+ r - Asoex

Manejo sustentable de suelo, riego y
nutrición.
C. Xiloyannis
University of Basilicata, ITALY
home page: http://www.unibas.it/utenti/xiloyannis
CO2
29 y 30 de Agosto 2012
Hotel Sheraton – Santiago CHILE.
[email protected]
Focus on:
- Mineral nutrition
- Irrigation
- Soil management
Knowledge of vine-demand to calibrate the fertilization
plan
Amount of some mineral elements in whole kiwifruit vine (cv
Hayward, 740 p/ha) each value is the mean of 3 plants uprooted at the
end of each year.
kg ha-1
Year from plant. N
P2O5
K2O
CaO
MgO
I
4.3
1.6
3.6
11.8
2.2
II
20.9
7.4
18.0
57.8
10.5
III*
41.9
15.4
43.4
96.2
18.3
* Yield 7 t ha-1
The distribution method should be taken into consideration to
estimate the efficiency
irrigation methods that wet all soil surface have low
nutrient distribution efficiency during the early years
after planting
4-year average annual dry matter (DM) and nutrients partitioning
among plant organs (cv Hayward, Pergola 494 p/ha, 21-year old, yield
34.2 t ha-1).
DM
N
P
K
t /ha
Ca
Mg
Kg / ha
Yield
5.9
52
7
95
12
10
Leaves
4.3
43
3
78
104
17
Pruning
material
2.0
14
2
10
8
4
Thinned
fruits
0.2
2
0.2
9
0.3
0.7
Total
12.4
111
12.2
192
124.3
31.7
OUT of Orchard
5.9
81
7
95
12
10
(Pruning material was mulched in loco)
Entrano con l’acqua di irrigazione (10000m3 /ha): 220 kg di N nitrico; 625 kg di Ca;
80 kg di magnesio; 24 kg di K; 167 kg di Na e 220 kg di cloro ogni anno per ettaro.
….Nitrogen flow ( yield 34.2 t ha-1 )
Out
Kiwifruit plant
Fruit 52 kg
Leaves 43 kg
110 kg ha-1
cover crop
(grower)
Pruning mat. 14 kg ha-1
Thinned fruits 2 kg ha-1
In
soil
Orchard system
Mineralization
Organic pool?
out
Losses ??
Irrigation water
10-200 kg/ha
Mineralization???
Caratteristiche chimiche dell’acqua di pozzo impiegata per l’irrigazione
e relativo apporto di sali al suolo. (Volume irriguo annuale 12.460 m3
ha-1, campione di acqua prelevato nel mese di Giugno).
(Hayward, 5 x 5 tendone)
ANALISI CHIMICA
mg L-1
Cloruri
Azoto da nitrati
Solfati
Sodio
Potassio
Magnesio
Calcio
Bicarbonati
APPORTI
kg anno
107.6
9
14.1
48.7
1340,7
112.1
175.7
606.8
28.6
21.8
96.1
305
356.4
271.6
1197.4
3800.3
NITROGEN fertilization: knowledge of mineralization process
70
21 42
42 21
Kg /ha
N
120
100% N
)
110
100
90
75% N
sustainable
conventional
70
compost
50% N
60
50
3-
ppm NO (0-40 cm
80
25% N
40
30
roughly stable N availability…
20
10
1-feb
28-mar 7-
8-
sustainable
conventional
21-
9-
4-
M
ag
O
tt
O
tt
30
1
fase 2
Se
t
fase 1
3
M
ag
6
20 Giu
G
iu
6
14 Lug
Lu
g
31
Lu
g
80
29
9
Ap
r
0
11
Elementi minerali
(% rispetto al valore finale)
Assorbimento medio di macronutritivi dal suolo
100
fase 3
60
40
20
Variations of Nitrogen content storaged in
shoots (kg ha-1) in a mature kiwifruit orchard
(pergola, 625 t ha-1)
20
Bark
woody
15
10
5
60
120 180 240 300
DOY
Example of fertigation plan for a mature kiwifruit orchard
(% of the total)
Weeks
from bud
break
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
4
6
8
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
N
P
K
Nutrients are distributed as % of
6
6
7
7
8
8
10
10
10
6
6
6
3
3
2
2
100%
20
20
20
20
20
100%
8
8
10
10
10
10
10
10
8
8
4
4
100%
the mean annual requirement
accordind to vine demand along
the season
IRRIGATION
Best interval
for N distribution
30 min.
