A critical comparison of ATS, Berlin, and Jaubert methods of

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Is there an ideal method?
Eric Borneman
University of Houston
Department of Biology and Biochemistry
The Real Thing –
What is a Coral Reef?
Characteristics:
1. Highly oligotrophic waters
2. High irradiance
3. Warm temperature
4. Very high species diversity
5. Habitat specialization/commensal and symbiotic relations
6. Adjacent community interaction
7. High rates of productivity
8. High rates of calcification
9. Dominated by turf and crustose algae, highly grazed
10. Variable percentage of coral coverage
Coral Reefs = Deserts + Rainforests
Organisms are specifically adapted to take advantage of low nutrient
availability and high competition
Individually, they would all take more food
Together, if all had more food, the system would shift or collapse
Environmental Averages and Extremes for Reef Sites
(after Kleypas et al. 1999)
Variable
Minimum
Maximum
Average
SD
Temperature (oC)
Average
Minimum
Maximum
21.0
16.0
24.7
29.5
28.2
34.4
27.6
24.8
30.2
1.1
1.8
0.6
Salinity (PSU)
Minimum
Maximum
23.3
31.2
40.0
41.8
34.3
35.3
1.2
0.9
Nutrients (µmol L-1)
NO3
PO4
0.00
0.00
3.34
0.54
0.25
0.13
0.28
0.08
Physico-chemical Environmental and Potentially Limiting Variables
(after Kleypas, et al., 1999)
Variable
Reef Limits
Time scale
Temperature (oC)
Salinity (PSU)
Light (µE m-2 s-1)
18
25-42
30-40% SSI (300-500PAR)
10% SSI (100-180PAR)
annual minima
continuous
limits reefs
limits corals
Nutrients (µmol l-1)
NO3
PO4
0.5-3.0
0.1 - 2.0
Mangrove development
While mangroves are often associated with coral reefs, they are
extensive terrestrial and coastal elements most often influencing
terrestrial runoff to reefs. This mangrove is several kilometers
inland from the coast, and another several kilometers from any
coral reef development at all.
Mangrove habitat
Seagrass Meadows
Coral Reef Differences
A healthy Indo-Pacific coral reef
Note windward and leeward sides and
the slope development on each.
Lagoons
Coastal and Fringing Reefs
Offshore Reefs and Atolls:
Acropora nobilis and A. pulchra
Hydroids and Acropora palifera
Many corals may be exposed at low tides
Deepwater Sites
Trachyphyllia geoffroyi
A History of Reefkeeping
Major Breakthroughs
Water Quality Summary of Berlin and Berlin Hybrid Systems
Variable
Temperature (oF)
mean
max/min
Salinity (ppt)
mean
max/min
pH
mean
max/min
PO4 (ppm)
mean
max/min
80
86/74
Note: because of the number of tanks, the time period
over which they were kept, improper record keeping over time,
and variables that change over time, including variances between
systems, makes these water quality data only grossly accurate -
Alkalinity (meq/l)
34
35/32
4.2
2.4/5.3
Ca++
8.4
8.6/8.2
450
520/400
NO2+NO3 (ppm)
.20-.27
.40-.80/<.05-.15
4-10
8-20/<2 - 6
note: nutrient levels are split. First number is for Berlin Hybrid (with sand), second for Berlin (no
sand)
Schematic of “typical” Berlin-style Aquarium set-up (Delbeek, Sprung 1994)
500 l Hybrid Berlin System, in operation 5 years (1996)
10 cm sand bed,
with plenum
500 l Hybrid Berlin System, in operation 5 years (1996)
10 cm sand bed,
with plenum
500 l Hybrid Berlin System, in operation 7 years (1998)
12 cm coarse sand bed, no plenum
500 l Hybrid Berlin System, in operation 9 years (2000)
12 cm coarse sand bed, no plenum
Algae Turf Scrubbers and the Dynamic Aquaria Paradigm
Principles:
Many species of turf algae, grown on screens and lit in a separate area,
are used for nutrient uptake and water quality control
Dump buckets housing the algae screens provide non- traumatic natural water flow
Deep oolitic aragonite sand beds are integral to the system set-up and provide buffering,
trace elements, calcium, denitrification and habitat for flora and fauna
Refugia are used as areas free of predation to culture plankton and plankton-like organisms
Reverse daylight is used on the screens to maintain pH levels at night and stabilize and keep oxygen
at saturation by keeping photosynthesis rates high compared to respiration
Biodiversity is stressed in a balanced livestock population
Live rock, strong lighting, and nutrient export by algae screen harvest are the basic tenets.
