Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU - 土木工程學系

Transcription

Civil Engineering
- Historical Context Hsin-yu Shan
國立交通大學土木工程學系
Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU
Engineering is one of the oldest
professions in the world. Around 2550 BC,
Imhotep, the first documented engineer,
built a famous stepped pyramid of King
Zoser located at Saqqarah.
Civil Engineering
Civil engineering is the oldest of the main
disciplines of engineering.
The first engineering school, the National School
of Bridges and Highways in France, was opened
in 1747.
John Smeaton was the first person to actually
call himself a ʺCivil Engineerʺ.
In 1828 the worldʹs first engineering society
came into being, the Institution of Civil
Engineers in England.
John Smeaton is also noted as the founder
of a Society of Engineers in Great Britain in
1771.
John Smeaton was a British engineer
particularly noted for his design of an allmasonry lighthouse on Eddystone reef
In order to build the new lighthouse,
Smeaton needed a cement which would
harden when immersed in water.
This is known as a ʺhydraulic cementʺ.
His technique of using dovetailed blocks
of stone in the building of lighthouses
became the standard because of its ability
to stand up to the constant pounding of
the waves.
World History Timeline
The Evolution of Hominids
5,000,000 to 25,000 BC
5,000,000 -1,000,000 BC: Australopithecus
2,200,000 - 1,600,000 BC: Homo habilis
1,600,000 - 500,000 BC: Homo erectus
Stone artifacts and weapons
500,000 - 80,000 BC: Homo sapiens
100,000 - 33,000 BC: Homo neanderthalensis
Ice Ages
Stone tools
125,000: Homo sapiens sapiens
Homo erectus
Homo sapiens neandertalensis
graves
Homo Sapiens Sapiens
Foraging Societies
From 30,000 BC
c. 30,000 to 25,000 BC:
Woman of Willendorf
c. 27,000 to 23,000 BC:
Dolni Vestonice
The statue was carved
from oolitic limestone and
was colored with red
orche. It measures 110
mm in height
25,000 - 12,000 BC:
Venus Figures
18,000 BC: Chauvet cave,
France
15,000 BC: Lascaux cave
paintings
The Aphrodite of Laussel,
one of the earliest reliefs,
measures 44 cm in height
and can be seen now at the
museum of Bordeaux in
France.
c. 14,000 to 10,000 BC:
Altamira Cave
Paintings
12,000 to 8,000 BC:
The Ice Age
The Beginning of Settled Agriculture
8,000 to 6,500 BC
c. 10,000 BC: Beginnings of Settled Agriculture
10,000 BC: First agricultural villages
10,000 BC: Invention of the bow and arrow
10,000 BC: Dogs and reindeer are domesticated
10,000 BC: Beginnings of settled agriculture
10,000 BC: Earliest pottery (Japan)
c. 8,000 to 6,500 BC: Settled Agriculture in Mesopotamia
c. 7,000: Beginning of Settled Agricultural Revolution
c. 6,500-5,650 BC: Catal Hulyuk
c. 6,000 BC - c. 2,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in Africa
6,000 BC: Beginning of Settled Agriculture in the Nile River Valley
2,000 BC: Beginning of Settled Agriculture in the Niger River Valley
200 BC: Height of Nok culture
c. 6,000 to 3,000: Settled Agriculture in India
c. 5,000 to 3,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in China
10,000 to 4,000 BC: Painted Pottery Bowl (China)
5,0000 to 2,700 BC: Yangshao culture
3,5000 to 2,000 BC: Longsham culture
6, 000 BC: Village of Ban Po in China
c. 4,000 to 1,000 BC: Settled Agriculture in Europe
ca. 4000 BC: The Culture of Vra
ca. 2000 BC: Stonehenge
c. 3,000 BC to AD 700: Settled Agriculture in the
Americas
c. 500 BC to AD 400: Adena and Hopewell Cultures
Classical Empires
3200 to 550 BC
Early River Valley Empires: 3200 to 1500 BC
c. 3200 BC: Sumerian Civilization
c. 2900 BC: Egypt
c. 2500 BC: Harappan Culture
c. 1700 BC: Shang China
c. 1500 BC: Olmec Civilization
Expansion and Contraction of River Valley Empires
c. 1400 BC: Expansion and Contraction of Mesopotamian
Empires
c. 1300: Aryan migration into the Indus Valley
2205 BC: Early Chinese Civilization
2000 BC: Meso-American Civilization
500 BC: Nok Culture
AD 600: Andean Civilization
Cosmopolitan Empires 550 BC- AD1400
550 BC-AD 1453: Cosmopolitan Empires in the Eastern Mediterranean
332 540 BC: Cosmopolitan Empires in India
221 BC-AD 220: Early Imperial China
AD 400-1500: African Kingdoms and Empires
ʺThe Axial Age:ʺ 600 to 400 BC
630-553 BC: Zarathustra
b. 604 BC: Lao Tse
c. 585 BC: Thales of Miletus
611-546 BC: Anaximander of Miletus
550-480 BC: Siddhartha Gautama called the Buddha
c. 550 BC: Mahavira
d. 585 BC: Jeremiah
511-479 BC: Kung Fu-tse
Primary Urban Society
3,500 BC to AD 700
c. 3,500 BC: Primary Urban Societies in Western Asia
3,500 BC: Beginning of Sumerian city-states
c. 3,200 - 2,000 BC: Primary Urban Society in Africa
3,100 - 2,700 BC: Old Kingdom Egypt
200 BC: Height of Nok culture
AD 400: Jenne-Jeno in Nigeria
c. 3,000 - 1900 BC: Primary Urban Society in India
2,600 - 2,500 BC: Harappan Civilization at its height
c. 1,500 - 1,000 BC: Primary Urban Society in China
1523 - 1027 BC: Xia dynasty
900 BC to 400 AD: Primary Urban Society in Central America
900 BC: Chavins unite Peru
800 BC: Olmecs unite Mesoamerica
Unification and Interaction in the Eurasian
Ecumene
130 BC to AD 1700
Formation of the Eurasian Ecumene: 130 BC to AD 200
c. 130 BC: Expansion of Han China to the Parthian Empire
c. 130 BC: Rome establishes its dominance in the Mediterranean
140-87 BC: Han China at its largest territorial extent under the Emperor
Wu Ti.
