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2010
Vol. 22. No. 3–4
© Copyright by Wydawnictwo Adam Marszałek
Toruń 2010
ISSN 1732-6729
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CONTENTS
Contents
Stanisław Juszczyk
Editor’s Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
SOCIAL PEDAGOGY
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
Cultural Transmission at School. Previous Experiences – Typical
Symptoms of Educational Practice – Suggested Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bożena Matyjas
Ways of Spending Leisure Time by Young People from Rural Areas.
Empirical study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ingrid Emmerová
The Social Pedagogue at School and their Cooperation with Teachers
in the Slovak Republic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jolana Hroncová
Social Pedagogy in the Slovak Republic in Theory and Practice –
Genesis and Present State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Peter Jusko
Selected Educational, Scientific-Research and Inter-Profession
Reflections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Enikő Albert-Lőrincz, Márton Albert-Lőrincz, Annamária Kádár, Tímea
Krizbai, Réka Lukács-Márton
Flow and Anti-Flow as Predictive and Protective Factors in the Life
of Adolescents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Éva Szolár
The Implementation of Two-Cycle Degree Structure in Hungary . . . . . . . .
17
29
43
55
67
81
93
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Contents
TECHNOLOGY OF EDUCATION
José Ignacio Aguaded Gómez, Eloy López Meneses, Laura Alonso Díaz
Innovating with Blogs in University Courses: a Qualitative Study . . . . . . . 103
Emre Ünal
An Analysis of the Reading Attitudes of Elementary School Fourth and
Fifth Grade Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Janaina Minelli de Oliveira,Eliana E Gallardo Echenique,Oscar Daniel Gómez
Cruz,Ferley Ramos Geliz
Games, Gaming and Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Libuše Hrabí
The Text Difficulty in some Czech Natural Science Textbooks . . . . . . . . . . 143
Alena Seberová, Martin Malčík
Meta-Evaluation and Quality Standard of the Final Evaluation Report . . 149
Roman Vala, Marie Valová, Martina Litschmannová, Hana Klimtová
Sprinting Abilities of Year Six Students Undergoing Additional Physical
Education Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Beata Mazepa-Domagała
From the Issues of Perception of Visual Images in Connection with
a Text by the Child at the Pre-Reading Age. Valorisation of Visual
Images Expressed in the Form of Book Illustrations in the Subjective
Perspective of a Child Recipient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
PEDEUTOLOGY
Soňa Kariková
Reflections on the Teaching Profession Over the Last Thirty-Five
Years . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Rafał Piwowarski
Preconditions for Effective Teaching (in the Light of Data from the
TALIS 2008 Project – Polish Perspective) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Kourosh Fathi Vajargah
Conceptualization of Needs Based Curriculum Leadership: Scenarios
and Possibilities for Curriculum System of Iran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec,
Perceived Expectations of Prospective Teachers Regarding Their
Career Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
189
205
219
237
Contents
5
Ferit Kılıçkaya, Jarosław Krajka
Language Teachers’ Views and Suggestions on the Central Teacher
Selection and Recruitment Exam in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Beata Pituła, Małgorzata Kitlińska-Król
Teachers’ Personal Qualities as the Determinants of Their Empathetic
Abilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Dorota Turska, Ryszarda Ewa Bernacka
Maths Lessons – Are They Gender Neutral in the Polish Perspective?
Report on the Third Stage of Research . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
EARLY SCHOOL PEDAGOGY
Małgorzata Cywińska
Conflict Situations among Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Kamil İşeri
Evaluation of the Writing Disposition of Elementary School Sixth
Grade Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
ANDRAGOGY
Aleksander Kobylarek
Integration of Elderly Citizens through Learning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Viera Prusáková
The Andragogical Base for the Analysis of Educational Needs . . . . . . . . . . 315
SPECIAL PEDAGOGY
Šárka Portešová
Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness in Educational
Context: Present State of Research and Situation in Czech Schools . . . . . . 333
PEDAGOGY OF HEALTH
Mirosław Kowalski
Television as a Health Value Carrier. World of Illusion – World without
Health? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
CHOSEN ASPECTS OF PSYCHOLOGY
Grażyna Mendecka
Parents or Peers – Controversy over the Dominant Role in Child
Nurture and Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
CONTRIBUTORS
Albert-Lőrincz
Enikő
Babes-Bolyai University, Sociology and
Social Work Department Cluj-Napoca,
Romania
Albert-Lőrincz
Márton
Department of Pedagogy, Sapientia –
Hungarian University of Transylvania,
Romania
Bernacka Ryszarda
Ewa (Ph.D)
Department of Psychology, Maria
Curie-Sklodowska University, Plac Litewski
5, 20-080 Lublin, Poland,
e-mail:
[email protected]
Cywińska
Małgorzata, (PhD
hab.)
Adam Mickiewicz University in Poznań
Faculty of Educational Studies,
ul. Szamarzewskiego 89, Poznań, Poland
e-mail:
[email protected]
Díaz Alonso Laura
(Dr.)
Department of Education Sciences.
University of Extremadura
Eliana E Gallardo
Echenique
Universitat Rovira y Virgilli, Spain
Emmerová Ingrid
(doc. PhDr. PhD.)
Department of Pedagogy, Pedagogical
Faculty, Matej Bel University, Ružová 13,
974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic
Gómez Aguaded
José Ignacio (Dr.)
Deputy Vice-Chancellor of Technology,
Innovation and Quality. University of
Huelva
Gómez Cruz Oscar
Daniel
Hrabí Libuše
(Doc. RNDr. Ph.D.) Department of biology
Educational faculty University of Olomouc
Czech Republic
e-mail:
[email protected]
Hroncová Jolana
(prof. PhDr. PhD.)
Department of Pedagogy, Pedagogical
Faculty, Matej Bel University, Ružová 13,
974 01 Banská Bystrica, Slovak Republic
e-mail:
[email protected]
İşeri Kamil
Nigde University, Faculty of Education
Department of Turkish Language Teaching
51100 Nigde/Turkey
e-mail:
[email protected]
e-mail:
[email protected]
8
Contributors
Jusko Peter (doc.
PaedDr. PhD.)
Department of Social Work, Pedagogical
e-mail:
Faculty, Matej Bel University, Vice-Dean for [email protected]
International Cooperation and Public
Relations, Ružová 13, 974 01 Banská
Bystrica, Slovak Republic
Jusko Peter (PhD.
doc. PaedDr.)
Pedagogická fakulta Univerzity Mateja Bela
Katedra sociálnej práce Banská Bystrica,
Slovenská Republika
Kádár Annamária
Babes-Bolyai University, Faculty of
Psychology and Educational Sciences,
Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Kariková Soňa
(Ph.D)
Matej Bel University, Faculty of Education,
Ružowá 13, 974 11 Banská Bystrica, Slovak
Republic
e-mail:
[email protected], tel.:
+421/48/436 42 21, fax:
+421/48/436 44 44
Kılıçkaya Ferit
Department of Foreign Language
Education, Faculty of Education, Middle
East Technical University, 06531 Ankara,
Turkey
e-mail:
[email protected],
[email protected]
Kitlińska-Król
Małgorzata (Ph.D)
University of Silesia Faculty of Pedagogy
and Psychology
Kobylarek
Aleksander (PhD)
Institute of Pedagogy, University of
Wrocław, Poland,
Kowalski Mirosław
(Ph.D, hab)
University of Zielona Gora, Faculty of
Education, Sociology and Health Sciences,
Poland.
Klimtová Hana
Katedra tělesné výchovy (Department of
Physical Education) Varenská 40a
Pedagogická fakulta Ostravská universita
v Ostravě Czech Republic
Krajka Jarosław
Institute of German Studies, Division of
Applied Linguistics, Maria CurieSklodowska University, Pl. M. CurieSklodowskiej 5, 20-031 Lublin, Poland
Krizbai Tímea
Department of Pedagogy, Sapientia –
Romania
Litschmannová
Martina
Katedra aplikované matematiky
(Department of Applied Mathematics) VŠB
– Technická univerzita Ostrava 17. listopadu
15, 708 33 Ostrava-Poruba, Czech Republic
Lukács-Márton Réka Department of Pedagogy, Sapientia –
Romania
e-mail:
[email protected], tel:
0042148/4364780
e-mail:
aleksander.kobylarek@gmail.
com
e-mail: [email protected]
Contributors
9
Malčík
Martin (Ph.D.
RNDr.)
Department of Education and Adult
Education University of Ostrava –
Pedagogical Faculty
e-mail:
[email protected]
Matyjas Bożena
(Prof.)
The Jan Kochanowski University of
Humanities and Sciences in Kielce
Mazepa-Domagała
Beata
and Psychology
Menese López Eloy
(Dr.)
Department of Education Sciences.
University of Pablo de Olavide
Mendecka Grażyna
(prof., Ph.D)
Institute of Psychology University of Silesia
Katowice
Minelli de Oliveira
Janaina (Ph.D)
Ogrodzka-Mazur
Ewa (prof. UŚ.
PhDr.)
University of Silesia Faculty of Ethnology
e-mail:
and Education Institute of Education 43-400 [email protected]
Cieszyn, ul. Bielska 62, Poland
Pituła Beata (Ph.D)
and Psychology
Piwowarski Rafal
(Ph.D., Prof.)
Faculty of Education (University in
Bialystok) and senior researcher at the
Institute for Educational Research in
Warsaw, ul. Mozarta 10 m 1116, 02–736
Warszawa, Poland
Portešová Šárka
Institute of Children, Youth and Family
research Masaryk University Joštova 10,
Brno 60200
Prusáková Viera
(prof. PhDr. PhD.)
Department of Andragogy, Pedagogical
e-mail:
Faculty, Matej Bel University, 974 01 Banská [email protected]
Bystrica, Ružová 13, Slovak Republic
Ramos Geliz Ferley
e-mail:
[email protected]
e-mail:
[email protected]
Seberová Alena
Department of Pedagogy of Primary and
e-mail:
(Mgr. et Mgr. Ph.D.) Alternative Education University of Ostrava [email protected]
– Pedagogical Faculty
Szolár Éva
Centre for Higher Education Research and
Development, University of Debrecen,
Hungary Romania, Oradea 410333, Str. Sf.
Apostol Andrei nr. 52, bl. PB 12/A, ap. 18
Turska Dorota (PhD. Department of Psychology, Maria Curie–
hab.)
Sklodowska University, Plac Litewski 5,
20-080 Lublin, Poland
Ünal Emre
e-mail:
[email protected]
Nigde University, Faculty of Education
e-mail:
Department of Elementary Education 51100 [email protected]
Nigde/TURKEY
Vajargah Fathi
Kourosh (Ph.D)
Curriculum Studies Shahid Beheshti
University, Tehran, Iran
Vala Roman
v Ostravě Czech Republic
Valová Marie
v Ostravě, Czech Republic
Vodopivec Lepičnik
Jurka (Ph.D.,Prof.)
Department of Preschool Education Faculty
of Education, University of Maribor
Koroška 160 Maribor 2000 Maribor,
Slovenia
e-mail:
[email protected]
e-mail:
[email protected],
tel.: +386 2 229-36-00
Fax: +386 2 229-37-60
Stanisław Juszczyk
Editor in Chief
Editor’s Preface
The last, double 3–4 number of The New Educational Review in 2010 is the
twenty second issue of our journal since the start of its foundation in 2003. In this
issue there are mainly papers from: Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary, Iran,
the Slovak Republic, Slovenia, Spain, Romania, and Turkey, because our journal is
open for presentation of scientific papers from all over the world.
In the present issue the Editor’s Board have proposed the following subject sessions: Social Pedagogy, Technology of Education, Pedeutology, Early School Pedagogy, Pedagogy of Health, Special Pedagogy, and Chosen Aspects of Psychology.
The subject session “Social Pedagogy” start with an article by Ewa OgrodzkaMazur, describing both culturation and socialization processes which enable young
learners’ rooting into a culture, as well as their acquiring a particular place in the
community. According to the author’s opinion these processes allow children
to “create” new, socially accepted values in the form of cultural products, which
entails the creation of a “new” quality of a particular group or a new culture of
society. Bożena Matyjas discusses the ways of spending leisure time by young
people from rural areas, taking into account its following aspects such as: the
amount of free time per day, leisure time activities, interests of the respondents,
free time companions, and the places of spending leisure time. Ingrid Emmerová
deals with the position of a social pedagogue at school in the Slovak Republic,
their roles and main spheres of cooperation with teachers. The paper by Jolana
Hroncová presents the development of social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic
from its beginning up to the present. In his work Peter Jusko tries to indicate
selected educational, scientific-research and inter-professional aspects of social
work autonomy in the university education of social workers in the Slovak
Republic. In the conclusions of the paper by Albert-Lőrincz Enikő, Albert-Lőrincz
Márton, Kádár Annamária, Krizbai Tímea and Lukács-Márton Réka we read that
teenagers find school as a boring place and they experienced anxiety there many
12
Stanisław Juszczyk
times. Èva Szolár describes the higher education reforms in Hungary under the
Bologna-umbrella process in a two-cycle degree structure.
In the subject session “Technology of Education” Jose Ignaccio Aguaded Gómez,
Eloy López Meness and Laura Alonso Díaz,by making pedagogical use of blogs in
the classroom, aimed to determine whether students appreciate the usefulness of
blogs in university courses, as a new social tool and technology applied in education. The studies conducted by Emre Űnal among elementary school fourth and
fifth grade students show that while they have a positive attitude to reading, there
are meaningful differences in their reading attitudes based on the schools they
attend, their gender and their regular reading habits, while their reading attitudes
based on grade levels and their parents’ level of education do not show a meaningful difference. According to Janaina Minelli de Oliveira video gaming is a pervasive
activity in the lives of teens in many parts of the world. Her article can contribute
to a better understanding of video games as cultural artifacts, indicative of the
technological and cognitive development of our society and a driving force for the
expansion of change. The paper by Libuše Hrabi is focused on text difficulty evaluation of six Czech natural sciences textbooks for the fifth grade and the obtained
results indicate that text difficulty is similar in four studied textbooks, edited by the
following publishing companies: Alter, Fortuna, Prodos and SPN. Alena Seberová
and Martin Malčik show the importance of meta-evaluation in securing the quality of evaluation processes, and its forms, in which it can be realised. The report
by Roman Vala, Marie Valová, Martina Litschmannová and Hana Klimontová
sums up the results of their research, carried out in the years 2000–2009, into the
sprinting abilities of year six male students (i.e., 11–12 years old) participating
in additional physical education classes. The research on the issue of the child’s
perception of visual images which constitute a vivid complement and clarification
of the contents of a printed text presented is Beata Mazepa-Domagała. She shows
basic assumptions of the strategy of recognizing the child’s receptive preferences
of book illustrations as well as the results of research related to valorisation of the
perceived picture realizations by the youngest recipients.
The subject session “Pedeutology” starts with an article by Soňa Kariková,
who compares research findings from the last thirty-five years with respect to
the relation to the teaching profession in the Slovak Republic. Preconditions for
effective teaching as the results of the empirical research carried out in 24 countries
among 90 thousands teachers from the Polish perspective can be found in the
article by Rafał Piwowarski. According to his opinion, the classroom climate and
the teachers’ sense of self-efficacy are the key variables. Kourosh Fathi Vajargah
identifies decision-making nature and qualities using different scenarios, their
Editor’s Preface
13
characteristics and their possibilities for the educational system of Iran. The perceived expectations of prospective preschool teachers on the appropriateness of
their career choice and their expectations regarding the acquired knowledge and
skills necessary for being able to practise their future profession can be found in
the article by Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec. Language teachers’ view and suggestions
on the central teacher selection and requirement exam in Turkey are presented
by Ferit Kiliçkaya and Jarosław Krajka. The findings indicate that the majority
of the participants have negative attitudes towards the exam and think that it is
not valid. Beata Pituła and Małgorzata Kitlińska-Król diagnose teachers’ personal
qualities as the determinants of their empathetic abilities. The basic factors, such
as analysis adaptation, retrieval, preference, ability to communicate ideas, tolerance and vulnerability have been applied in their research for individual didactic
efficiency analysis of the surveyed teachers. The purpose of the article by Dorota
Turska and Ryszarda Ewa Bernacka is to determine the behaviour of male and
female teachers of mathematics in the perception of Polish secondary school male
and female students.
In the subject session “Early School Pedagogy” Małgorzata Cywińska describes
conflict process among children at early school age. Special focus is placed on
the development potential of the destructive and constructive impact of conflict
situations on children’s life as well as the role performed by a teacher. Kamil Işeri
evaluates the writing disposition of sixth grade students from the perspective of
different variables.
In the subject session “Andragogy” Aleksander Kobylarek analyses the process of
elderly citizens integration through learning within the U3A model, which is very
complex, because it is composed of different elements. In her study Viera Prusaková
focuses on the andragogical theoretical basis for the analysis of educational needs,
taking into account career, social and cultural andragogy.
The subject session “Special Pedagogy” contains an article by Šárka Portešová,
who characterises the functioning of intellectually gifted learners with a handicap in the school environment. Special attention is focused on their social and
emotional characteristics, problems and risks that can prevent their exceptional
potential from real development.
In the subject session “Pedagogy of Health” Mirosław Kowalski writes that
television can be treated as a health value carrier. According to the author, health
is a factor that enters “cultural flexibility” as an element of cultural pressure, connected with concrete physical and psychological results.
The subject session “Chosen Aspects of Psychology” contains one article by
Grażyna Mendecka, who would like to answer the question: “Who plays a more
14
Stanisław Juszczyk
important role in child nurture: parents or peers? The presented discussion shows
that both groups are important and complementary to each other.
We hope that this edition, like the previous ones, will encourage new readers not
only from the Middle European countries to participate in an open international
discussion. On behalf of the Editors’ Board I would like to invite representatives
of different pedagogical sub-disciplines and related sciences to publish their texts
in The New Educational Review.
Social
Pedagogy
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
Poland
Cultural Transmission at School.
Previous Experiences – Typical Symptoms of Educational
Practice – Suggested Solutions
School is entering the culture, not merely preparing for it.
J. Bruner
In order to be a real participant in the world of culture, I need the culture of another person.
I cannot limit myself to allowing them to be different. I must somehow introduce their culture,
its values and truths into the sphere of my own thinking. I must undertake
an inner dialogue with this other culture and this different way of thinking.
This is not only tolerating something unlike but also understanding
that without this Other I cannot be myself.
V.S. Bibler
Abstract
The suggestion comprised in this study for bringing education closer to natural
conditions of cultural transmission may become an interesting pedagogical offer.
This proposal also involves abandoning the traditional ideology of cultural transmission, which reflects children’s development on the basis of the correlation of
their behaviour with particular cultural standards. The suggested offer assumes
that the processes of both culturation and (primary and secondary) socialization
enables learners’ rooting into a culture (the assimilation of the existing cultural
values), as well as their acquiring a particular place in the community. On the
other hand, owing to children’s subject-oriented self-fulfillment abilities, these
processes allow children to “create” new, socially accepted values in the form of
cultural products, which entails the creation of a “new” quality of a particular group
or a new culture of society.
18
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
Key words: school, multi – and intercultural education, cultural transmission,
educational practice.
Introduction: contemporary school as a “learning culture”
What seems to be emphasized in the current understanding of school and education is a particular role of culture, perceived “not only as the heritage, a universe
of mankind’s creative achievements, but with this term we define the humanistic
quality of man’s activity and lifestyle. Education is a way to making culture real,
first of all ‘the culture in people’. Thus, education and culture are interrelated –
education enlightens and culture differentiates, being also an ‘effect’ of education.
Owing to this, the unceasing process of developing the culture itself is taking place”
(Wojnar, 1996, p. 25; Lewowicki, 2004; Ogrodzka-Mazur, 2007).
According to J. Bruner’s concept, the acceptance of the thesis about culture as
the basic orientation of modern education results in defining school as a learning
culture. The basic task of such school is supporting children in learning how to
use tools in order to create meanings and in the adjustment to the world in which
they are situated, as well as in changing it due to the needs. Other fundamental
tasks of this school focus on shaping learners’ identity and self-esteem and on
enhancing chances for handling the world both at school and outside it (Bruner
1996, p. 69; Bruner 2006). Socio-cultural transformations occurring in Poland and
the birth of multicultural society and communities hinder (especially children’s)
“decoding” the multitude of meanings of the surrounding reality and forming
their own identity. Therefore, does modern early school education help children to
learn and understand the cultural heritage and, at the same time, to overcome the
myth that being tied to tradition (to well-consolidated for many centuries values
and norms of cultural behaviour) is a source of good and of children’s rooting into
the values which would become significant for the development of their identity
(Korzeniecka-Bondar, 2003)? Does it prepare learners for life and broadening their
views on the past, present and future with simultaneous abandoning the myth that
the best system of values is the one settled a priori by adults and which prefers “the
values of the departing generation”? Does education really involve a chance for supporting cultural variety and for protecting it – on the one hand, from globalization,
and on the other, from the discrimination of (ethnic, religious) minority groups, as
well as a chance for overcoming the myth that the Other is alien and hostile?
Cultural Transmission at School
19
Transmission of culture as an educational ideology – from school
transmission of culture to cultural transmission
Besides romanticism and progressivism, transmission of culture is one of the
oldest currents in the Western educational ideology which highlights the task of
passing to the present generation the knowledge, norms and values accumulated
in the past. In educational work, it is assumed that “the knowledge and values first
located in culture are later internalized by children through the imitation of adult
behaviour models or through direct education with the use of reinforcement and
punishment. […] The school of cultural transmission, oriented towards society,
emphasizes what is common and settled and focuses on the necessity to learn
through the subordination to social order” (Kohlberg, Mayer, 1993, p. 54). Even
though it is currently stressed that such an approach to cultural transmission
mainly reflects children’s development through the concordance of their behaviour
with particular cultural standards and does not refer to their personal knowledge
or experience, it is still the dominant (in the educational reality) transmission of
culture at school. In the opinion of D. Klus-Stańska, this transmission is based
on an attempt to “select out of the cultural heritage some of its elements in a particular form in order to present them as the only valid version of the description,
explanation and interpretation to be registered and consolidated” (Klus-Stańska,
2002, p. 77). In this way, teachers most frequently provide “ready” and unequivocal
information on cultural values, obtained mainly from school syllabuses and/or
course books. Cultural transmission implemented in such a way becomes a means
of symbolic violence towards learners through imposing meanings and the unified
interpretation on them (by instilling particular values in the consecutive generations). This gets special significance at the first educational stage, in which a substantial number of children – entering the system of organized and methodical
learning – experience a strong enculturation shock, determined by the difference
between the cultural systems (values) of family home and of their school.
Some other opportunities come with the cultural transmission which enables
the personal and social reconstruction of the existing culture by learners’ natural
rooting in the culture of the community. What occurs here is the creation of personal worlds within commonly shared meanings – a dialogue meeting with the
culture and the Other (Klus-Stańska, 2002, p. 77). The suggestion for bringing early
school pedagogy closer to natural conditions of cultural transmission may become
a valuable pedagogical offer which can find application in educational practice.
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
20
In search for the model (new models) of constructing knowledge
at school
Cultural contexts
I. Child – culture – education relation
In approaching the child – culture – education relation, early school pedagogy
applies (may apply) the cultural orientation, which links the sphere of culture with
values and personal self-development and which puts emphasis on the freedom
and self-declaration of the individual. According to this:
• the individual possesses certain independence towards culture, which
consists in the freedom of relating to it (outside or inside) and to the possible cultural determinism. Self-awareness is a form of this relating and this
freedom constitutes the specificity (the essence) of man;
• a specifically human way of existing is the orientation towards values as
elements of culture. Intuitively, the individual anticipates and concretizes
them, and the elements attract the individual. This is the freedom not
towards culture, but within culture (Jagoszewska, 1995, p. 26; Burszta, 2008;
Giddens, 2008).
In the suggested approach, what becomes important in early education are both
the processes of culturation and of (primary and secondary) socialization, which
enable learners’ rooting into a culture (assimilation of the existing cultural values),
as well as their acquiring a particular place in the community. On the other hand,
owing to the individual’s subject-oriented self-fulfillment abilities, these processes
allow children to “create” new, socially accepted values in the form of cultural
products, which entails the creation of a “new” quality of a particular group or of
the culture of society.
II. Creating the feeling of multidimensional cultural identity
Shaping the feeling of children’s multidimensional cultural identity in the individual and social perspective also constitutes their self-declaration, which they
must be able to develop in the process of gradual growing up and to reformulate
in the course of their whole life. The individual’s orientation developing in this
way in the surrounding cultural reality results in the system of “meanings” formulated by significant (for the individual) people in particular family, school and
out-of-school situations. At the same time, they become a source of various values
(their possible “readings”) and they develop the ability to evaluate the acquired
21
knowledge and experience. The sources of information about one’s own person
which might become the foundation for shaping the early school child’s sense of
identity in natural and constructed educational situations are, among other things,
the following:
• observation of one’s own behaviour and its consequences;
• observation of other people’s behaviour and comparing to these people;
• obtaining information directly from other people (other people’s opinions
about oneself);
• social categorizations associated with the awareness of belonging to particular social groups (categories) – e.g. family, school, peer group, region,
nation, Europe and the world;
• insight into one’s own personality.
III. Sensitizing to the Other and realizing the unlikeness of people from other
cultures – towards the modification of ethnic stereotypes and prejudices
Perception of the social world in late childhood involves learners’ already
acquired knowledge about co-occurrence of different human qualities and about
various types of people and their typical behaviour patterns, which generates an
individual way of viewing Others by children. The results of the research into these
issues confirm the occurrence of all types of stereotypes and prejudices in all age
periods among children aged 7–13. The analyses of empirical data concerning
Polish learners indicate that they have a relatively well-crystallized and rather
strongly negative attitude to most of the minority groups living in Poland. Unlike
their peers from West European countries, the acquired attitudes of dislike towards
others are maintained for a long time (Weigl, 1995, pp. 321–326; Weigl, 1999,
p. 31). Among other things, the following determinants support and strengthen
the stereotypes and prejudice which constitute a specific “paradigm of the Other”
perceived by children:
• factors related to social structure (social norms which function in the family
and school environment, models of social interaction which prevail in the
peer group, social indifference and passiveness towards different symptoms
of prejudice and discrimination);
• personality factors (lack of tolerance, authoritarianism, conformist tendencies, frustration and aggressive behaviour, low social status of the living
environment);
• cultural factors – ideologies valid in a particular culture, prejudices which
appear in early socialization (Czykwin, 1999, pp. 122–123).
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
22
These factors largely contribute to stereotypical consolidation in children’s
consciousness of the image of themselves and others, regardless of the acquired
experience and cultural competence. Analyzing the experimental studies concerning the modification of stereotypes and prejudice among early school learners
allows for confirming children’s clearly seen proneness to influences aiming at the
acquisition of negative attitudes to alien ethnic groups or nations, as well as their
proneness to actions which weaken such stereotyping and prejudice (Weigl, 1999,
pp. 140–142). This creates a chance for undertaking educational activities which
aim at “weakening” the consolidated negative stereotypes and prejudice and at
their modification.
IV. Communication and cultural dialogue
Language constitutes the basis for both “being” in one’s own culture and
understanding other cultures. For the child, it is a ‘tool’ for communication with
the environment, a ‘medium’ for creative activity and an object of cognition. In
the last decades, due appreciation of the pragmatic factor has drawn researchers’ attention to the analysis of children’s speech in the aspect of the processes of
social communication. “In this way, social structure becomes a substrate of the
child’s experience resulting from multiple linguistic processes” (Kozielecki, 1997,
p. 208). From this point of view, it should be assumed that whenever children talk
or listen to other people’s speech, the process takes place of strengthening their
social structure and forming their cultural identity. This phenomenon can also be
interpreted as follows – individuals get control over their social roles through the
process of communication.
Children’s functioning in the cultural environment enables their systematic
linguistic contact with their peers – members of other communities and societies.
Furthermore, this often generates natural situations which involve simultaneous
participation in two cultures and two language systems. Bilingualism acquired in
this way may have the “adding” character (allowing for achieving high competence
in both languages) or the “subtracting” one, in which the more prestigious language
(of the majority or the dominating culture) replaces the first language (of the
minority culture) and does not allow the individual to acquire proper competence
in any of them (Urban, 1997, pp. 94-95; Czykwin, Misiejuk, 2002). What seems
worth attention from the standpoint of educational activities in integrated education is the so-called integrating communication. It is the foundation of intercultural
dialogue, which links the values of different cultures and allows for mutual contact
on the basis of cooperation, at the same time eliminating conflict situations and the
communication protecting against the possible lack of acceptance in the new cultural
23
environment. In such communication the child does not associate cultural elements
of both language systems and borrows from the new culture the selected elements
which allow for avoiding the inner conflict – the situations of tension and stress
(Nikitorowicz, 2000, pp. 85-104, Nikitorowicz, 2009).
Cognitive contexts
I. Motives for familiarizing with the world and learning
Developing the child’s cognitive processes and the orientation in the surroundings is an important goal of early school education. This development is
characterized by strong motivation for learning the surrounding world of people,
things and phenomena, and for acquiring (by learning) the social competences
which determine efficient functioning in both school and non-school social
situations. Developmental theories, which draw attention to the cultural and
social context of education, emphasize the role and significance of the dual social
structure in which the child takes part. The structure consists of the relation with
peers – the children’s world – and the “objective reality”, already existing, created
and imposed by adults – the adults’ world (Berger, Luckmann, 1983; Erikson,
2000; Łaciak, 1998). The dichotomous nature of the functioning of both social
worlds in children’s life necessitates fulfilling their basic needs, which appear in
the process of:
• symbiosis (tight junction and unity with the nearest environment) – the
need for bonds,
• closeness and acceptance, which determines the sense of safety in the world
of people;
• separation (gradual emerging of I from the symbiotic unity) – the need for
identity, which
• enables building the borders I – other people;
• individualization (development of the inner autonomy of I) – the need for
self-fulfillment;
• exploration of the surroundings, independent activity, which expresses one’s
own I (Małkiewicz, 2002, pp. 16-17).
The needs for bonds, identity and self-fulfillment become basic determinants
of the pace, dynamics and direction of the child’s cognitive activeness (including
the creative one), which enables children their close relation with the near and
further cultural environment. This environment also facilitates “building” the
representation of one’s own person, which is associated, among other things, with
keeping one’s own identity, with maintaining or increasing one’s position in the
24
Ewa Ogrodzka-Mazur
social system of meanings, and with having an influence upon the surrounding
reality (Reykowski, 1990, p. 47).
II. Constructing knowledge at school: learning through cultural dialogue
and contact
Early school pedagogy entails the need for a different approach to the process of
the child’s acquisition of knowledge – the transition from monologue education to
dialogue education, which is related to creating meanings. As J. Bruner, the author
of the expression ‘interpretation turn’, emphasizes: “creating meanings is associated
with situating meetings with the world in the appropriate cultural context in order
to learn ‘what this is about”. Although meanings are placed in the mind, they have
their source and references in the culture in which they are created. This cultural
situating of meanings ensures both the ability to become a subject of negotiation
and the immersion in communication” (Bruner, 1996, p. 3). This assumption brings
about changes in education theories concerning the following areas:
• the teacher’s knowledge – the significance of personal pedagogical theories,
personal reflection upon one’s own practice, focus on alternative pedagogical solutions;
• the learner’s knowledge – the existence of many “possible worlds” and their
interpretations, understanding dialogue, readiness for “disobedience in
thinking”, creative thinking, the concealed school programme;
• classroom communication – social character of learning, group cooperation
aiming at a common goal (task), the investigative and creative function of
speech, the significance of exploratory speech (thinking aloud);
• didactic designing – spontaneous experimentation, guidelines, improvisation, goals understood as intentions and general aims (Klus-Stańska, 2002,
pp. 65-67).
Ending: culture and education – prospects for the relation
Outlining the prospects for the culture and education relation involves applying
a fundamental assumption that education might be understood solely through the
comprehension of culture. This assumption results in some major guidelines for
educational theory and practice:
• presenting (by school) the specific sensitivity to the changing contexts of
modern culture by, among other things, implementing new strategies of
thinking and acting in the work of both teachers and learners;
25
• preparing children for participation in the changing culture by acquiring
the competence of understanding this culture and for specifying one’s own
place in it;
• directing education towards constructing learners’ multidimensional cultural identity;
• building school as a space of human interactions (the transition from
monologue education to cultural dialogue).
Thus, as J. Bruner notices, education should not “be limited merely to casual
school issues, such as curricula, standards, or verification of learners’ performance.
What we decide to do in regard to school has sense only when it is considered in
a broader context of what society aims at through investing in education of the
young. Understanding education […] is a function of the way in which the culture
and its aims, not only the declared ones, are viewed” (Bruner, 1996, p. 4).
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PIW.
Bibler V.S. (1982). Myślenie jako dialog. Warszawa: PIW.
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Bruner J. (2006). Kultura edukacji. Kraków: TAiWPN „Universitas”.
Burszta W.J. (2008). Świat jako więzienie kultury. Pomyślenia. Warszawa: PIW.
Czykwin E., Misiejuk D. (2002). Dwujęzyczność i dwukulturowość w perspektywie psychopedagogicznej. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteckie „Trans
Humana”.
Czykwin E. (1999). Próba modyfikacji stereotypów i uprzedzeń narodowych
w warunkach szkoły. In: J. Nikitorowicz, M. Sobecki (eds): Edukacja międzykulturowa w wymiarze instytucjonalnym. Białystok: Wydawnictwo Uniwersyteckie
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Giddens A. (2008). Konsekwencje nowoczesności. Kraków: Wyd. UJ.
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Klus-Stańska D. (2002). Konstruowanie wiedzy w szkole. Olsztyn: Wyd. UWM.
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Klus-Stańska D., Szczepska-Pustkowska M. (2009). Pedagogika wczesnoszkolna –
dyskursy, problemy, rozwiązania. Warszawa: WAiP.
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Komitet Prognoz „Polska w XXI wieku” przy Prezydium PAN.
Bożena Matyjas
Poland
Ways of Spending Leisure Time
by Young People from Rural Areas.
Empirical study
Abstract
In the article, based on the specialist literature and empirical studies, the ways
(forms) of spending free time by children and young people from rural areas have
been discussed. First the term “leisure time” has been explicated, then functions
of free time have been distinguished, and finally the specificity of spending leisure
time by rural families has been presented. Having discussed the methodological
assumptions (concerning the research aim, problems, method, technique, tools as
well as respondents’ profiles) the research results regarding various aspects of rural
children’s and young people’s leisure time such as: the amount of free time per day,
leisure time activities, interests of the respondents, free time companions, the places
of spending leisure time and other issues have been analysed. The findings – quantitative data – have been also presented in the form of tables. In the final part of the
article conclusions have been formulated which summarise the research results.