Heavy feeding is possible because of the rapid uptake of N and P by algae, accumulation by
harvestable biomass, and uptake in the form of ammonia before nitrate is even produced
No protein skimming, additives, water changes, or supplemental pumps are required
Number of ATS systems maintained: 4
Longest established: 3.5 years
Schematic drawing of Smithsonian Caribbean microcosm (Adey, Loveland 1998)
Scrubber
lagoon
Schematic Drawing of Smithsonian Caribbean Microcosm (Adey, Loveland 1998)
Irradiance of Smithsonian Caribbean microcosm (Adey, Loveland 1998)
Display Tank, 480 l ATS system, Inland Aquatics (1995)
Refugium
Deep sand bed
(no plenum)
160 l ATS aquarium (1998)
Halymenia in refugium
Note growth of Sinularia in 3 months
2008
2008
The Jaubert Microcean Ecosystem and Variations
Principles
- Water filtration accomplished by the flora and fauna in a thick sediment layer sandwiched
between the water column and a confined bottom water layer (plenum)
- High O2 in the water column and low O2 in the plenum create an O2 gradient in the sand bed
that provides for stratification of aerobic and denitrifying bacterial populations
- Fauna in the “living”sand bed enhances the microbial breakdown process by mimicking natural
processes of uptake, assimilation, and breakdown
- The sand bed acts as a buffer, calcium source, and sink for various compounds
- Sand beds are deep and mechanically separated in layers by screen to prevent burrowers from
disturbing stratified and productive deep microbial communities.
- Careful attention is given to establishment of pioneer and successional communities
prior to predator introduction - diversity and accuracy is stressed.
- Live rock, strong water flow, and strong lighting are used and introduces the concept of “live sand”
- Protein skimming or other filters are not used ordinarily, and water element additions only if
required by individual systems. Water changes are not done unless required.
Number of Jaubert style aquariums maintained: 24
Longest established: 6.5 years
Schematic drawing of Jaubert Microcean Ecosystem (Jaubert 1989)
Reference: Jaubert, Jean. 1989. An integrated nitrifying-denitrifying biological system capable of purifying sea water
in a closed circuit aquarium. Deuxiéme Congrés international d’Aquariologie (1988) Monaco. Bulletin de l’Institute
Océanographique, Monaco, no spécial 5: 101-106.
Live rock in a 160 l Jaubert aquarium, no additions (1994)
Protopalythoa sp.
Montipora sp.
Porites sp.
Zoanthus sp.
hydroids
160 l Jaubert aquarium, established four years (1996)
strong water motion
Montipora digitata eventually
formed a “microatoll”
Hydnophora rigida
Xenia sp.
Favites sp
Sea “biscuit”
Acanthastrea sp.
Parazoanthus sp.
Final Variations - Improvements Over Time
Linked habitats embody principles of all natural methodologies
- Live rock, live sand, strong water motion and strong lighting are basic tenets
- Refugium is incorporated
- Deep denitrifying and functional sand beds are utilized
- Reverse daylight principles and algae or plants (seagrasses) are utilized
- No protein skimming or other filtration used to maximize the integrity of the water column
- No water changes are done
- Strong emphasis on producing or the input of live zooplankton and phytoplankton
Differences:
- No algae screens used
- A surge device replaces most traumatic pumps
- No plenum is used
- No trace elements or other additions used.
- A calcium reactor or calcium/carbon source is utilized (kalkwasser, bicarbonate, etc.)
- Carbon is used to manage secondary metabolites produced by huge diversity of organisms
Schematic of Multi-Linked Unskimmed Habitat
This set-up maximizes niche habitats, increases biodiversity and spatial
heterogeneity, minimizes maintenance, and is an accurate mimic of natural
interrelated communities.
refugium
surge
Seagrass area receives passive overflow from
reef and acts as a settling area for detritus which
feeds the grasses
mixed substrate
reef system
Sea Grass System
deep co arse sand substrate
deep very fine sand substrate
reverse daylight
Reverse
daylight
Intertidal sump
no substrate, rock rubble, some exposed to air
optional reverse daylight
1200 l main reef aquarium, unskimmed, multi-linked habitat (1998)
12-25 cm sand bed,
No plenum
1200 l main reef aquarium, unskimmed, multi-linked habitat (1999)
1200 l main reef aquarium, unskimmed, multi-linked habitat (1999)
Coral tips exposed to air
during each surge
1200 l main reef aquarium, unskimmed, multi-linked habitat
(1999)
2004
2004
2006
2006
300 l seagrass tank, multi-linked habitat, unskimmed (2000)
Seagrasses present: Thallasia testudinum, Halodule wrightii, Syringodium filiforme
Small “patch-reef”
12-18 cm very fine grain
sand bed, no plenum, some
carbonate muds
300 l seagrass tank, multi-linked habitat, unskimmed
1 month after “planting”
note Penicillus and Avrainvillea,
common to seagrass areas
300 l seagrass tank, multi-linked habitat, unskimmed
Note lack of epiphytic growth
on Thallasia blades.
