But certainly not a situation about which it can be years ago. said that major achievements have occurred. There are four benchmarksagainstwhich such a judgement is made: (i)Feedback from Black employees in the Council and Black Groups outside indicate a high degree of dissatisfaction with the claims the Council makes on race equality - like Cllr. 'X's report does- and the actual reality. (ii)We are talking about trying over the past four years to change institution to meet the needs of the Black community. An an institution which has behind it over a century of evolved tradition basedon not even recognising race as an issue, In other words the work had only just begun. (iii)Other inner London local authorities and some outer ones have achieved more becausethe political will has been there to ensure that there is a greater level of race equality resources and that the implemented. The same cannot equality changesare resultant race be said of the target borough. (iv)Finally the experience of both the Race and Women's Equality Advisers to date has been such that the achievementsin the target borough cannot be describedas "major. " 2.2Simply the provision of services? (i)To hold that local government is solely about providing services and, inter alia, the better our services the longer "we stay in power is to give credence to the notion that these services are strategy" commodities which can be bought off the shelf. It is to capitulate to is before till the rung up. Local government is cash privatisation much more than that. It is about how people at the local level On the race equality front it is their choice of politics. exercise level local have determinant how Black the can people at a about have in the of resources allocation and reallocation which a say lives. their everyday material effect on To put race equality on the agenda of the local authority is to say that the issue of power is going to be addressed- the power that institutional Solutions have to to this to be racism. gives rise based like the Black of group on an analysis needs, collectivist is distinct from This the private sector quite community's. individual orientated consumerist approach. We cannot run a 685 like led a private firm. So for organization public sector, socialist in is for 30% Black care not a cause children celebration example is That logic intentional the type equality. spending on race of of deal Black that get a good out of the people argue would which immigration service or that Jewish people got a good deal out of the Third Reich because of all the money spent on the it Inter means that the organization and camps. alia concentration but is is if it to this that subject change, not neutral, managementof is to bring into the fold of its decision making mechanisms the in like differing Black the community's experiences wealth of the wider community. After all if a management is "neutral" or feat "doing things" then the greatest of management about simply was processing the twelve to eighteen million Jews and other five the through year period: chambers over a gas nationals Likewise the management practices which have made the top American multinationals so rapaciously successful especially on the backs of Black people in 3rd world counties- like the anti-trade is "In Search Excellence" IBM those of out of which union - are distilled and which have now landed on our door step under the " Service Orientation. "Public of guise (ii) To get back then to Black Children in Care, a 30% figures indicator Black loud be that people are actually a warning should here. disservice Remedial action would therefore require a getting from first Black the that contact with service particular a review of family to release from care of the particular child but within the framework which involves Black groups, Black Social and residential workers, relevant management and race equality decisions in the and changes, policy resource review, workers key The the objective to the remedial plan, of remedial monitoring Black in be the to of children care proportion reduce plan would 30°/ to that to currently resourcesallocated maintain a and ensure in Black care are used with a maximum children proportion of level of Black participation over its use to keep Black children out intentional This type qualify as spending of action would of care. on race equality. 2.3 Is race equality at the local government level just about faces Black "bums" Black at counter and seats office on counting desks? To a large extent the answer to the above question has already been Nevertheless it is in the services. on section preceding provided it is that to simplistic nonsense to assume that state necessary becausex% of employeesare Black and y% of service consumers 686 Black that therefore The target borough has achieved race equality. It is the type of specious, reasoning which gives rise to the in "The Race Relations Committee and that; the report statement Women's Committee have established specialist units to work towards the needs of women and Black people both as employees and in the community. " This is not only wrong, it is a totally marginalising concept of race equality in which the Race Relations Committee and Unit become a "stuck on" Bantustan entity which will "meet the needs of the Black community. " It is the type of logic which at another level could treat race equality as a luxury. Firstly both the Committee and Unit have been created because of the local Labour party manifesto commitment; and secondly the directed both towards changing the rest of the Council are work of Council the that can meet the needs of the Black community. so Race Equality at the local government level in inner city areas is local Black to the the authorities meet restructuring need of about bases if Black the that the on community's needs are community it is likely being that the white disadvantaged than met more not being Race Equality the community are not met either. sectors of is then about redirecting resources equitably to the quintessentially Black community and at the same time about the democratic in itself builds that process which on the limits of control over representative democracy vis-a-vis the Black community by increasing the level of Black participation in and access to decision just if begun has This task the especially only we put making. hundred years plus of municipal government against the three years of overt recognition of race equality as priority and the pitiful resources allocated to race equality structure against the overall budget of the Council. There is no justification therefore for the lot has been that a spent on race equality and that smug conclusion therefore there should be no further growth. Likewise it is a short sighted and culpable underestimation of the problem of achieving level local to trumpet continually the at government race equality that "we have all the policies, all that is required now is the implementation. " One is yet to hear that said about any other area is it is The Council's then why question possible responsibilities. of to conceive of a problem of community participation and resource like decentralisation the solutions and yet control and come up with in Black to the the posed relation are same problems when it becomes a question of too much extra suddenly community liability. resources and/or electoral 687 2.4 The assumptionthat "loony left" equalsrace equality, therefore why bury It. not Paragraph 3.4. of Cllr. "X"s paper is telling in way it illustrates how the Labour Party has not sought to engagewith the right wing left, but has "loony " it. In fact the colluded of with propaganda paragraph is triple coded. Firstly and secondly it talks about the London Effect: and one does not have to articulate it to know that London Effect = Loony left = stage managed anti-racism "white backlash." Thirdly the paragraph is left hanging there in the paper inviting but draw to their own out of context, readers completely conclusion about how to get back the "traditional Labour voter. " This is a collusion with racism. It is also a collusion based on a mythologising of traditions past; perhaps the workerist post is furniture. This Yuppies the stripped of version pine modernist 1987 - not 1945. Attempting to set the clock back by recreating an image Council the of as a provider of municipal services upmarket is to play straight into the hands of the racist right. Within the it the paper gives credenceto the lie that high rates = context of is "politically There on extremist" race equality. a way expenditure builds this that on with sort of right wing propaganda engaging of the forward looking basis to socialism and which does not compromise the principles of the manifesto bound commitment to That requires a carefully thought out strategy race equality. involving those at whom the equality initiatives are aimed. Cllr. "X"'s paper doesnot do that." 688 Appendix 5 Race Equality Unit's Briefing Paper to Members on the Incompatibilities between the Race Equality Service Initiatives and those Promoted by the Council under the PSO Initiative 1.Background to changesin local government (i)Local government over the past 15 years has and is undergoing profound changes. Detailed reasons for this lie in interplay of factors effecting national, local states and the economic system but which nevertheless can be crudely reduced to two key characteristics. *Growing politicisation of local government *Growing centralisation arising out of attacks on local government by national government. (ii)One commentator has seen this as giving rise to a move away from the bureaucratic paternalistic model of local government to three new 1267 below. basic models which are set out schematically Bureaucratic Paternalism Public Service reform (nonbased market 2 .% Privatisation (market based approaches) Consumerist solutions ........ _........... ,.4.-. -. _._._._._._._._ Consumerist Collectivist solutions solutions 689 (iii)It is clear that the politicisation of local government is no more than that of attemptsto reconstitute this level of government as one that is about democracy and local choice and control over framework is It that the this problems of within certainly resources. if is, inequality have been That tackled. one can race and women's in initiatives these to one sentence, to try to summarise attempt in in local the a way government power relationships restructure in determinant Black the say people and women a which allows Certainly to their to solutions needs. meet usage resource of control in have been inequality seen terms simply of not race and women's being an administratively technically one in which managementis been have "ends" "means" Instead "neutral". seen as and somehow key in is the that rooted part of a process of change; a process democracy, the public sector and community socialism, of values needs. (iv)The attacks on local government in inner city areas from have by the those the media misled media and government, local Labour directly, but because initiatives these threatened not best deciding "means" in to the achieve an wavering are groups "end" of electoral viability. There are, therefore, two basic ways forward: *to push ahead with race and women's equality as a priority and include "loony This the tackling will the necessarychangeprocess. left" propaganda. or *to go for an administrative solution to achieve a perceived end of in that the thrust of race and means which and power staying down. is women's equality work played (v)It seems clear now that The target borough with its uncritical Excellence" "In Search as a management of steamrollering of ideology and "Public Service Orientation" as a strategy for improving the image of the Council as a good provider of services has adoptedthe latter. 