98-117: Roman Empire at its largest territorial extent under the
Emperor Trajan.
180-284: Crisis of Third Century Rome
220: End of the Han Dynasty
Barbarian Invasions and Internal Turmoil: 200-630
220-265: Three Kingdoms Period in China
ca. AD 200-370: Roman Empire invaded by the Goths
370: The Huns invade Eastern Europe.
558: Avars invade the Byzantine Empire.
c. 450: Anglo-Saxons invade England.
The Age of Islamic Expansion: 630 to 1250
630-640: Muslim Conquest of the Near East and Egypt
690-710: Muslim Conquest of North Africa and
Spain
717-718: Attempt to conquer Constantinople.
751: Battle of Talas River
768-814: Reign of Charlemagne
800-900: Viking raids against European mainland
907-960: Collapse of Central Government in China
1055-1250: Expansion of Islam under the Seljuks
The Crusading Era
1258: Mongols sack Baghdad. Abbasid Caliphate ends.
The Age of Mongol Dominance: 1200 to 1350
1206: Temujin is proclaimed ʺJenghiz Khanʺ
1258: Baghdad is sacked
1260-1368: Yuan Dynasty governs China
1275-1292: Marco Polo travels in China
The Second Age of Islamic Expansion: 1350 to 1700
1350: Rise of Ottoman Turks
1352: ibn Battuta travels in Africa
1453: Ottoman Turks capture Constantinople.
1492: End of the Reconquista in Spain.
1526: Battle of Mohacs
1529: First Siege of Vienna
1571: Battle of Lepanto
1683: Final Siege of Vienna
Integration and Unification of the Hemispheres
1500-1800
1400-1650: Voyages of Discovery and European Expansion
1405-1424: Chinese Treasure Fleet
1415-1510: Portuguese explorers seek a route to India and China
1492-1540: The Spanish colonization of Central and South America
1497-1600: British and French colonization of North America
1500-1650: Global Exploration
1500-1800: The Age of Chinese Dominance
1368-1911: The Height of Chinese Culture under the Ming and Qing
1517-1789: Political and Religious Change in Europe
1450-1757: Competing Muslim Empires
1850-1920: The New Imperialism
1798: Napoleon invades Egypt
1857-1858: The ʺSepoy Mutinyʺ or ʺGreat Rebellionʺ in Northern India
1884: The Berlin Conference on Africa
1898: Showdown between Britian and France at Fashoda
The Formation of a World Culture
1800-Present
1712-1914: The Development of Modern Western
Civilization
1789-1914: The Development of the Nation-State
1800-1914: The Development of Scientific Culture
1712-1905: The Industrial Revolution
1789-1914: Development of Mass Society
1795-1914: The New Imperialism
1798: Napoleon invades Egypt
1853: First railway line is built in India
1857-1858: The ʺSepoy Mutinyʺ or ʺGreat Rebellionʺ in Northern
India
1884: The Berlin Conference on Africa
1898: Showdown between Britain and France at Fashoda
1914-1989: The World Wars
1914-1918: World War I
1918-1936: The Interwar Years
1931-1945: World War II
1945-1989: The Cold War
1917-1970: Decolonizaiton
1917: Balfour Declaration
1947: India and Pakistan are independent of Great
Britain
1957: Ghana is the first African nation given
independence
1964: The Palestine Liberation Organization is formed
Structures through time
Egyptian
GIZA : Pyramids, Gizah, Old Kingdom 4th
Dynasty, 2545-2450 B.C. ; Gizah, Egypt.
DEIR EL-BAHALI : Deir El-Bahari;
Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (18th
Dinasty, B.C. 1490-1468) and Mentuhotep
II,III (11th Dinasty, B.C.2061-1998), Thebes,
Egypt.
KARNAK : The Temple of Amon-Ra at
Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic period,
c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt.
LUXOR : Temple of Amenhotep III, 18th
Dynasty, c.1370 B.C. and Temple of
Ramesses II, 19th Dynasty, c.1250 B.C.;
Luxor, Egypt.
ABU SIMBEL : Abu Simbel Great rok
temples of RamessesII, XIXth Dynasty,
c.1250 B.C. relocated at 1963-72. ; Abu
Simbel, Egypt.
