Population Briefs Vol. 21 no. 2

REPORTS ON POPULATION COUNCIL RESEARCH
Volume 21, Number 2
New Population Council analysis details HIV risks faced by adolescents in Tanzania. See page 2.
INSIDE
Understanding the Adolescent Experience in Tanzania.........................2
New Program Demonstrates Success in Reducing Gender-Based
Violence in Bangladesh............................................................................4
Effects of the New One-Year Reusable Nestorone®/Ethinyl Estradiol
Contraceptive Vaginal Ring on Risks of Vaginal Infection......................6
Estimating Population-Based Characteristics of People
Who Inject Drugs in Kenya ......................................................................8
September 2015
poverty, gender, and youth
Understanding the Adolescent Experience in Tanzania
In 2014, UNICEF and UNAIDS announced
an initiative to reduce the high levels of HIV
infection among adolescents in Tanzania. Although adolescent girls and boys (ages 10–19)
in Tanzania make up nearly a quarter (23
percent) of the country’s population, there was
a lack of evidence about adolescents, especially
younger girls. The Tanzania Commission for
AIDS (TACAIDS) and UNICEF-Tanzania commissioned the Population Council to analyze
multiple sources of data in order to better
understand the situation faced by adolescents.
The Council’s comprehensive analysis found
that while young people’s vulnerability to HIV is
widely acknowledged, programs to address the
risks they face are lacking.
“Reducing HIV among young people in
Tanzania requires bold action,” explains says
Kelly Hallman, Population Council Senior Associate and primary investigator on the analysis.
“But in order to create effective programs, we
need evidence.”
Population Council researchers conducted
a secondary analysis of data drawn from the
2010 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey,
the 2011–12 Tanzania HIV and Malaria Indicator Survey, and the 2009 Violence against Children in Tanzania Survey. To determine specific
vulnerabilities at national and regional levels
and in urban and rural areas, the researchers analyzed approximately 40 key indicators
related to knowledge, attitudes and behaviors,
and outcomes (including living arrangements,
school attendance, illiteracy, marriage, pregnancy, violence, and HIV) among females and
males ages 10–14, 15–19, and 20–24 years.
“Our objective was to provide fine-grained
details on what it means to be a young female
or male in Tanzania,” says Hallman. “We are
thrilled that program managers and policymakers are using this valuable information to
inform policy formulation, planning, monitoring, and evaluation of HIV and AIDS, child marriage, education, child protection, and social
protection programs.”
2
“Reducing HIV among young people in Tanzania
requires bold action. But in order to create
effective programs, we need evidence.”
—Kelly Hallman
Senior Associate, Population Council
Living locations and arrangements
The analysis revealed that the migration of
young people is substantial: while 80 percent of
adolescents ages 10–14 live in rural areas, that
proportion declines to 70 percent among young
adults ages 20–24. Rural–urban differences
are also seen in living arrangements: while 25
percent of girls and 20 percent of boys nationally live with neither parent, this is true for 50
percent of girls and 35 percent of boys ages
15–17 in urban areas. There are a number of
possible explanations for this difference. Girls
may migrate to urban areas to attend school or
seek employment (including domestic labor),
or they may move as a result of child marriage.
School attendance, literacy rates,
and child marriage
School attendance rates for young adolescents
are similar for boys and girls ages 10–12 (over
90 percent of young boys and girls attend
school), but girls, particularly in rural areas,
start to drop out at age 12, and the gender gap
in attendance widens as children age. By age 14,
only 66 percent of girls nationally attend school,
compared with 76 percent of boys. In urban
areas, girls are more than twice as likely as boys
ages 10–14 to be out of school and not living
with either parent (8 percent versus 3 percent).
Around 5–6 percent of girls are married by
age 15, and 31–37 percent by age 18. About 25
percent of married or cohabiting young women
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
ages 15–24 are living with partners at least 10
years older. Girls ages 15–17 from the poorest
households are more than twice as likely as girls
of the same age from the wealthiest households
to have ever been married. Married girls are
much less likely to continue their education: 58
percent of young women ages 15–24 who had
been married by age 15 were unable to read
a sentence, compared with 12 percent of their
unmarried peers.
Sexual activity and pregnancy rates
Approximately 50 percent of girls ages 20–24
had their first sexual encounter before the age of
18; boys reported initiating sexual activity later
in life. Researchers found that girls from the
wealthiest households were less likely to report
early pregnancy than girls from poorer households. Overall, 5 percent of girls age 15 have
been pregnant, while nearly all young women
aged 24 (91 percent) have been pregnant.
Violence against girls and women
Rates of physical and sexual violence, and the
acceptance of violence toward women and girls,
vary considerably by region in Tanzania. Thirty
percent of girls and 20 percent of boys ages
15–24 report that their first sexual experience
was forced. Ten percent of girls report that
they were hit or slapped during pregnancy.
Furthermore, more than half (55 percent) of
young women ages 15–24 agree with at least
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
The Government of Tanzania and several organizations are using the Council’s new report to shape programs
for young people.
one justification for wife beating, although this
rate is slightly lower among males of the same
age (50 percent). This is significant, because
acceptance of violence toward girls and women
early on can result in future violent physical and
sexual relationships.
Knowledge of HIV prevention and
use of modern contraception
The majority of adolescents in Tanzania have basic knowledge of HIV-prevention methods. Most
young people are aware that using condoms
and limiting the number of concurrent sexual
partners can reduce the risk of HIV transmission.
However, less than half of young people have
comprehensive HIV knowledge (for example,
knowing that a healthy-looking person can
have HIV), and more girls than boys know about
preventing mother-to-child HIV transmission.
In general, adolescents are aware of HIV
testing locations, but they may not have access
to testing. Older adolescents and those living in
urban areas are more likely to have been tested.