2.Background to Public Service Orientation. (i)PSO is being treated as a new revelatory means to improve the Council's stock with the electorate. Yet the fundamental basis to has services covered the very on work race and women's equality in is in but tune that more substantively a way with a areas, same 690 borough led PSO than the version of currently being socialist bought in. In The target borough the baseline to work on services by the equality advisers has been the working principle that if the being Black and women people are not met, then it is needs of disadvantaged likely that the than needs of other white more In the are not either. community other words such work sectors of is the foundation of good service provision across the Council. Such work is based on meeting group needs and collectivist build democratization to which on greater problems of solutions local government. (ii)This stands in contrast to the current version of PSO which is being so assiduously pursued in the Council. These are the problems: (a)It derives its central tenets from "In Search of Excellence". The latter is a book done by two American consultants, the content of for from derives the success of the on reasons a survey which America's top multinationals. A basic framework of concepts was used to diagnose an effective later surprise: and which was uncritically organisation -surprise: by At lock, the commission. audit and cliches stock a general used level apart from elevating the commonplace and trite into "grand theory" the book is marked by its complete lack of reference to in it I'll alphabetical order - affirmative action, repeat and Afro-American, Black people, equality, equal opportunities, race discrimination, sex discrimination, trade unions and women. Eight, basic attributes were arrived at, which characterised in found turn the to mirror authors and which companies excellent The looked Japanese companies philosophy. management closely , Boeing, Caterpillar following: Bechtel, included tractor, the ;at Dana, Delta Airlines, Digital Equipment, Emerson Electirc, Fluor, Hewlett and Packard IBM Johnson and Johnson, MacDonalds. Most are multinationals which have maintained their "excellence" in Third World More backs Black the countries. people of on tellingly the activities of Caterpillar in Scotland are examples of done into been like has Much companies, research excellence. IBM, by Labour organisations and trade unions. The following has been revealed: f its corporatevalues are very close to "In Searchof Excellence" f it is virulently anti-trade union f its managementstyle is authoritarianly paternalistic 691 f evidence suggests it discriminates against Black employees in terms of pay, promotions and who gets laid off in times of is (there a Black Workers Alliance of IBM employees). recession The list of malpractices goes on. In sum however, this is not the type of management ideology which public sector organisations be should adopting. (b)It gives rise to a private sector model of service provision - the builds bridging between This the on gap public consumeristmodel. forms but that assumes of provider existing and service largely remain. However whilst organisation and management is essential to service provision this type of communication good model: issue of power the address not -does have the same power to that consumers public sector -assumes changeas private consumers the needsof groups of consumers cope with -cannot, This is in stark contrast to what race and women equality is about level. local the government at 3.Background to PSO in The target borough There are a number of problems associatedwith the way in which this has come about in The target borough. These are: (a) it is being used as a meansto secureelectoral victory at the next local elections at the same time that attempts are being made to initiatives. women's equality curb race and (b)it ignores and treats as separatethe work on service initiated through Race and Women's committees and which is a better and more relevant model. (c)not surprisingly the equality advisers have been deliberately bypassed in the discussions surrounding the introduction of this into Council. PSO the version of (d)plans - for which there are no papers but have involved the Leader, C.E., CPO and CTO - are being implemented to train all have been in Again PSO. equality advisers middle managers drain be This on training resources and will a massive excluded. from detract the existing policies on race and women's will is There the training, and anti-racist action plans. equality Already is training that change. evidence equals assumption "commitment to this public services" using of managers emerging in a way that is detrimental to equal opportunities. 692 (e)attemptsby the Race Unit to get Departmentsto merge the work they are doing on PSO with the work they should be doing on the service component to their Departmental Anti-Racist Programmes, have shown that Departments are treating these as separate activities and in some cases are claiming they do not have the do to the action plan. resources (f)to summarise,therefore, it appearsthat, this "brave new" PSO is going to marginalise further race and women's equality initiatives. 4.Way forward Improving services has never been in question; but just as there is an issue of democracy and trade unions we would not adopt the Tebbit solution. There appearto be two basic options: *to scrap the current PSO initiatives and start again or *more realistically if failing that to ensurethat Race and Women's Committee have a determinant role in the direction and content of initiatives builds which on the current race and women's such equality work on services. 693 Appendix 6 Hierarchy of Employees in Target Borough in 19851268 Principal Officer and above: White: 776 Black: 52 Below Principal Officer: White: 2653 Black: 430 Manual and Craft Workers: White: 3697 Black: 717 Appendix 7 Interviews Conducted Target Borough For the `target borough', theseare interviews conducted over and above the information gleanedwhilst the primary researcherwas actually working for that local authority. Ex-Race Equality Workers,including Advisers Ex-Women's Equality Advisers Black managers Race equality workers in four other boroughs, both current and ex Voluntary sector activists in target borough Councillors from three boroughs X5 X2 X4 X5 X4 X3 Cape Town Mayors X2 Alderman Chief Executive/Town Clerk Head of Human Resources Community Consultants Civic Organisations X1 X1 X2 X3 X3 Trade Union Management consultant X1 x1 Black managers Affirmative Action Officer Academics Local Governmentspecific NGO X3 X1 X3 x1 695 Appendix 8 Key to Main Abbreviations Used ANC APO BBOS BCM BFN BPF CAD CLU COSATU CPSA CRC CRE CTCC DLO DP GEAR GLC ILEA LBMB LGTB MERGE NALGO NEUM NF NLL pF PREA PWEA RDP REA REU RSC SACP SAMWU SANCO TCA UDF UP WEU African National Congress African PeoplesOrganisation Black-bums-on-seats Black ConsciousnessMovement Between Facts and Norms Black PeoplesForum Coloured Affairs Department Community Liaison Unit Congressof South African Trades Unions Communist Party of South Africa Community relations Council Commission for Race equality Cape Town City Council Direct Labour Organisation Democratic Party Growth, Employment and Redistribution Greater London Council Inner London Education Authority Local Government ManagementBoard Local Government Training Board Macro-Economic ResearchGroup National Association of Local Government Officers Non EuropeanUnity Movement National Forum National Liberation League Post Fordism, or Post Fordist Principal Race Equality Adviser Principal Women's Equality Adviser Reconstructionand Development Programme Race Equality Adviser Race Equality Unit Regional ServicesCouncil South African Communist Party South African Municipal Workers Union South African National Civic Organisation Theory of Communicative Action United Democratic Front United Party Women's Equality Unit 696 WYSIWYG What-you-see-is-what-you-get 697 NOTES Notes on the `Introduction', pages 1-16 IA tongue in cheek term used by Habermasto describe collectively the phalanx of postPost-Metaphysical Thinking (1992) Polity Press. J. Habermas, theorists. modernist 2 N. Adams, Aspects of Tanzanian Underdevelopment,(1981) University of Bradford. 3 Adams, (1981) 4A reworking of the question posed in White, S., The Recent Work of Jurgen Habermas, Cambridge University Press,(1988), pg. 154. White, follows Habermas in conceiving of these differences solely in terms of culture and without, apparently, giving proper weight to the way in which differences are constructedthrough distorting communicative forces, like racism, and thus also to the way in which the background lifeworld can become over colonised. s Spencer,L., Postmodernism,Modernity, and the Tradition of Dissent, in `TheIcon Dictionary of Postmodern Thought', (1998) 'Black" is used throughout this researchin its widest political senseas a signifier of those who experienceracism but from which cannot be presumedthe way such people describe their cultural identity. I want to go further however and say that the use of the term "Black" by a person should be both a signifier of those who experienceracism becauseof perceived differences of colour, and of potential heterogenity. It is thus an invitation to engagein inclusive communicative discourse and not presumea definite identity. For example in one local authority there is a person originally from Southern Italy, who, becauseof her experiencesas an identifiable "not white" person in the by Black Workers Group. herself defined Black the was accepted and as organisation 7 Lewis, G., 'Race, Gender, Social Welfare, Polity Press,(2000), pg. 15 8SeylaBenhabib, Situating The Self, (1992) Polity Press,Chapter 2 9 J. Habermas,Autonomy and Solidarity, (1986) Verso, pg 143 10Situating The Self, Introduction, pg. 5 11"Interview with J. Habermas". Interviewed by D. Horster and W. van Reijen. New German Critique 18 (Fall 1979) 12J. Habermas, Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2 (1987) Polity Press,Chapter V1,(1) 13TCA, Chapter VI, (2) 14TCA, Chapter, VI, (1) 15TCA, Chapter VI, (1) 16Post-Metaphysical Thinking, Chapter 6 698 17Post Metaphysical Thinking, Chapter 6 18Post-Metaphysical Thinking, Chapter 6 19Post-Metaphysical Thinking, Chapter 6 20S.K. White, The Recent Work of Jurgen Habermas, (1988) Cambridge University Press, Introduction 21J. Habermas, Theory and Practice (1973) Heinneman Books 22Term coined by Primo Levi to describe those who becametotally subjected in the camps. 23H. Dubiel, Domination or Emancipation in Cultural Political Interventions in the Unfinished Project of Enlightenment, Edt. A. Honneth, T. McCarthy, C. Offe, A. Wellmer (1992) MIT 24Cambridge,A., Feuchtwang, S., Edt. Anti-Racist Strategies, Avebury, (1990) 25Situating The Self, Introduction, pg. 14 26See, for example, Foucault, M., Power/Knowledge, Harvester Wheatsheaf,(1980); Derrida, J., Of Grammatology, The John Hopkins University Press,(1976), and, Lyotard, J-F., The D? erend, Manchester University Press,(1988) 27T. McCarthy, On Reconstruction in Contemporary Critical Theory (1991) MIT 28M. Foucault, "Politics and Ethics: An Interview", The Foucault Reader(1984) Berkley 29Situating the Self, Introduction, pg. 16 33The Southall Black Sisters is a volintary organisation comprised of Asian women who define themselvesas Black, and which works to support women caught in the `contentious' areasof black Asian life in Britain, such as arrangedmarriages, domestic violence, etc. 31Guardian article on the ethnic apartheiding of an American university's dormitories March, 1994 for Hispanics Americans, for African etc. one one 32Aziz Al-Azmeh, Islams and Modernities, (1994) Verso Notes on Chapter 1, pgs. 17-76 33 J. O'Neill, The Poverty of Postmodernism (1995) Routledge, pg. 1. phenomenological Marxist critique of post-modernism. This is a 34An Afrikaans term meaning, "Ah! Shame!", and used in contexts of the user expressing empathy with someone's plight. 699 35A term first used by JamesBaldwin as a sarcasticaside about those Black African American nationalists who were criticising his definition of himself as a writer who happenedto be Black, rather than as a Black writer. 36SeeChapter.. on methodology. 37What-you-see-is-what-you-get,(WYSIWYG) 38B1och,E., The Principle of Hope, 3 Vol. s, Blackwell, (1986), Bloch, E., A Philosophy of the Future (1970) Herder and Herder; and, Bronner, S., Of Critical Theory and Theorists (1994) Blackwell, and, Apel, K-O., Is the Ethics of the Ideal Communication Community between Utopia, in, Ethics, Critique Utopia, Relationship On The Utopia? the of and a `The Communicative Ethics Controversy', (1990) 39Bronner, S., Of Critical Theory and Theorists (1994) Blackwell, Chapter 4 40AnthonyGiddens Modernity and Self-Identity (1991) Polity Press 41Giddens, Modernity and Self Identity, Chapter 7 42Pieterse,J. N., Emancipations, Modern and Postmodern, Sage,(1992), pg. 14. 43Ibid., page, 15. 44Martin Jay Fin de Siecle Socialism (1988) Routledge 45Jurgen Habermas TCA, Chapter VIII, (3) 46Jay Fin de Siecle Socialism, pg. 13 47Bronner, S., Of Critical Theory and Its Theorists, Blackwell, (1994), pg. 67 48Quoted in a conference review article in Radical Philosophy, Summer 1993 49D Massey,A Global Senseof SpaceMarxism Today, June 1991 soJurgen HabermasStrugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State (1994), in C. Taylor Edt Multiculturalism (1994) Princeton University Press 51J. Habermas, Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol 2 (1987) Polity Press,Chapter VIII, (2A) 52Ibid. 53Ibid. 54Ibid. ssIbid. 56Ibid. 57Hillel Ticktin, The Politics of Race: Discrimination in South Africa, (1990) Pluto Press 58Ibid. 700 59 Ibid. 60Stuart Hall et at Policing the Crisis: Mugging, The State and Law and Order (1978) I am well aware that Hall's position has changed from this early quoted MacMillan one. However my jury is still out on whether or not a Gramscian inspired post-Marxist analysis, somewhatä la Laclau and Mouffe resolvesthe problem. 61Ibid. 62Robert Miles Racism (1989) Routledge., pg 64 63Jurgen HabermasCommunication and the Evolution of Society (1984) Polity Press, Chapter 3, pg. 95 64Ibid. 65Miles Racism, Chapter 1 66Ulrich Beck Risk Society (1994) Sage,Preface 67Miles Racism, Chapter 1 68Ibid. 69Ibid. 70Ibid., Chapter 2 71Ibid., Chapter 3, last page. 72HabermasCommunication and Evolution, Chapter 4, pg. 134. 