Journal of New Communications Research

Transcription

JOURNAL OF NEW COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH | Vol. IV Issue 2 - Fall/Winter 2009 | 1
2 | JOURNAL OF NEW COMMUNICATIONS RESEARCH | Vol. IV/Issue 2 - Fall/Winter 2009
Journal of
New Communications
Research
Vol. IV/Issue 2
Fall/Winter 2009
A publication of the
Society for
New Communications Research
SNCR Press
San Jose, California
© 2009 by the Society for New Communications Research.
All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America.
Single copy price $60.00. For subscriptions of the
Journal of New Communications Research,
please contact EBSCO at (800) 653-2726,
or contact SNCR directly at (408) 266-9658
or e-mail [email protected].
To participate in the Society for
New Communications Research, please visit
http://sncr.org/
Society for New Communications Research
266 Hillsdale Avenue
San Jose, CA 95136
(408) 266-9658
http://www.sncr.org/
[email protected]
For electronic copies, updates and the wiki version
of this Journal, visit www.sncr.org/journal.
The opinions and conclusions expressed in the Journal of New Communications
Research are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the
views of the Society for New Communications Research
or its Advisory Board or SNCR Press.
Authors who wish to submit articles for publications should email the
article to [email protected].
All submissions should be double-spaced and generally follow APA style.
SNCR PRESS
© 2009 Society for New Communications Research
About the Society for New Communications Research
The Society for New Communications Research (SNCR) is a global nonprofit
501(c)(3) research and education foundation and think tank focused on the advanced
study of the latest developments in new media and communications, and their effect on
traditional media and business models, communications, culture and society.
SNCR is dedicated to creating a bridge between the academic and theoretical pursuit of these topics and the pragmatic implementation of new media and communications tools and methodologies. The Society’s Fellows include a leading group of futurists, scholars, business leaders, professional communicators, members of the media and
technologists from around the globe—all collaborating together on research initiatives,
educational offerings, and the establishment of standards and best practices.
For more information, visit http://sncr.org.
2009 Board of Directors
President – Jennifer McClure
CFO & Secretary to the Board – Kathy Klotz-Guest, Powerfully Funny
Director – Don Bulmer, SAP
Director – Francois Gossieaux, Beeline Labs
Director – Steve King, Emergent Research
Founding Fellows
Elizabeth Albrycht
Constantin Basturea
Elisa Camahort
John Cass
Elizabeth Fairbanks-Fletcher,
Esq.
Dan Farber
Dan Forbush
Tom Foremski
Robert French
Phil Gomes
Neville Hobson, ABC
Shel Holtz, ABC
Steve King
Kathy Klotz-Guest
Bruce Lowry
Mike Manuel
Matthew Podboy
Giovanni Rodriguez
Philip Young
Senior Fellows
Tom Abate
Dr. Nora Ganim Barnes,
Ph.D.
Dr. Craig Carroll, Ph.D.
Joseph Carrabis
Adrian Chan
Colin Crawford
Franz Dill
Sally Falkow
Paul Gillin
Francois Gossieaux
Shel Israel
Joseph Jaffe
Alan Kelly
Dr. Dean Kruckeberg, Ph.D.
J.D. Lasica
Steven L. Lubetkin, APR
Dr. Bernard Luskin, Ph.D.
Albert Maruggi
Don Middleberg
Carolyn Ockels
Richard Nacht
Katie Delahaye Paine
Danny O. Snow
Joseph Thornley
2009 Fellows
Connie Bensen
Donald Bulmer
Andria Carter
Mark Chrisman
Marcia Conner
Vanessa DiMauro
Laura Fitton
Susan Getgood
R. Craig Lefebvre, Ph.D.
Geoff Livingston
Gaurav Mishra
John Quinn
Susanne Rockwell
Todd Van Hoosear
Dr. Tamara Wandel, Ph.D.
Charlotte Ziems
2009 Committee Chairs
Dr. Nora Ganim Barnes,Ph.D.
Research Chair
Michael Manuel,
Best Practices and Awards
Committee Chair
Dr. Dean Kruckeberg, Ph.D.,
JNCR Editorial
Review Committee
Advisory Board and
Vendor Council Members
Chuck Hester, iContact
Chris Heuer, Social
Media Club
Ian Hsu, Stanford University
Christopher Johnson,
dna13 Inc.
Jennifer Kelly, BIA
Information Systems
Pamela Mahoney, MDV
Ross Mayfield, Socialtext
Blake Cahill and Mike
Spataro, Visible
Technologies
Laura Sturaitis, Business Wire
Cydni Tetro, NextPage
Jiyan Wei, Vocus
Jeff Weinberger, Cisco/Webex
We thank our supporters who have made
this publication possible:
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Featured Contributed Articles
University Blogs and Organizational Image,
By Karen R. Rudolph, McLeanan Community College; Dr. Kaye D. Sweetser, Ph.D.,
APR, Grady College of Journalism and Mass Communication, 2008 SNCR Fellow..... 15
Teens’ Use of Online Social Networking,
By Thomas King, Research Assistant, Emergent Research ........................................... 36
New Independent Research by Society for New Communications Research Fellows
Online Empathy: Communicating via Facebook to Bereaved College Students
By Dr. T. L. Wandel, Ph.D., University of Evansville, 2009 SNCR Fellow..................... 42
A Demonstration of “Professional Test-taker” Bias in Web-Based Panels and Applications
By Joseph Carrabis, Chief Research Officer, NextStage Evolution, SNCR Senior
Fellow............................................................................................................................. 54
Social Media Adoption Among the 2009 Inc. 500: New Tools and New Trends
By Nora Ganim Barnes, Ph.D., The Center for Marketing Research at the University
of Massachusetts Dartmouth and SNCR Senior Fellow and Research Chair; Eric
Mattson........................................................................................................................... 70
Global Perspective: Seeking a New Business Model for Newspapers
By Andria Y. Carter, The Trentorian, 2009 SNCR Fellow ............................................. 80
Research Updates from the Society for New Communications Research
Executive Summary from “The New Symbiosis of Professional Networks” study,
By SNCR Fellows Donald Bulmer, SAP and Vanessa DiMauro, Leader Networks........ 93
Executive Summary from the “2009 Middleberg/SNCR Survey of Media in the Wired
World,”
By SNCR President and Founder, Jen McClure, SNCR Senior Fellow, Don
Middleberg, Middleberg Communications................................................................... 101
University Blogs and Organizational Image
By Karen R. Rudolph and Kaye D. Sweetser
Introduction
For the next several years, colleges and universities across the country
will be courting a new breed of student—the Millennial Generation. This
cohort, comprised of individuals born after 1981, will provide ample
numbers of prospects. To attract these young people as students, many
colleges and universities have turned to “a rapidly growing trend in higher
education”—blogs (Brumfield, 2005, para. 7). Brumfield (2005) reported
that university officials are discovering that student blogs offer a look inside
college life in a way typical campus Websites cannot.
This study examines recurring frames appearing in student blogs profiled
on college and university Websites, and how these entries depict colleges
and universities. By applying framing and attribute agenda setting, this study
provides insight into the personalized “real” messages institutions of higher
education are sending to potential students.
Literature Review
College Recruiting and the Millennial Generation
According to Hossler (2000), there are two guiding principles in
recruitment activities: personalization and timing. The Millennials, also
called Generation Y, possess a few unique traits that complement these
principles. First, they expect personalization such as being able to customize
online content (Kruse, 2004). They also expect real-time access (Kruse,
2004), as they live in a world where they can snap pictures with a digital
camera and email out to friends in minutes rather than waiting a week for a
photomat to develop, as previous generations had.
The Internet can facilitate such personalization and immediacy. A
Pew study notes, “While public discussion has raged about whether blogs
constitute legitimate journalism or are a reliable source of information, for
teens, blogs are much more about the maintenance and extension of personal
relationships” (Pew Internet & American Life Project, 2005, p. 15).
According to Nancy Prater, the Web content coordinator at Ball State
University, social networking through Websites such as Facebook and Xanga
is already taking place. Ball State, a leader in using technology to recruit
students, began employing student bloggers in September 2005 (July, 2006).
In choosing bloggers, Ball State first asked deans, department chairs, and
key professors for recommendations (July, 2006). For compensation, Ball
State provided the bloggers with about $800 each in high-tech gadgets, such
as digital cameras and iPods—tools they would in turn use as they blogged.
Prater, who oversaw the project, was happy with the return on investment
saying recruiting publics are critical of a “too-perfect” picture often presented
by recruitment materials and those deciding which school to attend need to
understand what life is really like on a campus when searching for the right
fit (July, 2006).
Online Public Relations
In general, public relations practitioners have been labeled technology
“laggards” (Porter, Sallot, Cameron, & Shamp, 2001) and consistently
rated low with regard to fulfilling the potential for dialogue through an
organizational Website (Kent, Taylor, & White, 2001; 2003; Esrock &
Leichty, 2000). This is further illustrated by the lack of interactivity and
slowness to post content in common Web features like online pressrooms
(Gonzalez-Herrero & Ruiz de Valbuena, 2006).
With regard to online public relations in higher education, McAllisterGreve (2005) conducted a content analysis of community college Websites
and found that while the sites offered online access to information and
services to a variety of publics, they could do more to promote dialogic
communication. Consistent with other sectors of public relations, interactive
features that solicited input and feedback were limited on the sites. Will and
Callison (2006) examined college and university Websites and noted that
alumni and friends were the most targeted publics of these sites. Of students,
prospective students were most targeted, with links to the admissions office
and online and downloadable applications for admission. Will and Callison
(2006) determined that while efforts were being made to reach students
online, there is much room for improvement.
Using a survey and focus groups, Poock and Lefond (2001) observed
how college-bound high school students perceived college and university
Web pages, looking at content, site architecture, navigation, connection
speed, enjoyable experience, target audience, distinctiveness of site, and
graphics. They found that sites that went overboard to appeal to prospective
students were seen as unprofessional, a label that indicated a lower quality
institution.
Framing Theory and Attribute Agenda Setting
Recognizing that the way student bloggers write about their college
experiences is just as important as what they write about, this study is
grounded in framing theory and attribute agenda setting. These mass
communication theories seek to understand how specific attempts at
communication convey meaning to audiences.
Scholars have used a picture frame metaphor to understand the concept
of framing. The idea is that a picture frame’s size, complexity, and location
affect how the picture is perceived (Ghanem, 1997). Subtopics of the object
are the issues being studied (Ghanem, 1997). Semetko and Valkenburg
(2000) proposed that these subtopics within frames can be content analyzed
inductively and deductively. Deductive analysis is used to determine the
extent that predefined frames occur in the news. The strengths of this
approach are that it can be replicated easily, can handle large samples, and
can differentiate framing between media (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000).
The drawback to a deductive approach is that frames not defined in advance
might be overlooked during the study. According to Semetko and Valkenburg
(2000), using an inductive approach involves having an “open view to
attempt to reveal the array of possible frames, beginning with very loosely
defined preconceptions of these frames” (p. 94). While this approach is great
for detecting all possible frames, it unfortunately is typically labor intensive,
based on small samples, and hard to replicate.
Affective attributes consider the public’s emotional response to media
coverage (Ghanem, 1997). Journalists elicit this response through their use of
narratives, most often chronicles and stories, and through news values such
as proximity and human interest. Ghanem (1997) suggested that “bringing
a story to such a personal level might help the reader identify with the
happenings in the story and thus feel more concern for what is going on” (p.
13). In political coverage, affective attributes also include opinions about the
candidates (Golan & Wanta, 2001). Golan and Wanta (2001) said cognitive
attributes, meanwhile, involve information about newsmakers, whether
it’s about issues or personal characteristics. According to Ghanem (1997),
cognitive attributes attempt to “shed light on whether the media and the
audience are thinking about the problem in the same way” (p. 13).
Akin to the framing concept is attribute agenda setting, also called
second-level agenda setting. This second level “examines how media
coverage affects both what the public thinks about and how the public thinks
about it” (Ghanem, 1997, p.3). In addition, this second level tries to figure
out how an agenda of attributes influences public opinion (McCombs &
Evatt, 1995). According to McCombs (2004), “attribute is a generic term
encompassing the entire range of properties and traits that characterize an
object” (p. 70).
Ghanem (1997) described attribute agenda setting as looking at an item
under a magnifying lens while first level uses the naked eye. She added: “The
attributes of an object are the set of perspectives or frames that journalists
and the public employ to think about each object. How news frames impact
the public agenda is the emerging second level of agenda setting” (p. 5).
Survey respondents from Iyengar and Simon’s (1993) investigation of media
effects that occurred during the Persian Gulf crisis and war illustrate this
distinction. The first level of agenda setting is seen when respondents said the
crisis was the most important problem facing the nation. Describing the crisis
in terms of diplomatic or military options depicts the second level (Reese,
2001).
RQ1: What reoccurring frames appear in entries by student bloggers on
admission department Websites?
RQ2: What is the distribution of tone within frames?
RQ3: Are any relationships apparent between the use of tone and
attribute frames?
RQ4: What are the characteristics of students that colleges and
universities employ as bloggers on admission Websites?
RQ5: What are the characteristics of the institutions that use blogs on
admission Websites?
Methodology
This study used quantitative content analysis to examine frames and
attributes.
No comprehensive list exists of colleges and universities that use
student blogs in their recruitment efforts. Therefore, the sample was
created by first determining which institutions use blogs. This was done
by visiting the Website of each college or university listed on a master
list of institutions accredited by the six biggest regional accrediting
organizations.
The list contained a total of 1,906 institutions. Of these, 172
institutions were excluded from the sample for either not offering at
least one bachelor’s degree, not being located within the 50 states, or for
having closed. Thus, 1,734 school sites were examined for the presence
of student blogs used for recruitment purposes. For this study, blogs
were operationally defined as frequently updated Web pages with posts
centered on one topic arranged in reverse chronological order. A total of
183 institutions were found to have blogs fitting the criteria.
The unit of analysis was the blog post collected from each school’s
Website. The time frame selected was from a full academic year, in
order to fully examine the content of student bloggers during their
tenure as university representatives. To preserve the data, each post was
downloaded manually, thus capturing the images and text together in one
file. Ninety-two institutions were found to have archives of student blogs
for the academic year resulting in the collection of 4,792 blog posts.
From this, a stratified sample was created. Using a randomized number
table, 10 percent or 10 posts (whichever was greater) from each blogger
was identified for analysis. If a particular blogger did not post at least
10 times during the sample period, then all of the posts from that student
were analyzed. This random sampling method was necessary because
of the enormity of individualized frequencies. The stratified sample
included 2,471 blog posts.
An inductive approach was taken in analyzing posts in an attempt
to reveal all possible frames (Semetko and Valkenburg, 2000). Posts
were coded for attributes emphasized in the blog. The original inductive
frames to be used were determined by reading through a sample of blog
posts. They include: academics, professors, social life, extracurricular
activities, residential life, athletics, finances, physical wellness, religion,
and community. These frames were adjusted after a pilot test of the code
sheet.
Frames were recorded using an instrument based on the method
employed by Semetko and Valkenburg (2000). The instrument contained
a series of dichotomous-orientated response questions in order to create
a frame factor score for each item. Given that these are content-specific
inductive frames, this factor frame approach appeared to be the most
logical in identifying not only the presence of frames, but also the level
of occurrence of that frame for each item. Poock and Lefond’s (2001)
research on college and university Web pages was used as a starting
point to identify the frame attribute questions. The overall frames,
therefore, are made up of several individual attributes.
The academics frame emerged when bloggers wrote about
coursework, the institution’s academic reputation, or academic honesty.
The professor frame occurred when the blogger wrote comments about
the institution’s faculty – descriptions of their personal characteristics
and whether bloggers felt they are competent. The social life frame
referred to statements depicting life outside of the classroom including
extra-curricular activities and entertainment opportunities. The
extracurricular activities frame included mentions of school-sponsored
activities the blogger was involved with outside of class. The residential
life frame included descriptions of living in a dorm room and what the
dining hall was like. The athletics frame showed what role athletics
played at an institution including intramural and competitive sports.
The finances frame occurred when the blogger wrote about his personal
finances and the costs of attending the institution. The physical wellness
frame included references to the blogger’s personal wellness. The
religion frame depicted the religious atmosphere on campus and the
community frame presented the blogger’s relationship and feelings
toward the local community.
After identifying whether these attributes were used, coders
determined an overall tone for that frame. Demographic characteristics
collected, when possible, included gender, ethnicity, school
classification, and hometown (in state or out of state).
Two trained coders (including the author) content analyzed the blog
posts. Intercoder reliability was assessed on a random sample of coded
items, and determined to be 0.95 using Holsti’s formula for measuring
the percentage of agreement. Differences were reconciled throughout the
coding process.
Results
This study explored the types of frames used in blog posts on admission
department Websites. The post was the unit of analysis (N = 4,792) and
represented 92 institutions and 349 individual bloggers. Ten percent or 10
posts, whichever was greater, from each blogger was randomly selected for
analysis (n = 2,471).
Blog activity varied throughout the academic year and appeared to peak
during specific months. Figure 1 illustrates blog post activity each month
based on educational classification (year in school), and Figures 2 and 3
compares activity based on institution (size and private/public, respectively).
Figure 1: Frequency of Posts By Month and Blogger Classification
Figure 2: Frequency of Posts By Month and Size of Institution
Figure 3: Frequency of Posts By Month and Public/Private Status
Frames and Attributes
With no factors surfacing during a factor analysis, this research grouped
attributes into frames in a similar fashion to Taylor et al. (2001) by creating
separate summative indices. The indices for each frame, along with means
and standard deviations are shown in Table 1. The low alpha scores and lack
of emerging frames can be attributed to the study’s investigation of a wide
range of topics with very specific categories, which Taylor et al. (2001), who
reported alphas as low as 0.11, explains as acceptable. Taylor et al. (2001)
said indices “reflect the concatenation of multiple concepts within a single
construct rather than the isolation of a singular concept via multiple items, as
in a scale.” (p. 274).
The academics frame index consisted of 11 attributes, professor frame
index had four, social life frame index had five, extracurricular frame index
had 16, residential life frame index had five, athletics frame index included
five, finances frame index had seven, physical wellness frame index had
six, religion frame index had five, and the community frame index had four
attributes.
Table 1. Mean Scores of Frames and Issue Attributes
Frame Indices
Academics Frame Index (a = .212)
Administrative tasks
Class
Coursework
Academic honesty
Honor or remedial courses
Academic reputation
Studying
Study abroad
Internships
Field trips
Career services
Professor Frame Index (a = .159)
Personal characteristics of professor
Encounters with professors outside the classroom
Professor’s competence
Recommendations about which professor to take
Social Life Frame Index (a = .346)
Life outside the classroom
Too much going on to study
Entertainment opportunities provided through the institution
What he does on the weekends
Being bored
Extracurricular Frame Index (a = .121)
Band
Choir
Sports
Honor societies
Theatre
Political groups
Student publications
Student union activities
Sororities/fraternities
Pep rallies
Tailgating
Tour Guide
Student government
Orientation leader
Campus TV/radio
Academic club
Residential Life Frame Index (a = .118)
What it’s like to live in a dorm
Calling the campus “home”
Dining hall
Parking on campus
M
(n = 2,471)
SD
Percentage
(n = 2,471)
.94
.05
.26
.37
.00
.03
.01
.14
.06
.03
.01
.01
.10
.05
.04
.02
.00
1.30
.83
.00
.19
.28
.01
.29
.01
.01
.10
.00
.02
.00
.01
.01
.06
.00
.00
.01
.02
.01
.01
.01
.14
.09
.02
.03
.00
.94
.21
.43
.48
.02
.16
.07
.34
.23
.16
.09
.09
.33
.21
.18
.13
.02
.83
.37
.04
.39
.45
.07
.56
.92
.11
.29
.07
.12
.02
.11
.09
.24
.06
.06
.11
.14
.09
.09
.11
.39
.28
.12
.16
.04
61.5%
4.7%
25.5%
36.9%
0.1%
2.7%
0.5%
13.9%
5.6%
2.7%
0.9%
0.8%
9.4%
5.1%
3.5%
1.7%
0.1%
84.2%
82.8%
0.2%
18.8%
28.1%
0.5%
25.1%
0.8%
1.3%
9.6%
0.5%
1.5%
0.1%
1.3%
1.0%
6.2%
0.4%
0.4%
1.4%
2.2%
1.0%
0.9%
1.3%
13.5%
8.6%
1.7%
2.7%
0.2%
Living off campus
Athletics Frame Index (a = .475)
Attending competitive athletic events
Being part of a competitive team
How teams are faring
Acting as a cheerleader
Playing or watching intramural sports
Finances Frame Index (a =.140)
Costs associated with attending the institution
Financial aid package
Having a budget
Working a job on campus
Working a job off campus
Working at an unknown location
Working a job when not in school
Physical Wellness Frame Index (a = .199)
Exercising or working out
Being stressed or not stressed
Taking naps or needing more sleep
Being sick
Using health services on campus
Time management
Religion Frame Index (a = .396)
Involved with a religious organization
Mission trips
Attending a religious service off campus
Reference to religious values
Praying or meditating
Community Frame Index (a = .022)
Describe the weather where the institution is located
Describe the town or city where the institution is located
Collaborative efforts between the local community and
institution
Local news or events
.01
.22
.05
.07
.06
.02
.02
.19
.01
.01
.01
.07
.02
.03
.03
.18
.03
.07
.04
.03
.00
.02
.11
.02
.00
.02
.05
.02
.18
.12
.03
.02
.12
.58
.21
.26
.22
.14
.15
.45
.12
.09
.08
.26
.15
.17
.18
.46
.17
.25
.18
.16
.06
.13
.40
.13
.06
.15
.21
.13
.40
.32
.16
.14
1.5%
15.2%
4.9%
7.4%
5.5%
2.1%
2.3%
16.8%
1.5%
0.8%
0.7%
7.4%
2.3%
3.0%
3.4%
16.0%
3.3%
6.7%
3.6%
2.9%
0.4%
1.8%
8.9%
2.0%
0.4%
2.3%
4.7%
2.0%
17.1%
11.7%
2.6%
2.2%
.02
.12
1.5%
Bloggers’ Use of Frames
RQ1 asked how student bloggers framed their respective colleges and
universities in blogs posted on admission department Websites. The mean
score for each of the 10 frames revealed the bloggers’ overall use of the
frame in admission blogs (see Table 1).