Shed blades are not removed
from the system but are allowed
to fall to bottom and decompose
300 l seagrass tank, multi-linked habitat, unskimmed
Note natural positioning of
Catalaphyllia jardinei in silty,
lagoon-like setting
2006
2006
2007
2007
Quantitative Comparisons and Summary
System
Coral reef
Commerci
al ATS
Personal
ATS
Jaubert
Personal
Jaubert
Linked
habitat
Personal
Berlin
temperature salinity
(oC)
(ppt)
27.6
34.8
26.03
35.27
28.9
pH
-8 .20
8.053
calcium
(mg/l)
-420
416
alkalinity
(meq/l)
2.2-2.4
na
NO3
(mg/l)
.0155
<.04526
PO4
(mg/l)
.0124
.0222
34
8.10
420
3.52
<.50
27.8
35
8.24
8.38
520
460
Na
4.2
28.9
35.5
8.20
435
26.7
34
8.40
450
O2
(% sat.)
95.9
surf. light
(µEm2s-1)
-2000
1900
11.277
<.05
-88
-600
.25
.013
.097
.0480
-93 .0
-900
.05
3.4
.074
.026
-98 .0
-1650
.25
4.2
4-10
.20-.27
na
-1000
.10
water
Supplements/Additive based
methods
“Miracle” Muds
Probiotics
Zeovit
Things I Know
1. You don’t need a skimmer (but good to have for emergencies)
2. You don’t need to do water changes
3. There is nothing you need to buy at a store except salt, livestock
(although some equipment, some food, and tanks are okay)
4. You can grow corals in a glass of water with an airstone if you
want.
5. There are a thousand ways to grow coral and keep fish alive.
6. Less is more – and infinitely more impressive.
7. Reproduction is the real future and goal of reefkeeping
8. Food is the major limitation of the hobby’s success
9. None of these points are necessarily “ideal”
10. Don’t do anything like I do it (unless you want to).
Hypothetical Ideal?
6 x 1000w 6500K HQI bulbs
Surge tank
3200L
40L
reef
Cultures
30g/d
Seawater
reservoir
100,000L
Seagrass and/or Lagoon habitat
40,000L
Issues with Closed Systems
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
The problem with scale
The problem with diversity
The problem with biomass:water volume
The problem with organism choice
The problem with replicating natural processes
Reef Designs
Changing (slowly) from mixed species “garden reefs” to
somewhat more specialized habitats
Advantages: more normal behavioral and biological interactions
= more reproduction, better health, better growth, less mortality
The Problem of Scale
Options
1) recreate an entire “reef-in-a-box”
2) recreate a niche or microniche
3) recreate a population (aquaculture)
Example of Biomass/Habitat
The Problem with Diversity:
Stocking Order
The Problem with Diversity:
Deep Sand Beds
Advantages:
Highly effective nutrient decomposition/remineralization
Increased biodiversity and spatial heterogeneity
Habitat for sand dwelling species
Disadvantanges
High oxygen consumption
Can be mismanaged (remotes are good)
Myths
Sandbeds are not a nutrient sink
Anaerobia and H2S are rarely problematic
Stratification of sand layers - 160l Jaubert tank with plenum
aerobic surface layer
hypoxic layer
Cyanobacteria and reductive areas in sand bed
80l attached refugium, unskimmed, no plenum
cyanobacteria
reductive areas
Deep Sand Bed, Lagoon system, Smithsonian ATS Microcosm
(Adey and Loveland 1998)
polychaete and amphipod
burrows
Reductive areas
and heavy pockets
of detritus
The Problem with Diversity
and
The Problem with Food:
Refugiums
Areas within or attached to a main reef which provide a habitat
free of predation for the growth and reproduction of pelagic and
demersal, and thigmotactic phytoplankton and zooplankton-type
organisms.
