Clothing Technology - Eberle / Hermeling - beck

Clothing Technology
... from fibre to fashion
von
Hannelore Eberle, Hermann Hermeling, Marianne Hornberger, Roland Kilgus, Dieter Menzer, Werner Ring
1. Auflage
Clothing Technology – Eberle / Hermeling / Hornberger / et al.
schnell und portofrei erhältlich bei beck-shop.de DIE FACHBUCHHANDLUNG
Thematische Gliederung:
Bekleidungstechnik
Europa Lehrmittel 2008
Verlag C.H. Beck im Internet:
www.beck.de
ISBN 978 3 8085 6225 3
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H. Eberle
H. Hermeling
Seite 1
M. Hornberger
R. Kilgus
R. Kupke
D. Menzer
A. Moll
W. Ring
Clothing
Technology
....from fibre to fashion
Fifth Edition
VERLAG EUROPA-LEHRMITTEL · Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG
Düsselberger Straße 23 · 42781 Haan-Gruiten
Europa-Nr. 62218
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Seite 2
Authors:
Hannelore Eberle
Director of Studies
Ravensburg
Hermann Hermeling
Dipl.-Ing (FH), Principal
Frankfurt
Marianne Hornberger
Diplom-Modellistin, Lecturer
Munich
Renate Kupke
Senior Lecturer
Stuttgart
Dieter Menzer
Dipl.-Ing (FH)
Nussloch
Andrea Moll
Instructor
Darmstadt
Werner Ring
Dipl.-Ing (FH), Director of Studies
Metzingen
Editor and Team Leader: Roland Kilgus, Principal, Neckartenzlingen
Fashion Drawings: Studio Salo-Döllel, Aufkirchen bei Erding
Picture Processing: Design Department, Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Leinfelden-Echterdingen
This book was produced according to the latest German Industrial Standards (DIN-Blätter). Conformance is strictly limited
to the DIN-Blätter. The DIN-Blätter are published by: Beuth-Verlag GmbH, Burggrafenstrasse 6, 10787 Berlin.
Ninth German Edition 2007
Print 5 4 3 2 1
All prints of the same edition are interchangeable, excepting correction of printing errors.
Fifth English Edition 2008
Translation: Cotton Technology International, 27 Winnington Road, Marple, Stockport SK6 6PD, England
http://www.cottontech.co.uk
ISBN 978-3-8085-6225-3
All rights reserved. This work is subject to copyright. Utilisation for any purpose other than those legally permitted must be
approved by the publisher in writing.
© 2008 Verlag Europa-Lehrmittel, Nourney, Vollmer GmbH & Co. KG, D-42781 Haan-Gruiten
http://www.europa-lehrmittel.de
Cover design: Grafic & Sound, Klaus Gierden, D-50679 Köln, after an illustration by Barbara Spannagel, D-72768 Reutlingen
Setting & layout: Satz+Layout Werkstatt Kluth GmbH, D-50374 Erftstadt
Printing: B.o.s.s. Druck und Medien GmbH, D-47574 Goch
2
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Preface
9th German
Edition
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Seite 3
This is a vocational book, directed primarily at students of the clothing industry: cutting, sewing,
and assembly for fashion and mass markets. However, it will also be found useful in courses for
managers and technologists, and as a general reference work.
A key feature of the book is its concise and compact design – a prerequisite for summarising such
a wide range of material in a single volume. Each page is complete in itself. Particular emphasis
has been laid on providing a simple layout and straightforward language, which students will find
easy to grasp. Numerous colour diagrams are an effective aid to the comprehension of some of
the more difficult topics. These coloured illustrations are a particularly useful feature of the chapters on Fabric Descriptions and the History of Clothing.
The book is organised largely according to the different technological sectors, but teaching requirements have also been kept in mind. There are eleven chapters:
Fibres, Yarns, Fabrics, Textile Finishing, Fabric Descriptions, Leather and Fur, Clothing
Manufacture, Organisation of Clothing Manufacture, Product Design, Product Groups,
History of Clothing.
The arrangement of topics conforms to the educational guidelines and the current curricula for
courses in vocational technology in the German Federal States. An important objective of this
publication was to present the extensive body of knowledge as a coherent whole. At all stages,
account is taken of the latest scientific findings and the practical experience of the industry, as well
as any relevant DIN standards.
Improvements for the 9th Edition: The sections on Textile Aftercare, Functional Clothing, Ecology,
Seam Types, Health & Safety, and Fusing have been rewritten or extended according to the latest
technical developments. Many illustrations have been enhanced by the use of colour or changed
to reflect current fashion trends.
We would like to give special thanks to the companies and associations listed on page 304 for their
assistance in the clarification of questions and for the provision of pictorial material. We are
especially indebted to Sonja Langer-Korsch and Susanne Kolb-Wachtel (leather and fur), and Hannes Döllel (fashion drawings) for their helpful suggestions.