Although a relatively small proportion
of adolescents report having multiple sexual
partnerships, these partnerships are more typical among older adolescents and those living
in rural areas. Young people report low use of
condoms in both paid and unpaid premarital
sex. More girls than boys ages 15–17 reported
using a condom during premarital sex, but by
ages 20–24, men report greater condom use
than women. Additionally, 15 percent of males
ages 15–24 report paying for sex in the past 12
months, although less than half reported using
a condom when they last paid for sex.
Modern contraception use among girls,
especially in urban areas, is low; only 20 percent
of married girls and 30 percent of unmarried,
sexually active girls report using contraception.
More than half (60 percent) of young women
ages 15–24 who have ever been pregnant were
assisted by a health professional during their
most recent delivery.
Policy implications
The significant findings that have emerged
from this research can help guide government
policies and programs focused on adolescents in
Tanzania. The study authors point specifically
to findings related to child marriage, school reentry after dropout, pregnancy, and HIV testing
and counseling as areas where change is needed
in the government’s approach. Overall, there
is an urgent need to improve coordination in existing adolescent sexual and reproductive health
programs, and to create policies to address critical gaps in such programs.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
The Government of Tanzania and several
organizations are using these rich data to
shape programs for young people. The findings
and policy recommendations are being used
by: the Government of Tanzania, to design a
national cash-transfer program to keep children
in school and facilitate their re-entry if they
drop out; TACAIDS, for national and regional
planning and to identify topics for high-impact
interventions for adolescents; UNICEF, to form
its adolescent strategy in Tanzania; and the U.S.
Agency for International Development mission
in Tanzania to shape its activities for young
people. Tanzania is planned as a priority country for the US government’s new DREAMS (Determined, Resilient, AIDS-free, Mentored, and
Safe) initiative and the report is also being used
to inform decisionmaking for that program.
SOURCE
Population Council, Tanzania Commission for AIDS
(TACAIDS), Zanzibar AIDS Commission (ZAC), and
UNICEF-Tanzania. 2015. The Adolescent Experience
In-Depth: Using Data to Identify and Reach the Most
Vulnerable Young People, Tanzania 2009–2012. Dar
es Salaam: Population Council, TACAIDS, ZAC, and
UNICEF-Tanzania.
FUNDING
UNICEF Tanzania
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
3
poverty, gender, and youth
New Program Demonstrates Success in Reducing
Gender-Based Violence in Bangladesh
A new study by the Population Council and
the International Centre for Diarrhoeal
Disease Research, Bangladesh (icddr,b) found
that an innovative program in Bangladesh
has demonstrated a reduction in violence
against women and girls. The “Growing
Up Safe and Healthy” project, also known
as SAFE, sought to improve sexual and
reproductive health and reduce gender-based
violence among women living in urban
slums in Dhaka. The project ran from March
2012 to October 2013.
While it is illegal in Bangladesh for girls
under age 18 to marry, more than 60 percent
of Bangladeshi girls marry before they reach
this age. Girls married early are particularly
vulnerable to domestic violence, and legal
and policy reforms to address gender-based
violence have had limited impact. Research
shows that less than 2 percent of married
women in Bangladesh who have experienced
physical violence seek any kind of remedy or
service.
Young women and girls living in urban
slums experience the highest rates of violence
and poor sexual and reproductive health.
This is of particular concern in Dhaka, where
the slum population is growing rapidly as
young men and women migrate in search of
employment. These young people face poverty, insecure living arrangements, frequent
squatter evictions, weak social networks, the
absence of civic society institutions, the lack
of public services, and poor coordination
among services.
SAFE was created to address some of
the problems faced by young women and
girls living in slums. The project provided
access to health and legal services, interactive
sessions with men, young women, and girls,
and community-based awareness-raising
campaigns to determine what combination of
4
“Most notably, spousal violence against women and
girls dropped. Group sessions that included both men
and women seem to have been the key intervention.”
—Sajeda Amin
Senior Associate, Population Council
strategies, if any, would reduce violence faced
by women and girls in urban slums.
SAFE evaluation methods
The SAFE program’s rigorous evaluation
explored sexual and reproductive health,
gender-based violence, and marriage and
childbearing outcomes. Participating communities were randomly divided into three
intervention arms. Community campaign
activities and health and legal services were
present in all three arms. The difference was
the presence or absence of group sessions, and
the goal of the evaluation was to determine
the impact—if any—of including group
sessions as part of the program. Arm A
included sessions with men and women; Arm
B included sessions only with women; Arm C
had no group sessions. A baseline survey was
conducted before SAFE was launched, and an
endline survey was conducted following the
conclusion of the program.
Evaluation findings
SAFE increased awareness about women’s
sexual and reproductive health and rights,
gender-based violence, and rights and laws
regarding marriage and dowry. In addition, it
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
increased access to support services, including reproductive and maternal health and
legal services. In communities that included
group sessions with men, use of modern
contraceptives increased and the proportion of
marriages that involved dowry declined.
“Most notably, spousal violence against
women and girls dropped,” said lead Population Council researcher Sajeda Amin. “Group
sessions that included both men and women
seem to have been the key intervention. These
proved most effective at reducing inequitable
gender attitudes.” In fact, with respect to
economic violence (i.e., cases where women
were denied money, food, clothes, medicines,
etc.), violence increased when only women
participated in group sessions, but decreased
when men were included in the intervention.
Lessons learned and policy
implications
The evaluation identified several key factors
that can explain SAFE’s success:
•It is possible to improve sexual and reproductive health and reduce violence but, to
be successful, interventions must integrate
interactive group sessions, community
campaigns, and services.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
The findings of the SAFE project in the slums of Bangladesh demonstrated that community awareness-raising sessions
about gender equity that included both men and women were most effective at reducing gender-based violence.
• It is critical to target vulnerable women and
girls and especially to reduce their isolation and build their confidence through
group sessions and peer-support networks so
that they choose to seek help when they do
experience violence.
• Working with men will significantly improve
outcomes.
• Community campaigns are critical for
promoting awareness about sexual and
gender-based violence and improving
knowledge about laws and the availability of
legal services.