73Ibid. 74Ibid. 75Ibid., Chapter 4, (II) 76Ibid., Chapter 4, (IV) 77A suspicion which is confirmed via my late acquisition of Eder's book. SeeKlaus Eder The New Politics of Class (1993) Sage. At another level it is a suspicion which informs the "end of reason" sceptical post-modernism. 78HabermasTCA, Chapter VIII, (3) 79Habermas Communication and Evolution, Chapter 4 (III) S0Ibid. 81The question now in contexts which have had "an equal opportunities culture" for some time and where it can be shown that racism still flourishes, is to what extent a limit has 701 been set on the vision of the good life i. e. the normative boundaries of equality, which still between "promise" EOP This the the Black of contradiction people'svisions. excludes immanence that limits the constitutes the commitment/practice organisational of and high CRE for that shows a which research a recent piece of which might account local from Labour "good" tribunal authorities with cases stem race related proportion of equal opportunity policies. 82HabermanCommunication and Evolution 83J. Kovel, Racism: A Psychohistory, Allen Lane Penguin, (1970) 84HabermasCommunication and Evolution, Chapter 3, (II & III) 85Ibid. 86Ibid. 87David Goldberg Racist Culture (1993) Blackwell 88HabermasCommunication and Evolution, Chapter 3, (II & III) 89Homi Bhabha The Location of Culture (1994) Routledge 90HabermasCommunication and Evolution, Chapter 3, (IV) 91Ibid. 92Ibid. 93Furtado, C., Development and Underdevelopment,University of California, (1971) 94Alavi H., The State in Post-colonial Societies in Pakistan and Bangladesh NLR July, , (1972). 9sGoldberg, Racist Culture, (1993) 96A term originating in East Africa to describe the new Black political elite in their in informs locals Harare, humour A the Mercedes of sense similar cars. shining new Zimbabwe who have taken to describe the practice of sealing off the streetsto allow the blaring, as "There goes to through Presidential cavalcade sweep unimpededwith sirens Bob Mugabe and the Wailers." 97Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism Harvest, (1948), Chapter 5, (II) 98The attempt to graft on past oriented ersatzvalues, somewhat akin to the popularly described post-modernist trend of gutting pubs and refurbishing them with an eclectic mix like the inherent has somewhat strand, authoritarian an styles, victorian of'30s and imposition of colonialist socio-integrative systemson organic ones. 99Jurgen HabermasStrugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State (1994), in C. Taylor Edt Multiculturalism, Princeton University Press,(1994) 702 10° Optiz, M., Oguntoye, K., and Schultz, D., Showing our Colours -Afro-German Women Speak Out, Openletters, (1992) 101Chatterjee, P., The Nation and Its Fragments, Princeton University Press,(1993) 102HabermasTCA, Chapter VI 103Outhwaite, W., Habermas, a Critical Introduction, Polity Press,(1994) Chapter 6, pg. 87 104Ibid., pg. 91 105 Nancy Fraser, Unruly Practices: Power, Discourse and Gender in Contemporary Social Theory, University of Minnesota Press,(1989) 106HabermasTCA, Chapter VIII, (3) 107Outhwaite, (1994), Chapter 6 108Harry Kunneman Der Warheitstrichter: Habermas und die Postmoderne(1991) Frankfurt Campus,cited in Outhwaite 109The Collins English Dictionary 110Honneth, A., Conceptions of Civil Society in Radical Philosophy Summer 1993 1" Outhwaite Habermas,Chapter 6, pg. 100 112HabermasTCA, Chapter VIII, (2C) 113Adams, N., Black Children in Care, L. B. Lambeth, (1981) 114Outhwaite Habermas,Chapter 7, pg. 119. There are some who include Foucault in the despite I theorists so sure, acknowledging the added clarity school. am not critical social his analysis of power provides, that he is not beyond the "bucket." 115"Young-upwardly-mobile-Muslims", in Aziz Al-Azmeh Islams and Modernities (1994) Verso 116HabermasTCA, Chapter VIII, (3) 117Gilroy, P., The Black Atlantic, Verso, (1993) 118Henry Louis Gates Colored People, Viking, (1995) 119Seealso Howe, S., Afrocentrism, Verso, (1998) 120Bauman, Z., Modernity and The Holocaust Polity Press,(1989) 121Teun A. van Dijk Elite Discourse and Racism Sage,(1993) 122David Harvey quoted in Radical Philosophy Summer 1993 703 '23From experience in the target borough. 124Bhabha The Location of Culture 125Goldberg, D. T., edt., Multiculturalism, Blackwell, (1994) 126Eder, K., The New Politics of Class, Sage,(1993) 127Habermasin C. Taylor edt. Multiculturalism 128Tzvetan Todorov On Human Diversity, Harvard University Press,(1993) 129An example from the prime target borough in this piece of research 130Likewise 131And again 132Eder, K., (1993) 133Cohen, J., and Arato, A., Civil Society and Political Theory, The MIT Press,(1992) 134Ibid., Chapter 10. 135This was written some years before the "11`x'September". It has an even greater saliency now. 136Eder, K., (1993) 137Offe, C., and, Preuss, U., Democratic Institutions and Moral Resources, in, Held, D., (1991) Press, Polity Today, Theory Political edt. 138AmyGutman Introduction to C. Taylor Edt. Multiculturalism 139Habermas in Multiculturalism 140Ibid. 141Ibid. 142Ibid. 143Ibid. '44Ibid. 145Ibid. '46Cohen and Arato Civil Society, Chapter 10. 147Habermas in Multiculturalism 148Audrey Thompson Last Bastion Community Care 26 Jan-1 Feb., 1995 Notes on Chapter 2, pgs 77-88 149What-you-see-is-what-you-get 704 150For example quite a few of those associatedwith the post Fordist school of local in form Labour have to one or another acted as consultants run analyses government heart Stoker the at of the academic resourcesunderpinning new stands authorities. Labour's thinking on, and restructuring of local government in the UK. 151For example, see Stoker, G., The Politics of Local Government, Macmillan, (1991) '52R. A. Morrow, with D. Brown, Critical Theory and Methodology, SagePublications, 1994.Page41 133Ibid., page 47 154Responsesfrom councillors of the `labourist discourse' persuasionin the main target borough for this research,who were seeking to slow down and halt the pursuit of equality measures. '" Adams, N., Black Children in Care, London Borough of Lambeth Social Services, 1981 156Responsefrom the white managerof the Social Services Directorate's researchsection. 157These are not new to the UK, having found their expression first in the 1980's in Zealand Labour New local that where country's government government experiencesof liberal, `de-welfarisation' the of public right monterist, new of a programme on embarked sector. 158Responsefrom the Black Workers Group in the target borough to the introduction of local that the authority's processes. of this element of explicit neo-managerialism 159This is best summedup in Agger's very recent book entitled, "Public Sociology" in desiderata key he three relating to sociological writing which sociological out sets which because `author the presentwriting refuses to cleansethe text of author must: reveal both fingerprints... (but).. the text that constructs the world and acknowledges authorial intervenes in it deliberately; engagein self translation by `disclosing its animating interests; intellectual its and social and, addressmajor public confessing and assumptions issues, `attempting to influence the public and policy. ' Agger, B., Public Sociology, Rowman and Littlefield, (2000), pg. 258. 160Habermas,J., Knowledge and Human Interests, Beacon Press,(1971) 161Morrow, Critical Theory and Methodology, (CTM) pages7-12 '6zHabermas,J., On the Pragmatics of Social Interaction, Polity Press,(2001), and, Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 1, Heineman, (1984), Habermas, J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987) 163Morrow, CTM, 164Ibid., pages 151-153 165Ibid. '66Ibid. 167Apel, K-O., Is the Ethics of the Ideal Communication Community a Utopia? On The Relationship betweenEthics, Utopia, and the Critique of Utopia, in, `The Communicative Ethics Controversy', (1990) 168This is one of the ill founded critiques of theorists like Habermasby post Marxists like Laclau. 169There-is-no-alternative, commonly attributed to Margaret Thatcher as her stock refrain to criticisms of her policies. 170Leader of the Labour Group in the target borough in the mid to late eighties. Seealso Chapter 11 171Morrow, CTM, chapter 2 Notes on Chapter 3, pgs 88-105 172Key texts in this are Hoggett, P., Modernisation, Political Strategy and the Welfare State, Studies in Decentralisation and Quasi-markets, SAUS, University of Bristol, 705 (1990), Burrows, R., and Loader, B., edt., Towards a Post-Fordist State?, Routledge, (1994), Stoker, G., The Politics of Local Government,Macmillan, (1991), and, Amin, A., Post-Fordism; A Reader, Blackwell, (1994) 173 Aglietta, M., A Theory of Capitalist Regulations, New Left Books, (1979) 174Clarke, S., Overaccumulation, Class Struggle and the Regulation Approach, Capital and Class, 36, (Winter, 1988) '7s Ibid. 176 Ibid. '77Ibid. 178Ibid. 179 Ibid. 180Hoggett, P., Modernisation, Political Strategy and the Welfare State, Studies in Decentralisation and Quasi-markets, SAUS, University of Bristol, (1990) 181Ibid. 182Ibid. 183L. B. Lambeth 184Lambeth, Brent and now de rigueur in many local authorities. issLondon Borough "X" 186Paul Hoggett's work was influential amongstcertain leading councillors in the target borough during the eighties. '$' Target borough 188Hoggett, P., (1990) 189Stoker, G., The Politics of Local Government, Macmillan, (1991) '90Williams, F., Social Policy; A Critical Introduction, Polity Press,(1990) 19'Some analysts, like Pieterse,have attempteda fusion of post-Fordism and postin the the de-narrative metaphor through similarities pointing out general modernism, is both; this though a syncretic endeavouror merely eclectic whether underpinning becauseboth have the prefix `post', is open to query. SeePieterse,J., edt., Emancipations, Modern and Postmodern, Sage,(1992) 192Thompson, S., and Hoggett, P., Universalism, Selectivism and Particularism: Towards (1998) Social Policy, Social Policy, Critical Postmodern a 193Ticktin, H., The Politics of Race, Pluto Press,(1991) '9aHoggett, P., WasteDisposal; Municipal Socialism, New Socialist, March, 1987 '95Burns, D., Hambleton, R., and Hoggett, P., The Politics of Decentralisation, Macmillan, (1994) 196Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 7, pg. 297 197Burns et al, (1994), Chapter 10 198Ibid. Notes to Chapter 4, pgs 106-124 '99Morrison, T., edt., Race-ing Justice, En-gendering Power, Chatto and Windus, (1993), Introduction, pg. 1 200Margaret Hodge, erstwhile Leader of Islington Council, and the apostasyfrom local local `realist'. to socialist 201Cochrane,A., WhateverHappened to Local Government, Open University Press, (1993) 202Gyford., G., The Politics of Local Socialism, George,Allen and Unwin, (1985), Chapter 1, pg. 18 203Cochrane, A., (1993), Chapter 2 204Stoker, G., (1991) 205Lansley, S., Goss, S., and Wolmar, C., Councils in Conflict, Macmillan, (1989) 706 206Stoker it was, who referred the principal researcheron to Hoggett who, in turn, referred the researcheron to a Black researcherlooking at a minor aspect of race and local government. 207J. Stewart's work epitomisesthis. 208Stewart, J., and Greenwood, R., Excellence and Local Government, Local Government Training Board, 1985 209Seefor example, Gaster, L., Quality in Public Services, Open University Press,(1995) 210Quote from Gaster, in discussion on quality and equality. 211See.Power, M., TheAudit Society: Rituals of Verification, Oxford University Press, (1997) 212Cochrane,A., (1993), Chapter 4 213Clarke, M., and Stewart, J., Community Governance, Community Leadership and the New Local Government, JosephRowntree Foundation, (1998) 214Beck, U., Risk Society, Sage,(1992), and, Beck, U., The Reinvention of Politics, Polity Press,(1997) 215SeeClarke, J., and Newman, J., The Managerial State, Sage,(1997), Chapter 8 216Ibid. 217Interview with senior Black managerin target borough. 218Target borough via interview with Black manager. 219Mehta, U., Liberal Strategies of Exclusion, in Cooper, F., and Stoler, A., Edt., Tensions (1997) Press, California University Empire, of of '0 Dhaliwal, A., Can the Subaltern Vote?Radical Democracy, Discourses of Representationand Rights, and Questionsof Race, In `Radical Democracy', (1996). ul Ibid. = For example, in addition to Lambeth and the target borough, others like Camden, have displacing human the `diversity as a resources, context overall of within policies', adopted discourse around what used to be equalities. 223Interview with relevant Black manager 224Target borough and interview with senior Black manager 225Stewart, J., The New Management of Local Government, Allen and Unwin, (1986) 226Relayed to principal researcherby the then Chair of Race Relations after discussion borough. in leader target then with 22'This is also the primary target borough for this research 228Ibid. 229In this employees' `rights', as defined legislatively and through internal organisational initiatives, like equality programmes,are communitarianally off set against a corps of defined `responsibilities' managerially 23°Lambeth, one of the source boroughs in this study 21'Target borough Notes on Chapter 5, pgs 125-183 232Outhwaite, W., Edt., The Habermas Reader, Polity Press,(1996), General Introduction, %. 