Many clothing companies today employ offshore manufacturing. Therefore, it is useful to note
that “Fachwissen Bekleidung” has been translated into English (“Clothing Technology”) and from
there into several other European languages. Maybe this can provide some stimulus to intra- and
extra-European communication via the language of technology. The new generation will need
competence in both language and technology to succeed in an era of global market competition.
We would welcome any suggestions for improving or supplementing the material in this book.
Metzingen, Summer 2007
Preface
5th English
Edition
Editor and authors
“Fachwissen Bekleidung” is now in its ninth edition and has been a firm favourite in the Germanspeaking area of Europe since it first appeared in 1989. So far as we are aware, the book is unique in its scope and presentation, so it was perhaps natural that a demand should arise for an
English-language version.
Although this English edition follows quite faithfully the general content and layout of the German, it is not always a precise translation. There are several instances in the original where the
treatment of the subject matter naturally has a distinctively central-European bias. In the English,
an attempt has been made to present a more international perspective. Wherever possible, ISO
or ASTM standards have been referenced rather than DIN. For an international readership, there
is always the problem of whether to use British or North American terminology. For this edition,
wherever there is a conflict between the British and American traditions, the British has generally
been selected, although the American is often acknowledged and occasionally preferred. The
German approach to Work Measurement has been retained, as a valid and comprehensive example of the technique. Sections 9.6 to 9.9 of Product Design have been completely rewritten for
the English edition.
Stockport, Autumn 2008
Allan Heap & Jill Stevens
Cotton Technology International
3
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Contents
4
3.2.5
3.2.6
3.2.7
3.2.8
Crêpe Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fabrics with Three Yarn Systems . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fabrics with Four or More Yarn Systems . . . . .
Piqué Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
81
83
84
3.3
3.3.1
3.3.2
3.3.3
Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Classification of Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . .
Weft Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Warp Knitted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
85
86
92
3.4
3.4.1
3.4.2
3.4.3
Special Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Open-work Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Nonwoven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stitch-bonded and Tufted Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . .
94
94
95
97
3.5
Comparison of Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
4
Dyeing and Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
4.1
Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
4.2
Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
100
4.3
4.3.1
4.3.2
4.3.3
Coloration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dyeing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dyestuffs, Colour Fastness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Printing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
101
101
102
103
4.4
Intermediate Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4.5
4.5.1
4.5.2
Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Mechanical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Chemical Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.6
Coating and Lamination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5
Fabric Descriptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
5.1
5.2
Fabric Inspection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Commercial Names of Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
5.3
5.3.1
5.3.2
5.3.3
5.3.4
Accessories, Trimmings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Interlinings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Linings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ribbons and Decorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fastenings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
6
Leather and Fur . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Wool Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cotton Spinning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Other Spinning Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
Leather Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leather Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Leather Garment Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fur Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pelt Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pelt Finishing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
From Pelt to Fur Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Yarn Numbering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
7
Clothing Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
2.8
Yarn Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
7.1
Equipment and Methods for Design and Cutting 144
2.9
Sewing Threads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3
Textile Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
7.1.6
7.1.7
7.1.8
7.1.9
7.1.10
Design, Pattern Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Pattern Grading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Making a Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Types of Lay Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spreading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Preparation for Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Drawing and Measuring Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hand Sewing Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cutting Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1
Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Natural Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1
1.2.2
1.2.3
1.2.4
1.2.5
1.2.6
Cotton . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Flax . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Other Vegetable Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Wool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Hair Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Silk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
1.3
Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
1.3.1
1.3.2
1.3.3
1.3.4
1.3.5
1.3.6
1.3.7
1.3.8
1.3.9
1.3.10
1.3.11
1.3.12
1.3.13
Composition of Textile Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Fibre-forming Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Spinning Man-made Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Natural Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Viscose, Modal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lyocell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cupro, Acetate, Triacetate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Synthetic Polymer Fibres . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polyamide, Nylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Polyester . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Acrylic, Modacrylic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Elastane, Fluoro, Chloro, Olefin, Vinylal . . . . . . .
Glass, Carbon, Metal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4
Fibre Properties, Fibre Identification . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.5
Fibre Blending . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
1.6
Textile Labelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7
Textile Aftercare . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
1.8
Functions of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.8.1
1.8.2
1.8.3
Basic Functions and Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Clothing Physiology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Functional Textiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
1.9
Ecology and the Textile Pipeline . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2
Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.1
Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
2.2
2.2.1
2.2.2
2.2.3
2.2.4
2.3
Folded Yarns, Plied Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
2.4
Fancy Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.5
Textured Yarns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2.6
Review of Yarn Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
2.7
6
25
26
27
28
29
31
32
33
34
36
38
39
40
60
60
62
63
3.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2
Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.2.1
3.2.2
3.2.3
3.2.4
Woven Fabric Manufacture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Principles of Cloth Construction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Basic Weaves and Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Colour Woven Fabrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
74
75
79
131
131
132
133
134
135
137
138
139
140
141
141
144
145
147
149
150
152
153
154
155
156
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7.2
7.2.1
7.2.2
7.2.3
7.2.4
7.2.5
7.2.6
7.2.7
7.2.8
7.2.9
7.2.10
7.2.11
7.2.12
7.2.13
7.2.14
7.2.15
7.2.16
7.2.17
7.2.18
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Equipment and Methods for Design
and Cutting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Types of Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sewing Machines, Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Construction of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . .
Moving Parts of a Sewing Machine . . . . . . . . . .
Sewing Machine Needles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Feeding Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Presser Feet and Fabric Guides . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shuttles, Hooks and Loopers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stitch Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Lockstitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Multi-thread Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Overedge Chain Stitch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Flat Seam Stitches, Covering Stitches . . . . . . .
Blind Stitching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Seam Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Sewing Machine Drives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ancillary Mechanisms for High-speed
Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.19 Automatic Sewing Machines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.20 Automated Sewing Equipment . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2.21 Welded Seams, Seam Sealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
158
159
160
161
162
164
166
168
169
170
172
173
174
176
177
178
183
10
Product Groups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.1
Underwear, Nightwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
10.2
Foundation Garments, Swimwear . . . . . . . . . . 234
10.3
Babywear, Childrenswear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
10.4
Men’s Shirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
10.5
Workwear, Career Apparel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
10.6
Skirts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
10.7
Blouses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
10.8
Dresses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
10.9
Knitted Outerwear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
1
2
10.10 Trousers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
3
10.11 Jackets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
10.12 Coats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.13 Women's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
10.14 Men's Outfits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.15 Formal Dress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
184
185
186
187
4
10.16 Sport and Leisure Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.17 Accessories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
7.3
Problems in Sewing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
7.3.1
7.3.2
Seam Puckering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Fabric Damage, Sewing Faults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
11
History of Clothing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
11.1
Chronological Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
7.4
Equipment and Methods for Pressing and Fusing 190
11.2
Fashion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
7.4.1
7.4.2
Pressing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Fusing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11.3
Ancient Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
11.4
Ancient Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
7.5
Health and Safety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
11.5
Ancient Rome . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
11.6
Germanic Prehistory and Early Times . . . . . . . . 262
11.7
Byzantine Middle Ages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
11.8
Romanesque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
11.9
Gothic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
8
Organisation of Clothing Manufacture . . . 202
8.1
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.2
Material Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
8.3
Industry Sectors and Product Groups . . . . . . . 204
8.4
Garment Production Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
8.5
Method Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
8.6
Systems and Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
11.13 Neo-classicism: English Fashion,
Directoire and Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
8.7
Company Structure and Organisation . . . . . . . 210
11.14 Neo-classicism: Biedermeier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8.8
Organisational Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
8.9
Production Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
11.15 Romanticism, Neo-rococo,
and the Victorian Era . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
8.10
Work Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
11.16 Belle Époque, Reform, Art Nouveau . . . . . . . . . 284
8.11
Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
11.17 The Twenties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
8.12
Use of Computers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11.18 The Thirties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
5
6
11.10 Renaissance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
7
11.11 Baroque . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
11.12 Rococo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
8
9
11.19 The Forties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
11.20 The Fifties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
9
Product Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.1
Target Groups and Quality Levels . . . . . . . . . . . 223
11.22 The Seventies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
9.2
Planning a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
11.23 The Eighties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
9.3
Developing a Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
11.24 The Nineties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
9.4
Elements of Clothing Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9.5
Design Influences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
9.6
Proportion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
9.7
Control Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.8
Body Types, Size Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
9.9
Size Charts, Size Codes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
11.21 The Sixties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
10
11.25 The New Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
11.26 Glossary of Special Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 298
Index of Technical Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
11
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Fibres
1.2.4 Animal Fibres: Wool (2)
1.2 Natural Fibres
Classification of Wool
There are hundreds of different types and breeds of sheep. They are classified according to their wool into five basic types:
Fine, Medium, Crossbred, Long, and Coarse.
Wool Type
Fine
Medium, Crossbred
Long, Coarse
Merino, Rambouillet
Southdown, Corriedale
Lincoln, Romney, Karakul
finest wools, 15...23 µm1)
medium fine, 24...30 µm
coarse, over 30 µm
50 … 120 mm
120 … 150 mm
over 150 mm
highly crimped
normal crimp
low crimp, straight
Australia, South Africa, ex USSR
Argentina, Uruguay
New Zealand, Great Britain
fine outerwear, knitted and
woven, shawls, socks
heavier, more robust,
sporting clothing
carpets, traditional
furniture coverings
Breed (examples)
Fineness,
Diameter
Length
Crimp, Waviness
Sources (examples)
Applications
1)
1 µm = 1 millionth of a metre = 10¯ 6 m
Apart from its fineness, length, crimp, and breed, wool can also be classified according to:
•
Shearing: Lambswool is from the first shearing, after six months, whilst Yearling wool is from the first or second shear after
10-12 months. They are fine, soft, not very strong, with fine tips. Six-month, Eight-month, Twelve-month wools are from
sheep shorn at intervals of 6, 8 or 12 months.
•
•
•
Source: Australian, New Zealand, etc. Cape wool is from South Africa; Shetland is typical coarse wool from Scotland.