DENDERA : Temple of Hathor, Late
Ptolemaic-Roman period. Dendera, Egypt.
PHILAE : Temples in Island of Philae
(relocated to Island of Agilkia in 19721980), 13th Dynasty to Roman period,
c.380 B.C.-2nd century. ; Agilkia, Egypt.
The Pyramid of Cheops is
230.364 m square at base,
137.18 m height (originally
146 m) and the incline is 51
degree .52.
The Pyramid of Chephren is
215.8 m square at base, 136.5
m height (originally 143.5
m)and the incline is 53
degree .20.
The Pyramid of Mycerinus
is 108.5 m square at base,
66.5 m height and the
incline is 51 degree.
The Pyramid of Chephren
The Pyramid of Cheops
The differences of the length of four base
sides are 111mm maximum and 7mm
minimum. The maxmum difference of the
level of base is only 21mm.
The pyramid of Chephren, Sphinx and the pyramid of Mycerinus
The Valley temple of King
Chephren. South half of Tshaped hypostyle hall
Deir El-Bahari; Mortuary Temple of Hatshepsut (18th Dinasty, B.C.
1490-1468) and Mentuhotep II,III (11th Dinasty, B.C.2061-1998),
Thebes, Egypt
The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynastyPtolemaic period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak,
Egypt
Temple of Seti II (19th dynasty)
The Temple of Amon-Ra at Karnak, 12th dynasty-Ptolemaic
period, c.2000 B.C.-c.220 B.C. ; Karnak, Egypt
The center columns (opened papyrus columns) are 3.5m in diameter and 21.08m high
The obelisk of Tuthmosis I, 23m high and 143 tons in weight
MESO-AMERICAN
OLMEC, MAYA, AZTEC
Pre-Classic(Formative); B.C.2000-100; (Olmec, etc.)
Early Pre-Classic; B.C.2000-1000
Middle Pre-Classic; B.C.1000-300
Late Pre-Classic; B.C.300-100(or B.C.0)
Classic; B.C.100(or B.C.0)-900; (Maya, etc.)
Proto Classic; B.C.100-A.D.300
Early Classic; A.D.300-600
Late Classic; A.D.600-900
Post-Classic; A.D.900-; (Aztec, etc)
Early Post-Classic; A.D.900-1200
Late Post-Classic; A.D.1200-
Teotihuacan, Mexico; Proto Classic-Early Classic; B.C.100-600
In Early Classic Period, The city covered
more than 20sq.km.(13 square miles) and
attained a maximum population of 200,000.
Plaza of the Moon and Avenue of
the Dead. View from the Pyramid
of the Moon.
The size of the Pyramid of the Moon is
140mx150m at the base, 45.8m height.
A.D.100-350.
Pyramid of Quetzalcoatl
Detail of the Pyramid of
Quetzalcoatl. A.D.150450
Tikal, Guatemala, Tikal; Late Classic; B.C.300-900
Temple I (Temple of the Jaguars)
The temple has a sculpture of jaguars
and the secret crypt. The height is 51 m
Temple II (Temple of the Mask)
There is a relief of the Mask on the roofcomb. The height is 42m and the lowest
among the 5 pyramids
Uxumal, Yucatan, Mexico; Late Classic; A.D.8c-10c
Chichen Itza, Yucatan, Mexico; Post-Classic; A.D.10c-1224
Castillo, or Temple of
Kulkulkan. Early Post-Classic
Cambodia
Kingdom of Cambodia
8 - 9th century
9 - 10th century
10 - 11th century
11 - 12th century
12 - 13th century
Bakong
Bakheng
Pre Rup
Angkor Wat
Bayon
8 - 9th century
9 - 10th century
Bakheng
Bakong
10 - 11th century Pre Rup
11 - 12th century Angkor Wat
12 - 13th century Bayon
Ankog Wat
Bayon Temple
China
趙州橋正名安濟橋，俗稱大石橋。建於西元595年
〜605年的隋代，由著名匠師李春設計建造。是世
界上年代最久、跨度最大的單孔坦弧敞肩石拱橋
1991年，趙州橋被美國土木工程師學會認定為世
界第十二處“國際土木工程歷史古跡”，並贈送銅
牌立碑紀念。這標誌著趙州橋已與埃及金字塔、
巴拿馬運河、巴黎埃菲爾鐵塔等世界著名歷史古
跡並稱而齊名
趙縣位於河北省中南部，距離省會石家莊市40千
米，地處太行山山前沖積平原，地勢開闊平坦，
總面積675平方千米，總人口53萬
趙州橋建築結構獨特，“奇巧固護，甲
于天下”(唐中書令張嘉貞語)，被譽為“天下
第一橋”。
拱肩加拱的敞肩拱的運用，更為世界橋樑
史上之首創。
在歐洲，最早的敞肩拱橋為18世紀法國在
亞哥河上修造的安頓尼特鐵路石拱橋和在
盧森堡修造的大石橋，但它們比中國的趙
州橋已晚了近1100年。
趙州橋全長64.4米，拱頂寬9米，拱腳寬9.6米，跨
徑37.02米，拱矢7.23米。從整體看，它是一座單孔
弧形石橋，由28道石拱券縱向並列砌築而成。
Greek
Temple of Apollo; Greece, Korinthos; About 540 B.C.