2 'ý3 Ibid. 234Habermas, J, and, Nak-chung, P, Korean and German Unification, New Left Review, Polity Press, (1994) Future, Past The J., Habermas, 1996), (Sept/Oct., as 219, and, 235Gutman, A.., Edt., Multiculturalism, Princeton University Press,(1994) 236Habermas,J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press,(1998), Questions Theory Political of 237Ibid. 707 238Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991), Chapter 5, Legitimation Problems in the Modem State 739Ibid. 240Ibid. 241Ibid. 242 Ibid. 243Ibid. 244Outhwaite,(1996), General Introduction, pgs. 19-20 245Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991), pg. 119 246Ray, L., Rethinking Critical Theory, Sage,(1993), Chapter 3. 247Ibid., pg. 50, and seealso Habermas,J., The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Polity Press,(1989) 248Outhwaite, (1996), General Introduction, pg. 8 249Habermas,J., TCA, Vol, (1987), Chapter VIII 250Outhwaite, W., (1996), General Introduction, pg. 13 251Ray, L., (1993) 252Outhwaite, W., (1996), General Introduction, pg. 18 253Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996) 254Outhwaite, (1996), General Introduction, pg. 12 255Habermas,J., (1996), Rehg, W., Translator's Introduction, pg. ix 256Ibid., pg. xi 257Ibid., pg. xiii 259Ibid., pg. xix 259Ibid., pg. xxiii 260Benhabib,S., Introduction, in Democracy and Difference, (1996) 261Habermas,J., Three Normative Models of Democracy, In `Democracy and Difference', (1996). Seealso Habermas,J., BFN, (1996), Chapter 7 Deliberative Politics, for a full deliberative is liberal better than the the politics and a prime reasons why of consideration BFN. distinction This `third throughout occurs way' versions. republican 262Habermas,J., Three Normative Models of Democracy, In `Democracy and Difference, (1996) 263 Ibid. 264Ibid. 265Ibid. 266Ibid. 267 Ibid 268Ibid. 269Ibid. 270Ibid. 271Habermas,J., BFN, (1996), Chapter 7, pg. 301 272Ibid., Chapter 9, Paradigmsof Law 273Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994), and, Habermas,J., The Inclusion of the Other, The MIT Press, (1998) 274Spivak, G., Can the Subaltern Speak?,in, Chambers,I., and Curti, L., edt., The PostColonial Question, Routledge, (1996) 275Said, E., Culture and Imperialism, Chatto and Windus, (1993) 276Honneth, A., The Strugglefor Recognition, Polity Press,(1995) 277Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 278Ibid. 708 279Ibid. 280Taylor, C., The Politics of Recognition, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 281Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 282Ibid. 283See also Habermas,J., BFN, (1996), Chapter 9 284Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 285Taylor, C., The Politics of Recognition, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 286.Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 287Ibid. 288Ibid. 289Ibid. 290Ibid. seealso, Habermas,J., The Inclusion of the Other, The MIT Press,(1998), Chapter 4., and, Habermas,J., The Past as Future, Polity Press,(1994), the Asylum Debate 291Butcher, H., Law, I., Leach, R., and Mullard, M., Local Government and Thatcherism, Routledge, (1990) 292Ibid. 293Lansley et at, (1989) 294Gamble, A., The Free Economy and the Strong State, Macmillan, (1988), Jessop,B., Bonnett, K., Bromley, S., and Ling, T., Thatcherism, Polity Press,(1988), and, King, D., The New Right, Macmillan, (1987) 295Gamble, (1988), pg. 11 296Ibid., pg. 29 297Ibid., pg. 31 298Ibid., pg. 50 299Ibid., pg. 14 300For example, Local Government Acts 1985 and 1988, Local Government Finance Act 1982 301 Ditto 302Widdicombe Report, 1986, and Local Government and Housing Act, 1989 303For example the Housing Act 1980 and Housing Planning Act 1986 facilitated the housing stock. selling off of council I HMSO, The Internal Management of Local Authorities in England, (1991), and The Widdicombe Report, (1986) 305Leader in target borough. For more details seeChapter on Target Borough 306Atkinson, R., and Moon, G., Urban Policy in Britain, Macmillan Press,(1994) 307Hall, S., et at, Policing the Crisis: Mugging, The State and Law and Order (1978) Macmillan 30sGilroy, P., The End ofAnti-racism, in, Ball, W., and Solomos, J., edt., Race and Local Politics, Macmillan Press,(1990) 309Hall, S. et at, (1978) 310Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991), Chapter 5 311Habermas,J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction', (1991) 312Habermas,J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction, (1991) 313Ibid. 314Ibid. 31sHonneth, A., and Joas,H., Introduction, in, `CommunicativeAction', (1991) 316Habermas, J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction', (1991) 709 317Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991), Chapter 5 318A good analysis of this processof embracing, guiltlessly, capitalism by new right Labour is provided in Panitch, L., and Leys, C., The End of Parliamentary Democracy, Verso, (2001) 319Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 320 Ibid. 321Ibid. 322Ibid. 323Ibid. 324Comments made by councillors of both political persuasions,i. e. Labour and Conservative, at Lambeth committee meetings in the mid nineties. 325Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 326Ibid. and Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press, (1987), Chapter VIII 327Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 328Ibid. 329Ted Knight's assessmentof the worth of his first Principal Race Relations Adviser, Ouseley. 330Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 331Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism, Harcourt Brace and Co., (1975) 332Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 333Offe, C., Modernity and the State, Polity Press,(1996) 334Ibid. 33'Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 7 336 Ibid. 337See Panitch, L., and Leys, C., The End of Parliamentary Democracy, Verso, (2001), Heffernan, R., and Marqusee, M., Defeatfrom the Jaws of Victory, Verso, (1992), and, Ball, W., and Solomos, J., edt., Race and Local Politics, Macmillan Press,(1990) 338Clarke, J., and Newman, J., The Managerial State, Sage, (1997) 339Ibid., Chapter 1 ''Clegg, S., and Palmer, G., Edt., The Politics of ManagementKnowledge, Sage,(1996), Introduction, pg.6 341An answer is provided as well in Du Gay, P., In Praise of Bureaucracy, Sage,(2000) 342Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management,SagePublications, (1996), Introduction, pg. 1 343Peters,T., and Waterman, R., In Search of Excellence: Lessonsfrom America's Best Run Companies,New York, Harper and Rowe, (1982) 344Peters, T., Thriving on Chaos, Macmillan, (1987) MSAlvesson,M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, SagePublications, (1996), Chapter 1, pg. 28 346Ibid., Chapter 1 347 Ibid. 348Ibid. 349 Ibid. 350Ibid. 351Ibid., Chapter 4 352Habermas,J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction , (1991) 353Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, SagePublications, (1996), Chapter 1 354Ibid. 355Ibid., Chapter 4 710 356Ibid. 35'Ibid., Chapter 5 358Ibid., Chapter 4. In the target borough the introduction of such service initiatives was for in by training courses senior managers which the `team huddle', together preceded forward Yowzer! ' `Yowzer! type exhortations were put as one of the ways to induce with team spirit. Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, Sage Publications, (1996) 359L. B. Lambeth 360Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, SagePublications, (1996), Chapter 4 361Ibid. 362 Ibid. 363Ibid. 364The latter was an actual defence put forward by representativesof a Black social in disciplined for hitting the care of that authority. was a child who worker 365L. B. Lambeth 366Beck, U., The Reinvention of Politics, Polity Press,(1997). In this he contendsthat in Western democracies,in the absenceof substantivedemocratisation, the status quo is increasingly up held through exerciseswhich are no more than facadesof democratic practice. 367Many local authorities now have specialisedmarketing personnel and/or sections. See also Walsh, K., Public Servicesand Market Mechanisms, Macmillan, (1995) 368Dews, P., edt., Autonomy and Solidarity: Interviews with Jurgen Habermas, Verso, (1986), Dews, P., Postscript to the Introduction, pg. 37 Notes to Chapter 6, pgs. 184-276 369Matustik, M., Jurgen Habermas,A Philosophical Profile, Rowman and Littlefield, (2001). Pg. 264 370See Dryzek, J., Deliberative Democracy and Beyond, Oxford University Press,(2000), Dryzek, J., Discursive Democracy, Cambridge University Press,(1990), and, Dryzek, J., Democracy in Capitalist Times, Oxford University Press,(1996). Also McCarthy, T., Complexity and Democracy: or the Seducementsof SystemsTheory, In `Communicative Action', (1991) 371Dryzek, J., Discursive Democracy, Cambridge University Press,(1990), Introduction, 20 Dryzek, J., Democracy in Capitalist Times,Oxford University Press,(1996), Chapter 2, pg. 34 373McCarthy, T., The Critical Theory of Jurgen Habermas, MIT Press,(1978) 374McCarthy, T., Complexity and Democracy: or the Seducementsof SystemsTheory, In `Communicative Action', (1991) 375Ibid. 376Ibid. 377 Ibid. 378 Ibid. 379Ibid. 380See Forester, J., Critical Theory, Public Policy and Planning Practice, State University G., Edt., Habermas, Critical (1993), Scambler, Press, Theory York New and also, and of Health, Routledge, (2001) 381McCarthy, T., Complexity and Democracy: or the Seducements of Systems Theory, In `Communicative Action', (1991) 392Habermas,J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction', (1991) 711 383McCarthy, T., Complexity and Democracy: or the Seducements SystemsTheory, In of `Communicative Action', (1991) 384Ibid. 385Bohman is another who draws attention to the essential difference between BFN and Legitimation Crisis. In the former, as opposedto the latter, he finds that Habermas "has between the the justification of moral norms and democratic analogies abandoned decision making.". Bohman, J., Critical Theory and Democracy, In Rasmussen,D., edt., The Handbook of Critical Theory, Blackwell, (1996) 386Joas, H., The Unhappy Marriage of Functionalism and Hermeneutics, in `Communicative Action', (1991), and, Joas,H., The Creativity ofAction, Polity Press, (1996) 387Joas, H., The Creativity ofAction, Polity Press,(1996)Introduction, pg. 4 388Ibid, Chapter 2, pg. 103 389Ibid., Chapter 2, pg. 105 390Habermas,J., and Luhman, N, Theorie der Gesellschaft oder Sozialtechnologie, Frankfurt/Main: Surkamp, (1971), quoted in Joas,H., (1996), Chapter 4, pg. 217 391Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 218-219 392Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 218 393Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 219 394Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 222 39'Another theorist who arguessimilarly with regard to discourse ethics and the organisational impact on the polity is Cohen. Cohen, in line with Habermas,puts forward that existing liberties can only be defendedby more democratisation and that the realisation in practice of the principle of discourse ethics is one of the key discursive however, in Cohen, derives that attaining goal. a useful procedural principle processes is it involve that the consensus over a norm which must symmetry, reciprocity underlying formalistic Cohen the that structure of DE meansthat "no single maintains and reflexivity. institutions flows from democratic the theory", to the extent that, "the principles of model legitimacy imply basic democratic they the which ground rights and an open-ended of forms formalistic democratic DE Cohen that the maintains structure of of plurality .". institutions democratic flows from the theory", to the "no that single model of means democratic legitimacy basic "the the that, principles of and rights which they extent democratic forms imply Cohen that the an open-ended plurality of maintains ground .. formalistic structure of DE meansthat "no single model of democratic institutions flows from the theory", to the extent that, "the principles of democratic legitimacy and the basic democratic forms. imply Cohen, J., they plurality of ground an open-ended which rights Discourse Ethics and Civil Society, In `Universalism vs. Communitarianism', (1995) 396Beck, U., The Reinvention of Politics, Polity Press,(1997) 397Cooke, M., Language and Reason,The MIT Press,(1997, Chapter 1, pg. 6) 398Habermas,J., The Theory of Communicative Action, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987), Chapter VI, 2 399Honneth, A., The Fragmented World of the Social, State University of New York Press, (1995), Introduction and Chapter 15 `0 McClaren, P., Critical Pedagogy and Predatory Culture, Routledge, (1995) 401Habermas,J, BFN, (1996), Chapter 8 402Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987), Chapter VIII 403Alvesson, M., Communication, Power and Organisation, Walter de Gruyter, (1996) 4°4Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Edt., Critical ManagementStudies, Sage,(1992) 405Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 9,9.3.3 4°6Ibid. 407Ibid., Chapter 9,9.2.3 712 408Ibid., Chapter 9,9.3.2 409Ibid. 410Modood, T., and Werbner, P., Edt., The Politics of Multiculturalism in Europe, Zed books, (1997), Introduction 411Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996) 412Taylor, C., The Politics of Recognition, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 413Wolin, R., Introduction, in, Habermas,J., The New Conservatism, Polity Press,(1989) 414Ibid. 415Habermas,J., TheNew Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2, The New Obscurity 416Rehg, W., Translator's Introduction, in, Habermas,J., Between Facts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996) 417Ibid. 418Goldberg, D. T., Racist Culture, Blackwell, (1993), pg. 220 419Varikas, E., The Burden of Our Time: Hannah Arendt and the Critique of Political Modernity, Radical Philosophy, 92, (Nov. /Dec. 1998) 420Ibid. 421Ibid. 422Ibid. 4'3Ibid. 424Lazare holds that the constitution was devised "to minimise the dangersof elective in (by). in to particular... elaborately and slaveholders property general, government .. . . dividing power between the executive, legislative and judiciary, by personalising by in in fashion, by Senate the over-representation and monarchical power executive handing crucial veto powers to the SupremeCourt." Lazare, D., The Constitution Cult, New Left Review, 232, (NovJDec. 