•
Recycling: Recovered Wool is wool that has been recovered mechanically by teasing apart production waste and secondhand clothing. Recovered wool is damaged and is of low quality.
Extraction: Virgin wool is from living, healthy sheep or lambs. Dead wool, Fallen wool is from sheep that have died from
natural causes. Skin wool has been taken from the skins of slaughtered sheep.
Spinning: Worsted wool is usually fine Merino, spun into fine, smooth, uniform, combed yarns. The very finest and most expensive wools are made into extra-fine combed yarns designated as super 100s to super 200s. Woollens are heavier, more
voluminous yarns prepared on the woollen spinning system. Carpet wool is long, coarse wools for carpet yarns.
protein macromolecule
fibrils
fibrillar bundles
spindle
cells
scales
Construction of the Wool Fibre
bilateral
structure
The wool fibre is made of protein molecules (keratin). It is rather similar to
human hair. The long-chain protein molecules are formed into fibrils. These
combine into fibrillar bundles which form the mass of the spindle cells. This
construction gives the wool fibre an extraordinary elasticity. The bulk of the
fibre is made from two separate components. These have different chemical
constitutions, and they wind in a spiral around each other (bilateral structure).
Moisture and temperature have different effects upon the two components,
which swell to different extents, causing changes in the overall fibre shape.
It is the bilateral structure which causes the fibres to be crimped; finer fibres
develop more crimp. Heat and moisture can relax bonds between the protein
chains. The bonds are re-formed during cooling and drying, and this is the
source of the good smoothing and shaping properties of wool.
Wool absorbs moisture (is hygroscopic). It can absorb about 1/3 of its mass of
water vapour without feeling wet. The moisture is released only slowly. In
spite of the strong affinity for water of the fibre interior, its surface is water
repellent (hydrophobic) because it is covered by an extremely thin skin, the
epicuticle. This skin causes liquid water to roll up into droplets whilst allowing
the passage of water vapour.
The scales on the fibre surfaces are capable of hooking onto one another to
cause felting, under the influence of water, heat, and mechanical action.
1: Model of the wool fibre
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Fibres
1.9 Ecology and the Textile Pipeline (3)
Eco-labelling
There is a demand from some consumer groups that textile labels should give information about any potentially harmful substances which may be contained in the product. In various countries, governmental or private organisations have developed
sets of criteria which can be embodied in a labelling scheme to satisfy these demands. Typically, such labels guarantee that:
no potentially carcinogenic dyestuffs have been used
heavy metals are present in such small quantities that their concentration, when dissolved in perspiration, would be lower
than the permitted levels for drinking water
pesticides are present in concentrations lower than those permitted for foodstuffs
formaldehyde shall not exceed a certain concentration
the pH value is neutral or slightly acid (like human skin)
textiles intended for babies and small children shall not release any dyestuff on contact with saliva.
Manufacturers or distributors of textile products can apply to these organisations for the right to use promotional and marketing
materials (labels, hang tags etc.) subject to their products being included in a stringent testing regime.
•
•
•
•
•
•
Label
Requirements
Label
Requirements
Eco-Tex Standard 100is a label
of the Hohenstein Test
Institute, in Germany. It
guarantees
that
the
concentrations of potentially
harmful chemicals shall not be
greater than certain published
values. Random samples
are submitted to laboratory
testing in one of a number of
associated institutes.
GREEN-COTTON is a trademark
of a Danish textile company
specialising in environmentally
friendly and socially responsible
production. The cotton is either
certified “organic” or “sustainable”.
It is hand-picked and contains
no pesticide residues. The latest
technology is used at all stages
of manufacture to minimise
environmental impacts.
The Eco-Tex Standard 1000
guarantees that the whole
manufacturing chain, including
working conditions, effluent
disposal,
environmental
management, storage and
transportation, all meet
certain social and ecological
standards.
NATURTEXTIL is a label of a
German industry association. It
embodies strict ecological and
social requirements throughout
the manufacturing chain. Only
natural fibres or animal products
that have been produced under
strictly organic regimes are
allowed. Organic certification is
required at all stages.
The Eco-Tex Standard 100
plus label guarantees that all
products and operations of a
given manufacturer, conform
to the requirements of both
the Eco-Tex 100 and 1000
standards.
MEDICALLY TESTED is a
designation devised by a German
research institute, based on a
specific series of laboratory tests
based on challenging human
cells with an extract from the
textile to give an assessment of
“skin tolerance”.
Ecolog is a trademark of a
German company that
specialises in weatherproof
clothing. They have developed
garments in which every
component – fabrics, linings,
membranes, zippers, padding,
buttons – is made from pure
polyester. This means that at
the end of its life, the garment
can be reduced to polyester
chips for re-use, e.g. in
bottles.
The EU Flower is a symbol
created and supported by
the European Union. Any
manufacturer may apply to use
the symbol to identify products
that comply with strict ecological and performance criteria.
The label is overseen, and
the products are tested, by
independent organisations such
as Ecolabelling Denmark.