Key words: free/leisure time, rural family, rural environment, school, local environment.
Introduction
Nowadays, leisure time seems to be one of the most rapidly developing spheres of
modern life. The greater and greater advancement in technology results in increasing the quantity of time devoted to leisure. However, it does not really mean that
the quality of time (particularly the quality of the child’s free time) develops at the
30
Bożena Matyjas
same pace as its quantity. The current growth of negative behaviour noticed among
children arises mostly from the lack of their free time efficient management. “Speed
of life” and its “mass” nature make young people more susceptible than ever to
improper patterns of behaviour. Even in more slowly developing areas such as the
country, where the community significantly influences the individual, loosening
traditional social bonds, as well as excessive individualisation and anonymity of
a person can be noticed.
Therefore, it is extremely important to organize not only learning but also leisure
time of the child.
Leisure time in specialist literature
The problem of leisure time appears to be the subject of interest for representatives of many scientific disciplines such as: sociologists, pedagogues, psychologists
or economists. This is also a matter of concern for politicians and social institutions.
Spare time is one of the modern man’s most significant problems, it is an inherent
element of modern life which determines its quality (c.f.: Matyjas, 2003, p.559).
The term “free time” was first defined by T. Veblen – an American economist who
described the concept of free time as the entire human life except work (Czajka,
1974, p.38). However, T. Veblen did not take into account certain tasks which are
performed by the individual outside working hours but cannot be considered as
free time activities because they are not exclusively devoted to one’s own needs.
The most frequent definition of leisure time is the one formulated in the 1960s
for the needs of UNESCO research by a French sociologist I. Dumazedier. This
is a multi-faceted definition which determines not only the time itself but also its
functions. In his concept of leisure Dumazedier describes free time spent mainly
by adults, whereas he does not consider children or young people whom the issue
of spare time also concerns.
Nowy Słownik Pedagogiczny (The New Pedagogical Dictionary) provides the following definition of free time: “This is the time for individual use after completing
obligatory tasks and professional work, learning at school, doing homework and
necessary housework. Leisure is sensibly devoted to having a rest that is physical
and mental recuperation; to entertainment which brings pleasure; to voluntary and
selfless social activity; to developing one’s interests and abilities through acquiring
knowledge and through artistic, mechanical, scientific or sport activities performed
for pleasure” (Okoń, 2004, p. 68).
W. Okoń expressed the concept of free time in a simple way both in terms of
Ways of Spending Leisure Time by Young People from Rural Areas. Empirical study
31
children or young people who are students and an adult working person. His
definition also includes the functions of spare time.
Functions of leisure time
Free time should be devoted to physical and mental recuperation. Apart from its
recreational function, leisure time ought to be spent doing activities which enable
children to develop their abilities, interests and cultural needs.
In the Polish pedagogical literature frequent attempts to define and describe
functions of free time have been made. Leisure was discussed by Z. Dąbrowski
(1966), M. Ćwiatkowski (1967), T. Wujek (1969), S. Czajka (1974), M. Żelazkiewicz
(1974), A. Kamiński (1980), B. Matyjas (2003), J. Pięta (2004) and others. In order
not to multiply the number of functions ascribed to different meanings of spare
time by other authors, I followed Dąbrowski’s concept of four basic functions (1966,
p. 16) such as: rest, development of personal interests and abilities, entertainment
and search for one’s own place in society.
Precise determining of leisure functions may significantly influence the choice
of its specific forms. The quantity of spare time affects mental and physical life. It
has been proved that lack of leisure time has a strong negative impact on health,
personal achievement, attitude towards other people and the sense of satisfaction with the self and the outside world. Free time wisely arranged and spent
doing appropriate activities has not only an essential positive influence on human
personal development, but also – looking at the problem from a general point of
view – on the cultural development of the entire society. Such widely understood
impacts of free time do not contradict the role of work and school in developing
human life, but they rather complete it according to the rhythm of life which
should be followed, i.e. the rhythm of work or school learning which alternate with
leisure time whose style depends on individual conditions.
It is emphasized in the specialist literature that proper insight into the chaotic
profusion of different forms and ways of spending free time might be quite difficult
for an adult person, not to mention a child. Therefore, without a deep knowledge
of its functions, it may be difficult for an individual to take advantage of free time.
In order to make a good choice a person should be aware of their own mental and
physical needs because not all the requirements can be met intuitively. So as to make
independent and appropriate choices in adult life, a child and then a young person
must learn under the watchful eye of a guide how to distinguish useful and beneficial
forms of spare time from pointless and worthless ones which only kill the time.
32
Bożena Matyjas
Leisure time in rural family and its specificity
The Polish modern village has been experiencing a number of changes including
the sphere of family life. The place of living still affects the educational role of
family to a large extent. Although modern methods of upbringing are similar for
rural and urban children, considerable differences in this process might be noticed.
They result mostly from diversified economic conditions and traditions – different
in rural and urban areas.
The country as an area “poorly equipped with leisure time facilities can offer
fewer opportunities for young people. That is why family and family home become,
often of necessity, the most frequent place for young people to stay after school or
work” (Przecławski, 1979, p.108).
An essential role in the leisure time of the rural family is played by the media.
The function of television seems to be here of great importance. Parents, tired of
work, prefer passive ways of spending free time but they also, however unintentionally, transfer these habits onto their children. What is more, being not able
to arrange suitable activities, they choose the simplest possible solution. Adults
usually consider Sundays and all kinds of national holidays as leisure, but they
do not take into account that each child has a certain amount of spare time every
single day. Common celebration is one of the possibilities to share time with family.
Special holiday atmosphere allows parents to tighten contacts with the children.
Meeting relatives and friends also takes place during the time off work.
It is important that school should prepare children for spending their free time
in a proper way. Teachers ought to raise the parents’ awareness of suitable ways
of spending family leisure time. A good tutor who has extensive knowledge on
a child’s background and family situation will be able to arouse parents’ interest in
this aspect of life. Parents should attempt to share the time with their children even
playing or reading together, going on trips, doing sports or watching TV. Parents
must become aware that spare time is essential for the proper development of their
child’s personality regardless of the area they come from and live in.
Methodological assumptions of the author’s research
In the contemporary rapidly changing society, the sphere of time devoted
exclusively to the child’s discretion should be the matter of interest for not only
scientists or researchers but also teachers, family and different educational
institutions. The aim of the pedagogical research discussed in this article was to
33
determine forms (ways) of spending leisure time by children and young people
from rural areas.
The main research problem was formulated in the form of the following question:
How do children and young people from rural areas spend their leisure time?
The following detailed problems were also analysed: how much free time do the
research subjects have per day, what forms of spare time do they most frequently
choose, what are rural children’s interests, where and who do they spend their time
with, do parents help children organise their free time or not, does the financial
condition of the family influence the way of spending spare time or its amount,
are after-school activities provided by school, what are the ways of managing
students’ free time in rural areas, what are the reasons for problems in preparing
rural children and young people for efficient use of free time, and finally, how do
children and young people attempt to arrange their leisure time?
The method of diagnostic survey (Pilch, 1995, p.49) based on a questionnaire was
applied in order to collect information concerning the leisure time of children and
young people from rural areas. As a tool the questionnaire form was used. It contained
19 inquiries referring to leisure, as well as the factors that influence free time.
The research was conducted in March, 2010, in a primary and secondary school
situated in one of the villages in the Świętokrzyskie Province. The total number of
the respondents amounted to 100 students of the 5th and 6th grades of primary
school, as well as the 1st, 2nd and 3rd grades of secondary school, consisting of
52 boys and 48 girls, at the age of 11–15, with the majority of students at the age
of 12 and 14.
Analysis of the research findings
Description of the respondents’ family conditions
It might be noticed in the specialist literature concerning the issue of leisure
time that specific family conditions significantly influence its standard, form and
structure. The family not only supports the basic physical and psychological needs
of the offspring, but is also a place of their cultural life.
Ways of spending free time may depend on various factors. In the research the
following factors were taken into consideration to analyse the students’ family
conditions: the respondents’ gender, level of the parents’ professional qualifications,
financial situation of the family, standard of living conditions and the number of
siblings.
34
Bożena Matyjas
The analysis of the research findings was aimed at presenting the respondents’
family situation and its impact on spending free time.
As mentioned above, the research comprised 52 boys and 48 girls. The level of
their parents’ professional qualifications revealed the following facts: the majority
of the mothers (42) have secondary education; the second biggest number (33)
refers to the mothers with vocational education. Considerably fewer female parents
obtained a university or college degree – only 9. The most frequent types of the
fathers’ professional qualifications are vocational and secondary education (39 and
38 respectively). The minority of the fathers have higher education (16), however
the number of the fathers with a university or college degree is higher compared
to the mothers with the same standard of education.
The economic situation of the family is one of the most important factors influencing family lifestyle. Financial problems, lack of possibilities to satisfy often only
the basic needs of parents and their children become the reason why cultural needs
are pushed into the background. What is more, children are frequently involved in
work for the family regardless of their needs for leisure or interests development.
To conclude, it might be claimed that the standard of living considerably influences
the proper development of the family.
The financial situation should be understood in terms of the family’s current
income, movables and real property, property with entire equipment, providing
family members with clothing, etc. The financial condition of the family can be:
very bad, bad, sufficient, good and very good. As far as the financial condition of
the respondents is considered, the majority (45) assess their financial situation as
sufficient, and 32 describe it as good. None of the research subjects recognised
their financial situation as very bad.
The living standards of the family involves not only its financial situation, but
also housing. Based on the research results, it must be concluded that the children’s
standards of living are pretty good. Most of the students (62) have their own bedrooms where they can spend their spare time. It is visible particularly among the
girls – 36 have their own space at home.
Not only the number of siblings, but also the number of family members influence the standards of living and proper family life. The number of siblings also
affects leisure time spent by children. It is noticeable that in large families children
must share bedrooms, which does not create favourable conditions for studying,
developing interests or even making independent decisions. The other aspect of
this issue is visible here, as well. A bigger number of siblings allows a child to have
good company to spend leisure time. What is more, older siblings may take care of
the younger family members. The results of the research data analysis prove that
35
themajority of the respondents have two siblings (31). However, 25 of the subjects
do not have any brothers or sisters. Finally, there are only 16 cases of large families
with 3, 4 and more than 5 children.
Leisure time of children and young people
(freedom of decisions concerning the ways of spending free time, the time devoted
to learning, the amount of spare time per day, activities taken up in free time, the
respondents’ interests, leisure time companions, places to spend free time)
Leisure time requires taking independent decisions which refer to free time
activities. Nobody can be forced to take up actions he/she does not want to do, or
things that should be done. Then, it will not be free time, but time of work, or the
time devoted to such necessary activities as, e.g., hygienic ones. The respondents
were asked whether they make their own decisions concerning free time activities.
Based on the research data, it appears that the majority of the respondents (82)
make their own decisions about the ways of spending free time; 9 respondents
declared lack of freedom to arrange leisure, and 9 did not answer this question. It
should be emphasized that even if the children decide how to organise their own
leisure, they cannot be left unattended and deprived of their parents’ “invisible”
supervision.
Undoubtedly, the amount of leisure depends on the time devoted to learning.
Similarly to an adult person who shares the time between work and leisure, young
people also “work” through learning and have free time. The amount of time left
after doing homework will depend on the effective and efficient management of the
time devoted to learning. According to the research data, most of the respondents
(32) do not have a specified number of hours devoted to learning. However, the
girls appear to be more self-disciplined; 15 out of 48 devote two hours to learning
at home, and 9 devote as many as 3 hours to homework.
The table below presents the amount of the children’s time budget for leisure.
Table 1: The amount of free time per day
The amount of free
time
½ hour
1 hour
2 hours
Sex
Girls
–
1
2
Boys
–
–
4
Total
–
1
6
Bożena Matyjas
36
The amount of free
time
3 hours
Differently
No answer
Total
Sex
Girls
8
36
1
48
Boys
11
36
1
52
Total
19
72
2
100
It might be concluded from the table above that the children do not have
a specific number of hours devoted daily to free time activities. 72 of the research
subjects claimed that they do not have a certain number of hours for developing
their interests or having a rest. It may be assumed that this time is accidental and
depends not only on the time devoted to learning.
In the research group the most popular forms of spending free time predominate. 73 respondents (including 35 girls and 38 boys) prefer watching TV; 67 (37
girls and 30 boys) choose meeting friends; 62 (36 girls and 26 boys) listen to music.
A considerable number of children 53 (28 girls and 25 boys) help parents during
leisure time. As many as 46 (16 girls and 30 boys) play computer games. It is alarming that still a large number of rural children and young people spend their spare
time mainly in front of TV. Watching television, especially out of parents’ control,
may have a negative impact on developing the patterns of the child’s behaviour.
Young people frequently watch light entertainment on television which affects
their personalities. Passive leisure has an adverse influence on physical activities,
e.g. doing sports. The research findings reveal that a slight number of the children
devote their spare time to activities developing their interests: 40 students (12 girls
and 28 boys) do sport activities, 38 (30 girls and 8 boys) spend their leisure reading,
1 girl enjoys drawing, 2 girls sing and play musical instruments.
It might be concluded from the results of the research that there are not many
forms of spending free time used by rural children and young people. Probably, the
place of living influences this situation. Rural students have fewer opportunities to
benefit from culture institutions and centres, which prevents them from developing
cultural needs. They are restricted to a small number of cultural offers provided
by the rural environment.
The way of spending free time considerably depends on the students’ interests.
Table 2 shows different types of rural children’s and young people’s interests.
As Table 2 proves, the most popular leisure-time interests seem to be: music – 64
choices (43 girls and 21 boys), sport – 51 (11 girls and 40 boys) and computer – 44
(18 girls and 26 boys). The interest in music predominates among the girls, whereas
the boys are mainly interested in sport.
37
Table 2: Interests of the respondents
Interests
Literature
Music
Sport
Computer
Collecting
Visual arts, painting
Singing
Animals
Meeting friends
No answer
Total
Sex
Girls
19
43
11
18
7
1
1
–
–
–
100
Boys
1
21
40
26
6
1
–
1
1
2
99
Total
20
64
51
44
13
2
1
1
1
2
199*
* The results do not tot up comparing to the number of the respondents since they had the possibility to choose several answers.
Leisure-time companions also affect the choice of the ways of spending free
time. The research findings prove that as they grow up the children more and
more often enjoy spending their spare time among peers – 43 students declared
such a way of spending leisure, including 21 girls and 22 boys. 17 (10 girls and 7
boys) respondents claimed they spend their free time with friends, 10 students (6
girls and 7 boys) enjoy their leisure together with their siblings, 8 research subjects
spend their spare time with parents, 14 with family, and 1 with grandparents. 13
(5 girls and 8 boys) respondents spend their leisure on their own.
The courtyard is a favourite place of spending free time – 33 choices. 27 students
declared their family home and 18 a youth club as favourite spots to go and play
in their spare time. Detailed data concerning places to spend leisure time are
presented in the table below.
Table 3: Places where the respondents spend their leisure
Places to spend free
time
Home
Courtyard
Youth club
After-school club
School
Sex
Girls
15
13
9
–
7
Boys
12
20
9
–
2
Total
27
33
18
–
9
Bożena Matyjas
38
Places to spend free
time
Gym
Sports field
No answer
Total
Sex
Girls
3
–
1
48
Boys
3
4
2
52
Total
6
4
3
100
27 of the research subjects declared their family home as the most frequent place
to spend free time. Undoubtedly, this fact must result from such forms of leisure
activities as watching TV or playing computer games.
Family
and its role in organising free time for children and young people
(spending spare time together, parents’ assistance to arrange leisure)
The weekly budget of time that the respondents spend with family is as follows:
• about 20 hours – 10 students;
• I don’t know – 37 students;
• only weekends – 1 student;
• total – 100.
The forms of leisure time which the children spend together with parents are as
follows: watching TV (75 answers), going for a walk (63 choices), trips of various
types (29), going to the cinema (17), doing sports (11), and going to the theatre
(2). One person indicated that he/she does not spend free time with parents, and
two respondents did not answer this question. Having analysed the time of the
children and their parents in the country, it seems to be noticeable that the parents
do not dedicate too much attention to their children. By choosing the simplest and
most common ways of spending free time, the parents believe that they sufficiently
satisfy their children’s needs to play together. Leisure-time activities which require
more inventiveness and financial expenses do not appear to be popular. Rural
parents, usually claiming not to have free time, spend their time with children
improperly. It is usually passive leisure which does not motivate young people to
be active or to develop their interests.
39
School and local environment as organizers of free time
School has the possibilities to help families organize leisure time through planning different activities aimed at developing or supplementing students’ knowledge
and interests. The role of school is also to arrange sports events, take care of local
scouting organisations (acting within the Polish Scouting and Guiding Association – ZHP), as well as organising students’ special-interest groups acting within
the school. 81 of the research subjects responded that school organizes various
activities, 1 person stated no events provided by school, 17 respondents declared
lack of knowledge in this matter, and 1 student did not answer.
The data prove that school provides students with different possibilities of
spending their after-school time. The most popular is School Sports Club – 28
students participate in it, including 12 girls and 16 boys. A considerably small
number of the students – 10 (6 girls and 4 boys) belong to the Polish Scouting and
Guiding Association. The majority of the respondents take up at least two activities
offered by school.
One of the after-school forms is a day-care room acting within the school. It
should help children not only to do their homework, but also to manage their
leisure. Totally, 84 students use the opportunity to participate in activities offered
by the school day-care room.
To sum up, the school seems to be the main organizer of children’s and young
people’s leisure in the country. Offering the possibilities of attending various afterschool clubs, school not only extends students’ knowledge, but also attempts to
arrange their spare time and develop interests by providing necessary facilities
or equipment. Thanks to this fact children and young people can spend free time
more easily and in a more interesting way and even find new fields of activities.
The country school should be supported by parents, as well as local institutions
and organisations. That is why the respondents were asked about the institutions
which organise free time activities.
Table 4: Presence of the institutions which offer leisuretime activities in the respondents’ place of living
Institutions offering
leisure-time activities
Yes, they exist
No, they don’t exist
I don’t know
Sex
Total
Girls
Boys
25
15
8
25
23
3
50
38
11
Bożena Matyjas
40
Institutions offering
leisure-time activities
No answer
Total
Sex
Total
Girls
Boys
48
1
52
1
100
From the research data above it may be concluded that a half of the respondents – 50, claimed to know about the existence of the institutions offering leisuretime activities in their places of living. A large number of the research subjects
did not indicate such institutions, and 11 did not know about their presence. The
institution present in the respondents’ places of living is a youth club. However,
only 25 students (12 girls and 12 boys) take advantage of it.
Conclusions
The analysis of rural children’s and young people’s leisure time, based on the
specialist literature and the author’s research as well, leads to the following conclusions:
• children living in the country usually spend their free time watching television, meeting friends or listening to music;
• there are no forms of spending free time taking up activities of better quality;
• rural respondents’ interests are limited to the most common and available
types such as computer, music, books;
• rural children commonly spend their leisure with friends outdoors;
• family does not set a good example of an appropriate leisure style: free time
spent with family is usually limited to passive forms; lack of parents’ interest
in how their children spend free time is noticeable;
• family’s financial situation significantly influences the ways of spending
spare time by the whole family;
• school is the main organizer of students’ spare time: children in the country
have opportunities to attend after-school activities and quite often take them
up; the respondents enjoy participating in activities offered by the School
Sports Club; the school provides suitable facilities and equipment to arrange
leisure time for the students;
• rural areas suffer from a lack of social institutions, cinemas, and organisations supporting children’s interests and hobbies; there is only one youth
club in the village available for children;
41
To sum up, it is worth mentioning that in the Polish society, including the part
living in rural areas, the awareness concerning the value of leisure time is still
increasing. The rural society becomes also aware of opportunities to spend free
time. Unfortunately, not everyone has such possibilities. Therefore, leisure time
opportunities should be available at school, in family, in after-school educational
institutions, peer groups and institutions offering free time activities.
Bibliography
Czajka, S. (1974). Z problemów czasu wolnego. Warszawa: Wyd. CRZZ.
Ćwiatkowski, M. (1967). Problemy społeczne wolnego czasu. Warszawa: CRZZ.
Kamiński, A. (1965). Czas wolny i jego problematyka społeczno-wychowawcza.
Wrocław: Wyd. Ossolineum.
Kamiński, A. (1980). Funkcje pedagogiki społecznej, Warszawa: PWN.
Matyjas, B. (2003). Czas wolny. In T. Pilch (ed.) Encyklopedia Pedagogiczna XXI
wieku, vol. I. Warszawa: Wyd. Akademickie „Żak”,
Okoń, W. (2004). Nowy słownik pedagogiczny. Warszawa: Wyd. Akademickie
„Żak”.
Pilch, T. (1995). Zasady badań pedagogicznych. Warszawa: Wyd. Akademickie
„Żak”.
Przecławski, K. (1979). Po pracy i nauce. Warszawa: CRZZ.
Wujek, T. (1969). Praca domowa i czynny wypoczynek ucznia. Warszawa: Wyd.
PZWS.
Żelazkiewicz, M. (1974). Zajęcia pozalekcyjne i opiekuńcza działalność szkoły.
Warszawa–Poznań: Wyd. PWN:
Ingrid Emmerová
Slovak Republic
The Social Pedagogue at School
and their Cooperation with Teachers in the Slovak
Republic
Abstract
The author deals with the position of a social pedagogue at schools in the Slovak
Republic, their roles and main spheres of cooperation with teachers. The author
presents the results of the research done during April – May 2009 with the teachers
of the region of Banská Bystrica. The author compares selected results with the
results of the research conducted during 2006 and 2007. This paper represents
one of the preliminary outcomes with respect to the research task of the Scientific
Grant Agency of the Ministry of Education, the Slovak Republic and the Slovak
Academy of Sciences NO. 1/0597/08 “The Tools for the Development of the Teacher’s
Competences”.
Key words: social pedagogue, tasks of social pedagogue at school, prevention of sociopathological phenomena, solution of behaviour disorders.
A social pedagogue has been currently, as well as historically, focused on children and youth. This fact is reflected in the activities of a social pedagogue with
children at school, but a social pedagogue is also willing to help teachers with any
other problems.
According to the Act on education, Section 130, of May 22, 2008, the position
of the social pedagogue is included in the systems of educational counselling and
prevention. The Act on pedagogical employees and professional employees No.
317/2009 included the social pedagogue in the category of professional employees.
Section 24 stipulates: “Social pedagogue executes professional activities within
prevention, intervention and counselling, specifically for children and pupils that
44
Ingrid Emmerová
are threatened with social-pathological phenomena, from socially deprived surroundings, threatened with drug addiction or otherwise disadvantaged children
and pupils, with their legal representatives, pedagogical representatives of schools
and educational institutions. A social pedagogue fulfils the tasks of social education, pro-social, ethical behaviour, socio-pedagogical diagnostics of surroundings
and relations, socio-pedagogic counselling, prevention of socio-pathological
phenomena and re-education of behaviour. A social pedagogue executes expertise
activities and public education activities.“
“The mosaic of the activities of a social pedagogue is wide and varied, always
relatively new and unrepeatable, creative and original.” (B. Kraus, 2009, p. 17).
A social pedagogue may assist at schools in many spheres as well as fulfil several
tasks. Z. Bakošová (2006, p. 27–28; 2008, p. 197) defines the tasks of a social pedagogue at school with respect to pupils, parents and teachers:
With respect to teachers, a social pedagogue fulfils the following tasks: assisting
pupils to be included in teams; the counselling function is fulfilled in children’s
social behaviour, specifically with emotional, ethical and social disorders; in situations when family surroundings and upbringing in families is disordered; with
respect to situations when the children’s health is weakened, a social pedagogue
takes care of their psycho-hygiene, he/she protects the rights of children and the
youth with respect to the situation of violence at school, and cooperates with teams
of professionals to improve the social behaviours of actors; preventive competence is in the foreground with respect to the prevention of socio-pathological
phenomena; he/she assists in solving pedagogical phenomena; he/she works with
talented and gifted children; he/she works with the children of socially deprived
surroundings, with Romany children.
With respect to parents, a social pedagogue is focused on: educational counselling, leisure time activities, prevention activities; he/she offers help responsively,
or assistance of other professional if family surroundings is disordered, relations
are disharmonious or parental upbringing is not suitable; he/she counsels parents
about effective communication between parents and children.
With respect to teachers, a social pedagogue at school:
• helps to solve pedagogical situations, specifically young teachers’,
• sensitively responds to teachers’ needs in the sphere of relaxation and
psycho-hygiene,
• initiates further education of teachers,
• protects teachers’ rights with respect to aggressively behaving parents,
• participates in preparation of school documents.
45
The Social Pedagogue at School…
In our opinion, the basic activities of a social pedagogue in school surroundings
should be focused on:
• primary prevention of socio-pathological phenomena, also secondary
prevention at schools where problematic behaviour occurs,
• organisation of leisure time activities of children and the youth,
• social counselling,
• cooperation with experts,
• active work with pupils from disadvantaged family surroundings,
• cooperation with parents.
At the end of 2006 and at the beginning of 2007, we contacted headmasters of
primary and secondary schools. The total sample comprised 81 respondents, 52
headmasters of primary and 29 headmasters of secondary schools.
We tried to ascertain the headmasters’ need for a social pedagogue at primary
and secondary schools. Our findings are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: The need for a social pedagogue’s activities
at schools – situation during 2006–2007
Alternatives
The need to employ a social pedagogue
No need for a social pedagogue
Total
Headmasters
of PS
n
%
33
63.46
19
36.54
52
100.00
Headmasters
of SS
n
%
18
62.07
11
37.93
29
100.00
Total
N
51
30
81
%
62.96
37.04
100.00
We found that almost 63% of the respondents would need a social pedagogue at
school if adequate legislative and financial conditions were created.
As the new Act on education has been effective since September 1, 2008, which
includes a social pedagogue in the components of educational counselling and
prevention systems, during April – May 2009, we conducted research at primary
schools. We found a positive shift, as many as 77.8% of the headmasters would like
to employ social pedagogues in their schools. In addition to the headmasters, we
also contacted teachers. Our research sample was composed of 230 respondents,
thereof 91.3% would welcome a social pedagogue in their schools and 8.7% would
not.
We researched into the expected activities of a social pedagogue at primary
schools. Two spheres were the most frequent: firstly, the sphere of socio-pathological
phenomena prevention (preventing and setting up a system of prevention, and so
on); secondly, the sphere of solution of pupils´ educational problems. At present,
Ingrid Emmerová
46
the issue of the professionalization of prevention processes becomes topical, which
is pointed out in several Slovak and European documents. There we can see great
opportunities for social pedagogues who are professionally prepared for it. “The
analysis of foreign socio-pedagogical concepts, specifically German and Polish
ones, indicates that the focus of the attention of social pedagogy in the past and at
present is in the sphere of prevention of socio-pathological phenomena at various
levels, specifically on children and the youth.” (J. Hroncová, 2009, p. 22)
As the requirements of prevention and solution of socio-pathological phenomena
prevailed according to the answers of our respondents, we were interested in which
of the socio-pathological phenomena they experienced during their practice (from
1 to 32 years). According to the opinion of teachers, the most frequent primary
school pupils’ problem behaviour is aggression – stated by 96.65% of the teachers
(specifically, bullying as an extreme form of aggressive behaviour was stated by
82.61% of the respondents). As many as 91.3 % of the respondents had experience
with pupils’ truancy during their practice. Subsequently, theft by primary school
pupils was stated by 73.91% of the teachers, followed by issues of legal and illegal
drugs (56.52% and 30.43% of the respondents). Risky behaviour that is closely
related to the so-called non-drug addiction was indicated by 21.74% of the teachers
and delinquent behaviour by 17.39% of the teachers of primary schools.
What is more alarming is the fact that aggressive behaviour towards teachers has
been increasing – by both pupils and parents. Therefore, we paid special attention
to this issue. Table 2 shows our findings concerning aggressive behaviour towards
teachers experienced during their practice. The respondents also indicated several
possibilities.
Table 2. Aggressive behaviour towards teachers (data by percentage)
Forms of aggressive behaviour
Rudeness of pupil during lessons
Rudeness of parents or any other relatives of pupil
Threats of pupil
Threats of pupil outside lessons
No occurrence of aggressive behaviour
Threats of parents or any other relatives of pupil
Others
Intentional damage of personal property
%
39.13
26.07
21.74
21.74
21.74
17.39
8.7
4.35
We found out that the most frequent occurrence was rudeness by pupils during
lessons – stated by 39.13% of the teachers. The second most frequent form is rude-
47
ness by parents or other relatives of pupils – stated by 26.07% of the respondents.
Identically, 21.74% of the teachers experienced rudeness of pupils outside lessons,
threats from pupils and the same number of the respondents have never experienced any of the above-mentioned forms of aggressive behaviour. Threats from
parents or other relatives of pupils were stated by 17.39% of the teachers of primary
schools, others (e.g., talking back) by 8.7%, and intentional damage of property
by 4.35% of the respondents. It is strange that only 21.74% of the primary school
teachers have not experienced any of the forms of aggressive behaviour during
their teaching practice (from 1 to 32 years), which represents fewer than 1/3 of the
respondents. Several respondents stated two and more forms.
Similar research with teachers was done in the Czech Republic. It was found that
43.4 % of the respondents experienced aggressive behaviour during their teaching
career. Most frequently they experienced rudeness and swear words from students
during lessons; not an insignificant number of them faced rudeness from parents
as well as threats about the use of influential persons and attacks on personal
property (J. Tomášek, 2008, p. 386). Similar research was conducted in Great
Britain (T. Budd, 1999) and in the USA (D. Duhart, 2001). Violence in educational
surroundings was also studied by researchers at the Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel
University within the grant project of VEGA headed by S. Kariková.
It is necessary to pay relevant attention to the prevention of aggressiveness and
bullying, because experts warn that it increases in primary school settings, which is
also confirmed by the results of our research. It is the aim of primary prevention to
create conditions for healthy physical, psychic and social development at schools.
This includes the choice of teachers, teachers’ new approaches to pupils that emphasize open and friendly treatment, new effective forms of cooperation with parents
and others. Furthermore, there are prevention programs specifically focused on
the constructive solutions of conflicts, the management of stressful situations, the
development of social competences and so on, such as “Srdce na dlani”(“Wear
one’s heart on one’s sleeve”) and “Toleranciou proti násiliu”(“Tolerance against
violence”). The prevention project “Vieme, že – program boja proti zlu, násiliu,
závislostiam, predsudkom, rasizmu a neproduktívnemu spôsobu života, Správaj sa
normálne” (“We know that – a programme against evil, violence, drug addictions,
racism and non-productive way of life; Behave normally”) and other programs are
focused on the prevention of aggressiveness. S. Kariková and M. Šimegová (2009,
pp. 60–66) outline prevention programs and methodological materials from the
Czech Republic, such as, e.g., “Český školní program proti šikanování“ (“The Czech
educational programme against bullying”), “Šikanování jako pedagogický problém“ (“Bullying as a pedagogical problem”), “Čelíme šikanování“ (“We confront
48
Ingrid Emmerová
bullying), and others. The prevention programs and project are not only focused
on one concrete socio-pathological phenomenon, but on the overall development
of pupils’ personalities.
Prevention of truancy is also very important because truancy is closely related
to other socio-pathological phenomena of a more serious character. Truancy may
become one of the criminogenic factors. First of all, in cases of group truancy,
deviant forms occur in peer groups. Visits to gambling rooms and pubs are also
frequent. If truancy occurs, it is necessary to examine a relevant case and to find
out its causes properly. However, it is necessary to differentiate whether it is the first
truancy or repeated truancy. It is particularly important to pay attention to pupils
even in cases where there is a small number of unexcused absences from lessons.
First of all, it is necessary to determine firm rules for the prevention of truancy; to
try to create an atmosphere without fear and tension. It is necessary to eliminate
triggers of truancy such as bad relations between teachers and pupils, pupils’
negative attitudes to school, bad relations with fellow pupils, and problems with
learning. Social pedagogues and teachers should pay attention to individuals at the
fringe of society who come from socially disadvantaged family surroundings.
As far as the prevention of delinquency and criminality is concerned, it should
be mentioned that it is necessary to focus on two issues with respect to children
and the youth:
1. To prevent children’s and the youth’s delinquent behaviour and the committing of crimes it is necessary to raise their legal awareness, to support true
life values and so on;
2. To eliminate the reasons why children and the youth become victims of
criminal acts.
Many forms of problematic behaviour such as theft and deception may be just
an effort to attract somebody’s attention, the manifestation of immature behaviour
to be independent from family and adults’ authority, specifically under conditions
of very strict upbringing. If theft occurs, it is necessary to look for causes and to
examine cases on an individual basis. The prevention project determined for the
pupils of the 5th grade of primary schools “Správaj sa normálne” (“Behave normally”), within its second topic – “Kto kradne, je zlodej” (“Who steals is a thief ”),
is just focused on the issue of theft.
In the future, the issue of drug addiction must be paid more attention to, specifically in the sphere of primary prevention. It is alarming that despite the fact that
schools emphasize the issue of drug addiction prevention, the number of children
and the youth abusing drugs has increased and the age limit of experimenting with
drugs has decreased. When organizing primary prevention, we should be aware
49
of the fact that children and the youth are not only threatened with substance
addictions, but also with other pathological addictions. The physical, psychic and
social health of children and the youth is also threatened with the slot machine
gambling addiction, computers and Internet addiction, inadequate use of mobile
telephones, or with eating disorders. The focus of prevention of the inadequate
use and risks of the Internet, computer games, mobile telephoning and texting or
instant chatting, follows the subsequent steps: to recognise warning signs on time
(decreasing school results, fatigue, loss of interests and friends); to determine clear
rules for working with computers and the use of telephones; to place PCs in places
where adults can see them and can prevent inadequate use (pornography, violent
games). It is important to offer children possibilities for active spending of their
free time. The communautaire programme of the European Union “Zodpovedne.
sk“ (responsibly.sk), the aim of which is to enhance awareness about the safe and
responsible use of the Internet, to disseminate enlightenment and to contribute
to the prevention of Internet criminality, is also beneficial. The Slovak Ministry of
the Interior together with the implementer of projects prepared a programme for
children and the youth “Cookie.sk,” the aim of which is to inform children and the
youth about the traps of the Internet and Internet criminality.
When implementing prevention activities at primary and secondary schools,
apart from the prevention of drug addiction, the prevention of pathological addictions should not be forgotten. Prevention should be included in the education
of healthy ways of life. Discussions at schools and mass media – TV, radio and
press – are effective. For example, it is necessary to improve information for young
people about the techniques of recruitment and danger of membership in destructive sects, cults and so on.
A social pedagogue is prepared to execute prevention at professional levels.