1998) als Habermas,J., A Reply, In `CommunicativeAction', (1991) 426Varikas, E., The Burden of Our Time: Hannah Arendt and the Critique of Political Modernity, Radical Philosophy, 92, (Nov./Dec. 1998) 427 Ibid. 42$Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), 9.3.3 429Preuss,U., Constitutional Revolution, Humanities Press,(1995), Chapter 6, pg. 115 430Ibid., pg. 124 431Ibid., pg. 124 432Benhabib, S., Introduction, in Democracy and Difference, (1996) 433Benhabib, S., Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy, In `Democracy (1996) Difference', and 434Dews, P., edt., Autonomy and Solidarity: Interviews with Jurgen Habermas, Verso, (1986), Introduction aasEze, E. C., The Colour of Reason: The Idea of Race in Kant's Anthropology, In `Postcolonial African Philosophy', (1997) 436Ferry, L., and Renaut, A., Heidegger and Modernity, University of Chicago Press, (1990), and, Wolin, R., The Heidegger Controversy, The MIT Press,(1993) 437Eze,E. C., The Colour of Reason: The Idea of Race in Kant's Anthropology, In `Postcolonial African Philosophy', (1997) 438Ibid. 439Ibid. 440Benhabib, S., Introduction, in Democracy and Difference, (1996). There is also like by Dussel, is debate dimension to the someone provided who argues which another is idealist (including Philosophy, tradition), "Western the and critical that is dominating the the philosophy and a class... of a region articulation of subjectivist,... 713 in Critical Poststructuralism, Kellner, D., ". Quoted theory, and the subjectivity.. Philosophy of Liberation, Illuminations web Page,(2002) 441Ibid. 442Ibid. 443Habermas,J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 444Benhabib, S., Introduction, in Democracy and Difference, (1996) "S Ibid. 446Habermas,J., Three Normative Models of Democracy, In 'Democracy and Difference, (1996) 447Ibid. 448Benhabib, S., Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy, In `Democracy (1996) Difference, and 449Young, I., Communication and the Other: Beyond Deliberative Democracy, In `Democracy and Difference', (1996) 450Ibid. 451Ibid. 452Ibid. 453Ibid. 454For example in Lambeth in the early eighties one of the race remedial employment both by devised the of equality advisers,contained a recommendations programmes literacy classesand the recognition of non-standardforms of English. This apparently from the more cynical white managers of mirth provoked outbursts 455Young, I., Communication and the Other: Beyond Deliberative Democracy, In `Democracy and Difference', (1996) 456Ibid. 457Benhabib, S., Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy, In 'Democracy (1996) Difference', and 458Ibid. 459Ibid. 460Ibid. 461Ibid. 462Ibid. 463 Ibid. 464Ibid. 465Ibid. 466Ibid. 467Ibid. 46sHabermas, J., Reply, In `Habermas on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 469Benhabib, S., Toward a Deliberative Model of Democratic Legitimacy, In `Democracy (1996) Difference', and 470Ibid. 471Habermas,J., Reply, In `Habermas on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998), and also in, Habermas,J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press, (1998), Questions of Political Theory. 472Habermas,J, BFN, (1996), Chapter 8, and, Habermas,J., A Berlin Republic: Writings Theory. Political Questions (1998), Press, Polity Germany, of on 473Habermas,J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press,(1998), Questions Theory of political 474Ibid. 475Ibid. 714 476Forester, J., Critical Theory, Public Policy and Planning Practice, State University of New York Press,(1993) 477Ibid. 478Dryzek, J., Democracy in Capitalist Times,Oxford University Press,(1996), Chapter 3, pg. 42 479McCarthy, T., Legitimacy and Diversity: Dialectical Reflections on Analytical Distinctions, In `Habermanon Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 480Ibid. 481Ibid. 482 Ibid. 483Habermas, J., Reply, In `Habermas on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 484See, for example, Crenshaw, K., Gotanda,N., Peller, G., and Thomas, K., edt., Critical Race Theory, The New Press,(1995), and, Delgado, R., edt., Critical Race Theory, Temple University Press,(1995) 485Habermas, J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press,(1998), The Adenaur Restoration's Debts 486Ibid. 487Sekyi-Otu, A., Fanon's Dialectic of Experience, Harvard University Press,(1996), Prologue, pg. 3 488Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 200-204 489 Ibid. 49°Ibid. pg. 196 491Ibid. 492Ibid. 493Ibid. 494McCarthy, T., Philosophy and Critical Theory: A Reprise, In, `Critical Theory', (1994) 495Ibid. 496Habermas, J., Strugglesfor Recognition in the Democratic Constitutional State, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 497Ibid. 498Ibid. 499Fraser, N., From Redistribution to Recognition? Dilemmas of Justice in a "Post In `Theorizing Multiculturalism, (1998) Socialist"Age, 500Ibid. so' Ibid. 502Ibid. 503Bringing the moral back into the equation raises again the question of motivation. Kavoulakos, on a related issue is correct as well to criticise Habermasfor the inadequacy for his to the example, professional politicians and party question of answer why, of bureaucrats should enter into discursive processes. Habermas' answer is to the effect by later do because "obliged their them to could voters punish that such actors are so is in Germany " He the that their state not motivated points out as well vote. witholding towards supporting an autonomouscivil society. In fact it is those "alternative projects have been institutionalised (which).. to and entered collaborate and compromise ... willing the political arena.... (whilst)... radical political groups and alternative projects (e.g. from have been the public suppressed and excluded violently squatters' movements) K., Constitutional State " Kavoulakos, and sphere of political communication. Democracy: On Jurgen Habermas' BetweenFacts and Norms, Radical Philosophy, (July, 1999) 5°4Honneth, A., The Strugglefor Recognition, Polity Press,(1995), Anderson, J., Translator's Introduction. 715 505Ibid., Chapter 3 506Ibid., Chapter 8 507Ibid. 508Ibid. 509Ibid. 510Ibid. sl' Ibid. 512Ibid. 513 Ibid. 514Ibid. 515Ibid. 516Ibid. s" Ibid. StsHabermas, J., The Structural Transformation of the Public Sphere, Polity Press,(1989) 519Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 8,8.3 520Ibid. 521Ibid. 522Ibid. 523Fraser, N., Justice Interruptus, Routledge, (1997), Chapter 3, Rethinking the Public Sphere. 524Ibid. 525Ibid. 526See also Negt, 0., and Kluge, A., Public Sphere and Experience, University of Minnesota Press,(1993) 52'Fraser, N., (1997) 528Rehg, W., Insight and Solidarity, University of California Press, (1994), Chapter 1 529Mayhew, L., The New Public, Cambridge University Press, (1997), Chapter 1, pg. 3 530Rehg, W., Insight and Solidarity, University of California Press, (1994) 531West, C., Race Matters, Beacon Press,(1993) 532Ritzer, G., Modern Social Theory, McGraw-Hill, (1996), Chapter 10 513Dallmayr, F., Introduction, In `The Communicative Ethics Controversy', (1990) 534Ibid. 135Wellmer, A., The Persistenceof Modernity, MIT Press,(1993) 536Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Appendix II, pg. 500 S3.Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987) 538Quoted in Guardian article, 1999 539McCarthy, T., Philosophy and Critical Theory: A Reprise, In, `Critical Theory', (1994) 540Habermas,J., Reply, In `Habermas on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 541Ibid. 542For example, Lewis, G., 'Race, Gender, Social Welfare, Polity Press,(2000) 543Hughes, G., and Lewis, G., edt., Unsettling Welfare: The Reconstruction of Social Policy, Routledge, (1998) 544Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987), Chapter VIII, 2 545Habermas,J., The New Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2, The New Obscurity 546Cohen, S., Anti-semitism, Immigration Controls and the Welfare State, In Critical Social Policy, (1996) 54'Ibid. 548Habermas,J., TheNew Conservatism,Polity Press,(1989), Chapter 2 549Ibid. 716 550Ibid. 551Ibid. 552Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987), Chapter VIII, 2 553Ibid. 554Seealso Honneth, A., The Social Dynamics of Disrespect: Situating Critical theory Today, In Dews, P., edt., Habermas, A Critical Reader, Blackwell, (1999) 555Habermas,J., The Theory of CommunicativeAction, Vol. 2, Polity Press,(1987), Chapter VIII, 2 556Foster, R., Recognition and Resistance:Axel Honneth's Critical Social Theory, Radical Philosophy, (March, 1999) 557Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 9 558Ibid. 5s9Foster, R., Recognition and Resistance:Axel Honneth's Critical Social Theory, Radical Philosophy, (March, 1999) 560Ibid. 561Habermas,J., BetweenFacts and Norms, Polity Press,(1996), Chapter 9 562Ibid. 563Ibid. 56° Ibid. 565Ibid. 566Leonard, P., Postmodern Welfare, Sage,(1997), Chapter 7 567Collins Dictionary Collins Dictionary of the English Language, (1986) 568Quoted in Guardian article, 2000 569Preuss,U., Constitutional Revolution, Humanities Press,(1995), Chapter 6 570Ibid. 571Ibid. Notes to Chapter 7, pgs 276-316 572Fukuyama, F., The End of History?, The National Interest, (Summer 1989) 573Horkheimer, M., BetweenPhilosophy and Science,The MIT Press,(1995) 571See also Bhattacharyya, G., Gabriel, J., and Small, S., Race and Power: Global Racism in the Twentieth First Century, Routledge, (2002), for an argument about the ramifications in a global society. racism of 515Target borough's one time leader 576Osterhammel, J., Colonialism, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, (1997), Chapter I, pg. 5 '' Ibid., Chapter II, pg. 16-17 578Ibid., Chapter III, pg. 25 579Ibid., Chapter III, pg. 26 580Ibid., Chapter II, pg. 16 581Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism, Harcourt Brace and Co., (1975), Chapter 7, Race and Bureaucracy 582 Ibid. 583Osterhammel,J., Colonialism, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, (1997), Chapter V, pg. 57 584Ibid., pg. 58 585Ferro, M., Colonization, Routledge, (1997) 516Osterhammel,(1997), pg. 58 587Osterhammel,J., Colonialism, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, (1997), Chapter V, pg.61 717 588Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism, Harcourt Brace and Co., (1975), Chapter 7 589Osterhammel, J., Colonialism, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, (1997), Chapter IX, pg. 110 590ibid., pg. 111 591Arendt, H., The Origins of Totalitarianism, Harcourt Brace and Co., (1975), Chapter 7 592Furedi, F., The Silent War, Pluto Press,(1998), Introduction, pg. 1 593Ibid., pg. 2 594Ibid., pg. 2 595Ibid., pg. 4 596Ibid., pg. 4 597Ibid., pg. Chapter 8, pg. 223 598Ibid., Chapter 9, pg. 236 599Gilroy, P., The B1ackAtlantic: Modernity and Double Consciousness,Verso, (1993) 600Jacobs, J., Edge of Empire: Postcolonialism and the City, Routledge, (1996), Chapter 1, pg. 1 601Ibid., pg. 2 602Ibid., Chapter 2, pg. 14 603Ibid., pg. 23 604Ibid., pg. 20 605Ibid., Conclusion, pg. 162 606Osterhammel, J., Colonialism, Markus Wiener Publishers, Princeton, (1997), Chapter X, pg. 119 607See Mehta's argument about Millian democracy and colonial Britain's civilising mission to impose Western order on the chaos of India. Mehta, U., Liberal Strategies of Exclusion, In, `Tensionsof Empire , (1997), also Osterhammel, (1997) 608Mayhew, L., The New Public, Cambridge University Press,(1997), Chapter 4, pg. 87 609Ibid., pg. 117 610Ibid., pg. 117 611Ibid., Chapter 10, pg. 269 612Magnusson, W., The Search for Political Space, University of Toron to Press, (1996) 613Ibid., Introduction, pg. 21 614Ibid., Introduction, pg. 13 bis Ibid., Chapter 2, pg. 68 616Qoted in, Epstein, B., Radical Democracy and Cultural Politics: What about Class? What about Political Power?, In `Radical Democracy', (1996). 