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Yarns
2.5 Textured Yarns
Texturing
Flat continuous filament yarns made from thermoplastic (heat-formable) materials can be made permanently bulky by various
processes. This is called texturing and it results in:
• increased volume
• increased extensibility and elasticity
• lower lustre
• better thermal insulation due to the enclosed air
• higher vapour permeability and moisture transport
• softer and more comfortable fabrics
Important Texturing Processes
False-twist texturing
filaments
feed rolls
heating zone
twister
delivery rolls
Air-jet texturing
yarn feed
This is the most economical, and therefore the most
common process.
The yarn is fed through a turbulent air stream, created by
a jet. Usually the air is cold but occasionally hot air or
delivery rolls steam may be used. The air jet causes entangled loops to
be formed in the filaments.
air jet
entanglement zone
Stuffer-box texturing
The yarn is drawn through a heated zone whilst a predetermined, high level of false twist is inserted followed
by cooling and untwisting. The heat softens the filaments
and the deformation imparted by the twist is permanently set during cooling.
delivery
rolls
The resulting textured yarn is very bulky with permanent
crimps and loops. Can be used for non-thermoplastic
filaments.
The yarn is fed into a heated chamber where it is compressed. The zigzag deformations are permanently set by
subsequent cooling. The filaments can no longer lie close
together so the yarn is bulky.
heated
stuffer box
The yarn is knitted into a tube on a circular knitting
machine. The knitted fabric is heat set and then
unravelled. The shape of the knitted loops is set into the
yarn, which develops a bouclé (crinkle yarn) appearance.
Knit-deknit texturing
knitting
setting
unravelling
Types of Textured Yarns
Whatever the texturing process used, textured yarns can be classified into three groups:
Stretch yarns: Highly elastic yarns with a crimp extension of 150 to 300%.
Stabilised yarns: Yarns which have been given an additional setting treatment to reduce their elasticity and crimp extension.
Bulked yarns: Voluminous yarns with crimps and loops having normal extensibility and elasticity. The term bulked yarn is often
used generally to cover all continuous filament textured yarns and bulked staple fibre yarns.
High-bulk yarns
Man-made staple fibres can also be made into bulky, voluminous yarns. Such high-bulk yarns are usually made by blending
acrylic fibres of high and low potential shrinkage. During a subsequent heat treatment, the high-shrinkage fibres contract causing
the other fibres to buckle. A similar effect can be obtained by using bicomponent fibres.
Applications for Textured Yarns
Stockings and tights (panty hose), swimwear, sportswear, outerwear, underwear, carpets, sewing and overedge stitching threads
for extensible fabrics.
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Textile Fabrics
3.3 Knitted Fabrics
3.3.3 Warp Knitted Fabrics (2)
Multiple Guide Bar Fabrics
For most warp knitted fabrics, the basic lapping structures are used in combination. This means that more than one warp sheet
and guide bar must be used.
Warp knitted fabrics have only a limited range of applications in apparel fabrics. The most important are: leisure and swimwear,
foundation and lingerie, extensible linings, laces, ribbons and trimmings.
In household textiles, warp knits are used for curtains, bed clothing and furnishings. The widest use of warp knits is in technical
fabrics.
Locknit
Locknit (charmeuse) is a combination
×1 plain stitches. On one
of tricot and 2×
side the fabric displays distinct wales of
small face loops; the other side shows
the zigzag formation of the underlaps.
It is made from filament yarns which give
the characteristic lustre. Applications:
linings, interlinings, lingerie (Figures 1,
2, 3).
1: Locknit,
schematic
Warp Knitted Terry
This is made with an extra warp sheet
of pile yarns which are caused to form
loops, bound into a ground fabric.
Applications include furnishings and
bed sheets (Figure 4).
Warp Knitted Plush, Velour
2: Locknit, face
3: Locknit, back
In this case, the pile loops are cut to
give a fleecy or velvet-like surface.
Applications include beach, leisure and
sportswear, ladies outerwear (Figure 5).
Raschel Net
Nowadays, net fabric is almost always
made on raschel machines. It is a combination of pillar and tricot stitches.
Raschel net is most popular in bridal
wear (Figure 6).
4: Warp knitted terry
5: Warp knitted plush, velour
Raschel Lace
Raschel lace fabrics are often made on
a base of net fabric with a pattern
formed from inlay yarns. They are used
for foundation and lingerie, bridal and
formal wear, and as trimmings (Figure 7).
6: Raschel net
7: Raschel lace
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Dyeing and Finishing
4.6 Coating and Lamination
Coating
Coating is the application of a layer of natural or synthetic
polymer to one side of the fabric, followed by fixation in a
curing oven.
polymer blade
fabric
The polymer film can be applied directly to the fabric (Figure
1). However, if the fabric is an open one, or the material to be
applied has a low viscosity, the liquid will first be applied to a
carrier paper and then transferred from there to the target
fabric (Figure 2).
curing chamber
1: Principle of direct coating
The coating imparts new properties to the fabric, which are a
combination of the original material (woven, knitted, nonwoven) and the coating (polyurethane, polyvinylchloride).
curing chamber
fabric
paper collection
polymer
paper
Coated textiles (Figures 3 and 4) have a wide range of uses
from clothing to technical fabrics. In clothing uses, it is
advantageous if the coating is permeable to air and moisture
vapour.