30 min.
PERIOD THAT WE CAN USE FERTIGATION
CALCIUM Kg ha-1
Total
POTASSIUM Kg ha-1
Total
Leaves
Leaves
Fruits
Shoots
Shoots
Fruits
15 Mar
15 May
15 Jul
15 Sept
15 Nov 15 Mar
15 May
15 Jul
15 Sep
15 Nov
Seasonal calcium and potassium demand and partitioning in the different
plant organs (mature kiwifruit orchard 625 p ha-1)
…. Ca accumulation into fruit
Fruit Calcium
harvest
TIME
8-9 weeks
After Fruit Set
(AFS)
• Affect plant water consumption
Leaf transpiration…
• the centre of photosynthetic capacity
(Bodribb, Plant Sci, 2009)
• …impact on yield
•…….
 Very small (0.5% of total transpired water)
Fruit transpiration…
 Ususally fruits effect leaf transpiration
( from 15 to 30% xiloyannis, Naor)
Impact on fruit quality
(i.e. mineral composition)
-2
-1
Fruit Transpiration (mmol m s )
2,5
2,0
1,5
Midday values
1,0
0,5
0,0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Days AFB
(Montanaro et al., 2006)
…. on attached fruit
6.00
X-Ray counts (P/B)
5.00
Calcium
Potassium
4.00
Part of the total Ca is stored
in specialised cell …..
3.00
2.00
1.00
0.00
Parenchymatic
cell (Vacuol)
Parenchymatic
cell (Wall)
Parenchymatic
modified cell
(storage area)
a
a
b
High calcium content
c
(by Vitagliano et al., 1999)
How Ca naturally reach the fruit?? A causal chain…
 Transpiration
 Xylem stream
 Ca
…some features of fruit transpiration
•higher in young fruit
Why this trend?
-2
-1
Measured transpiration E (mmol cm h )
•diurnal/seasonal pattern
23 days AFB
35
49
65
94
140
-1
-2
0.8
2.5
Fruit Transpiration (mmol m s )
1.0
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
4
8
12
16
Time of day (h)
20
24
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
20
40
60
80
100
Days AFS
Montanaro et al Plant Sci 2006
…fruit transpiration decrease with changes of: Hairs viability
alive
10 days AFB
100%
% alive hairs
80
60
death
60 days AFB
40
20
0
0
10
20
30
40
Days AFB
Dichio et al., 2003
50
60
70
Alexander’s stain method
4th week from fruit set
5 weeks AFB
( Xiloyannis et al., 2001)
Stoma
A
…fruit transpiration decrease with changes of:
Epidermal layer
B
17 weeks AFB
(Xiloyannis et al., 2001)
The collapse of the external layers of epidermal cells
during the development of the fruit. (Xiloyannis et al., 2001).
Efficiency of sprays on fruits at different growth stages
with CaCl2 (0,16 M)
Potassium
Chlorine
Calcium
Potassium
K, Cl, CA ions digital EDXMA map in the flesh
layer of kiwifruit at different growth stage
40 days after fruit set
Chlorine
At harvest
Calcium
nutrients did not reached the flesh
PHOTO Minnocci A.