Parthenon; Greece, Athens; 447 B.C
Electeion; Greece, Athens; 447 B.C.
Odeon of Herodes Atticus; Greece, Athens; C. 161 A.D.
Temple of Hephaestos; Greece, Athens 450-440 B.C.
The base is 4.45m x 32.53m square and center of the base is slightly raised up
as the temple of Parthenon. The proportion of the base is almost 4 by 9 which is
same as the Temple of Parthenon but the temple of Hephaestos is smaller than
the cella of the Partenon.
Temple of Zeus Olympios (Olympieion); Greece, Athens; 174 B.C.-132 A.D.
The biggest temple in main land of Greece.
Dipteral anphiprostyle. The basement is
41.1m width and 107.75m length. The height
of the Corinthian columns are about 17m.
Colinthian column.
About 17m height and
about 1.9m diameter.
Detail of Corinthian capital designed by
Roman architect Cossutius. The design of
this capital became the model of Corinthian
order.
Vitruvius, An old Roman architect, wrote that
the cella of the temple had not the ceiling and
roof.
Theatre Argos; Greece, Argos; End of 4th Cent. B.C.
•Argos, which was a polis of Dorian
in BC.8-7c, once had belonged to
Mycenae.
•The capacity of the theater was
about 20,000 people (10,000 people
now).
•The theater has 90 steps (83 steps
now) while Delphi's has 35 steps and
Epidauros's has 55 steps.
•The sound control is excellent.
•Greek theater normally has not a
roof but this theater should have a
roof. There is a hole on every
13steps which seems to the hole for
pillars to support a roof.
Theatre Epidauros; Greece, Epidauros; End of 4th Cent. B.C.
Roman
Maison Carree; France, Nimes; approx. B.C.19
Meison Carree is one of those built in
about B.C.20-19 by Marcus Vipsanius
Agrippa, Augustus' son-in-law. Mason
Carre is a pseudoperipteros temple
with 6 Corinthian columns in front in
Early Imperial Rome period when the
Roman temples have been strongly
influenced by Greek temple style.
The temple is 26.4m long and 15.55m wide with 3.3m
high podium.
The steps were originally both in front and sides.
The Corinthian columns are 8.96m in height, 0.91m in
diameter.
The height from the top of the podium to cornice is 12.2m
and the height of entablature is 2.21m.
The Corinthian columns are 8.96m in height,
0.91m in diameter.
Pont du Gard, France, Nimes; late B.C.1c.(about B.C.20)
•The bottom arches, which spans are
15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155 m long,
20 m high.
•On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m
wide road which has expanded for the
traffic of cars in 1743.
•The middle arches are same spans of the
bottom arches and the length is about 265
m in total. The height of middle part is
about 21 m and width is 5 m.
•On the top of the 35 small arches, about
8.5 m high 3 m wide, support the waterway.
•The big arch, the bottom arch and middle
arch, have 3 times or 4 times of the small
arch in span and 6 times of the small arch
in height.
•There was only 17 m fall from the
headwaters to Nimes and that meant the
incline was 34 cm per 1 km.
The aqueducts and bridges in Roman
period exist in Rome, Merida, Segovia,
Tarragon in Spain and Nimes in France.
Pont du Gard in Nimes is one of the
famous one which preserve original style
of Augustus era.
Now the bridge exists about 300 m long,
49 m above of the river.
The protruding stones were for supporting
scaffolds at under construction.
Pantheon, Italy, Rome; 118-35 A.D.
The interior is a perfect circle which diameter
and height are exactly same, 43m.
The wall is 6.05m thick and on the lower level
are seven niches with a pair of Corinthian
columns.
The lower level and the second level are
divided by the cornis in the ratio of a square
root of 2 to 1.
Colosseum; Italy, Rome; 72 A.D.
Early Christian, Byzantine
Sant' Apollinare in Classe, Italy, Ravenna; 530
San vitale, Italy, Ravenna; 528-547
Diameter of octagonal dome is 17m, the
height to the top of the dome is 30m.
Gothic
Cathedral Paris; France, Paris; 1163-1250
Flying buttress
Cathedral Amiens; France, Amiens; about 1220-1410
Cathedral Amiens is the largest and most Classical of
French cathedrals in Gothc era.
The height of the ceiling is about 42.3m (about 37m at
Cathedral Chartres, about 38m at Cathedral Reims) and
the width of the nave is about 14.6m.
The Cathedral Amien was built in 1152 with the
Romanesque style and burnt in 1218 by lightnings.
The reconstruction was started in about 1220 and the
nave was completed in about 1245.
Duomo, Milano; Italy, Milano; 1386-1577, west front 1616-1813
The biggest and greatest late gothic
architecture in Italy.
The gothic style is unfamiliar in Italy and the
renaissance style is essentially Italian.
Extremely linear design shows unstructural
power against it's structure.
RENAISSANCE
St. Maria del Fiore, Italy, Firenze; Dome=1418-1436; Dome=by Filippo Brunelleschi
This had started to built, originally Gothic architecture, in 1296.
The bell tower was built in 1334-87 by Giotto.
The octagonal dome was designed by Brunelleschi in 1418 and
was built in 1420-36.