Future interventions that seek to improve
sexual and reproductive health and reduce
gender-based violence in urban slum settings
can use these findings to guide program development. In particular, successful interventions
should take an integrated approach, strengthen
informal (such as peer networks) and formal
(i.e., legal systems) support systems, and engage
men in order to alter gender norms and change
behaviors.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
SOURCE
Naved, Ruchira T. and Sajeda Amin. (Eds.). 2014. Impact of SAFE intervention on sexual and reproductive
health and rights and violence against women and
girls in Dhaka slums. Dhaka: icddr,b.
FUNDING
The Embassy of the Kingdom of the Netherlands,
DANIDA, and the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur
Foundation
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
5
REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Effects of the New One-Year Reusable Nestorone®/
Ethinyl Estradiol Contraceptive Vaginal Ring on Risks
of Vaginal Infection
A study by the Population Council and partners
has found that use of the Council’s investigational one-year reusable contraceptive vaginal
ring (CVR) does not increase the risk of vaginal
infections or disrupt the balance of microbes in
the vagina when it is used for up to 13 cycles.
Although past studies have examined the effects
of short-term contraceptive vaginal ring use on
risk of vaginal infection, this is the first study of
a CVR intended for a full year’s use.
The one-year reusable CVR contains
Nestorone® and ethinyl estradiol. Nestorone
(NES) is an investigational progestin that has
been shown in clinical studies to prevent ovulation and pregnancy. Ethinyl estradiol (EE) is
an approved, marketed, synthetic version of the
female hormone estrogen.
“We are very excited about this new contraceptive ring,” said Ruth Merkatz, PhD, RN,
Director of Clinical Development, Reproductive
Health, at the Council’s Center for Biomedical Research and corresponding author of
the study. “It can be inserted and removed by
the woman herself rather than by a specially
trained health care provider, it does not require
daily action, and it can be reused for a full year.
It has been designed so that refrigeration is not
required when it is not being used, which will
be important in many low-resource settings.”
Study design
To assess the microbiological safety of the new
CVR, the researchers looked for vaginal infections and changes in the balance of microbes
in the vagina during cyclic use of a single NES/
EE CVR for up to one year. This study, part of a
Phase III safety and efficacy trial of the NES/
EE CVR, took place at the Magee-Womens
Research Institute in Pittsburgh under the di-
6
Study findings
The researchers found
no substantial effects on
the vaginal ecosystem of
long-term repeated use
of the NES/EE CVR.
rection of Dr. Mitch Creinin, and was supported
by the National Institute of Child Health and
Human Development (NICHD) of the National
Institutes of Health. The study protocol was
approved by the Institutional Review Boards of
the NICHD Coordinating Center, the Population
Council, and the University of Pittsburgh.
120 women enrolled in the study. Participants were seen by the researchers seven times
throughout the study year and were interviewed
about any problems they may have encountered
with the ring. At three of the visits researchers
obtained vaginal swabs to measure vaginal
microflora and the presence of bacteria. At the
completion of the study, the ring surface was
swabbed and compared with the vaginal swab
sample to measure for the same organisms.
The researchers assessed the occurrence of
common vaginal infections, specifically bacterial vaginosis, trichomoniasis, and vulvovaginal candidiasis. They also evaluated changes in
vaginal microflora. It is normal for microorganisms to colonize the vagina. However,
changes in the amount and type of bacteria
present in the vagina may lead to infection.
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
Researchers found no significant changes in
the detection rate of vaginal infections between
baseline to Cycle 6 or between baseline to Cycle
13. In general, they found that the prevalence
of typical vaginal infections in the study population was comparable to the overall prevalence
of infections among women of reproductive age. Similarly, there were no significant
changes in the prevalence or concentration
of the microorganisms that were cultured at
baseline and at follow-up visits, i.e. Lactobacillus, Gardnerella vaginalis, Enterococcus
faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia
coli, Candida albicans or other yeast, all of
which remained at very low levels. Although the
prevalence of microbes called anaerobic gram
negative rods (GNRs) increased, the concentration remained very low. The researchers noted
that the presence of anaerobic GNRs can be
attributed to characteristics of individuals in a
study population, including younger age and
having a culture swab obtained within three
days after vaginal intercourse. Importantly,
the researchers found that the cultures they
took from the surface of the vaginal rings
were similar to the microbes in the vaginal
fluid, suggesting that the ring surface does not
promote proliferation of microorganisms that
cause infections.
Conclusion: The investigational CVR
poses no increased risk of vaginal
infections
The researchers found no substantial effects on
the vaginal ecosystem of long-term repeated
use of the NES/EE CVR for up to 13 cycles,
and no significant change in the incidence of
vaginal infections.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
The study findings suggest that the ring surface does not promote proliferation of microorganisms that
cause infections.
The researchers have confidence in their
findings because the study used a prospective
design to evaluate the effects of one-year use
of a single CVR. It also included assessments
of more microorganisms than have previously been investigated prospectively with
vaginal rings. Additionally, obtaining cultures
of the vaginal rings themselves had not been
described previously. The researchers recommend that future studies include women from
more diverse populations, specifically from
countries in sub-Saharan Africa and South
Asia where the unmet need for contraception remains high and vaginal infections are
prevalent.
“The results of this study will be valuable
in our efforts to gain regulatory approval
for this novel contraceptive that is under the
control of women. It has the potential to
be an important addition to the contraceptive method mix available to women,” said
Merkatz.
The Population Council has a long
history of developing long-acting, reversible
contraceptives to meet the growing worldwide
demand for modern family planning methods.
Council-developed contraceptive products
include the Copper T intrauterine device
(IUD), the levonorgestrel intrauterine system
known as Mirena®, and the implants Jadelle®
and Norplant®. Currently, 170 million women
worldwide are using a Council-developed
contraceptive.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
SOURCE
Huang, Yongmei, Ruth B. Merkatz, Sharon L. Hillier,
Kevin Roberts, Diana L. Blithe, Régine Sitruk-Ware,
and Mitchell D. Creinin. 2015. “Effects of a one
year reusable contraceptive vaginal ring on vaginal
microflora and the risk of vaginal infection: An openlabel prospective evaluation,” PLOS ONE 10(8):
e0134460. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0134460.