According to J. Hroncová (2009, p. 264) “a social pedagogue, specifically, who is
sufficiently erudite in theoretical and practical spheres, should professionally play
a significant role in the sphere of the prevention of socio-pathological phenomena
in institutionalised surroundings.” Professionals (teachers, psychologists, workers of assisting professions) point out that there is a rapid increase in problems of
behaviour. Children’s problem behaviour is increasingly bold, but unfortunately also
more brutal. Therefore, the need for effective prevention grows. Particularly that of
primary prevention, and because such a behaviour is frequent, also that of solutions
and secondary prevention, where school plays one of the most important roles.
In order for prevention to be effective, it is important:
• Based on the results of analyses to identify the occurrence of negative phenomena that should be prevented (monitoring at schools, intensive work on
50
Ingrid Emmerová
the part of teachers and so on). It is necessary to make a prognosis on the
probability of relevant phenomenon/phenomena occurrence and to think
about the selection of methods and forms of prevention in both primary
and secondary prevention in school surroundings.
• To pay close attention to new risks that result from new technologies and
threaten the pupils of primary and secondary schools: the misuse of mobiles,
the Internet, cyber-bullying and so on.
• Currently the need for prevention of victimisation has increased; i.e., specifically oriented prevention of criminality, the purpose of which is to prevent
the event when a person becomes a victim of a criminal act (it includes the
preparation of people in order that they might know and apply preventive
measures that might decrease the risk to be threatened with criminality,
the preventive behaviour itself including ways of behaving in threatening
situations). As a good example we can mention young girls at schools that
are focused on enhancing circumspection in the sphere of job offers abroad
and with respect to criminal trade of women; e.g., warning about the techniques of recruiting girls for jobs abroad – it is necessary to keep rules such
as going abroad only after an employment permit is issued, remembering
the telephone number of the Slovak Embassy, not giving one’s passport to
anyone, and so on. Furthermore, it is also important to inform students
about the risks at the labour market (summer jobs, etc.), to teach them how
to differentiate job offers that might be risky, what is important to ask when
employment is intermediated, and others.
• Effective prevention should not be scary, it should not ban or order, but it
should truly explain, clarify and offer other possibilities.
• It is important to say that single activities cannot replace continuous and
purposeful systematic work within the framework of primary prevention.
Lectures or debates need not necessarily have a positive effect, they can even
evoke interest and curiosity, e.g., to experience a new drug, as something
that is interesting and dangerous (debates with an abstinent alcoholic or
drug addict).
• Use of various forms of prevention, e.g., the teaching process, specifically
during lessons of ethical education, civics and others, where the curriculum
allows; special prevention projects and programmes, education of a healthy
lifestyle; promotion and information, communication technologies, and
others.
Besides prevention, a social pedagogue assists in diagnosing a problem, gives
relevant information to teachers and parents. M. Kolář (2009, p. 7) points out:
51
“I permanently encounter tragic consequences resulting from non-preparedness of
the first contact professional.“ It is necessary to collect information about surroundings, where a pupil is educated, about family surroundings and the upbringing by
parents, socio-cultural background, about the previous upbringing and education
and school results and behaviour of the pupil during lessons.
Despite the fact that primary prevention is more effective and cheaper compared
to secondary and tertiary prevention, the current situation also requires the solution of behaviour disorders. In the sphere of secondary prevention, it is complex
care of children and the youth with behaviour disorders, starting with the problems
with family, school order breach, up to breaking the law. Cooperation of teachers,
educational counsellors, prevention coordinators, psychologists, social pedagogues
and parents seem to be indispensable .
Effective methods and approaches are sought for in adequate solutions to
behaviour disorders. Some procedures of intervention are only suitable for some
behaviour disorders, specific school surroundings or a type of teacher and pupils
(e.g., with respect to a pupil’s age). Professional competence and practical experience of teachers, social pedagogues and educational psychologists also influence
the selection of a strategy.
C. Határ (2010, pp. 64–71) mentions six related steps of professional activities
of a social pedagogue during socio-pedagogical work with pupils’ problematic or
malfunctioning behaviour:
1. Step: Identification of socio-educational problem
Detection and awareness of pupils’ manifested symptoms that are not permissible and are unacceptable. School’s internal regulations with generally valid
requirements formulated can be helpful.
2. Step: Classification of socio-educational problem
We are interested in what kind or form of aggression is manifested, e.g., its
duration, etiological aspect, and demand for solution.
3. Step: Complex analysis of socio-educational problem
This step relates to a detailed analysis of the socio-educational problem. After
a diagnosis is defined, a prognosis is worked out and measures for solution
are proposed. Social pedagogues cooperate with other professionals.
4. Step: Execution of socio-pedagogical prophylaxis
Social pedagogue tries to inhibit negative and stimulate positive socioeducational influences. The aim is to develop and to cultivate a pupil’s
personality to a maximum possible extent, to solve common and collision
life situations.
5. Step: Execution of tertiary socio-educational prevention
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Ingrid Emmerová
These measures are aimed to prevent recidivism of solved problems. A social
pedagogue may coach training of various kinds (to acquire necessary competences and skills to solve various problem situations), panel discussions
about up-to-date topics (educational psychologists, psychologists, doctors,
special pedagogues, and others), to use activating methods during work with
children (plays, dramatizations, projective methods and others ).
6. Step: Catamnesis and evaluation of indicated socio-educational prevention
and prophylaxis
This step relates to the monitoring of a client (in this case a pupil) also after
the end of socio-educational prophylaxis and prevention of the tertiary
character. A social pedagogue evaluates indicated measures and tools to solve
pupils’ disordered and problematic behaviour as well as its consequences.
Solving pupils’ behaviour disorders is very demanding and long-lasting. It
requires a lot of patience and professionalism. A social pedagogue also assists in
this sphere.
When solving educational problems, it is necessary:
• to examine a specific case carefully,
• to prepare a written record by school,
• to ensure protection for possible victims (e.g., of bullying ),
• intensive cooperation from teachers, educational counsellors, prevention
coordinators is necessary; if a school employs an educational psychologist and a social pedagogue, then also the cooperation of the educational
psychologist and the social pedagogue,
• school should contact parents or pupils’ statutory representative,
• reporting of more serious events to the Police of the Slovak Republic or
to the Office of Socio-Legal Protection for Children and the Youth and to
social guardian.
• all pupils should be properly informed about specific cases,
• a pupil who behaves improperly should be penalised in accordance with
school regulations,
• it is necessary to monitor the class where a problem occurs, and to execute
primary and secondary prevention,
• it is desirable to convene a meeting ( in the class where problems occurred)
and to inform parents,
• to cooperate with professionals from the institutions of educational counselling and prevention.
53
First of all, a pedagogue should focus on children and the youth from risk families, children from inadequate family surroundings, or socially isolated children.
A social pedagogue should assist school in the sphere of cooperation between
family and school, a social pedagogue is competent to do social counselling (for
pupils, teachers, parents or statutory representatives of pupils) and others.
According to our respondents, other expected spheres for the activities of
a social pedagogue are as follows:
• cooperation with pupils’ parents,
• counselling for teachers,
• assistance for children from socially disadvantaged family surroundings,
• creation and organisation of leisure time activities.
Special attention should be paid to pupils form dysfunctional families, drug
consumers, pupils with the worst school results, ostracised pupils. More attention
should be paid during the period when school certificates are distributed (prevention against escape from homes and so on).
School is the second strongest socialising factor. School must organise preventive
activities, specifically in relation to less stimulating family surroundings of a child.
Whole attention should be paid to the pupils from endangered families, and with
respect to this sphere, specifically, to cooperate with counselling institutions closely.
All the above – mentioned should be the subject of interest of a social pedagogue
at school.
Conclusion: What teachers expect from a social pedagogue is, in particular,
assistance with primary prevention, sometimes secondary prevention, and with
solving pupils’ problematic or disordered behaviour.
It seems to be desirable to set up a position of a social pedagogue at every
fully organised primary and secondary school, because a social pedagogue has
professional competences to execute the activities of a prevention coordinator and
other socio-educational work. Intervention during pupils’ leisure time is also necessary. A social pedagogue knows risk and protective factors for the development
of children and the youth, a social pedagogue should influence pupils’ personal
development and develop their social skills.
Remark: The article represents the preliminary results of research task VEGA No.
1/0597/08 Tools for Development of Teacher Competences solved at the Department
of Pedagogy, Pedagogical faculty, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica.
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Ingrid Emmerová
Bibliography:
Bakošová, Z. (2006). Sociálny pedagóg a jeho kompetencie. In: Sociálny pedagóg,
pp. 23–30. Bratislava: FF UK,
Bakošová, Z. (2008). Sociálna pedagogika ako životná pomoc. Bratislava: FF UK.
Budd, T. (1999). Violence at work: findings from the British crime surveys. London.
Duhart, D. (2001). Violence in the Workplace 1993–1999. Washington.
Határ, C. (2010). Sociálny pedagóg v systéme sociálno-edukačného poradenstva,
prevencie a profylaxie. Nitra : PF UKF.
Hroncová, J. (2009). Možnosti uplatnenia a profesijné kompetencie sociálny pedagógov v SR. In: Socialia 2009, pp. 21–25. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Hroncová, J. (2009). Sociálna pedagogika v SR v teórii a praxi, história a súčasnosť.
In: Sociální pedagogika ve střední Evropě, současný stav a perspektivy, pp. 253–265.
Brno: IMS.
Kariková, S. & Šimegová, M. (2009) Šikanovanie na stredných školách v Slovenskej
republike. Opole : Uniwersytet Opolski.
Kariková, S. (ed.) a i. (2008). Násilie v edukačnom prostredí. Banská Bystrica: PF
UMB.
Kolář, M. (2009). Zlo či dobro, šikanovanie alebo doberanie? In: Sociálna prevencia,
1, 7–9.
Kraus, B. (2009). Profesní kompetence a uplatnění sociálnich pedagogů v ČR. In:
Socialia 2009, pp. 16–20. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Tomášek, J. (2008). Učitel jako obět násilí – poznatky z viktimologického šetření
na českých středních školách. In: Pedagogika, 4, 379–391.
Jolana Hroncová
Slovak Republic
Social Pedagogy in the Slovak Republic
in Theory and Practice – Genesis and Present State
Abstract
The history of social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic is much shorter compared
to European social pedagogy. It started to develop only in the 1970s. The paper
deals with the development of social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic from its
beginning up to the present. Its most important representatives and their work,
problematic orientation, the institutionalised representation of educators of social
pedagogues as well as legislation with respect to social pedagogues in practice.
Key words: social pedagogy, social pedagogue, personalities of social pedagogy, educators of social pedagogues, legislation of social pedagogue profession, competences
of social pedagogues, prevention of socio-pathological phenomena.
1. Theoretical basis, origin and development of social pedagogy
in Slovakia before 1989
Social pedagogy in Europe has over 165-year-old history. J. Schilling (1999, p. 65)
states that the first concept of social pedagogy was depicted in 1844 by K. Mager,
the author of this term. The theoretical principles of social pedagogy were worked
out by P. Natorp in his book “Social Pedagogy” (1898), where he also described the
focus and tasks of this science in detail. On the one hand, in Germany and also
in other West European countries, social pedagogy was developing intensively
at the end of the 19th century and at the beginning of the 20th century. On the
other hand, its development stagnated in the former socialistic countries, with the
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Jolana Hroncová
exception of Poland, where it had been developing since 1908 when this term was
first introduced by H. Radlinska.
Social pedagogy in Slovakia started to develop much later compared to the
rest of Europe, and under the influence of foreign experience and knowledge. Its
prehistory specifically includes the works by J. Čečetka, A. Jurovský, G. Pavlovič
and others. These authors associated socio-pedagogical ideas with sociological
and psychological aspects. The origin of Social pedagogy in Slovakia was mostly
influenced by Polish and German Social Pedagogy and Sociology. Specifically, the
impact of the book by R. Wroczyński “Social Pedagogy”, published in Bratislava in
1968, was very important. The importance of the book’s impact was also mentioned
by professor O. Baláž, the founder of social pedagogy in Slovakia.
The basis of Slovak social pedagogy was worked out by professor O. Baláž who
started to develop it during the 1970s in the Institute of Experimental pedagogy, the
Slovak Academy of Sciences, at the Department of Social Pedagogy. First he headed
this Department as the vice-director of the Institute, and later, he also became
the director of the Institute. The fact that O. Balaz was vice-director is mentioned
by Z. Bakošová in her book “Social Pedagogy as Life Aid” (2008). She states that
professor O. Baláž was developing social pedagogy to a large extent during the
totalitarian regime, and he was specifically researching into the social dependence
of education. In 1978, he characterised social pedagogy as an “interaction between
surroundings and education” and he creatively used and applied methods of the
sociology of education, youth and other sociological disciplines. Z. Bakošová
also states that professor Baláž participated in the rebirth of social pedagogy in
Slovakia during the 1990s, and currently, as professor emeritus, he deals with social
pedagogy as well as participates in scientific conferences about social pedagogy.
He is also a member of the Department of Social Pedagogy, the Slovak Pedagogical
Association of the Slovak Academy of Sciences. Furthermore, B. Kraus, in his
book “Man, Surroundings and Education” (2001, p. 10), also mentions professor
O. Baláž’s contribution to the origin of Slovak social pedagogy and states that since
the middle of the 1960s, the term “social pedagogy” has occurred, in addition to the
book by R. Wroczyński, in the books by two authors, namely by M. Přadka in the
Czech Republic and O. Baláž in Slovakia. The work by O. Baláž was also considered
by J. Hroncová-J. Staňová and others, from the aspect of social pedagogy, in the
book “The Life and Work of professor Ondrej Baláž” (2007).
According to O. Baláž, efforts to develop social pedagogy in a communist society
faced many obstacles. “Official ideological power structures argued that pedagogy
as a whole was a social science and therefore it was senseless to determine one
discipline to research into a relation between education and society. First of all,
Social Pedagogy in the Slovak Republic in Theory and Practice…
57
the opponents of social pedagogy in our country did not want to interfere with
the monopoly status of the theory of education, specifically its too indoctrinated
focus on a single-track ideological and political education,” states O. Baláž in his
paper Social Pedagogy – Problems and Prospects (1991. p. 608).
Several adjacent disciplines, such as social pedagogy, sociological pedagogy,
educational sociology and sociology of education, were formed between sociology
and pedagogy. All the isciplines had the same subject: man during the process of
upbringing and education in the largest possible social context. According to the
opinion of professor O. Baláž, these disciplines do not contradict, but they complement one another, but his standpoint is that “I myself advocate social pedagogy
that used to be discredited for various reasons for a long period of time” (Baláž,
O., 1996, p. 495). Furthermore, O. Baláž states that the book by the Polish author
R. Wroczyński, “Social Pedagogy”, contributed to the innovation of social pedagogy in our country during the 1960s. In the preamble to this book, professor Ľ.
Bakoš mentions that “There are only a few books from the field of social pedagogy
in our professional literature in which authors define as a science dealing with educational processes dependence and with problems of after-school education. Our
pedagogical science is focused on the issues of school pedagogy predominantly.
Although the significance of surroundings for the child’s development, and specifically for school education, is often accentuated, we do not consider enough current
diversity of influences from the point of view of education theoretically. Only a few
pedagogues focus on social pedagogy, which is a very significant discipline today”
(Wroczyński, R., 1968, p. 7). With respect to this, O. Baláž states that the work
by R. Wroczyński, as well as the words of professor Ľ. Bakoš in the preamble to
this book, “represented a challenge, encouragement, incentive for more intensive
scientific work and publication activity in the field of social pedagogy for me.
They contributed to overcoming the fact that this adjacent scientific discipline
was ignored in our country. I fully agree with Wroczyński’s opinion, who understood the significance of social pedagogy not only with respect to research into
education to a larger social context, its dependence on surroundings, but also with
respect to its prophylactic and compensatory aspects. The fact that education will
foresee potential threats and develop activities that overcome negative influences
positively is very important for man, specifically a young person, and it is even
more applicable today than thirty years ago. The compensation of gaps, unsatisfied
needs and negative influences is today inevitable at school, in the family, as well as
during leisure time. Therefore, the significance of social pedagogy has increased”
(1996, p. 496).
O. Baláž writes with respect to his focus on social pedagogy: “My research and
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Jolana Hroncová
publication activities in the field of social pedagogy were not only based on literary sources, specifically Slovak, Czech, German and Polish authors, but also on
discussions with professors Čečetka, Gallo, and Bakoš, about the subject, tasks,
methods, and theoretical and practical contributions of social pedagogy as an
autonomous and adjacent pedagogical discipline. Gradually, I formulated a more
comprehensive definition of social pedagogy and eliminated its normative and
limited wording. I realized that confrontational approaches to relevant sociological
disciplines were harmful to both sociology and pedagogy, restricted theoretical
contribution, and determined application possibilities. I tried to cooperate closely
with representatives of pedagogical disciplines with positive attitudes to social
pedagogy. This is how my opinions of the subject, task, theoretical and practical
impact of social pedagogy with focus on conditions, and needs in Slovakia were
formed” (1996, p. 496). In his paper, published in “Pedagogická Revue” in 1991
under the title “Social Pedagogy, Problems and Prospects,” he understands the
subject of social pedagogy as follows: “social pedagogy is a pedagogical discipline
that solves the relations between education and society (social surroundings) based
on exact knowledge, it contributes to defining the aims of education, it researches
into educational aspects of socialisation as well as contributes to the formation and
development of personality during the educational process in the family, at school,
during leisure time and during interest and work activities. It may specifically
contribute to educational control of key life situations (transition to school and
individual school levels, activities of school and family, career choice processes,
inclusion in employment – identification and adaptation processes, active participation in the life of society). The issue of socio-pedagogical aspects with respect to
teacher preparation and teacher activities can also be included in the framework
of social pedagogy.” (Baláž, O., 1991, p. 610).
According to the opinion of professor O. Baláž (1996, p. 496) “social pedagogy is
an adjacent discipline between pedagogy and sociology that primarily studies and
theoretically develops, and applies into practice, the knowledge about the social
dependence of upbringing and education. Special attention of socio-pedagogical
analyses is paid to feedback influences between education and social surroundings.
This means that it also researches into the institutional aspects of school, family,
leisure time activities and preventive, compensatory and charitable potentials of
education. The pedagogical aspects of socialisation must be implemented not only
by the above-mentioned institutions, but also in the process of career preparation,
career choice and adaptation in the workplaces. Undoubtedly, relations between
social pedagogy and a wide sphere called “social work” are created like this. To
some extent, the integrative and interdisciplinary character of social pedagogy
59
makes it difficult to exactly define its subject, tasks, content and methods, but at
the same time, it extends the space of scientific research and application of results
in educational practice.”
Professor O. Baláž started to deal with the issues of social pedagogy in the 1970s
in professional journals where he published his articles. However, he is also the
author of many books, such as “Introduction into Social Pedagogy (1973), “Teacher
and Society” (1973), the anthology “Development of Society and Education” (1977),
and the most influential “Social Aspects of Education” (1981), where he considers
the subject of social pedagogy and its status in the system of pedagogical sciences.
This book is considered to be the first and fundamental work in the field of
social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic. In 1982, on the occasion of professor
O. Balaž´s sixtieth birthday, the Institute of Social Pedagogy of the Slovak Academy
of Sciences in Bratislava, published a collection of papers (editor: E. Kratochvílová)
titled “Society, Education and Work” which devotes full attention to social pedagogy
in the chapter Social Pedagogy in the System of Pedagogical Sciences. O. Baláž
accentuates that social pedagogy is an immanent part of pedagogy and he considers
developmental aspects of socio-pedagogical thinking, new knowledge about social
pedagogy development and characterises the system of social pedagogy from the
point of view of its subject and context. The paper Social Pedagogy in the System of
Pedagogical Sciences was also published earlier in the national journal Pedagogika
in 1978, No.5, The paper is understood as the first contribution to constituting
social pedagogy as an adjacent pedagogical discipline in Slovakia as well as in
Czechoslovakia.
Above all, papers by O. Baláž, such as Social Pedagogy in the System of Pedagogical Sciences (Pedagogika, 1978, p. 5), Social Pedagogy – Problems and Prospects
(Pedagogická revue, 1991, No. 8) and About Issues of Social Pedagogy (Pedagogická
revue, 1996, No. 9–10) belong among the most important articles published in
journals and focused on social pedagogy. O. Baláž´s leading papers, read at various
scientific conferences, focused on social pedagogy and are very important for the
development of Slovak social pedagogy. On the occasion of the 50th anniversary
of the establishment of the Pedagogical Faculty of Comenius University in Bratislava, at the scientific conference “Social Pedagogy and Its Status in the System
of Sciences” held on September 19, 1996, O. Baláž read the paper About the Issues
of Social Pedagogy, which was published in Pedagogická revue 1996, No. 9–10.
Professor Baláž considered developmental trends and the current situation of social
pedagogy in Slovakia and his understanding of this discipline.
O. Baláž also read the paper at the international conference “Current Situation
of Social Pedagogy in Slovakia” held at the Faculty of Arts, Comenius University,
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Jolana Hroncová
Bratislava on February 02–03, 1999, which was initiated by Z. Bakošová. He read
the main article titled Possibilities and Need of Social Pedagogy Interdisciplinary
Effectiveness where he accentuated the significance of systematic coordination
and cooperation among the workplaces that develop social pedagogy at Slovak
universities.
Before 1989, professor O. Baláž was the most important personality of social
pedagogy in Slovakia, though his co-workers, e.g., E. Kratochvílová, J. Hamarová,
F. Javor, Ľ. Holkovič and others, also participated in working out social partial issues
of pedagogy. However, most of O. Baláž’s co-workers stopped dealing with social
pedagogy after the Institute of Experimental Pedagogy of the Slovak Academy
of Sciences was dissolved. Some of his Ph.D. students, who later investigated the
issues of social pedagogy at universities, can also be included in the so-called “Baláž
School”. The author of this paper, J. Hroncová, with her co-workers, I. Emmerová,
M. Niklová, L. Kamarášová and others, belong among them.
2. Social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic during
the transformation period after 1989
The negative consequences of the transformation processes, among them
unemployment, increasing toxicomania, increasing criminality, homelessness and
other undesirable phenomena, also evoked “ renascence” of caring professions,
such as social pedagogues and social workers. Social pedagogy started to develop
as a scientific and study field mostly at universities, based to a large extent on
foreign experiences. After November 1989, the development of social pedagogy
in Slovakia (including the Czech Republic) was quite chaotic. The term “social
pedagogy” started to be used frequently in various meanings that very often had
nothing to do with social pedagogy, which was observed by B. Kraus ( 2001, p.
10). It can be said that “today, social pedagogy is quite distinctly defined as an
independent scientific discipline” (Kraus, B.-Poláčková, V. et al. 2001, p. 10) also
in Slovakia. Ondrej Baláž was also the most significant representative of social
pedagogy during the transformation period. He explained a new direction of social
pedagogy in several articles that were published in “Pedagogická Revue” and read
at the above-mentioned conferences.
Z. Bakošová, who published several articles in the journal “Pedagogická Revue”,
and also in foreign journals, played an influential role in the development of
Slovak social pedagogy during the transformation period. In 1999, a momentous
international scientific conference, Current State of Social Pedagogy in Slovakia,
61
was organised at the Faculty of Arts, Comenius University, Bratislava ,under
Z. Bakošová’s auspices; the main papers were read by professor O. Baláž (Possibilities and Need for Interdisciplinary Cooperation of Social Pedagogy), Z. Bakošová
(Social Pedagogy as a Scientific Discipline), P. Ondrejkovič (Social Pedagogy and
Social Work) and by B. Kraus (Profession Model of Social Pedagogue). Close attention was paid to the relations between social pedagogy and social work and other
disciplines by the following authors : J. Hroncová, Š. Strieženec, E. Kratochvílová,
J. Perhács, R. Čornaničová and others; and also to the possibilities of social pedagogue employment. A collection of papers from this conference was published
under the same title, Current State of Social Pedagogy in Slovakia, at the Faculty
of Arts, Comenius University Bratislava in 2000. In 2004, another international
conference followed under the title Social Pedagogue and it was also organised
under the auspices of Z. Bakošová. The most important papers of this conference
were published in a monothematic issue of “Pedagogická Revue”, 2005 No. 1. In
2006, other papers were published in Social Pedagogue. It is a positive fact that in
June 2003 the Section of Social Pedagogy was established at the Slovak Pedagogical
Association of the Slovak Academy of Sciences headed by Z. Bakošová, who was
developing many activities in the field of social pedagogy. At present, she is compiling the Terminological Monolingual Dictionary of Social Pedagogy. Another positive
fact is that many important representatives of sociology, educational sociology and
sociology of youth, university professors, P. Ondrejkovič, L. Macháček and others,
are also interested in the issues of social pedagogy.
The significant workplace of social pedagogy is situated at the Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, where several university teachers deal
with social pedagogy. At the Department of Pedagogy, social pedagogy has been
researched by J. Hroncová who is also a guarantor of the master’s degree in Social
Pedagogy. Several studies by a collective of authors can also be included in the field
of social pedagogy, such as J. Hroncová (head author) – A. Hudecová – T. Matulayová: Social Pedagogy and Social Work (2000, 2001), Hroncová, J. – Emmerová, I.:
Social Pedagogy (2004). In 2007, as a team leader, J. Hroncová published a book
on the occasion of the 85th birthday of professor Ph.Dr. Ondrej Baláž, Ph.D.,
Hroncová, J. – Staňová, J. and others: “Life and Work of Professor Ondrej Baláž.
About the Issues of Social Pedagogy” (2007).
In addition, J. Hroncová is also a head author of several monographs, in
which social pedagogy is considered – the monographs include such authors
as Hroncová, J. – Kraus, B. and others: Social Pathology for Social Workers and
Pedagogues (2006) and specifically a work published in cooperation with the
Czech representatives of social pedagogy from the Pedagogical Faculty, UHK,
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Jolana Hroncová
Hroncová, J. – Emmerová, I. – Kraus, B. and collective History of Social Pedagogy.
Chosen Problems (2007) that was also published, based on the mobility programme
cooperation, at the Pedagogical Faculty, UJEP in Ústí nad Labem, under the title
About History of Social Pedagogy in Europe (2008). The latest publications that
were worked out by J. Hroncová, the head author, at the Department of Pedagogy,
Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica, include: Hroncová,
J.-Emmerová I. and collective Social Pedagogy. Development and Current State
(2009) and Hroncová, J. – Walancik, M. and collective Chosen Issues of Slovak
and Polish Social Pedagogy (2009). J. Hroncová was also a head guarantor of two
international scientific conferences on social pedagogy and social work SOCIALIA
that were organised at the Pedagogical Faculty in Banská Bystrica, Prevention
of Socio-Pathological Phenomena of Children and Youth (2007) and Profession
Competences of Social Pedagogues and Social Workers in Theory and Practice in
Slovakia and Other Countries of the European Union (2009) – many important
social pedagogues from the Czech Republic, Poland as well as other countries
participated in the conferences.
I. Emmerová is another active representative of social pedagogy at the Pedagogical Faculty of Matej Bel University, Banská Bystrica. Her publications, Prevention
of Socio-Pathological Phenomena in School Surroundings (2007), Disorders of
Pupils’ Behaviour at Primary and Secondary Schools – Prevention and Solution
(2008), also pay close attention to the work of social pedagogues. There are also
young representatives of social pedagogy that can be included in the list of authors
dealing with social pedagogy; M. Niklová and L. Kamarášová with their work
Social Pedagogue and Prevention of Socio-Pathological Phenomena (2007). All the
above-mentioned authors publish in the field of social pedagogy in domestic and
foreign professional journals. L. Kamarášová is also the author of the monograph
Profession Competences of Social Pedagogue in Prevention of Socio-Pathological Drug
Addiction Phenomena (2009), and M. Niklová is the author of Prevention of Drug
Addiction in School Surroundings (2009).
There are also others dealing with social pedagogy in theory and practice at
Slovak universities. C. Határ, from the Pedagogical Faculty, UKF in Nitra, with his
publications Social Pedagogy, Social Work, Social Andragogy (2006) and Principles
of Social Pedagogy for Caring Professions (2007) written together with M. Hupková
and K. Szíjjártóová, and his latest work Social Pedagogue (2010). The university
teachers from the Department of Social Pedagogy, Pedagogical Faculty, Comenius
University, Bratislava, E. Fűlopová, J. Svetlíková, I. Lukšík, A. Alberty, A. Škoviera,
M. Pukančík and others, also belong among those dealing with social pedagogy.
D. Polonský, and partly also V. Cabanová and others, deal with social pedagogy at
63
the Department of Pedagogical Studies at the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University in Žilina. D. Galbavý, K. Janíková, I. Hupková and M. Špánik deal with social
pedagogy with respect to educational activity at the Department of Pedagogical
Studies of the University of Trnava. There are also others who research into social
pedagogy in Slovakia, V. Diešková, G. Lubelcová, D. Selická, therefore they can also
be included in the list. The above-mentioned list of social pedagogues who deal
with the issues of social pedagogy in Slovakia is not complete. The list only includes
the representatives of Slovak social pedagogy who publish their socio-pedagogical
activities in professional publications and who also teach at universities.
3. Social pedagogy in the Slovak Republic at present and in
practice
3.1. Education of social pedagogues in the Slovak Republic
The profession of a social pedagogue is included in caring professions, and
in 1994, OECD recommended the intensification of its development in all the
post-communist countries. It can be said that in the SR, after 1989, the theory of
social pedagogy exceeded practice, in the sense of preparation of social pedagogues
as a profession. According to Internet information made public by universities,
currently, Social Pedagogy at the Bachelor’s level, as an independent study field,
can only be studied at two universities in Slovakia. At the Pedagogical Faculty of
Comenius University in Bratislava, where Social Pedagogy is studied at the Department of Social Pedagogy (I. Lukšík guarantees the study programme), and which
followed the previous study programme “Social Pedagogy and Education”. Social
Pedagogy can also be studied at the Faculty of Natural Sciences, University in
Žilina, Department of Pedagogical Studies both full-time and as extramural studies
(D. Polonský used to guarantee this study programme, currently it is guaranteed
by V. Cabanová). Master’s degree study programmes have not been accredited
so far for expertise reasons, but it is possible that they will be accredited after
the issue of expertise is solved. Social pedagogy as a field or programme that has
not been accredited at the Department of Pedagogy, Faculty of Arts, Comenius
University in Bratislava so far. In the past, students could choose Social Pedagogy
as a specialisation after the third academic year within the framework of the field
of pedagogy. According to Z. Bakošová (2008, p. 199), in 2004, there was a change
at the Faculty in the sense that pedagogy became an accredited one-field study
programme and specialisations were cancelled.
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Jolana Hroncová
The Pedagogical Faculty, University in Trnava, Department of Pedagogical
Studies offers the study programme “Social Pedagogy and Education” both as
a Bachelor’s degree and Master’s degree (E. Kratochvílová used to be a guarantor, currently it is B. Kudláčová). In the Slovak Republic at present, the study
programme “Social Pedagogy” – the Master’s degree – is only offered at the
Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica ( J. Hroncová is its
guarantor). It has been taught since the academic year 1994/1995. This study field
followed the previous Bachelor’s degree study programme of “Education” and later
also “Social Work”. At present, the graduates of the Bachelor’s degree in Pedagogy,
Andragogy and Social Pedagogy from other faculties, can continue their studies
at the Master’s degree level at Matej Bel University in Banská Bystrica.
Based on the comments of the current Accreditation Commission of the Slovak
Ministry of Education , the Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University in Banská
Bystrica has to modify the profile of a Social Pedagogy graduate in the sense that
this field can only be focused on the sphere of education, excluding teaching and
after school education. However, this requirement of the Accreditation Commission does not fully comply with the new Act No. 245/2008 on education; Section
117 allows social pedagogues to work in boarding houses. It is not wise, because
with respect to its historical development, European social pedagogy was closely
connected with the sphere of education, and after school and leisure time spent
positively was considered to be a significant factor in the socio-pathological
phenomena prevention of children and the youth. The current study programme
“Social Pedagogy – Master’s degree” is focused on socio-educational work with
deprived and risky groups of children and the youth, and specifically on the sphere
of primary, secondary and tertiary prevention of socio-pathological phenomena.
It can be concluded that the so-called “Banská Bystrica School” of social pedagogy
accentuates its prevention dimension.
2.2. Current legislative and other possibilities of employment of social
pedagogues in the SR in practice
The history of the social pedagogue profession is not long in Slovakia and it is
stipulated in the new law on education (the so-called school law) that has been
effective since September 1, 2008. Before, the profession of social pedagogue
was only specified in one legislative norm, i.e., Act No. 279/1993 on school
organisations. According to this Act, social pedagogues could only be employed
by organisations of educational prevention, such as the Centre of Educational and
Psychological Prevention, therapeutic-educational sanatorium and diagnostic
centres. This law expired on September 1, 2008, when a new Act on education No.
65
245/2008 was adopted. This Act extended the possibilities of employment for social
pedagogues in practice. At present, social pedagogues can be employed in school
organisations of educational counselling and prevention, such as the Centre of
Educational-Psychological Counselling and Prevention and the Centre of SpecialPedagogical Counselling (Section 130), in the system of schools starting from
nursery schools up to secondary schools, apart from language schools and primary
artistic schools (Section 27), at boarding schools (Section 117) and specialised
educational organisations such as a diagnostic centre, therapeutic-educational
sanatorium, and re-education centres (Section 120). Another positive fact is that
this Act introduced the position of a social pedagogue in schools, where a social
pedagogue can work in the sphere of children and the youth in the prevention
of socio-pathological phenomena. However, our socio-pedagogical optimism
resulting from this Act is outshined by the fact that despite the Act on education
effectiveness of September 1, 2008, social pedagogues do not work at school for
financial reasons. Based on current monitoring of social pedagogue employment
within the framework of the VEGA project No. 1/4527/07 called “Profession
Competences of Social Pedagogues in the Sphere of Prevention of Children and
the Youth Social Pathology” in 2008/2009, we only found one social pedagogue
who works at a primary school in Trenčín. The results of our questionnaire point
out that the majority of school directors would like to employ social pedagogues,
but they have no financial means allocated for their employment.
The possibility of social pedagogue employment in practice is also stipulated
in Act No. 448/2008 about social services, effective since January 1, 2009 and also
directly in Act No. 305/2005 about the social-legal protection of children and social
guardians, where a social pedagogue can work based on gained pedagogical education. The fact that education in the field of social pedagogy is also acknowledged
by other institutions of state administration in penitentiary and post-penitentiary
care, probation and mediation services, and others, is also positive. However,
the profession of a social pedagogue in educational practice and in the decision
sphere is not adequately accepted or comparable with that of other countries of
the European Union, where social pedagogy has a longer history.