Rr
40%
20%
0%
20%
9
0%
100%
80%
60%
100%
6
Rp
3
Rd
Rpress
40%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0
20
0%
20
40
60
40
60
80
100
DAA
80 100 120 140 160
120
140
160
180
20%
0%
20
DAA
40
60
80
100 120 140 160 180
Mazzeo et al in preparation
rprox + rrec + rped
12
3
40%
60%
+
60%
rt= rdis
80%
PRESS. CHAMBER
3
15Rpe
2
80%
100%
Cut 1
-1
Hydraulic resistance x 10 (MPa s g )
100%
<------vvvv-----------vvvv------vvvv-------vvvv-------
…fruit transpiration decrease with changes of: Hydraulic resistances
?
Temperature
RH
 Transpiration
 Xylem stream

Wind

Radiation

Hypothesis…
 Ca
 Xylem stream
 Ca
Calcium (mg/fruit)
50
230 V electric fans in rainproof boxes
created wind speeds up to 3.3 m /s
40
30
20
10
0
(Dichio et al. Acta Hort 2007)

Windspeed  Transpiration


How Ca naturally reach the fruit?? A causal chain…
y = a + bx3 (a = 21.846; b = 0.511)
r2 = 0.72
0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5
Windspeed m/s
 Xylem stream

Temperature, RH  Transpiration


How Ca naturally reach the fruit?? A causal chain…
 Ca
Bagged fruit /
LOW VPD
1. Control fruits
(regular transpiration)
2. Bagged fruits
(restricted transpiration)
Relative humidity ~ 95% (Banuelos et al., 1987; Hofman et a
100
L vpd
RH (%), Temp (°C)
80
Transpiration = (bag weigh t0) – (bag weigh t1)
60
H vpd
40
20
0
-1 -1
Fruit water loss (g f d )
2.0
1.5
1.0
H Vpd
…the effect of minerals accumulation
0.5
Lvpd
0.0
DAFB
K, Mg
Xylem/phloem mobile nutrients
Low transpiring
(bag)
Dry weigh per fruit (g)
Low transpiring
(bag)
Ca
Phloem immobile
 Xylem stream



Radiation  Transpiration
 Ca
Calcium concentration in light exposed and shaded kiwifruits
0.7
* *
Fruit Calcium (% DM)
0.6
*
0.5
*
exposed
0.4
*
*
0.3
*
0.2
shaded
0.1
0
20
40
60
80
100
Days AFS
120
140
160
Accumulo di minerali nei frutti
50
300
40
225
30
150
20
-1
-1
10
Potassium (mg fruit )
Calcium (mg fruit )
75
150
20
120
15
90
10
60
5
0
-1
Nitrogen (mg fruit )
-1
Magnesium (mg fruit )
0
30 60 90 120 150 180
30 60 90 120 150 180
Days AFB
30
AIR TEMPERATURE
16
RELATIVE HUMIDITY
23 AFB
RADIATION
r =-0.942; P<0.0001
12
12
8
8
4
16 23 AFB
16
12
12
8
4
r =0.945; P<0.0001
12
r =-0.969; P<0.0001
r =0.886; P<0.0001
12
8
4
4
12
32 AFB
12
8
8
2
R =0.92
(Sigmoidal fit)
4
9
46 AFB
6
r =0.922; P<0.0001
3
r =-0.917; P<0.0001
r =0.935; P<0.0001
2
2
1
1
r =-0.806; P<0.0001
1.0
0.5
0.5
-1
r =0.66; P<0.002
1.5
-2
1.5 91 AFB
Transpiration (mg cm h )
62 AFB
8 46 AFB
8
6
6
4
4
2
r =0.853; P<0.0001
-2
-1
Transpiration (mg cm h )
3
-2
-1
Transpiration (mg cm h )
6
3
3
r =0.704; P<0.001
62 AFB
2
2
1
1
r =0.701; P<0.0001
r =0.67; P<0.00013
0
0.4
0.4
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
r =0.858; P<0.0001
0.0
r =0.512; P<0.025
0.6 137 AFB
0.6
r =0.457; P<0.056
0.4
0.2
r =0.77; P<0.0002
20
0
91 AFB
0.6
137 AFB
16
2
3
0.0
0.6
4
r =0.825; P<0.0001
9
r =-0.842; P<0.0001
1.0
4
r =0.804; P<0.0001
16
8
3
8
2
R =0.93
(Sigmoidal fit)
4
16 32 AFB
WINDSPEED
16
24
28
32
Air Temperature (°C)
36
0.4
0.2
r =-0.814; P<0.0001
30
40
50
0.2
60
70
Relative humidity (%)
80
0.2
r =0.89; P<0.0001
0.0
0.0
0
1000
2000
3000
-2
Radiation (KJ m )
1
2
3
4
-1
Windspeed (m s )
5
Youngest roots (less suberised) are more efficient
increase suberin formation
Cucurbita pepo;
Redrawn by White 2001
-3
Calcium translocated (mmol mm )
7
6
youngest roots
5
4
highly suberised roots
3
2
1
0
0
10
20
30
40
Distance from root tip (cm)
50
Preserving young roots at the shallow soil layers
would increase Ca uptake and Ca concentration in the
Xylem sap.