2: Principle of indirect coating
Applications
• sporting, protective, working clothing;
• highly-visible (fluorescent) clothing;
• shoe uppers, leather cloth;
• handbags and luggage;
• furniture and automobile seat coverings;
• bookbinding, maps, albums;
3: Coated fabric
• window blinds, shower curtains, table covers;
• floor and wall coverings;
• conveyor belts, tarpaulins, awnings, air-supported
structures, inflatable dinghies, textile roofing, etc.
4: Protective clothing
Lamination
blade
fabric
Lamination is the superimposition and bonding of two or
more fabrics, or a fabric with paper, film, or foam.
The bonding can be achieved with an adhesive (Figure 5) or
by heat (Figure 6), whereby a polymer film or foam is melted
onto the surface of one fabric and then the other fabric is
pressed onto it (Figure 7).
polymer
fabric
5: Adhesive lamination
flame heating
fabric
foam
6: Foam lamination
7: Foam laminated fabric
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Fabric Descriptions
5.3 Accessories, Trimmings
5.3.3 Ribbons and Decorations
A garment is made not only from the apparel fabric but also various accessory items. These have to be chosen in such a way
that they complement the outer fabric both aesthetically, in terms of decoration, and practically, in terms of ensuring that the
garment performs as expected in its intended end use.
The manufacture of ribbons, tapes, and decorations is similar to that of textile fabrics; weaving, knitting, braiding, or nonwoven
techniques. In many cases, different patterning elements are combined such as fibre and colour effects, structure and finishing.
The commercial names for ribbons often follow from the application or the structure, for example piping ribbon, velvet ribbon.
Decorative ribbons (trimmings) are also used for ornamentation.
Ribbons and Tapes
Name
Features, Properties, Applications
Trimmings
General name for a patterned, woven or knitted ribbon in cotton, silk, wool,
or man-made fibre.
Scalloping,
Rick-rack
Narrow bowed, zigzag, or scalloped ribbon, plain or multi-coloured in
cotton or man-made fibres for edge trimming of traditional costumes and
children's wear.
Elastic tape
Highly elastic, flat, braided band containing rubber or elastomeric fibres.
1: Trimming
2: Scalloping, Rick-rack
Buttonhole tape
Broad elastic tape with buttonholes located in the centre.
Piping
Cotton or linen plain woven ribbon about 1 cm wide, used as a tailoring aid
for edges, reveres, and collars.
Moiré ribbon
Cotton, silk or man-made fibre ribbon with a moiré pattern for hat bands
and bows.
Seaming tape
Cotton or viscose twill woven tape for stabilising seams.
Welted tape
Cotton or viscose tape with a narrow welt at the edge.
Ribbed tape
Cotton, silk, or viscose tape with pronounced ribs for decoration or for
waistbands.
Velvet ribbon
Cotton, silk or viscose narrow-woven velvet; sensitive to handling.
Bias binding
Tape cut on the bias (diagonally) in various widths and materials, plain or
patterned, either flat or folded for use as binding.
Stamped tape
Interlining tape with pre-stamped marks to show sewing width and seam
allowance. Aids more efficient working.
Taffeta ribbon
Filament yarn ribbon, plain or check patterned, for ribbon bows.
Galloon
A particularly supple, plain or patterned braided ribbon for piping or binding
in outerwear.
Fringes
A narrow edging of projecting yarns which are not woven into the fabric,
in viscose, wool, or silk.
Cords
Circular braided materials of various thickness in viscose, cotton or synthetics. Used as decoration for clothing, in household textiles, and in
sporting goods.
Tassels
Expensive, hand-made articles in silk or viscose. A combination of fringes,
cords, and braids.
Rosettes
Decorative items used either alone or in combination with ornamental
textiles.
Soutache
A mouldable flat braid with two ribs in silk or viscose used for formal clothes.
Pompons
Bunches of wool, silk or synthetics used as trimmings, hanging alone or in
groups.
3: Elastic tape
4: Buttonhole tape
5: Welted tape
6: Galloon
Decorations
7: Decorations
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7 Clothing Manufacture
7.2 Equipment and Methods
for Sewing
Seite 159
7.2.2 Sewing Machines, Overview
Machine Types
Applications
Straight seams, zigzag seams
(see pages 170 to 173).
1: Lockstitch
machine
2: Chain stitch
machine
3: Multi-thread chain
stitch machine
Blind stitch machines for
invisible stitching and
hemming
Linking machines for
attaching collars, cuffs and
waistbands on knitted fabrics
(see page 177).
4: Blind stitch machine
5: Linking machine
Edge neatening, combined
neatening and seam closing,
safety stitching (see pages
174, 175).