What is a positive fact is that the position of a social pedagogue is stipulated
broader in several laws and the possibilities of employment in practice has grown
compared to the past.
At present, we see the role of a pedagogue, firstly, in the sphere of socio-pathological phenomena prevention in children and the youth, because it is required due
to the increasing deviant behaviour within these social age groups. The professionalization of prevention is also accentuated by fundamental documents of the SR
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Jolana Hroncová
and the EU, e.g., the plan of EU member states in anti-drug strategy, the National
Programme of Anti-Drug Fight and the Strategy of Criminality Prevention in
the SR. We are of the opinion that it is just a social pedagogue who should play
an important role in the sphere of socio-pathological phenomena prevention in
institutionalised surroundings, because it is them who are sufficiently educated for
this activity at both theoretical and practical levels.
Bibliography
Bakošová, Z. (2008). Sociálna pedagogika ako životná pomoc. Bratislava: FF UK.
Baláž, O. (1996). K problémom sociálnej pedagogiky. In: Pedagogická revue, roč.
48, 9–10.
Baláž, O. (1991). Sociálna pedagogika-problémy a perspektívy. In: Pedagogická
revue, 3(8).
Emmerová, I. (2007). Prevencia sociálnopatologických javov v školskom prostredí.
Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Hroncová, J. & Emmerová, I. a kol. (2009). Sociálna pedagogika. Vývoj a súčasný
stav. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Hroncová, J. & Walancik, M. a kol. (2009). Vybrané problémy slovenskej a poľskej
sociálnej pedagogiky. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Hroncová, J. & Emmerová, I. & Kraus, B. a kol. (2007). Dejiny sociálnej pedagogiky.
Vybrané problémy. Banská Bystrica: PF UMB.
Hroncová, J. & Emmerová, I. (2004). Sociálna pedagogika. Banská Bystrica: PF
UMB.
Hroncová, J. & Staňová, J. a kol. (2007). Život a dielo professor. Ondreja Baláža
(K otázkam sociálnej pedagogiky). Banská Bystrica,: PF UMB.
Kraus, B. & Poláčková, V. et al. (2001). Člověk, prostředí, výchova. Brno: Paido.
Schilling, J. (1999). Sociálna práca. Hlavné smery vývoja sociálnej pedagogiky
a sociálnej práce. Trnava: TU.
Wroczyński, R. (1968). Sociálna pedagogika. Bratislava: SPN.
Peter Jusko
Slovak Republic
Selected Educational, Scientific-Research
and Inter-Profession Reflections
Abstract
In this paper we will try to indicate selected educational, scientific-research and
inter-professional aspects of social work autonomy in the university education
of social workers in the Slovak Republic. We understand the autonomy of social
work as a personalised ability of social work to identify, profile and solve one’s own
education, scientific-research, professional, organisational and other intra-field
components independently.
Key words: social work, autonomy, legitimacy, education, organisation of studies,
profession, social policy, social pedagogy, psychology, accreditation, legislation, quality
of study.
Introduction
The renaissance of social workers pre-graduation preparation and its gradual
contextualisation under the conditions of university studies has been in place in
Slovakia for more than two decades. Since its revival, the university education of
social workers has been organised as a component of European educational space
in accordance with the Bologna Declaration.
The constituting of social work as a study field, scientific field and profession is
obviously influenced by identification and new challenges related to this process
are responded to. One of them is the autonomy of social work, i.e., a personalized
ability of social work to identify, profile and solve one’s own educational, researchscientific, professional, organisational and other inter-field components independ-
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Peter Jusko
ently. This process is executed by both university teachers and researchers, who
ensure pre-graduate preparation of social workers professionally, as well as social
workers who participate in professionalising social work. In this paper, we will try
to point out some aspects of social work autonomy, and based on its characteristics,
we will propose measures that should result in better purposefulness of the process
of social work in university surroundings. As social work is an interdisciplinary
field, its absolute independence of other scientific and study fields is not possible
and we are of the opinion that it is not even appropriate. First of all, the process of
autonomy means allowing independent and qualified decisions by representatives
of social work in the sphere of university studies and in the sphere of social work
professional execution. In order for this process to be successful, it is first of all
necessary to deal with the issue of social work legitimacy. The issues of social work
legitimacy is considered by Geert van der Laan (1998) who mentions, in addition to
others (p.14), that social work offers too ambiguous a product, it disposes of a low
extent of professional identity and its users almost cannot identify it.
Ambiguities related to the concept of social work are characterised by Musil
(2008), who states that various notions about social work can be defined as three
types called “administrative,“ “professional” and “philanthropic.“ The inclination
towards one of these types or towards their combinations influences the education
of social workers, practical execution of social work and relations of social work
to other assisting professions.
The accreditation of the field of study, social work, represents the first step for
acquiring relative autonomy of social work. Since the beginning, this step has very
often preceded the personnel and organisational study of the field. The understandable efforts to accelerate this process, evoked by social need, were later accentuated
by interest in studies resulting from “gainfulness” of social work compared to some
other fields of study. First, it was manifested by the number of applicants for social
work studies, and then in the number of admitted students, which became the
subject of criticism.
The next prerequisite for the autonomy of social work at universities is represented by profiling the personnel and organizational ensuring of studies. The
inter-disciplinary character emphasised by the study of programmes and profiles
of social work graduates evokes the need to ensure the studies with staff and
organizations. When creating an optimal model for the organisation of studies
accompanied with efforts to preserve specific features of social work, departments
holding the position of guarantor (so-called “gestor”) for social work studies often
face the problem of threat or doubt about studies and professional autonomy of
social work. Graduates of social work should be offered some space for adequate
Selected Educational, Scientific-Research and Inter-Profession Reflections
69
reflection of their future professional career as early as during their studies. Vast
possibilities for employment make social work studies attractive for applicants,
but they also mean a persisting risk of ambiguous professional autonomy for the
graduates of social work in social practice.
All the above-mentioned components of social work with implications or overlapping in university surroundings should be analysed permanently, because it is
a longitudinal process with overlapping efforts to increase the quality of studies,
research activities and professional performance of social work.
1. University education of social work and the issue
of social work scientism
The social education system or the system of social work schools (in: Tokárová,
2003, p.302) is an educational system component that is focused on professional
preparation and on enhancing the qualification of social workers. It originated as
a response to the inadequate content of education, whereby other study and research
fields allowed it. The beginning of the social worker education is related to the
organisation of short-term training at the turn of the 19th and the 20th centuries. The
history of social education started in the 1920s, and it is specifically associated with
establishing the Institution of M.R. Štefánik in Martin, which also includes Regional
Two-Year School for Social and Medical Care. The expiry and transformation of
the social school system during the 1950s and the renaissance during the 1990s
were evoked by a period of social-political influences. At present, the pre-graduate
preparation of social workers is organised in a standard manner, but historical
development and the current situation and prospects of social work development
brought about the need to profile recognisable signs of social work autonomy in
higher education of social workers. Tokárová (2003, p.325) states that at present, the
education of social workers is demanding with respect to the amount and quality of
theoretical knowledge and its serviceableness for practice, the preparedness to solve
the consequences of changes in practice and the involvement in research.
The existence of social work as an independent study field represents a basic
expression of autonomy. Social work as an independent field of study at Slovak
universities is included in the group of social, economic and legal sciences, within
which it co-creates a sub-group of social and behavioural sciences. Besides, social
work, this sub-group includes psychology, sociology, political sciences, social
anthropology and ethnology. This category also includes the study field of social
services and counselling. This study field undermines the autonomy of social work,
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Peter Jusko
because the professional performance of social services and (social) counselling is
considered to be the competence of a social worker as a professional and, of course,
the pre-graduate preparation of social workers includes this issue as well.
The status of social work as an autonomous study programme induces the
profiling of its content as abstract, theoretical and scientific (Nash, 2003, p.26).
The core topics of the field in the Slovak Republic, as a basis for working out the
content of the study represent a poly-functional, profile-liberal, though rich in
content, complex of disciplines. The student acquires the basics for social work
from philosophy, sociology, psychology, law, economics, pedagogy, and other fields
that comprise most of the study extent, specifically in the Bachelor’s (we do not
really say “bachelor’s degree,” we say “undergraduate studies” or “graduate studies”
for Master’s and PhD) studies. The independence of social work is strengthened
by the disciplines taught during the third year of social work studies in Bachelor’s
degree and Master’s degree. These include such subjects as the Theory of Social
Work, Social Work with Selected Target Groups, Ethics of Social Work, Methodology of Social Work and Specialised Professional Practice. In comparison to Nordic
countries (in: Strauss, 2008, p.256), the aims and structure of the field of study are
determined centrally, whereby the authorisation of the curriculum is delegated to
individual higher educational institutions. For example, in Denmark, the structure
of the Bachelor’s programme comprises Social Work (84 credits), Psychology and
Psychiatry (28 credits), Law (28 credits), Social Sciences (34 credits) and Professional Practice (36 credits).
Currently, in the Slovak Republic, in accordance with the Description of the
Field of Study 3.1.14, it is possible to study all the three degrees of Social Work
(Bachelor’s degree, Master’s degree and PhD degree) at universities. With respect
to ensuring personnel guarantees for all these three degrees and a post-doctoral
degree and appointment procedures in the field of social work at some Slovak
universities, apart from Higher Professional Schools (Bachelor’s degree), social
work is a component of university education.
The profile of a Bachelor’s degree in social work in the Slovak Republic entitles
a social worker (Bc.) to execute socio-administrative activities, social counselling,
social diagnostics and prognostications, social prevention and socio-legal protection. A graduate of social work with a Master’s degree (Mgr.) has specifically the
competences in the sphere of social problems analysis and conceptual solution,
in cooperation with a multi-disciplinary team, in quality of life and in planning
and organising activities in a social sphere. The linking of the issue of social work
as a field of study and science represents the content of studies and the profile of
a graduate in a Doctoral degree of Social Work (PhD.).
71
The issue of the science of social work and looking for answers affected by an
apparent eclecticism, also relates to the autonomy of social work. However, the
formalised position of social work does not necessarily mean the fulfilment of
basic attributes of scientism. Ongoing discussions at a professional level have not
resulted in any basic agreement so far, neither in relation to classification criteria
nor in their context profiling. According to Staub-Bernasconi (1998), the theory
of social work consists of five mutually associated dimensions, i.e. the subject of
social work, the complex knowledge of social work, the ethics of social work, the
methodology of social work and the tools for acquiring knowledge. The inappropriate simplification of science about social work as an applied science often
leads to the fact that the scientific and research activities done by social workers are
“only“ a modification of activities of psychological, sociological, pedagogical and
other scientific disciplines. The science of social work should be created as a transdisciplinary system, but with an autonomous internal structure and functional
application to social practice.
The aspects of social reality that are the subject of social work as a science as well
as a profession should be researched permanently, should be analysed, classified
and solved, but these will reduce space for really autonomous processing and the
reflection of the issue of social work scientism. Therefore, we agree with McLaughlin (2009, p.132) that social workers will more often look for new ways to comply
with assigned tasks compared to the past, and it is where their education should
be focused; their education should accentuate research and evaluation methods,
and thus prepare social workers in order that they might succeed in conducting,
critically assessing and disseminating research and evaluation.
In the case when scientism of social work is generally accepted, a question arises
about how to include social work in the system of social or humanistic sciences.
First of all, two adjectives occur within this context, i.e., trans-disciplinarianism
and social work application. It is a typical feature of modern social sciences that
the subjects of their scientific interest overlap. Mutual overlaps that also relate to
social work exist, e.g., between humanities and natural sciences. The preservation of social work autonomy in such multidisciplinary scientific surroundings
is a very difficult task, even evoking considerations about possible resignation of
social work from its scientific independence. Social work as an applied science
is a well-known and preferred construct by the scientific community that may
have an apparent impact upon practical activities executed within social work.
Thus, together with Göppner and Hämäläinenom (2008, p.44) we conclude that
social work as a trans-disciplinary focused and applied science has two functions:
“theoretisation“ of practical social work and “practisation” of social work theory.
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Peter Jusko
If we understand a scientific field as a permanent form of scientific work organisation, then it represents one of the key indicators for the acquisition of academic
independence in social work.
2. Organisational and personnel ensuring of social work
in higher education
University as a formalised organisation of institutionalised education represents a form of coordination and cooperation of activities in this social form with
official education and scientific and research aims. The hierarchical structuring
of the organisation, personnel and administrative-technical ensuring of studies
and feedback control by students and official institutions (e.g., the Accreditation
Commission of the Slovak Ministry of Education) represent formalised sings of
the university as an autonomous educational institution. The anticipative rationalism of managerial decisions by the representative of the Slovak higher education
created some space for constituting the organisational and personnel prerequisites
for social work studies two decades ago.
Thus, the relative independence of social work in higher education also includes
the departments or the departments guaranteeing and directly ensuring social
work studies under the conditions of the relevant university. The organisational
links of social work autonomy under higher educational conditions include the
establishment and gradual entrenching of these workplaces (divisions, departments,
institutions, faculties) in the organisational structure of the university, personnel
positions in the workplace with respect to academic graduation of its members
and the participation of other workplaces in the education of social workers. The
gradual inclusion of students in the professional community by means of student
practice also represents an indispensable part of social work studies. Thus, employees who are responsible for ensuring these practices face several organizational
problems of financial, legislative and procedural character. Maroon, Matoušek
and Pazlarová (2007) who deal with the organisation of education for students of
social work onsite, point out the significance of supervision in these spheres as well
as the significance of evaluation of students’ practice onsite. The problems related
to the organisation of students practice as well as to the topics that are considered
below document the importance of this part of social work autonomy.
The gradual creation of departments holding the position of gestor for the study
programme of social work has a specific prehistory and its own development in
Slovakia. With respect to the non-existence of relevant departments, of course,
73
the organisational autonomy of social work in higher education was first built up
at existing departments that expressed their interest in higher education of social
workers, e.g., at the departments of pedagogy, adult education, psychology and so
on. After social work gradually entrenched itself as an independent field of study,
independent departments were established during the 1990s. The new departments
had to win a respectful status at a relevant faculty or university. In some cases,
the representative newly established departments initiated organisational changes
within the university, due to their efforts to establish or to re-profile the faculties
that educated social workers. The cooperation in this sphere was effective, e.g.,
with the representatives of departments that prepare professionals for medical
professions. The inclusion of relevant departments or faculties in a larger context
in the so-called social sciences represents one of the latest organisational trends.
The internal structure of the departments of social work also represents
a component of constituting the personnel autonomy of social work in higher
education. Based on the abstraction of standard relations in the internal structure
of departments, determined by the organisational order of faculty, first of all, we
will be interested in personnel positions at departments. The personnel positions
differ according to individual departments from both the quantitative point of
view and the professional profiling of its members. In relation to the functional
guarantee of study programme and its individual disciplines, the profiling of individual members of departments represents a very important personnel component.
The personnel position at the departments of social work in the Slovak Republic
in relation to graduation qualifications as well as the demands for the qualified
ensuring of social work studies, inevitably requires cooperation and individualisation as well as institutionalised links with other (related) disciplines. Therefore,
the important question is who should complement the positions at department
besides the members of the social work department graduated from a relevant
study or scientific field. With respect to this, there is a personnel issue such as,
e.g., the representation of gestors and teachers of law disciplines at the departments of social work. Besides internal employees, in general, all the departments
cooperate with external surroundings. In relation to the multidisciplinary context
of social work in higher education, cooperation with external teachers seems to
be indispensable.
The departments of social work are on regular basis established at the faculties
that dispose of departments or other workplaces (institutes) that can participate
in the education of social workers; specifically, the departments of psychology,
pedagogy, sociology, law, political sciences, economics, medical care and so on.
However, as it is highly improbable that all such oriented departments are at one
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Peter Jusko
faculty, and therefore, in order that personnel issues of social work study programmes might be saturated, it is necessary to ensure the organisational cooperation of several faculties or cooperation from the university. We are of the opinion
that it is important to accentuate the need for specifications for the members of
individual departments participating in social workers education for the needs of
social work. We presuppose that the above-mentioned profiling of teachers from
other departments may significantly contribute to the improved quality of social
workers in higher education.
3. Inter-profession reflections of social work in the higher
education of social workers
The modern democratic society links the acquisition of specific professions to
acquiring the relevant education that should be available for everyone. According
to Keller (1995), the attributes that can be applied to the profession of social work
include the systematic theory of professional performance, professional authority,
professional association and professional ethics. The functional coexistence of all
these attributes represents a fundamental source of professional autonomy. It is one
of its threats that the professional performance of social work is not clearly defined
in relation to other caring professions.
Within this context, it seems necessary to focus on the preparation of future
graduates of social work studies in practice. We can deduce, based on the profiles
of this study field graduates that several inter-professions overlaps may occur. These
include, e.g., the relations between social work and economics, law (e.g. the law
of social security, labour law, family law, administrative law), sociology, special
pedagogy, andragogy, political sciences, medicine and ethnology. We think that it
is also important to mention in this paper the study or professional overlaps such
as between social work and social policy, social pedagogy and psychology.
Social policy represents a significant part of the social work curriculum and we
can also see significant links with social practice. During the studies of social work,
several disciplines (such as, e.g., social security, social services, employment policy)
have firmly embedded themselves in the system of social policy, but they also keep
their firm place in the profile of social work graduates. What is a problem is the
unclear position of social work in these subsystems of social policy as a whole and
its parts, and vice versa. The place of social policy in wider social contexts is also
marked with this ambiguity. For example, the insufficient profiling of the target or
social policy routing is characteristic of social policy as a practical activity, which
75
then can influence the constituting of social policy as a study field. However, the
results of our research (Brozmanová Gregorová – Hudecová – Jusko – Vavrinčíková,
2007) prove that the graduates of social work effectively use the above standard
knowledge from social policy acquired during studies. The knowledge in the sphere
of social policy is also a component of the further education of social workers in
practice. The interconnection of social policy and social work is also apparent in
the sphere of social legislation. Social legislation is not only a study material for
students of social work, but it is also a tool for social workers in practice. Social
policy, specifically through social legislation, represents a source of professional
autonomy for the graduates of social work, but the problem originates in the case
of professional correlation with graduates from the fields of study that are similarly
linked with social policy (e.g., social services and counselling).
The reciprocal relations between social work and social pedagogy are probably
most elaborated in theory. The cooperating correlations of social pedagogy and
social work as a field of study in the Slovak Republic has already been accentuated
in the description of the field of study – social work, where social pedagogy is
put on the first place among related study fields. Several authors, e.g., Bakošová,
Emmerová, Határ, Hroncová, Levická, Ondrejkovič, Tokárová, Žilová and others
in Slovakia have dealt with the clarification of mutual relations between social
work and social pedagogy. Hroncová and Emmerová (2004, pp.45–46) point out
various approaches to solving the relation between social pedagogy and social
work, which includes differentiation, identification and approaches to convergence.
The cooperation of social work and social pedagogy is surely mutually beneficial,
and the ongoing convergence that might eliminate the boundaries between them
could threaten their autonomy. This is the reason why it is so important to draw
attention to the specifications of social work dwelling in its trans-disciplinarity.
The intra-professional overlap between sociology and pedagogy represented by
social pedagogy is a fragment of social work trans-disciplinarity. Social pedagogy
in Europe has more than a 150-year-lasting history and its link with social work
has always been strong. The correlation of social pedagogy and social work also has
a long lasting tradition, e.g., in Germany and Poland, and functional convergence
and the cooperation of social pedagogy and social work as scientific fields, study
fields and professions can be also noticed in Slovakia. The objective, functional
and permanent optimizing of its relations to social pedagogy, sociology, political
sciences, economics, law, hygiene and other cooperating disciplines stands as a prerequisite for acquiring the autonomy of social work in its trans-diciplinarity.
Psychology together with social work belongs to social and behaviour sciences
in the system of the field of study. In the content of social work studies, we can
76
Peter Jusko
find several psychological disciplines, and even in the core of its corpus. However,
it is not applicable vice versa. The disciplines from the content of social work
can be seen in the content of psychology only exceptionally or absolutely not.
Similarly, the situation related to the requirements for the performance of activities
in social and psychological practice is uneven. Although psychological education
(and also other socio-humanitarian education very often) is accepted by social
practice, the conditions for the performance of the psychological profession are
determined more correctly in relation to educational specialisation. We perceive
the topic of competences for the performance of psychotherapy as a very interesting topic, because besides psychology or medicine also social work is very often an
input educational prerequisite before attending some relevant psychotherapeutic
training. The achievement of autonomous positions of social work in relation to
psychology is conditioned historically, institutionally, legislatively, and in relation
to the key topic of our paper – it is also related by a conceptual cooperation in
higher education of social workers and psychologists.
The demarcation of social work also relates to other studies or professional
spheres as a whole or partially. In relation to the pre-graduate or post-graduate
preparation of social workers in Slovakia we could illustratively mention several
examples. The connection of social work and the law seems to be functional in the
educational preparation of probation and mediation officers for criminal justice.
The cooperation of social work and andragogy is possible in the sphere of education
and preparation of applicants entering the labour market. The cooperation in the
fields of social work and theology can be applied in various forms, e.g., as the study
field of social and missionary work. At present, the cooperation of social work
and economics for the purpose of improving the activities of social enterprises is
topical. The subjective professional entrenching of graduates of such specialisation
study types relates to both the input of higher education attendees and the planned
professional position that the graduates should take. These specialisations could
become a part of social worker education, specifically in the Master’s degree. In
our opinion, the use of the possibilities offered by certified training included in
the higher education of social workers, seems to be adequate. In this case, besides
improving the quality and attractiveness of social work studies, also the strengthening of profession autonomy of future social workers is considered.
77
Conclusion
The autonomy of social work in the university education of social workers relates
to the accreditation process that includes study, research and organisational spheres
of ensuring social work studies, to legislation demarcation of preparation of social
workers and their professional performance and to functional links between theory
(scientific and educational components of social work) and practice (institutionalisation and specialisation) of social work. The indicated heterogeneity of educational space of social work accentuated with autonomy of individual universities
and social work itself are prospectively one of the most interesting topics that are
relevant for social work.
The system of accreditation in our country respects social work as an independent
study field at all the levels of higher education. The accredited study programmes at
individual department of universities are significantly different in relation to both
the overall concept and the conceptual focus of individual disciplines. The association of educators in social practice in the Slovak Republic currently executes the
contextual comparison of social work study programmes, and its results will allow
self-reflection of individual educators, or possibly the contextual improvement of
higher education for social workers enhanced by functional cooperation.
The organisation of social work studies is also significantly differentiated. In
general, we have noticed seven modifications of organisational ensuring of studies
in the Slovak Republic and the Czech Republic during the last two decades:
1. An independent department in the position of study programme gestor;
2. Several departments in the position of gestor together;
3. An institute as an organisational unit of faculty in the position of gestor for
the study programme;
4. An independent faculty the priority of which is to educate social workers;
5. A faculty together with another specialisation (e.g., health service) is focused
on the preparation of social workers;
6. Several faculties within the framework of one university educate social
workers independently;
7. No independent department in the position of gestor for the study programme within the framework of the university that educates social workers.
The above-mentioned differences in the organisational ensuring of studies,
first of all caused by the extensive development of social education during the
last two decades, complicated the process of social work autonomy (not only) in
academic surroundings. The achievement of adequate consensual arrangement of
78
Peter Jusko
study organisational units, respecting individual departments in the position of
gestor, will contribute to enhancing the lucidity of the criterion of quality for higher
education of social work students.
Other spheres of social work independence in academic surroundings (personnel, legislative, scientific research, inter-professional, institutional or any
other autonomy of social work), indicate the multidimensional character of this
process. University surroundings with their educational, scientific-research and
organisational potential should become a natural initiator, creator and guarantor
of necessary changes allowing the gradual acquisition of independent status for
social work in higher education and then in the professional performance of the
graduates of social work.
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Enikő Albert-Lőrincz,
Márton Albert-Lőrincz, Annamária Kádár,
Tímea Krizbai, Réka Lukács-Márton
Romania
Flow and Anti-Flow
as Predictive and Protective Factors in the Life
of Adolescents
Abstract
Introduction: In the present research our goal was to identify those personality
traits which can trigger anti-flow and those traits which can be useful in banishing
anxiety, weariness and apathy.
Methods: The study was conducted on 599 teenagers. The questionnaire contained the Psychological Immune System Inventory (PISI), The Flow Questionnaire
(Oláh) and questions regarding the emotive tone. In this article we will present the
first part of our study, the results regarding flow and anti-flow.
Results: Teenagers can achieve flow during activities done together with the
family, friends or in their free time.
Conclusions: Analyzing the answers we can conclude that teenagers found
the school a boring place and many times they experienced anxiety there. Our
results can offer important information and can be helpful in the development and
implementation of future prevention programs.
Key words: flow, anti-flow, teenagers, anxiety, apathy.
Introduction
According to Csikszentmihályi (1997), flow is a state which enables the development of aptitudes. The more frequent the perfect experience (flow) is, the greater
the chance for the evolution and the development of aptitudes. The notion of flow is
not quite new, an ancient Chinese Taoist, Csüang-Ce, used the word jü to describe
82
E. Albert-Lőrincz, M. Albert-Lőrincz, A. Kádár, T. Krizbai, R. Lukács-Márton
the state of flow or floating, which characterizes persons who live in tune with Tao.
Csikszentmihályi (1997) used the word flow to describe a state which is similar to
spontaneous, effortless movement, like the flow of a river, when life becomes the
most interesting and enjoyable.
The studies regarding the perfect experience in fact refer to the method of dealing with certain life situations. The classical definition of coping, according to
which it is the process of trying to face stress (Atkinson, Atkinson, Smith, 2001),
but based on this theory we can also add the capacity of facing boredom, apathy
(Csikszentmihályi, 1997). According to this, the effectiveness of coping depends
on how we assess that situation, how dangerous or solvable we consider it, what
kind of abilities we have, how aware we are of these, and how much in tune the
undertaken tasks are with our personal aptitudes. Successful sportsmen, artists,
scientists create in a similar state of mind, because in this state the level of endurance and concentration is higher, and the task in this state of inspiration is an
activity filled with joy. The constellation of the abilities and the daily requirements
produce a specific quality of life or emotional state. This is why correspondence is
important so it can ensure harmony, positive flow and a healthy attitude.
The basic condition of the flow experience lies in our personality, we are responsible for our chosen objectives, for which we have the necessary abilities, and from
the perspective of which we choose our tasks. If there is conformity between the
requirements and the existing abilities, then we are able to live through a unique
experience quality, the state of flow (Oláh 2005, 112). Although the ability to
experience flow is present in everyone, there are important individual differences
influencing the frequency of the experience. Csikszentmihályi (1975, 2000) used
this fact as a basis for defining the characteristics of the autotelic (flow-capable)
personality: they do things for their own sake, not in order to reach an external
goal. The expression means an ego that has individual goals. “The person who is
never bored, rarely worries, takes part in the events around them, spends most of
their time in flow can be called an autotelic person” (Csikszentmihályi 1997, 289).
Autotelic activities are self-rewarding and do not depend on the result and on
external reinforcement. A lot of characteristics of the autotelic personality have
been identified: general openness, curiosity and interest, tenacity, perseverance,
tendency towards inner motivation, lower self-centredness. These persons are
more courageous, quick-witted, more self-confident, and have high control over
attention and their consciousness.
The autotelic personality according to Oláh (1999) can be defined as a highly
stress-tolerant, trained (Kobasa et al. 1982) person with learned ingenuity and
powerful ego-efficiency (Bandura, 1982) and ego-flexibility (Block, Block 1980),
Flow and Anti-Flow as Predictive and Protective Factors…
83
an increased sense of coherence (Antonovsky, 1987). This can be compared to the
personal protective characteristic system discussed in the previous chapter. The
autotelic personality is a biological inheritance and it is a result of early childhood
experiences, but it can be developed with practice and discipline, and it can reach
the level of near perfectness (Csikszentmihályi, 1997). The existing abilities and
the requirements that are in tune with this are the conditions for it. We experience
anxiety, worry and frustration when there is a dissonance between our abilities and
the requirements, when the level of abilities is much lower than the task. In case of
higher level abilities and a low challenge task there is boredom, and if both the abilities and the requirements are of lower level, the feeling of apathy sets in. To reach
flow there is a need for clear goals, appropriate feedback, concordance between
the task and the abilities, immersion in the activity, use of psychological energy,
optimal physical and spiritual state that blends into the experience of “flow”. The
activity of flow can become tangible through seeking challenge, experiencing trials
as challenges, development of problem-solving skills. The personality is enhanced
through problem-solving and the abilities are further developed (Oláh, 1999).
Studying the relationship between the family and flow Csikszentmihályi (1997)
states that early childhood experiences play a determining role in how easily someone can experience flow. Rathunde (1988) conducted studies at Chicago University
and he found that the teenagers who had good relationships with their parents,
in the majority of life situations were stronger and more satisfied than those who
had dysfunctional families. In children who were living in secure bonds there
is a higher degree of exploratory behaviour (Matas, Arend, Sroufe 1978). These
families save more psychological energy and can give their children the feeling of
joy. Chaotic families require an increased amount of attention from teenagers, and
since expectations are not clear, rules can be argued and there is a lot of anxiety
over possible consequences, and energy is wasted in shallow fights.
According to Csikszentmihályi (1997, 134) there are five important criteria in
the functioning of the family that encourages flow:
1. Clarity: the child is clear about the parents’ expectations, communication in
the family is unambiguous and goals are clearly stated.
2. Being in the centre: the child feels that his/her parents are interested in what
he/she does, what he/she feels and what kind of experiences he/she has.
3. Existence of choices: the child can choose from more possibilities and he/
she can even break the rules set by his/her parents if he/she accepts the
consequences.
4. Commitment: it gives the child the possibility to feel secure enough to lose
him/herself in an activity.
84
5. Possibility: parents offer various methods of action for the child.
If all the five criteria are met the “autotelic family bond” is created, which is
a proper preparation for the flow experience (Csikszentmihályi 1997). Children
raised in autotelic family bonds, who have clear goals, who get proper feedback,
who can concentrate on tasks, can choose from among many possibilities and are
internally motivated will more probably experience flow. According to Csikszentmihályi’s studies (1997) between young people raised in autotelic and non-autotelic
families there are huge differences in spending time with family: those in autotelic
families are happier, stronger, and more joyful and more satisfied than their peers.
The differences can be seen in schools as well, flow can be more easily reached by
children who come from autotelic environments, but the difference disappears with
friends, this is where both groups feel equally well. This explains the motivation
behind wanting to belong to a deviant group as well.
There is a lot of research on the subject of the flow experience. Asakawa and
Csikszentmihályi (1998) show that teenagers feel happy when they are involved
in intelligent activities that are related to their own future goals. While studying
autotelic teenagers, Adalai-Gail (1994) found that during productive activities these
children focused more effectively, their self-image was better and they believed
more firmly in what they were doing at the moment compared to their peers,
and they experienced more positive cognitive and affective states. The studies
conducted with the Experience Sampling Method confirmed the statement that
the person’s mood has a beneficial effect if he/she is with friends, regardless of what
else happens during the given time. This was confirmed for teenagers (Csikszentmihályi, Larson, 1984), adults (Larson, Csikszentmihályi, Graef, 1980) and older
people (Larson, Mannell, Zuzanek, 1986) as well. The ESM studies have shown
that teenagers enjoy time spent with friends the most, listening to music, playing
games, doing sports, relaxing and eating. (Csíkszentmihályi, Larson, 1984). The
frequency of the flow experience is related to the level of dedication during school
years (Nakamura, 1988). Wells (1988) confirmed with her studies that women who
spend more time in flow have a more positive self-image. Logan (1985, 1988) used
the “flow-person” expression for persons who were able to transform challenges
into flow experiences. Experiments conducted on talented teenagers (Nakamura
1988, Robinson 1986) show that a lot of teenagers do not develop their talents, not
because they are not intelligent enough, but because they cannot bear solitude.
Thus they will be disadvantaged compared to their colleagues who can handle
solitude and implicitly the difficulties of learning and practice. This leads to the
conclusion that the teenagers who get into strong dependence with a peer group
lose their chance to develop complex abilities.
85
The study conducted by Csikszentmihályi (2007) on 210 thirteen-year-old
children who were considered talented showed that the frequency of the flow
experience has a stronger effect on developing talents than good results obtained
during a cognitive ability measurement test, or even the parents’ social and material
situation.
In a study conducted on 245 students Oláh (2005) confirmed that the students’
state of health and the amount of morning tiredness influence the frequency of the
flow experiences. The experience of flow is negatively correlated with headaches,
stomach-aches and back pain. It was again Oláh’s study (2005) that pointed out
that IQ does not influence flow. Flow can be experienced by anyone who is able to
submerge in an activity. Flow is influenced by temperament and character as well.
Oláh (2005) divided these factors into three categories: traits that facilitate flow
(seeking novelty, seeking reward), factors that are responsible for survival (selfmanagement, cooperation, transcendence) and factors that ensure that a person
stays in flow, like stability.
Methods
Five-hundred-ninety-nine Transylvanian high school students participated in
the survey. The aim of the research was to get a perspective on the reasons for
teenager adaptation difficulties that could help in organizing structured prevention. With regards to flow and anti-flow we wanted to identify the protective and
predictive factors that help foretell deviant behaviour. Our research hypothesis
was that adolescent development and personal growth is negatively influenced
by the fact that teenagers are rarely in harmony with themselves and filled with
positive feelings.
Measures
Questionnaire for the measurement of flow and anti-flow
For the measurement of the perfect experience and the frequency of the anti-flow
experience we used the Flow questionnaire (Oláh,2005), the elements of which were
borrowed by the author (Oláh) from Csíkszentmihályi’s and Larson’s questionnaires, with their consent. The questionnaire studies the frequency of flow and
anti-flow (boredom, apathy, anxiety) in four different life situations (school, family,
with friends and while being alone). The subjects recorded the different states of
experiences in those four life situations on a scale of five points. The questionnaire
86
offered a chance to evaluate the flow and anti-flow experiences happening in different situations and their frequency.
Results
The demographic characteristics of the population
There were a total of 599 secondary school students who filled in the questionnaire, 39.5% of boys and 60.5 % of girls. For the gender comparison we selected
equal numbers of girls and boys (233) to avoid data distortion. The studied population age range was15–20 years, the average age was 16.7 years. The study was
conducted in Hargita, Kolozs, Maros, Fehér, Kovászna and Zilah counties. 16.2%
of them live outside cities, 82.1% live in cities, 2% did not answer this question. We
would like to note that part of the population was made up by the same adolescents
who had also participated in our studies in previous years.