Bloggers wrote a great deal about their social life in posts by discussing
what they did outside of class, what they did on the weekends, and
entertainment opportunities provided by the institution. The second most
common frame was the academics frame where bloggers wrote about their
coursework, classes, and studying. The extracurricular frame was the third
most common frame. Under this frame, bloggers wrote about being involved
with sports and groups such as sororities and fraternities and, to a lesser
degree theatre. From there, the other frames were community frame, finances
frame, physical wellness frame, athletics frame, residential life frame,
professor frame, and the religion frame. See Table 1 for a full report of frame
and attribute occurrence.
Correlations provide additional understanding between the relationships
of frames. These tests uncovered that for the most part there were very weak
yet statistically significant correlations between frame indices. The highest
correlations that occurred were among the nonacademic-oriented items. For
example, the social life frame index had a positive weak relationship with
the extracurricular frame index (r = .214, p < .001) and the athletic frame
index (r = .204, p < .001). Additionally, the athletic frame index had a weak
positive correlation with the extracurricular frame index (r = .360, p < .001).
Blogger Use of Tone Within Frames
RQ2 asked about the distribution of tone within frames. A frequency
count showed that overall frames were mostly positive. In addition to being
the most common frame, the social life frame was also the most positive
frame (30.3 percent; n = 748) while the residential life frame was the most
negative (3.4 percent; n = 84). Table 2 shows tone distribution by frames.
To better understand the relationship between tone and frame index,
correlations were run. The community frame had the strongest positive
correlation with tone, r (2,471) = .933, p < .001, followed closely by the
professor frame, r (2,471) = .930, p < .001. In addition, the athletics frame
correlated positively with tone, r (2,471) = .897, p < .001, as did the finances
frame, r (2,471) = .888, p < .001. The religion frame correlated positively
with tone, r (2,471) = .866, p < .001. The residential life frame correlated
positively with tone, r (2,471) = .826, p < .001. The physical wellness
frame correlated positively with tone, r (2,471) = .817, p < .001, as did the
extracurricular frame, r (2,471) = .812, p < .001, and the social life frame,
r (2,471) = .752, p < .001. The academics frame also correlated positively
with tone, r (2,471) = .726, p < .001. It is important to note that while these
correlations show association between the frames and tone, they do not
necessarily imply causation.
Table 2. Tone Distribution By Frame
Frame
Academics
Professor
Social Life
Extracurricular
Residential Life
Athletics
Finances
Physical Wellness
Religion
Community
Negative
(n = 325)
64
12
20
3
84
5
30
66
0
41
2.6%
0.5%
0.8%
0.1%
3.4%
0.2%
1.2%
2.7%
0.0%
1.7%
Neutral
(n = 3,171)
927
20
1312
96
73
52
202
319
41
129
37.5%
0.8%
53.1%
3.9%
3.0%
2.1%
8.2%
12.9%
1.7%
5.2%
Positive
(n = 3,422)
576
210
748
637
215
327
192
63
197
257
Frame Not Mentioned
(n = 17,792)
23.3%
8.5%
30.3%
25.8%
8.7%
13.2%
7.8%
2.5%
8.0%
10.4%
904
2229
391
1735
2099
2087
2047
2023
2233
2044
36.6%
90.2%
15.8%
70.2%
84.9%
84.5%
82.8%
81.9%
90.4%
82.7%
Relationship Between Attribute Frames and Tone
The relationship between frame attributes and tone was examined in
order to answer RQ3. Chi square tests were run separately on each frame
attribute to determine how the frame’s tone changed when attributes were
present. Results show the percentage present within each attribute. Each
attribute reached statistical significance. For example, posts that mentioned
the blogger’s life outside the classroom were more likely to be neutral (63.9
percent; n = 1,306) than positive (35.2 percent; n = 719) or negative (0.9
percent; n = 19), X2(3) = 2,220.116, p < .001. Posts that discussed class were
almost equally likely to be neutral (48 percent; n = 303) as they were positive
(47.7 percent; n = 301), but less likely to be negative (4.3 percent; n = 27),
X2(3) = 562.54, p < .001. Posts that included mentions of attributes from
the extracurricular frame were especially likely to be positive. For example,
posts about the blogger being involved with student government were more
likely to positive (87 percent; n = 47) than neutral (11.1 percent; n = 6) or
negative (1.9 percent; n = 1), X2(3) = 140.161, p < .001. On the contrary,
posts about parking on campus were overwhelmingly negative (83.3 percent;
n = 5) rather than positive (16.7 percent; n = 1) or neutral (0 percent; n = 0),
X2(3) = 118.782, p < .001. Posts about costs associated with the institution
were also alarmingly negative (69.4 percent; n = 25) instead of neutral (11.1
percent; n = 4) or even positive (19.4 percent; n = 7), X2(3) = 1437.87, p <
.001.
Overall, there was a relationship between the frames and tone and it
appeared that bloggers were more likely to frame their institutions positively
or neutrally rather than negatively.
Blogger Characteristics
RQ4 asked about the characteristics of students that colleges and
universities employed as bloggers on admission Websites. More than half
the bloggers were female (61.2 percent; n = 1,513) and 37.6 percent were
male (n = 930); gender for a fraction of bloggers could not be determined
(1.1 percent; n = 28). White students were in the majority (68.8 percent; n
= 1,700), followed distantly by African Americans (9.3 percent; n = 230),
Asians (5.2 percent; n = 129), and Hispanics (0.7 percent; n = 18). Figure
1 shows the frequency of posts by gender and that both males and females
tended to post most often during the middle of each semester.
All classifications of students were represented, but the majority of
bloggers were freshmen (30.3 percent; n = 748), followed by sophomores
(19.2 percent; n = 475), juniors (18.8 percent; n = 464), and seniors (15.5
percent; n = 3384). Only 117 of the entries (4.7 percent) were written by
bloggers identified as transfer students. Regardless of classification, bloggers
followed a similar pattern of posts peaking during the midterm months of the
semesters before dropping off in the final months, December and May.
An ANOVA was used to assess the relationship between use of frames
and blogger classification. Eight of the 10 frame indices reached statistical
significance when compared with the blogger’s classification. Freshmen
bloggers used five frames more than their upperclassmen peers: social life
(five attributes), F(4) = 8.90, p < .001; residential life (five attributes), F(4)
= 19.210, p < .001; physical wellness (six attributes), F(4) = 5.799, p < .001;
religion (five attributes), F(4) = 10.792, p < .001; and community (four
attributes), F(4) = 5.431, p < .001.
Juniors were more likely than freshmen, sophomores, and seniors to
use the academics frame, which included 11 attributes, F(4) = 4.30, p <
.05. Sophomores, meanwhile, were more likely than freshmen, juniors, and
seniors to use the extracurricular frames, which included 16 attributes, F(4) =
3.807, p < .05. Seniors mostly used the athletics frame, with five attributes,
F(4) = 3.560, p < .05.
Geographically, the bloggers mostly came from out of state (41.3
percent; n = 1,020) and in state (31.1 percent; n = 769) but also included
internationals (3.8 percent; n = 94) and students of missionary parents
(0.2 percent; n = 6). The relationship between frames and two blogger
characteristics, gender and hometown, were also examined in an attempt to
uncover deeper connections between the variables. Three frames reached
statistical significance when compared with the blogger’s gender. Posts
that included talk of the blogger’s social life were slightly more likely to
be written by female students (87.1 percent; n = 1,318) rather than males
(80.1 percent; n = 745), X2(2) = 32.918, p < .001. Male bloggers were more
likely to write posts that included the athletics frame (18 percent; n = 167)
than females bloggers were (13.7 percent; n = 207), X2(2) = 9.592, p = .008.
Finally, posts that included the physical wellness frame were more likely
be written by a female blogger (17.7 percent; n = 268) rather than a male
blogger (13.1 percent; n = 122), X2(2) = 9.65, p = .008.
Institution Characteristics
RQ5 asked about the types of institutions that operated admission blogs
for recruitment purposes. The 92 colleges and universities were classified
based on standards used by U.S. News & World Report for its “America’s
Best Colleges” rankings. The majority of schools were classified as medium
(39.13 percent; n = 36) and small (36.95 percent; n = 34). Large schools
accounted for 16.3 percent (n = 15) of the institutions, while extra large
schools comprised 7.6 percent (n = 7) of the total schools. Figure 3 shows the
frequency of posts by the size of the institution. All institutions had similar
dips and rises in post frequency up until April when medium institutions saw
a rise in the number of posts while other institutions declined.
Of the 92 colleges and universities, 75 were private institutions (81.52
percent) while 17 were public (18.47 percent). Forty-six percent of the
institutions were religiously affiliated (n = 43) while 53.26 percent were
not (n = 49). Both public and private schools showed similar patterns in
post frequency during the academic year, as seen in Figure 4. At private
institutions, however, the frequency of posts increased slightly after March
before declining at the end of the semester. For public institutions, March
signaled the high point in frequencies before a decline in April and May
toward the end of the semester.
The relationship between frames and the institution characteristics,
size, and public/private status were also examined in an attempt to uncover
deeper connections between the variables. Four frames reached statistical
significance when compared to the size of the institution. Overall the
institutions mentioned the social life frame between 77.4 percent and 88.5
percent of the time in posts. The medium institutions presented this frame
most often (88.5 percent; n = 912) while the large institutions mentioned it
the least (77.4 percent; n = 253) within the size of institution variable, X2(3)
= 31.08, p < .001. Posts that discussed extracurricular activities were more
likely to be written by bloggers at medium-sized institutions (29.5 percent; n
= 304) than from small (22.5 percent; n = 186), large (20.8 percent; n = 68),
or extra large (21.3 percent; n = 61) institutions, X2(3) = 18.981, p < .001.
The religious frame was mentioned in posts between 2.1 percent and 12.5
percent of the time. The medium and small institutions revealed this frame
most often (12.5 percent; n = 129 and 9.3 percent; n = 77, respectively) while
the extra large and large institutions presented this frame least often (2.1
percent; n = 6 and 2.4 percent; n = 8, respectively), X2(3) = 49.966, p < .001.
Similarly, posts that mentioned the community frame were more likely to be
written by bloggers at a medium- (20.8 percent; n = 214) or small-sized (16.3
percent; n = 134) institution rather than a large (13.1 percent; n = 43) or extra
large (10.8 percent; n = 31) institution, X2(3) = 21.825, p < .001.
The religion frame achieved the greatest statistical significance when
examining the relationship between frames and the institution’s public/
private status. Posts that mentioned the religion frame were more likely to
be written by bloggers at a private institution (10.3 percent; n = 207) than a
public institution (2.8 percent; n = 13), X2(1) = 26.466, p < .001.
Discussion
The goal of this study was to add to the knowledge of framing theory in
discipline by uncovering how student bloggers depicted their colleges and
universities through the use of frames. Of special interest were the specific
attributes and tone used by bloggers to describe these institutions, effectively
becoming agents of the university’s public relations and recruitment efforts.
In doing so, this research provides data about the types of institutions taking
advantage of blogs on their Websites and the types of students chosen to
chronicle their lives through admission blogs. Such data create the foundation
for future framing research involving all types of recruitment materials. In
addition, it generated suggestions and implications for university public
relations and marketing professionals.
Blogger Use of Frames
The current analysis suggests that student blogs have the potential
to showcase the college experience at an institution. Unlike traditional
Web pages or view books, which do a decent job of highlighting an
institution’s academic prestige and programs, state-of-the-art buildings, and
extracurricular offerings, student blogs offer prospective students a chance
to “test drive” an institution. This potential is seen by the abundant use of the
social life and academics frames by student bloggers when posting entries.
The use of these frames is in line with the Pew Internet and American Life
Project study that found that 37 percent of bloggers classify the main topic
of their blog as personal experiences (Pew Internet & American Life Project,
2006).
Administrators should note that academics and extracurricular frames
ranked as the second and third frames in frequency. By writing about these
topics, bloggers created opportunities to dispense the institution’s message,
although this message did not always come out exactly as the institution
might like. This was the case when Jason, at ERAU-Daytona Beach, wrote:
“I like all of my classes except economics because I mean bottom line, it’s
not very interesting.”
Unlike conventional public relations materials such as press releases or
fact sheets, blog content was not always rosy for the institution. Such posts
added credibility that bloggers had free reign over what they posted and
were not being censored. Nevertheless, by at least opening themselves to
the opportunity, institutions create the possibility of gleaning more natural
sounding student approval.
The figures indicate a noticeable increase in the frequency of posts
around the midterm of each semester. Specifically, across all blogs October
and November garnered the most posts in the fall semester (237 and
255, respectively) and March and April amassed the most in the spring
semester (370 and 392, respectively). Despite the increase in posting,
however, bloggers maintained a consist use of the various frames. This
boost in posts might have several explanations—bloggers may become
more interested in blogging or more familiar with the computer software or
perhaps administrators pushed for the increase. Regardless of the reason,
this increase had good timing. October and November are critical months to
reach prospective students who begin visiting campuses and choosing which
institutions they will apply to. March and April are important as prospective
students continue to narrow their choices based on where they gained
acceptance.
Blogger Use of Tone Within Frames
The way bloggers said what they posted is how they garner their
power, appeal, and authenticity. Meaning, there can and most likely will be
statements posted that make public relations practitioners and administrators
cringe. The good news, however, is that blog posts were overwhelmingly
positive toward the institution.
Only three frames—social life, academics, and physical wellness—
garnered more neutral mentions than positive tone. Posts sometimes included
a lot of ramblings about weekend activities and the student blogger being
ill or not wanting to get out of bed for an 8 a.m. class before something
beneficial to the institution would emerge on the blog.
But if administrators can overlook an insignificant post, they might later
stumble upon a valuable entry like the one a Hamline University student
wrote: “As I was sitting there, it struck me how lucky we are at Hamline to
have faculty and staff that are committed to providing the students with a
diverse, well-rounded educational experience. It makes me so happy to be
here!!”
And this positive post by Nicole at Lewis and Clark College: “I will be
graduating in a week and a half with a handful of loans, but I know that every
dollar I will have to pay in the future is well worth it for the education and
experiences that I have received.”
At 3.4 percent, the residential life frame was the most negative frame.
While this represented only 84 posts, it was a blow to institutions, many
of which spend a lot of money trying to keep students happily residing on
campus. These negative posts touched on all aspects of residential life but
targeted parking on campus (83.3 percent; n = 5) and dining halls (28.4
percent; n = 19) the most.
Complaints covered the standard array of lack of parking on campus,
unhealthy cafeteria food, and a laundry list of gripes about the residence
halls. Just as a student blogger naturally glowing about a how great the
college is, these personal complaints from bloggers could possibly impact
a prospective student’s view of the university. If institutions can handle the
not-so-flattering parts of blog posts, the positive public relations from such
content could possibly outweigh the negative. Ultimately, if institutions
decide to have student blogs as part of their recruitment strategy, they must
be confident in the product they are selling, have a tough skin, and employ
student bloggers who can fairly accentuate the good with the bad.
Implications for Practitioners
Overall, public relations practitioners missed opportunities with student
blogs. It was apparent that many institutions had simply slapped a blog
up on their admission Website with only the thought that having one was
better than not having one. Much more is involved in running a successful
admission blog than just the logistics of getting it on the Web. Institutions
must carefully select bloggers who will represent the student body and,
ultimately, the institution’s brand. Practitioners should also stay involved
with the project (albeit ethically, adhering to established guidelines such
as those from the Word of Mouth Marketing Association), actively guiding
bloggers so that their posts can meet established goals, namely to provide
prospective students with the clearest picture of life at the institution. Finally,
practitioners should use the blogs as a resource to gauge the campus climate.
Student bloggers should remain acutely aware of the purpose of
recruitment blogs. In this study, less than 20 percent of bloggers (n = 463)
acknowledged the specific audience they were blogging for—prospective
students. This was alarming and showed why many posts failed to reach their
potential. For example, Shari from Robert Morris College in Illinois used
most of her blogs to write about her 15-year-old daughter’s trips around the
world. The institution, and prospective students, would benefit more from the
posts if Shari spent more space writing about her experience of returning to
school later in life. An active, continuous review of blogs by public relations
practitioners and training on the institution’s topical expectations of the blogs
can assist keeping the blogs on track without playing too heavy of a hand in
directing the blogs or acting unethically.
Papacharissi (2004) discovered that bloggers were not usually focused
on feedback or what their audiences had to say about the blogs. This is why
practitioners should guide bloggers when needed. That does not mean tell
them what to write. Instead, it means remind them who their audience is,
suggest topics to write about, and encourage quick and helpful responses
to comments. Practitioners should also impose limits on the number of
posts per week. While not justified quantitatively, it seems likely that these
blogs lose their effectiveness when bloggers post more than once or twice
a week. Bloggers simply ran out of insightful things to write and resorted
to ramblings that give a play-by-play account of the blogger’s day. These
sprawling posts often lost sight of the purpose of recruitment blogs.
Practitioners can also use blogs for environmental scanning of current
student opinions. For example, Lauren, from Ball State University, was
unhappy about a studio not staying open 24 hours:
“I’ve been working on a group project for two weeks for a studio
which isn’t due until midnight on Monday but oh yes, my group
finished early! We finished plotting our last board around 4:15 AM
(though due to an annoying new policy which causes our plotting
room to no longer be available 24/7 we couldn’t pick up the last two
until this morning because the room locked at 4 AM).”
Limitations and Future Research
While this study offers insight into the way student bloggers frame
their institutions, there are some limitations. First and foremost, this study
was exploratory. The frames created and used for this study were based on
previous studies but relied on inductive attributes. Future studies can adjust
the frames and attributes so that they might have a better chance to factor
analyze—and perhaps focus on a single topic more in line with previous
journalism studies.
Future studies should analyze comments left on admission blogs in an
attempt to understand the two-way communication between student bloggers
and their audience. In addition, future research should take into account
some variables not included in the current study, namely the use of curse
words in posts and the impact of poor grammar, spelling, and writing. Josh
from Rutgers University, for example, introduced himself on his blog as a
“sofomore.” These items should be considered because they can have an
impact on how prospective students view an institution.
Finally, this study did not attempt to note the influence of framing on the
targeted audience, prospective students and their parents. Future researchers
should conduct surveys of prospective students and parents to determine
their perspective on admission blogs. This type of research could help clarify
the types of students who make the best bloggers as well as the topics in
most demand. Ball State University has begun this process on their campus
with intercept interviews during campus tours and of incoming freshmen
during summer orientation. Future researchers should continue this type of
evaluation to determine the impact recruitment blogs have on their intended
audience.
Conclusion
Nancy Prater, the Ball State University official who oversaw her
institution’s blog project, remarked that putting blogs on the institution’s
Website gives administrators “a little bit more control” and a chance
“to tell your own story in the way you might like better” than if public
relations merely relied on self-run student blogs already on the Internet.
By carefully selecting the students who will represent the institution and
giving them proper guidance on the purpose of the blog, recruitment blogs
do give colleges and universities control over telling the institution’s story
as compared to non-institution blogs. Even so, the control is limited if the
public relations tactic is handled ethically. It is nothing like the complete
control practitioners have over other university public relations materials.