6: Overedge machine
7: Safety stitch machine
Binding cut edges, flat
seams on knitted fabrics
(see page 176).
8: Flat seam machine
9: Flat seamer with cylinder bed
Specialised sewing
operations (see page 185).
10: Buttonhole machine
11: Button sewing machine
12: Automatic looper
Automatic, complex sewing
operations (see page 186).
13: Profile sewer
14: Pocket sewer
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Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture
8.3 Industry Sectors and Product Groups
The clothing industry ranges from small, hand-made (bespoke) operations up to large industrial garment making enterprises.
Industrial production is divided according to
• Target groups (women's, men's, and children's wear),
• Applications (underwear, shirtings, foundation garments, workwear, and sportswear),
• Materials (wovens, flat knits, circular knits).
Bespoke operations are divided along technical lines into men's tailoring, women's tailoring, shirtings, and underwear.
Comparison between Bespoke and Industrial Production
Bespoke Clothing Production
Industrial Clothing Manufacture
• The clothing is made for individual clients, according to individual size and requirements. Particular characteristics of
the client, in terms of the body shape, can be taken into
account during cutting and sewing.
• Production is geared to an anonymous, statistically and/or
demographically and culturally defined target consumer
group.
• The client selects the material and the design, from sample
swatches and fabric collections. The cut and the style is
agreed by discussion with the tailor, before cutting begins.
• Bespoke tailoring involves a much higher investment of
time for each garment, and is correspondingly more expensive than industrial manufacture. However, the client is
usually rewarded by a more individual design and a higher
quality of material and workmanship
• Cutting patterns and sizes are based on standard size
charts, derived from large numbers of measurements.
• Garments are produced in a limited range of sizes. Standardised cutting and making procedures mean that all garments have the same shape; allowances for uncommon
body shapes can not be made.
• The consumer has the choice between a wide range of different garment styles but has no direct influence over their
design and cut.
• Large-scale manufacturing techniques allow a wide range
of garments to be produced in a fraction of the time
required for bespoke tailoring of individual items.
Product Groups with Examples of Product Types (Apparel Fabrics)
Menswear, Boyswear
Womenswear
Children's wear
Workwear, Sportswear
jackets
trousers
suits
formal wear
uniforms
waistcoats
coats
traditional costume
blouses
dresses
skirts
jackets
coats
trousers & trouser-suits
evening wear
wedding dresses
traditional costume
babywear
jackets
trousers
coats
girls dresses
workwear
sportswear
leisure wear
ski wear
jeans
protective clothing
Knitted Outerwear
Shirtings, Underwear
Foundation wear, Swimwear
Accessories
pullovers
twin-sets
jackets & cardigans
knitted dresses
dress shirts
casual shirts
children’s shirts
brassieres
corsetry
support stockings
swim suits
bikinis
swimming trunks
socks
stockings
leggings
scarves
caps
ties
handkerchiefs
nightwear
underwear
lingerie
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Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture
8.4 Garment Production Systems
Types of Production System
There are different ways to organise the production of garments, according to the type, the quantity and the diversity of products to be made. The number of items to be made and the rate of delivery of these items distinguish individual production,
batch production and mass production.
Individual Production
With individual production (making
through) each product is made only
once. The system requires highly
skilled, experienced operators and
versatile machinery.
Example: made-to-measure costume
Batch Production
Batch production is used for larger,
though fixed quantities of identical
articles either for stock or to order.
Examples: blouses, skirts
Mass Production
Mass production means that large
quantities of identical products are
made continuously. The high utilisation
of machinery and labour allows a high
level of automation and specialisation.
Examples: T-shirts, work trousers
Sharing a job of work between several people is called division of
labour. Quantitative division is where the required number of whole
items is shared (with each person doing the same work). Qualitative
division is where the work required for each item is divided into
smaller operations (each person performs a different operation).
Production Organisation Systems
1: Straight line system with hanger transport
2: Bundle assembly with wagons
The synchronised, or straight-line system is suitable for large volume
production (mass production or large batches). As the name suggests,
the work flows in a straight line through a series of workstations, each
of which is synchronised to the next by ensuring that the time spent
at each station is exactly the same. This represents an extreme form
of the division of labour.
The system requires that each individual step in the assembly of the
product has to be analysed carefully and the steps distributed in a
balanced way over the available work stations. Each operator then performs exactly the same operation(s) over and over again on the identical parts of successive garments. Detailed work plans have to be
drawn up to facilitate this balancing of the line. Advantages of the synchronised line system include short distances between stations, low
volume of work in process, precise planning of production times,
highly visible production progress and predictable production quantity. Disadvantages include the need for intensive detailed preplanning, high cost of style changes, sensitivity to disruption by
production difficulties or absenteeism, and the dependence of
productivity on maintaining a strict rhythm of work.
The progressive bundle system is a way of avoiding the rigidity and
some of the disadvantages of the synchronised line system. Machines
and operatives are organised into sections, each of which specialises
either in the production of a major sub-component (collars, cuffs), or
the assembly of two or more sub-components.