Soil Ca (mg kg-1)
Soil depth (cm)
0
100
I
200
I
300
I
400
I
500
I
15 _
30 _
45 _
60 _
75 _
By Ortiz and Gallaher, 1985
Le lavorazioni del suolo danneggiano le radici superficiali
4th week from fruit set
5 weeks AFB
( Xiloyannis et al., 2001)
Stoma
Efficiency of sprays on fruits at different growth stages
with CaCl2 (0,16 M)
Potassium
Chlorine
Calcium
Potassium
K, Cl, CA ions digital EDXMA map in the flesh
layer of kiwifruit at different growth stage
40 days after fruit set
Chlorine
At harvest
Calcium
nutrients did not reached the flesh
PHOTO Minnocci A.
8
0,4
6
0,3
4
2
0,2
0
0,1
140
160
180
200
DOY
220
240
260
Fruits water consumption
(% total)
fruit surface (% total)
0,5
 Ca is imported mainly within the early weeks AFS
- Minimize soil tillage….
- Reduce shoot:fruit competition…..
- Minimise antagonisms (e.g. K )
--Spray Ca no later 40-50 days AFS
--Irrigation
 VPD of the air surrounding fruit is the main driver of
transpiration
- Training system
- Summer pruning
- Keep the grass short
Frutti con elevata pezzatura (> 120 g) indotta con
.
fitormoni esogeni hanno minor concentrazione in…
Concentrazione
elementi minerali e
sostanza sacca
objectives of a sustainable
fruit orchard management
increase and preservation of soil fertility
(= chemical, physical, microbiological quality)
by means of soil management techniques
% Organic matter
(0-20 cm depth)
4,5
3,8
Conventional
management
3.2
sustainable
management
Easy degradation
2.6
Part of OM with long life
1.9
0
20
40
60
Rielaborato da WBGU Special Report:
The Accounting of Biological Sinks and Sources Under the Kyoto Protocol
80
Annual global carbon emissions during the past 50 years
(billions metric tons per year)
380 ppm
8
360
6
340
5
4
320
3
Atmosphere CO2
7
280
2
1
1957
today
Source: National Geographic. Oct 2007 - IPCC
Total and per capita CO2 emissions in various country
(source: UNFCCC, EEA, DIW Berlin)
Total emissions CO2 (Mt)
Per capita emissions (t/year)
1990
2000 (* = 2001)
2000 (* = 2001)
Australia
259
502
26,8
Canada
421
726
24,0
USA
4844
7001
19,0
Arabia Saudita
160
271
13,1
EU 15 *
3152
4120
11,0
Sud Africa
291
354
8,5
Cina (+ Hong Kong)
2389
2893
2,3
India
595
908
0,9
Soil fertility
Organic matter in South Italy
0,8 - 1,3%
Partitioning of Carbon footprint for each stage of
the NZ-kiwifruit lifecycle based on product
shipped to Europe.