This study showed, however, that bloggers are portraying their institutions in
an overwhelmingly positive way and using frames that benefit the institution.
It also pointed toward the untapped potential of recruitment blogs. These
findings show that students can be trusted by intuitions to tell the college or
university story.
References
Brumfield, R. (2005). Student blogs offer new recruiting tool. eSchool News, Retrieved
November 15, 2005, from http://eschoolnews.com/news/showStory.cfm?ArticleID=5833.
Esrock, S. L., & Leichty, G. B. (2000). Organization of corporate Web pages: Publics and
functions. Public Relations Review. 26(3), 327-344.G.
Ganem, S. (1997). Filling in the Tapestry: The Second Level of Agenda Setting.
Communication and Democracy: Exploring the Intellectual Frontiers in Agenda-Setting
Theory, 3-14.
Golan, G., & Wanta, W. (2001). Second-level agenda setting in the New Hampshire primary:
A comparison of coverage in three newspapers and public perceptions of candidates.
Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly. 78, 247-259.
Gonzalez-Herrero, A., & Ruiz de Valbuena, M. (2006). Trends in online media relations: Webbased corporate press rooms in leading international companies. Public Relations Review.
32, 267-275.
Hossler, D. (2000). Effective admissions recruitment. In G. Gaither (Ed.), Promising practices
in recruitment remediation, & retention. New Directions in Institutional Research, No.
108, 15-30 San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Publishers.
Iyengar, S., & Simon, A. (1993). News coverage of the Gulf crisis and public opinion: A study
of agenda-setting, priming, and framing. Communication Research, 20, 365-383.
Joly, K. (2006, August 18). [Weblog] Special UB column about admission-sponsored student
blogs: Nancy Prater, Web Content Coordinator at Ball State University. collegeWebeditor.
com. Retrieved December 7, 2006, from http://collegeWebeditor.com/blog/index.php/
archives/2006/08/18/special-ub-column-about-admission-sponsored-student-blogs-nancyprater-Web-content-coordinator-at-ball-state-university/.
Kent, M. L., Taylor, M., & White, W. J. (2001). How activist organizations are using the
Internet to build relationships. Public Relations Review, 27, 263-284.
Kruse, K. Buckle Up: Generation Y Is Here. Chief Learning Officer Magazine, March 2004.
McAllister-Greve, S. (2005). Dialogic public relations practices via community college
Websites. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the International Communication
Association, Sheraton New York, New York City, NY. Retrieved 2006-10-05 from http://
www.allacademic.com/meta/p12820_index.htm
McCombs, M. (2004). Setting the agenda: The mass media and public opinion. Cambridge,
UK: Polity Press.
Papacharissi, Z. (2004). The blogger revolution? Audiences as media producers. Paper
presented in the Communication and Technology Division, International Communication
Association, New Orleans, LA. May.
Pew Internet & American Life Project (2006). A portrait of the Internet’s new storytellers.
Available at: http://www.pewInternet.org/pdfs/PIP percent20Bloggers percent20Report
percent20July percent2019 percent202006.pdf
Pew Internet & American Life Project (2005). Teen content creators and consumers. Available
at http://www.pewInternet.org/pdfs/PIP_Teens_Content_Creation.pdf
Poock, M. C., & Lefond, D. (2001). How college-bound prospects perceive university
Websites: Findings, implications, and turning browsers into applicants. College &
University Journal. Summer, 15-21.
Porter, L. V., Sallot, L. M., Cameron, G. T., & Shamp, S. (2001). New technologies and
public relations: Exploring practitioners’ use of online resources to earn a seat at the
management table. Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly, 78, 172–190.
Reese, S. (2001). Framing Public Life: A Bridging Model for Media Research. In S. Reese, O.
Gandy & A. Grant (Eds.), Framing Public Life, pp. 70-71. Mahwah NJ: Erbaum.
Semetko, H. A. & Valkenburg, P. M. (2000). Framing European politics: A content analysis of
press and television news. Journal of Communication, 50(2), 93-110.
Shimizu, I. (1951). Shakai-shinrigaku [Social psychology]. Tokyo: Iwanami.
Taylor, M., Kent, M. L., & White, W. J. (2001). How activist organizations are using the
Internet to build relationships. Public Relations Review. 27, 263-284.
Karen Rudolph is coordinator of Marketing & Communications at McLennan
Community College in Waco, Texas. She earned a master’s degree in
journalism and mass communications from the University of Georgia in
2007.
Kaye D. Sweetser, PhD, APR is an assistant professor of public relations
at the University of Georgia’s Grady College of Journalism and Mass
Communication. Dr. Sweetser’s research investigates the adoption and uses
of social media. She was a 2008 Research Fellow of the Society of New
Communications Research.
Teens’ Use of Online Social Networking
by Thomas King
Over the past decade, online social networking has transformed from
a new niche of communication used exclusively by that nerdy kid in your
calculus class into a mainstream social phenomenon used by the vast
majority of youth, their teachers, bosses, and (unfortunately) even parents.
From the early days of Xanga to the newly updated version of Facebook,
online social networking has completely changed the way young people
communicate.
Recently, extensive research has been done about the way that college
students use social networking software. In many ways, college students
were the pioneers of online social interaction, e.g., MySpace and Facebook.
Their platform preferences have traditionally determined which ones gain
mainstream popularity and which ones fall by the wayside.
While past research is interesting, most of the work focuses on collegeaged students alone and leaves the demographic of highschoolers and
pre-teens understudied. Unlike college students, who adopted the world of
online social networking in their late teenage years, today’s high school and
middle school students have grown up with a variety of social networking
tools ranging from Imbee to Webkinz. In this sense, they are an even more
“native” subset of the so-called “digital natives.”
This paper is based on research conducted to focus on pre-teen and
teenager’s online social networking habits. The goal of this research study
was to gain a better understanding of what motivates high school and middle
school students to use social networking software, and how they decide
which platforms to use.
The study consisted of a series of interviews, focus groups, and
observational sessions with more than 50 students from the greater San
Francisco Bay Area. Given this small sample, the research is not intended to
be s statistically valid quantitative study, but rather an ethnographic study.
The subjects were split into three groups according to age: middle school (6th
- 8th graders), high school underclassmen (9th-10th graders), and high school
upperclassmen (11th-12th graders). Each group had an approximately equal
number of boys and girls and included a wide range of ethnic backgrounds.
Initially, the research asked about all types of online social networking
platforms used by the participants. However, it quickly became apparent that
there were only two relevant social networking players in the middle and
high school scene: MySpace and Facebook.
The fact that MySpace and Facebook have become direct competitors
is fascinating, given that their user experiences have almost nothing in
common. MySpace has always been the Las Vegas of social networking
software. The Website is loud and flashy, and the company is proud of it.
From the minute you visit MySpace, you are hit with a wave of brightly
colored advertisements that seemingly take over the screen.
MySpace lets its users add to the colorful collage through completely
customizable profiles. MySpace users love to plaster their profile pages with
the latest songs, pictures, and even videos with almost reckless abandon.
There is simply no other way to describe MySpace than “loud and in your
face.” And while it is always flashy and often unrefined, MySpace’s loyal
users argue that, much like a Hooters restaurant, its tackiness adds to its
charm.
Facebook’s design, on the other hand, directly reflects its roots as a social
networking system designed for stuffy Ivy League students. From day one,
Facebook has been highly private, with a members-only policy that was for a
long time restricted to college students only. Whereas MySpace is filled with
personality, Facebook at times seems to have none at all. Your profile page,
or “wall,” is permanent and cannot be altered.
However, this strict uniform certainly has its advantages. Facebook’s
quiet design means that less content needs to be loaded on each page, which
makes it significantly faster than MySpace. The lack of customization has
also allowed Facebook to better prevent the spread of spyware and phishing
that more or less overwhelmed MySpace.
Just as it is rigid about its content, Facebook is very socially structured as
well. On MySpace, every user is thrown into one big pool. Facebook places
people into “networks” defined by their location, education, special interests,
or even employer. The networks not only make it easier for users to find their
existing friends online, but it also makes it easier for them to find people with
similar interests in their area.
The research produced many interesting findings on the use of these
two social networking platforms. First, kids start on MySpace in order to
experiment with their self-image through profile customization. But as they
grow older, they migrate en masse from MySpace to Facebook for social
networking purposes. Facebook has a more mature appearance that older
teenagers seek, and it is better suited for students looking to expand their
social networks. And while MySpace is no longer used by older teens for
social networking purposes, it has certainly not become irrelevant. MySpace
remains an important part of a teenager’s online experience as a provider of
music, video, and other media-related content.
Findings: Online Social Networking Habits Differ by Age Group
According to this research, when kids first begin experimenting with
online social networking platforms, they almost exclusively choose MySpace
for its highly customizable and often wild profile pages. As teens grow older
and enter high school however, their expectations of a social networking
experience change dramatically as they begin looking for a system that has
a simpler layout focused on functionality rather than flashy design. Their
search sends them to Facebook, and by the time students become upper
classmen in high school the vast majority have stopped using their MySpace
profiles altogether.
Middle Schoolers’ Use Driven by the Need to Define Themselves
The majority of the students in this study (aged 12-19) discovered social
networking when they first entered middle school. In fact, less than 5 percent
of participants had social networking accounts of any kind before the sixth
grade. By the end of sixth grade however, 70 percent had opened accounts.
What prompts this massive joining of the social networking world? This
research suggests that it’s all about image.
Middle school is a socially tough time for many kids. Everyone
desperately wants to find acceptance in the high ranks of the preteen social
hierarchy, and “being cool” requires an incredible amount of focus on one’s
self-image. In a preteen culture, social networking has become synonymous
with cool, and therefore has become an essential part of maintaining and
improving a middle school student’s image in the eyes of their peers.
Online social networking however is much more than a simple accessory
to coolness such as an iPod. When kids log onto a social networking site,
they immediately have the power to be whoever they want to be. In fact, this
study revealed this to be the driving factor behind middle school students’
social networking use.
Preteens are constantly on a quest for self-discovery. As part of this,
they often experiment with their own self-image, manipulating their online
personality to fit a wide variety of stereotypes. In effect, they try on new
images by changing their profile’s appearance to find out which persona fits
best.
As an example of this behavior, one of our middle-school aged subjects,
Noah, allowed us to follow his MySpace page for the duration of our study,
which allowed us to see how he used MySpace in his search for better selfdefinition.
When our study first began, Noah’s MySpace page focused on projecting
himself as the stereotypical “jock.” His profile page was filled with pictures
of Kobe Bryant, Derek Jeter, and even had highlight videos of his favorite
players all across the screen.
Three weeks later however, his page had completely changed. Now,
instead of focusing on sports or the “jock lifestyle,” Noah decided to try on a
different persona – one of a “gangster.” His redesigned profile page now had
music from Dr. Dre, Aftermath records-themed wallpaper, and scenes from
rapper 50 Cent’s movie, Get Rich or Die Trying. Even Noah’s profile picture
was drastically different, as he and his friend were featured together in a
photo with the caption “making cocaine.”
Would Noah ever really consider leading the “thug life” that his
MySpace page so strongly reflected? Probably not. He, like so many other
youth who play with their image on MySpace, was simply curious about
how well he would fit in as a gangster, and whether his new, hip-hop inspired
image would make him more popular. Only a few weeks later however,
Noah had changed his profile page back to the way it was before, once again
focusing on sports.
Noah’s use of MySpace was typical of the overall study results. All of
the participants answered “Yes” to the question, “Does the content of your
MySpace profile reflect your personality?” More interesting was that more
than 75 percent answered “No” to the question, “Is the content on your
MySpace page a completely honest representation of who you are?”
The Transition from Middle School to High School
As Noah and his middle school friends entered high school, they slowly
became more comfortable in their own skin. Likewise, their desire to play
around with their public image via online social networking diminished
greatly. In fact, the frequency with which students changed the content on
their MySpace page dropped dramatically between 6th grade and students’
freshman year. Sixth graders on average changed their page every three
weeks, and when they changed their profile they tended to do a complete
redesign of their page. Freshmen, on the other hand, almost never changed
the design of their profile. When they did, they rarely edited anything more
than the music on their page.
High Schoolers Use Online Social Networking to Establish
Community
As students enter high school, they also enter a world that is much older
than they have ever dealt with and one that has the image of being more
mature. Whereas the flashy profile pages featuring pictures, music, and video
of MySpace were once considered the epitome of “cool,” in high school
they are viewed as a representation of an immature, preteen existence. High
school students begin to present themselves more honestly on their profile
pages, creating a more transparent and realistic image online. To new high
school students, Facebook becomes everything that MySpace is not. Its clean
and efficient design has a much cleaner and more mature feel than MySpace,
making it a perfect platform for rising middle schoolers who want their
online image to fit into the high school social scene.
Less keen on experimenting with self-image and more eager to blend
in, youth shift from MySpace to Facebook as they enter high school. Yet,
our research indicates that there is more behind that shift. Through our
interviews, we found that the most important driver behind the transition to
Facebook is its superior ability to meet the demands of a new high school
student’s rapidly expanding social network.
Whereas in middle school little interaction between various grades
occurs, high school is a much more fluid social community. Because of clubs,
sports, and even classes, kids from different grades interact on a constant
basis. Naturally, underclassmen want to interact and be associated with the
upperclassmen as much as possible, and this includes communicating with
them online. Upon discovering that few upper classmen use MySpace, the
freshmen slowly begin to set up Facebook accounts, which allows them
to become better integrated into the high school social scene. As students
continue along their freshmen year, more and more of their friends make the
switch to Facebook and very gradually MySpace use diminishes.
By the time students are in their junior and senior years of high school,
most have completely stopped their use of MySpace as a social networking
tool. Despite the fact that MySpace becomes completely irrelevant as a form
of communication, it still receives lots of traffic from high school students of
all ages as a content provider.
From its inception, MySpace has been dedicated to the entertainment
industry, and the platform has completely revolutionized the way that kids
find music, clubs, and events. Teens of all ages use MySpace to discover new
recording artists and find songs that they would have never been able to find
without it.
MySpace also plays an interesting role in the music business, as it allows
consumers to hear entire songs and albums before they buy, whereas iTunes
only offers a 30-second preview. Approximately 95 percent of our subjects
said that when thinking about a music purchase, they always go and listen to
it on MySpace before deciding to buy.
Teens also use MySpace to find out about social events in their cities.
Many clubs operate a MySpace page and every weekend, kids look online
to find out where the best parties are going to be thrown. Facebook has
recently launched new applications in order to try and cut into MySpace’s
entertainment market share, but they have yet to be effective. This research
suggests that MySpace will maintain its stronghold on the entertainment
market, despite its dwindling social-networking traffic.
Much more research is needed on this issue. Ideally, we would like to
extend our research to include students across the US, with an emphasis on
increasing the economic diversity of our sample. We hope to initiate this
research within the coming year.
Thomas King is currently a student at the University of Richmond in Virginia.
As a high schooler, he took special interest in Gen Y’s use of social media
and has been studying it ever since. In addition to his university studies and
individual research, Thomas is a research associate for Emergent Research,
contributing findings on Gen Y behavior.
Online Empathy: Communicating via
Facebook to Bereaved College Students
By Dr. T. L. Wandel, Ph.D.
“I remember clearly the day I arrived in my computer lab art class, and the girl who
sits in front of me frantically turned and asked us if we knew anyone at Kentucky
Western, because there had been a shooting. Someone asked where she had heard
that. Of course, her response was, ‘Facebook.’” – Emily K.
Introduction
This paper examines the perceptions bereaved college students hold
of communication via Facebook during their grieving process. After
extrapolating information from an original survey disseminated through the
American College Personnel Association, five college counselors identified
37 bereaved college students (within one to two years post loss) who served
as focus group participants. These discussions illuminated perceptions and
attitudes of bereaved college students as to the helpfulness of communicating
in a public forum, in this case Facebook as it serves as the dominant online
social network choice of college students. Focus group participants offered
candid detail of what they found advantageous as well as disadvantageous
elements of peer online communication. As communication on Facebook
and other online social networks becomes even more prevalent, it will
be increasingly important for educators, mental health counselors and
employers to understand how to best assist bereaved individuals. Of equal
importance due to the critical nature of a strong support system, those in roles
of authority must work to properly educate peers on best communication
practices when conveying support and demonstrating empathy online.
While losing a loved one can happen at any age, grief and the mourning
process are typically associated with middle-aged or elderly individuals.
Yet information incorporating higher education statistics with thanatology,
the study of death and dying in terms of social and psychological aspects,
illustrates that bereavement is not uncommon for traditional-aged college
students to experience. At any point in time, as many as 22-30% of college
students are in the first year of grief following the death of a family member
or friend (Balk, 2001). When bereavement is extended to include those
in situations of having lost someone significant within the last two years,
the number of bereaved college students rises to 48% (Gaines Hardison,
Neimeyer & Lichstein, 2005).
Since the proportion of college students dealing with bereavement is
relatively high, it becomes necessary to acknowledge the communication
channels college students use most regularly for various social needs, even
as those extend to the bereavement process. As Facebook is the predominant
online social network choice of college students, this paper focuses on the
benefits and limitations the online social network provides as a channel
through which college students communicate about and cope with grief.
Importance of Study
Greater understanding must occur so assistance can be offered to
bereaved students as they cope with loss and strive to be successful in their
pursuit of a college education. This is a time when students are already
struggling with self-worth and acceptance issues. As seen in Everyday
Encounters (Woods, 1996), a student stated: “The worst time in my whole
life was my first semester here. I felt so lonely being away from my family
and friends at home. Back there we were really close, and there was always
somebody to be with and talk to, but I didn’t know anybody on this campus. I
felt all alone and like nobody cared about me. I became depressed and almost
left school.” This quote is from a college student, one without any particular
academic, social or bereavement challenges. Imagine the added stress for
students trying to focus academically while, as one focus group participant in
this research study described, “The whole world seemed to stop after my dad
died. Nothing else mattered.”
Educators do realize that loneliness, depression and severe sleep
deprivation, which are often the case with bereaved students, can be directly
related to lower self-esteem, lower sense of responsibility and ultimately
a more negative overall educational experience. However, with mission
statements centered on themes of academic integrity, civic orientation and
attaining advanced knowledge of a certain discipline, bereavement issues
seem a misfit.
Adding to the challenge is that bereaved students often turn inward
and stop sharing their feelings. Bereaved students feel especially isolated
on campus because their peers often respond awkwardly while interacting
with them and avoid much if not all conversations dealing with bereavement
(Dodd, 1988). Theories of self-esteem have established that humans possess
a universal desire to protect their self-esteem and enhance it when possible
(Rosenberg, Schooler & Schoenback, 1989). Peer acceptance and feedback
on one’s self are never more critical than in adolescence. Interestingly,
acceptance and feedback—along with belongingness and connectivity—are
paramount to the usage of Facebook. Peers are often a vital source of social
support in situations surrounding a loss, yet often are unaware of how to
provide this invaluable assistance. As Barnett (1982; 1987) describes, most
college students are incapable of transforming empathic understanding in a
useful way because they lack the skills and wherewithal to do so. College
students untouched by bereavement typically demonstrate both ignorance and
fear when in the presence of a bereaved student.
When students feel isolated, they neglect to find opportunities to
communicate their feelings about the loss they have experienced. Cutcliffe
(1998) postulates that in order for individuals to begin functioning and
leading fulfilling lives after a loss, they must complete all four of J.W.
Worden’s (1988) tasks: (1) the bereaved must confront the fact that their
loved ones will not be coming back; (2) bereaved individuals must recognize
their pain and work through it; (3) bereaved individuals must readjust to the
new terms of their environment such as living alone, caring for one’s family
alone and dealing with the everyday activities of life alone; and (4) the
bereaved must find an appropriate place for the deceased in their emotional
lives. If the bereaved individual does not accomplish all four tasks, they can
be described as having a complicated grief reaction. In simplified terms, this
is when an individual is unable to reach a level of acceptance to regain hope
for the future (Cutcliffe, 1998).
Without proper outlets for students to cope with grief, Balk and Vesta
(1998) found that bereaved college students are saddled with obstacles that
interfere with important developmental tasks, such as forming autonomous
lives, developing a clear sense of direction, and entering into meaningful
intimate relationships. Balk (1997) believes that in order to effectively help
bereaved students cope with their loss and increase their chances for success
during and after their crisis with bereavement, it is important for a “two-fold
intervention focus to take place: one on educating the campus community
about bereavement; one on assisting bereaved students to resolve their grief”
(p. 207). Online social networking, when utilized properly, may be one
channel to assist in the two-fold intervention.