FUNDING
National Institute of Child Health and Human Development of the National Institutes of Health
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
7
HIV AND AIDS
Estimating Population-Based Characteristics of
People Who Inject Drugs in Kenya
A study of people who inject drugs in Kenya
has found a high prevalence of HIV infection
and high levels of risk behavior. This study,
the first to report population-based prevalence
of HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and
risk behaviors among people who inject drugs
in Kenya, was led by the Population Council
and conducted with researchers from the US
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/
Kenya (CDC), the Kenya National AIDS and
STI Control Programme (NASCOP), the Kenya
National AIDS Control Council (NACC), and
the University of California (San Francisco).
People who inject drugs are at very high
risk for HIV. Of the estimated 15.9 million
injection drug users globally in 2010, approximately one in five was HIV-positive. While the
majority of persons who inject drugs live in
Southeast and East Asia, the number of such
persons in sub-Saharan Africa is growing rapidly. This is of particular concern because of
African countries’ limited capacity to address
HIV infection.
Study methods
From January to March 2011, Population
Council researchers used respondent-driven
sampling to recruit study participants. They
selected a small group of individuals who
met a specific set of characteristics—men or
women aged 18 and older who reported injecting drugs in the previous 3 months, lived in or
around Nairobi, and were willing to provide
written informed consent. These people then
recruited their peers, who in turn recruited
additional peers, and so on. More than 350
individuals were recruited to the study; 269
participants were eligible.
Participants were interviewed by trained
nurse counselors about their HIV knowledge,
sexual risk and prevention behaviors, drug
use, HIV testing history, and experience with
violence and discrimination. HIV counseling
8
“This study has helped firmly establish the existence of an
HIV epidemic among people who inject drugs in Nairobi,
and confirms an extremely high HIV prevalence rate
among those who have ever shared injection syringes.”
—Scott Geibel
Senior Associate, Population Council
and testing was offered to participants who
elected to be tested, and participants were also
tested for sexually transmitted infections.
Characteristics of Kenya’s injection
drug using population
The study found that the median age of people
who inject drugs in Kenya is 31 years, a majority of whom are unmarried men who earn
money through informal or irregular employment. While almost half of the people who inject drugs began only recently, over 20 percent
had been doing so for over five years. Most
of this population also engages in high-risk
injection practices at least monthly, including
sharing syringes and other equipment. Over
half the population was not sexually active
in the last month, and the majority did not
engage in casual or commercial sex. Among
those who were sexually active, condom use
was rare and almost one-quarter of women
interviewed reported selling sex.
A majority of participants had previously been tested for HIV. Among people who
inject drugs, HIV prevalence was 18.7 percent,
compared to approximately 5.6 percent in the
general Kenyan population. Notably, the rate
among women who inject drugs was much
higher, at approximately 60.7 percent, a finding that is confirmed by other studies of people
who inject drugs in Africa.
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
“The high HIV prevalence among
women who inject drugs is very concerning.
The higher prevalence in women may be a
result of their having more high-risk sexual
partners and practices such as transactional
sex and their inability to negotiate condom
use with partners. They may also be more
likely to be injected by someone else with
an unsterile needle and syringe,” said lead
Council researcher Waimar Tun.
Study findings and implications for
future policies and programs
Because the finding in this study of an 18.7
percent HIV prevalence rate among injection
drug users matches prevalence rates found in
previous studies, the researchers concluded
that respondent-driven sampling is a reliable
method. The authors make several recommendations based on their results.
“This study has helped firmly establish
the existence of an HIV epidemic among
people who inject drugs in Nairobi, and
confirms an extremely high HIV prevalence
rate among those who have ever shared injection syringes,” said Council researcher Scott
Geibel. “This evidence base has also supported
and justified recent policy decisions in Kenya
facilitating the development of harm-reduction interventions, including needle and
syringe exchange programs.”
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
Recent Publications
The researchers contend that these
programs are particularly critical because
more than half of the sexually active men who
inject drugs had non-injecting female partners,
meaning that there is a high likelihood of the
HIV epidemic moving from the injection drug
using population to the general population,
potentially compromising efforts to reduce the
spread of HIV more broadly. The researchers
also recommend that prevention programs
should specifically target drug users who
recently began injecting, in order to establish
safer injection practices early on and ideally to
stop drug use while the habit is new.
Another recommendation responds to the
very high HIV prevalence rate the study found
among women who inject drugs. They call for
further research to better estimate the number
of women who inject drugs in Nairobi and to
identify their unique characteristics so prevention programs can be specifically targeted to
women.
The authors call for increased HIV testing
among people who inject drugs, pointing out
that at least one-quarter of HIV-positive individuals in this population did not know they
were infected. They caution that HIV prevention
programs must ensure that people who inject
drugs are not denied HIV treatment because of
stigma and discrimination.
Finally, the authors note that further research and evaluations are needed to determine
the effectiveness of harm-reduction efforts to
reduce the HIV prevalence rate in this highly
vulnerable population.
SOURCE
Tun, Waimar, Meredith Sheehy, Dita Broz, Jerry
Okal, Nicholas Muraguri, H. Fisher Raymond, Helgar
Musyoki, Andrea A. Kim, Mercy Muthui, and Scott
Geibel. 2015. “HIV and STI Prevalence and Injection Behaviors Among People Who Inject Drugs in
Nairobi: Results from a 2011 Bio-behavioral Study
Using Respondent-Driven Sampling,” AIDS Behavior
19:S24–S35. DOI 10.1007/s10461-014-0936-3.