The study of psychological tone that influences self-development
In our study we were interested in how frequently Transylvanian students experience the state of near perfectness during their everyday lives, and what are the life
situations in which they are more probable to get into the “flow-stream” (positive
emotional tone) compared with the state of distress, apathy and boredom (negative
emotional state). We studied the change of emotional tone in four mediums, in
schools, at homes, among friends and during spare time, alone (cf., Figures 1–4).
The results show that the adolescents experience flow mostly while they spend
time alone, when doing outdoor activities (77.80%), or in the family environment
(70.40%). This is followed by flow experienced with friends (40.10%). The least
probable place to experience flow is school (7.4%). Boredom as the opposite of flow
occurs mostly in schools (62.7%) and doing activities with friends (31.3%). Anxiety
is usually felt in the school environment (28.8%) and among friends (25.2%). If
we calculate the mean value of the positive affective state experienced in different
environments (flow) we can see that in the studied places the frequency of the
affective tone is 48.90%. Thus, in the four mediums we have mentioned the following values apply: boredom 32.8%, apathy 4.25%, and anxiety 14.07% among the
teenagers. Based on the frequency of experiencing flow and anti-flow (emotional
tone) we compared the awareness of life of the boys and girls participating in the
study. 8.4% of the girls experience flow during school activities, 71.6% within the
family, 43.4% with friends and 79.4% in their free time, while being alone. 6%
of the boys experience flow in the school environment, 35.2% with friends, 68%
within the family and 75.6% in their free time, being alone. 1.5% of the girls and
0.5% of the boys report apathy. Boredom in school activities is quite high. 62.5% of
87
7.40%
1.10%
28.80%
flow
1.70%
21.30%
70.40%
apathy
62.70%
Figure 1. The evolution of the affective tone
in the school
anxiety
6.60%
in the family
40.10%
25.20%
15.90%
flow
apathy
31.30%
apathy
boredom
boredom
anxiety
flow
0.5%
flow
apathy
5.80%
boredom
boredom
anxiety
anxiety
3.50%
77.80%
among friends
during spare-time and alone
Table 1. Correlation between the studied environments and anxiety
Anxiety when alone
Anxiety with friends
Anxiety in the family
Anxiety in the school
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Anxiety with
friend
0.3**
0.000
0.3**
0.000
0.2**
0.000
Anxiety in the
family
0.2**
0.000
0.3(**)
0.000
Anxiety in the
school
0.1**
0.001
0.2**
0.000
0.2**
0.000
0.2**
0.000
** Correlation significant on 0.01 level
Table 2. Correlation between the studied environments and apathy
Apathy in school
Apathy in the family
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Apathy in the
family
0.3(**)
0.000
1
.
Apathy with
friends
0.1(**)
0.000
0.4(**)
0.000
Apathy when
alone
0.08(*)
0.046
0.3**
0.000
88
Apathy with friends
Apathy when alone
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Apathy in the
family
0.4**
0.000
0.3**
0.000
Apathy with
friends
1
.
0.5**
0.000
Apathy when
alone
0.5**
0.000
1
.
** Correlation at significant 0.01 level
• Correlation at significant 0.05 level
Table 3. Correlation between the studied environments and boredom
Boredom in the school
Boredom in the family
Boredom with friends
Boredom while being
alone
Boredom in
the family
0.2**
Boredom with
friends
0.1**
Boredom
when alone
0.2**
Sig.
0.000
0.000
0.000
Pearson correlation
1
0.3**
0.2**
.
0.000
0.000
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
0.3**
1
0.2**
Sig.
0.000
.
0.000
Pearson correlation
0.2**
0.2**
1
Sig.
0.000
0.000
.
** Correlation on significant 0.01 level
Table 4. The correlation between the studied environments and flow
Pearson correlation
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Flow in the family
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Flow with friends
Sig.
Pearson correlation
Flow while being alone
Sig.
Flow in the school
** Correlation at significant 0.01 level
Flow in the
family
.328(**)
0.000
1
.
.300(**)
0.000
.207(**)
0.000
Flow with
friends
.176(**)
0.000
.300(**)
0.000
1
.
.180(**)
0.000
Flow while
being alone
.188(**)
0.000
.207(**)
0.000
.180(**)
0.000
1
.
89
the girls and 62.2% of the boys are bored by school activities. Activities in family,
with friends and during spare time are less boring, and the frequency of anxiety is
also quite low in these environments. There were no significant differences among
genders regarding the affective tone.
We were also interested in what kind of correlations there are between the
affective tone of teenagers and the four studied environments. Firstly, we made
measurements regarding the anti-flow elements (Table 1.). Based on the above table
we can say that the teenagers who experience anxiety when alone, feel anxiety with
friends, family and in school more frequently as well. Table 2 presents the correlation between the studied environments and apathy. Table 3 presents the correlation
between the studied environments and boredom. Among the interviewed subjects,
the persons who felt apathy during school activities were more prone to feel the
same way while being alone, with friends or with family as well. Just as in the case
of anxiety and apathy, the students who are bored at school, are prone to boredom
with friends and with family or alone as well. We suppose that negative affective
states can be learned, we can learn to live with these states without looking for
tools to put an end to the negative tones. Table 4 shows the correlation between the
studied environments and flow. In the case of flow as well, the fact that proves to
be true is that when a teenager who experienced flow within family or with friends
is more probable to experience flow at school, too.
Conclusions
The focus in our present study was to study the quality of experience and the
affective tone of personality. We supposed that teenager development and personal
growth are negatively influenced by the fact that adolescents rarely feel in tone
with themselves, satisfied, filled with positive experiences. This hypothesis proved
true because if we take the average of the positive affective state (flow) experienced
in different environments we can see that half of the interviewed teenagers are
familiar with the state of flow. Another negative aspect is that schools lack almost
completely the flow-experience. Based on their answers we can say that teenagers experience flow-like affective states mostly during their spare time and time
spent with family. Flow induces auto-motivated activity, in which case obstacles
are viewed as challenges, and people can be immersed in the activity they are
doing at the moment occasionally forgetting even the time limits. The school is the
environment which offers the least amount of chance for this experience to happen.
Teenagers in school are most often bored and anxious there. We can conclude that
90
tasks are not interesting enough for students, they do not offer new experiences,
the difficulty of the problem is low or extremely high and thus it is not a challenge.
If the requirements are not clear or are too complex and are not in tune with the
abilities of the teenagers, they can be demoralizing and can result in tensions.
The problem is that teenagers spend most of their time in school and thus the
family environment and the circle of friends and activities done alone are not able
to counterbalance the negative effects of the school environment. According to
the Hungarian study (Oláh 1999) most anxiety, boredom and apathy is linked to
school, which means that the students are not interested by the tasks, the difficulty
level of the task – either too high or too low – does not offer a challenge. According
to our studies, school is the place where students experience the highest anxiety
and boredom rate. Boredom levels are three times higher than in the case of the
Hungarian students. Boredom is the most frequently mentioned predictive factor
in the formation of deviant behaviour. (Pikó 2002). According to the suggestions of
Oláh (1999), school needs to take into consideration the fact that it has to serve the
student’s personal goals, and needs to be a catalyst in the self-fulfilment personal
development. All this requires the teacher’s attitude to be one that encourages
individual initiative, recognizes students’ personal life goals, supports activity
forms that are internally motivating, which could be important conditions for
teacher training as well. We did not find significant differences between the genders
regarding the frequency of the flow-experience, but a few tendencies were observed.
In the case of the boys there is a higher degree of apathy during school activities,
a larger number of them find activities with friends boring than the girls, the
girls are more motivated in school and they are also more inventive with friends.
We found correlations between the joy, anxiety and boredom felt in different life
situations (family, spare time, school, activities with peers) and the teenager who
experiences flow in school the most frequently is the one that feels good with the
family and in his/her spare time as well. The student who feels anxious during
lessons has a tendency to feel anxious at home and with friends, too. School needs
to apply positive mental hygiene concepts, to become a place for psychological
growth, to emphasise the development of personality, individuality, self-efficiency,
independence and activeness of the individual (empowerment effect). There is
a need for prevention programmes that aim to develop the abilities of teenagers,
in order for them to be able to better cope with risk factors. Such programmes can
be, e.g., stress management programmes, where different techniques are taught
for handling problem situations, and effective methods for releasing tension. The
programmes for developing emotional intelligence are also effective where young
people could learn to handle their feelings and recognise and handle other people’s
91
feelings. Communication programmes would be very useful for teaching teenagers
adaptive communication schemes as they would be able to use them effectively
with their peers and their parents. The future image of teenagers can be formed
with a similar programme, by teaching them to plan their life and handle time
effectively.
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Éva Szolár
Romania
The Implementation of Two-Cycle Degree Structure
in Hungary
Abstract
The article presents the implementation of the two-cycle degree structure in
Hungary. The objective of the research on which this paper is based is to bring
together the interpretations and constructions of higher education policy communities (e.g., higher education institutions, buffer organizations, central bureaucracies, expert groups and policy networks) regarding the Bologna process and
two-cycle degree structure. The research is designed as an iterative process and
is grounded on qualitative methodology, in the course of which we conducted
interviews with the members of policy communities, and in addition we analyzed
their relevant documents. The study concludes that the higher education reforms
under Bologna-umbrella have been considered as a new platform for debating
the problems, challenges and policy answers of the national higher education
system.
Key words: Bologna process, higher education policies, two-cycle degree structure.
The Bologna Process in Central Europe and Hungary
A structural reform becomes the most visible initiative of the Bologna process, although today the reform serves as an umbrella for comprehensive reform
processes in national systems of higher education. In the Central and Eastern
European countries the Bologna process is not only strongly connected with the
overall political transformation (Kozma, 2008; Pusztai and Szabó, 2008; Flóra and
Szilágyi, 2008; Belényi et al., 2010), but it provides an opportunity for the higher
94
Éva Szolár
education policy-makers for the Europeanization of the sector and a new platform
to reframe their policies. In Hungary the implementation of the two-cycle system
was bundled into a wide scale higher education reform initiative whose agendasetting process has released numerous fundamental questions and debates on the
problems, issues and directions of the higher education system. The overall process
was dominated by the professional and technocratic mode of policy formulation,
well-known for the reformist tradition of the 1980s.
As a public policy concept, the Bologna process today implies systemic (e.g.,
core functions of different higher education institutions, the future of the university
and non-university sectors), programmatic (e.g., at different program levels different curricular emphasis, arrangements and functions; vocationalization of the
academic curriculum), procedural (e.g., new modes and arrangements of teaching)
changes, and a shift from an accent on horizontal to vertical differences (e.g., the set
up of stratified and hierarchical national systems based on reputation and prestige,
especially in research quality), and from input – to output-oriented higher education. In a broad sense, and on the basis of national implementation experiences, we
can also conceptualize the Bologna process as governance (e.g., a shift from hard
to soft governance modes, and from direct central state control to indirect control
of buffer organizations though curricular and quality governance) or funding (e.g.,
the introduction of performance based funding) reform. The concepts behind these
reform initiatives suggests that the original objectives of the Bologna process are
reinterpreted by the Lisbon Strategy and several national higher educational policy
objectives.
The Policy Analysis of the Bologna-reforms
The research on policy change initiatives connected with the Bologna process
is analyzed from the content-oriented (policy) and decision-making (politics)
perspective. Consequently, our research rests on education policy studies, a public
policy analysis and political science, especially on an implementation analysis. The
approach follows those third generation implementation studies which synthesize
the traditional top-down and bottom-up model. These perspectives are elaborated
by (1) Elmore’s (1985) “backward and forward mapping” model, (2) Scharpf ’s
(1997) actor-centred institutionalism, and (3) Sabatier and Jenkins-Smith’s (1993)
Advocacy Coalition Framework. The problem to which the policy is addressed, the
complexity of reality and the whole ranges of policy actors were paid attention to
by analysts in these approaches.
The Implementation of Two-Cycle Degree Structure in Hungary
95
In our research we addressed the main question of what happened in Hungarian
higher education after the national engagement to participate in the Bologna process. Firstly, through document analysis (e.g., research reports, media documents,
committee minutes, institutional and governmental texts, statements in policy
questions, etc.) we identified those policy communities or actors that were active in
framing higher education policy problems, issues, causal relationships, or settling
policy debates and formulating solutions.
The actors actively engaged in higher education policy formation consist of (1)
the Parliament, (2) the central bureaucracy and government, (3) the national policy
networks, e.g., National Bologna Committee, (4) professional and expert groups,
e.g., consortium for the elaboration of professional-technical design of BachelorMaster programme implementation, (5) independent and semi-independent buffer
organizations, e.g., Hungarian Accreditation Committee, Council of Higher Education and Science, (6) the corporate actors, e.g., Hungarian Rector Conference, and
finally from the bottom-up line (6) the higher education institutions. In the second
step we started to make open-ended elite and expert interviews with the members
of these policy communities. Thus, we collected 36 interviews concerning the problems of Hungarian higher education, seeking to answer if the Bologna reforms are
or are not an adequate policy response to these challenges. Additionally, in these
interviews we were seeking to explore the policy-making process, the Bologna
interpretations and discourses, the alternative policy responses at the system and
institutional level, the implementation experiences of the bottom line, the common
and conflicting interests of actors, and the envisioned future for higher education.
However, taking into consideration the limitations of this paper, we will focus on
some aspects of the two-cycle degree structure introduction.
The Implementation of Two-Cycle Degree Structure
Power and Interest in Higher Education Policy Development
The Hungarian political representatives were among the first ones to sign the
Bologna Declaration (1999) and right after this act they initiated the interpretation
of the declaration for policy agenda-setting. The implementation concept emerging
from this work was entirely superseded after the political change by the perspective
of the so-called “Accession to the European Higher Education Area” (AEHEA)
(2003) comprehensive reform project. The first and the second model presented
two different visions for the introduction of the Bachelor-Master programmes.
96
Éva Szolár
Subsequent to the political change in 2002 and under the pressure of defined tasks
at the ministerial meeting in Berlin (2003), the minister of education envisioned
a new large scale transformation for higher education based on scientific planning.
He invited, on the one hand, reformist planners from management and economics,
and, on the other hand, education policy experts and professional elites, almost
entirely assuring the homogeneity of principles and values between members, but
also the consistency of reform arguments.
The professionalized and technocratic designs of educational reforms behind the
closed doors further turn out to be the most important failure of the envisioned
large scale modernization of Hungarian higher education. In the AEHEA project
the introduction of the new training system under the heading of the so-called
“academic reform” presented only a small part. In experts’ argumentation at that
time reforms were necessary in (1) institutional management, (2) higher education
governance and (3) financing. The technical processing of these general calls discloses the shift from academic to professional-economic management and funding
from multiple sources with the introduction of tuition fees. These goals do not
have professional (especially from the elite professorate) societal or even political
support; indeed several policy actors attacked the reform elements with the use of
democratic instruments (e.g., protests, petitions, lobbying, initiating of a referendum, claiming for position statements of Constitutional Court, etc.) adequately
to their position and interests. The political actors (the ruling government) who
previously sustained the restructuring, experiencing such a rejection started to
negotiate with the professional and lay policy communities. However, once again
the bottom line professionals and society were overlooked in this bargaining process. The modernization goals under various interest group pressures were gradually
removed from the development project (Hungarian Universitas Programme) and
draft versions of Higher Education Law (2005) based on the AEHEA. Finally, in
order to fulfill the Bologna-commitments and to gain political advantage from the
visible change of structural reform, only the introduction of the Bachelor-Master
system was maintained.
The ideas and controversies of Bachelor-Master degrees*
In Hungary the new degree structure was implemented in the academic year
of 2006/07. Formerly, from 2004 there were experimental programmes in some
* At the present time the Hugarian higher education has primarily experiences with the
Bachelor level, since the Master one has been implemented only in the last one or two academic
years.
97
practice-oriented, specialized study areas (e.g., polytechnic and informatics), which
became the main drivers of this restructuring through the whole implementation process. However, the multi-cycle study structure, the credit system and the
underlying educational philosophy had been introduced long before the Bologna
process in various areas. For example, after the academic reform in the 1980s at
Karl Marx University of Economics – the place of the communist reform – a new
Anglo-Saxon type of economist education was introduced; the academics from
this university played a significant role in the above-mentioned large scale reform
development. In addition, there are other examples from education of production
engineers, informatics and international studies.
The original implementation perspective of the Bachelor and Master structure
argued for the preservation of a dual higher education system, therefore the college
education could maintain their functions and training model. In this approach after
the three-year university training (especially in academic programmes) candidates
do not receive qualification (diploma), but only a certification of completed courses,
which authorize especially for further studies. The underlying idea was that in
traditional academic programmes (e.g., arts and sciences) three years cannot fulfill
the function to give qualification and in addition preparation for further studies.
Contrary to this, the AEHEA model preferred to implement a strong linearity and
alleviation of a dual system, with functional change of colleges, as engaging themselves in various (academic and vocational) study programmes, though mostly at
the Bachelor level. In this uniform and comprehensive model, the three-year study
program tries to give both qualifications for employment and education for further
studies at the Master level. The technical realization follows the standard 3+2 or, as
exception 3,5+1,5/2, model, although with exception of some study programmes
(e.g., the law, medical education and architecture). The teacher education also
argues for the re-establishment of the previous structure.
The experience of higher education institutions with this model is negative and
generates several conflicts between the sector, buffer organizations and central
bureaucracy. The two-fold function of the Bachelor degrees in arts and sciences
remained largely unfulfilled. The academic studies cut back the proportion of
theory in the curriculum, and consequently, in their argumentation, cannot be
adequately accomplished the preparation for the Master level, but even for the
labour market, especially in the case of teacher training related programmes. In
Hungary the teacher diploma could be obtained at the Master level. However, the
theory-oriented disciplinary training is organized at the Bachelor level, which is
completed with pedagogical and practical education at the Master level, thus the
disciplinary knowledge is poorly grounded – as the institutions and their profes-
98
Éva Szolár
sorate argue. In order to respond to every function assigned to university Bachelor’s
the disciplines overloaded the curriculum, trying to preserve the older four-year
structure. This process is evaluated by the experts as one of the main causes of the
implementation failure and the lack of “paradigm-shift”: in their interpretation
the curriculum development for the new degrees followed special departmental
existential interests. This problem even jeopardized the Master curriculum, since
in several areas there is a lack of new content elements for the second degree.
The conflict concerning the theory-practice ratio affects the labour market perspectives of Bachelor graduates. In the reframing process of the two-cycle system
the academic actors argue for the elimination of the uniform degree structure, and
for the implementation of academic and professional-vocational Bachelors and
Masters. After two-year study there could be introduced a choice option: (1) on the
one hand, for the continuation in a practice-oriented study line with preparation
for labour market entry, and (2) on the other hand, entering the academic line for
further theory – and scientific-oriented learning with possible continuation of
studies in the second and third cycle. Behind the walls of this scheme, the education
of gifted students also could be realized. The policy experts in this reorganization
see an attempt for the re-establishment of the traditional Hungarian dual system,
reducing the permeability of structure.
In the actors’ interpretation the decline of the functional dualism of universities and colleges, the growing academic and vocational drift, and the blurring
boundaries between the institutional types could be indebted to the Bologna
process. In Hungary, the new Higher Education Act (2005) gives the possibility
for colleges to start higher degree programmes. Long before the appearance of
this act universities organized vocational, specialized short courses. Thus, the
convergence of contents and functions has a long history (e.g., practice-oriented
courses in traditional university education have been gradually introduced, but
also theoretical education in college training; the two institutional types organized
identical programmes; the research function has been strengthened at colleges;
and now the study programmes are vertically expanded). This process from the
actors’ perspective can be seen as a growing competition, but also as a potential
for cooperation between the sectors. On the one hand, as a result of the vertical
differentiation supported both by the university sector and government policy the
local colleges with narrow portfolios start to decline. There is a claim from universities, elite professorate, buffer organizations and policy experts for co-operation and
division of labour: the colleges could organize the Bachelor programmes, whilst
the universities the Master and doctoral programmes. As a result, college training
may become the introductory stage for university education.
99
The implementation failures of higher education policies concerning the twocycle structure are interpreted in different ways by various actors. From the perspective of central bureaucracy, policy networks and experts these failures can be
explained by the wrong implementation of the bottom line actors, particularly the
curriculum developers who participated in the professional design of new degrees.
At the same time, they argue for the importance of enlightening campaigns and the
interpretation of exact goals for institutions. The bottom line actors, in contrast,
point out that the “diagnostic” frame, the causal relationships behind the policy and
the solutions (policies) do not reflect the realities of Hungarian higher education,
rather the value and ideological commitments of conception-makers. Indeed, there
is a lack of a wide-scale consensus with these reform-plans, forward projecting
the diversion of goals by the active actors. Even despite the narrow scope of action
and innovative-space, the institutional actors try to accommodate the reform elements to local frames, accordingly changing the central policy goals, which can
be interpreted as a deviation from original claims. The bottom line actors reveal
that considerable resources are consumed because of Bologna-chaos, producing
minimal professional advantages.
Conclusions
The higher education reforms under the Bologna-umbrella are considered as
a new platform for debating the problems, challenges and policy answers of the
national higher education system. The interested policy communities and actors
agree upon the necessity of change and renewal of higher education, but there is
a lack of consensus over (1) the scale, speed and depth of change, (2) the ideological, political and value frames underlying the change, (3) the type of change, (4) the
causal mechanism and policy instruments, (5) the role of local and central actors,
(6) the place of local innovations and system-level policy-directed transformations.
In regard to the actual standing of the Bologna-reforms, both the central and
local actors conclude that they are largely unsuccessful, overhasty, wrecked on the
institutional rocks, with diffused and vague goals, guided by particular interests.
The academic actors evaluate the reforms as an attack against democracy and
professional, academic and institutional autonomy.
In regard to the two-cycle structure, despite the expert suggestions for a flexible, open, student – and competence-oriented intensive organizational design,
the opposite has been implemented, namely a stiffened, inflexible, disciplinary
and knowledge-oriented extensive curriculum. Under the Bologna-structure the
100
Éva Szolár
programme differences and the vertical dimensions of higher education received
importance over institutional and horizontal diversity. There is emerging a wide
scale claim for strengthening the elite institutions and even creating research
universities, as a result sharpening the internal hierarchization and stratification.
Bibliograhy
Accession to the European Higher Education Area (2003). Budapest: Ministry of Education [Hungarian title: Csatlakozás az Európai Felsőoktatási Térséghez] http://
www.okm.gov.hu/letolt/users/matiscsaka/2003/12/vitaanyag_6v_0031208.pdf
2010. 02. 23.
Belényi, E. et al. (2010). Önazonosság és megújulás: az intézményépítés két évtizede
a Partiumi Keresztény Egyetemen. In Kozma, T. (eds.) (forthcoming)
Bologna Declaration, 1999 June 19. http://www.bologna-bergen2005.no/Docs/00Main_doc/990719BOLOGNA_DECLARATION.PDF 2009. 07. 23.
Elmore, R.F. (1985). Forward and Backward Mapping. In K. Hanf & Toonen T.A.J.
(eds.), Policy Implementation in Federal and Unitary Systems. Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, 33–70.
Flóra, G. & Szilagyi, G. (2008). Religious Education and Cultural Pluralism in
Romania In G. Pusztai (eds.): Education and Church in Central-and EasternEurope at First Glance. Debrecen: Center for Higher Education Research and
Development, 153–165.
Higher Education Act, 2005. http://www.okm.gov.hu/letolt/felsoo/ftv_20051129.
pdf 2010. 04. 28.
Kozma, T. (2008). Political Transformations and Higher Education Reforms.
European Education, 40(2), 29–45.
Pusztai, G. & Szabó, P. Cs. (2008). The Bologna Process as a Trojan Horse: restructuring higher education in Hungary. European Education, 40(2), 85–103.
Sabatier, P.A. & Jenkins-Smith, H.C. (1993). Policy Change and Learning. An
Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.
Scharpf, F.W. (1997). Games Real Actors Play: Actor-Centered Institutionalism in
Policy Research. Boulder, Colo: Westview Press.
Technology
of Education
José Ignacio Aguaded Gómez,
Eloy López Meneses,
Laura Alonso Díaz
Spain
Innovating with Blogs in University Courses:
a Qualitative Study
Abstract
This study is based on an eminently socio-constructivist and investigational
paradigm. By making pedagogical use of blogs in the classroom, we aimed to
determine whether students appreciate the usefulness both of this new social tool
and of technology in general applied to education. Based on the use of blogs in
several university subjects we designed a study and a total of 136 teacher-training
students of the specialization courses of Infant and Primary Education participated
in it. The data for the study were collected using a triangulation of techniques: faceto-face discussion sessions, email messages and blog messages. The conclusions
reveal that blogs are easy to use, they are an important resource in educational
settings, they encourage students to take on an active role, and they are a useful
instrument for self-evaluation.
Key words: e-learning, blog, computer-mediated communication, constructivist
learning, online classroom.
Introduction
Blog as a technological resource is normally used by a community of users who
have an interest in certain common subjects. The individual in charge of the functioning of the blog, generally known as the blogger, poses questions and personal
reflections which may cover any area of knowledge. In this respect, the blog is
a digital resource in a new medium of social communication which is growing
more and more rapidly each day. The Blogosphere, a term coined because of its
104
analogy with the concept of “public sphere”, is becoming consolidated as a space for
the exercise of public communication and freedom of expression (Barlow, 2007).
Blogs have increased in popularity in recent years, and cover all spheres of the
Internet, including initiatives in the field of education (Baggetun, 2006). In the
educational context, they are known as edublogs (education + blogs), i.e., blogs
addressed to education. These blogs can be useful tools in the field of teaching
since they may be adapted to all disciplines, levels and teaching methodologies
(Lara, 2005).
Blogs cover a whole range of shared experiences, providing the student with
reflections and contrasts of ideas (Bohórquez, 2008). They are appropriate and
useful practices in the development of students’ role as active participants and
of their advanced learning skills, and in the promotion of learning communities
(O’Donnell, 2006; Farmer, Yue y Brooks, 2008); they are, additionally, a tool for
collaboration and communication (Achterman, 2006). Dickey (2004) and Wise
(2005) point out that for students the elaboration of their personal blog can help
them to construct their own learning and to establish social interrelation networks
which can offset feelings of isolation habitually associated with tele-educational
systems.
The use of blogs goes beyond the time-space limits of class teaching. It favours
continuous assessment in teaching processes, and the incorporation of blogs in
curricula offers the teacher the possibility of using new methodological strategies
other than the traditional classroom lecture, such as discussions, problem-solving
or case analyses, interviews with experts, the elaboration of group projects, the
design of electronic portfolios, etc. (Salinas and Viticcioli, 2008; Cabero, Llorente,
and Román, 2007; Cabero, López y Llorente, 2009). Blogs also enable the creation
of repositories of educational digital materials for in-depth examination of the
subject-matter and improved reflexive and meta-cognitive processes. Using blogs,
therefore, enables teachers to better communicate with their students by using the
language to which the students are accustomed.
The present study was carried out during the first semester of the academic year
2008-2009 with the students of New Technologies Applied to Education, in the
third year of the Teaching Training Diploma in the specialization of Infant and
Primary Education, with 4.5 credits, and of General Didactics, in the second year
of the specialization of Infant Education, with 9 credits. These subjects are taught
at the Faculty of Teacher Training of the University of Extremadura, in the city
of Cáceres (Spain). Throughout the course, students are encouraged to learn to
use weblogs as didactic resources in their training as future teachers, so that each
student may become an active agent in the process of knowledge construction.
Innovating with Blogs in University Courses: a Qualitative Study
105
Thus, from the constructivist, comprehensive and critical viewpoints with regard
to the process of design, development and evaluation of these telematic resources,
students must learn to autonomously conduct relevant information searches, supported by various services and tools provided by the Internet: search engines, chats,
forums, distribution lists, blogs, wikis, etc.
The initial programme of subjects consisted of several topics included in the
teacher’s blog: http://www.eloy3000.blogspot.com. The subjects were taught based
on the topics and with practical sessions carried out in the computer room. In these
practical classes the students learned to design and publish blogs of an educational
nature, to handle Linex and Windows utilities, and to work with applications for
the processing of texts, images and presentations with slides.
Additionally, from an integrated constructivist and investigational perspective,
students were able to be totally creative and to assume the personal initiative of
proposing the subject-matter which their blog would deal with.
In class one day the following exchange occurred:
Teacher: What topics are we going to work on for our blog subject?
Student 1: Well, I don’t know.
Student 2: Perhaps the topics could be related to Health Education, particularly on
how to encourage good eating habits: not eating hamburgers, sweets, popcorn
at the cinema , …
Student 3: In my opinion, we should focus the blog on New Technologies in the
classroom. I think that it would be interesting for us as future teachers to participate in a blog like that, and to think about how children could benefit from these
new technologies, not only for their education but also in their daily lives […]
Teacher: Well, I don’t know either. Send your proposals to the blog address http://
sugerencias-didacticas.blogspot.com/and we’ll decide on the topics for the subject
based on demand.
In the end the students themselves decided that the blog should have as its main
theme “Introduction to Communication and Information Technologies (CITs)
in the Classroom”. The activities carried out with blogs received an evaluation of
between 10 and 20% of the final grade of the subjects.
In the setting of these characteristics, then, an investigation study was designed
with the following main objectives:
• To determine how students interpret the use of CITs in the classroom
• To determine how students perceive the introduction of blogs as an educational resource
106
Methodology
The methodology used in this study was of a qualitative and descriptive nature.
For the qualitative analysis, we took into account the fact that it is the assessor
who must attribute meanings, prepare results, and draw conclusions. Recording
of data may also be made in various ways, but the qualitative assessor must finally
transcribe all the information in written form before working on it. We considered
too that the qualitative analysis of data should not be understood as linear, but
rather as a cyclical process, at times simultaneous, and always interactive.
The main methodological characteristics of the study are presented in Table 1,
with a more detailed description in the following paragraphs:
Table 1: Main methodological characteristics of the study
Moment of Data
Collection
Beginning of training –
–
During training
–
–
End of training
–
Instruments
Participants
First face-to-face session
– 2nd year students of Infant Education
Second face-to-face session
in the subject of General Didactics
Email messages
– 3rd year students of Infant Education
in the subject of New Technologies
Third face-to-face session
Messages sent to teacher’s – 3rd year students of Primary Education
in the subject of New Technologies
edublog
Triangulation of subjects was made in the selection of the participants in the
study, so that 136 students took part, distributed in the following way:
• Thirty 2nd year students of Infant Education in the subject of General
Didactics
• Sixty four 3rd year students of Infant Education in the subject of New
Technologies
• Forty two 3rd year students of Primary Education in the subject of New
Technologies
The research data were similarly obtained by means of a triangulation technique.
This kind of technique is frequently used in qualitative investigations to ensure
reliability; in fact, as Lacy and Luff (2001) point out, when triangulation is used,
the contradictions and differences among the data selected lead to more in-depth
analyses, until meaning is found for what has occurred. The techniques used in
the triangulation were:
• Students’ oral reflections expressed in 3 face-to-face sessions
• Email messages sent between teacher/student
• Messages sent to teacher’s edublog
107
Data collection was made at three main moments in the study:
Moment 1, at the beginning of student training:
• First face-to-face session: at the beginning of the academic year a two-hour
session was devoted to group discussion for students to air their ideas relating to CITs and the “educational blog” as a digital resource.
Moment 2, during training:
• Second face-to-face session. This second session was conducted to explain
the most significant characteristics of blogs in educational contexts and
to teach each student how to create, edit and publish a blog. The students
were divided into two groups so that each student had a computer. The blog
was created using the free application “Blogger” for publishing blogs, in its
Spanish version, and by using certain functions such as addition of text,
images, videos or creation of links to a blog. At this point the students were
assessed on the knowledge acquired on CITs and Blogs.
• Email messages sent between teacher/student: at this point the use of electronic mail as a means of communication between teacher and student was
fundamental; the teacher had the chance to observe doubts, preconceptions,
reflections, etc. that students had concerning the working tools.
Moment 3, end of training:
• Third face-to-face session. This final session was held around the middle of
January, 2009, to assess the work done through a class assembly.
• Messages sent to teacher’s edublog: students were urged to participate in the
teacher’s edublog to offer their opinions on the blog as a teaching instrument.
Results
In order to analyze the data obtained, the total amount of information gathered
was transcribed. When this was done, an in-depth reading was made and all the
recorded information was categorized for the analysis of the content and organized
in the following phases (Bardin, 1986; Bogdan & Biklen, 1992):
Step 1: Identification of units of information: codification: during this first phase,
global codification of data was carried out by means of identification of units of
information or “segments of content” (Bardin, 1986), as base units, which enabled
us to have a precise description of the characteristics pertinent to the content.
Step 2: Categorization: once the units of analysis were determined, they were
ordered and organized according to the system of categories designed for the
108
research project. In this way all the available information was structured and
systematized in each of the defined dimensions and categories.
Step 3: Interpretation and inference: finally, the process of data analysis was
completed with a third stage in which the different categorized units of information
were interpreted. Once the data were thus codified, tabulation was carried out, i.e.,
data were ordered systematically in tables and presented graphically to facilitate the
following phase, which was interpretation and explanation of the results.
With regard to the results obtained, we will first assess the information pertaining to the use of CITs in the classroom, and secondly we will examine the data on
blogs.
Data on the use of CITs in the classroom
Table 2 shows the data obtained for this section; it presents the categories found,
and the frequency with which each of the three groups of students referred to each
of the categories.
Table 2: Opinions by the three groups of students on the introduction of CITs
Total
3rd year students of
Primary Education
in the subject of
New Technologies
3rd year students of
Infant Education in
the subject of New
Technologies
CATEGORIES
2nd year students of
Infant Education
in the subject of
General Didactics
FREQUENCY
Blogs are a very important resource in Ed.
30
64
36
130
Blogs enhance motivation
15
34
12
61
Blogs are useful as a repository of activities
12
34
0
46
Blogs encourage collaborative learning
10
22
4
36
Blogs aid technological literacy
9
22
0
31
Blogs make more training necessary for teachers
9
17
11
37
Blogs require better infrastructure
6
9
0
15
Blogs are an aid to teaching
5
16
14
35
3
19
5
27
0
0
5
5
99
237
87
423
Blogs help in changing the traditional teaching
methodology
Blogs make better management of technological
resources necessary
TOTAL
109
With regards to the use CITs, then, we highlight the fact that the great majority of
the students of the three subjects (General Didactics in Infant Education and New
Technologies Applied to Education in Infant Education and in Primary Education)
(f=130) believe that the introduction of CITs in the classroom is a very important
and interesting resource in educational contexts and enhances motivation (f=61).