617Ibid. 618From Mail & Guardian, South African on-line paper, 2000 619Dhaliwal, A., Can the Subaltern Vote?Radical Democracy, Discourses of Representation and Rights, and Questionsof Race, In `Radical Democracy', (1996) 620Epstein, B., Radical Democracy and Cultural Politics: What about Class? What about Political Power?, In `Radical Democracy', (1996) 621Kavoulakos, K., Constitutional State and Democracy: On Jurgen Habermas' Between Facts and Norms, Radical Philosophy, (July, 1999) 622Rosenfeld, M., Can Rights, Democracy and Justice be Reconciled through Discourse Theory? Reflections on Habermas' Proceduralist Paradigm of Law, In 'Habermas on Law (1998) Democracy: Critical Exchanges', and 623Habermas,J., Reply, In 'Haberman on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 624Kavoulakos, K., Constitutional state and Democracy: On Jurgen Habermas' Between Facts and Norms, Radical Philosophy, (July, 1999) 718 625Bohman, J., Critical Theory and Democracy, In Rasmussen,D., edt., The Handbook of Critical Theory, Blackwell, (1996) 626Ibid. 627 Ibid. 628Ibid. 629Magnusson, W., The Searchfor Political Space,University of Toron to Press,(1996), Conclusion, pg. 302 630Bohman, J., Critical Theory and Democracy, In Rasmussen,D., edt., The Handbook of Critical Theory, Blackwell, (1996) 631Kavoulakos, K., Constitutional State and Democracy: On Jurgen Habermas' Between Facts and Norms, Radical Philosophy, (July, 1999) 632Dhaliwal, A., Can the Subaltern Vote?Radical Democracy, Discourses of Representation and Rights, and Questionsof Race, In `Radical Democracy , (1996) 633Ibid. 634Kavoulakos, K., Constitutional State and Democracy: On Jurgen Habermas' Between Facts and Norms, Radical Philosophy, (July, 1999) 635Letter to Guardian, 2000 636Foster, R., Recognition and Resistance:Axel Honneth's Critical Social Theory, Radical Philosophy, (March, 1999) 637Ibid. 638Arato, A., Procedural Law and Civil Society: Interpreting the Radical Democratic Paradigm, In `Haberman on Law and Democracy: Critical Exchanges', (1998) 639Neocleous, M., Radical Conservatism,Radical Philosophy, 93, (March/April 1999) 640Deetz, in, Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Edt., Critical ManagementStudies, Sage, (1992) 64'Zanetti, L., At the Nexus: The Transformative Practice of Public Administration, Paper first Critical Studies Conference, Management 1999, at Manchester to the presented School of Management,UMIST, (1999) 642Cook, B., The Flag on the Cover, Part One: Once a Slavedriver, Paper presentedto the first Critical ManagementStudies Conference, 1999, at Manchester School of Management, UMIST, (1999) 643Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, Sage,(1996), Chapter 4, pg. 105 Notes to Chapter 8, pgs. 318-355 644Alvesson, M., Communication, Power and Organisation, Walter de Gruyter, (1996) 645Rick, J., Tamkin, P., Pollard, E., and Tackey, N., The Organisational and Managerial Implications of Devolved Personnel AssessmentProcedures, Institute of Employment Studies, (1999) 646Bohman, J., Habermas, Marxism and Social Theory: The casefor pluralism in Critical Social Science,In Dews, P., edt., Habermas,A Critical Reader, Blackwell, (1999) 647Ibid. " Scheuerman,W., BetweenRadicalism and Resignation:Democratic Theory in Habermas' 'BetweenFacts and Norms, In Dews, P., edt., Habermas, A Critical Reader, Blackwell, (1999) 649Ibid. 650Ibid. 651Honneth, A., The Social Dynamics of Disrespect: Situating Critical Theory Today, in Dews, P., edt., Habermas, A Critical Reader, Blackwell, (1999) 652Ibid. 653Ibid. 719 654Ibid. 655Ibid. 656Ibid. 657Goldhagen, D., Hitler's Willing Executioners, Abacus, (1996) 6ssFairclough, N., New Labour, New Language?,Routledge, (2000) 659Referenceto late nineties Home Office Minister responsible for refugees. °Honneth,A., The Social Dynamics of Disrespect: Situating Critical Theory Today, In (1999) Blackwell, Critical Reader, A Habermas, P., Dews, edt., 66'Ibid. 662Ibid. 663Ibid. 66"Ibid. 665Ibid. 666Ibid. 667Ibid. 668Ibid. 669Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991) 670Honneth, A., (1999) 671Morrow, R., and Brown, D., Critical Theory and Methodology, Sage,(1994), and, Brunkhorst, H., Critical Theory and Empirical Research,In Rasmussen,D., edt., The Handbook of Critical Theory, Blackwell, (1996) 672Harvey, L., Critical Social Research,Unwin Hyman, (1990) 673Harvey, (1990), Chapter 1, pg. 1 674Ibid. 675Ibid., pg. 6 676Ibid., pg. 8 677Ibid., pg. 19 678Ben-Tovim, G., Gabriel, J., Law, I., and Stredder, K., The Local Politics of Race, Macmillan Press,(1986) 679Ben-Tovim et al, (1986), Introduction, pg. 6 680Ibid., pg. 10 681Scheurich, J., ResearchMethod in the Postmodern, Falmer Press,(1997) 682Ibid., Chapter 7, pg. 139 683Ibid. 684Ibid., pg. 143 basMills, C., The Racial Contract, Cornell University press, (1997) 686Ibid., Chapter 1, pg. 11 687Ibid., pg. 16 688Ibid., pg. 17 689Scheurich, (1997), Chapter 4, pg. 84 690Rick, J., et al, (1999) 691Scheurich, (1997), Chapter 4, pg. 90 692Mills, (1997), Chapter 3, pg. 129 693Habermas,J., Knowledge and Human Interests, Beacon Press,(1971) 694Morrow and Brown, (1994), Chapter 6, pg. 146 695Ibid., pg. 150-151 696Ibid., pg. 149 697 Ibid. 698Ibid., 699Ibid., 70°Ibid., 701Ibid., pg. 152 pg. 155 Chapter 7, pg. 184 Chapter 9 720 702Ibid., Chapter 7, pg. 183 703Ibid., Chapter 9, pg. 231 704Ibid., pg. 186 705Ibid., Chapter 8, pg. 221 706Ibid., Chapter 9, pg. 228 707Ibid., quoted in Morrow on page226 708Ibid., Chapter 9, pg. 242 709Ibid., pg. 232 710House, E., and Howe, K., Values in Evaluation and Social Research, Sage,(1999), Chapter 6 711Based on a re-interpretation of Denzin and Lincoln's paradigm/theory matrix of interpretation in Denzin, N., and Lincoln, Y., Edt., Collecting and Interpreting Qualitative Data, Sage,(1998) 712Morrow and Brown, (1994), Chapter 10, pg. 251 713Ibid., pg. 251 714Ibid., pg. 252 "s Ibid., pg. 253 716Ibid., pg. 254 717Ibid., pg. 257 718Ibid., pg. 256 719Ibid., pg. 257 720Ibid., pg. 257 721Ibid., pg. 262 1 Roberts, J., Philosophising the Everyday: The Philosophy of Praxis and the Fate of Cultural Studies, Radical Philosophy 98, (Nov./Dec. 1999) 723Johnson, S., Doing Critical Organisational Research: An Examination of Methodology, Paper presentedto the first Critical Management Studies Conference, 1999, (1999) UMIST, Management, School Manchester of at 724Ibid. 725Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, Sage,(1996), Chapter 7, pg. 160-163 Notes to Chapter 9, pgs. 356-359 rz6`Diversity', and it does seemto have its intellectual roots in post modernism, has come because its in `equalities' of organisations, primarily antimany public sector to supplant being less `conflictual'. because it is as perceived collectivist notions and 727Seechapter.. on methodology. 728Guardian, 6t' June, 2000 729Quoted in Guardian article, 2000 730Scheuerman,W., BetweenRadicalism and Resignation:Democratic Theory in Habermas' 'BetweenFacts and Norms', In Dews, P., edt., Habermas, A Critical Reader, Blackwell, (1999) 731Dryzek, J., Deliberative Democracy and Beyond, Oxford University Press,(2000) 732,Bohman, J., Public Deliberation, The MIT Press,(2000), Chapter 4, pg. 188, and, Bohman, J., Critical Theory and Democracy, In Rasmussen,D., edt., The Handbook of Critical Theory, Blackwell, (1996) 733Ibid., Bohman, (2000), pg. 190 721 Notes to Chapter 10, pgs. 367-415 734Dunleavy, P., and O'Leary, B., Theories of the State, Macmillan, (1987), Chapter 5, pg. 267 735Dearlove, J., The Reorganisation of British Local Government, Cambridge university Press,(1979), Chapter 1, pg. 3 736Interestingly in the eighties researchersin South Africa also made use of Dearlove's in template an analysis and critique of Cape Town City Council, used as an analytical local South African wrong with government. exemplar of what was 737Dearlove, (1979), Chapter 1, pg. 4 738Ibid., Chapters 2,3, and 4 739Ibid., Chapter 2 SaoIbid., Chapter 2, pg. 36 741Ibid., pg. 37 742Ibid., Chapter 5. 743Ibid., Chapter 5 744Ibid., Chapter 5 gasIbid., Chapter 5 746Cockburn, C., The Local State, Pluto Press,(1978) 747Dearlove (1979), Appendix 2 748 Ibid. 749Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, Sage,(1996) 7s0Ibid., Chapter 1, pg. 11 751Ibid., pg. 17 752Ibid., pg. 18 753Ibid., pg. 19 na Ibid., pg. 21 IssAn insight gleaned and reinforced through pursuing race equality in Lambeth. See System, The Runneymede Silverstone, D., The Trust and South H. Ouseley, and also London Equal Rights Consultancy, (1983) 756Dunleavy, P., and O'Leary, B., Theories of the State, Macmillan, (1987), Chapter 5 757Dryzek, J., Deliberative Democracy and Beyond, Oxford University Press,(2000) 758Dunleavy and O'Leary, (1987), Chapter 5 759Ibid. 760Ibid. 761Ibid. 762O'Connor, J., The Fiscal Crisis of the State, St. JamesPress,(1973) 763Dunleavy and O'Leary (1987), Chapter 5 764Dearlove, (1979), Chapter 9, pg. 215 765Bennington, J., Preparing for Power: Local Government and Local Administration in a New South Africa, The Local Government Centre, Warwick Business School, University (1992) Warwick, of 766Cockburn, (1978) 767Ibid. 768Saunders,P., Urban Politics: A Sociological Interpretation, London: Hutchison, (1979) 769See Wainwright, H., Labour, A Tale of Two Parties, The Hogarth Press,(1987) 170Stoker, G., The Politics of Local Government, Macmillan, (1991) 771London Edinburgh Return Group, In and Against the State, Pluto Press,(1980) 772 Ibid. 773Gyford, J., Citizens, Consumersand Councils, Macmillan, (1991) 722 774Gyford, J, The Politics of Local Socialism, London: Allen and Unwin, (1985), and, Boddy, M., and Fudge, C., Local Socialism, Macmillan, (1984) ns Gyford, (1985) 776Lansley, S., Goss, S., and Wolamr, C., Councils in Conflict, Macmillan, (1989) '" Information gleaned from work experience in Lambeth, as well as from interviews with ex-Lambeth staff. 778From interviews with relevant ex-Lambeth staff. 779From discussion with Black councillor in Haringey. 780Stoker, G., The Politics of Local Government,Macmillan, (1991) 781Bakshi, P., Goodwin, M., Painter, J., and Southern, A., Gender, Race and Class in the Local Welfare State: Moving Beyond Regulation Theory in Analysing the Transition from Fordism, Unpublished paper, University of Wales, Aberystwyth 782Habermas, J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press,(1998), Questions of Political Theory 783Ibid. 784Omi, M., and Winant, H., Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1980s, Routledge Kegan Paul, (1986) 785Solomos, J. and Back, L., Introduction, in, Theories of Race and Racism, Routledge, (2000) 786Ibid. 787Gilroy, P., The End ofAnti-racism, In, `Raceand Local Politics', (1990) 788Rex, J., and Tomlinson, S., Colonial Immigrants in a British City, Routledge and Kegan Paul, (1979) 789Sivanandan,A., Challenging Racism: Strategiesfor the 80s, Race and Class 25(2), (1983), and, Sivanandan,A., Communities of Resistance:Writings on Black Struggles for Socialism, Verso, (1990) 790Miles, R., Racism After `race relations', Routledge, (1993) 791Katznelson, I., Black Men, White Cities, Oxford University Press,(1973) 792Solomos, J., and Back, L., Race Politics and Social change, Routledge, (1995) 793Cited in, Solomos, J., and Back, L., Race Politics and Social Change, Routledge, (1995) 794Goulbourne,H., Race Relations in Britain Since 1945, Macmillan, (1998) 795Solomos, J., and Back, L., Race Politics and Social Change, Routledge, (1995) 796Katznelson, I., Black Men, White Cities, Oxford University Press,(1973) 797Lustgarten, L., Legal Control of Racial Discrimination, Macmillan, (1980) 798Lester, A, The Race Relations Act in Retrospect, in, `Race and Britain', Parekh, B., (2000) edt., 799Katznelson, (1973), Chapter 11, pg. 186 800Lester, (2000) soyKatznelson, (1973), chapter 11 802Ibid., pg. 176 803Ibid., pg. 177 $04Ibid., pg. 178 805Jacobs,B., Black Politics and Urban Crisis in Britain, Cambridge University Press, (1986) 806Jacobs, B., Black Politics and Urban Crisis in Britain, Cambridge University Press, (1986), Chapter 1, pg. 38 807Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 98 808Katznelson (1973), pg. 178 809Sivanandan,A., Challenging Racism: Strategiesfor the 80s, Race and Class 25(2), (1983) 810Katznelson, (1973), and, Jacobs,(1986). 723 811Ouseley, H., Silverstone, D and Prashar,U., The System,The Runneymede Trust and The South London equal Rights Consultancy, (1983) 812Ibid., Appendix 4, pg. 186 813Edwards, J., and, Batley, R., The Politics of Positive Discrimination, Tavistock, (1978) 814Atkinson, R., and Moon, G., Urban Policy in Britain, Macmillan Press,(1994) Chapter 10, pg. 229 813Ibid., Chapter 2, pg. 36 816Quote from M. Stem, head of a school establishedon a deliberate multi-racial basis in Swaziland and in opposition to existing apartheid educational practices in South Africa in Swaziland. ones segregated colonial and 817Stewart, M., and, Whitting, G., Ethnic Minorities and the Urban Programme, SAUS, Bristol University, (1983) 818Ibid. s'9 Ouseley, Silverstone et al, (1983), Appendix 5, pg. 189 820Atkinson and Moon, (1994), Chapter 10, pg. 232 821Ibid., pg. 235 822Ibid., pg. 236 823From Ouseley and Silverstone, (1983), interviews with ex-staff of Lambeth, existing Group Worker Black staff, and 824Ousley, Silverstone et al, (1983) 825L. B. Lambeth, Race Relations Structures,(1978) 826Ouseley. Silverstone et al, (1983), pg. 22 827Ibid. 928L. B. Lambeth, Social ServicesDirectorate, Black Children in Care, (1981) 929Interviews with key participants. 