FUNDING
The U.S. President’s Emergency Plan for AIDS Relief
through the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), through the Population Council’s cooperative agreement of Award No. 5U62PS224506
HIV AND AIDS
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Muraguri, Nicholas, Waimar Tun, Jerry Okal, Dita Broz,
H. Fisher Raymond, Timothy Kellogg, Sufia Dadabhai,
Helgar Musyoki, Meredith Sheehy, David Kuria, Reinhard Kaiser, and Scott Geibel. “HIV and STI prevalence
and risk factors among male sex workers and other men
who have sex with men in Nairobi, Kenya,” Journal of
Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes 68(1): 91–96.
Musyoki, Helgar, Timothy Kellogg, Scott Geibel, Nicholas
Muraguri, Jerry Okal, Waimar Tun, H. Fisher Raymond,
Sufia Dadabhai, Meredith Sheehy, and Andrea Kim.
“Prevalence of HIV, sexually transmitted infections, and
risk behaviors among female sex workers in Nairobi, Kenya: Results of a respondent driven sampling study,” AIDS
and Behavior 19(Suppl. 1): 46–58.
Parimi, Prabhakar, Sangram Kishor Patel, and Niranjan Saggurti. 2014. “Financial inclusion of marginalised
key populations in southern India,” Indian Journal of
Economics and Development 2(4): 98–102. Patel, Sangram Kishor. 2014. “Integration of HIV and
other health programmes: Implications and challenges,” International Journal of Medical Science and Public
Health 3(6): 643–648.
Population Council. “ARV-based HIV prevention for
women: State of the science and considerations for
implementation in Zimbabwe. Report from a provider
workshop.” New York: Population Council.
———. “Sexual and reproductive health and rights
among young people living with HIV in Uganda: Findings
from the Link Up baseline survey,” Link Up Research Brief.
Washington, DC: Population Council.
———. “Sexual and reproductive health among young
female sex workers in Bangladesh brothels—Baseline
findings from Link Up,” Study brief. Washington, DC:
Population Council.
Population Council and Alliance Burundaise contre le
Sida. “Burundi program implementation workshop, 3–5
June 2014: Link Up meeting report,” Activity brief. Washington, DC: Population Council.
Population Council, Miz-Hasab Research Center, and
Organization for Social Services for AIDS. “Experiences
with pregnancy among female sex workers in Ethiopia: A
Link Up exploratory study,” Study brief. Washington, DC:
Population Council.
Sadhu, Santhosh, Archana Rao Manukonda, Anthony
Reddy Yeruva, Sangram Kishor Patel, and Niranjan
Saggurti. 2014. “Role of a community-to-community
learning strategy in the institutionalization of community
mobilization among female sex workers in India,” PLoS
ONE 9(3): e90592.
Sahu, Damodar, Sowmya Ramesh, Ram Manohar
Mishra, K. Srikanth Reddy, Reena Bharadwaj, Niranjan
Saggurti, Arvind Pandey, Mandar Mainkar, and Bitra
George. “Are truckers being over stigmatized as HIV carriers in India? Evidences from behavioral and biological
cross-sectional surveys among clients of female sex workers,” Open Journal of Preventive Medicine 5(3): 85–91.
Saraswati, Lopamudra, Avina Sarna, Mary Philip
Sebastian, Vartika Sharma, Ira Madan, Ibou Thior,
Julie Pulerwitz, and Waimar Tun. “HIV, Hepatitis B and
C among people who inject drugs: High prevalence of HIV
and Hepatitis C RNA positive infections observed in Delhi,
India,” BMC Public Health 15(726).
continued
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
9
Recent Publications
continued
Sharma, Vartika, Avina Sarna, Stanley Luchters,
Mary Philip Sebastian, Olivier Degomme, Lopamudra
Saraswati, Ira Madan, Ibou Thior, and Waimar Tun.
“‘Women at risk’: The health and social vulnerabilities
of the regular female partners of men who inject drugs
in Delhi, India,” Culture, Health and Sexuality 17(5):
623–637.
Sharma, Varun, Niranjan Saggurti, and Shalini Bharat.
“Association between general media exposure and
sexual behavior among mobile female sex workers in
India,” International Journal of Communication and
Health 6: 60–68.
———. “Association between system reach and
exposure to interventions and characteristics of mobile
female sex workers in four high HIV prevalence states in
India,” Global Journal of Health Science 7(4): 83–95.
Tolley, Elizabeth E., Barbara Friedland, Mitzy Gafos,
K. Rivet Amico, Lut Van Damme, Cynthia Woodsong,
Kathleen M. MacQueen, Leila Mansoor, and Sheena McCormack. 2014. “Socioeconomic and behavioral factors
influencing choice, adherence and success of microbicide
formulations,” in Drug Delivery and Development of AntiHIV Microbicides, pp. 569–628.
Ugaonkar, Shweta, Asa Wesenberg, Jolanta Wilk,
Samantha Seidor, Olga Mizenina, Larisa Kizima,
Aixa Rodriguez, Shimin Zhang, Keith Levendosky,
Jessica Kenney, Meropi Aravantinou, Nina Derby,
Brooke Grasperge, Agegnehu Gettie, James F. Blanchard,
Narender Kumar, Kevin Roberts, Melissa Robbiani,
José Fernández-Romero, and Thomas Zydowsky. “A
novel intravaginal ring to prevent HIV-1, HSV-2, HPV, and
unintended pregnancy,” Journal of Controlled Release
213(10 September): 57–68.
POVERTY, GENDER, AND YOUTH
“Adolescent Girls Empowerment Program (AGEP): Program overview,” fact sheet. Lusaka: Population Council.
“Adolescent Girls Initiative—Kenya: Program overview,”
fact sheet. Nairobi: Population Council.
Bongaarts, John. “Fertility change: Quantum and
tempo,” in International Encyclopedia of the Social &
Behavioral Sciences (Second Edition), pp. 10–12.
———. “Global fertility and population trends,” Seminars in Reproductive Medicine 33(01): 005–010.