Purpose of Study
The purpose of the research study was to obtain information in order
to examine how college students perceive the usefulness of an online
social network, specifically Facebook, to communicate during times of
bereavement. Specific objectives of the study included: a) To learn how
communication via Facebook is perceived by bereaved college students
as beneficial during the first year of the grieving process; b) To learn what
communication elements via Facebook bereaved college students found
lacking in terms of helpfulness during the first year of grieving; and c) To
better understand—from bereaved college students’ perspectives—how
peers may utilize Facebook to communicate empathy during the first year
following a loss of a family member or friend.
Study Design
A triangulation of data sources was utilized in the design of the research
study. Both inductive and deductive modes of analysis were undertaken,
specifically in the forms of a survey and multiple focus groups. For empirical
purposes, this study draws on an original survey of over 1,000 higher
education administrators, including college counselors, distributed through
the American College Personnel Association. Information from the online
survey yielded greater understanding of the usage of online social networks
as related to their jobs. Survey respondents reported 36.2% accessed an
online social network site on a daily basis, and another 32% accessed a site at
least once a week (Wendell, 2007).
After the analysis and coding of that survey, it was learned that of
survey respondents utilizing an online social network, 97% of postsecondary
officials chose to access Facebook, and 23% utilized MySpace. This
information, along with Facebook dominating the college scene with over
85% market share of four-year universities in the U.S., determined that
Facebook be the online social network of focus of this study.
Counselors from five colleges were asked to identify bereaved college
students to participate in focus groups in order to acquire knowledge of
attitudes and feelings regarding their experiences communicating via
Facebook during the initial (first year) bereavement process. In order to
examine, understand and develop sensitivity toward this vulnerable cohort, it
was determined that garnering their own unique attitudes and beliefs would
be beneficial. “When researchers want to explore people’s understandings…
it makes sense to employ methods which actively encourage the examination
of these social processes in action” (Kitzinger, 1994, p. 117).
While introduced 30 years prior to Merton and his colleagues’
examination of wartime propaganda, focus groups as a form of data
collection from a communication research standpoint are often traced
back to this defining event (Merton, Fiske, and Kendall, 1956). Focus
groups conducted today, as distinguished from one-on-one interviews and
questionnaires, comprise elements of public discourse and active examination
of various social processes. This form of qualitative research has been shown
to help probe emotional responses to a specific stimulus, which could be an
advertisement, idea or in the case of this study, communication of empathy
via Facebook.
The target for the focus groups was traditional-aged college students
from five different universities, representing two small (under 3,000 full-time
enrolled students) private universities, two large (10,000 and over full-time
enrolled students) public universities, and one mid-sized public university.
A standard protocol was used to structure each focus group discussion.
In deference to the core elements established by Vaghn, Schumm and
Sinagub (1995) on successful focus groups, the groups were limited to 6-12
participants for each focus group. In total, 37 individuals participated in five
focus groups over a three-month period.
A National Tragedy
Shortly after 7 a.m. on April 16, 2007, Cho Seung-Hui, a KoreanAmerican student at Virginia Tech in Blacksburg, Va., killed a female student
and the resident advisor in the West Amber Johnston residence hall. About
two hours later, Seung-Hui went into Norris Hall, locking the three main
doors with heavy chains behind him, where he continued to open fire on
30 others, ultimately killing 33 individuals. The tragedy presented sadness,
anger and confusion. Facebook provided an emotional outlet, and at times a
news source, during the days and weeks following the tragedy. Through the
online social networking site, those trying to cope with the loss were able to
reach out for support. “The Tech Web site alone had 150,000 visits per hour
after the shootings, with 35,000 condolence messages posted within three
days,” (Stearns, 2008, p. 313).
Facebook was instrumental for bereaved Virginia Tech students, and
it served as the beginning focal point of each focus group conducted for
this study. The Virginia Tech tragedy was chosen based on advice received
from college counselors, believing it a generally known and understood
tragedy which would allow a starting point in discussions before moving the
conversation to perspectives on personal loss.
Focus group participant Alec D. attended an Appalachian-based college
when its campus experienced a similar, albeit smaller scale, tragic student
shooting. He ultimately transferred colleges for what he considers unrelated
circumstances, but he found Facebook an easy outlet to “check back in” on
his old school and view the postings on the profiles of deceased friends. “One
[Facebook page] was filled with comments from people saying how much
they missed her and wished she was here,” said Alec. “It made me have two
thoughts. One was that it was nice her page was still there for people to go
on and look at everyone once in awhile. The other thought is that I noticed
the people that were really close to her hadn’t posted anything. This may
make me sound like a bad person, but my feeling is that if those that loved
her didn’t write things on her wall, why do other people? You don’t need a
Facebook page to remember someone in your heart. I guess people go about
things in their own way.”
Jaime M., currently studying abroad, agrees. “The individuals who
grieve in this way are usually just jumping on a bandwagon. When I was
going through my stuff, I felt like people posting things weren’t immersed in
anything.”
Yet clearly the incentive to write something is felt by many, whether it
be more selfish or selfless reasons. According to Paperclip Communications,
more than 10,000 Virginia Tech students used Facebook or MySpace on
the day of and following the shootings which allowed them to reach out
to each other and the greater community in order to share their feelings or
experiences (Mastrodicasa, 2008). More than 500 Facebook groups were
created and more than 50,000 alumni joined the groups in the days that
followed the shootings (Mastrodicasa, 2008, p.46).
Facebook was one online social network provides students with an
opportunity to obtain support, and obtaining support is an integral part of
grief-work and the ability to cope (Cutcliffe, 1998). Virginia Tech victims
and loved ones continue to utilize Facebook to remember their loved ones
and to receive support. As of February 17, 2009, there were at least 175
active Facebook groups in memorial to the victims of the Virginia Tech
massacre with current postings and comments from the bereaved.
But interestingly, as Alec D. and Jamie M. noted, many of the postings
originated from those not directly impacted. Candid and emotional postings
include those from college students not directly involved with the tragedy,
but who are clearly trying to make sense of it and find a way to reach out
and offer compassion. A posting from an Ontario, Canada student reminds us
that, “You don’t need to know anyone to be sad for them.” For this individual
and others around the world, Facebook groups offer a virtual memory wall to
emotionally embrace and exchange condolences. While a national tragedy, it
is also a reminder that death transcends geographic boundaries.
How the site has been used in times of bereavement has not gone
unnoticed by Facebook administrators. Until May 2007, it was the site’s
policy to delete profiles of the deceased. The Virginia Tech tragedy served
as the impetus to modify that policy. Online protests and an organized
letter campaign in response to those learning that the Virginia Tech victims’
profiles had been removed are credited with prompting Facebook officials
to reconsider its stance. Many students expressed concern that the Facebook
profiles and pages, which served as virtual memory walls, were all that was
left of the students. “To delete these pages would be like saying the people no
longer mattered,” said focus group participant Michael C.
Although the massacre at Virginia Tech was by far the worst campus
shooting in U.S. history, it is sadly one of only numerous examples of
campus tragedies. However, because of its prominence in the news, it served
as a shared experience for the focus group to begin discussion on death and
online empathy. Given the number of Facebook sites dedicated to those
involved with the Virginia Tech massacred, it is unsurprising that Roberts
(2004) found that many people feel the support that they receive at social
networking sites is more valuable than they kind that they experience in more
traditional support settings. Her studies revealed that students felt this way
because they did not encounter many people who had similar experiences
with bereavement in traditional support groups. This leads us to the aspects
focus group participants found beneficial in communicating via Facebook
during their initial (and in some cases up to two years) grieving process.
Further Results
Purpose 1: Most Beneficial Aspects of Facebook to Bereaved Students
Many participants said they appreciated knowing they were in people’s
thoughts and prayers and, even more, that they wouldn’t have to try to get
the word out about what they were going through. “At the end of the day, the
connections on Facebook were invaluable,” said Emily K.
Jeffrey D. also found the outpouring of support on Facebook helpful;
particularly as compared to a separate loss of a family member he had
experienced a few years prior. “The evolution of rapid-fire mass media
response has eliminated some previous cultural norms. When my grandfather
died in the summer of 2008, I didn’t receive a single sympathy card via
traditional mail methods. Instead, most of my friends and family members
sent condolences through Facebook. This was better than when I lost my
mom in 2003 and I only got a few cards total. I felt like nobody cared.”
A few other participants acknowledged the idea of online communication
“cheapening” act of outreach, but most participated believed the venue for
outreach was far less important than the idea that caring was communicated.
“The ease of digital transmission makes people more likely to express
sympathy, and that makes it a great thing,” said Kathy M.
In addition to the volume of condolence messages that were received
by many focus group participants, another benefit expressed by numerous
participants was the diversity of individuals posting Wall messages. In this
case, the diverse groupings were discussed by participants as a means to
describe how various relationships from different stages of life—high school
friends, college peers, family members from around the nation, etc.-came
together to express concern or caring. As Andrew B. said, “My mother
and father are divorced, so I’m used to this big division going on and not
everybody speaking to each other. It always makes things stressful. But on
Facebook, they all chimed in, and there wasn’t this sense of frustration like
there usually is. I think the pros of social media and bereavement outweigh
any cons.”
Another benefit expressed in one of the focus groups was the fact that
participants were able to communicate with those from their hometown.
“Nobody at my college knew my brother, so it wasn’t a big deal to them
when he died. But all my friends back home loved him and knew how bad I
was hurting. Facebook made it easy for us to talk,” said Eric B.
Purpose 2: Features of Facebook Postings Not Helpful According to
Bereaved Students
The participants noted feeling overwhelmed by the responses on
Facebook wall postings referencing sympathy “and overly apologetic but
well-intentioned notes.” As Ashlee P. stated, “I went on Facebook to escape
what I was dealing with, and I wound up feeling like I was supposed to
respond to everyone or just feel guilty that I was playing around on the
Internet.” Participants echoed this sentiment, offering the use of the live chat
feature as particularly upsetting. “People could see that I was on, and they
seemed to wonder why I was not doing some full-on grieving. I’m not sure
what they expected, but you can’t just sit in your room all day and cry.”
In addition, Sarah P., said, “I know my friends were trying to connect and
care, but in all honesty it would have been much healthier for someone to
come talk to me. I had a difficult time finding a peer who could evaluate the
emotional turmoil I was having with poise and thoughtfulness. The Facebook
messages left me feeling high and dry.” Another participant, Jennifer C.
agreed and added, “This brings up the question of how far can the phrases
‘I’m sorry’ and ‘I understand how you feel’ really good when they are just
words on a screen. There is something that feels distant and cold. Words can’t
equate to kind words spoken or physical interaction. They can’t stimulate the
senses, and at times of emotional instability people can find hope through the
engagement of their senses.”
Emily G, who was overall positive about her experiences on Facebook
as a bereaved student, did add that while online attention was appreciated,
personal attention from family and friends still matter. “I only wish the actual
personal connections were more frequent. In the same way that one can feel
utterly lonely surrounded by 600 closest friends in New York, one can feel
utterly disconnected despite the fact that they can quickly count their 600
Facebook friends.”
Purpose 3: Better Understand how Friends and Family May Utilize
Facebook to Communicate Empathy to Bereaved College Students
Senior college student Lauren, from Texas, has had death touch her
life several times in the past few years. She lost her father and both of
her grandfathers within an 18-month timeframe. From her standpoint,
she believes Facebook was more helpful to her friends needing an outlet
of expression than it was to her than it was to her who had more directly
experienced the tragedy. She believes the death of a loved one is personal,
but that Facebook for other tragedies can be useful. She discussed a high
school acquaintance who was in a car accident, and how Facebook offered a
way to keep up with when the young lady came out of the coma, when was
she able to walk again, etc. In this way, Facebook replaced the more nicheoriented site of CarePages and others with a similar mission, which connects
people online by keeping them updated with patient blogs during health
challenges.
The idea that Facebook is a useful resource for those not experiencing
a loss directly but wanting to support others who have is an interesting
phenomenon and worth further exploration. At each focus group,
participants, not the moderator, raised this as an issue. “I was glad my friends
had a way of talking to me that was ok with them, because I could tell they
were avoiding me in person,” said Jessica M.
Other questions revealed that postings that offered more than simple “I’m
sorry” meant a great deal. Friends and family utilizing Facebook to convey
empathy “…should take the time to write more than two words. It’s no
different than a card. If you write something, it means more than only signing
your name,” said Samantha B. “A few friends posted poems and mentioned
things in more than a generic way. These meant a lot to me.”
Finally, the college counselors involved in this study and the students
agreed that the most important aspect Facebook can offer for bereaved
students is the reminder that life does go on. “Many times I would hide
away, skip classes and try to be invisible,” said Megan M. “Then I’d go on
Facebook and realize all the things I was missing. It did hurt to realize that
the world didn’t stop when I lost my best friend, but it was also reassuring in
some strange way.”
Conclusion
In light of Facebook’s impact on over 300,000 million users, research on
this topic must continue. Bereaved college students are extremely vulnerable
to issues of self-esteem and self-efficacy, often feeling a loss of control
to external stimuli. These students find their unique identify formation
challenged, and this formation is a developmental milestone for teens and
those in their early twenties (Balk, 2001). If assistance is not provided,
these individuals question their competence, and this is often manifested in
generalized anger and other self-destructive means (Tyson-Rawson, 1996).
Participants have a need for communication and support. They were
overwhelmed and underprepared to deal with things. The implications for
college counselors is great, not only in dealing with bereaved students, but
also in working with friends and classmates that may help the bereaved
students cope. Understanding how and when it may be appropriate to interact
on Facebook regarding a death is something most counselors agree has, in
the past, not been discussed often enough with college students. “We need
to be more aware of how students can effectively utilize Facebook to show
support and caring, or at the very least how not to cause more anxiety for
someone trying to work through the grieving process,” said Karen Stenstrom,
a university counselor.
Finally, the high level of interaction between focus group participants
was an unexpected reality. After reading studies of the inability of traditionalaged college students to relate to bereaved college students, it was clear that
those having experienced a loss were a tremendous source of empathy, and
they were capable of listening while others expressed themselves. Three
of the five college counselors reported the unsolicited, positive comments
they later received about the focus group experience. As one participant was
reported as saying, “It felt great to be allowed to talk about this. It was the
first time I could talk openly without worrying if I was making someone else
uncomfortable.”
Counselors working with those trying to offer peer support have a need
for understanding how the site can be used as an effective intervention
program or genuine source of assistance to bereaved individuals. While
further studies are needed to evaluate bereaved college students and
Facebook, especially as the site becomes more prevalent as a source
of communication, it is clear that bereaved college students struggle to
assimilate the loss into their existing community rituals and cultures. In
today’s technological world, Facebook and other online social networking
sites are a part of that world that cannot and should not be ignored.
As with most things technology-oriented, the implications of this study
go far beyond college students and could be of interest to human resource
departments, internal communication professionals and health care providers.
In fact, researchers Harrison and Harrington (2001) found that over 75%
of children between the ages of 11 and 16 have experienced the death of an
individual close to them. This staggering statistic demands attention to the
topic. Bereavement has been called a life transition, and the success or failure
to which we successfully work through these lifelong issues can have longlasting repercussions for all ages.
References
Balk, D. (2001). College student bereavement, scholarship, and the university: A call for
university engagement. Brunner-Routledge, 67-94. Cutcliffe, J. (1998).
Barnett, M. (1982). Empathy and pro-social behavior in children. In: T. Field, A. Huston, H.
Quay, L. Troll & G. Finley (Eds.), Review of human development. New York, NY: Wiley.
Barnett, M. (1987). Empathy and related responses in children. In: N. Eisenberg &J. Strayer
(Eds.), Empathy and its development. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Cutcliffe, J. (1998). Hope, counseling, and complicated bereavement reactions. Journal of
Advanced Nursing, 28(4), 754-761.
Dodd, D. (1988). Responding to the bereaved: a student panel discussion. Teaching of
Psychology, 15(1), 33-36.
Gaines Hardison, H., Neimeyer, R.A. & Lichstein, K.L. (2005). Behavioral Sleep Medicine,
3(2), 99-111.
Harrison, L. & Harrington, R. (2001). Adolescents’ bereavement experiences: Prevalence,
association depressive symptoms and use of services. Journal of Adolescence, 24(2), 159169.
Kitzinger, J. (1994). The methodology of focus groups: The importance of interaction
between research participants. Sociology of Health & Illness, 16, 103-121.
Mastrodicasa, J. (2008). Technology in campus crisis. New Directions for Student Services,
124, 37-53.
Merton, R.K., Fiske, M., & Kendall, P.L. (1956). The focused interview: A report of the
bureau of applied social research. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
Roberts, P. (2004). Here today and cyberspace tomorrow: Memorials and bereavement
support on the web. Generations, 28(2), 41-46.
Rosenberg, M., Schooler, C. & Schoenbach, C. (1989). Self-esteem and adolescent problems:
Modeling reciprocal effects. American Sociological Review, 54, 1004-1018.
Stearns, P. (2008). Texas and Virginia: a bloodied window into changes in American public
life. Journal of Social History, 14(2), 299-318.
Tresniowski, A., Truesdell, J., Morrissey, S., & Breuer, H. (2008). A cyberbully convicted.
People, 70(24), 73-74.
Tyson-Rawson, K. (1996). Adolescent responses to the death of a parent. In: C. Corr & D.
Balk (Eds.), Handbook of adolescent death and bereavement, 155-172. New York, NY:
Springer.
Vaughn, S., Schumm, J.S., & Sinagub, J. (1996). Focus group interviews in education and
psychology. Sage: London.
Wandel, T. (2007, July). Educational Institution Responses to Online Social Networking. Paper
presented at the World Communication Association Conference, Brisbane, Australia.
Wood, J. (1996). Everyday Encounters: An Introduction to Interpersonal Communication.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
Zimmerman, E. (2009). Teen angst turns deadly. Psychology Today, 42(1), 30-30.
Dr. Tamara L. Wandel is a 2009 Fellow of the Society for New
Communications Research. A past public relations director and journalist
in New York, she now enjoys her work as an Assistant Professor in
Communication teaching media writing, strategic public relations, integrated
communication campaigns and news copyediting at the University of
Evansville. Through service-learning projects, she and her students have
been awarded grants from national sources such as the Maurice R. Robinson
Constitutional Rights Foundation. Her research on both public relations
teaching pedagogy and communication within online social networks has
been published in several peer-reviewed journals and recent books. Her
current research endeavors include two independent studies related to online
social networking. The first is a co-research exploration of authenticity
within the Facebook community, specifically how one’s self-portraiture
in an online environment can facilitate or hinder communication. The
second deals with online communication disclosure as it correlates to the
bereavement process. Dr. Wandel has had the pleasure of presenting her
research in as small of a venue as a historic southern Indiana library and
as large of a venue as the World Communication Association’s conference
in Australia. Dr. Wandel is a MarCom Creative Award Winner for her work
in service-learning and media relations and is APR-accredited through the
Public Relations Society of America. She is under contract with Wadsworth
Publishing to complete a public relations and media writing textbook.
A Demonstration of “Professional Testtaker” Bias in Web-Based Panels and
Applications
by Joseph Carrabis
The use of online forms and questionnaires, focus groups, and similar
research organs as a basis of soliciting Website visitor information and
attitudes has become a staple in the online world even though the flaws
with such organs have been long understood and documented in research
literature.33, 65
Marketing research methodologies that rely on questionnaires and
standard surveys are inherently loaded with biases and errors related
to the sampling frame, the survey instruments, the interviewers, and
the fact that the respondents know that they are being evaluated.
– Eric Drouart, Former VP, International Operations, Bristol-Myers
Squibb
Market research firm panels are often solicited to both expedite results
collection and to specify the required demographics in the response group.
NextStage has been monitoring such uses for several years and began to
question the accuracy of panel responses for market research and related
purposes based on its own research and papers published by others regarding
focus groups, online survey anomalies, and response abnormalities that could
be culturally or cognitively based. Testing conducted from Q4 2008 through
Q2 2009 demonstrates that measurable biases exist in panel-based responses
to online surveys.
Introduction
The use of online forms for ecommerce purposes goes back to the very
first applications of mainstream Internet usage.1,2,52 The widespread use of
such forms created a need to determine the usefulness of such forms in online
business settings. Usefulness: “Can we make a business case for this?” This
led to a requirement for determining validity. Can we trust this?
Usefulness can be thought of as a first order determination; if the ROI
is positive, then a business case exists. Validity is normally considered a
second-order determination; a case is made that some percentage of a specific
test population has provided accurate information. That percentage is then
projected statistically toward the entire visitor population to determine what
percentage of the entire visitor population is providing accurate information.