The diameter of inside of the dome is 43m, which is same as
Pantheon, Roma.
Cappella dei Pazzi, S. Croce, Firenze, Italy; 1430-61 by Filippo Brunelleschi
MANNERISM
San Giorgio Maggiore, Italy, Venezia; Andrea Palladio
BAROQUE
Colonnade of S. Pietro; Italy, Roma; 1656-1667; by Lorenzo Bernini
Johann Sebastian Bach's life (1685-1750)
Roman Building Technology
Roman Concrete
Roman concrete (opus caementicium), like modern
concrete, is an artificial building material composed of
an aggregate, a binding agent, and water. Aggregate is
essentially a filler, such as gravel, chunks of stone and
rubble, broken bricks, etc.
Binding agent is a substance which is mixed with the
aggregate wet (water added) and solidifies when it dries,
or ʺsets.ʺ
Many materials, even mud, can be a binding agent, and
used to make, what we generally call, mortar.
Historically lime or gypsum, mixed with rubble stones,
have been used as binding agents in making a strong
mortar.
Roman contribution to this basic structural
mixture was the addition as primary binding
agent pozzolona, a special volcanic dust found
in central Italy.
Pozzolona created an exceptionally strong bond
with the aggregate.
In most parts of the Roman world, where similar
volcanic powders could not be found, local
materials such as lime or gypsum were used as
binding agents.
The binding agent used in modern concrete is
called ʺcement,ʺ or Portland cement.
WATER SUPPLY SYSTEMS:
CISTERNS, RESERVOIRS,
AQUEDUCTS
In Pompeii, before the
construction of the cityʹs
aqueduct at the end of
the 1st century B.C.,
individual water tanks
(impluvium) often
located in the atrium of a
house, under the roof
opening, provided the
modest water needs of
the household.
Larger houses or villas,
often depended on
extensive cisterns. Villa
Jovis, emperor Tiberiusʹ
retreat high up on the
rocky eastern end of the
water-starved island of
Capri, was virtually
designed around a
courtyard supported by a
vast netweork of concrete,
vaulted cisterns.
One of the most
impressive and immense
cisterns ever created in
the Roman world is near
Pozzuoli, in the bay of
Naples.
Known locally as
ʺPiscina Mirabile,ʺ this
gigantic structure has
over fifty square bays of
tall, soaring vaults.
All things being equal, the constant fresh supply of
water brought by an aqueduct was preferred over a
reservoir supply.
Early in their history Romans developed a highly
effective systems of bringing water in conduits to their
cities from sources many miles away.
The conduits were either open channels, or more
commonly, pipes made of clay or bronze or lead, laid
underground.
The system relied predominantly on gravity, the water
source had to be higher than the city served by it.
Impressive as these are, they constituted only a small
portion of a water-line which could be 30-40 miles long.
Romeʹs first aqueduct, Aqua Appia, dates back
to 312 B.C.
By the beginning of the 2nd century A.D., the
capital was served by nine aqueducts supplying
a total of one-million cubic meters of water daily.
Once water was brought into the city it was
piped to different neighborhoods from special
distribution tanks (castella).
Imperial establishments, baths and public
fountains received priority over private uses.
Pont du Gard
One of the best preserved, textbook, examples of
a Roman aqueduct is the Pont du Gard, built by
Augustusʹ friend Agrippa, ca. 20 B.C..
This aqueduct brought water to Nimes in
southern France (ancient Nemassus) from a
source 30 miles away.
The three-tiered arches of the structure cross the
valley of River Gardon at a height of 150-feet.
Water ran at a slope of 1:3000 in an open conduit
on the uppermost level
The bottom arches, which spans are 15.75 m to 21.5 m, are about 155
m long, 20 m high.
On the top of the bottom arches is a 7 m wide road which has
expanded for the traffic of cars in 1743.
The middle arches are same spans of the bottom arches and the
length is about 265 m in total. The height of middle part is about 21
m and width is 5 m.
On the top of the 35 small arches, about 8.5 m high 3 m wide,
support the waterway.
The big arch, the bottom arch and middle arch, have 3 times or 4
times of the small arch in span and 6 times of the small arch in
height.
There was only 17 m fall from the headwaters to Nimes and that
meant the incline was 34 cm per 1 km.
The Ephesian aqueduct (Turkey)
Valencia Aqueduct
In the 3rd-century aqueduct which supplied the
hill-top city Aspendos in Pamphylia (in southern
Turkey), water was brought from a high
mountain source under pressure in closed and
sealed stone pipeline.
In order to relieve the excessive pressures built
up in such a closed system (technically a
siphon), three "pressure towers" were
incorporated into the 850-meter stretch of the
aqueduct arcade.
DAMS AND URBAN
WATERWAYS
In the arid desert climate of North Africa
many of the present-day oases, such as the
Oasis near Gabes in Tunisia had been
developed by Roman engineers.
The remains of a Roman dam built of
blocks of sandstone improved the natural
desert source and created a large reservoir
of water.
Aezane Dam
One of the best preserved and most
impressive operations in taming a
torrential and uneven waterway is the
dam built across the wide and
hauntingly beautiful valley of River
Rhyndacus, near Aezane in Asia
Minor (A82, A81).
This dam also serves as a bridge
connecting the main highways across
the valley (B18, B17).