Bongaarts, John and Christophe Z. Guilmoto. “How
many more missing women? Excess female mortality
and prenatal sex selection, 1970–2050,” Population and
Development Review 41(2): 241–269.
———. “How many more missing women? [Correspondence],” The Lancet 386(9992): 427.
Bruce, Judith and Annabel Erulkar. “A short history of the long struggle to identify and eliminate child
marriage: Amhara, Ethiopia as a case study,” in Global
Institutions, pp. 318–331. London: Routledge.
Building Assets Toolkit: Developing Positive Benchmarks
for Adolescent Girls. New York: Population Council.
Haberland, Nicole and Debbie Rogow. “iMatter:
Teaching about puberty, gender, and fairness.” New York:
Population Council.
Hallman, Kelly and Adam Weiner. “Participatory tools
to capture qualitative aspects of adolescent girl programs: Tanzania 2015.” New York: Population Council.
Hallman, Kelly, Ilan Cerna-Turoff, and Neema Matee.
“Participatory research results from training with the
Mabinti Tushike Hatamu out-of-school girls program:
Tanzania 2015.” New York: Population Council.
10
Jejeebhoy, Shireen, Rajib Acharya, Sharmistha
Basu, and A.J. Francis Zavier. “Addressing genderbiased sex selection in Haryana, India: Promising approaches.” New Delhi: Population Council.
Jejeebhoy, Shireen, Sharmistha Basu, Rajib Acharya, and A.J. Francis Zavier. “Gender-biased sex selection in India: A review of the situation and interventions
to counter the practice.” New Delhi: Population Council.
Population Council. “Curriculum on adolescent-friendly
health services and health voucher mechanisms: Facilitator’s training manual.” Lusaka: Population Council.
———. “Gender-biased sex selection in South Asia:
The situation and promising approaches to restore balance,” Project Summary. New Delhi: Population Council.
———. 2014. “Nutrition education curriculum for the
Adolescent Girls Empowerment Program (AGEP).” Lusaka: Population Council.
Population Council and UNICEF Belize. “The adolescent experience in-depth: Using data to identify and
reach the most vulnerable young people—Belize 2011.”
New York: Population Council. Psaki, Stephanie. 2014. “Addressing early marriage
and adolescent pregnancy as a barrier to gender parity
and equality in education,” Background Paper for the
2015 UNESCO Education for All Global Monitoring Report. New York: Population Council.
Puri, Mahesh and Anand Tamang. “Assessment of interventions on sex-selection in Nepal: Literature review.”
Kathmandu: CREHPA. ———. “Understanding factors influencing adverse
sex ratios at birth and exploring what works to achieve
balance: The situation in selected districts of Nepal.”
Kathmandu: CREHPA. Santhya, K.G., A.J. Francis Zavier, and Shireen
Jejeebhoy. “School quality and its association with
agency and academic achievements in girls and boys in
secondary schools: Evidence from Bihar, India,” International Journal of Educational Development 41: 35–46.
Sathar, Zeba, Gul Rashida, Sabahat Hussain, and
Anushe Hassan. “Evidence of son preference and resulting demographic and health outcomes in Pakistan.”
Islambad: Population Council.
“Urban Adolescents’ Needs Assessment Survey in Bangladesh,” Brief. Dhaka: BIED, BRACU, and Population
Council. REPRODUCTIVE HEALTH
Abuya, Timothy, Charlotte E. Warren, Nora Miller,
Rebecca Njuki, Charity Ndwiga, Alice Maranga, Faith
Mbehero, Anne Njeru, and Benjamin Bellows. “Exploring the prevalence of disrespect and abuse during childbirth in Kenya,” PLoS ONE 10(4): e0123606.
African Population and Health Research Center (APHRC).
2014. “Population and health dynamics in Nairobi’s informal settlements: Report of the Nairobi Cross-sectional
Slums Survey (NCSS 2012).” Nairobi: APHRC.
Ashfaq, Seemin and Maqsood Sadiq. “Engaging the
missing link: Evidence from FALAH for involving men in
family planning in Pakistan,” Case Study. Washington,
DC: Population Council, The Evidence Project.
Bellows, Benjamin, Rachel Bach, Zoe Baker, and
Charlotte E. Warren. 2014. “Barriers to obstetric
fistula treatment in low-income countries: A systematic
review.” Nairobi: Population Council. P O P U L AT I O N B R I E F S 2 1 ( 2 ) S E P T E M B E R 2 015
Bellows, Nicole M., Ian Askew, and Benjamin Bellows. “Review of performance-based incentives in
community-based family planning programmes,” Journal
of Family Planning and Reproductive Health Care 41(2):
146–151.
Berdichevsky, Karla, Claudia Díaz, Katharine McCarthy, and Ann K. Blanc. 2014. “Validating indicators
of the quality of maternal health care: Final report,
Mexico.” Mexico City: Population Council.
Bin Nisar, Yasir, Michael J. Dibley, and Ali M. Mir.
“Factors associated with non-use of antenatal iron and
folic acid supplements among Pakistani women: A cross
sectional household survey,” BMC Pregnancy and Childbirth 14(305).
Bintou Mbow, Fatou, Babacar Mane, and Saumya
RamaRao. “L’offre des anneux vaginaux contraceptifs—
La planification familiale postpartum: experience du
Sénégal.” Dakar: Population Council. Birungi, Harriet, Chi-Chi Undie, Ian MacKenzie, Anne
Katahoire, Francis Obare, and Patricia Machawira.
“Education sector response to early and unintended
pregnancy: A review of country experiences in subSaharan Africa,” Research Report, July 2015. Nairobi:
Population Council. Brody, Carinne D., John M. Irige, and Benjamin Bellows. “Burnout at the frontline: The effect of a reproductive health voucher program on health workers in
Uganda,” International Archives of Nursing and Health
Care 1(1).
Chattopadhyay, Ishita, John Townsend, and Saumya RamaRao. “An innovative financing model for the
progesterone contraceptive vaginal ring through voucher
programs.” Washington, DC: Population Council.