However, a possible false attractor exists in this paradigm: If the market
research panel’s accuracy is flawed, the entire test is flawed. More to the
point, if we can determine how accurate a market research panel’s responses
are, we then can determine the validity of the test as a whole. A literature
search determined that counter-parity existed in a form called “professional
test-taker bias.” This is essentially a mindset that people who take lots of
tests have, i.e., they tend to look at the answers before they look at the
question and sometimes select a response based on the possible answers
without reading the question.5,32,34,36,41,45,49,50,54-56,63,64,66
This research tested this false-attractor hypothesis by designing several
tests of Web visitors’ abilities to differentiate the subtleties of various
interrogatives (online forms, surveys, etc.) in Q4 2008 and implemented
these tests during Q1-2 2009. These tests demonstrated that members of
professional market research panels develop an information bias based on
two factors: a) the length of time they’ve been a member of a professional
panel and b) the number of professional panel interrogations they’ve
participated in during that time period.
These two elements create a bias that affects the individual’s ability to
respond to various interrogatives correctly. This research demonstrates that
cognitive awareness decreases primarily due to these two factors, although
others may be involved.
Methodology
This test was performed using a combination of NextStage’s Evolution
Technology™ (ET) a market research firm supplied demographic data on
panel members and phone interviews using various interview tools and
techniques to supply supplementary data.
a – This technology determines a variety of psychonomic factors
by analyzing psychomotor behavioral cues8,10-13,29,42,43,46,59,68 that have
been collectively recognized as indicative of a given user’s non-consc
ious,3,4,6,7,9,28,30,31,35,37-40,44,48,51,53,57,60-62 cognitive, behavioral/effective and
motivational processes and methodologies (collectively called the {C,B/e,M}
matrix14-24,26,27,47).
1) Three test groups were used: G1, G2, and G3.
2) Group G1 was the control group and consisted of 100 people known
to NextStage and whose {C,B/e,M} matrices have been recorded at various
times since early 1999.
3) Groups G2 and G3 consisted of 300 participants each and were
provided by market research firms.
4) Group G2 and G3 panel members had the matched the following
demographics:
• 17-75 years old
• mixed male and female
• diverse income groups
• diverse ethnicity
• continental USA geographic locations
5) All participants were asked questions about income, financial plans for
2009, age and gender.
6) NextStage randomly switched the phrasing and not the order of
the questions to determine if cognitive and situational awareness biases
were being expressed. All questions had rephrasings. Some examples of
rephrasings are shown here:
b - The end result of these {C,B/e,M} matrix determinations is that a
given individual is a) known, and b) demonstrates a {C,B/e,M} state of
existence that is itself recognized as in keeping with this known individual’s
history, regardless of any boundary issues while being able to respond to both
in-bounds and out-of-bounds responses to the immediate interaction. See
http://www.nextstagevolution.com/nsefaqs.cfm#technical).
7) Measurements were taken using ETc and the resulting data set was
then compared to demographic data provided by the market research firms
and correlated via selected phone interviews.
8) The online survey instruments varied in length from one page to five
pages with no more than five questions total on any given page.
9) The percentages of rephrasings within {C,B/e,M} groups was
consistent across G1, G2, and G3 test populations, even though the number
of participants within each {C,B/e,M} group varied, based on the percentages
of a given {C,B/e,M} group within the test population. It is worth noting
that the percentages of {C,B/e,M} group within the G1, G2, and G3 test
populations very closely matched the percentages that the {C,B/e,M} groups
appear in general Web visitor populations.
10) Measurements of control group G1 were used to determine if groups
G2 and G3 were aware of the questions they were responding to or simply
“responding” to the answer forms regardless of the questions the answers
were attached to.
c - There was a 0.5 percent data collection error due to Internet drops,
cookies expiring, script disablement, etc., and didn’t interfere with the
controls normally placed on such tests.58 This data collection error should
not be confused with any sampling error. The sampling error in this test is
estimated at 5.7 percent.67
d - General Web visitor populations are determined by mining data
NextStage has gathered over several years from a large number and wide
variety of sites. This study made use of Web visitor populations limited to the
time and geographic location of this study.
Results
The researchers were able to break G1, G2, and G3 group participants
into {C,B/e,M} groups that fall into the following broad categories
(“metagroups”); A, E, G, K, N, O, P, T and Ve. Figure 1 and Table 1 below
show how much each of these categories appears in general Website visitor
populations and in each of the G1, G2, and G3 groups.
Figure 1 -- The percentages of different {C,B/e,M} metagroups across
General, Control (G1) dn Test (G2 and G3) Group Populations
e - These metagroups are typical of U.S. populations. Other countries
demonstrate other metagroups and in different proportions.
The researchers were then able to match each test groups’ metagroup
to the average time it took each metagroup to complete the various online
surveys. This allowed NextStage to determine that market research firm’s
consumer panels demonstrated an initial bias and to correct for it during
calculations.
The G1 population was taken as the control group in all trials and its
average (Dt) per survey results were used to normalize the G2 and G3 results
sets. The G2 and G3 populations took 66 percent and 83 percent respectively
of the time the G1 Control Group population took to complete a simple
one-page survey. The G2 and G3 populations consistently took less time to
complete surveys than did the G1 Control Group population These results are
shown in the figures 3 to 7 starting on page 8 and are summarized in Table 2
and Figure 2 below.
Percentages of G1 Control Group Survey Completion Times
Figure 2 - Professional Test-takers routinely took less time to complete
online surveys than did non-professional Test-takers
f - Login, avg(Dt) = avg (time of submission of last survey page) – (time
of entry of first survey page).
avg(Dt) = avg(Si(tni - t0i))
2s for all tests were within seven percent.
The G2 and G3 values above indicate that professional test-takers spend
significantly less time responding to questions than do non-professionals
taking tests even when the questions are designed to cause confusion
and disorientation. These findings are significant because they are tied
to the use of rephrased questions on the online forms. Control Group G1
routinely demonstrated cognitive dissonance and situational confusion
when encountering rephrased questions—i.e., they slowed down when
they encountered an oddly phrased question on the survey. This cognitive
dissonance and situational confusion was not demonstrated by Test Groups
G2 and G3, although it was demonstrated by individual members of these
groups.
Follow-up interviews with members of Test Groups G2 and G3
demonstrated the following factors regarding their online, consumer panel
response experience and is matched to the averaged response error rates
in Table 3 below. Response error rates by survey length and corrected for
sampling and data gathering errors are shown in Table 4.
Conclusions
g - Self-identification errors were one percent, equal to ET’s calculation
error margin. If anything, this correlation between self-identification error
and ET’s calculation error would make a worthwhile study to determine how
many panel participants had someone else take the survey. The implications
to learning that 1 percent or greater of a given population isn’t who they
claim has eCommerce information value.
Two primary conclusions fall from this research:
1) The percentDt difference between Control Group G1 and Test Groups
G2 and G3 is sufficient to demonstrate that some biasing occurs.
2) Professional Test-taker Bias increases the longer consumer and
marketing panel participants take part in market research panels. Based on
the lack of demonstrated cognitive dissonance and situational confusion it
is conjectured that Professional Test-taker Bias occurs when professional
test-takers respond to question forms—they decide what question is being
asked based the “shape” of the answer options—rather than answering the
questions themselves. No conjecture is made as to what causes this biasing to
occur, only that it exists.
h - Questions not within a given metagroup’s comprehension matrix
were pretty much determined to be “best guesses.” For example, when asked
during follow-up interviews what their basis was for their answer to the
questions about neighbor’s income, etc., panel members indicated they were
“guessing.” Also, no attempt was made to match questions to a particular
{C,B/e,M} style. Doing so is left for another test.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
Adam, S., R. Mulye, Deans, and D. Palihawadana. 2001. A Three-Country Comparison
of Internet Marketing. Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference.
Massey University, Auckland, NZ.
http://www.stewartadam.com/publications/adam_mulye_deans_ANZMAC_2001.pdf
Adam, S., and R. Shaw. 2001. Experiential Dimensions in Internet Marketing: An
Exploratory Investigation. Australian and New Zealand Marketing Academy Conference.
Massey University, Auckland, NZ. http://www.stewartadam.com/publications/adam_
shaw_ANZMAC_2001.pdf
Aleksander, I., and B. Dunmall. 2003. Axioms and Tests for the Presence of Minimal
Consciousness in Agents I: Preamble. Journal of Consciousness Studies 10(4–5):7–19.
http://docserver.ingentaconnect.com/deliver/connect/imp/13558250/v10n4/s2.pdf?expires
=1176670652&id=36910604&titleid=3956
Arvidson, P. 2000. Transformations in consciousness: Continuity, the self and marginal
consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 7(3):3–26.
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title=Transformations+in+Consciousness
&title_type=tka&year_from=1998&year_to=2009&database=1&pageSize=20&index=25
B. Keith Payne. 2006. Weapon Bias: Split-Second Decisions and Unintended
Stereotyping. Current Directions in Psychological Science 15(6):287–91. http://www3.
interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118584116/PDFSTART
Baars B. J. 1999. There is already a field of systematic phenomenology, and it’s called
‘psychology,” Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/March:216–18.
Bailey A. R. 1999. Beyond the fringe: William James on the transitional parts of
the stream of consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/
March:141–53.
Barinaga, M. 1995. Remapping the motor cortex. Science 268(5218), 23 June 1995:
1696–98. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/sci;268/5218/1696.pdf
Carrabis, J. 2001. Can Autonomous Entities Act on Non-Conscious Meaning in Human
Applications? (Theory and Applications of Evolution Technology). IIAS.
------. 2006. Author’s Foreword, Reading Virtual Minds, Chapter 3. Scotsburn, NS:
Northern Lights Publishing.
------. 2006. “Behaviors Offline to On,” Reading Virtual Minds, Chapter 3. Scotsburn,
NS: Northern Lights Publishing.
------. 2006. Determining Prior Knowledge of Information via PsychoMotor Behavioral
Cuing. Scotsburn, NS: NextStage Evolution.
------. 2006. Reading Virtual Minds: Understanding and Using Evolution Technology
Volume I - Science and History, Chapter 4 “Anecdotes of Learning.” Scotsburn, NS:
Northern Lights Publishing.
------. September 2008. From TheFutureOf (10 Jul 08): Back into the fray. The Analytics
Ecology. http://www.theanalyticsecology.com/?p=76
------. September 2008. From TheFutureOf (16 Jul 08): Responses to Geertz, Papadakis
and others, 5 Feb 08. The Analytics Ecology. http://www.theanalyticsecology.com/?p=106
------. September 2008. From TheFutureOf (22 Jan 08): Starting the discussion:
Attention, Engagement, Authority, Influence, …. The Analytics Ecology. http://www.
theanalyticsecology.com/?p=13
------. September 2008. From TheFutureOf (28 Aug 08): Response to Jim Novo’s 12
Jul 08 9:40am comment. The Analytics Ecology. http://www.theanalyticsecology.
com/?p=127
------. September 2008. From TheFutureOf (7 Nov 08): Debbie Pascoe asked me to
pontificate on “What are we measuring when we measure ‘engagement’?” The Analytics
Ecology. http://www.theanalyticsecology.com/?p=137
21. ------. 2008. Do McCain, Biden, Palin and Obama Think the Way We Do? (Part 1).
BizMediaScience. http://www.bizmediascience.com/2008/10/do_mccain_biden_palin_
and_obam.html
22. ------. 2008. Do McCain, Biden, Palin and Obama Think the Way We Do? (Part 2).
BizMediaScience. http://www.bizmediascience.com/2008/10/do_mccain_biden_palin_
and_obam_1.html
23. ------. 2008. Governor Palin’s (and everybody else’s) Popularity. BizMediaScience. http://
www.bizmediascience.com/2008/10/
24. ------. 2008. Me, Politics, Adam Zand’s Really Big Shoe, How Obama’s and McCain’s
sites have changed when we weren’t looking. BizMediaScience. http://www.
bizmediascience.com/2008/10/me_politics_adam_zands_really.html
25. ------. 2008. Responding to Christopher Berry’s Vexing Problem, Part 3 post. Biz
MediaScience.
26. http://www.bizmediascience.com/2008/06/responding_to_christopher_berr.html
27. ------. 2009. Frequency of Blog Posts is Best Determined by Audience Size and
Psychological Distance from the Author. Scotsburn, NS: NextStage Evolution.
28. ------. 2009. Machine Detection of and Response to User Non-Conscious Thought
Processes to Increase Usability, Experience and Satisfaction – Case Studies and
Examples. In Towards a Science of Consciousness: Hong Kong 2009. Tucson, AZ:
University of Arizona, Center for Consciousness Studies.
29. Carrabis, J., S. Bratton, and D. Evans. 2008. Guest Blogger Joseph Carrabis Answers
Dave Evans, CEO of Digital Voodoo’s Question About Male Executives Wielding
Social Media Influence on Par with Female Executives. PersonalLifeMedia. http://blogs.
personallifemedia.com/dishymix/guest-blogger-joseph-carrabisanswers-dave-evans-ceoof-digital-voodoos-question-about-male-executivesweilding-social-media-influence-onpar-with-female-executives/2008/06/09/
30. Carrabis, J., and S. Carrabis. 2009. Designing Information for Automatic Memorization
(Brandging). Scotsburn, NS: NextStage Evolution.
31. Chambon, M. 2008. Embodied perception with others’ bodies in mind: Stereotype
priming influence on the perception of spatial environment. Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology 45(1), January:283–87. http://www.sciencedirect.com/
science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6WJB-4TDK70V-3–5&_cdi=6874&_user=10&_
orig=search&_coverDate=01 percent2F31 percent2F2009&_sk=999549998&view=c&w
chp=dGLbVzWzSkWA&md5=b1a78bae30578615af294c5e1ca517d5&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
32. Chicurel, M. 2002. Neurons Weigh Options, Come to a Decision. Science 295(5562), 15
March:1995b-1997. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/sci;295/5562/1995b.pdf
33. Claxton G. 1999. Moving the cursor of consciousness: Cognitive science and human
welfare. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/March:219–22.
34. Cole, J. 1997. On ‘being faceless’: Selfhood and facial embodiment. Journal of
Consciousness Studies 4(5–6):467–84. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/imp/
jcs/1997/00000004/F0020005/805
35. de Schotten, M. T., et al. 2005. Direct Evidence for a Parietal-Frontal Pathway
Subserving Spatial Awareness in Humans. Science 309(5744), 30 September:2226–28.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/309/5744/2226.pdf
36. Dubelaar, C., Y. Tsarenko, and M. Gabbott. 2001. PERFORMANCE MEASUREMENT
IN E-COMMERCE – FINANCIAL SERVICES FIRMS. Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy Conference. Massey University, Auckland, NZ. http://smib.vuw.
ac.nz:8081/WWW/ANZMAC2001/anzmac/AUTHORS/pdfs/Dubelaar.pdf
37. Dunn, M., et al. 2005. Structural Phylogenetics and the Reconstruction of Ancient
Language History. Science 309(5743), 23 September:2072–75.
38. Gabora L.[1]. 2002. Amplifying Phenomenal Information Toward a Fundamental Theory
of Consciousness. Journal of Consciousness Studies 9(8):3–29.
39. Gaffan, D. 2005. NEUROSCIENCE: Widespread Cortical Networks Underlie Memory
and Attention. Science 309(5744), 30 September:2172–73. http://www.sciencemag.org/
cgi/reprint/309/5744/2172.pdf
40. Galin D. 1999. Separating first-personness from the other problems of consciousness
or ‘you had to have been there!’ Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/
March:222–29.
41. Gallagher, S. 2001. The Practice of Mind (Theory, Simulation or Primary Interaction).
Journal of Consciousness Studies 8(5–7):83–108.
42. Gendlin E.T. 1999. A new model. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/
March:232–37
43. Ginsburg, C. 2005. First Person Experiments. Journal of Consciousness Studies 12(2):29.
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/imp/jcs/2005/00000012/00000002/art00002
44. Gold, J. M., et al. 2005. Visual Memory Decay Is Deterministic. Psychological Science
16(10), October:769–74. http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgibin/fulltext/118661658/
PDFSTART
45. Haarmeier, T., et al. 2001. Optimizing Visual Motion Perception during Eye
Movements. Neuron 32(3), 8 November:527–35. http://download.cell.com/neuron/pdf/
PIIS089662730100486X.pdf
46. Hernández, A., A. Zainos, and R. Romo. 2002. Temporal Evolution of a DecisionMaking Process in Medial Premotor Cortex. Neuron 33(6), 14 March:959–72. http://
www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=MImg&_imagekey=B6WSS-47MC579-D-3&_
cdi=7054&_user=10&_orig=search&_coverDate=03 percent2F14 percent2F2002&_sk=9
99669993&view=c&wchp=dGLzVtbzSkzk&md5=213a3365b29e25dcb74f5a9307df5ef5
&ie=/sdarticle.pdf
47. Hut, P. 1999. Theory and experiment in philosophy. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s
2–3), February/March:241–44.
48. Johansson, P., L. Hall, S. Sikstrom, and A. Olsson. 2005. Failure to Detect Mismatches
Between Intention and Outcome in a Simple Decision Task. Science 310(5745), 7
October:116–19. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/310/5745/116.pdf
49. Kara, P., and J. D. Boyd. 2009. A micro-architecture for binocular disparity and ocular
dominance in visual cortex. Nature 458(7238), 2 April:627–31. http://www.nature.com/
nature/journal/v458/n7238/pdf/nature07721.pdf
50. Kozlowski, S. W., and D. R. Ilgen. 2006. Enhancing the Effectiveness of Work Groups
and Teams. Psychological Science in the Public Interest 7(3), December:77–124. http://
www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/fulltext/118600272/PDFSTART
51. Kuo, W.-J., et al. 2009. Intuition and Deliberation: Two Systems for Strategizing
in the Brain. Science 324(5926), 24 April:519–22. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/
reprint/324/5926/519.pdf
52. Kussell, E., and S. Leibler. 2005. Phenotypic Diversity, Population Growth, and
Information in Fluctuating Environments. Science 309(5743), 23 September:2075–78.
http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/reprint/309/5743/2075.pdf
53. Laughlin, B. 2001. Satisfaction Survey by Web or by Paper? A Case Study at a Fortune
500 Company. Usability News/Software Usability Research Laboratory, Wichita State
University 3(2), July.
54. Macpherson Fiona. 2002. The Power of Natural Selection. Journal of Consciousness
Studies 9(8):30–35. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title= percent22The+P
ower+of+Natural+Selection percent22&title_type=tka&journal=Journal+of+Consciousn
ess+Studies&journal_type=exact&volume=9&issue=8&year_from=1998&year_to=2009
&database=1&pageSize=20&index=1
55. Macpherson Fiona. 2002. The Power of Natural Selection. Journal of Consciousness
Studies 9(8):30–35. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/article?title= percent22The+P
ower+of+Natural+Selection percent22&title_type=tka&journal=Journal+of+Consciousn
56.
57.
58.
59.
60.
61.
62.
63.
64.
65.
66.
67.
68.
69.
70.
71.
ess+Studies&journal_type=exact&volume=9&issue=8&year_from=1998&year_to=2009
&database=1&pageSize=20&index=1
O’Leary, C., S. Rao, and C. Perry. 2001. USING E-BUSINESS INFORMATION IN
DATABASE MARKETING PROCESSES. Australian and New Zealand Marketing
Academy Conference. Massey University, Auckland, NZ. http://smib.vuw.ac.nz:8081/
WWW/ANZMAC2001/anzmac/AUTHORS/pdfs/O percent27Leary.pdf
Overgaard, M., and T. A. Sorensen. 2004. Introspection Distinct From First-Order
Experiences. Journal of Consciousness Studies 11(7–8), 2004:79–95.
Oysterman, D., D. Brickman, D. Bybee, and A. Celious. 2006. Fitting in Matters:
Markers of In-Group Belonging and Academic Outcomes. Psychological Science
17(10):854–62.
Patterson, P. G., and K. Prasongsukarn. 2001. The Association Between Consumer
Demographic Characteristics and Service Loyalty. Australian and New Zealand
Marketing Academy Conference. Massey University, Auckland, NZ. http://smib.vuw.
ac.nz:8081/WWW/ANZMAC2001/anzmac/AUTHORS/pdfs/Patterson1.pdf
Pelli, D. G. 1999. Close Encounters--An Artist Shows That Size Affects Shape. Science
285(5429), 6 August:844–46. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/285/5429/844
Petitmengin-Peugeot C. 1999. The intuitive experience. Journal of Consciousness Studies
6(s 2–3), February/March:43–77.