Urban Waterways
Many Roman cities had pools, artificial
lakes, and urban canals which were
integrated into the cityʹs overall water
distribution and public fountain system.
In Aezane, already mentioned, colonnades
and public spaces lined both sides of the
river which seems to have been developed
as an urban artery just like a street.
A well-preserved and stunning example of
a similar urban canal occupying the
middle of a long colonnaded avenue in
Perge, in Pamphylia, a province in
southern Asia Minor
ROADS AND HIGHWAYS
In a centralized administrative system, such as
the Romans had, a comprehensive network of
paved highways, was a political and military
expediency.
It ensured the fast and safe movement of troops,
imperial decrees, personal mail, and provided
reliable commercial ties between the cities and
provinces.
In typical Roman road construction, a mosaic of
heavy paving blocks closely trimmed and fitted
is laid over a bedding of gravel and sand. Often,
sturdy curb stones limit the sides.
Via Piperatica
Main southern highways
entered Rome through Porta
Maggiore
Ephesus, one of the largest cities in
Roman Asia Minor: the Arcadiane
connected the theater at the hearth
of the town to the busy harbor in a
straight shot
In Djemila and Hippo Regius, small
but important provincial Roman cities
in North Africa, streets paved with
large, finely fitted paving blocks
TERRACES AND
SUBSTRUCTURES
Terraces
One of the most effective and impressive ways
concrete technology served the needs of Roman
architects and engineers was the creation of
massive terraced platforms to support large
buildings or building groups, or even major
cisterns.
This kind of site preparation could take the form
of individual foundations or underpinnings for
buildings, or retaining walls against the slope of
a hill, or more elaborately, or a complex of
interrelated vaulted chambers creating one or
more building platforms or terraces.
The ancient shrine of Lady Luck was reorganized into an
impressive ensemble in early second century B.C.
North African hilltown Tiddis
The terrace, composed of a
series of interconnected open
barrel vault, is constructed
entirely in concrete faced with
opus incertum
Substructures
In Ephesus, Asia Minor, a double storied terrace shaped
on the exterior by generously proportioned vaults
(probably used as a shopping center to help the cityʹs
revenues), supported a massive temple dedicated to the
Flavian family (B33, B32, B31, B30).
Located on flat land near the sea, the colossal Antonine
baths in Carthage (in modern Tunisia) were entirely
lifted above the ground on a substructure of cross and
barrel vaults carried by massive piers (B29, B28, B27).
This basement city of massive structural forms was
entirely functional because it contained extensive service
areas necessary for a large bath.
Aqueduct in the Middle Ages
Diagram of the water
system at Christ Church,
Canterbury (c. 1153 – 61)
Five rectangular settling
tanks, which appear to be
equipped with purge pipes,
are spaced along the
pipeline as it passes
through fields, a vineyard,
and an orchard.
Canterbury plan, showing Prior
Wibert’s water system (c. 1153 – 61).
Details of the Canterbury plan,
showing the latrine-block
(Necessarium, A) and the great drain
passing below it (showing as a
double line B).
A workman cleaned out the
accumulated muck every Monday.
The drain passed through the walls
ot the monastery and the town (C, D),
emptying its sewage into the city
moat. The citizens liked to block up
the exit during quarrels with the
monks.
R. A. Skelton and P. D. A. Harvey,
1986, Local Maps and Plans from
Medieval England, Oxford:
Clarendon Press.
Engineering Timeline
300,000 BC Some evidence of counting
(notches in animal bone)
250,000 BC Oldest surviving wood tool
Oldowan tools (2.4 mill. BP):
Homo Habilis / Rudofensis
Acheulean tools (1.5 mill. BP):
Homo Ergaster / Erectus
Mousterian tools (200,000 - 40,000 BP):
Homo Neanderthalensis / early Homo Sapiens
Upper Paleolithic tools (from 90,000 in Africa,
from 40,000 elsewhere - to 12,000 BP):
Homo Neanderthalensis / Homo Sapiens
100,000 BC
Neanderthal culture in Asia, Africa & Europe
Using fire for cooking, protection and warmth
Stone tools
Storage pits for food
40,000 BC
First people settle in Greece
Hunters and food gatherers
35,000 BC
Neanderthal culture disappearing
Cro-Magnon culture developing
Sewing needles made from bone
Migration of the first Americans across the Bering Strait
20,000 BC
Bow and arrow developed (by Cro-Magnon people)
Ice Age - In some areas the glacial ice was 2 miles thick!
10,000 BC
End of last Ice Age
8,000 BC
7,000 BC
Earliest Domestication of animals
Agriculture begins in the Americas
Pottery in use
4000 BC
Solid wheels used on carts
People Along the Nile starting to build canals to control flooding and
provide irrigation
3500 BC
Potterʹs wheel in use
Sumerians Develop cuniform writing
Egyptians develop hieroglyphic writing
3100 BC
Rice domesticated in the region of the Yangtze River
Egyptian civilization arose in Nile Valley
3000 BC
Masonry dams in use
Mortice and tenon wood joints in use
The population of the city of Uruk (located on the Euphrates
River), reaches 50,000.