This opinion was expressed by the students in the three face-to-face sessions, and
in the messages sent both by email and to the teacher’s edublog. The following
is an example of this opinion expressed by one student: “From my point of view,
the blog is an interesting medium and one that anyone can gain access to without
any problem. I can use the blog to consult other teachers and to try to resolve any
complicated question that crops up. This also helps a lot of other people. I think it
is a step forward as far as new class activities go, and helps to motivate students by
avoiding the monotony of the text-book” (3rd year Primary Education student in the
second face-to-face session).
Students also gave the opinion that the integration of CITs in the classroom
favours collaborative learning (f=36), it serves as a support to teaching (f=35),
and it helps in changing from traditional teaching methodology (f=27). Students
of Infant Education consider that the use of CITs in the infant classroom helps in
the elaboration of repositories of didactic activities (f=46) and in technological
literacy (f=21) (c.f. Table 2 and Graphs 1, 2 and 3).
With regard to improvements, the students from the three diploma courses noted
that teachers need more training in CITs (f=37) and only in the Infant Education
specialization did they suggest that better technological infrastructure is required
Figure 1: Opinions of the 2nd year Infant Education students
on the introduction of CITs in General Didactics
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Blogs make more Blogs require Blogs are an aid
Blogs are a very Blogs enhance Blogs are useful Blogs encourage Blog aid
training
to teaching
motivation as a repository of collaborative technological
important
better
necessary for infrastructure
literacy
learning
resource in
activities
teachers
Education
Blogs help in
changing
methodology
110
(f=15). The Primary Education students, on the other hand, felt that there is a need
for better management of technological resources (f=5).
Figure 2: Opinions of the 3rd year Infant Education students on
the introduction of CITs in the subject New Technologies
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Blogs make more Blogs require Blogs are an aid
Blogs are a very Blogs enhance Blogs are useful Blogs encourage Blog aid
training
to teaching
motivation as a repository of collaborative technological
important
better
necessary for infrastructure
literacy
learning
resource in
activities
teachers
Education
Blogs help in
changing
methodology
Figure 3: Opinions of the 3rd year Primary Education students on
the introduction of CITs in the subject New Technologies
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Blogs are a very Blogs enhance
important
motivation
resource in
Education
Blogs
encourage
collaborative
learning
Blogs make Blogs are an aid Blogs help in
Blogs make
changing
more training
better
to teaching
methodology managment of
necessary for
teachers
tech. res. necessary
Data on the use of Blogs in the classroom
With regard to the use of blogs in the classroom, the opinions expressed by the
students in the face-to-face sessions and from the messages sent by email and to the
teachers’ edublog were codified. A total of 160 valid contributions were made by
111
the three groups of students under study (c.f. Table 3 and Graph 4). In this section
we preferred to unify the opinions of the three groups of participants into a single
value, since we considered that the contributions made by each of the three groups
were not sufficiently differentiated for them to be presented separately.
Table 3: Opinions expressed by the three groups of participants
on work done with blogs
Categories
Blog is an important and useful didactic resource
Blog is a tool of communication
Blog is a repository of activities
Blog encourages active student participation
Blog motivates students
Blog aids technological literacy
Blog is easy to use
Blog is an instrument of evaluation of teachers’ methods
Blog can be used at all educational levels
Total:
Frequency
42
38
32
21
14
13
6
2
1
169
Percentage
24.85%
22.49%
18.93%
12.43%
8.28%
7.69%
3.55%
1.18%
0.59%
100.00%
Figure 4: Opinions expressed by the three groups of
participants on work done with blogs
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Blogs are an Blog is a tool of
Blog is Blog encourages Blog motivates
Blog aids
important and communication repository of active student
students
technological
useful didactic
activities
participation
literacy
resource
Blog is easy
to use
Blog is an Blog can be used
instrument of at all educational
evaluation of
levels
teachers’
methods
The quantitative analysis of the data relating to the opinions on blogs revealed
that the majority of the students (42 out of 43) (f=42) consider that the blogs are
an interesting, positive, important, and useful resource in the educational context.
112
One student, for example, stated the following: “In my opinion, the blog is a very
positive and useful resource for the infant education classroom. Not only can it be
used in the classroom, but it is also a means of communication with parents. We can
use it to write to families and inform them of anything which occurs in the centre or
class.” (Message from a 3rd year Infant Education student sent to a teacher by email
during training.)
It is worth noting, too, that this didactic resource can be used as a means of
communication for the members of the educational community (f=38), not only
between teachers and students, but also among classmates, as this student points
out:
“I think that the use of blogs in primary school classrooms is an interesting, original
and entertaining resource for children of this age. It enables them to learn to use new
technology: they can participate, give and share opinions with a number of classmates,
and at the same time create in an original manner their own information spaces”.
(Message from a 3rd year Primary Education student sent to a teacher’s Edublog
on completing training).
Blogs were also considered to be useful in the creation of repositories of hypermedium educational materials (f=32), they encourage an active role among students
in the construction of new learning methods (f=21), and they are a motivating force
in training processes (f=14). Their possible use as an instrument of technological
literacy in school classrooms (f=13) is also worth noting.
Further observations refer to the ease with which blogs can be used to edit and
publish documents on the web; opinions in this respect were received by email,
expressed during the final face-to-face session in January 2009, and commented on
in messages sent to the blog regarding blog work (f=6). The following statements
exemplify this view:
I found it very easy to set up. It is a good way of keeping contact with my classmates
using new technology.” (3rd year student of Primary Education at the third face-toface session.)
In my view, setting up a blog is easy, although I thought it would be quite difficult.
New technology and I don’t always get along together, but I found it enjoyable.” (3rd
year student of Primary Education in an edublog message).
Finally, blogs can be used as an instrument of evaluation of teachers’ methods
(f=2) and may be used at all levels and stages of education (f=1), corroborating, in
this respect, Lara’s (2005) proposal.
113
Conclusions
At present, the use of CITs is a priority objective in the training process of today’s
new generation of students (Oblinger y Oblinger, 2005). Lee and Gaffney (2008)
show clearly and concisely how schools can integrate digital technologies creatively
and wisely in order to enliven teaching and support student learning. From this
perspective, the main purpose of our investigation was for students to become
acquainted with and use CITs, blogs in particular, in their training as teachers. As
the results of the study show, this aim has been achieved to a great extent.
The results obtained favour the use of blogs in educational settings: they are
useful for encouraging students to take an active role in their studies, they enhance
higher level learning skills, and they help to establish communities of learning
(O’Donnell 2006). In fact, as Yuksel (2009) also confirms, blogs may be used
effectively as a supportive instructional tool in the learning environment.
The inference that blogs are easy to use, moreover, is clear from the messages
sent by email to teachers, from the opinions expressed in the final session of the
assembly in January 2009, and from the comments published in the blog relating
to work done on the blog (f=6). In this respect our conclusions are similar to those
of previous studies (Tekinarslan, 2008).
We are also aware that we have partially achieved one of the objectives set out in
the elaboration of this study, i.e. that students conduct search for relevant information autonomously. Previously, most of them had restricted their consultations to
the links provided by a single search engine, Google, as they themselves reported
at the final session held in January 2009. They had largely avoided using the more
effective university resources, such as consulting international library databases,
joining forums for the exchange of information, or analyzing social software
applications or Web 2.0.
Traditionally, university teaching was based on a methodological model which
focuses on the teacher, with the emphasis on the transmission of contents and the
reproduction of these by the student, the master class, and individual work. Teaching through CITs, specifically as in our study with blogs, brings about a number
of changes which break away from this model, and at the same time enhance the
quality of university teaching.
In a society in which professional knowledge is complex and unstable, teaching
preferred by students should not be fixed in an obsolete model where the student
is a receptive agent of information supplied by teachers or text-books, but rather it
should be based on educational actions related to the use, selection, and organization of information (Salinas and Viticcioli, 2008; Alonso y Blázquez, 2009). These
114
models should focus on student interaction with social networks of knowledge
and formative experience. It is necessary, therefore, to educate in such a way that
individuals participate more actively in their interaction with those media which
have a growing influence on today’s society, rather than merely playing the receptive role which has until now been assigned to them (Aguaded and Amor, 2001;
Aguaded and Pérez, 2007).
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Dickey, M.D. (2004). The impact of web-logs (blogs) on student perceptions of
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Emre Ünal
Turkey
An Analysis of the Reading Attitudes of Elementary
School Fourth and Fifth Grade Students
Abstract
The purpose of this study conducted according to the survey model is to utilize
the “Scale of Attitudes Towards Reading” developed by Ünal (2006) and thereby
assess the reading attitudes of elementary school students based on different variables. The working group consists of 746 students of the fourth and fifth grades
of official elementary schools attached to central Niğde province. In the light of
the data obtained the results show that while students have a positive attitude
to reading, there are meaningful differences in their reading attitudes based on
the schools they attend, their gender and their regular reading habits, while their
reading attitudes based on grade levels and their parents’ level of education do not
show a meaningful difference.
Key words: reading, attitude, reading attitude, school, grade, gender.
Introduction
Reading is among the most important determinants in developing a person’s
vision that shapes his or her personality and that makes him or her become closer
to other individuals. Reading makes individuals truly free and protects them from
ignorance and false beliefs (Demirel, 2003: 78). There is a strong correlation in raising individuals who can undertake effective communication with written culture,
who can convey their sentiments and thoughts correctly and completely and who
prefer to resolve problems by using their communication skills with individuals
attaining reading skills and habits (Sever, 2004: 20). Reading and skills in drawing
118
Emre Ünal
a meaning from what is read in educational programs and in the learning process
is one of the most important basic elements that gives meaning to a person’s life
(Akyol, 2006: 29).
The most general definition of reading is not repeating mechanically a written
text through our sense organs but to draw meaning, comprehend printed material
using cognitive processes (Sever, 2004: 20, Şengül and Yalçın, 2004, Tosunoğlu,
2002: 548, Yangın, 1999: 68, Kavcar, Oğuzkan and Sever, 1998: 37, Demirel, 1995:
65 and Tazebay, 1993: 3).
The common characteristics of definitions relating to reading are that it is an
activity that is realized through comprehension. Reading is not an activity that
takes place individually but one that encompasses many events and situations.
Bloom (1979: 48) considers the ability to comprehend in the teaching-learning
process as a general qualified cognitive entry behavior and in a calculation based
on the simple correlation method he determines that there is a direct relationship
between reading comprehension skills and mathematics (r = .72 in 6th to 8th grades
and r = .54 in 9th to 12th grades; sciences (r = .62 in 6th to 8th grades and r =.56 in
9th to 12th grades and language and literature classes (r = .70 for both groups as
cited by Çelenk (2003: 99). Bloom’s work shows that reading comprehension skills
are the basis for all training and education activities. An individual that cannot
understand what is read is seen as unsuccessful no matter which lesson, subject
or content it is. Pressley (2002:16) states that in order for students to develop
their comprehension skills they must establish a relationship with their previous
knowledge, form mental pictures, ask questions and write summaries.
Explained as known inclinations that are shown as a reaction through certain behaviors against certain individuals, objects and situations by individuals
(Demirel and Ün, 1987: 94), the concept of “attitude” has been defined in many
ways. According to İnceoğlu (2004: 19), it is an organized mental, emotional and
behavioral reaction or a preliminary tendency based on experience, knowledge,
emotion or motivation on any object, social topic or event against him or her or
their environment. According to Smith (1968: 453), an attitude is attributed to an
individual and it is a tendency that arranges in an orderly manner that individual’s
thoughts, feelings and behavior relating to a psychological object. Kağıtçıbaşı (1983:
84–85), on the other hand, defines an attitude as belonging to an individual’s inclination; it does not have a characteristic that can be directly observed but assumed
from an individual’s observable behavior, in other words, it is an inclination and
a psychological object that prepares an individual’s behavior.
The student’s past knowledge and experience related to the subject, the level
of readiness, his or her interest, beliefs and the attitude relating to the subject
An Analysis of the Reading Attitudes of Elementary School…
119
to be learned are various factors that take place in the effects on the learning
process (Gül, 2008: 42). Students’ attitudes toward reading are the leading factor
that directly affects reading performances (Kush, Marley and Brookhart, 2005: 30,
McKenna and Kear, 1990: 626). It has been determined that students who have
a positive attitude to reading use the strategies in comprehending their reading
more frequently than students who have a medium or a negative level attitude
towards reading (Aydoğan, 2008: 103). According to research, as the level in
students’ attitudes to reading rises, the marks they obtain from tests on reading
comprehension also increase and the time devoted to reading increases as well
(Balcı, 2009: 1325, Altunay, 2000; Çakıcı, 2005 and Kılıç, 2004).
Although attitude plays an important role in student success, forming an
attitude regarding a particular object and changing an individual’s existing attitude are considerably difficult. Developing a positive attitude towards reading is
also important in terms of measuring and assessing the objectives of education
and reading skills (Roettger, Szymczuk and Millard, 1979: 138). Attitudes that
have dynamic, continuous, encouraging and motivational characteristics affect
the individual’s thoughts, feelings and behavior together in a compatible manner (İskender, 2007: 632). In general, educationalists and researchers share the
view that the attitude to reading plays a crucial role in being a high-level reader
(Kazelskis et al, 2005: 29).
Purpose of the Research
The purpose of this research is to put forth the reading attitudes of elementary
fourth and fifth grade students based on various variables. Towards this end, within
the framework of the main question as to, “What is the reading attitude level of
elementary fourth and fifth grade students?,” answers to the sub-questions of:
1. Are there meaningful differences according to the schools they attend?
2. Are there meaningful differences according to their gender?
3. Are their meaningful differences according to their regular reading habits?
4. Are the meaningful differences based on the joint effect of their parents’
occupations? were sought.
This research is confined to fourth and fifth grade students in central Niğde
province elementary schools during the 2009–2010 school year.
Research Method
Since this research purpose is to “depict a situation that occurred in the past
120
Emre Ünal
or presently exists as if it exists now (Karasar, 1999: 77),” the survey model was
utilized.
Working Group
The working group for this research consists of 746 students that attend five
official elementary schools with a long-standing past within the central Niğde
province and who have responded to the scale. We note that of the 172 students in
Selçuk Elementary School, 81 are in the fourth grade and 91 in the fifth grade; 114
students are in Hazım Tepeyran Elementary School of which 56 are in the fourth
grade and 58 are in the fifth grade; a total of 141 students are at İnönü Elementary
School of which 106 are in the fourth and 35 are in the fifth grades; 178 students
are in Cumhuriyet Elementary School in which 88 are in the fourth and 90 are in
the fifth grades and 141 students are at Dumlupınar Elementary School of which
57 are in the fourth and 84 are in the fifth grades for a total of 746 students from
whom data was obtained.
Data Collection Vehicle and Period
“The Attitude Scale Related to Reading” developed by Ünal (2006) is a five-point
Likert-type scale. Permission for use was received by e-mail from the developers of
the scale. Permission was also received from the Niğde Province National Education Directorate to use the scale for the said five schools. The scale was applied
to the schools by the researcher; the collected data was given a line number and
analyzed with the SPSS 15.0 package program.
Findings Relating to the Scale’s Validity and Reliability
In order to determine if the scale is suitable or not to conduct a factor analysis,
KMO and Barlett tests were conducted. In this respect, the KMO test measurement
result should be .50 and above and the Barlett test of sphericity result should be
statistically meaningful (Jeong, 2004: 70). As a result of this work the KMO test
result was found to be .85 and the Barlett test of sphericity result was found to be
meaningful (P<0.01) and the conclusion that a factor analysis can be made on the
scale was drawn. The lower boundary for each article in the factor analysis was
taken as .50 and those below .50 and articles that could not be in any factor were
removed from the scale. As a result of the sample test conducted for validity for
the 25 articles in the scale, 13 articles were removed and statistical procedures
were evaluated according to 12 articles. At the conclusion of the factor analysis the
common factor variance was found to be between .35 and .65.
121
After the slope gradient graph and the rotation according to the varimax technique related to the factor analysis was conducted, the conclusion was reached after
the analysis of the load values, that the scale in this work had also three factors.
The first factor explains 30.96% of the total variance related to the scale, the second
factor 10.36% and the third factor 8.96%. The total factor size of the scale explains
50.28% of the scale. Based on the conclusion of the factor analysis, when the related
scale articles for the sample test were removed it was found to be valid.
As to the findings relating to the scale’s reliability, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were calculated and for the scale as a whole the value of .79, for the first
sub-scale a value of .71, for the second sub-scale a value of .64 and finally for the
third sub-scale a value of .55 was found. The conclusion reached was that the
reliability level of the scale as a whole and the first and second sub-scales were high
but that the reliability level for the third sub-scale was at the medium level.
Analysis of Data
The lowest point that can be obtained from the scale is 12 and the highest is 60.
As a result of the analysis, the findings for the main question were based on and
evaluated according to the values between 1.00 and 1.79 for Completely Disagree;
1.80 and 2.59 for Disagree; 2.60 and 3.39 for Undecided; 3.40 and 4.19 for Agree
and 4.20 and 5.00 for Completely Agree.
The findings for the sub-questions were analyzed using the independent sample
t test, the one way ANOVA and the two factor ANOVA. In the two factor ANOVA
since the “number of subjects in the pores are not equal” (Büyüköztürk, 2002: 52)
data was analyzed using Type II.
Findings
When the main question of this research: “What is the reading attitude level of
elementary fourth and fifth grade students?” is analyzed, the mean points obtained
by the students in the reading attitude scale are 4.28. According to this result,
the answers to the questions stated in the scale denote “Completely Agree.” In
other words, the conclusion reached is that the reading attitude of students is in
a positive direction. The results relating to the first sub-question in this research:
“Are there meaningful differences according to the schools they attend?” are given
in Table 1.
In analyzing Table 1, the reading attitudes of elementary fourth and fifth grade
students show a meaningful difference according to the schools they attend.
Emre Ünal
122
Table 1: One way ANOVA results for the differences in the reading attitudes of
4th and 5th grade elementary students based on the schools they attend
Group
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
12.331
332.765
345.096
df
4
741
745
Mean
Square
3.083
.449
F
P
Scheffe
Selçuk-Dumlupınar
Cumhuriyet-Dumlupınar
6.865 .000*
* p<0.05
Table 2: Independent t test results for the differences in reading attitudes in
mean points of 4th and 5th grade elementary students based on gender
Gender
female
n
xˉ
s
364
4.38
.712
male
382
4.18
.634
t
p
4.165
.000*
* p<0.05
Table 3: Independent T test results for the differences in reading attitudes in mean
points of 4th and 5th grade elementary students based on regular reading habits
Regular Reading
Yes
n
588
xˉ
4.31
s
.693
No
158
4.17
.624
t
p
2.216
.027*
* p<0.05
Table 4: ANOVA results for the differences in reading attitudes
in mean points of 4th and 5th grade elementary students
based on the joint effect of their parents’ occupations
Source
Father’s Occupation
Type II Sum
of Squares
2.959
F
Sig.
3
Mean
Square
.986
2.161
.091
df
Mother’s Occupation
1.460
3
.487
1.066
.363
FxM
5.523
8
.690
1.513
.149
Error
333.643
731
.456
Total
345.096
745
123
(F(4–741)= 6.865, P<.05). In order to determine the source of the difference a Scheffe
test was conducted. According to the results from this test, a difference was
observed between Dumlupınar Elementary School and Selçuk Elementary School
and Cumhuriyet Elementary School. In both comparisons it is to Dumlupınar
Elementary School’s disadvantage.
For the second sub-question: “Are there meaningful differences according to
their gender?” the results are given in Table 2 below:
The reading attitudes of elementary fourth and fifth grade students show a meaningful difference according to their gender (t(744)= 4.165, P<.05). In analyzing the
mean points of elementary fourth and fifth grade students we note that it is in
favor of female students.
For the third sub-question: “Are there meaningful differences according to their
regular reading habits?” the results are given in Table 3 below:
The reading attitudes of elementary fourth and fifth grade students show a meaningful difference according to their regular reading habit (t(744)= 2.216, P<.05).
For the last sub-question in this research: “Are there meaningful differences
based on the joint effect of their parents’ occupations?” the findings are shown in
Table 4 below:
In analyzing Table 4 we note that the occupations of the students’ parents do not
have a meaningful effect on reading attitude points in terms of their joint effect
(F(8–731)= 1.513, P>.05). The findings show that the parents’ occupations do not
have a meaningful effect on the students’ reading attitudes.
Discussion
The attitudes to reading of the fourth and fifth grade students indicate meaningful differences according to the schools in which they receive education. In order
to determine the source of the difference a Scheffe test was conducted. According
to the test results, between Dumlupınar, Selçuk and Cumhuriyet Elementary
Schools a difference to Dumlupınar’s disadvantage was observed. Even though
the reading attitudes of students being taught at Dumlupınar Elementary School
were positive, the reasons why the reading attitudes of students attending Selçuk
and Cumhuriyet Elementary Schools were more positive are due to the settlement
location, the expectations of families from the school, socio-economic indicators
and the facilities that the school possesses (Materials, classroom, equipment, etc.).
This result corresponds to Anastasiadou’s (2009:42) research that the location of
the school has an effect on reading attitudes.
124
Emre Ünal
The reading attitudes of elementary school fourth and fifth grade students show
a meaningful difference according to gender. When analyzing the mean points
of these students, the difference is in favor of female students. It is assumed that
female students compared to male students show higher responsibility for studying their subjects and thus they read more (Sidekli and Buluç, 2006: 165). These
results coincide with similar research findings (Anastasiadou, 2009: 41; Logan and
Johnston, 2009: 207; Martinez, Aricak and Jewell, 2008: 1018; Kush and Atkins,
1996: 318; McKenna, Kear and Ellsworth, 1995: 952). However, according to certain research results and views, gender is not a determinant factor in the reading
attitude and anticipated success in reading (Bokhorst-Heng and Pereira, 2008: 297;
Akyol, 2005: 20).
The reading attitude of elementary school fourth and fifth grade students shows
a meaningful difference in favor of students that read regularly. That individuals who read regularly have a higher reading attitude and reading success is an
expected result. According to the research conducted, as the students’ reading
attitude levels rise the marks they receive in reading comprehension tests rise as
well and as a result the time they devote to reading increases (Balcı, 2009: 1325;
Altunay, 2000; Çakıcı, 2005; Kılıç 2004).
It has been concluded that the joint effect of parents’ occupations has no
meaningful influence on the students’ reading attitude marks. The view that the
socio-economic level of the family and the community, the cultural characteristics
and lifestyle are effective in the development of the child’s language has been widely
accepted (Çiftçi and Temizyürek, 2008: 125). In the study carried out by Anastasiadou (2009: 42) the conclusion that the parents’ education level has an effect on
their reading attitudes was reached. In this respect, the aforesaid conclusion does
not correspond to the findings of this research.
In future studies, it is recommended that the effects of the school’s available
means on reading attitudes, the effects of the time spent by parents with their
children on reading attitudes and the levels predicting reading attitudes together
with the attitudes to other language skills (writing, listening and speaking) be
researched.
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Janaina Minelli de Oliveira,
Eliana E Gallardo Echenique,
Oscar Daniel Gómez Cruz,
Ferley Ramos Geliz
Spain
Games, Gaming and Education*
Abstract
Video gaming is a pervasive activity in the lives of teens in many parts of the
world. This paper theorizes videogames as semiotic resources and interrogates the
literature bearing four fundamental questions in mind: What representations do
video games foster? What are the learning outcomes generated by video games?
What are the cognitive processes associated with videogame playing? How do
teachers incorporate video games in their pedagogical designs? We seek to contribute to a better understanding of video games as cultural artifacts, indicative of
the technological and cognitive development of our society and a driving force for
the expansion of change.
Key words: games, social semiotics, semiotic resources.
Introduction
Different research initiatives have shown that video gaming is now pervasive in
the lives of teenagers and young adults (Nielsen, 2008; Canovas, 2005). A study
carried out in partnership with the Pew Internet & American Life Project has
shown that 97% of American teenagers aged 12–17 play computer, web, portable,
or console games. In Europe, The Entertainment Software Association (ESA)
released its 2008 Essential Facts About the Computer and Video Game Industry
(Nielsen, 2008). In this study, the UK, Finland and Spain were chosen to represent
* This paper is part of the research activities promoted under the project “Simul@: the evaluation of a technological simulation environment for transversal skill development in higher
education”, reference: EDU2008–01479/EDUC.
130
J.M. de Oliveira, E.E.G. Echenique, O.D. Gómez Cruz, F.R. Geliz
a range of European geographies and stages of market development. Although
the study does not offer data on young teenagers, it is clear that gaming is an
important activity also in Europe. The researchers found that 48% of 16–29-yearolds classify themselves as active gamers in the UK, 43% in Spain, 36% in Finland.
In Spain, a study carried out in partnership with PROTEGELES, CIVÉRTICE and
the DEFENSOR DEL MENOR found that 69% of teenagers aged 10–17 play games
(Canovas, 2005). Actually, according to Serrano (2006), 20% of all the Spanish
population plays games. Research carried out in Central and Latin America has
shown 39% of teenagers aged 10–18 have a video console and 18% a portable one.
The distribution rate among the countries, however, is rather disparate. According
to the study, Brazil (52%), Chile (47%) and Mexico (47%) are the countries with
the highest rates of console penetration (Bringué & Sádaba, 2008)
Such a landscape is a challenge for educational researchers and teachers if we
consider that, as de Oliveira et al (2009) point out, most teachers working today
have received their education in systems in which written language was the central
mode of representation; their educators and textbooks were practically their only
sources of knowledge and the production and distribution of semiotic resources on
a large scale were restricted to mass communication media, while ordinary people
would be limited to their consumption.
This paper theorizes videogames as semiotic resources and interrogates the
literature on video games bearing four fundamental questions in mind: What
representations do video games foster? What are the learning outcomes generated
by video games? What are the cognitive processes associated with videogame playing?, and finally, how do teachers incorporate video games in their pedagogical
designs? We seek to contribute to a better understanding of video games as cultural
artifacts, indicative of the technological and cognitive development of our society
and a driving force for the expansion of these very development.
Games as semiotic resources
Here, we theorize video games from the perspective of Social Semiotics. We take
video games as semiotic resources and video gaming as a semiotic activity. Our
basic assumption is that meaning is made in different ways, in different modes and
media which are co-present in a communicational ensemble. Thus, we assume that
“meaning is made everywhere, in every ‘layer’, in phonology, image, sound, and
grammar/syntax. In one mode all realization elements are available for the making
of signs and are used for that” (van Leeuwen, 2005: 111). In a Social Semiotic
perspective, both realization resources (related to form, structure and distribution)
and content resources (traditionally related to meaning making processes) make
a contribution to meaning, changing collections of sounds, still or dynamic images,
Games, Gaming and Education
131
oral or written texts, assembled with a communicative purpose, into a semiotic
resource. As Kress and van Leeuwen (2001: 112) put it, “in every mode of the
multimodal ensemble there is always ‘work’ with all the available representational
forms, and such work is always meaningful”.
Semiotic resources may be defined as “the actions and artefacts we use to
communicate, whether they are produced physiologically (…) or by means of
technologies” (van Leeuwen, 2005: 3). Video games are taken here as semiotics
resources in this sense, cultural artefacts produced to communicate by means of
technology. They are assembled purposefully: there is nothing natural or pre-given
about a resource. Semiotic resources are assembled and used with communicative
purposes, within broader discursive and social practices. They are produced in
the course of social/cultural/political histories, which continuously evolve, thus
influencing the production of new semiotic resources. In other words, in a given
cultural and historical moment, social actors will be cognitively and technologically
able to produce a certain range of semiotic resources. Their production generates
social cultural change as people begin to interact with and through new semiotic
resources. These resources extend the semiotic landscape of a given society, just
like the first video games like Pac Men and Space Invaders did, and Massively
Multiplayer Online Role-playing Games such as Second Life and Lineage are doing
now.
The social cultural changes produced by the existence of new semiotic resources
create new cultural demands, which will eventually lead to the production of new
semiotic resources. As a consequence, social and semiotic changes are intrinsically
connected: “new social/cultural/political needs lead to new ways of communicating and to new communication technologies – as well as to new communication
theories” (Kress & van Leeuwen, 2001: 113). One could say the limits of social
change are the limits of the semiotic landscape available to a given society, in
a given time and space. Obviously enough, such limits are in continuous expansion,
as technological knowledge progresses and humankind develops.
Perhaps most clearly than with any other semiotic resource, video games
confront us, as educational researchers and practitioners, with two, sometimes if
not most of the times, uncomfortably irreconcilable questions: what we want our
students to learn and how they will most effectively learn it. In other words, as
researchers and teachers, we must acknowledge video games are of great appeal
to students, thus making the intrinsic motivation they inspire of potential interest
for pedagogical objectives. However, as Glaubke et al. (2001: 28) point out in their
research on the ten top-selling games available in the U.S., “overall, video games
have room for much improvement in terms of racial and gender stereotyping,
132
girl-friendliness, violence and age-appropriateness”. That is to say, although video
games capture students’ attention in ways that any teacher would like to do, the
content they offer has been described as not trustworthy.
We departure here from the assumption that the way in which something is
represented shapes both what is to be learned and how we learn it (Jewitt, 2008).
Before we proceed to analyze the literature in terms of what video games can teach
and how they do it, we shall treat in some detail the nature of the semiotic resources
we are discussing here.
What kind of semiotic resources are video games?
Video game pervasiveness in the life of teenagers and young adults is certainly
favored by the multiplicity of contexts and media that can be used to perform
this semiotic activity. Games may be played anywhere, at any time, on personal
computers (on and off line), on dedicated gaming consoles attached to a television
set (many of which now have as much processing power as a desktop machine),
on cell phones, or on dedicated handheld gaming devices like the PSP or on the
Nintendo DS systems. Actually, any new gadget developed, as the new iPad, for
example, looks more attractive if they allow videogame playing. There is a variety
of game genres and no standard classification. Industry, developers, and academics, all use different taxonomies (Gros, 2007). Gross (2007) proposes seven major
genres: 1. action games (reaction-based); 2. adventure games (progress is made by
problem solving); 3. fighting games (against computer or other player controlled
characters); 4. role playing games (human players assume the characteristics of
some person or creature); 5. simulations (the player has to succeed within some
simplified recreation of a place or situation to achieve a particular goal); 6. sports
games (based); 7. strategy games (allow the player to devise an appropriate strategy
to achieve a goal).
Games may be referred to in terms of their features, in terms of user reactions
or responses to game use or in terms of the learning outcomes they promote.
Video gaming has been described as an activity that creates a real system in its
own right – it does not intend to represent any real-world system, it is governed by
rules, voluntary, enjoyable and unproductive in that the activity does not produce
any goods of external value (Caillois, 1961, Crookall et al., 1987). Garris et al.
(2002) consider games and simulations as similar in some respects, keeping in
mind the key distinction that simulations propose to represent reality and games
do not. As reality-apart worlds, games may evolve in unpredictable ways. Some
133
cannot be completed or won, such as Massively Multiplayer Online Role-playing
Games (MMORGs), which may have a large number of players playing online
simultaneously, creating intensely social, persistent worlds (Filiciak, 2003; Yee,
2009). These kinds of games let players inhabit worlds, think, talk and play roles
otherwise inaccessible for them (Shaffer et al, 2004).
Steinkuehler defines MMORGs as “highly graphical 2 – or 3-D videogames
played online, allowing individuals, through their self-created digital characters
or ‘avatars’ to interact with the gaming software (…) and with other players’ ‘avatars’ as well” (2004: 1). The virtual worlds that MMOR Gamers routinely plug in
and inhabit are persistent social and digitally material worlds, loosely structured
by open-ended (fantasy) narratives, where players are largely free to do as they
please – slay ogres, siege castles, or shake the fruit out of trees. According to
Woodcock (2008), Lineage is one of the most successful MMOG titles released
to date, claiming more than 4 million subscribers. It is known for its designed
“escapist fantasy” context (medieval Europe). Paraskeva et al (2009, p. 7), who
propose the development of educational multiplayer online games based on the
activity theory, rightfully note that educational games will have to negotiate the
“intriguing conundrum of being interesting enough to engage students, without
being addictive and thus detrimental to academic performance”.
From the social semiotic point of view, videogames may be described as semiotic
resources, i.e., as cultural artefacts purposefully assembled both as a response to the
changes in the technological and cognitive landscape of our society and as a driving
force for the production of new changes in that same landscape. They have great
pervasiveness in the life of teenagers and young adults in the contemporary society,
creating reality-apart worlds in which semiotic activities may be performed in multiple contexts of time, space and media, both synchronically and asynchronously.
Yet, as Garris et al. (2002: 451) put it, “perhaps the most evident aspect of computer
game play is that it can be engaging, engrossing, and even addictive”. Thus, games
constitute a source of appeal to education and training professionals since they are
consistently perceived as more interesting than traditional instruction (Randel et
al., 1992). Online technologies now offer new opportunities as well as challenges
for social interaction anytime, anywhere.
Interrogating the literature
We have approached the literature bearing four basic questions in mind: 1. What
representations do video games foster? 2. What are the learning outcomes generated
134
Figure 1: Complementary and overlapping representation of the four areas
of interrogation of the literature on games, gaming and education.
Social Representations
Cognitive prosesses
Learning outcomes
Pedagogical Designs
by video games? 3. What are the cognitive processes associated with videogame
playing?, and finally, 4. How do teachers incorporate video games in their pedagogical designs? Studies addressing these questions are of a complementary and many
times overlapping nature, as we intend to represent in the following image.
Social Representations
Research on the social representations fostered by video games has raised significant concern. Glaubke et al. (2001), for example, analyses gender issues. The
report states that female characters are outnumbered both by male and non-human
characters. Female characters are also less likely than the male ones to appear as
player-controlled characters* or to perform a competitor role – females are more
likely to be participants. Furthermore, in the corpus analyzed in the study, female
and male characters behaved in different, and often stereotypical, ways. Female
characters were often accentuated with highly revealing clothing and male characters were often hyper-muscular. Males were highly aggressive, and were more
likely than females to perpetrate violence without the use of weapons and were
three times more likely than females to appear unaffected by violence. The report
suggests this gender stereotyping can send harmful messages to both male and
female players. Another important topic of Glaubke, et al. (2001) research is related
* Player-controlled characters are those characters who players can usually choose and whose
actions they navigate and manipulate through the course of the game. (Glaubke et al. 2001, p. 12)
135
with the implications of racial diversity. More than half (56%) of all the human
characters in Glaubke et al. (2001) study were white, nearly every video game hero
was white, Latino characters only appeared in sports games; Asian/Pacific Islander
characters were usually wrestlers or fighters and were often antagonists. Almost
all African American males were portrayed as competitors, while most African
American females were non-action characters.
Learning outcomes
Different research has focused on different aspects of the learning outcomes
generated by video gaming. Some researchers have found that the semiotic activity
can improve children’s visual attention skills, their spatial skills, their iconic skills
and their computer literacy skills (Glaubke et al., 2001: 12). Appropriately designed
multimedia instruction has been pointed out as a factor which enhances students’
learning performance in science, mathematics, and literacy (Gee, 2003).