830Ibid. Notes to Chapter 11, pgs., 416-585 831General information provided by the target borough's Valuer's department,and later the new Directorate of Economic Development 832Target borough's Planning Department's report on the 1981 Census 833Interviews with ex- and existing staff in target borough. 934Interviews with Black groups and individuals at the time. 835Interviews with Black activists 136Commission for Racial Equality, Local Governmentand Racial Equality, (1982) , 837Ouseley, Silverstone, et al. (1983), pg. 18 838L. B. "X", Working Party on Race Relations, Final Report, (1982) 839Interview with ex-managementcommittee member of the local CRC. &10L. B. "X", Job Descriptions for RaceAdvisers in Housing and Social Services Departments. &41As retold in relevant interview 842From interviews with relevant activists, and from accompanying report. 143Interview with staff in Community Affairs Unit "4 Ibid. s'SInterviews with activists '46 Interview with ex-CRC managementcommittee member 847Ouseley, H., in, Boddy, M., and Fudge, C., Local Socialism, Macmillan, (1984) 18 Phillips, A., The Politics of Presence,Oxford University Press,(1995) 849Ouseley, (1984) 850Ouseley, as recalled from GLC's Ethnic Minority Unit organised conference in 1988. 724 851Ball, W., and Solomos, J., edt, Racial Equality and Local Politics, In, `Race and Local Politics', (1990) 852Young, K., Approaches to Policy Development in the Field of Equal Opportunities, In, `Race and Local Politics', (1990) 853Gilroy's hasty concluding term basedon his limited work experience at the GLC, and as expressedin, Gilroy, P., The End ofAnti-racism, In, `Race and Local Politics', (1990) 854Silverman, M., Facing Postmodernity, Routledge, (1999) 855Jewson, N., and Mason, D., The Theory and Practice of Equal Opportunity Policies: Liberal and Radical Approaches, The Sociological Review, 34(2), (1986) 856Forester, J., Critical Theory, Public Policy and Planning Practice, State University of New York Press,(1993), and, Bohman, J., Public Deliberation, The MIT Press,(1996) 857McCarthy, T., Introduction, in, Habermas,J., The Philosophical Discourse of Modernity, Polity Press,(1987) 858Ibid., pg. xv 859Ibid, pg. xvi 860Ibid., pg xvi 861Ibid., pg. xvi 862Ibid., pg. xvii 863Reisigl, M., and Wodak, R., Discourse and Discrimination, Routledge, (2001), Chapter 2, pg. 35 864Ibid. 865Dryzek, J., Deliberative Democracy and Beyond, Oxford University Press,(2000) 866Ibid., Chapter 1, pg. 18 967Ibid., Chapter 1, pg. 29 868Ibid., Chapter 3, pg. 75 869Hindess, cited in Dryzek, (2000), pg. 75 $'0Fairclough, N., Discourse and Social Change, Polity Press,(1992), Chapter 7 871Fairclough, N., Language and Power, (2001), Chapter 8, pg. 163 872Ibid., pg. 201 873Ibid., pg., pg. 207 874Norval, A., Deconstructing Apartheid Discourse, Verso, (1996) 875Dryzek, (2000), Introduction, pg. 3 876L. B. "X", Race Equality Unit: First Work Programme, (1984). 877L. B. "X", Administrative Procedureon Race Terminology. (1984) 878Interview with Lambeth staff member. 879London Borough of "X", Race Equality Unit Work Programme, July, 1984 880Negt, 0., and Kluge, A., Public Sphere and Experience, University of Minnesota Press, (1993) 881L. B. "X", Central Race Unit job descriptions. 882L. B. "X", Terms of Referencefor Race Relations Committee, (1983) 883L. B. "X", Structure and Functioning of RaceAdvisers, (1984) 884Alvesson, M., and Willmott, H., Making Senseof Management, Sage,(1996), pg. 116 885Ibid., pg. 116 886Ibid., pg. 118 887Ibid., pg. 118 888Young,K., and Gay, P., The Race Relations Adviser in Local Government, LARRIE, (1986) 889Interviews with ex- and existing staff of target borough 890L. B. "X", Code of Practice for Section 11, (1984) 891Comments from target borough's chief officers to Code of Practice for Section 11 892L. B. "X", The Race Dimension to Reorganisations, (1987) 893 HMSO, 1976 Race relations Act, (1976) 725 894Interview with ex-GLC Equal Oportunities Unit employee. 895L. B. "X", CRE Code of Practice: Implications for Borough "X", (1984) 896L. B. "X", Recruitment and selection Code of Practice, (1984) 897L. B. "X", Race Equality Targets, (1984) 898As reported back by that managerin subsequentmeetings with the equality advisers 899L. B. Lambeth, Equality Targets, (1981), and GLC, Equality Targets, (1983) 900L. B. "Y", Race Equality Targets, (1986) 901L. B. Lambeth, Positive Action Programmes, (1980) 902L. B. "X", Antiracist Programmesfor Departments, (1985) 903Ibid. 904 Ibid. 905L. B. "X", Service Monitoring Audit of Services, (1985) L. B. "X", The Race Dimension to Reorganisations, (1987) 907L. B. "X", Antiracist Programmesfor Departments, (1985) 908Ibid. 909Best value source 910LB "X", Antiracist Programmesfor Departments, (1985) 911L. B. "X", First Conference for Black Employees,(1984), preparatory material for p1articipants. 2 L. B. "X", Race equality Unit, written notes of reactions to conference. 913Sound recording of conference. 914L. B. "X", Race Equality Unit: Optionsfor Choosing Co-opteesand Observers, (1984) 915Ibid. 916Ibid. 91' Commission for Racial Equality, Local Government and Racial Equality,, (1982) 918L. B. "X", Race relations Committee, Ant-iracist Conditions of Grant, (1985) 919Interview with said ex-staff member. 920L. B. "X", Anti Apartheid Declaration, (1985) 921L. B. "X", Equality Advisers' Memorandum, (1988) 922L. B. "X", Sexual and Racial Harassment Procedure,(1987) 923L. B. "X", Memorandum Responseto Leader of Council from Head of Race Unit, (1988) 924L. B. "X", Report basedresponseto Equality Unit proposal from equality advisers, (1988) 925Local Government Training Board, TheAppointment and Management of Race Euality Advisers, (1987) 92?From regular contacts and networks of Race Advisers at the time. 927L. B. "X", NALGO Newsletter, (June, 1990) 928Alvesson, M., Communication, Power and Organisation, Walter de Gruyter, (1996) 929Flyvbkerg, B., Rationality and Power, The University of Chicago Press,(1998) 930Ibid., Chapter 20, pg. 234 93"Stewart, A., Theories of Power and Domination, Sage,(2001), Chapter 2, pg. 39 932Ibid., Chapter 1, pg. 21 933Ibid., Chapter 2, pg. 45 934Ibid., pg. 45 935Flyvbjerg,(1998),Chapter20, pg. 236 936Fairclough, D., (1992), Chapter 7, pg. 215 93'Appendix 1 938The Black Public SphereCollective, Edt., The Black Public Sphere, The University of Chicago Press,(1995), Preface,pg. 1-3 939Stewart, (2001), Chapter 7, pg. 203 SaoMeer Syal, interview in Guardian, (2000) 726 941London Wide Race Workers' Forum, (1988) 942From contacts and representationsfrom groups and individuals at the time. 943Commentary letter and responseto Equality Units' reorganisation from one Black employee in 1989 944From interviews with then current and ex-Black employees. 945L. B. "X", Role of Race Equality Advisers in the Disciplinary Process, (1984) 946Sekyi-Otu, A., Fanon's Dialectic of Experience, Harvard University Press,(1996) 947Young, K., and Gay, P., TheRace relations Adviser in Local Government, LARRIE, (1986) 948Sekyi-Otu, A., Fanon's Dialectic of Experience, Harvard University Press,(1996), Chapter 4, pg. 183 949Ibid., pg. 183 950Ibid., pg. 185 951Ibid., pg. 175 952Ibid., Chapter 4, pg. 157 953From interviews with ex-staff of target borough. 954Sekyi-Otu, A., Fanon's Dialectic of Experience, Harvard University Press,(1996),, Chapter 4, pg. 210 955Ibid., pg. 179 956Ibid., pg. 172 957Ibid., pg. 203 958Ibid., pg. 180 959Swindal, J., Reflection Revisited, Fordham University Press,(1999), pg. 186 960Ibid., pg. 186 961Ibid., pg. 187 962Sekyi-Otu, A., Fanon's Dialectic of Experience, Harvard University Press,(1996), pg. 184 963 Ibid., pg. 203 964Ibid., pg. 206 965Garber, J., The City as a Heroic Public Sphere, In, `Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City', (2000) 966Stewart, A., Theories of Power and Domination, Sage,(2001), Chapter 7, pg. 202 967Ibid., pg. 202 968Ibid., pg. 203 969Ibid., pg. 177 970Ibid., pg. 177 971Ibid., pg. 178 972Ibid., pg. 179 973Ibid., pg. 180 974Ibid., pg. 181 975Isin, E., Edt., Democracy, Citizenship and the Global City, Routledge, (2000), and, Magnusson, W., The Searchfor Political Space,University of Toron to Press,(1996) 976For example, Panitch, L., and Leys, C., The End of Parliamentary Democracy, Verso, (2001) 977For example, Knowles, C., Race, Discourse and Labourism, Routledge, (1992) 978Overheard by the then Head of the Women's Unit who was at the sameconference. 979L. B. "X", Equal Opportunity Monitoring of DLO, (1984) 980L. B. "X", CRE Code of Practice, "X" Response,(1984) 981Ibid. 982L. B. "X", Minutes of Equal Opportunities Working Group, (1985) 983L. B. "X", Memorandum to councillors from Equality Advisers, (1984) 984L. B. "X", Memorandum to councillors from manual trade unions, (1984) 727 985L. B. "X", Memorandum to councillors from Equality Advisers, (1984) 986L. B. "X", Memorandum to councillors from then Chief Executive, (1984) 987L. B. "Z", Manual Trade Unions' Responseto proposed Council Race Monitoring, (1986) 988L. B. "X", Race Equality Targets, (1984) 989Comment by Labour councillor and seventiesex-Leader to Race equality reports presentedto committee he was sitting on. L. B. "X", Briefing note to councillors on targets by head of Race Unit, (1985) 99'Justification used by the then Chief PersonnelOfficer when tackled by the equality advisers. 992L. B. "X", Unpublished paper by then Chief personnel Officer on equal opportunities, (1985) 993Jay,M., Fin De Siecle Socialism, Routledge, (1988), pg. 13 994L. B. "X", Unpublished paper by then Chief personnel Officer on equal opportunities, (1985) 1195 Ibid. 996Ibid. 997Ibid. 998Notes by head of Race Unit on CPO's equal opportunities paper. 999CPO's paper 1000 Ibid. loo'This borough came to be, by the end of the eighties, new labour's flagship for a modernised local governance. Many of the practices and policies now being introduced level, the were guinea pigged in this local authority. In terms of this particular national at be detectedthe nascent `white' art of spin. can episode, 1002 Ibid. 1003 Ibid. 10°4 Ibid. 1005 Seventeenyears on, Blunkett, at the national level, re-iterates a similar one with regard to refugees;the recursive nature of racism. 1006 Ibid. 1007 As reported back by the then Chair of Race Relations Committee 1008 Dearlove, (1979) 1009 Alvesson and Willmott, (1996), pg. 18 1010 L. B. "X", Review of Race Equality in Borough "X", (1985) 'o" Ibid. 1012 Ibid. 1013 Ibid. 1014 Fairclough, (1992), pg. 215 1015 Housing Act, (1980) and, Housing Act, (1988) 1016 Local Government Planning and Land Act, (1980), and Local Government Act, (1988) lot?Audit Commission, Calling the Tune: Performance Management in Local Government, 1995 'o's Peters,T., and Waterman, R., In Search of Excellence: Lessonsfrom America's Best Run Companies,New York, Harper and Rowe, (1982) '0'9 Stewart, J., and Greenwood, R., Excellence and Local Government, Local Government Training Board, 1985 1020 Dearlove, (1979), Appendix 2 1021 Landry, C., Morley, D., Southwood, R., and, Wright, P., What a Way to Run a Railroad, Comedia, (1985) 1022 Ibid., pg. 62 1023 Stewart and Greenwood, (1985) 728 1024 Ibid. 1025 Ibid. 1026 Ibid. 1027 Silver, J., The Ideology of Excellence: Management and Neo-Conservatism, Studies in Political Economy, 24, (Autumn 1987) 1028 Ibid. 1029 Ibid. 1030 Ibid. 1031 Stewart, J., Public Service Orientation: SomeKey Ideas and Issues, Institute of Local Government Studies,University of Birmingham, April, 1987. 1032 Ibid. 1033 Ibid. 1034 Ibid. 1035 Ibid. 1036 "X" Labour Party, Leader's Report: In Search of Local Socialism, or are Wea Radish?, 1987 1037 Ibid. 1038 Ibid. 1039 Ibid. 1040 Ibid. 1041 «X" Labour Party, Leader's Report: Coping with the Crisis, the First Steps,, June, 1987 1042 Ibid. 1043 Ibid. 1044 Ibid. 1°45 Ibid. 1046Ibid. 1047Ibid. 1048Ibid. 1049Guardian, 2001 1050 "X" Labour Party, Leader's Report: Major Achievements in Equal Opportunities, 1987 1051 Ibid. 1052 Ibid. 1053 Ibid. 1054 Ibid. 1055 Hoggett, P, Problems of Implementation, Unpublished paper, June, 1987, and, Hoggett, P., The Problem of "Means " within the Labourist Tradition, Unpublished paper, July, 1987 1056 Ibid. 1057 Ibid. 1058 Ibid. 1059 Ibid. 1060 Ibid. 1061 Ibid. 1062 Ibid. 1063 Cooke, M., Language and Reason,The MIT Press,(1997) 1064 Interview with relevant ex-employee of borough "X" 1065 As quoted in Leader's papersand in Stewart's PSO paper. 