2900 BC
2800 BC
Start of the Bronze Age in Greece
Plywood invented in Egypt
Carpentry at a mastery by most advanced civilizations
2600 BC
2000 BC
1800 BC
Pyramid of Gizah built
Spoke wheels in use
Lever used (oars)
1500 BC
Phoenicians develop an alphabet
Farming common in Central America
1350 BC
sundial
Use of iron
Water clocks
1200 BC Dorian invaders overtake the
Mycenaean Greeks using Iron weapons. The
Mycenaeans used Bronze weapons.
700 BC Invention of Aqueducts
500 BC Pythagoras develops the concepts of geometry
476 BC Western Roman Empire Collapsed
400 BC Water wheel in use
399 BC Socrates executed
387 BC Plato starts Academy in Athens
350 BC The Chinese develop a printing press with symbols carved
on a wooden block
343 BC Aristotle, a student of Plato, becomes tutor of Alexander of
Macedonia (Alexander the Great)
323 BC The Greek Leader, Alexander the Great, dies of a fever in
Babylon at the age of 32
332 BC City of Alexandria, Egypt founded
300 BC Euclid writes Elements, on Geometry
200 BC Archimedes (287-212 BC)
( the birth of fluid statics & earliest recorded writing in mechanics)
Archimedes developed:
the principle of buoyancy
the lever
the compound pulley
cranes & the water screw (pump)
The population of Alexandria is 200,000
50 AD
Vitruvius writes ten volume compendium of Roman engineering
practice
Buddhism introduced in China
105
400
700
820
Tsai Lun invents paper
Windmill in use in China
Chinese invent Porcelain
Algebra Invented
1242
Roger Bacon describes the preparation of gunpowder ( in
use in China in 1000 AD)
1428
Painter, Masaccio (1401-1428) intruduces perspective - a
technique that brought a three-dimensional look to painting
1450
The Chinese develop a printing press that uses Movable
wooden blocks
1454
Johannes Gutenburg invents a printing press with movable
metal type
1500
Birth of Engineering Science (start of Renaissance)
1550
Simon Stevin (stuh-veenʹ) (military and civil engineer)
develops the parallelogram law for the addition of forces
1588
First Engineering Handbook (mostly sketches) written by
Ramelli
1596
Birth of Rene Descartes (1596-1650) French scientist and
philosopher Descartes developed the Cartesian Coordinate System.
His name in Latin is Renatus Cartesius.
1614
John Napier (Scottish mathematician)
publishes his discovery of logarithms
1622
William Oughtred invents the slide
rule
1637
The invention of ANALYTIC
GEOMETRY by Rene Descartes (see above)
1638
Galileoʹs book, ʺTwo New Sciencesʺ
published
This is believed to be the first book published in the
field of strength of materials! The field of ʺStrength of
Materialsʺ is born!
1662
Robert Hooke - Theory of elasticity
1679
Hooke reveals the solution to his anagram
ʺceiiinosssttuuʺ - ʺut tensio, sic visʺ - ʺas the extension, so
the force“. All solid material must yield to resists force.
1687
Newtonʹs Laws written
1752
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790) showed that
lighting was a form of electricity
1757
Leonhard Euler derived the formula for the
buckling of a pinned-pinned column
1760
Mechanization of British industry began
1769
Wattʹs steam engine built
1795
Metric system adopted in France
1799
Alessandro Volta (1745-1827) Builds first
battery
1807
Steam ship built by Robert Fulton
1814
First Steam locomotive built by George
Stephenson
1820
Hans Oersted (1777-1851) discovered a link
between magnetism and electricity.
1826
Ampereʹs work in electrodynamics
1827
Ohmʹs Law
1830
Regular passenger train service began in
England
1831
Faradayʹs electromagnetic induction device
1836
First telegraph (Samuel Morse) Texas gained
independence from Mexico
1852
The American Society of Civil Engineers
founded
1856
Bessemer process for making steel developed
1866
Alfred Nobel develops dynamite
1869
Suez Canal opened
1874
A U.S. Patent was granted to T.B. Rhodes for several different
forms of hollow concrete block.
First large span (three-spans of 500 ft. ) steel bridge - St. Louis
Bridge over the Mississippi River, Designed by James B. Eads
1876
1879
1883
Alexander Graham Bell invents the telephone
Thomas Edison invents the light bulb
The American Society of Mechanical Engineers founded
Completion of the Brooklyn Bridge, designed by John A.
Roebling (Suspension - 1595 ft. span) Spans the East River to link
Brooklyn and Manhattan
1884
The American Institute of Electrical Engineers
founded
1885
William Stanley invents an alternating current
transformer
1895
The discovery of X-rays (Roentgen)
1902
Air Conditioning invented
1903
First powered air flight
1908
The American Institute of Chemical Engineers
founded
1912
Titanic sank
1914
Panama Canal opened
1915
Albert Einstein (1879-1955) published The
General Theory of Relativity
1919
First nonstop flight across Atlantic
1937
First jet engine built
1939
Radar developed by the British
1940
Penicillin developed
1950
1953
1956
1957
1968
1969
1977
1978
1982
World population 2.3 billion
Mount Everest climbed for first time
Oral polio vaccine developed
Launching of Sputnik I
Aswan High Dam in Egypt completed
First man on the moon
Apple Computer releases the Apple II computer
World population 4.4 billion
OPEC announced cut in oil production
Population in china reached 1 billion
1983
Robert Wolf writes the first Bridge Builder® analysis
engine on a Wang Computer
1989
Bridge Builder for the Apple II hits the market in A+
magazine
Industrial Revolution
1700-1900
The term INDUSTRIAL REVOLUTION
originally referred to the developments
that transformed Great Britain, between
1750 and 1830, from a largely rural
population making a living almost
entirely from agriculture to a towncentered society engaged increasingly in
factory manufacture.