The Pew Internet & American Life Project was a pioneer in researching into the
civil engagement of teenagers as a learning outcome of video gaming. The report
found that although there seems to be no significant difference regarding civic
engagement between teenagers who play every day and those who play less often
than once a week, there is evidence that the characteristics of teenagers’ gaming
experiences are strongly related to teenagers’ civic and political engagement. In the
Teens, Video Games and Civics survey, researchers found that of teenagers who had
the greatest number of civic gaming experiences, 70% go online to get information
about politics or current events compared to 55% of those who have infrequent
civic gaming experiences (Kahne et al., 2008).
Other research has highlighted the negative learning outcomes related to playing
some kinds of video games. There is sufficient research to conclude that violent
video game exposure can cause an increase in aggressive behavior and that repeated
exposure to violent video games is linked to serious forms of aggression and violence (Anderson & Dill, 2000, Anderson & Bushman, 2001; Bushman & Anderson,
2002). Compared to other visual media, the interactive nature of the games can
increase the likelihood of aggressive behavior, as it enables players to engage in
realistic violent actions (Glaubke et al., 2001). According to Subrahmanyam et al.
(2000, p. 125), studies have shown relationships between playing video games and
belief in gender stereotypes and isolation. Recent research, however, has found
that, for most teenagers, gaming is a social activity and a major component of their
overall social experience.
136
Cognitive processes
Van Deventer and White (2002) assert that it is only in examining closely the vast
number and complexity of decisions made in actual game play that one becomes
aware of the cognitive dimensions of some games. The authors observed outstanding video game players. The evidence found by the researchers indicated that the
players demonstrate many expert behaviors, like to actively seek and incorporate
new information; to assesses situations using multiple pieces of data, to organize,
classify and categorize information, to consistently apply successful behaviors,
to be confident about one’s own knowledge and willing to take risks, to employ
corrective action when needed, to consider input from multiple sources, to use
holistic thinking; to be able to integrate information with behaviors, to use inductive thinking and strategies, to think critically and to recognize constraints and
misinformation. An interesting question this research raises is whether advanced
players bring expert proclivities to the video game environment, or such behaviors
were acquired during play.
Chuang and Chen (2009) found that playing computer based video games was
determined to be more effective in facilitating third-graders’ average learning
outcome than text-based computer-assisted instruction. The researchers’ findings
indicated that computer-based video game playing not only can improve participants’ fact differentiation/recall processes, but also promotes problem-solving skills
by recognizing multiple solutions for problems and higher-level cognitive thinking
processes.
Steinkuehler (2006b) emphasizes that MMOGs present all the traditional
characteristics of problem solving, such as problem representation, conditions,
goals, procedures, strategies, and meta-strategies. The author also found that
MMORGs present shared practices typically found in problem-solving contexts
within formal and informal instructional contexts, such as debriefings, theorizing
about the problem space, apprenticeship, and the valuing of seeking out challenges
just beyond the current level of one’s ability (Steinkuehler, 2006b).
Pedagogical design
An obvious advantage of video games and simulations for the educational
settings is that learners can exercise practical skills — such as operating sophisticated aircraft, building a bridge, tinkering with chemical reactions in living cells,
experimenting with marketing techniques, performing surgery, or controlling
137
scientific equipment — in a safe, low consequence-for-failure environment. (FAS:
2006, p. 21)
The number of innovative curricular designs that incorporate online collaborative environments has been steadily increasing since such technology first emerged.
Innovative initiatives such as the Games-to-Teach project (http://www.educationarcade.org/gtt/home.html) at MIT or Stanford University’s recent Media X
“Gaming To Learn” Workshop are beginning to investigate how we might leverage
gaming technologies toward educational ends. The cutting, as Gee and Morgridge
argue, is realizing “the potential of games for learning by building good games into
good learning systems in and out of classrooms and by building the good learning
principles in good games into learning in and out of school whether or not a video
game is present” (Gee & Morgridge, n.d., p.21).
Nielsen (2005) identified different generation of games based on the connection
between educational computer games and the progression of learning theories.
According to the author, the first one corresponds to the description or early
edutainment, which assumes that learning occurs when you have opportunities
to practise certain skills enough times. Most edutainment has failed because the
games were far less challenging than the competing video games. The second
generation of educational video games was based on the cognitive approach,
which places learners in the centre of the learning process and makes profit out
of their previous knowledge. The third generation did not exclusively focus on
computer games, but looked at learning in a broader sense. The teacher’s role
becomes a central one, not as a protagonist, but as a facilitator, adapting computer
games experiences to school.
Freitas and Oliver (2006) note that research in the area of evaluation of technological resources has not specifically focused on educational games. For the
authors, what really matters is the game’s potential to increase the learner’s ability to
transfer the learned information to the outside world, not its potential to immerse
the learner into the world of the game. They propose the introduction of a four
dimensional framework. The first dimension concentrates on the particular context
in which the learning/playing activity takes place. This dimension includes a macro
level (historical, political and economic background) and micro level (availability
of resources). The second level takes into account the learner’s attributes (age,
level and learning history and preferences). The third level focuses on the internal
representational world, the diegesis. This level will determine how deeply the
student will indulge in the game and how easily the student will be able to transfer
the learned material to the outside world for learning reinforcement. The fourth
dimension focuses on the processes of learning. This dimension promotes the
138
practitioners’ reflection upon methods, theories, models and frameworks used to
support the learning practice.
Conclusions
The brief literature review we have conducted indicates that, as semiotic
resources, video games are cultural artefacts purposefully assembled. They are
subject to the cultural, economic and social biases which influence all educational
resources. It is thus important to assess the social representations they realized
in order to select those appropriate to meet our learning/teaching objectives. We
have seen that the cognitive processes associated with video game playing are
rather complex, frequently leading to positive learning outcomes, although there
is strong evidence that violent games generate violent behavior. This study suggests
that a thorough evaluation of educational video games is needed. Being appealing
to students or representing some kind of technological literacy are not sufficient
reasons to include games in a given pedagogical design. It is evident however
that, given their pervasiveness in the lives of teenagers nowadays, educational
researchers and teachers cannot afford to ignore games any longer. Video gaming
is a semiotic activity characteristic of the technological and cognitive landscape of
the 21st century society. It constitutes in itself a driving force for the production of
new forms of online interaction and, as such, continuously presses the expansion
of the communicative landscape.
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Libuše Hrabí
Czech Republic
The Text Difficulty
in some Czech Natural Science Textbooks
Abstract
The paper is focused on text difficulty evaluation of six Czech natural science
textbooks for the fifth grade. The text analysis was carried out by my method. The
obtained results indicate that text difficulty is similar in four studied textbooks (30
points). They are textbooks of the following publishing companies – Alter, Fortuna,
Prodos, SPN. These books belong to the scale of difficulty for the fifth grade. The
mentioned textbooks can be successfully used in the process of education.
Key words: text difficulty, syntactic factor, semantic factor, natural science textbooks
for the fifth grade.
Introduction
Until the end of the nineteenth century textbooks ware the basic instrument
for mass-education. Today at least in the Czech Republic and abroad textbooks
have been replaced by “ systems of teaching materials“ and modern textbooks are
different from the traditional ones. A textbook can be characterized as a socially
determined style of writing, institutionally framed and determined. The basic idea
concerning a textbook is not to present new knowledge, but to reproduce the
already acquired knowledge. A textbook must be organized according to certain
pedagogic requirements.
A textbook has certain characteristics, which differ from the characteristics of
other texts like a dissertation, a novel, a poem, an article or a telephone directory.
The content of a textbook is structured like facets, and it is adapted to the pupil‘s
Libuše Hrabí
144
basic knowledge and to their school level. The sentences in textbooks should be
understood by pupils of certain age. Textbooks should be studied by pedagogical research workers. Some text analyses have been carried out by the following
authors – Hrabí 2003, 2005, 2009, Olechowski 1995, Ottich – Kowalczyk 1992,
Průcha 1984, 1997, Shepardson – Pizzini 1991, Schmidt 1991. Such research is not
widespread. That is why the aim of this paper is to present information about the
text evaluation of some natural science textbooks.
Material and methods
Text difficulty was studied in six Czech natural science textbooks for the fifth
grade issued by the following publishing companies – Alter (1996, 1997), Fortuna
(2001), Nová škola (2004), Prodos (1997), Scientia (1997) and SPN (2004). The
text analysis was carried out using my methodology. Precise references are listed in
the Bibliography section. Sixteen characteristics of text difficulty were examined.
Ten samples of texts from each natural science textbook were selected by random
sample, and each of them consisted of 100 or more words (ΣN). Particular characteristics, their symbols, definitions, ways of calculation are shown as follows:
T – text difficulty; T = Ts + Tp (points),
– –
Ts – syntactic factor; Ts = 0.1 × V × U (points),
–
V – average length of sentence (number of words),
U– – syntactic complexity of sentence (number of words),
Tp – semantic factor (points),
Tp
∑P ×
= 100 ×
∑N
V =
∑N
∑V
U =
∑N
∑U
∑ P1
2
+ 2∑ P2 + ∑ P3 + ∑ P4
ΣN – number of words
ΣV – number of sentences
∑N
The Text Difficulty in some Czech Natural Science Textbooks
145
ΣP – number of nouns
ΣP1 – number of common terms
ΣP2 – number of scientific terms
ΣP3 – number of factual terms
ΣP4 – number of repeated terms
i = 100 ×
∑ P2 + ∑ P3
∑N
– coefficient of density of scientific and factual information (%)
h = 100 ×
∑ P2 + ∑ P3
∑P
– coefficient of density of scientific and factual information (%)
o=
∑ P4
∑P
× 100 – coefficient of repeated information (%).
My previous and presented studies of the text difficulty (T) in biology and natural
science textbooks justify the comparison of particular texts with the recommended
scale of the text difficulty (Hrabí 2005).
Fourth grade T = 27–30 points
Fifth grade T = 29–32 points
Sixth grade T = 31–34 points
Seventh grade T = 33–36 points
Eighths grade T = 35–38 points
Ninth grade T = 37–40 points
Results
The most important characteristics of the text difficulty are presented in Table
1.
The total number of analysed words amounts to 1006–1062 in the analysed
natural science textbooks and they form from 87 to 95 sentences. The average
length of one sentence is about 11–12 words. The syntactic complexity of one
sentence amounts to only 7–8 words. The total number of common terms is very
different in the analysed books and amounts to 58–133 terms. The total number
of scientific terms is quite high and makes 173–271 words. The number of factual
terms is very low and amounts to 0–42. The number of repeated terms is 35–48
words. The values of syntactic factors reach from 8.58 to 9.53 points. The lowest one
Libuše Hrabí
146
is characteristic of the natural science textbook of the Scientia publishing company
and the highest one belongs to the book of the Nová škola publishing company.
The values of semantic factors reach from 16.76 to 25.08 points. The lowest one is
characteristic of the textbook of the Scientia publishing company and the highest
value belongs to the book of the Nová škola publishing company. The values of
the total text difficulty reach from 24.65 to 34.74 points. According to the results
of the text difficulty and the scale of the text difficulty for the natural science and
biology textbooks for particular years of education, it is possible to mention that
four studied textbooks are suitable for the fifth grade of primary school. They are
textbooks of the following publishing companies – Alter, Fortuna, Prodos, SPN.
The text fifficulty is very low in the textbook of the Scientia publishing company. In
contrast, the text difficulty is very high in the textbook of the Nová škola publishing company, then this book is not suitable for pupils of the fifth grade. Both
coefficients of the density of scientific and factual information indicate that the
value of scientific information is similar in five studied textbooks, but the value
of scientific information is very low in the textbook of the Scientia publishing
company. The coefficients of repeated information amount to over 10 % in five
studied textbooks.
The main components of text difficulty are shown in Graph 1. The values of
syntactic factors (Ts) point to similar complexity of sentences in the studied textbooks. The values of semantic factors (Tp) are different in the evaluated books and
they point to various numbers of common terms, scientific and factual terms in
the analysed textbooks. The values of the total text difficulty are balanced in four
studied textbooks, and they are very different in two books.
Graph 1. Main components of text difficulty (T, Ts, Tp) in the analysed textbooks
35.00
30.00
points
25.00
20.00
Ts
15.00
Tp
10.00
T
5.00
0.00
Alter
Fortuna Nová škola Prodos
Scientia
SPN
147
The Text Difficulty in some Czech Natural Science Textbooks
Table 1. Main characteristics of text difficulty in natural science textbooks
for the fifth grade
Publishing companies
Characteristic
ΣN
Alter
Fortuna
Nová škola
Prodos
Scientia
SPN
1059
1062
1047
1015
1006
1048
ΣV
92
95
93
89
95
87
ΣU
143
127
122
133
135
132
–
V
U–
ΣP1
ΣP2
ΣP3
ΣP4
ΣP
Ts
Tp
T
i
h
o
11.5
7.46
98
211
11.18
8.36
74
11.26
8.58
65
11.40
7.63
80
270
42
0
37
26
21
31
44
39
47
53
35
48
395
384
419
391
362
376
9.35
21.04
30.39
25.52
70.57
10.16
9.66
25.08
34.74
29.32
73.27
11.22
8.69
22.12
30.81
25.42
65.98
13.55
173
12.00
7.94
58
271
8.58
19.46
30.96
23.89
64.05
11.14
232
10.59
7.45
133
7.89
16.76
24.65
19.28
53.59
9.67
239
9.53
20.06
29.59
25.76
71.81
12.77
Conclusion
This article contains knowledge about the text difficulty evaluation of six natural
science textbooks. The obtained results indicate that the values of text difficulty
are similar in four studied textbooks (about 30 points). They are textbooks of the
following publishing companies – Alter, Fortuna, Prodos, SPN. They belong to
the same scale of difficulty. These textbooks are suitable for the fifth grade. The
text difficulty is very high in the book of the Nová škola publishing company (35
points). In contrast, the text difficulty is very low in the textbook of the Scientia
publishing company (25 points). Both these textbooks are not suitable for pupils
of the fifth grade.
148
Libuše Hrabí
Bibliography
Hrabí, L. (2003). Zhodnocení obtížnosti výkladového textu současných českých
učebnic přírodopisu pro 6. až 9. ročník ZŠ. e – Pedagogium (on-line), č. 1.
Hrabí, L. (2005). Hodnocení obtížnosti učebnic přírodopisu. Olomouc. Habilitační
práce na UP Olomouc.
Hrabí, L. (2009). Biology textbooks of Fraus publishing company and their text
difficulty. e-Pedagogium (on-line), č. 1.
Pluskal, M. (1996). Teorie tvorby učebnic a metody jejich hodnocení. Olomouc.
Habilitační práce na UP Olomouc.
Průcha, J. (1984). Hodnocení obtížnosti učebnic. Praha: SNTL.
Průcha, J. (1997). Moderní pedagogika. Praha: Portál.
Schmidt, H. J. (1991). Hilfen für die Auswahl von Schulbüchers. Grundschule,
23(9), 50–52.
Olechowski, R. (1995): Aspekte der Schulbuchforschung. Erziehung und Unterricht,
145(4), 266–270.
Ottich, K., Kowalczyk, W. (1992): Das habe ich nicht verstanden! Pedagogische
Welt, 46(8), 341–344.
Shepardson, D., Pizzini, E. (1991): Questioning levels of junior high school science textbooks and their implication for learning textual information. Science
Education, 23(9), 50–52.
Evaluated textbooks
Bradáč, P., Kolář, M. et al. (1996). Přírodověda 5, Člověk a technika. Praha: Alter,
díl. 1.
Holovská, H., Rükl, A. (1996). Přírodověda 5. Země ve vesmíru. Praha: Alter,
díl 2.
Jurčák, J. et al. (1996). Přírodověda pro 5. ročník. Olomouc: Prodos.
Kholová, H. et al. (1997). Přírodověda 5. Život na Zemi. Praha: Alter, díl. 3.
Komanová, E., Ziegler, V. (1997). Přírodověda 5. Praha : Scientia.
Kvasničková, D., Froněk, J. Šolc, M. (2001). Přírodověda pro 5. ročník. Praha:
Fortuna.
Matyášek, Štiková, V., Trnka, J. (2004). Přírodověda 5. Brno: Nová škola.
Mladá, J., Podroužek, L. et al. (2004). Přírodověda pro 5. ročník. Praha: SPN.
Czech Republic
Meta-Evaluation and Quality Standard of the
Final Evaluation Report
Abstract
This article deals with meta-evaluation, its importance in securing the quality of
evaluation processes, and its forms, in which it can be realised. The authors discuss
theoretical possibilities of evaluation processes in the context of the knowledge society
and organisational learning approaches. Then, they define the terms evaluation and
meta-evaluation. Further, the text deals with one form of meta-evaluation: the
final evaluation report. Finally, the authors describe the methodology and selected
results of the research into the content analysis of final evaluation reports. One
of the research outcomes was a suggestion on the quality standard of the final
report – the final product of evaluation.
Key words: evaluation, meta-evaluation, knowledge society, organisational learning,
evaluation report, quality standard.
Introduction
Giving schools more autonomy and introducing the principles of decentralisation brings new possibilities to further develop the quality of institutionalised
education, which would respect the needs, abilities and interests of each pupil or
student and thus stimulate their inner motivation for lifelong learning and life in a
knowledge society. Evaluation can strengthen these possibilities if teachers realise
its value and if they are willing to further educate themselves. However, they need
to get complex systemic support for quality further education, professional help
and supervision, as well as material and financial help. The evaluation processes can
150
help teachers recognise weak spots and problematic areas that need to be changed,
strengthen strong points and further cultivate them. These processes allow to solve
conflicts openly and transform schools into institutions based on trust and mutual
respect. Evaluation, however, is a professionally demanding process and its quality
can be safeguarded by high professional dedication and proficiency of evaluators
and also by processes that will evaluate evaluation – by meta-evaluation.
1. School as a learning organisation – basic theoretical contexts of
evaluation
Sociological theories on society today are dominated by the conceptions revolving around “information” and “knowledge” that are produced and organised by
professional experts and their scientific methods. According to some economists,
we live in an “education-based economy” or “information economy” that is distinguished by the prevalence of professions dealing with the creation or dissemination
of knowledge (Burke, 2000).
The terms knowledge society and information society are relatively easily
interchangeable, even in professional discourse. The information society is more
emphasised though, because information seems to be connected with information
and communication technologies and digital media, which pull the new knowledge
society forward. However, knowledge is more than information. Knowledge not
only allows filtering relevant data out of plentiful volumes; it is an overall form
with which we explore the world. Unlike information, the meaning of which lies
in a changed action in the future, knowledge is not entirely purpose-oriented
(Liessmann, 2008, p. 23).
The key to the knowledge society lies not only in securing adequate access to
information, but also in the level with which we are able to process and utilise this
information. While costs to replicate or transmit information have been reduced
to almost nothing, thanks to information and communication technologies,
reproduction and transfer of knowledge is a much more complicated and more
costly process, because cognitive abilities are not easy to be explicitly expressed
and passed on to others.
The term knowledge society has been used in many different contexts and for
different reasons resulting in its considerable vagueness. Firstly, the term knowledge
society has often been used as a metaphor or an overall notion with no further
specification. Secondly, it has not been used analytically, but normatively – as a goal
for which society should be heading and which should be strived for. Only after
Meta-Evaluation and Quality Standard of the Final Evaluation Report
151
that has it been used as an aggregate term to describe a society in which knowledge
becomes a dominant productive force resulting in other specific attributes (Veselý,
2004).
Today’s interconnected world brings a situation when we are more than ever
before aware of each other. Young people from all over the world create social networks previously non-existent. Relationships, even lives, can be lived out for real,
but also virtually. These changes influence the work of schools in many aspects.
1.1. Organisational learning at school
Schools today face a constant stream of new problems and ambitious challenges
that create significant pressure for new and effective teaching methods. Too often,
however, the main goal – learning of pupils – overshadows the fact that the adults,
i.e. teachers, directors, administration and other school staff, should also learn,
and they often do.
Many current guides to the improvement of school quality that demand new
strategies such as professional learning communities, peer review, distributed leadership or participatory evaluation, are somewhat connected with the preconditions
of something that could be identified as organisational learning.
According to current research, support for teacher learning and its integration
into school’s organisation demand more attention and closer study than ever before
(Leithwood, Louis, 1998).
Organisational learning can be defined, as Collinson and Cook (2007) would, as
a purposeful use of individual, group and system learning to anchor new thinking
and practices, which would continuously innovate and transform an organisation
to reach shared goals.
Organisational learning embodies active and enterprising solving of problems
and matters, rather than automatically accepting common or time-tested methods.
It is based on finding wrong assumptions, examining established procedures, investigating new solutions, learning from previous mistakes and spreading useful ideas
and innovations among individual members of an organisation. If individuals or
groups do useful research within an organisation and use the obtained information
to formulate new values, promote understanding or to introduce new practices,
then the organisation learns.
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2. Evaluation concept
In recent years, the terms evaluation and self-evaluation have become a central
topic of discussions by both pedagogic theorists and teachers.
Evaluation is a systematic process targeted at determining and assessing the
value and impact of programmes, institutions, policies, processes, interventions
or services, and their participants. The key aim of evaluation is to create recommendations or promote changes.
Systematic gathering, analysis and interpretation of relevant data and information that occur during evaluation, are ruled by criteria prepared in advance and
serve in decision-making that affects and strengthens the quality and effectiveness
of the evaluated objects.
In English, evaluation means determination of value, appreciation. The origin of
this term can be found in Latin, where the verb valere denotes characteristics such
as to be strong, to be valid or important. However, such a simple comparison is
not enough; moreover, there is a danger that we would simply perceive evaluation
as rating, which is suitable neither for school practice, nor pedagogical science,
where the term still needs to find its place.
According to the American Evaluation Association (AEA)1, the term evaluation
encompasses the processes of assessing the strong and weak points of programmes,
policies, personnel, processes, products and organisations in order to improve their
effectiveness. Evaluation is closely specified as a process of systematic gathering and
analysis of data that are needed for decision-making and for processes that secure
the qualities of individual programmes, i.e. visions and values, processes, expected
outputs; including evidence, personnel, etc. In the case of evaluation in education,
the AEA experts declare the possibilities of evaluation in, e.g., identification of a
programme’s effects in helping the staff and other concerned with discovering the
programme’s impact in terms of acquired knowledge and attitudes2.
“Evaluation is action oriented. It is carried out in order to determine the value
or impact of a policy, programme, practice, intervention or service; in order to
1 The AEA profiles itself as an international professional association of evaluators focused
on the application of and research on evaluation processes and technologies in the individual
evaluation forms (e.g. programme evaluation, personnel evaluation). AEA is represented in 50
states in the US and in over 60 other countries. Accessible at http://www.eval.org; or In: Rossi,
Lipsey, Freeman, 2004; Stufflebeam, Shinkfield, 2007.
2 In the Czech version of this text, we keep the terms in English as well, because for many of
them, consensus has not yet been reached in the Czech pedagogical terminology.
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create recommendations or promote a change” (Clarke, 1999, In: Smutek, 2005,
p. 9) [back translated].
M. Scriven defines evaluation as “processes to determine the merit, worth and
value of things; evaluation is a product of these processes …an evaluator must be
able to make appraising judgments rather than to measure things or determine
whether the projected goals have been reached…” (in Stufflebeam, Shinkfield, 2007,
p. 369) [back translated].
More important than the terminological definition of evaluation, however, are
its other aspects. Firstly, who is the evaluation made for and who will profit from
its results and further use them, and secondly, the methodological approaches and
strategies used for the evaluation.
3. Meta-evaluation
Meta-evaluation is defined as the evaluation of evaluation, groups of evaluations
or evaluators. It is a process that is systematic, managed and controlled, and it
assesses the quality of processes and results of carried out evaluations. Metaevaluation is ruled with clear criteria. Goals and functions of meta-evaluation
can be characterised at three levels. The first level of meta-evaluation is connected
with ensuring the quality, validity and correctness of primary evaluation, thus
answering the question whether the key principles have been followed in evaluation and whether the results can therefore be judged as relevant, valid enough and
reliable (practical dimension). This first dimension also directs meta-evaluation
towards the evaluators, who thus become subjects of evaluation as well. The effort
here is to eliminate the subjectivity of evaluation findings and to monitor whether
ethical and professional principles are being followed. The second dimension of
meta-evaluation is to investigate the “good practice” of evaluation by monitoring its course and results, and therefore to be able to set the evaluation standard
(professional dimension; evaluation profession). The third dimension of goals
and functions deals with summarising the results of mono-thematically oriented
primary evaluations in order to generalise the findings and suggest corrective
actions in the evaluated areas (research dimension).
In all the dimensions of goals and functions, the core of meta-evaluation is the
effort to verify the quality of data that are gathered and processed by evaluation.
Consequent findings primarily influence the impact of evaluation, decision-making
processes that alter the future of all participants. The criteria for data quality that
can be assessed by meta-evaluation have been modified by J. Remr (2009, p. 4)
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from the previous source, Eurostat 2003. Parameters as partial values of data are
briefly characterised in Table 1 below.
Table 1 : Data quality dimensions (Eurostat, 2003, modified by Remr, 2009, p. 4)
Parameter
Relevance
Accuracy
Timeliness
Availability
Comparability
Coherence
Completeness
Parameter description
Degree to which the data can be utilised
Degree to which the data are error-free and factually accurate
Degree to which the data are updated and available in accordance with the
needs of the client
How easily the data can be obtained
Degree to which the data can be compared (between each other, and also in
the course of time)
Degree to which the data are kept in an identical format
Degree to which the data are complete
Meta-evaluation can be carried out in all forms, identically to primary evaluation: during its course as formative evaluation; or in the form of summative
evaluation after it has been finished. Meta-evaluation can be carried out by a third
independent evaluator, which helps strengthen the correctness of the primary
evaluation process as well as the objectivity and relevance of the resultant findings. Meta-evaluation carried out in the form of self-evaluation enables to revise
decisions in “real-time” in order to modify the evaluation design, again in effort
to strengthen the significance of conclusions and the suggestions on corrective
measures.
According to M. Scriven, who introduced the term meta-evaluation into the
area of pedagogical evaluation in the Educational Product Report (1969, in
Stufflebeam, Shinkfield, 2007, p. 651), “every evaluation should be valid, and its
validity should be ensured by means of formative meta-evaluation, and verified or
refused by means of one or more defendable summative meta-evaluations” [back
translated].
Meta-evaluation can prevent risks connected with the unsatisfactory professional level of evaluators and with underestimating the requirements for professional correctness and basic principles of evaluation. It can prevent the loss of
objectivity and independence that could emerge from pursuing other than professional interests; it can prevent low validity of the findings and the rejection of
proposed changes. Meta-evaluation also helps prevent unwanted consequences:
unacceptable impact or undermining the quality of primary evaluation. For
these reasons, experts in the last decades have made an effort to standardise the
meta-evaluation procedures (Stufflebeam, 1974, 2003, 2005).
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4.1. Evaluation report as a form of meta-evaluation – essence,
importance and possibilities of its evaluation
The final evaluation report is a key part of any evaluation process. It epitomises
a certain climax of the whole effort, the quality of which needs to be presented.
Experts regard this final phase as a form of meta-evaluation (Stufflebeam, Shinkfield, 2007; Smutek, 2005). It is not desirable to belittle the significance of the
evaluation report, as it is in fact the only evidence for partners or external critics
who are not part of the whole process. The form of the report can be determined
in advance or it can be an authorial work of the evaluators. If national legislation
requirements do not specify the form or the content of the written self-evaluation
report of the process called school self-evaluation3, the final product is fully in the
hands of teachers and school directors. Basically, it is necessary to decide who the
report is intended for. For the purposes of the so-called primary dissemination4,
a detailed version with all the evidence and supporting papers in the form of
analysed documents, collected questionnaires or observation sheets is compiled.
Procedures involving the implementation of changes can be described in detail,
together with deadlines and responsible persons. The report can have a written
form, or it can be complemented with video records, film presentations, etc. The
so-called secondary dissemination considers the specific requirements and needs
of school partners or external clients and tailors the report to them. In this case,
not only the determined form of the final report needs to be adjusted (if it is given),
but it is most important to realise that these external receivers are not aware of
the cultural specifics of a given school, or of its everyday life. Therefore, the report
content should be both stylistically and semantically modified in such a way that
it not only enables to assess the actual data as evidence of the evaluation findings,
but also allows an independent observer to understand the unique school reality,
the quality of which is being reflected.
5. Research on the quality of self-evaluation reports –
methodology and selected results
The research objective was to assess the quality of final self-evaluation reports that
serve as binding written products of the processes called school self-evaluation.
3 Regulation no. 15/2009 of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sports in the Czech
Republic; CZ MEYS hereafter.
4 Rossi, Freeman, 1993, in: Smutek, 2005.
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The research file was formed by 60 self-evaluation reports (50 from the
Moravian-Silesian region and 10 from the Vysočina region) from 2007 to 2008.
They were the first reports of the so-called self-evaluation worked out by schools
according to the CZ MEYS regulation no. 15/2009. The authors of the reports
were in most cases the representatives of school management, occasionally they
cooperated with prevention methodologists, coordinators of school educational
programs, etc., and very occasionally, chosen teachers were involved. The methods
for compiling the self-evaluation reports were in most cases inspired by the School
Quality Development Model (Model zvyšování kvality školy) worked out by the
Methodological and Evaluation Centre (Malčík, Kalnický et al. 2008).
The aim of the research was to assess the quality of the self-evaluation reports in
these categories: the form in which the written report (WR) was processed, content
of the WR, methodology used for the self-evaluation process and how it is reflected
in the WR. Due to the fact that most of the reports used a unified methodology, our
intention was to find out if and how a self-evaluation report allows an independent
observer to understand the evaluated areas of the school’s work – in a complex way
and under the formal structure. To find if the reports are compiled with balanced
contents, if they present key information and characteristics in a factual and clear
way, and if all the necessary attributes of the self-evaluation process are stated in
the report.
The self-evaluation reports were analysed, using the qualitative content analysis
method and the techniques of formal, content and scaling structurations5. Individual parts of the analysed material formed categories that needed to be defined
(clear distinction of which parts of the text belong to which category) and to have
referential examples assigned.
The first layer, the formal structuration, was used for the analysis of the inner
structure of the material; the material was analysed from the formal point of view
(e.g., syntactic, semantic, thematic or dialogic criteria). In the second layer, formed
by the content structuration, the selected parts of the material were separated
into theoretically elaborated deductive categories. The third layer was formed
by the scaling structuration; this structuration allowed assessing the parts of the
considered material (categories) and placing their values on a given scale, which
had an ordinal character.
It was necessary to define quality indicators for the individual parts (categories)
of the analysed document (School self-evaluation) and create assessing questions
that would form a basis to express the researcher’s opinion about the value of the
5
Mayring, 2000.
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assessed quality (partial indicators) and put it on a scale. A numerical assessing
scale was assigned to each assessing question, which allowed critics to evaluate the
examined issue and assign the most suitable numerical variant to it. The quality
indicator presence degree could be noted down at each scale of the given category.
According to K. Mayring, this designation represents the qualitative value of the
assessed aspect. For more precise assessment, a five-stepped symmetric scale was
chosen, while one position on the scale was marked N, meaning that the assessed
indicator does not exist in that analysed category. Number 1 represents the lowest
quality degree (indicator present), while 5 represents the highest quality degree
(indicator present).
With this technique, we assessed the quality of 60 self-evaluation reports and
compared the results using a statistical test. Due to the character of the data, we
chose the Wilcoxon test for two dependent samples. The results are presented in
Table 2 below. Both evaluators were in agreement in only 5 cases (marked with
bold letters); in all the other cases there was a statistically significant difference.
The “self-evaluation methodology” category is not stated in the results, because
there were only 3 pairs of pieces of information to compare; not enough to be
statistically valuable.
Table 2: Wilcoxon test results to compare the assessment of two experts
Significance
Structure category
Logical structure and balanced content
Clear arrangement
Matter-of-factness and clarity
Content validity
Professional level of the used language
Self-evaluation fields category
All fields are evaluated
Only selected fields are evaluated
The choice of fields is argument-grounded
Who evaluated
Evaluation results category
Aptness and clarity of interpretations
Clear arrangement
Content validity of interpretations and conclusions
Corrective measures formulation
0.000
0.861
0.000
0.004
0.000
0.095
0.003
0.005
0.932
0.048
0.107
0.256
0.000
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5.1. Research conclusions and discussion
Using the tested technique of content analysis, experts can assess the quality of
the self-evaluation report adequately. Experts agreed in 5 out of 13 indicators – we
used this information in the following modification of the technique, which we
simultaneously suggested as the Quality Standard for the School Self-Evaluation
Report. The standard is included at the end of this article in its full version.
Considering the results of the Wilcoxon test, it can be noted that the first four
categories with statistically significant agreement are easily assessed qualities, yet
still essential. Assessing the content validity, professional level of the used language,
or aptness and clarity of the interpretations requires a deeper understanding of
the subject as well as the knowledge of certain discrepancies between theory and
practice, between academic and school reality. It is obvious, however, that experts
need to get acquainted with the suggested technique beforehand, and their initial
schooling on test sample data must not be underestimated.
Further the text deals with the qualitative content analysis of the assessed reports.
Individual categories are complemented with an overall assessment together with
the examples of good as well as “less good” practices.
Form of the written report
Most reports had a clear and well arranged structure, which stemmed from the
prescribed requirements by the CZ MEYS (School self-evaluation). Texts were
compiled purposefully with good graphic layout, which allowed for easy orientation,
and supported readability. This quality was strengthened mainly by choosing the
“table” form of the data for individual sub-categories, which was recommended to
schools by the Methodological and Evaluation Centre (MEC) via self-evaluation
methodology. However, some reports included only scale assessments of given fields,
which lacked the essential part – school’s self-reflection (value judgements based
on the findings of the self-evaluation survey). Evaluation of the selected fields was
therefore replaced with mere informative tables, listing interest activities, cultural
activities, and the number of awards, reprimands, etc. with no additional interpretation of the results or value judgments. Evaluation of the selected fields in the
self-evaluation report has to be based on “findings” – the carried out self-evaluation
inquiries (questionnaires, observations, inspections, interviews, tests) – and these
gathered and analysed data should supplement the report in the form of tables or
diagrams. Only some reports contained the “self-evaluation conclusions” chapter,
where the fundamental results of the school’s self-evaluation were summarised and
concisely commented on. This final summarisation and a certain summative evaluation of the assessed state seems to be a purposeful conclusion of the written report.
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Content of the written report
The content of the WR allows an independent observer to understand the evaluated areas of the school’s work – in a complex way and under the formal structure.