———. “Offering progesterone contraceptive vaginal
rings for postpartum women through integrated family
planning and immunization services.” Washington, DC:
Population Council. ———. “Utilizing social marketing and social franchising models to expand access to the progesterone
contraceptive vaginal ring.” Washington, DC: Population
Council. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings,” Project brief.
New York: Population Council. Diop, Nafissatou and Ibrahima Diagne. 2014. “Facteurs
associés aux longs intervalles intergénésiques au Sénégal. Analyse approfondie de l’EDS-MICS 2010-2011,”African Population Studies 28(3): 1324–1331.
Dixit, Anvita, M.E. Khan, and Isha Bhatnagar. “Mainstreaming of emergency contraception pill in India: Challenges and opportunities,” Indian Journal of Community
Medicine 40(1): 49–55.
Esantsi, Selina F., Francis Onyango, Gloria Quansah
Asare, Emmanuel Kuffour, Placide Tapsoba, Harriet
Birungi, and Ian Askew. “Understanding the reproductive health needs of adolescents in selected slums in
Ghana: A public health assessment,” STEP UP Research
Report, March 2015. Nairobi: Population Council.
Gao, Ying, Dolores D. Mruk, and C. Yan Cheng. “Sertoli cells are the target of environmental toxicants in the
testis—A mechanistic and therapeutic insight,” Expert
Opinion on Therapeutic Targets 19(8): 1073–1090.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
Hardee, Karen, Shannon Harris, Mariela Rodriguez, Jan
Kumar, Lynn Bakamjian, Karen Newman, and Win Brown.
2014. “Achieving the goal of the London Summit on family planning by adhering to voluntary, rights-based family
planning: What can we learn from past experiences with
coercion?” International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health 40(4): 206–214.
Hazra, Avishek and Sandip Chakraborty. “Reproductive
health of married young women in the context of HIV/AIDS
in India,” Indian Journal of Public Health Research and Development 6(2): 230–236.
Hazra, Avishek, M.E. Khan, and Subrato Mondal. 2014.
“Mobile phone messaging as an innovative approach to involve men to stimulate discussion and change family health
behaviors,” Technical Report. FHI360: Washington, DC. Juma, Milka, Jane Alaii, Ian Askew, L. Kay Bartholomew,
and Bart van den Borne. “Community perspectives on parental/caregiver communication on reproductive health and
HIV with adolescent orphans and non-orphans in western
Kenya,” Journal of Child and Adolescent Behaviour 3(3).
Keya, Kaji T., Ubaidur Rob, Md. Moshiur Rahman,
Ashish Bajracharya, and Benjamin Bellows. 2014.
“Distance, transportation cost, and mode of transport in the
utilization of facility-based maternity services: Evidence from
rural Bangladesh,” International Quarterly of Community
Health Education 35(1): 37–51.
Khan, M.E., Anvita Dixit, Jaleel Ahmad, and G. Pillai.
“Introduction of DMPA in public facilities of Uttar Pradesh
and Rajasthan: An evaluation,” Project brief. New Delhi:
Population Council.
Khan, M.E., Praween Kumar Agrawal, Kumudha Aruldas,
and Subrato Mondal. 2014. Training Manual on Monitoring
and Evaluation of Social and Behavior Change Communication Health Programs. New Delhi: IHBP. FHI, and Population
Council.
Kimani, James Kelly, Remare Ettarh, Charlotte E.
Warren, and Benjamin Bellows. 2014. “Determinants
of health insurance ownership among women in Kenya:
Evidence from the 2008–09 Kenya Demographic and Health
Survey,” International Journal for Equity in Health 13(27).
Li, Nan, Dolores D. Mruk, and C. Yan Cheng. “Actin binding proteins in blood–testis barrier function,” Current Opinion in Endocrinology, Diabetes and Obesity 22(3): 238–247.
Li, Nan, Dolores D. Mruk, Chris K.C. Wong, Daishu Han,
Will M. Lee, and C. Yan Cheng. “Formin 1 regulates ectoplasmic specialization in the rat testis through its actin
nucleation and bundling activity,” Endocrinology 156(8):
2969–2983.
Liambila, Wilson, Saumya RamaRao, and Heather
Clark. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings: Review of
postpartum service packages in Kenya.” Nairobi: Population
Council.
———. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings—Task
shifting and task sharing in the delivery of family planning
services: Experiences from Kenya.” Nairobi: Population
Council.
Mane, Babacar, Nafissatou Diop, and Saumya RamaRao. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings—Task sharing in the delivery of family planning programs: Experiences
from Senegal.” Dakar: Population Council.
Manzini-Henwood, Cebile, Nokwanda Dlamini, and Francis
Obare. “School-based girls’ clubs as a means of addressing
sexual and gender-based violence in Swaziland,” BMC Proceedings 9(Suppl 4): A5.
McCarthy, Katharine, Saumya RamaRao, and Hannah
Taboada. “New dialogue for the way forward in maternal
health: Addressing market inefficiencies,” Maternal and
Child Health Journal 19(6): 1173–1178.
Mir, Ali M., Saleem Shaikh, Siti Nurul Qomariyah, Gul
Rashida, Mumraiz Khan, and Irfan Masood. “Using community informants to estimate maternal mortality in a rural
district in Pakistan: A feasibility study,” Journal of Pregnancy
2015 (Article ID 267923).
Mozumdar, Arupendra and Praween Kumar Agrawal.
“Prevalence, trends, and determinants of menopause in
India: NFHS 1992–93 to NFHS 2005–06,” American Journal
of Human Biology 27(3): 421–425.
Mozumdar, Arupendra, Bhubon Mohan Das, and Subrata
Kumar Roy. 2014. “Life table analysis of a small sample of
Santal population living in a rural locality of West Bengal,
India,” Anthropological Review 77(2): 233–248.