1.74 Carbon eq for every kg of fruit
UK's PAS 2050, Methodology
Repacking and retailer
Packhouse and
coolstore processes
11%
9%
41%
Orchard operations
Source: Zespri.com
17%
22%
Consumer consumption
and disposal
Shipping
Source ZESPRI.COM
ORCHARD FACTORS:
Electricity
Diesel
Fertilisers and Pesticides
Lubrificant
Capital
Soil-plant-atmosphere carbon fluxes ARE NOT considered
Grower
Sustainable
Soil management
Compost (15 t ha-1)
Mineral N if necessary
Fertilization
Pruning material
Mineral
fertilizers
increase C input
limit C output
increase C input
carbon sources
internal
external
cover crops
pruning material
senescent leaves
stabilised manure
compost
Biochar, others
the use of carbon sources can
provide mineral elements
for plant nutrition
choice
improve soil C
cover crops
sown
spontaneous
increase the photosynthesising surface and
Root system, which extends to various
depths in the soil, improves soil
characteristics
improve the C sequestration ability of the
system
Carbon balance
Carbon input.(photos.
Cover crops, compost)
Carbon balance
Carbon to the
atmosph.
(respiration of roots and
Soil micro..)
suolo
Soil-plant-atmosphere carbon fluxes ASSESMENT
- SEQUESTRATION ( Photosynthesis CO2 sequestered)
+ EMISSIONS (soil-chamber based measurements)
Can grower’s orchard management effect CF?
Improving soil carbon storage through friendly
soil practices.
-Recycling – cover crops- biomass formation
Carbon (t ha-1 y-1)
-compost application
By building soil carbon, soils also
enhance water retention properties,
fertility, yield and quality
Sustain
Convent.
Burning residuals
or mulched in situ
Montanaro et al., 2010 LDD
CO2 balance in the two systems
-100
-80
CO2 t *ha -1* year
-1
sustainable
-60
-40
-20
conventional
0
+20
+40
1° year
2
3
Sustainable in the orchard: -0.8 kg of CO2 per kg of fruit
Conventional in the orchard:+0.26 kg of CO2 per kg of fruit
Carbon stored in above/below-ground structures
of kiwifruit vine after approx. 20 years
0.48 kg vine-1
39.5 kg vine-1
(1-year old)
(23-year old)
(Bouwalda and Smith, 1987)
~ 39 kg D C
(19.5 t ha-1C ; 500 p/ha)
(Xiloyannis, in preparation)
Association of some cover crops increases soil iron
availability
1
µg/l
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
Fe
Tilled
Control
Cover
Covercrops
crops
Festuca rubra c.
Lolium perenne
Poa pratensis
(Source: Rombolà et al.)
pH Changes after 10 years of different soil
management
8
A
7
B
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
TILLED
COVER CROPS
Measured between rows
SUSTAINABLE SOIL MANAGEMENT AND
soil water holding capacity
Cover
Inerbito
crops
profondità (cm)
0-10 cm
a
0-10
a
10-20
Regolari
a
20-30
Irregolari
Allungati
a
30-40
a
40-50
0
2
6
Tilled
Lavorato
4
10-20 cm
8
10
12
Macroporosità (%)
a
(cm)
profondità
cm
Depth
0-10
b
10-20
Regolari
b
20-30
Irregolari
Allungati
b
30-40
0-10 cm
ab
40-50
0
2
4
6
8
10
Macroporosity %
Macroporosità (%)
12
10-20 cm
Saturated hydraulic conductivity measurements
(Model 2800 Guelph Permeameter, Santa Barbara, USA)
Measurements made in May 2007
at 12 cm depth
Evaluation of the vertical water
flux (using a plastic tube as
confined well)
Soil Water Conducibility
Treatments
Ksat (Guelph)
(mm d-1)
Sustainable
160
Conventional
13
most rappresentative genus of fungi in the
two systems (some of them produce
glomalin)
Sustainable
Aspergillus
Streptomices
Phaeoacremonium
Conventional
Aspergillus
Mucor
Penicillium
Armillaria
Cladosporium
Acremonium
Alternaria
Phaeoacremonium
Rosellinia
Phyalophora
Cylindrocarpon
Microdochium
Rosellinia
Mucor
Cladosporium
More funghi in the soil of sustainable
system (diluition 10-2)
Sustainable
Conventional
…….as intestinal flora for
humans……………
roots with ifes and spores of glomus intraradices (10 X).