Rothwell, N. 2004. One more thing. Nature 427(6976), 19 February:683–83. http://www.
nature.com/nature/journal/v427/n6976/pdf/427683a.pdf
Sanes, J., et al. 1995. Shared neural substrates controlling hand movements in human
motor cortex. Science 268(5218), 23 June:1775–77. http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/
reprint/sci;268/5218/1775.pdf
Schooler, J. W., and C. A. Schrieber. 2004. Experience, Meta-consciousness, and the
Paradox of Introspection. Journal of Consciousness Studies 11(7–8), 2004:17–39.
Shear J., and Jiving R. 1999. Pure consciousness: Scientific exploration of meditation
techniques. Journal of Consciousness Studies 6(s 2–3), February/March:189–210.
Sloman, A., and R. Chrisley. 2003. Virtual Machines and Consciousness. Journal
of Consciousness Studies 10(4–5):133–72. http://www.ingentaconnect.com/search/
article?title= percent22Virtual+Machines+and+Consciousness percent22&title_ty
pe=tka&author=Sloman&journal=Journal+of+Consciousness+Studies&journal_
type=exact&year_from=1998&year_to=2009&database=1&pageSize=20&index=1
TOLO, M., E. L. Riebe, and B. Sharp. 2001. Explaining Retail Brand Performance
- Comparing a model’s predictions to informal prior knowledge. University of
South Australia. http://search.arrow.edu.au/main/redirect_to_title?identifier=oai
percent3Aarrow.nla.gov.au percent3A1224266422867151
Vignuzzi, M., et al. 2006. Quasispecies diversity determines pathogenesis through
cooperative interactions in a viral population. Nature 439(7074), 19 January:344–48.
http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v439/n7074/pdf/nature04388.pdf
Vlok, D. 2005. An Assessment of the Knowledge Processing Environment in an
Organisation – A Case Study. Rhodes Investec Business School: Rhodes University.
http://www.macroinnovation.com/Assessment_of_Knowledge_Processing.pdf
Volk, F. 2001. E-Commerce, the Consumer Decision Process, and the Theory of
Reasoned Action. Usability News/Software Usability Research Laboratory, Wichita State
University 3(2), July. 67. Wentworth, C. 1995. Sample Size and Sampling Error. http://
www.msearch.com/pdfs/SampleSizeError.pdf
Yeshurun, Y., et al. 2002. The Role of the Amygdala in Signaling Prospective Outcome
of Choice. Neuron 33(6), 14 March:983–94. http://download.cell.com/neuron/pdf/
PIIS0896627302006268.pdf
Joseph Carrabis is a Senior Fellow and Advisory Board member of the
Society for New Communications Research. Mr. Carrabis is CRO and
founder of NextStage Evolution, LLC and CRO and co-Founder, NextStage
Global LTD. NextStage Evolution and NextStage Global specialize in
helping companies better their marketing efforts and understand customer
behavior. Joseph Carrabis has authored 22 books and 225 articles in five
areas of expertise. His books have covered cultural anthropology, database
technology and methods, information mechanics, language acquisition,
learning and education theory, mathematics, network topologies and
psycholinguistic modeling. His articles have covered computer technology,
cultural-knowledge modeling, equine management, knowledge studies and
applications, library science, martial arts, myth and folklore, neurolinguistic,
psychodynamic and psychosocial modeling, group and tribal behavior
and social interactions in NYC and more. He’s currently a columnist for
iMediaConnections and blogs regularly on the intersection of business and
science at BizMediaScience. Mr. Carrabis has been a lead speaker, guest
presenter and panelist at several industry, trade and academic conferences
and conventions. His knowledge and data designs have been used by Caltech,
Citibank, DOD, IBM, NASA, Owens-Corning and Smith-Barney among
others. He’s also founder of KnowledgeNH and NH Business Development
Network, and inventor and developer of Evolution Technology.
Social Media in the 2009 Inc. 500: New
Tools and New Trends
By Dr. Nora Ganim Barnes, Ph.D. and Eric Mattson
The Center for Marketing Research at the University of Massachusetts
Dartmouth recently conducted a new in-depth and statistically significant
study on the usage of social media in fast-growing corporations. This new
study revisits the Center’s study of Inc. 500 social media usage for the
third consecutive year, making it a valuable and rare longitudinal study of
corporate use of these new technologies.
The new study compares adoption of social media over three years
(2007, 2008, and 2009) by the Inc. 500, a list of the fastest-growing private
U.S. companies compiled annually by Inc. Magazine. For details about the
2009 Inc. 500 and the complete directory of the included companies, please
visit Inc. Magazine’s Website at www.Inc.com.
In 2007, the Center’s first study of this group and their use of social
media was released and revealed that the Inc. 500 was outpacing the more
traditional and larger Fortune 500 companies in their use of social media. For
example, at that time, some research showed that 8 percent of the Fortune
500 companies were blogging, compared to 19 percent of the Inc. 500. This
difference continued in 2008 with 16 percent of the Fortune 500 blogging vs.
39 percent of the Inc. 500. And it appears the Inc. 500’s lead in blogging will
continue in 2009 with the Inc. 500 now blogging at a rate of 45 percent. (The
update on the Fortune 500 is expected soon.)
As in the earlier studies, the 2009 study is the result of a nationwide
telephone survey of those companies named by Inc. Magazine to the Inc. 500
list under the direction of researchers Nora Ganim Barnes and Eric Mattson.
All interviews took place in October and November of 2009. The 2009 list
was released in the September issue of Inc. Magazine. In this third iteration,
thirty percent (148) of the Inc. 500 participated, making this research
statistically valid at +/- 7 percent.
This research proves once again that social media has penetrated parts
of the business world at a tremendous speed. It also indicates that corporate
familiarity with and usage of social media within the Inc. 500 has continued
to grow in the past 12 months.
The respondents in this study, as in the first two studies, are diverse
in industry, size, and location. They include five of the top 10, 12 of the
top 25, and 38 of the top 100 companies from the Inc. 500 list. The 148
companies that responded were asked the same detailed questions concerning
their usage and measurement of social media that were asked of the Inc.
500, approximately one year and two years earlier. Questions probed the
familiarity of respondents with six prominent social media (blogging,
podcasting, online video, social networking, message boards, and wikis).
In order to maintain the integrity of all comparisons, all those tools studied
in the first two studies were included in this follow- up research. In 2009,
several new tools were added, including the popular microblogging service,
Twitter, and other popular social networking sites like Linkedin, Facebook,
and MySpace.
In addition to questions about current usage, the responding executives
were asked about their intention to adopt the social media technologies they
were not currently using and about their perceived level of success with tools
they were using now. The research question concerning the importance of
social media to each responding company’s marketing strategy was repeated
in this third year of research in order to gain important trend data.
The latest version of the study also includes new questions on the use
of social media tools for recruiting and evaluating employees as well as
for communicating with stakeholders other than customers. More detailed
questions about the responding companies’ corporate blogs and social media
policies were also included for the first time.
Key Findings
Social networking continues to lead the way. The technology that
continues to be the most familiar to the Inc. 500 is social networking,
with 75 percent of respondents in 2009 claiming to be “very familiar
with it” (compared to 57 percent in 2008). Another noteworthy statistic
around familiarity is Twitter’s amazing “share of mind” with 62 percent of
executives reported being familiar with the new microblogging and social
networking platform.
The adoption curves for different social media technologies are not
all the same. Interestingly, while social networking and blogging have
enjoyed growth in actual adoption, the use of message boards, online video,
wikis, and podcasting has leveled off or declined. The addition of Twitter
(considered by respondents to be both a microblogging site and a social
networking site) in the latest study shows that an amazing 52 percent of the
Inc. 500 companies are already using this tool for their business.
Regardless of the particular technology, social media matters and is here
to stay. Forty-three percent of the 2009 Inc. 500 reported social media was
“very important” to their business/marketing strategy. And an incredible
91 percent of the Inc. 500 is using at least one social media tool in 2009
(up from 77 percent in 2008). In addition, as they ramp up their usage, the
Inc. 500 companies are also seeking to protect themselves legally, with 36
percent having implemented a formal policy concerning blogging by their
employees.
Executive Summary
In 2007, the results of a groundbreaking study into the adoption of
social media within the Inc. 500, an elite group of the fastest-growing
companies within the United States, were released. As one of the first studies
of corporate social media adoption with statistical significance, it proved
conclusively that social media was coming to the business world and sooner
than many anticipated. Since then, the Inc. 500 has been studied each year in
an effort to look at longitudinal change in the adoption of these fascinating
digital communication tools.
The companies that responded were asked the same detailed questions
concerning their familiarity with, usage of, and measurement of social media.
The survey used in the 2007, 2008, and 2009 studies all ask a range of
questions with regard to six prominent social media (blogging, podcasting,
online video, social networking, message boards, and wikis). Given the
frequently uncertain definitions of these media, common understanding of
each form was sought by providing definitions from Wikipedia.
The 2009 survey was expanded to include new tools that have emerged
as popular channels for many businesses. For example, the social networking
category was examined more specifically and data was collected on use of
Facebook, MySpace, Twitter, and LinkedIn.
Thirty percent (148) of the Inc. 500 participated, making this research
statistically valid at +/- 7 percent.
As in the past, respondents were asked to rank their familiarity with each
technology from “very familiar” to “very unfamiliar.” The social media that
was most familiar to the Inc. 500 in all three studies is social networking.
As of 2009, 75 percent of respondents claim to be “very familiar” with
social networking tools. In 2007, 42 percent were “very familiar” with
social networking and 57 percent were “very familiar” in 2008. However,
as the graph below shows, across the board, a significant percentage of the
companies are “very familiar” with each of the technologies studied. In the 2007 study, wikis were the least familiar to the Inc. 500, but in
2008, wikis jumped ahead of podcasting in familiarity. In 2009, there is no
significant difference between familiarity with message boards, podcasting,
and wikis. The bottom line is that the Inc. 500 continues to learn about social
media at a very quick pace (see graph below).
From familiarity, the survey moved into the companies’ actual usage of
social media. The companies were asked in 2007, 2008, and 2009 if they
were using the six social media discussed above and, if yes, for how long
they had been using them. They were also asked if they planned to adopt
tools they were not currently using.
Again, the results are surprising. While familiarity is related to adoption,
even the least familiar tool has 37 percent adoption (podcasting). Social
networking and blogging have enjoyed growth, while the use of message
boards, online video, wikis, and podcasting has leveled off or declined. The
addition of Twitter (considered by respondents as both a microblogging site
and a social networking site) in the latest study shows that 52 percent of the
Inc. 500 is using this tool for their business. An amazing 91 percent of the
Inc. 500 companies are reporting use of at least one of the social media tools
studied in 2009.
When asked if they plan to adopt any of the social media technologies
that they are not currently using, they clearly intend to continue immersing
themselves in these tools. Forty-four percent of those without corporate
blogs intend to have one. Twenty-seven percent of respondents who do not
currently have a business presence on Twitter plan to move into that space.
Even though the use of online video appears to have dropped slightly, the
intent to adopt it appears strong.
When asked if the use of social media has been successful for their
business, the overwhelming response is that it has. Twitter users report
an 82 percent success rate while every other tool studied enjoys at least
an 87 percent success level. Measuring success was investigated, and
most respondents report using hits, comments, leads, or sales as primary
indicators.
If you have been using social media, have they been successful?
Not only is this widespread adoption being driven by strong
familiarity, but it is also from the recognized critical role of social
media to a company’s future success in today’s online world. When
queried on the importance of social media, 26 percent of respondents
in 2007 felt that social media is “very important” to their business and
marketing strategy. That figure rose to 44 percent in approximately one
year. It remains virtually the same in 2009. It is clear that this group of
fast-growing companies considers the use of social media as a central
part of their strategic plans.
With the Inc. 500 recognizing the importance of, expanding their
familiarity with and increasing their usage of social media, it should
come as no surprise that they’re also seeking to protect themselves
from some of the potential legal pitfalls. In this third iteration of
this benchmarking survey, we asked a new question to explore if
the respondents company had a policy around blogging by their
employees. Thirty-six percent answered affirmatively.
All respondents were asked if their company monitors its brands or
company name in the social media space. Sixty-eight percent reported
that they do monitor their products and brands. That number is up from
60 percent in 2008 and 50 percent just two years ago. Clearly, the Inc.
500 are becoming more sophisticated in the use of social media both
for joining conversations and for listening to them.
For the first time in this series of studies on the Inc. 500, executives
were asked if their company uses social media tools to communicate
with other companies, like with vendors, suppliers, or partners. Again,
social networking is the most widely used with 34 percent reporting
they employed these tools. Twitter is being used by 26 percent of
the Inc. 500 for this purpose. It is interesting to note that one in four
Inc. 500 companies consider Twitter an appropriate vehicle for B2B
communications. This could signal an important change in the popular
conception of Twitter and how it is being used.
Another question added to the 2009 study focused on the
company’s use of search engine and/or social networking tools to
recruit and evaluate potential employees. With the ease of access to
information on people, it is no surprise that over half of the Inc. 500
are using search engines to assist in the recruitment and evaluation
process.
Google was the most popular search engine cited by executives.
Forty-eight percent indicated using social networking sites such as
Facebook, LinkedIn, and Twitter.
From familiarity to usage to importance, social media has
expanded rapidly within the Inc. 500. And, for the first time, three-year
trends in familiarity, adoption, and importance to mission have been
documented in a statistically significant, longitudinal study. Plus, this
third study begins to shed light on exciting new social media tools like
Twitter, new uses of social media like recruitment and hiring, and the
emergence of social media policies. With almost every responding
company using at least one form of these exciting new technologies,
social media is clearly here to stay in the business world and the future
will be fascinating. The only question is: What will 2010 bring?
The Opportunity
The survey and interviews revealed a need for a trusted source, while the
content scans revealed a paucity (so as not to repeat dearth) of authoritative
philanthropic conversations. In particular, the 30 to 49 demographic desires
credible information (68%) and for that information to be delivered by a
trustworthy host (66%). These preferences for credible information from a
trusted source are true among current, high-dollar donors and independent,
Internet Savvy respondents. These needs were substantially higher than any
other requirement for participation. Secondary interests include a desire
to hear from philanthropic experts (rated as 39% among the 30 to 49 age
bracket). Talking with other donors was important to 35% of 30 to 49 yearold respondents.
Nora Ganim Barnes earned a Ph.D. in Consumer Behavior from the
University of Connecticut and is a Chancellor Professor of Marketing
and Director of the Center for Marketing Research at the University of
Massachusetts Dartmouth. Nora has worked as a consultant for many
national and international firms including the National Pharmaceutical
Council, the National Court Reporters Association, and the Board of Inquiry
of the British Parliament, Scotts Lawn Care Co, Distilled Spirits Council of
the US and others. Business Week, Inc. Magazine, Computer World and other
business media as well as the Providence Journal, Boston Globe, Chronicle
of Higher Education, Washington Post, LA Times, New York Times and NY
Daily News have covered her work. She has been named a Senior Research
Fellow and Research Chair by the Society for New Communications
Research.
Eric Mattson is the CEO of Financial Insite Inc., a Seattle-based boutique
research firm focusing on technology innovation in finance and banking.
He’s also an independent social media scholar whose research has appeared
in BusinessWeek, Inc. Magazine and a number of other publications.
Prior to his current endeavors, Eric ran direct marketing, market research
and marketing analytics for SanMar, one of the largest generic clothing
wholesalers in the United States. Eric is a proud graduate of the University
of Washington where he earned dual degrees in business administration and
mathematics as a Washington Scholar.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank those who made this report possible. The
Inc. 500 companies who responded to this survey were candid and generous
with their comments. They represent all the qualities that make the study of
new communication channels for businesses so exciting. Special thanks are
also owed to Associate Director, Ava Lescault and the staff and students from
the University of Massachusetts Dartmouth Center for Marketing Research
for their endless enthusiasm and dedication to this project.
.
Global Perspective: Seeking a News
Business Model for Newspapers
by Andria Y. Carter
Newspapers aren’t dying, they are transitioning. But what they are
transitioning to is anyone’s guess.
One thing is certain: The single-platform revenue model that has
sustained the industry is no longer viable. The global community must
pursue a multi-platform, multi-product business model if newspapers want to
continue covering their markets effectively.
But as news organizations work to offer consumers a digitally viable
product, proponents are crying the death of newspapers. At the end of 2008,
the demise of several newspapers increased the debate over the industry’s
future. In April 2009, at the annual conference for global research foundation
and think tank, the Society of New Communications Research, author/
speaker Paul Gillin continuously cried out the death of newspapers and that
there would be nothing left to replace them. His claim may be extreme;
however, it is substantiated by an avalanche of thematic conferences,
hearings, academic articles, and several newspapers, magazines, and trade
journals all speculating the final demise of the news industry.
Former news reporter, now writer and producer (HBO’s The Wire),
David Simon gave a passionate and revealing testimony before the U.S.
Senate’s Subcommittee on Communications, Technology, and the Internet
during a hearing on the Future of Journalism in May. Simon stated that highend journalism is dying and, unless a new economic model is achieved, it
will not be reborn on the Web or anywhere else.
“The Internet is a marvelous tool, and clearly it is the informational
delivery system of our future, but thus far it does not deliver much firstgeneration reporting. Instead it leaches that reporting from mainstream news
publications, whereupon aggregating Websites and bloggers contribute
little more than repetition, commentary, and froth. Meanwhile, readers
acquire news from aggregators and abandon its point of origin – namely, the
newspapers themselves.”
“In short, the parasite is slowly killing the host,” he said.
Ideally, news executives are currently creating hybrid models of their
print product on the Internet. Some of the hybrid models are following
blueprints or solutions created by the American Press Institute’s Newspaper
Next project or by the Suburban Newspapers of America. Globally,
newspapers are socially engaging their consumers on Twitter, Facebook,
LinkedIn, etc., as they strive to find ways in monetizing the Web.
Several news sites are pursuing a paid content business model, believing
they can be just as financially successful as the few national brands that have
similar business models. Working against this business model is the fact the
consumer has been taught for 10 years, unless it is a niche product, content
on the Web is free. National brands—Financial Times, Bloomberg, and Wall
Street Journal—target the business community. This community has specific
daily data needs that help businesses, and its feeder industries thrive.
Malaysiakini.com has also found success with online subscriptions.
Premesh Chandran, chief executive officer of the Website, told a panel at
the International Online Journalism Symposium held at University of Texas
in Austin, that subscription is the foundation of its business model. The
site began charging in 2002, and only 5 percent of its readers pay. The site
charges $40 a year for its English news, contributing $600,000 to its bottom
line. He added that ads brought in $200,000 last year, and an additional
$200,000 came from grants. Chandran noted the site has been breaking even
since 2004.
Regional or small newspaper brands may experience some initial
success, depending upon the business model they choose for paid conten—a
small charge for every story clicked on, pay a monthly fee, or charge
depending how many times you return to the site—but the industry may
experience a backlash similar to that which the mobile community did when
they first started charging for texting. People (kids) created large cell phone
bills until mobile companies offered unlimited data plans.
Pursuing a paid-content model is just another example of the industry’s
failure to throw off the chains of a traditional business model and embrace
a whole new way of doing business. Failure. This is the global newspaper
industry’s greatest success story. The industry has failed to update its product.
It has failed to stay abreast of consumer trends. Media companies have failed
to have an active research and development department.
Globally, the industry’s failure has kept it one step behind and has
allowed younger, more technologically advanced companies to take away
their traditional business revenue and market share.
The industry’s saving grac—the consumer’s demand for news and
information remains strong. But there is a glut in the market for information.
The Internet has changed how people communicate, gather information, and
provided the means for everyone, including businesses, to become their own
news centers.
Methodology
This research on new business models for the global newspaper
industry consisted of primary research and the analysis of reports, articles,
congressional testimony, and academic papers and presentations on various
topics involving the future and monetization of the newspaper industry.
The research also involved in-person interviews with media executives,
social media, and technology and innovation experts from around the
globe, including North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Africa, and
Australia.
Primarily, the analysis focused on the industry’s need for a new business
model using the Internet—utilizing both social and mobile platforms.
Another platform examined briefly was the mobile Web. Even though cell
phone companies are having success with offering the wireless Web, this
technology needs further development to meet a digital newspaper’s needs.
Although the mobile Web was a small aspect of this research, any new
business model created must incorporate the potential of this future revenue
stream.
Perfect Storm
On September 1, 2009, Martin Lindsay, editor of the The Belfast
Telegraph, retired from the Northern Ireland newspaper knowing that he
had taken the newspaper as far as he could. For 47 years, Lindsay worked
tirelessly at various Irish newspapers perfecting his craft and experiencing
the many changes the industry has undergone. A contemplative Lindsay said
that he never expected the financial impact the Web has had on his newspaper
and the industry as a whole.
“I started in this business when I was 16, and I never expected this,”
Lindsay said. The retiring editor explained he didn’t want to relinquish his
post, but he recognized that someone younger and more progressive needed
to lead the newspaper as it made its digital transformation.