Njuki, Rebecca, Timothy Abuya, James Kelly Kimani,
Lucy Kanya, Allan Korongo, Piet Bracke, Benjamin Bellows, and Charlotte E. Warren. “Does a voucher program
improve reproductive health service delivery and access in
Kenya?” BMC Health Services Research 15(206).
Powell-Jackson, Timothy, Rajib Acharya, Veronique Filippi,
and Carine Ronsmans. “Delivering medical abortion at scale:
A study of the retail market for medical abortion in Madhya
Pradesh, India,” PLoS ONE 10(3).
“Proceedings of the 1st Washington, DC Meeting of the
Africa Regional Sexual and Gender-Based Violence Network,
2013,” BMC Proceedings 9(Suppl 4).
“Progesterone contraceptive vaginal ring: Prevents pregnancy,” fact sheet. New York: Population Council.
“Progesterone contraceptive vaginal ring: Safe for mothers
and babies,” fact sheet. New York: Population Council.
“The RAISE Health initiative for workers, companies, and
communities,” Activity Brief. Washington, DC: The Evidence
Project.
RamaRao, Saumya and Anrudh K. Jain. “Family planning
initiatives must focus on people, not numbers,” RH Reality
Check, 8 April.
“Respectful Maternity Care Resource Package.” New York:
Population Council.
Sandberg, Kathryn, Jason Umans, and Georgetown
Consensus Conference Work Group. “Recommendations
concerning the new U.S. National Institutes of Health initiative to balance the sex of cells and animals in preclinical
research,” The FASEB Journal 29(5): 1646–1652.
Sitruk-Ware, Régine and Anita Nath. “Applying emerging science to contraception research: Implications for the
clinic,” Expert Review of Endocrinology and Metabolism
10(1): 115–126.
“Strengthening the role of patent medicine vendors in the
provision of injectable contraception in Nigeria,” Activity
Brief. Washington, DC: The Evidence Project.
Talukder, Md. Noorunnabi, Ubaidur Rob, and Forhana
Rahman Noor. 2014. “Assessment of sex selection in Bangladesh.” Dhaka: Population Council.
Talukder, Md. Noorunnabi, Ubaidur Rob, Syed Abu Jafar
Md. Musa, Ashish Bajracharya, Kaji T. Keya, Forhana
Rahman Noor, Eshita Jahan, Md. Irfan Hossain, Jyotirmoy Saha, and Benjamin Bellows. 2014. “Evaluation of
the impact of the voucher program for improving maternal
health behavior and status in Bangladesh,” Final Report.
Dhaka: Population Council.
Undie, Chi-Chi, Harriet Birungi, and Ian Askew.
“’Changing the World’: The Africa Regional Sexual and
Gender-Based Violence Network,” BMC Proceedings 9(Suppl
4): A1.
Undie, Chi-Chi, Catherine Maternowska, Margaret
Mak’anyengo, and Ian Askew. “What women think: Hypothetical notions of screening for intimate partner violence in
Kenyan hospital settings,” BMC Proceedings 9(Suppl 4): A6.
Unumeri, Godwin and Salisu Mohammed Ishaku. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings: Review of postpartum
and postnatal care programs in Nigeria.” Abuja: Population
Council. ———. “Delivering contraceptive vaginal rings—Task
sharing policies and practices in the delivery of family planning services: Experiences from Nigeria.” Abuja: Population
Council.
“Utilization of national health insurance for family planning and reproductive health services by the urban poor in
Uttar Pradesh, India,” Activity Brief. Washington, DC: The
Evidence Project.
Walugembe, David Roger, Suzanne N. Kiwanuka, Joseph
K.B. Matovu, Elizeus Rutebemberwa, and Laura Reichenbach. “Utilization of research findings for health policy
making and practice: Evidence from three case studies in
Bangladesh,” Health Research Policy and Systems 13(1): 26.
Warren, Charlotte E., Timothy Abuya, Lucy Kanya,
Francis Obare, Rebecca Njuki, and Marleen Temmerman.
“A cross sectional comparison of postnatal care quality in
facilities participating in a maternal health voucher program
versus non-voucher facilities in Kenya,” BMC Pregnancy and
Childbirth 15(153).
Warren, Charlotte E., James Kelly Kimani, Jackline
Kivunaga, Brian Mdawida, Charity Ndwiga, Katharine
McCarthy, and Ann K. Blanc. 2014. “Validating indicators
of the quality of maternal health care: Final report, Kenya.”
Nairobi: Population Council.
Watt, Claire, Timothy Abuya, Charlotte E. Warren, Lucy
Kanya, and Benjamin Bellows. “Can reproductive health
voucher programs improve quality of postnatal care? A
quasi-experimental evaluation of Kenya’s Safe Motherhood
voucher scheme,” PLoS ONE 10(4): e0122828.
Yasmin, Reena, Ubaidur Rob, Ismat Ara Hena, Tapash
Ranjan Das, and Farid Uddin Ahmed. “Increasing access to
safe menstrual regulation services in Bangladesh by offering
medical menstrual regulation,” Reproductive Health Matters
22(44, Suppl. 1): 67–74. Yavinsky, Rachel Winnik , Carolyn Lamere, Kristen P.
Patterson, and Jason Bremner. “The impact of population,
health, and environment projects: A synthesis of evidence.”
Washington, DC: Population Council.
OTHER
“Biomedical research at the Population Council,”
Momentum, May 2015. Fertility Transition: A Selection from Population and
Development Review. New York: Population Council.
“From Research into Policy and Practice: Annual Report,
2014.” New York: Population Council.
Population and Development Review 41(2).
Studies in Family Planning 46(2).
Publications are by Population Council staff members, consultants, or staff from partner organizations. Year of publication is 2015 unless otherwise noted. Names in boldface are staff
members, consultants, or those seconded from partner organizations.
popcouncil.org/popbriefs
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The SAFE project increased awareness among people
living in slums in Dhaka, Bangladesh about women’s sexual
and reproductive health and rights, and reduced intimate
partner violence. See page 4.