160 l ATS tank, showing “drop-in” refugium (1998)
refugium
2008
Ideal Refugium
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Should be as large as possible
Should be fed (including phytoplankton)
Should have low turnover
Should passively flow into tank
Should contain high spatial heterogeneity (rubble, sand) for
demersal zooplankton
6. Should contain turf species more than macroalgae
7. Should actively add or culture copepods, rotifers, Artemia
The Problems with Diversity:
Live rock on a Reef
My 15-year old live rock…..no “old tank syndrome” here
- intermediate disturbance works in the wild…tanks too?
The Problem with Diversity:
Competition and Closed Systems
Reduce stocking density, allow for growth
Know competitive strategies, avoid incompatible species
Activated carbon, clays and water changes for secondary metabolites
The REALLY Important Things
Light (available, but amounts are uncertain)
Water motion (available, but amounts are uncertain)
Water Quality (available)
Food (improving, but still lacking)
Lighting and Photosynthesis
- Zooxanthellae provide photosynthate
- Photosynthate is mostly carbon-rich “junk food,” mostly lost as
mucus
-In high light, photosynthesis can provide up to160% of carbon, but
corals are nitrogen limited.
- Shade-adapted corals typically meet 60-80% of carbon, and are
carbon limited in low light and/or low water flow.
- However, Pmax is not hard to achieve
Photosynthetic Saturation
- varies across taxa - A LOT - plus ID problems
- no correlation between polyp size and saturation level
- soft corals may be higher than stonies
- any more needs to be “managed”
- photoinhibition possible
Spectrum versus irradiance and your bulbs
- zooxanthellae strain variations
- pigmentation differences - zoox + animal
- photoacclimation/adaptation - highly capable
- photons are photons
Coral Coloration
Fluorescing protein (Dove et al. 2001)
Coral pigmentation
-Coral color in zooxanthellate corals due to fluorescing and
non-fluorescing proteins (>300, RGB genes)
- Zooxanthellae are brown and can influence color
- Function is unclear and variable (light, genetics, food?)
Ideal Lighting
1. Dawn and dusk period – 0-1600-0 PAR within 2 hours
2. Highly variable PAR throughout day (prevents photodamage)
3. Seasonally variable photoperiod – reproduction/rhythms
4. Moonlight – varies with lunar cycle (0-10 PAR)
5. Majority of light 6500K-10000K
10X more, glitter lines up to 500X more)
6. Can add blue/UV for fluorescence aesthetics
7. USE A PAR METER
(reflector up to
Water Motion
Water Flow
Affects:
•
•
•
•
•
Light
Nutrition
Water quality
Direct and indirect species effects
Growth forms
Additionally affects:
 photosynthesis
 respiration
 tissue growth
 larval dispersal
 waste removal
 gas exchange (water + animals)
 health (disease + bleaching)
 calcification rates
 sedimentation
 fragmentation
Flow characterization
Low flow
1 - 5 cm/sec
Medium flow
6 - 20 cm/sec
High flow
21-50 cm/sec
Very high flow>50 cm/sec
Flux rate measured across a 1 meter strip of Davies Reef, Australia:
12,000 cubic meters/day, or about 500 cubic meters/hour!!
Average Reef Flow Rates
Reef Area
Reef crest, fast currents,
wave surge
Lagoon
Deep fore-reef (deeper than
25 m)
Mid- to deep fore-reef (1525 m)
Shallow fore-reef
Storms
Typical Flow speed
7 Ğ 100cm/sec
1 - 16 cm/sec
<5 cm/sec
unidirectional
5 Ğ7 cm/sec, or less
unidirectional
9 Ğ 16cm/sec
7 meters/sec
Best Water Flow Devices
Propeller powerheads (wide flow)
- high volume, low velocity
Wavebox
Dump buckets
Surge tanks
Controllable wide-flow (Vortech)
2008
Ideal Water Flow
1. Turbulent flow decreases boundary layers
2. Random flow eliminates “dead spots” but some dead spots fine
3. Low power, low turnover pumps with flow generated in tank
- big pumps with lots of high velocity outputs NOT ideal
4. Mass flux, low velocity is ideal
5. 10-30cm/sec is ideal for most corals/reef habitats
6. Combination of methods often works best
Food
Corals are polytrophic
•
•
•
•
They use light – for carbon
They consume zooplankton, detritus (and a few eat phytoplankton)
They farm, capture, and utilize bacteria
They absorb dissolved nutrients
Composition and Amounts
of Zooplankton by Time of Day
Type
day (mg/m-3)
Copepods
174
Appendicularians
4
Chaetognaths
2
Amphipods
0
Ostracods
2.5
Decapods
.7
Veligers
15
Foraminferans
4
Fish larvae
13
Mysids
6
Crab Zoe
0
Polychaetes
4
Total Haloplankton/Meroplankton 130
Total Microplankton
11
(zooflagellates, ciliates, nauplii)
night (mg/m-3)
1574
34
70
26
138
43
382
10
70
701
237
38
2346
181
Some Levels of Zooplankton in Reef Waters
- .5 kg m-1 d-1 of waterborne plankton over a reef crest1
- Copepod levels from 500,000 m-3 to 1,500,000 m-3, with swarms from 1-2m2 to 30m3
Organism type
Bacteria
Phototropic picoplankton and nanop lankton
Nanoplanktonic flagellates
Microphy toplankton
Viral particles
density of cells/ml water
106
104
103
103
108
“Small-Polyped Corals Don’t
Need To Be Fed”
Number of zooplankton captured by equivalent biomass of coral
100 polyps of M. cavernosa
9000 polyps of M. mirabilis
Captures per 20 min.