The The Belfast Telegraph has a healthy readership with a daily
circulation of 70,000, which is down from 125,000 daily circulations the
newspaper had prior to peace coming to the city. During the “troubles,”
Lindsay said people wanted to know what happened the night before
(seeking information about a bombing or riots, etc.) and would go out and
buy the newspaper, even though they also had it delivered at home. “There
would be four or five newspapers in homes,” Lindsay noted.
Today, The Belfast Telegraph is still considered the Northern Ireland’s
largest daily newspaper; however, it is beginning to feel the Web’s impact
on its circulation and revenue stream. Unlike newspapers in America, The
Belfast Telegraph has maintained a healthy advertising and classified section.
Although the recession has impacted its car and real estate sections, the
newspaper’s saving grace is that their market has not been impacted by an
online classified service like craigslist. But the staff is anticipating the day
when that may occur.
Gerry Patterson, director of digital publishing at the The Belfast
Telegraph, explained the digital landscape in Northern Ireland is still
maturing, and the newspaper has time to offer services like an online
classified section to its readers before a national brand invades their market.
Small start-up brands are popping up in Ireland. For example: an auto
shopper Website. The auto shopper’s print product previously competed with
The Belfast Telegraph for business. The auto shopper is now having greater
financial success with its Website.
Patterson noted that the traditional ways of doing business is over.
“Everyone is looking for that one business model that will save the industry,”
he said. The global newspaper industry is in the midst of a “perfect storm,”
which has affected some countries more than others. A 200-year tradition
– 100 with advertising—is being technologically dismantled as the storm’s
effects pummel the industry. Even if this “perfect storm” had not occurred,
the industry has for decades been slowly losing readers. However, the
industry never truly sought ways to curb the loss; it chose instead to develop
a band-aid solution.
The industry’s arrogance blinded it to the impact the Internet would
have on newspapers, the changing needs of its consumers, and its failure to
establish a research and development department. Although the growth of
the Internet has taken 40 years to develop, the technological impact has been
swift and deep.
Real news in real time provided on a variety of digital, social, and mobile
platforms are the new reality for the global newspaper market. Although this
new reality may be the death of a 100-year tradition, the potential is great in
becoming something better than what it was.
“News organizations won’t be defined by one platform. That is already
a reality, but at the moment, most news organizations are feeling their way
through a forced transition. News organizations are largely still focused on a
single-legacy platform with most of the content being re-purposed for digital
platforms,” said Kevin Anderson with the Guardian newspaper in London,
England.
The news industry is struggling to find a workable business model, but
in the meantime, this effort is hampering newspapers that are paying two sets
of costs – printing and delivering their print product and providing a digital
version.
“Unfortunately, the Web doesn’t pay.” Dr. Andrew Curran surmised to
an audience attending a Wednesday seminar in February sponsored by the
Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism. Curran was speaking about
his latest findings regarding the economic impact the digital revolution was
having on news publishing in the United Kingdom.
During a seminar on Business Models for Media, Curran noted that the
news organizations are facing both an economic drought and deep structural
changes caused by the digital revolution. Curran said the future looked grim
by quoting the analysis conducted by Enders of the 2009 media advertising
revenues, which forecasted a decline of 12.2 percent across all display media
with newspapers experiencing a steep decline of 19 percent.
Even as newsrooms are converted into multimedia hubs offering audio,
video, Internet and print news executives are unsure how these new formats
will pay for themselves. Monetizing the Web is critical for journalism’s
future but the value of online advertising inventory is 90 percent less than
print advertising.
According Pew Center’s Project for Excellence in Journalism, newspaper
ad revenues have fallen 23 percent in the last two years. Several newspaper
companies are in bankruptcy while others have lost three-quarters of their
value. And with the onset of the longest recession in U.S. history newspapers
have doubled their revenue losses.
In Pew’s 2009 State of News Media Report, it states newspapers’ total ad
revenue fell 16 percent, or $38 billion in 2008. The industry also watched as
its online ad revenue fell 0.4 percent in 2008.
Traditionally, advertising revenue has accounted for approximately 80
percent of a newspaper’s revenue. Estimated reports indicate that the industry
will experience another 30 percent ad revenue drop in the first quarter of this
year. If this downward spiral continues by the end of 2009, newspapers will
see a 50 percent drop in ad revenue over a three-year period.
The rapid economic downward spiral has forced the closure of several
newspapers in America and abroad. Just this year the 150-year-old Rocky
Mountain News closed its doors and in Britain over 70 newspapers have
closed since the beginning of 2008. Others like the Detroit Free Press are
cutting back on their home delivery service. Earlier this year the Seattle PostIntelligencer and Christian Science Monitor have completely shifted to the
Web.
The economic pinch is not just felt at the newspaper’s bottom line
but in job losses, as well. Pew speculates that nearly one out of every five
journalists working for newspapers in 2001 is now gone. In 2008 alone, the
industry shed an estimated 15,970 jobs and about 13,253 jobs as of August of
this year.
Despite this economic reality for those reporters and editors who
survived the downsizing of their newsrooms, they are also facing the
disqualification of their jobs. The skill-set of a reporter must now include
shooting photographs and video and some aspect of social media. As part of
their beats must write a bog, contribute to a blog or Twitter.
Objectivity and distance have been the rule of traditional media, but with
the onslaught of new media reporters and editors must now participate and
interact with their readers.
The success of the Internet has taken everyone by surprise. More than
23 percent of the world are communicating or accessing information on the
Web. The top 50 news Websites saw traffic for the year grow by 27 percent,
according to the Pew Center. The top four news sites—Yahoo, MSNBC.com,
CNN.com and AOL—saw unique visitors grow 22 percent to 23.6 million
visitors a month.
Also impacting a news organization’s ability to find a workable business
model are the continuing technological changes affecting the world’s “user
revolution.” Currently, content, social networking, and relationships are
“king,” and consumers are now presumes. Twitter, Facebook, MySpace,
LinkedIn, Fark, Digg, etc., have pushed opened the ‘gatekeeper’ doorway
and no longer limit how you get your information and who delivers it.
Consumers now live in a real-time world where the landscape is changing
faster than the ability of businesses to catch up.
Unlike traditional news organizations, Facebook and YouTube have had
some success with online ads. Facebook earned approximately $300 million
in ad revenue in 2008. YouTube, with 100 million viewers, also earned
hundreds of millions in ad revenue, and Google’s AdSense has earned more
than $5 billion in ad revenue.
News organizations are struggling to compete against the national
Internet-only sites for ad revenue. Online spending grew about 14 percent
through the first three quarters of the year, to $17.3 billion, but most benefited
Google and other search engines. Display ad rates are falling as the numbers
of Websites grow, and in 2009, ad growth is expected to be little or none.
Adapting to a new media world has been difficult for traditional media.
“The rules of the game have changed,” noted Bernard Luann, chief financial
officer for “ReadWriteWeb” blog.
Lunn explained the business cycle online is much quicker than in the
traditional world of business. Business and consumer reaction happens now
in weeks not years. “You must have a very specific business objective to
generate traffic and revenue. It is totally a different way of working, and on a
large scale, traditional media does not like it,” he said.
The new business model for news organizations must be fluid, functional,
informative, and social. The business model is not just adjusting to a new
business landscape but is adapting to a new state of mind.
IBM Institute for Business Value predicted that four business models
will emerge and thrive through 2010: traditional media, walled communities,
content hyper-syndication, and new platform aggregation. “The models
are expected to blur over time with media companies experimenting with
multiple models at the same time,” the organization stated.
IBM believes that as business models continue to develop in the shortterm, media distributors and content owners will primarily head in opposing
directions to meet consumer needs. The distributors will lean toward walled
communities and content owners will head toward content hyper-syndication.
The Online Consumer
The global newspaper community is struggling to adapt to the digital
world. Consumer demand for data—text, audio, or video—is high, and there
is a glut in the digital marketplace. Unlike the print product where the news
is limited within the borders of a tabloid or broadsheet newspaper, online
the space is infinite. With a plethora of choices, newspaper Websites must
provide their readers with a greater online experience that meets all of their
needs—information, entertainment, problem-solving, and commerce.
According to a survey entitled “Digital World, Digital Life” by TNS
Global, globally, people spend a third of their leisure time online, belong
to two social networking sites, and have regular contact with people who
they’ve “virtually” met on the Internet. The survey noted that majority
of people are aware of what the Web has to offer and are highly engaged
with it in one form or another. That engagement could be through email,
ecommerce, blogs, forums, virtual reality, eBay, BeBo, Google Earth, or
Second Life, etc.
“Across the globe, people no longer see the Internet as an important
tool for communication, but as a vital tool for communication. The nature
of its relationship to the user may change from person to person, but what’s
consistent, is that it has become an inseparable part of our lives,” said Scott
Ernest, president of TNS Compete.
Survey respondents stated they spend a large amount of time online, with
nearly half of the respondents logging on several times a day from home and
with three quarters doing so at least once a day.
The digital world is also changing how people communicate. “Digital
World, Digital Life” notes that digital communication has not taken over
a person’s preference for face-to-face contact but the world’s social life
is moving in that direction. Today, people have four popular methods of
communicating—email, text messaging, mobile phones, and face-to-face.
Despite these popular methods, people also enjoy online instant messaging,
voice-over IP, and blogs and forums.
“The Internet may mean our primary communication tools have changed,
but that has by no means left us without a social life. More and more people
are talking internationally and becoming “friends”—a word that in itself that
has become completely redefined by Web. 2.0,” said Andrew Mairon, TNS
Global Interactive.
The Internet is an important tool in the life of the global community.
Online consumers use the Web primarily to search for information, look up
the news, conduct online banking, check the weather, research a product
before buying it, visit a brand or product Website, pay bills, watch a video
clip, use a price comparison site, and listen to music.
Over the last two or three years, social media has been the driving force
behind the Internet’s growth and participation. Consumers enjoy blogging,
sharing photos and video, and participating in forums. “Digital World,
Digital Life” learned that a third of all survey respondents participate with a
social networking site, with an extra 23 percent saying they have viewed or
accessed them at some time, but had not contributed to it. The survey also
learned people on average participate on two social networking sites. But in
some countries like Korea and China, that number is higher.
“Social media—blogs, social networks, consumer-created video—is a
long-term trend that is changing how brands must communicate with their
customers. Marketers and PR professionals must change their business
practices from creating compelling communications, to having a bidirectional conversation with consumers and becoming great listeners and
active participants in the word-of-mouth brand dialogues,” said Andrew
Bernstein, president of TNS Cymfony.
Creating a New Business Model
The digital transition of the global newspaper industry has everyone
stumped on what will be the most effective way to maintain market share
while providing consumers with a viable product that insures a healthy
bottom line. Although the industry is stumped and everyone is pursuing
stopgap measures, the reality is that the news product, not just the delivery
system (Website), must be revamped and conform to the consumer’s digital
needs.
Consumers are gadget rich and time poor, and a news product must meet
this new reality.
During the 2008 Monaco Media Forum, James Murdoch, president
and CEO of Europe and Asia with the News Corporation, stated that this is
an exciting time and there is great opportunity in modern media. He noted
that companies must be competitive, and any changes they make must be
innovative while improving the mix and breath of the business.
Murdoch noted that the industry must thrive in a more entrepreneurial
economy and embrace the disruption that is happening by accelerating the
change.
Creating a new business model, news executives must answer one
basic question—what is the product? What are you trying to sell, and what
consumer’s needs are being met? In answering the questions, newspaper
companies must also define what they are and what they want to deliver to
their audience.
To answer these questions and develop a worthy product, the global
newspaper industry must focus its innovation efforts utilizing a marketdriven strategy. According to a white paper entitled “Market-Driven
Innovation” by Glocal Vantage Inc., a market-driven innovation methodology
allows an organization to make basic changes in the organization’s approach
to opportunities and threats. But the methodology forces a business to look
at the future in a logical, structured, sustained manner while maintaining its
creativity.
The concept is simple and does not provide an immediate solution, but
newspapers would be able to map out a strategic path between the disruptive
technology and the pull of the market while meeting consumer needs. The
long-term value of this methodology is allowing the company to strengthen
and create new internal resources while creating a strategic vision.
One Website that has been successful in utilizing parts of this
methodology is 24sata.hr.
Boris Trupcevic is the editor for 24sata.hr a Croatian-based Website that
challenges the practical uses of a Web page to make it more user-centric.
The Website is unique, because it fits the site the size of a computer screen
and has no scrolling. 24sata, both print and online, reflects the philosophy
the content needs to be tailored for the modern reader. It is faster, shorter,
and clearer. Launched in 2007, the Website has driven unique visitors from
30,000 to 120,000 per day. Page views have rocketed to almost 2.5 million a
day, 15 times more than before the redesign.
In 2008, 24sata.hr was listed by the World Editors Forum as one of
the top five Websites in the world. The others are Guardian.co.uk. (UK),
Timesonline.co.uk (UK), Globeandmaile.com (Canada), and Elpais.com
(Spain.).
“We did not want to force our users into one way of using the Website,
but to leave it up to their choice. We also wanted to explore new ways of
navigation ourselves, which made us develop new technologies of sorting
and listing the news,” Trupcevic said. “We believe in the future of complex
machinery behind what users can see and very simple and intuitive userexperience on the other end of the production process.”
Although the Website is based on a traditional newspaper platform, it
is exploring new ideas and changing the focus of the business, investing
in innovation and new product development. “I think it’s fair to say we are
pretty obsessed with the future,” Trupcevic said.
What is unique about the newspaper: The whole company is focused on
servicing the community and developing the technology to help do that; the
company has created its own development and programming department.
“We’re looking into anything that is at least five years ahead of everything
else. With fast developments, a successful organization must be focused to
big jumps to stay competitive. We do a lot of trend scouting, but it is difficult
to point out something, because it’s a big colorful world out there with so
many inspirations,” he said.
Other Solutions
Industry pundits believe newspapers are limited in their ability to find a
viable business model. Author Andrew Curran believes there are only two
business models that news organizations can utilize: retreat behind paid
firewalls or become a charitable trusts.
Utilizing the paid firewall business model is GlobalPost.com. Launched
in January 2009, GlobalPost.com is offering readers an in-depth multimedia
view of the world by utilizing correspondents who live around the world but
are not full-time employees. The reporters are under contract, paid in cash,
and given an ownership position in the company. Freelances are also used on
occasion.
GlobalPost.com is operating its Website based on a business model with
three components. Those components are online advertising, syndication
and paid membership. The Website’s membership plan is unique, because
it creates a new way of offering readers a subscription with a multi-user
function. For example, a Passport membership costs $199 per year for an
individual membership, $50 for a student, and offers different rates for a
corporate membership.
Paid membership allows GlobalPost.com readers to suggest what stories
the Website should be covering, and these suggestions are placed online for
viewing. The idea is using the audience to help generate ideas and resources
for coverage. The readers can also participate in a bi-monthly conference call
for a question and answer session with a foreign correspondent.
Aggregation software or semantic technology is another digital
advancement that could help newspapers monetize their Websites while the
search continues for a viable business model.
Matthew Buckland with the Globe and Mail on South Africa believes
semantic technology is key to helping newspapers monetize the Web.
“As users, we will need help in organizing, featuring, and finding that
information. Semantic tagging services like OpenCalais do a great job in
helping to organize and categorize content for us. They make computers do
the work, as opposed to us, the information-overloaded humans.
Semantic technology is just starting to be known outside the technology
community, but the software provides the means to help unlock the
knowledge from a localized environment, data stores, and proprietary
formats so that resources can be readily accessed, shared, and combined
across the Web.
A leader in educating news organizations in the benefits of semantic
technology is Tom Tague. Tague, who leads the OpenCalais initiative, has
been speaking across the country at technology, social media, and news
conferences, attempting to educate people about creating a semantic Web and
the monetary benefits it can bring to a Website. Although a business model
has not yet been built around semantic technology, Tague believes that it is
just a matter of time before news organizations realize what smaller online
publishers are experiencing: Semantic technology helps you become more
efficient in creating niche markets on your Website.
Tague recently shared at both the Web 3.0 and Semtech09 conferences
that the evolution of the Web is content rich, but user deficient. He suggests
that Web 3.0 (semantic technology) is about cleaning up the mess created by
Web 2.0.
He added that partnering editorial content with an aggregation-publishing
model is where the enormous opportunities lie. Those opportunities include
creating domain-specific applications that will help create niche markets.
Like the Globe and Mail, the Huffington Post, DailyMe and UK-based
Associated Newspapers Led’s Mail Online have joined about 100 other news
or media sites incorporating the aggregating software into their Websites.
Marion Strecker, content director for the Brazilian mega-portal UOL.
com.br has developed a business model where the content is free, but the
business sells a wide variety of products, including anti-virus software,
games, adult content, music, VOIP, and technical support.
Created in 1996, UOL.com.hr is supported by the Folha newspaper and
Portugal Telecom. But the Website features over 1,000 channels organized by
50 thematic portals. Strecker suggests that news organizations try everything
but don’t charge for the news.
Retail businesses learn that the foundation of any successful business
is location, location, location. But for online businesses, the new mantra is
diversification, diversification, diversification.
The Guardian newspaper headquartered in the United Kingdom has a
diversified business model. Support by the Scott Trust, which ensures the
editorial independence of the newspaper, the Guardian has pushed to change
its focus to a more digitized operation while offering a variety of different
services. The newspaper operates a conference business entitled Guardian
Professional, holds interest in a lucrative automotive classified trade
business, and has bought interest in a B2B publishing group eMap. Revenue
is also generated by advertising, sponsorships, and subscriptions and operates
a niche online advertising network. This network sells the newspaper’s ad
inventory to approved-third party sites, such as a network of environment
sites and blogs.
“We’re actively exploring new ways to monetize our content and entirely
new information and non-information-based revenue streams,” said Kevin
Anderson with Guardian. “This spring, we also launched the Open Platform,
a suite of APIs that allow third-party developers to build applications with
our content in exchange for potentially being part of an advertising network.”
The Internet has been described as a linked economy. A means for
businesses to talk with their customers in a more “real-time” conversation
that helps resolve problems, down play rumors, and promote a better public
image of the company and its bottom line.
Blogging has taken real-time conversations to a new level. Bloggers are
quicker than traditional media to report what is happening in an industry or
in the news. Some blog sites are in direct competition with traditional news
media sites. Although blogs can’t replace the reach of a traditional news
organization in a community, the Web evens the playing field when it comes
to advertising revenue.
Smaller news organizations looking for a unique way to cut costs and
trim their overhead might want to examine the business model of the blog
site ReadWriteWeb.
ReadWriteWeb is a New Zealand-based blog turned into a Web-based
business.
ReadWriteWeb is a popular Weblog that provides the latest Web
technology news, reviews, and analysis, covering Web apps, Web technology
trends, social networking, and social media.
Bernard Lunn describes the blog as a very simple business that began
as a blog that has morphed into an advertising business. The blog has also
launched a community management service selling reports, which is one of
several services they are exploring to help increase the bottom line. But what
is unique about ReadWriteWeb is that its costs are minimal because of its
operation as a virtual office. The blog’s founder and Richard MacManus is
based in New Zealand, Lunn is in New York City, and the rest of its staff is
scattered around the globe.
“It is efficient from a business point of view,” Lunn said. He noted that
traditional media companies have a harder time creating more efficient
business model, but if they focus on what they do best they will find success.
A successful business model incorporates a changed mindset,
acknowledging a diversified planning field, and creating an efficient business
model that keeps your overhead low allowing you to build up on your profit
margin. Web-based businesses, except for a slight few, do not make money.
Businesses that embrace the innovation and the social media aspects will find
success.
References
Adduci, Romina. The Hyperconnectivity: Here They Come: A Global Look at the Exploding
Culture of Connecting’ and It’s Impact on the Enterprise. IDC White Paper sponsored by
Nortel, May 2008.
Bermin, Saul J. Navigating the Media Divide: Innovation and Enabling New Business Models.
IBM Institute for Business Value, February 2007.
Davis, Mills. Semantic Wave Report: Industry Roadmap to Web 3.0 and Multibillion-Dollar
Market Opportunities. Davis, Mills. Managing Director, Project 10X, presented at the
Semtech Conference, 2008.
Lunden, Kimo. Business Models for the Media. Reuters Institute for Study of Journalism Blog,
March 4, 2009, UK.
Project for Excellence in Journalism, 2009 State of New Media Report. Pew Research Center,
downloaded April 2009.
Schumann, Paul and Donna Prestwood. Market-Driven Innovation: A Systematic Method to
Focus and Encourage Innovation. Glocal Vantage, Inc., downloaded July 2009.