1066 "X" NALGO Newsletter, (June 1990) 1067 "X" Mercury, 1990 1068 London Borough of "X", The "X" Service Programme, 1988 729 1069 London Borough of "X". Memorandum on Middle Management Training from Race equality Adviser on Employment,, Sept., 1987 1oo "X" Labour Party, Leader's Report, Equalities Work, July, 1988 1071 Ibid. 1072 Ibid. 1073 London Borough of "X", Comments by the equality advisers on the Report Entitled: "Leader's Report - Equalities Work", July, 1988 1074 Ibid. 1075 London Borough of "X", Letter to Councillors from All Equality Advisers on ProposedEqualities' Review, Oct., 1988 1076 London Borough of "X", Comments by All the Equality Advisers on Final Report on Equality Development Unit, Feb., 1989 1077 London Borough of "X", Equalities Development Unit, 1989 1078 "X" NALGO Newsletter, (June 1990) 1079 London Wide Race Workers' Forum, Agenda and Papersfor June 1988 Meeting, June, 1988 1080 One is struck by the similarities with the mis-briefings the new lLabour government indulges in when they are displeasedwith either M. P.s of their own party, or those who work for them as civil servants. 1081 IndependentNewspaper, The Borough Wherelabour is Working, (June 1990) 1082 Ibid. 1083 Ibid. 1084 Said at a Birkbeck College organised seminar on race and local government. 1085 London Borough of "X", Race Relations Committee Agenda and Reports, 1990-1996 1086 Interviews with ex-Advisers 1097 London Borough of "X", Positive Action Measures and Equality Targets, 1994 1088 Interview with staff of Equality Unit 1089 Interview with Black managerresponsible for council grant funding 1090 L. B. "X", Website (1998) 1091 HMSO, Local Government Act, (1988) 1092Escott, K., and, Whitfield, D., The Gender Impact of'CCT in Local Government, Equal Opportunities Commission, (1995) 1093 Local Government ManagementBoard, Equalities and the Contract Culture,, (1995) 1094 Guardian article by Tribune member, 2001 1095 Ibid. '°96Dearlove, (1979) 1097 Audit Commission Local Authority PerformanceTables, (1999) 1098 Municipal Journal, (2000) 1099 Debord, G, The Society of the Spectacle,Black and Red, (1976) 1100 Interview with ex Lambeth Social Servicesmanager 1101 L. B. "X", Positive Action etc. (1994) 1102 Interview with ex-staff in equalities unit, (2000) 1103 Interview, (2000) 1104 Interview, (2001) Notes to Chapter 12, pgs., 586-655 1105 O'Meara, D., Forty Lost Years,Ravan Press,(1996) 11°6 Ibid., page 426 1107 Saunders,C., The Making of the South African Past, David Phillip, (1988) 108Keegan, T., Colonial SouthAfrica and the Origins of the Racial Order, Leicester University Press,(1996), pg. 281 730 1109Klug, H., Constituting Democracy Globalism South Africa's Political and -Law, Reconstruction, Cambridge University Press,(2000), pg. 30. 1110 Ibid. 1111 SeeLoveland, I., By Due Process of Law, Hart Publishing, (1999), which documents the legal history of racial discrimination in South Africa between 1855 to 1960. 1112Ibid. 1113 O'Meara (1996), pg. 420. 1114 Klug, (2000), pg. 40. 1115 O'Meara, (1996), pg.420. 1116 O'Meara, (1996), the whole of his theoretical appendix, entitled, "Understanding the Politics of the Apartheid State", to his book deals with this area. 1117 Ibid., pg. 431 1118 Ibid., same section 1119 Ibid. pg. 440 1120 Ibid., same section 1121 Norval, A., Deconstructing Apartheid Discourse, Verso, (1996), pg. 303 1122 O'Meara, (1996), pg. 466 1123Ibid., same section 1124 Gutman, A.., Introduction, In `Multiculturalism', (1994) 1125 Habermas,J., Communication and the Evolution of Society, Polity Press,(1991), Legitimation Problems of the Modem State 1126 Ibid. 1127 Ibid. 1128 For example, Greenberg,S., Legitimating the Illegitimate -State, Markets and Resistancein SouthAfrica, University of California Press,(1987) 1129 Atkinson, D., One-city Initiatives, pg 271, in, Swilling, M., Humphries, R., and Shubane,K., edt., Apartheid City in Transition, Oxford University Press,(1991) 1130 Todes, A. and Watson, V., Local GovernmentReorganisation: GovernmentProposals and Alternatives in Cape Town, Urban Problems ResearchUnit, University of Cape Town, (1986); Dewar, D., Watson, V., Bassios,A., and Dewar, N., The Structure and Form of Metropolitan Cape Town: Its Origins, Influences and Performance, The Urban Problems ResearchUnit, The urban Foundation, (1990); Watson, V., and Wilkinson, P., Local GovernmentRestructuring in Cape Town, in James,W., and Simons, M., edt., The Angry Divide, David Philip, (1989) 1131 Heymans, C., The Political and Constitutional Context of Local Government Restructuring, pg. 34, in Heymans and Totemeyer, edt., Government by the People, Juta and Co. Ltd, (1988). 1132 Davenport, R., The Cape Liberal Tradition to 1910, in Butler, J., Elphick, R., and Welsh, D., edt., Democratic Liberalism in South Africa, Weslyan University Press,(1987) 1133 Keegan, (1996), pg. 282 1134 Ibid., pg. 127 1135 Ibid., pg. 127 1136 Lewis, G., Between the Wire and the Wall, David Philip, (1987), pg. 2 1137 Goldin, I., Making Race: The Politics and Economics of Coloured Identity in South frica, Longman, (1987) Africa, 138Lewis, (1987), pg. 20 1139 Ibid., pg. 180. 1140 Goldin, (1987), pg. 57 1141 Ibid, pg. 58 1142 Todes and Watson, (1986) 1143 Cited in Swilling, M., Taking Powerfrom Below: Local Government in a Future South Africa, in Heymans and Totemeyer, (1988) 731 1144 Price, R., TheApartheid State in Crisis, Oxford University Press,(1991), pg.85 1145 Swilling, (1988) 1146 Ibid. 1147 Murray, M., The Revolution Deferred, Verso, (1994), pg. 168 1148 Ibid., pg 169 1149 Lewis, (1987), pg. 281 1150 Murray, (1994), pg. 177 1151 Interviews in 1990, and 1994 1152 Adam, H., and Moodley, K., TheNegotiated Revolution, JonathanBall Publishers, (1993) 1153 Todes and Watson, (1986), pg. 11 1154 Ibid. 1155 Ibid. 1156 Ibid. 157Ibid., pg. 17 1158 Cape Town, a Survey, Supplementto Financial Mail, (April, 1988) 1159 Gildenhuys, J and Schwella, E., Report on an Equal Opportunity Policy and Affirmative Action Programmefor the City of Cape Town, City of Cape Town, (April, 1991) 1160 Atkinson, D., How do we getfrom Here to There?, in Heymans and Totemeyer, (1988) 1161 Ibid. 1162 Todes and Watson, (1986), Watson and Wilkinson, (1989), and Watson, V., Towards New Forms of local Government in South Africa, in Heymans and Totemeyer, (1988) 1163 Ibid. 1164 Botha, T., Younge, A., Chetty, K., and Motshekga, M., Report on the ANC Consultative Conference on Local Government, Centre for Development Studies, University of the Western Cape, (1990) 1165 Ibid. 1166 Ibid., pg.40 1167 Steytler, N., The Freedom Charter and Beyond, Community Law Centre, University of the Western Cape, (1991), pg. xii 1168 Ibid., pg. xiv 1169Murray, (1994) 1170 Ibid., pg. 178 1171 Mayekiso, M., Township Politics, Civic Strugglesfor a New South Africa, Monthly review Press,(1996) 1172 Cape Town City Council, Towards an Open City, (1989) 1173Ibid. 1174 Interviews, 1990, and 1994 1175 Cape Town City Council, Metropolitan Restructuring, (1991) 1176 South African Municipal Workers Union, Municipal Administrations - Restructuring for Democracy, (December, 1992) "" Interviews, 1990 and 1994 1178 Cape Town City Council, Proposed Community Liaison Function, (1992) 1179Ibid. 1180 Ibid. 1181 Le Roux, A., The Challenge of Community Participation in Local Government, Poverty Reduction Monitoring Service, Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa, (Nov., 1996) 1182 Ibid. 1183 Ibid. 1184 Ibid. 732 1185 Ibid. "86Ibid. 1187 Ibid. 1188 Ibid. 1189 Marais, H., South Africa: Limits to Change, Zed Books, (1998), pg. 177 1190 ANC election leaflet, Western Cape Branch, (1998) 1191 Marais, (1998), pg. 187 1192 Ibid., pg. 193 1193 Ibid., pg. 194 1194 Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette,No. 16085, White Paper on Reconstruction and Development, (November, 1994) 1195 Durban City Council, Agreement to End Discrimination in Local Government Employment, Including a Programme ofAffirmative Action and Guidelines Towards a Human ResourceDevelopment Policy and Single Conditions of Service, (April 1992) 1196 Gildenhuys and Schwella, (1991) 1197 Ibid. 1198 South African Municipal Workers' Union, South African Association of Municipal Employees, Cape Town Municipal Professional Staff Association, and Cape Town City Council, Affirmative Action and Human ResourcesDevelopment Agreement, (April, 1994) 1199 Ibid. 1200 Ibid. 1201 Adams, N., Commentson Paper Entitled "Affirmative Action Policy and Human ResourceDevelopment Guidelines", (Feb., 1993) 1202 Ibid. 1203 Cape Town City Council, Position Paper by the Cape town City Council on the Restructuring of Local Government in the Cape Peninsula Area, (Aug., 1993) 1204 Ibid. 1205 Ibid. 1206 Ibid. 1207 Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette,No. 15468,Local Government Transition Act, (1993) 1208 Bond, P., Elite Transition, Pluto Press,(2000), pg., 106 1209 Ibid. 1210 Le Roux, (1996) 1211 Bond, (2000), pg. 17 1212 Bond, (2000), pg. 53 1213 Marais, (1998), pg. 163 1214 Bonds, (2000), pg. 56 1215 Ibid. 1216 Ibid. 1217 Adam, H., Van Zyl Slabbert, F., and Moodley, K, Comrades in Business,International Books, (1998), pg. 166. 1218 Ibid. 1219 Ibid., pg. 160 1220 Bond, (2000), pg. 46 1221 Marais, (1998) 1222 Ibid., pg. 190 1223 Ibid., pg. 192 1224 Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette,No. 17678, Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, (Dec., 1996) 1225 Republic of South Africa, Government, Employment EquityAct, (1998) 733 1226 Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette,No. 18800, White Paper on Affirmative Action in the Public Service, (April, 1998) 1227Ibid. ' 1228 Interview, (1998) 1229 Interview, (1998) 1230 Bond, (2000), pg., 65 1231 Interviews with Black managersand managerial consultant brought in to develop changes. 1232 Peters,T., Thriving on Chaos, MacMillan, (1990) 1233 Alvesson and Willmott, (1996), pg. 100 1234 Interview with consultant, (1998) 1235 Interview with Black managerto whom it was said. 1236 Cape Town City Council, Public Participation, (May, 1997) 1237 As admitted by the consultant in interview 1238 Ibid. 1239 Ibid. 1240 Development Dynamics, Report to Cape Town City Council on a Valuing Diversity Course, (March, 1998) Training Gender and 1241 Republic of South Africa, Government Gazette,No. 18739, The White Paper on Local Government, (March, 1998) 1242 Institute for Democratic Alternatives in South Africa, Web-site commentary on White Paper on Local Government, (1998) 1243 Ibid. 1244Desai, A., Race Class and the Intellectual Left in South Africa's Democratic Transition, paper presented to Racializing Class, Classifying Race -A Conference on Labour and Difference in Africa, USA and Britain, (July 1997) 1245 Afro-American term originating in rapper street culture to describe the `gold chains' displays `rolex of wealth. ostentatious watch', and 1246 Heywood, M., WhenRacism Goes Underground, Daily Mail and Guardian, (6 September,2001) 124Russell, D., Bishop, The Poor are Under Attack, Daily Mail and Guardian, (6 September, 2001) 124Seepe,S., The Pitfalls of Racial Reasoning, Daily Mail and Guardian, (18 May, 2001) 1249 Marais, (1998), pg. 257 Notes to Chapter 13, pgs 656-662 1250 In the UK the Chartered Institute of PersonnelDevelopment developed a position it `old' in in that the the argued equalities model explicitly was mid nineties which paper because it did diversity that too approach, not rely on group a conflictual and was better individual, business but the was a means of realising on concentrated stereotypes, `equalities' its depiction However, the model relied on caricature and the of objectives. based A the that this on pursuit solely of positive action. similar almost was stereotype be then torching them, models, and can equality peopled creating straw of pattern discerned in the development of diversity in the USA. 1251 From chapter 11 1252 For example, Paris, G., Get in Touch with Your Feminine Side, People Management, (21$`March, 2002) 1253 Beck, U., Risk Society, Sage,(1992) 1254 For example, Milne, S., Colonialism and the New World Order, Guardian, (7thMarch, 2002) 1255 Cooper, R, Why WeStill Need Empires, Observer, (7`hApril, 2002) 734 1256 Habermas,J., A Berlin Republic: Writings on Germany, Polity Press,(1998) 1257 Hardt, M., and Negri, A, Empire, Harvard University Press,(2000), pg. 43 1258 Bhattacharyya, G., Gabriel, J., and Small, S., Race and Power, Routledge, (2002), pg. 11 1259 Hardt, M., and Negri, A, Empire, Harvard University Press,(2000), pg. 34 1260 Simmons-Lewis, S., Modern Councils: Old, White, Irrelevant, Local Government Chronicle, (22°dFebruary, 2002) 1261 For example, Milne, S., (2002) 1262 For example, James,L., How did this huge talent slide into a gansta life?, Observer, (24`x'March, 2002) 1263 The RunnymedeTrust, The Future of Multi-Ethnic Britain, Profile Books, (2000), pg. 234 1264 Ibid. 1265 Habermas,J., Postmetaphysical Thinking, Polity Press,(1992), chapter 6, pg. 117 Notes to Appendices 1266A reference to `What a Way to Run a Railroad' which the then leader of the council had, in a key meeting with Chief Officers on management,caricaturedly contrasted with `In Search of Excellence' as not being the way forward. 1267The diagram is based on a then interesting article done by Hambleton and Hoggett on the theoretical and political weaknesses of the individualised consumerist model of services. 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