Metapontino
(media 20 anni)
Deficit annuale
850 mm
fonte: Reg. Basilicata
mm
250
200
150
100
50
0
250
200
150
100
50
0
ETo
Pioggia
Deficit annuale
158 mm
Cesenate
(media 10 anni)
fonte: Cons. Bonif. Canale
Emiliano Romagnolo
gen
mar
mag
lug
set
nov
Optimizing irrigation in mature orchard:
DRIVING CRITERIA
IRRIGATION SHOULD BE SCHEDULED WHEN the water
content in the first 50 cm of soil volume explored by root
system APPROACH the Readily Available Water (RAW)
threshold
HOW GROWER CAN BE ASSISTED IN?
Evaluation of soil water content through:
# Use of soil humidity sensors
TDR-probe
# Daily computation of the soil-water balance
This requires:
# access to daily ET0 and effective rainfall records
# use of locally tested Kc
# knowledge of soil hydraulic properties and irrigated soil volume
Tensiometer
Irrigation system wetting the whole soil surface
irrigation line
1st year
3rd year
mature vine
# Low irrigation method efficiency
(2-20% throughout 3 years after planting)
Soil volume explored by roots ( Xiloyannis et al., 1993)
4th year
mature vine
3rd year
m3
1500
1000 m3 ha-1 300
200 m3 ha-1
2nd year
1st year
ha-1
m3 ha-1
5000 m3 ha-1
1000m3 ha-1
600 m3 ha-1
120 m3 ha-1
100 m3 ha-1
20 m3 ha-1
available water
Foto Xiloyannis
Field capacity = 32%vol
Wilting point = 12%vol
Root depth
= 0.5 m
Amount of water that can be hold in the soil in a kiwifruit orchard irrigated by
different irrigation systems (planting distances 5x4). Soil irrigated at field
capacity to 0.5 m depth
AW ( Available Water) =20% vol (Field Capacity-Permanent Wilting Point)
Easy AW (amount of water that plants can absorb before stress)= 50% of A.W
Irrigation system
Whole surface
Efficiency 50%
Wetted
surface
m2
Depth (m)
Volume
of
irrigated
soil
(m3)
A.W
m3
Easy
W.A
m3
10.000
0.5
5.000
500
250
Micro-Sprinklers
Efficiency 70%
6000
0.5
3.000
420
210
Drip irrigation
Efficiency
90%
2.000
0.5
1.000
162
81
Drip Irr.
Wetted volume from
irrigation.
Only rain
Correct irrigation manag.
(A)
Excessive water
(B)
Deficit
(C)
summary
- Fertigation should match vine nutrients demand to avoid
environmental pollution and improve fruit quality
- Orchard tools are available to improve Ca absorption and
accumulation in the fruits
- Use cover crops or minimum tillage to improve carbon
footprint assessment, soil fertility and soil hydraulich
characteristics
- More effort to improve the transfering of the knowledge to the
growers
K R G - University of Basilicata I T A L Y
Kiwifruit Research Group
C. Xiloyannis
B. Dichio
G. Montanaro
G. Celano
A.Tuzio
A.Sofo
A.Palese
E.Lardo
VIII International Peach Symposium on
17-20 June, 2013 –Matera (ITALY)
Matera is a UNESCO World Heritage site
[email protected]
http://www.unibas.it/peach2013/home.htm