Vargas, Nuno A. “Setting Guidelines on How to Design the News Online.” Portuguese online
newspaper and their Spanish, Argentina, and Brazilian counterparts. Generated for the
2009 International Online Symposium, University of Texas, Austin, Texas.
Andria Y. Carter is a Research Fellow of the Society for New
Communications Research and the online editor with Trentonian.com. She
is responsible for the editorial and multimedia content published on the web
site and co-manages the newsroom for the print side as well. Ms. Carter
is a veteran journalist with over 19 years of experience having worked at
several newspapers including The Asbury Park Press, Neptune, N.J.; The
Pocono Record, Stroudsburg, Pa.; and The Cincinnati Herald, Cincinnati,
Ohio. She has also freelanced with several regional and national magazines.
The guiding force of her news philosophy is a motto given to her as a cub
reporter, “If it’s news today, it’s news to us.” She holds a journalism degree
from Central State University in Wilberforce, Ohio. A believer in being a
true participant in the community, she serves on a number of community
boards. Currently, she is a participating member or board member of the
following trade organizations: Online News Association, Junior League
of Greater Princeton (co-development chair) and Central Board of Junior
Achievement of New Jersey. Throughout her career Andria has won several
awards and honors including: Communications Careers Video-Films
Media Group; Minority Fellowship-Newspaper Association of America;
The James K. Batten Leadership and Career Development FellowshipNewspaper Association of America; 2003 LifeCenter Media Award;
Women in Communications-Cincinnati Chapter’s 2001 Gem Award for
Journalistic Excellence; 2001 Applause! Magazine Imagemaker Award for
Communications; and 1993 Keystone Press Award.
Executive Summary from the Society for
New Communications Research Study: The
New Symbiosis of Professional Networks:
Social Media’s Impact on Business and
Decision-Making
By Donald Bulmer and Vanessa DiMauro
Preface
The convergence of the Internet, Web 2.0, and mobile technologies has
created a disruptive shift in business. The era of Business-to-Person (B2P)
communications driven by all things social (social media, social networks,
and social influence) has emerged as a new model for engagement, and
Social Media Peer Groups (SMPG) have evolved to take important and
influential shape in a new business and economic environment.
This shift has disintermediated many long-standing marketing,
communications, and selling beliefs that have traditionally guided how
companies interact, support, and collaborate with their customers. We now
work in an environment where companies have diminished control over
the reputation of their brands, products, and services as the wisdom of
crowds increasingly dictate the rules of reputation management and selling.
Through the use of social media, customers and prospects now have an
almost instantaneous platform for discussion of their ideas, experiences, and
knowledge. Increasingly, the use of social media is playing an important
role in the professional lives of decision-makers as they utilize the tools and
mediums before them to engage their decision-making processes. The social
nature of decision-making has increased with impressive strength, connecting
generations of professionals to each other—changing the dynamics of
customer relationship management, marketing, and communications—
forever.
In today’s global environment of a vast network of seamlessly connected
devices (one billion people connected to Internet and four billion mobile
phones) information has the capacity to travel at a business velocity never
before seen. Moe than four hundred million people are sharing billions
of pieces of content and experiences each week via online exchanges.
Communities of practice, professional networks, email, and SMS are among
the tools that enable multi-channel access for individuals (employees,
customers, partners, and suppliers). We are finally a part of the long-promised
global virtual and collaborative work environment.
Online communities and professional networks have arguably changed
the way we do business and are, in themselves, new ecosystems, virally
creating communities within communities that drive brand recognition
and brand experience—beyond the control of most companies to manage.
Professional networks facilitate vast interactions, connections, and networks
of people by enabling collaboration anywhere and at any time.
This research focuses on professionals’ use of social media—and it all
comes back to the strength of the relationship. Human relationships and
peer-to-peer decision-making are inherently interrelated. Traditionally, we
make decisions about who we trust in work settings based on a number of
factors—one often being proximity. With social media, proximity is often
superseded in the trust factor by relativity or like-mindedness. Is this person
knowledgeable, credible, believable? Do we share the same views and
networks—online or offline?
Because belonging to a peer network or online community requires us to
perform publically, to share our background by way of a profile, to display
our professional connections and networks, trustworthiness is, in many cases,
more tangibly determined. Peer Groups can now be formed by idea sharing
and virtual collaboration as easily as the proximity-based groups that often
form in office settings.
Enter the era of Business-to-Person (B2P) communications and the
emergence of Social Media Peer Groups (SMPG)
Through the use of professional networks and online communities,
decision-makers are connecting and collaborating with peers, experts, and
colleagues far and wide in an on- demand environment, about the issues that
keep them up at night. The impact of these far-reaching business networks
is becoming clearer every day as millions of consumers, partners, suppliers,
and businesses discuss and share their professional experiences with each
other with increasing levels of trust and reliance. It has long been known that
peer endorsement is the single greatest decision-making accelerant. Through
social media, peer influence cycles are happening at a velocity never before
see and, in many ways, companies are losing the ability to control their
messages. They need to get back into the relationship cycle, but on the terms
set forth by the SMPG. Participating in the SMPG relationship requires a
behavioral change on the part of organizations—one dominated by valuable
content and genuine contributions, transparent honesty, and a commitment to
follow where the decision-maker wants to lead.
Executive Summary
A great deal of attention and research have been devoted over the last
few years to evangelizing social media as a new form of customer-centric
relationship building. Building a network or using social media to deepen
customer intimacy has become the mantra of today. However, what is often
overlooked is the impact of social media to change behaviors, and the
potential to use social media to impact a professional’s decision-making
processes. While everyone is endeavoring to capture the mindshare of the
buyer, few understand what success truly looks like.
In an effort to begin to better understand the impact of social media on
business, we conducted research to examine the role that social media has on
decision-making among business professionals. Specifically, we sought to
understand the following:
•
•
•
•
Is social media typically regarded as a trustworthy source of
information for professionals?
Does social media offer effective tools to access information, advice,
and engage in professional collaboration? How do they compare to
traditional off-line networking?
What are the tools and sources of social media that professionals rely
on to make decisions?
Will social media change the business and practice of enterpriselevel operations?
The methodology for this study involved a mixed-methods approach
supported by quantitative data gathered via an online survey, which was
completed by 356 professionals. The survey included questions designed
to help the researchers better understand respondents’ perceptions of and
experiences with social media in support of their decision-making.
Following the survey process, in-depth telephone interviews were
conducted with 12 professionals using a semi-structured interview guide.
The researchers used an ethnographic research process to explore the role of
decision-making to better understand the survey results in context.
The demographics of the respondents included:
•
•
•
23 percent) of respondents identified themselves as CEO of their
organization; 50 percent as “Director” (24 percent) “Manager” (24
percent)
Company size ranged from less than 100 to more than 50,000 fulltime employees
The age of the respondents was well distributed, with the greatest
proportion in the 36- to 45-year range
•
•
25 countries were represented, with 58 percent of respondents living
in the U.S.
All respondents were either the decision-makers or influenced the
decision process within their companies or business units
Key findings of the study included:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Professionals tend to belong to multiple social networks for business
purposes
The “Big Three” social networks, LinkedIn, Facebook and Twitter,
have emerged as professional networks
Mobile is emerging as a frequent professional networking access
point
Traditional decision-making processes are being disrupted by social
media
Professional networks are an increasingly essential decision-support
tool
High levels of trust exist in information obtained from online
networks
Changes are taking place in organizations’ internal and external use
of social media
There is a recognized need for peer input in decision-making.
Connecting and collaborating are key drivers for professionals’ use
of social media.
Additional findings included:
•
•
•
Final decision makers are more likely to indicate that they conduct
research via a search engine (82 percent vs. 70 percent of decision
supporters)
Those professionals with more networks are more likely to gather
opinions through their online network, read blogs and query the
Twitter channel as early steps in the decision process
Younger respondents are more likely to read a company blog and to
query the Twitter channel vs. older demographics
What Does All This Mean?
Social Media Peer Groups (SMPG) have changed the way we do
business as professionals (customers, partners, prospects, and employees).
We use social media as a platform for discussion of ideas, experiences, and
knowledge-exchange.
As we enter the era of business-to-person (B2P) customer relationship
systems, those organizations that harness Web 2.0 technologies and SMPG
platforms to enable B2P communications will be the winners. Laggards
who do not understand the value of social networking and its appeal
to the emotional side of customer relationship management will lose
competitiveness and, ultimately, market share. Perhaps most importantly,
they will lose the ability to connect and learn from their customers.
Professional networks and business-focused online communities are
becoming the new strategic mandate. Effective customer relationships are
the core to any successful organization, and the strength of any organization
is largely dependent upon the company’s ability to deliver the right products
and services to its customers in a timely way. Knowing what customers want
and understanding their current and future needs is paramount to increasing
revenue and exceeding customer expectations.
Online communities provide a prime opportunity for organizations to
get to know their customers more intimately and keep the finger on the pulse
of their needs and behaviors. The time is now for companies to embrace
communities to help them serve their clients better, faster, and in more costefficient ways. Through the use of online professional networks, companies
now have an opportunity to forge a dialogue with their customers actively
throughout the lifecycle—not just at the point of sale—to learn what they like
and don’t like about a product or service.
There is nothing more dangerous to an organization’s lifeblood than a
group of dissatisfied customers. Yet, oftentimes, an organization may not
even be aware of clients’ issues until they have incurred reputation damage
or a trending loss in revenue. By cultivating meaningful relationships online,
product development leaders can work with clients to share roadmaps and
plans collaboration—and to get early input from the people who would be
their buyers at a later stage. Marketing can learn what messages are most
effective with their constituents and have greater opportunities to educate
and inform the customer, not just with shiny whitepapers and marketing
newsletters, but by bringing them into the discussion and process of product
and content co-creation. Professional networks also offer opportunities to
make heroes out of users, enabling them to share best practice and learn
first-hand from each other. This is especially effective with enterprise-level
support when the key buyer is a C-level executive: Information-sharing could
result in strategic growth opportunities for all involved.
The era of B2P marketing harnesses the new and deep connections
that are forming between customers, products, and their suppliers. SMPGs,
associations, and other social networks are now one of the most powerful
influencing mediums in the world.
The greatest opportunity business has is to engage in “collaborative
influence” via the immediacy of impact through social channels.
Great opportunities exist for many companies to engage with customers
in social networks to test, elicit and validate ideas through various forms
of “collaborative influence.” This can be an extremely powerful way to
capture insights to improve existing products or services and identify
needs to that support innovation and business opportunities. The move to
social or “collaborative influence” requires a shift in sales, marketing, and
development philosophy for many companies, however.
Further, it is clear from our research and experiences that challenges will
face many marketers and communicators who endeavor to manage or control
social media network content. Companies should be mindful that a primary
reason professionals participate in social networks is to collaborate not to be
sold to. Marketers should develop social media strategies that do not break
or breach the social contract that professionals have when working within
their social networks – by avoiding overt sales and marketing campaigns and
programs. This is not to say that professional networks can’t be leveraged
effectively for such purposes, but a shift in behavior is required. Those that
embrace transparency are the conversations that customers desire. Consider
for example, the power of a gated community for key decision-makers that
brings together customers of a product or service together with strategy
leaders from within the company. Together, innovation ideas can be tested
and explored with the customers and roadmaps built based on the actual
needs of the buyers.
No longer do companies need to guess what the decision-makers want,
or engage twice-removed customer research projects to find out what
the customer thinks. In trusted online environments where the audience
is vetted and the rules of engagement are clear, as is the case with most
professional networks and online communities for business, companies have
an opportunity to make informed decisions for the future- collaboratively
with the constituents that matter the most to them. The implementation of
collaborative influence strategies designed to interact with customers and
prospects will find better results in using social networks to effectively build
brand experience, opportunities for innovation, and sales opportunities.
Finally, this research suggests that many professionals are collaborating
more outside of their organizations as a result of social media than within
their organizations. This is a significant and sad realization for many
companies and executives who do not fully understand or appreciate the
value that can be derived via the adoption of social media tools and strategies
for internal use. Companies would be wise to embrace the desire and
expectations by their employees to collaborate by implementing social media
tools for internal (behind the firewall) purposes to enable greater connections
between employees, encourage sharing of practices and experiences, and
streamline communication.
Don Bulmer is a Research Fellow of The Society for New Communications
Research (SNCR) and Vice President of Global Communications at SAP
AG. As part of the global communications management team at SAP, Don is
responsible for leading the Industry and Influencer Relations organization,
which includes: IT Influencer Relations, Business Influencer Relations,
Global Customer Communities, and University Alliance programs. Don
has more than 15 years of multi-national experience leading awardwinning marketing, communication and business development programs
with measurable effect in accelerating the sales and competitive strength of
enterprise technology, Internet start-up, and professional service companies.
Don’s expertise includes designing multi-faceted marketing, communication,
and public relations programs to support the launch of companies and the
introduction of new products and services that have led to the creation and
redefinition of several multi-million and multi-billion dollar, third-party
validated market categories. Don joined SAP in 2001. He holds a B.A.
degree from the University of the Pacific and a Certificate of Professional
Development from The Wharton School at University of Pennsylvania. Don
also serves as a member of SNCR’s board of directors and was inducted into
the PR News Hall of Fame in 2009.
Vanessa DiMauro is Research Fellow of the Society of New Communications
Research and the CEO of Leader Networks. A pioneer in business-tobusiness community building, Vanessa has been creating successful online
communities and networks for more than fifteen years. Vanessa is a popular
speaker, researcher and author on the topics of online communities, social
and professional networking, and Web 2.0 for business. With a research
background, Vanessa takes the approach of a cultural anthropologist to
help businesses effectively use social media to get closer to their customers,
generate revenue, innovation, and tangible ROI. She has both founded and
run leading online professional communities, such as Cambridge Information
Network (CIN) for Cambridge Technology Partners, Computerworld
Executive Suite and CXO Systems’ Peer Visibility Network. She consults with
many organizations on Web 2.0 for business, and has a blue chip client list
that includes Cisco, Cognizant, EMC, LexisNexis, The Palladium Group, and
SAP. Vanessa also serves as an Executive-in-Residence at Babson College,
for the Olin School of Management. Women in Technology International
(WITI) named Vanessa DiMauro one of “Boston’s Most Influential Women in
Technology.” She holds both a B.A. and an M.A. from Boston College.
Acknowledgements
The Society for New Communications Research thanks its volunteer Fellows
for their work on this project and SAP and Leader Networks for their support
in making this study possible.
Key Findings From the 2009 Middleberg/
SNCR Survey of Media in the Wired World
By Jen McClure and Don Middleberg
There is no doubt that the advent of social media and citizen journalism
are affecting journalists, journalism, and the state of the media industry.
Through the use of social media and new communications tools and
technologies, news and information can be communicated more widely and
quickly and by more people than ever before. Meanwhile, old media and
communications business models are breaking down.
The 2nd Annual Middleberg/SNCR Survey of Media in the Wired
World examined the effect of new communications and social media tools
and technologies and the impact of citizen journalism on journalists and
journalism.
The Society for New Communications Research and Middleberg
Communications designed the research to examine how journalists are
adopting these new tools and technologies and their attitudes about how
social media and citizen journalism are affecting their profession.
Research Goals
The research included an examination of:
•
•
•
•
The impact of new media and communications tools on the way
journalists work
Which online resources and social media are considered the most
valuable tools and how they are being used by journalists
The frequency of use and preferences for a variety new media and
communications tools and technologies
Attitudes of journalists toward the impact and value of these new
tools and trends on journalism
Another goal of the study was to provide insights as to how the public
relations profession can understand these changes in order to work more
effectively with journalists, and provide more value to the journalistic
community.
Research Methodology
The study was conducted via a Web-based survey created by SNCR/
Middleberg research team in conjunction with the assistance of the
University of Massachusetts Dartmouth.
The survey instrument included 4-point ordinal scales to capture data on
journalists’ use of and opinions about their use of new communications and
social media tools and technologies and citizen journalism in order to gain
insight into how journalism is evolving. The survey was conducted between
July 2009 and October 2009, and received responses from 341 journalists,
resulting in a 95 percent confidence ratio. In addition, the researchers spoke
with dozens of journalists about their perceptions and use of social media and
the future of journalism.
Sample
The survey sample included nearly 341 journalists from around the
world. The largest percentage of respondents – 54 percent – work in the
United States. More than 30 percent stated their role as editor (including
“online editor”); 38 percent were reporters (including freelance reporters);
others were producers and publishers. Nearly half of all respondents, 49
percent, work within newspaper or magazine organizations; more than 20
percent work for online media-only organizations; and 13 percent work for
broadcasters (i.e., radio and television).
Key Research Findings
While the 2008 study brought to light a striking disparity in adoption
rates and attitudes about the value of new communications and social media
technologies and citizen journalism between the youngest versus the older
journalists, the 2009 data shows explosive growth in the adoption of social
media tools and technologies across all data sets. According to the survey
responses:
Nearly 70 percent of journalists are using social networking sites, a 28%
increase since the 2008 study
•
•
•
•
•
48 percent are using Twitter or other microblogging sites and tools, a
25% increase since 2008
66 percent are using blogs
48 percent are using online video
25 percent are using podcasts
More than 90 percent of journalists agree that new media and
communications tools and technologies are enhancing journalism
Journalists responding to the survey also indicated that they are
beginning to embrace social media tools and citizen journalism as part
of their journalistic process. When asked to share their thoughts about
how social media is changing the profession of journalism, participating
journalists provided a wide range of responses.
One respondent answered, “Social media is changing the profession. It
has enhanced the dialog between audience and writer and expanded the scope
of those who can participate in disseminating news.” Hundreds of other
responses and interviews with journalists echoed this sentiment, But another
commented, “It is full of peril and promise,” and some research participants
indicated that they still viewed the rise of social media and citizen journalism
as a potential threat to traditional journalism, especially print journalism.
However, despite this ambivalence, 91 percent of respondents agreed
that new media and communications tools and technologies are enhancing
journalism. Journalists that participated in the study reported that they
are increasingly using social media to disseminate news, find story ideas
and sources, monitor sentiments and discussions, research individuals and
organizations, keep up on issues and topics of interest and participate in
conversations.
Additionally, journalists’ perception of the credibility of most social
media channels is increasing. Nearly 80 percent of respondents agreed
that new media and communications technologies allow them to report
with greater accuracy, and 80 percent of journalists believe that bloggers
have become important opinion shapers in the 21st century and many are
increasingly incorporating citizen-generated media into their reporting.
This study indicates that there is now a large and growing percentage of
journalists who view social media and the participation by the public in the
journalistic process to be a necessary, and in most cases, positive step in the
evolution of journalism, and they understand the future of journalism to be a
highly participatory, collaborative and dynamic process.
Jen McClure is the founder and president of the Society for New
Communications Research. Ms. McClure is a renowned expert in new media
and communications. Her career spans 25 years, and includes experience in
all facets of professional communications, including journalism, market and
media research, media relations, public relations, strategic communications,
print and online publishing and broadcast media. She is a graduate of Sarah
Lawrence College, holds a graduate certificate in History, Politics and
Society from Oxford University, and earned her masters degree at Stanford
University.
Don Middleberg is a Senior Fellow of the Society for New Communications
Research. He has more than 30 years in the communications business, and
agency became Euro RSCG Middleberg when it was acquired by Euro RSCG,
technology practice gave Don an early window to the Internet and led him
web’s long-range impact on public relations and corporate communications.
With Professor Steven Ross, formerly of the Columbia University Graduate
School of Journalism, Don initiated “The Middleberg/ Ross Media Survey.”
Don’s book, Winning PR in the Wired World, was published by McGraw Hill
in 2001 and remains required reading for communications majors at major
universities and professionals at Fortune 500 companies. Don has lectured
on PR for the American Advertising Federation, the Arthur Page Society, the
Financial Communications Society, the PRSA, Boston University, Cornell,
NYU and the Newhouse School. Don holds a bachelor’s degree in economics
and a master’s of business administration in marketing.
Acknowledgements
The Society for New Communications Research wishes to thank its Research
Chair Dr. Nora Ganim Barnes and Ava Lescault, assistant director and
senior research associate at the University of MA Dartmouth Center for
Marketing Research for their special and invaluable assistance.
SNCR also thanks Marketwire for its support in helping to make this study
possible.

Journal of New Communications Research

Transcription

Similar documents

Please join us on Facebook: www.facebook.com/einsteinaward

Act II August 2016 Community Newsletter

Cassie Delaney for BICs 22/o1/2016

How to Join Facebook

Franz Schubert Impromptus, Moments Musicaux, Klavierstücke for

ÿþM i c r o s o f t P o w e r P o i n t

RV Winter Cover Product Launch Offer 2012 25 Rousseau Avenue

advertising update

KICKS AND GEAR RUNS THIS KICKS AND GEAR