The Industrial Revolution was the major
technological, socioeconomic and
cultural change in the late 18th and early
19th century resulting from the
replacement of an economy based on
manual labor to one dominated by
industry and machine manufacture.
It began in England with the introduction of
steam power (fueled primarily by coal) and
powered machinery (mainly in textile
manufacturing).
Other European nations underwent the same
process soon thereafter, followed by others
during the 19th century, and still others (such as
Russia and Japan) in the first half of the 20th
century. In some countries this transformation is
only now taking place or still lies in the future.
There was no cut-off point for it
merged into the Second Industrial
Revolution from about 1850, when
technological and economic progress
gained momentum with the
development of steam-powered ships,
and railways, and later in the
nineteenth century the growth of the
internal combustion engine and the
development of electrical power
generation.
The term industrial revolution was
introduced by Friedrich Engels and
Louis-Auguste Blanqui in the second
half of the 19th century.
Engels
Over London by Rail Gustave Doré c 1870.
Shows the densely populated and polluted
environments created in the new industrial cities
Mining
The introduction of the steam engine
enabled shafts to be made deeper, hence
increasing output.
Metallurgy
The first Abraham Darby made great strides with using
coke to fuel his blast furnaces (1709), although this was
principally due to the nature of the coke he was using,
and the scientific reasons for the improvement were only
discovered later. His family followed in his footsteps,
and iron became a major construction material.
Other improvements followed, with Benjamin
Huntsman developing a crucible steel technique in the
1740s, and Henry Cortʹs puddling furnace enabling
large-scale production of wrought iron to take place.
The use of iron and steel in the development of the
railways further boosted the industrial growth of Great
Britain.
Steam Power
The stationary steam engine had great
influence on the progress of the Industrial
Revolution, but for all of it many
industries still relied on wind and water
power as well as horse and man-power for
driving small machines.
Engines could be made in varying sizes
and patterns to suit various requirements,
such as for locomotives and steam boats.
Original data: Marland, G., T.A. Boden, and R. J. Andres. 2003. "Global, Regional, and
National CO2 Emissions." In Trends: A Compendium of Data on Global Change. Carbon
Dioxide Information Analysis Center, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department
of Energy, Oak Ridge, Tenn., U.S.A. http://cdiac.esd.ornl.gov/trends/emis/tre_glob.htm
The Industrial Revolution
“This extraordinary metal, the soul of every
manufacture, and the mainspring perhaps, of
civilized society.” Samuel Smiles,
Invention and Industry
Britannia Tubublar Bridge over the
Menai Straits - 1849
This bridge excited
the attention of the
world engineering
community unlike
any structure of its
time.
While criticism was
levelled at its
uneconomic use of
material compared
with various truss
designs, the
intellectual effort
involved in its design
and construction was,
and remains, a source
of wonder.
Chelsea Suspension Bridge - 1860
Designed by Thomas
Page, the first Chelsea
suspension bridge
was demolished in
the 1930s due to
increased traffic loads.
Pontcysyllte, completed
in 1805, to carry the
Ellesmeré Canal over
the Dee Valley near
Llangollen.
Length 307 m
Max. height 38.7 m
19 cast-iron arches,
each spanning 13.7 m
p.51
One of the nine graniteclad arches of the
Waterloo Bridge. Each
spanned 36.6 m between
6.1 m thick piers.
London, Thames River.
p.52
Spanning the Thames
Waterloo Bridge, London
Southwark Bridge had Britain’s largest cast-iron arches
The First Rigid Suspension
Bridges
Anchorage for the chain at one extremity of Cllaude Navier’s illfated Pont des Invalides, a suspension bridge across the Seine in
Paris that had to be demolished before it was completed, in 1826,
due to the movement in one of the abutments.
The Union Bridge across the Tweed, linking Scotland and England,
was built in 1820 by Captain (later Sir Samuel) Brown.
Supported by vertical rods suspended from three pairs of wroughtiron chains on each side. The chains have survived intact – although
they are now assisted by modern steel cables.
Conway River Bridge
The Menai Strait Bridge, Wales,
England. It was never the world’s
longest unsupported span: the
Taoguan (Peach Pass) bridge in
Szechuan, China, built in 1776,
spanned 200 m.
Total length 521 m
Suspended span 176 m
Total height of towers 46.6 m
Elevated deck above Strait 30.5 m
The Victorian Achievement
The Britannia Railway Bridge, Menai Strait, Wales
The Clifton Suspension Bridge, Bristol, England.
The bridge under construction in the early 1860s.
The Clifton Suspension Bridge as it is today, spanning 214 m
across the Avon Gorge.
Questions
Who are the “civil engineers”?
How do they pass along their knowledge
and professional skills?

Dept. of Civil Engineering, NCTU - 土木工程學系

Transcription

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