M. cavernosa
M. mirabi lis
0
500
1000
..but Acropora are different
Energy budget for Acropora palmata
Trophic Levels Averages
Nutritional experiment in Rotterdam
30
Size [mm 2]
25
control
20
600 nauplii L-1
15
1800 nauplii L-1
3750 nauplii L-1
10
5
0
Start
0,5
1
1,5
2
2,5
3
3,5
4
4,5
5
Months
Same findings at GBRMPA, Lisbon, Italy, Oceanopolis (2006-7)
Ideal Food Solutions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Large refugium
Addition of live foods (small), diverse foods
Retention of waterborne particulate matter (skim less)
Constant feeding apparatus
(wine chiller or small refrigerator, stir plate, dosing pump)
The Problem with Pests:
Quarantine Tanks
-new widespread problem
-an issue of “trading frags”
3-4 weeks, magnification
Treatment tanks
Ideal Quarantine Tank
Small aquarium with live rock and aged seawater
Light – 200 PAR
Strong turbulent water flow with skimming (ozone)
Water changes with tank water from display
Water Quality
Four Methods to Address Water Quality
1.Bacteria (carbon – fast; nitrogen/phosphorus – slow)
2.Algae (nitrogen/phosphorus)
3.Export - skimmers (primarily carbon and particulates – food)
- biomass removal (corals, algae, fish)
4.Water changes
Water Quality - additions
Only four things needed to add to tanks:
1.Calcium
2.Carbonate (alkalinity)
3.Magnesium (occassional)
4.Food
Anything else unknown, unmeasurable, untested, unwanted, unneeded
Our tanks are not like seawater
regardless of salt mix or waterchange schedule
Bacterial Symbioses:
Prey, Pathogens or Pals?
Corals, sponges, and other invertebrates harbor species- or location-specific microbial
surface biota
Possible roles:
- antibiotic
- metabolic homeostasis
- nutrient acquisition
- food
Also may play a role in coral disease
- “microbiota shift diseases”
- equilibrium shifts
- evidence from sponge and coral studies
The coral “holobiont”
Coral, zooxanthellae, bacteria, symbionts, and environment
- a lesson to think about in aquaria
Carbon Dosing (sugar, ethanol)
•
•
•
increases bacteria (??)
forces C:N:P Redfield ratio changes (106:16:1)
carbon linked to coral disease (microbiota shift)
Algae Issues
“Bottom Down” or “Top Up” ???
Cyanobacteria
- low correlation with nutrients
- high correlation with water flow
- significant correlation with grazing
- high correlation with season
Filamentous algae
- mixed correlation with nutrients
- high correlation with grazing
Fleshy macroalgae
- high correlation with grazing and palatability
Ideal Water Quality
1. Keep calcium, alkalinity, magnesium high (alkalinity higher than
reef (historically higher)
1. Oxygen is critical – tank design, water flow, reverse lighting
2. Alkalinity and oxygen take care of pH and redox
3. Salinity – 35-37ppt
4. Water changes optional/as needed
5. Keep tank nitrogen limited (Redfield ratio, reef limit)
- Skimming removes C and some P (coral mucus)
- Algae removes N and P
6. Herbivores remove algae (rarely are nutrients the problem – they
are just fuel)
7. Water flow removes cyanobacteria
Conclusions
My philosophy of reefkeeping:
1. Plan the habitat first
2. Know the animals before you buy them
3. Do whatever it takes to keep tank healthy (no dogma)
4. Always have a quarantine tank
5. Be patient and also be prepared to act quickly
6. Spend more time watching your tank than playing with
the toys and products
Thank You!
Whale shark at the Flower Garden Banks, 2003