Within and between sections the work is balanced according to the
time required for each sub-function. The combination of small bundles and a line system provides the best solution to the problems of frequent style changes, small lot sizes, and short delivery deadlines.
Materials transport systems (Figures 1 and 2) distribute the work in
progress among the different workstations.
205
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8
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Organisation of
Clothing Manufacture
8.9 Production Management (1)
Production management provides all of the tools that are required for the smooth and economic operation of manufacturing
processes. It regulates the interaction in space and time between people, equipment, information and resources to achieve the
objectives of the manufacturing system (page 209). A principle concern is the flow of work in progress and information.
The following tasks are of particular significance.
• Determining the time sequence of the required processes
• Timely provision of materials and equipment
• Timely provision of information
Every manufacturing company has a production program to follow. For a garment maker, the production program is embodied
in the collection plan. The collection is the range of products that will be manufactured for marketing in a particular season
(page 224).
The Production department co-ordinates the development of new products, the procurement of materials and their processing,
and the control of quality throughout manufacture
The Processing (Making-up) department is responsible for the processes that complete the work to be done. It is responsible for
production planning and control.
Data Exchange and Data Formulation
Co-ordination between departments, sections and processes is mediated by the exchange of data (information). Data are supplied
in the form of detailed work instructions and process-dependent technical information. Data have to be documented. This can be
done via a company computer network and also by the use of standard company forms. The way that data are transmitted in a particular company will depend on its structure, its level of technology, the type and range of its collections and other factors. A wide
variation is possible.
Task
Development of new
products
• Product concept
• Design concept
• Market orientation
(Target group)
• Fabric concept
• Style calculation
Production planning
•
•
•
•
Product
Colours
Sizes
Quality targets
Processing Tools
Sketches, Style concepts
Data Sources
Forms description
Style patterns
Making instructions
Technical drawings
Calculations
Parts lists
Style specification
Style
components
Block
patterns
Material
records
Equipment
records
Scheduling
records
Quality
handbook
Cutting lists
Materials lists
Cutting instructions
Making plans
Quality
specifications
Balance plan
Production control
• Process schedule
(sequence of subprocesses)
• Progress control
(task-dependent)
• Quantities
• Deadlines
• Quality control
Production plan
(task-dependent)
1
Forms for process-,
quantity-, progress
control
Making-up
212
Task
Quality control
plan
Progress plan
Week 11
2
3
H&O
Maier
Kühnel
Grotz
M. Söhne
Eberle
Menzer
L&N
Progress plan
4
5
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Seite 223
9 Product Design
9.1 Target Groups and Quality Levels
Marketing is a collection of activities that include market research, consumer surveys, and customer service. The objective is to
arrive at a collection of products for sale in the future and then to promote this collection in the market. The ultimate goal is a
collection that can be produced for minimum risk and maximum return.
Target Groups
A target group is an identifiable sector of consumers with broadly similar characteristics, such as fashion consciousness,
buying habits, types of shops used, brand awareness, brand loyalty and quality requirements. A target group can be defined
according to the following criteria.
Attitude and Lifestyle
Womenswear
Menswear
Fashion Awareness and Expectations
Womenswear
Menswear
Anti-fashion, no demands
Trendy fashion follower
Avant-garde
Avant-garde
Nonconformist
Younger, confident, demanding
Fashion conscious
Young fashions
Prestige oriented
Untidy youthful
Jeans type
Jeans type
Not to be tempted
Older, demanding, fashion grouch
Career woman
Career man
Careful, unsophisticated
No particular orientation
Modern woman
Modern man
Smart, conservative
Conventional, unsophisticated
Youthful
Youthful
Cultured
Businessman
Smart
Formal
Middle of road
Middle of road
Bargain hunter
Bargain hunter
Young, trendy
Quality Level
Quality level is the other factor that determines the market sector towards which a collection will be aimed. The quality level
defines the rank of the product in the total range of offers in the market, so far as its design content and workmanship are concerned. The following factors, for example, have an influence.
• Fabric quality
• Workmanship in the interior parts
• Style and Fit
high
• Fashion content
• Precision of assembly
• Range of sizes and number of pieces
The following quality levels can be distinguished
Exclusivity
Designer
High quality
Designer quality characteristics include unique designer
labels, small numbers per style, the most exclusive
fabrics – often with in-house designs – extreme fashion
leaders, avant-garde designs.
Upper middle
High quality or Model fashions are characterised by very
high levels of workmanship, exclusive designs and
detailing, small series production, limited size range,
fashionable.
The Upper middle level uses good quality fabrics, provides optimum fit, and follows the latest fashions in style
and colour.
Middle
The Middle level has strict price constraints, a comprehensive size range, but a limited range of styles.
Bottom, discount store
low
The Bottom or Discount level has large quantities of
limited styles. Fabric quality and workmanship are
geared to low price levels. The style and fit are of comparatively lower importance.
Quantity
1: Clothing quality levels
223