Most reports had acceptable content validity, but only rarely were they concise
and to the point (content density). Some compilations could be characterised as
“starting broad, ending vague”. In some reports, their authors focused on selected
fragments only. The evaluated fields were far from having balanced attention. We
can give one example of a detailed account of school reconstruction. Also, a detailed
list of newly acquired tools was given. “…counter for used dish was replaced in the
school canteen…” “…a complete reconstruction of the division wall between two
classes took place, due to its partial looseness and wear…”
As for the professional level of language, we found out that it was fluctuating widely. Rather exceptionally can the professional erudition of the writers
of the self-evaluation reports be considered as trying to improve or preserve
the teaching “profession”. We can use the following real examples from a
selected report: “The competence to take a stance, express and defend one’s
opinions, ability to cooperate and communicate, to behave in a civilised
way, …”; “We are aware that children in the classes where this possibility exists do
not work in the way we would like them to…”; “… and the effort of most teachers
to pass to children what is best in us…”; “...similarly, we are not so sure about the
application of teachers in practice, in the field of key competences…”.
Methodology of the evaluation process
Not all the reports state who they were compiled by; usually, only a headmaster
and consultation at a school meeting are mentioned, occasionally a report was
compiled by the team of a headmaster and their deputy, or educational advisor,
etc. On one occasion, the task to compile the documents for the report was given
to subject/methodological teams.
The situation in the “goals of self-evaluation” category is comparable. One written report contains long-term goals of the school, a strategy to fulfil these goals and
a description of school’s work fields with good as well as problematic results. One
school built its evaluation on the conclusions of a SWAT analysis. These approaches
are fundamentally and strategically suitable for the purposes of self-evaluation and
the final report. No report contained the characteristics of the expected and desirable quality together with the description of indicators and criteria. Most schools
describe the methods and techniques/tools of self-evaluation only by referring to
realised surveys in the form of “questionnaires, inspections, tests, monitoring”,
etc. “Our methodologist/preventionist compared both surveys and concluded that
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the situation is stable…” In such cases, no further information is given about the
surveys. Also, the state to which the results are being compared is not specified at
all. This necessary detailed evidence is missing in the WR, thus the conclusions
seem subjective and oversimplified. They can therefore hardly be of any purpose
to the school itself and bring concrete goals for its development.
Processing the results of the self-evaluation survey
Most reports use a descriptive style. The self-evaluation results are limited to a
mere description of the current (or long-term) state in the individual fields and
sub-fields. There is no effort to either analyse the given state or even assess it,
although that is the basic premise of self-evaluation. “…all lthe teachers commented
on the school’s philosophy through the teacher rating portfolio…”; “…inspections
are being carried out at our school…”; “… after a year, it is possible to evaluate
whether a certain teacher has made any professional improvement…”. Efforts to
make judging appraisals using phrases such as “quite successful”, “not bad”, “mainly
very good” are not based on concrete findings of the realised investigation. A
similar example: “In some fields, the first level of schooling can be assessed higher
than the second one…” It is not clear in this example which fields apply and what
concrete evidence supports the opinion. If there are any judging appraisals in the
reports, they are usually formulated using subjective and inconclusive general
statements such as: “…thanks to their quality work, most of the problems were
solved in time and in a satisfactory manner…”. The written report of a school’s
self-evaluation should allow an independent evaluator to appraise and understand
both the reality of the given state as well as its mediated quality. The authors do
not analyse the given state of a school in the individual fields (in relation to a
school’s problems, development, expected state, etc.), judging appraisals are limited
to statements such as: “…the children evaluated individual activities and their
teachers with grades, and they were all good grades; the school employs quality
teachers; the school has been successful and enjoys good public reputation; all the
young teachers are successful”, “the atmosphere at our school is positive”. Again, we
can rarely see hints of “friendly criticism” of one’s own ranks in the self-evaluation
reports; i.e. criticism that would allow to discover the real state, its possible causes
and also its solutions. In some cases, the report rather resembles a positive public
presentation of the school.
Suggestions for corrective measures
The quality of suggestions for changes differs; in some of the reports, they are
not stated at all, and if they are, they have a rather formal and general character:
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“focus on positive motivation”; “build long-term relations”; “… greater cooperation
between school and family, …all teachers should be more demanding”. Corrective
measures of this type do not allow planning concrete changes. They cannot be used
to plan a school’s development that would encompass all participants, who would
identify themselves with it and know exactly what to expect of it and what they
should and could do for it. We can cite some excerpts as positive examples: “involve
pupils’ parliament in the project of chill-out zones”, “develop pupils’ ability to take
a stand, express and defend their opinions, ability to cooperate and communicate;
introduce features of cooperative teaching in Czech classes…”. None of the reports
contains suggestions for the process of implementing the suggested changes, time
line or responsible persons.
5.2. Suggesting a method for the qualitative content analysis of the
self-evaluation report
I. Category: Form of the written report (WR)
1. WR structural logic: represents inner content consistency; arranging individual parts/chapters in a meaningful logical sequence
2. Good arrangement of the WR: easy orientation in the WR structure and
layout
3. Purposeful and engaging graphic layout: enabling easy reading and understanding of the content
II. Category: Content of the written report
1. factual and comprehensible writing: WR presents key information and
findings factually (concisely and clearly) and comprehensibly (easy to read,
allowing an independent observer’s understanding)
2. content validity/purposefulness of the writing: represents whether the WR
content corresponds with the assignment and subject/issue
3. content balance of the WR: WR contains all evaluated fields and they are
evenly proportioned; arguments for choosing the fields and sub-fields (e.g.
SWOT analyses and other methods for analysing the needs of an organisation, etc.) also play their role
4. professional level of the used language: represents the language competence
of writing including specialised terms, even tendency to use the “language
of everyday-practice”.
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Category: Methodology of the self-evaluation process and its portrayal in the
WR
1. WHO participated in the self-evaluation team and in compiling the WR
2. AIMS of the self-evaluation for the given organisation in relation to its
development (formulating aims of the self-evaluation; their concreteness,
clarity and comprehensibility)
3. INDICATORS AND CRITERIA considering the quality of individual issues
in the evaluated fields and sub-fields (evaluating the form of created indicators and criteria; spanning from self-reliance to using the MEC methodology)
4. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES of self-evaluation: evaluating the choice
or creation of techniques/tools in connection with their validity for the
evaluated sub-field: represents the validity of the technique, whether it corresponds with the aim and content of the evaluated issue; also, expertise,
matter-of-factness and clarity of the technique/method characterisation, its
administration and data interpretation are being evaluated
5. FORM of processing the results: there are three qualitative levels:
a. MEC form document: self-evaluation results are limited to a mere selection of wording from MEC methodology
b. descriptive form: self-evaluation results are limited to a mere description
of the actual (or long-term) state in individual fields and sub-fields
c. analytic form: self-evaluation results are analysed and their probable
causes are explained (causal attribution); they are explained using an
objective “several-point-of-view” perspective
d. evaluating form: self-evaluation results are – together with their analysis
– complemented with judging appraisals that represent the quality (and
its degree) of the evaluated issues
6. formulation of CORRECTIVE MEASURES: if the corrective measures are
formulated for every evaluated sub-field; if they are meaningful and viable
6. Conclusion
For the increasing prestige of the pedagogical profession, it is desirable that
teachers take over more and more public responsibility for the quality of school
curriculum, the development of its organisations and the results of their pupils’
learning. At the time of a new curriculum reform being underway, new specific
roles are being attributed to teachers in monitoring the school curriculum and in
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the processes of pedagogical self-evaluative research that judges how successfully
the main goals of the curriculum have been reached. Creating and evaluating the
curriculum, increasing the quality of school life are the new desirable tasks for all
teachers, and their work therefore goes beyond the limits of a classroom. These new
roles also come with new demands on professional competences, new demands on
the systematic education. Teachers are presented with additional requirements. In
order that they are fulfilled, the interiorisation of motivation is required; motivation to develop one’s professionalism, to discover and understand the complexity
of pedagogical phenomena, the complexity of the developmental structures of
pupils’ personalities.
To stimulate the interest of teachers and school administrators in these professionally new and demanding processes, we need to better communicate their goals
and importance, to create space for their gradual, yet systematic implementation
through systematic and systemic support – educational, advisory, material and
financial. Self-evaluation is no longer optional; there is a statutory duty to carry
it out. Certain detraction of the professional demands and requirements on the
school’s self-evaluation outputs is not a solution. We would be threatening the
professional prestige of the teaching profession, as well as the professional prestige
of the pedagogical science and its methodological basis, which are risks that are
unacceptable in their essence. However, mere stating of these risks is not enough.
Actual, concrete suggestions, standards of evaluative processes put into practice,
introduction of the evaluator profession, clear requirements on the quality of the
final reports are real solutions. The same applies to the principles and standards
of meta-evaluations, which need to be clearly defined, so that the reality of evaluations and self-evaluations of Czech schools can be “valued” and compared with
the desired, expectable state, and that the schools have an opportunity to develop
and improve their qualities.
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Roman Vala, Marie Valová,
Martina Litschmannová,
Hana Klimtová
Czech Republic
Sprinting Abilities of Year Six Students Undergoing
Additional Physical Education Classes
Life may be likened to fire… when there is no breeze, or when the flames are not fanned,
a fire soon goes out; likewise, children need movement and exercise every day …
J. Á. Komenský (Informátorium školy mateřské)
Abstract
This report sums up the results of our research, carried out in the years 2000–
2009, into the sprinting abilities of year six male students (i.e., 11–12 year olds)
participating in additional physical education classes. All the students attended the
same secondary school. The school in question has a long-standing tradition in
providing not only general education but also in enhancing athletic performance.
Every year, some children are selected for a class specializing in athletics. The main
objective of the selection process is to choose children with some talent for sports.
The motor skill test results are an important source of information which can be
further used in structuring the process of physical education and sports training.
Moreover, such tests can be widely used in physical education research, in physical
training practice and as a means of selecting students gifted at sports.
Key words: School Educational Program, athletics, talented youth, sprinting ability.
Introduction
Physical education at schools is one of the most widespread forms of organized sporting activity. It is no exaggeration to say that for many people, physical
education at school is their first encounter with intentional physical activity.
166
Unfortunately, for many people it remains the only intentional physical activity
they do for the rest of their lives (Rychtecký & Fialová, 1998).
When critically considering the practice of teaching physical education, it
becomes clear that it is necessary to introduce new concepts which will guarantee
that children will acquire good habits with regards to physical activity, and that they
will learn to appreciate physical activity and carry it out throughout their lives. The
main role of a physical education teacher is to induce children to carry out regular
physical activity, to persuade them to do physical exercise outside school and to
continue doing it after they leave school (Dobrý in Mužík & Süss, 2007). As Krejčí
(in Mužík & Süss, 2007) notes, the most important function of physical education
relates to a person’s self-development, in supporting the quality of the development
of a person’s individuality. In the future, he argues further, it should be understood
that the purpose of physical activity as the basis of physical education is to enable
people to be better oriented to their environment, to interact with their environment, to express themselves via physical movement, to build their self-identity, and
last but not least, to feel satisfaction after acquiring and mastering physical skills.
It is obvious that the lifestyles of contemporary children are changing. Many of
them enjoy physically undemanding activities such as playing computer games
or watching TV. Ryba and Dlouhý (2007) assessed 21 leisure time activities of
physically talented young people. The results showed that a significant number
of these young people enjoyed listening to music, playing a musical instrument
and watching videos. At the same time, it is commonly known that approximately
70% of young people do not engage in any sport and 50% do not engage in any
out-of-school special interest activity (Pajtinka, 2007).
Physical education within the framework of newly developed
School Educational Programs in the Czech Republic
Physical education is an important form of cultivating and developing physical
activity and fitness. As such, it is an important tool for school and out-of-school
physical training. Physical education at school is one of the most widespread forms
of organized physical and sporting activity which can have a significant impact
on the child’s development. In physical education, children learn to acquire new
motor skills which can be used in various physical activities. Thanks to physical
education, students may realize the importance of cooperation, creativity, and
overcoming difficulties; they may learn to make quick and correct decisions, and
also to take responsibility for their own health (Kaplan & Válková, 2009). Since the
Sprinting Abilities of Year Six Students Undergoing Additional Physical Education Classes
167
Czech Republic joined the EU there have been changes in the school educational
system. A new curricular policy has been introduced in the Czech Republic, which
reflects a comprehensive understanding of the aims and strategies of education at
levels common in the EU. The Framework for School Educational Programs (Rámcové vzdělávací programy – RVP) has been in effect since 2007. This framework
outlines the general aims and contents of school education at various stages. It is
then adapted in School Educational Programs (Školní vzdělávací plány – ŠVP) for
individual schools. In general, educational content is divided into nine educational
areas consisting of one or two related subjects. Each of the nine educational areas
has its own characteristic features which indicate its importance within the system
of education; each of the areas aims to develop the key competences necessary for
life-long learning (Jeřábek, 2007). Physical Education and Education for Health
are two parts of one educational area called The Human Being and Health. The
educational content of physical education is divided into three categories of activity
(activity influencing health, activity influencing the level of motor skills and activity
used in learning movement and exercise) (Kaplan & Válková, 2009). The subject
matter outlined in the Framework for School Educational Programs (RVP) is only
recommended to schools. When the School Educational Program (ŠVP) is devised,
it then becomes obligatory for the school to implement. The content of physical
education is usually taught in thematic units; therefore, the syllabus is divided
into thematic units as well. The subject matter is no longer planned for a period
of one school year, but rather as a set of topics and outcomes for a particular
stage of education. Two contact hours are allocated to physical education classes
every week, but it is possible to insert another hour according to local conditions
(Jeřábek, 2007).
The subject matter of athletics in physical education classes
Athletics is not only a part of physical education, but it traditionally occupies
an important position in school physical education, which should not be underestimated by the teacher. Even at elementary school children get acquainted with
the majority of athletic disciplines in natural physical exercises, sports games and
competitions. When children reach secondary school, it is the right time to acquire,
refine and gradually broaden the scope of physical motor activities (Kaplan &
Válková, 2009). Athletics contributes to cultivating physical movement, to developing motor skills and abilities; it also influences our attitude to physical exercise
and physical education (Langer, 2009). Not only because of its content, but also
168
because of its character, athletics is one of the sports which significantly contributes
to the holistic development of children and young people. Athletics is a source of
motor skills and abilities necessary for life. Its importance can be assessed from
various angles. Athletics builds up the basic forms of movement (walking, running,
throwing), which are vital for the ordinary lives of children and young people.
A further, very important aspect is that performing athletic disciplines can be an
effective tool in eradicating the effects of one-sided body load, and athletics can
compensate for an unhealthy environment and lifestyle. Last but not least, athletic
disciplines carried out in leisure time, e.g., sports games and competitions, can be
used as an appropriate motivational tool for doing physical exercises and sports in
general; athletics can become a tool for self-realization, having fun and enjoying
social life (Choutková & Fejtek, 1991).
The content of the athletics subject matter is divided into two areas: 1) basic
subject matter which has to be (and can be) acquired by the majority of students
(as such it is obligatory for teachers and students); 2) broader subject matter, which
is not obligatory, but can be used for mastering the obligatory subject matter, for
motivating students further, and for developing individual pictures of students’
abilities and skills (Jeřábek, 2008). It is suggested that athletics develops basic
motor skills through running, jumping and throwing; furthermore, it primarily
develops sprinting abilities, aerobic endurance and the strength of the upper and
lower limbs, versatility and coordination of movement; in short, it contributes to
an increase in students’ fitness (Rošková, 2009).
Sprinting ability
According to Perič (2004), speed can be defined as the ability to overcome
a short distance in the shortest time possible and at the highest intensity possible.
Dovalil (2008) defines speed ability as the ability to perform a short-time motor
activity (max. 15–20 seconds) as quickly as possible under given conditions.
It can be said that many sports performances can be characterized from a physical point of view as being performed at a high, even top speed of movement. The
sprinting ability is one of the most important factors of many sporting activities.
Standard conditions when undertaking events such as sprints and jumps generate
a steady performance, while sports games generate a flexible performance. In some
cases, sprinting abilities play a decisive role in the structure of the performance,
at other times they play only a subsidiary role. It is a characteristic feature of
the developmental tendencies of current sports activities to demand higher speed
169
abilities in many specializations (Dovalil et al., 2009). Therefore, sprinting abilities
play an important role not only in athletic events but also in other sports events
(Kaplan & Válková, 2009). A large number of Czech and foreign specialists are
involved in the study and diagnostics of sprinting abilities (Brown & Ferrigno,
2005; Volver et al. 2005; Hoffman, 2006; Dintiman & Ward, 2003).
Care of gifted young learners
Current changes in transforming the present day school education system are
aimed at implementing human values into school education. The economic development of a society depends mainly on developing talented and gifted individuals.
Therefore it is necessary to cultivate their abilities in mathematics, linguistics, arts,
etc. Kinesthetically gifted young learners should also be given an opportunity to
develop their talent in schools specializing in providing high quality sports education in what are termed sports classes and schools (Ryba & Dlouhý, 2007).
The concept of talent is often given different names or terms, e.g., gift, flair,
genius, aptitude, etc. In common language, the term is used for those who demonstrate high performance results in a particular field of human activity. In relation
to sport, it is possible to speak about kinesthetic or sports talent. This talent is
related to performing a physical activity to an excellent or outstanding degree.
It is a long-term process before excellent sports results can be achieved, thus it
is useful to start preparing a child when s/he is still attending school. The basis
of the future performance capacity lies in recognizing a talented individual at an
early age. Identifying talented children as early as possible places high demands on
using the correct diagnostic tools; thus, carrying out high quality assessment while
minimizing incorrect predictions is very demanding (Perič, 2006). According to
Dovalil (2009), talent is understood as a set of assumptions about the requirements expected of a sportsperson who should be able to achieve high performance
efficiency. It is also possible to speak about a dimension of talent according to an
individual’s capacity to reach the required targets.
Many studies focused on spotting talented young learners and developing their
abilities highlight talent as a very important resource for society (Bailey et al.
2004; Bailey & Morley, 2006; Hutton & Twist, 2006). The importance of talented
individuals for society should not be underestimated. No wonder that selecting
talented individuals and developing their abilities is the central focus of not only
trainers and teachers, but also of research involved in education studies related to
sport (Tranckle & Cushion, 2006; Peternelj et al., 2009).
170
Based on our data, the investigated secondary school (following the School
Educational Program) places a great emphasis on sports and kinesthetic/movement
activities of all students, both within physical education classes at school and also
during out-of-school activities. The students have 4 contact hours of physical education per week, except the first graders who have 3 contact hours per week. This
school has cooperated on a long-term basis with an athletic club in Ostrava; both
institutions share the training of young athletes. The content of physical education
(according to the School Educational Program) consists of non-specific exercises
– warm-up exercises and general body development exercises (i.e., sports games,
gymnastics, swimming, skiing, hiking, etc.); specific exercises focused on body
development (exercises aimed at the development of speed, endurance, strength
and coordination) and specific exercises primarily focused on developing athletic
skills (Valová & Vala, 2009).
Sports classes play a considerable role in creating facilities for systematic sports
training. A combination of general education and sports training within one
school is an advantage that creates suitable conditions for achieving the best results
(Vindušková & Krátký, 2001).
It used to be a tradition to select children for sports classes, i.e., to diagnose and
select only the children who demonstrated a certain dimension of talent for sports.
Nowadays, this tradition has been replaced by the recruitment of children who
show some interest in sports. The main reason is that there are only a few children
who are interested in sports. This recruitment rather than selection may also be
a consequence of a long-term decrease in the birthrate in the Czech Republic,
so there are fewer children to choose from. In comparison with 1990, in 1995
there were 35,000 fewer children born in the Czech Republic (the Czech Statistical
Office – Český statistický úřad, 2010). It can be added that there is a decrease in
the interest in doing athletic sports in the Czech Republic. Rather than athletics,
the queen of sports, there are other sports which are more attractive for children
at present.
Hypothesis
In our research, we wanted to find out whether it would be correct to state that
the sprinting ability of male students admitted to classes specializing in athletics is lower nowadays due to the following factors: choldren’s current lifestyles,
a decrease in the birthrate and a lower number of children interested in athletics
in general. In the light of these factors, we wanted to verify our hypothesis that
171
during the period of our investigation, the average (mean) time for the 50 metres
sprint will increase.
Methodology
The level of sports performance of young people and children who engage in
sports has undergone significant changes and development recently; thus, it is
important to investigate these changes. It appears important to update the known
information and broaden and supplement our knowledge by gathering new data
(Broďáni in Broďáni & Vrábcová, 2006). Thus, diagnostics of all newly admitted
children to sports classes specializing in athletics is carried out every year. The
diagnostic testing is carried out as long-term testing of all aspects of general fitness.
The 50 metres sprint is part of the battery of tests focusing on assessing general
fitness; however it also serves the purpose of testing the sprinting ability (Perič,
2006). Our testing was carried out using the standardized test T. 76.0, which is
recommended for tests applied internationally. The testing itself was preceded by
warm-up and a brief explanation of the kinesthetic tasks. Starting commands and
time measurements were carried out according to the valid rules of athletics. Each
test was always done twice and the better time achieved was recorded (Měkota &
Blahuš, 1983).
The diagnostics used in sports and physical education are an important part of
not only a trainer’s job, but also that of the teacher. Among other things, it is also
a precondition of an individual approach to each sportsperson and to the whole
sports group (Svoboda, 2008).
It was our aim to identify the development of the sprinting ability of the male
students in the research sample from the years 2000–2009. Altogether 124 male
students from year 6 were tested. Due to the fact that there were only low numbers
of male students tested (9–16) each year over the time of our investigation, we
decided to artificially divide the whole period into three independent stages.
This enabled us to generalize the data regarding the development of the sprinting
ability. For the purpose of statistical analysis, the period of our investigation was
divided into the following stages: stage 1 (2000–2003, 35 male students), stage 2
(2004–2006, 42 male students) and finally stage 3 (2007–2009, 47 male students). In
order to analyze the data, the statistical program SPSS 17.0 was used. The sprinting
abilities of the year 6 male students in the 50 metres sprint were described numerically (mean; standard deviation; minimum; maximum and also 95% confidence
interval for mean).
172
Results
The data obtained from measuring the times in the 50 metres sprint at stages
1, 2, and 3 are listed in Table 1. As already mentioned in the methodology of the
research, the test results of the sprinting ability of all the 124 male students were
divided into three stages and the mean time for the 50 metres sprint was calculated
to be 8.33± 0.48 seconds. Column N shows the number of the male students tested
at the separate stages of our investigation. Column Mean shows the arithmetic
mean, i.e., the average times calculated in the separate stages; column Std. Deviation shows respective deviations. Column 95% Confidence Interval for Mean shows
the limits within which we can be (probabilistically) sure that the mean value from
the population of all the year 6 male students of similarly specialized schools lies.
The last two columns (Minimum, Maximum) indicate the best and the worst times
in the separate stages of our investigation.
Table 1: Descriptive Statistics – 50 metres sprint (s)
N
2000–2003
2004–2006
2007–2009
Total
35
42
47
124
Mean
8.34
8.25
8.39
8.33
Std.
Deviation
.51
.46
.48
.48
95% Confidence Interval
for Mean
Minimum
Lower
Upper
Bound
Bound
8.18
8.52
7.4
8.12
8.40
7.3
8.26
8.54
7.5
8.25
8.42
7.3
Maximum
9.4
9.4
9.6
9.6
A mean of 8.34 ± 0.51 sec. was calculated at stage 1 (2004–2006); a mean of
8.25± 0.46 sec. was calculated at stage 2 and was the best result achieved during
the period of our research. In 2005, the best result of all was achieved, i.e., 7.3 sec.
At the final stage of our research (2007–2009), the mean was 8.39 ± 0.48 sec. The
column 95% confidence interval indicates that the mean value of the times of all
the year 6 male students during the period 2009–2009 would lie between 8.25–8.42
sec. in total (Table 1).
So as to compare the mean times in the 50 metres sprint during the respective
stages from 2000–2003, 2004–2006 and 2007–2009, the test known as ANOVA
single factor analysis was used. The precondition for using ANOVA is the normal
distribution/normality (of times) at each of the investigated stages, and homogeneity of variances. In order to verify the assumption of normality, the Shapiro-Wilk
test was used. As can be seen in Table 2, the assumption of normality was not
173
rejected at the significance level of 5% for any of the investigated stages of the
research (p-value > 0.05); therefore the assumption of normality can be considered
as fulfilled.
Table 2: Tests of Normality
Shapiro-Wilk
Stage
50 m sprint (s)
2000–2003
2004–2006
2007–2009
.974
.983
.968
p-value
.559
.789
.227
35
42
47
The assumption of the homogeneity of variances on the basis of the Levene test
(Table 3, p-value=0.716), significance level of 5%, was also fulfilled.
Table 3: Test of Homogeneity of Variances
Levene Statistics
.335
df1
2
df2
121
Sig.
.716
As the preconditions for carrying out ANOVA single factor analysis were fulfilled, it was possible to use its parametric equivalent – the F-test for assessing the
interdependence of the mean times in the 50 metres sprint. On the basis of the
F-test results (Table 4, p-value=0.378) we conclude that despite our expectations,
it is not possible to consider the differences between the mean times in the 50
metres sprint as statistically significant (at the significance level of 5 %) regarding
the separate stages of our research.
Table 4: ANOVA
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of Squares
.441
27.246
27.688
df
2
121
123
Mean Square
.221
.225
F
.980
Sig.
.378
During the first and final stages of our research (2000–2003 and 2007–2009),
half of the students had times better than 8.40 sec. In the years 2007–2009, 25% of
the students had times worse than 8.74 sec. During that stage, the worst time in
the whole period of our research (2000–2009) was recorded, i.e., 9.6 sec. On the
contrary, the best time, recorded in 2006, was 7.3 sec. At this stage (2004–2006),
174
50% of the students ran between 7.90–8.51 sec. Figure 1 contains the data from
a detached observation for the years 2004–2006. The time recorded (9.4 sec.)
would not have been identified as detached in the previous or the final stage of
our investigation.
Figure 1: Comparison of times in 50 metres sprint (year six
male students) in the investigated period of time
10.0
9.5
14
Sprint 50 m (s)
9.0
8.5
8.0
7.5
7.0
1
2
Time Scale
3
Conclusion
In total, 124 male secondary school students were tested. During the period of
the investigation (2000–2009), those students attended sports athletic classes (i.e.,
general secondary school classes with additional teaching of athletics). Despite the
aspects mentioned earlier, it cannot be concluded that there were either negative
or positive changes in the sprinting ability of the students of the sports classes
during the period of our investigation. The mean times in 50 metres sprint tests
were equal. After exploring the data set using statistical analysis (ANOVA single
factor analysis), our hypothesis was rejected.
In brief, it is possible to conclude that throughout the period of our research,
i.e., 2000–2009, the year six male students participating in additional teaching
of athletics had approximately identical sprinting abilities. This is an important
finding for trainers and teachers as the sprinting ability has a great impact not
175
only on other athletic events but it also plays a role in other sports events. Our
research results can be compared to those of other year six students of similarly
specialized schools in tests of sprinting abilities (50 metres sprint). The results
can also be compared to the longitudinal norm created by prof. Moravec, who
carried out longitudinal testing of students in secondary schools in the 1980s and
1990s. Undoubtedly, it is important to realize that the development of sprinting
abilities necessary for success in sports can be achieved via various approaches
and methods, and that is why trainers and teachers should always use the obtained
parameters leading to sports success with regard to the individual special features
and needs of students at schools.
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pdf
Poland
From the Issues of Perception of Visual Images in
Connection with a Text by the Child at the Pre-Reading Age.
Valorisation of Visual Images Expressed in the Form of Book
Illustrations in the Subjective Perspective of a Child Recipient
Abstract
The presented text results from the research carried out on the issue of the child’s
perception of visual images which constitute a vivid complement and clarification
of the contents of a printed text.
The article presents basic assumptions of the strategy of recognizing the child’s
receptive preferences of book illustrations as well as the results of research related
to valorisation of the perceived picture realizations by the youngest recipients.
Key words: valorisation, book illustration, visual image, the child at the nursery
school age.
Introduction
Recent years have brought significant changes in the sphere of widely understood
culture as well as in the cultural situation of the Polish child. In recent years this
reality may be characterized by dominance of the visual form over word, which
is essentially reflected by, among others, expansion of images, external visual
advertising, a picture book, a cartoon, widespread audio-visual media – electronic
sources of experiences and by the invasion of homogeneous – often tacky – mass
culture or dominance of adult culture over culture addressed to children, both in
the area of offer and reception. Culture has been perceived as an area for business
enterprise. Cultural events are accompanied by intensive marketing actions often
180
carried out under the motto of “cross-sale”, reflected, e.g., at film premieres – often
accompanied by a mass book offer, sale of toys and stationary and what is more, all
these are signed by film icons. The impact of the rules of economics on the sphere
of culture has become distinctly perceivable, which is manifested in the selection
of the cheapest forms, since cultural goods in recent years have become expensive
and Polish families choose to save on them first (P. Kossowski, 1999, pp.12–14).
In such a situation and following the increasing imagery of our surroundings
which is dominated by various forms of visual images, the issue of the responsible
distribution of both the contents and the quality of images including picture communication targeted at the child seems to be more and more important, yet these
images being the source of experiences and feelings determine the quality of the
child’s cultural initiation, and by means of perception (watching) associated with
other experiences occurring in contact with an image (or configuration of objects
in space) shape the child’s visual competences as well as the ability to detect and
valorise visual information (R. Pettersson, 2000, p. 26).
There is also a need to carry out systematic analyses related to various problems
connected with visual perception and its impact on a young recipient.
And thus, due to the fact that in recent years as a result of the commercialization of culture – which has already been mentioned – contacts with visual images
encounter a series of restrictions and disruptions and due to the preparation of
young recipients for the contact with images, some research has been conducted
which concentrates on the analysis of a picture, namely a book illustration aimed at
a young recipient, looking for some arrangements in the empirical material which
provides the knowledge on widely understood visual art.
In order to show the specificity of an illustration in a book for children, it has
been established that the visual image in the form of illumination directed at
a child shall be subordinated by a young recipient’s perceptive preferences and
likes. Therefore, the undertaken exploration was mainly aimed at an attempt to
describe, possibly entirely, the child’s preferences in terms of a book illustration
in the context of the perceived picture images in the era of visual culture. It has
to be emphasized that an important condition to carry out such research was to
combine the knowledge on visual images in the form of a book illustration as well
as civilisational transformations resulting from the influence of culture with an
attempt to define their impact on a young recipient. Thus, the study was aimed at
a possibly exhaustive description of the phenomenon and its conditioning as well
as formulating basic recommendations for the illustration practice.
It has to be mentioned that the research method is the author’s presentation of
the task of recognizing perceptive preferences of illustrations by children at the
From the Issues…
181
pre-reading age. Consequently, the research was carried out using the author’s tool
on the basis of the appropriately designed research procedure in the form of key
and repetitive exploration, the method of a diagnostic survey showing both the
quantitative as well as the qualitative aspect of the obtained results.
The research procedure of key and repetitive exploration assumes a prior presentation of the text of a poem to children and an individually carried out checking procedure using a set of illustrations to choose from. After reading the text
and analysing it verbally together with a child in order to attain comprehension,
specially designed illustrations were presented to the child. It has to be emphasized that the presented artistic realizations had been worked out in the areas of
picture realizations (drawing, painting, and graphics) and, due to the dominant
features of the way of picturing, referred to the plan of the picture. In the area of
each dominant, the researchers presented 5 pictures/illustrations and asked the
following questions: In your opinion which illustration suits the poem? Which
illustration do you like best? Why do you like the chosen illustration best? The
obtained choices and their justification were registered in the worked out Picture
Realization Scales.
The research was carried out on a randomly selected population group consisting of 218 children at the nursery school age in the pre-reading period, so that the
age of the population was 5–6 years; 109 children were five-year-olds and the same
number (109 persons) were 6-year-olds. Among the children taking part in the
research, in the group of five-year-olds the boys constituted 48.6% (53 persons) and
the girls 51.4% (56 persons), the distribution among the six-year-olds was identical.
The research was carried out at randomly chosen nursery schools located in the
urban areas of the Silesian province – in the area of the following towns and cities:
Katowice, Chorzów, and Lędziny. These were typical education facilities, where
pupils come from various social backgrounds. The research was carried out in the
school year 2008/2009 in the individual system.
The investigation carried out according to the adopted theoretical and methodological assumptions – in the light of the gathered material and performed
analyses – provided answers to a range of questions, among which some referred
to valorisation of the visual image and its criteria of vital significance from the
point of view of the children taking part in the research.
182
Child’s valorisation of visual images in the form of book
illustration
The empirical material illustrating the issue of valorisation of visual pictures in
the form of book illustration is only composed of the child’s verbalised statements,
the character of which shows acceptance of choice. It has to be mentioned that
the data analysis in this case was of qualitative character and thus did not cover
statistical verification.
The collected empirical material presented in Chart 1 shows incentives for
valorisation of illustrative artistic realizations which consequently allow for
determination of types and criteria of the child’s motivations given to the accepted
pictures.
The distribution of argumentation taking into account the selection of the nicest
illustration showed that the child’s motivation is directed at: a) not providing an
answer or giving a single sentence generalization such as: because of nice trees,
because there is a balloon; b) providing general information on what the child
can see using such statements as: it is cold and windy; c) an attempt to analyse
what they can see but the information is disorganized: a big colourful tree, leaves
are colourful, strange, d) argumentation by providing an answer containing many
details but chaotic in nature: because the tree is nice, has got such green and yellow
leaves, nice e) argumentation containing artistic qualities, i.e., children pay attention to shape, form or colours: because it is so twisted, colourful, has got such nice
leaves, so colourful f) various answers: I like it, I also have such a teddy bear, I had
the same balloon.
On the basis of the obtained data, it has been stated that within the children’s
argumentation covering illustrations realized as paintings, statements which are
generalizations characterized by aesthetic observations are most common, e.g.:
“Because I like such ones”, “Because it is beautiful and different”. “It is the best”,
“Because it is nice”. The elements of the presented world – included in the painterly
illustration such as persons, things and parts of the surroundings turned out to be
slightly less important in the performed verbal argumentation, e.g.: “A nice balloon
and girl”, “Interesting sky”. Artistic elements turned out to be the least important,
e.g.: “So colourful and not blurred”, “Nice and colourful; it is not strange’, “Because
this is the most colourful here”.
In the case of illustrations realized as drawings, also a tendency to give generalizations of the aesthetic nature and containing artistic qualities can be observed, e.g.:
Because this one is the most coloured of all the other ones”, “ A picture like from a colouring book – it is OK”, “Children like colourful pictures”, “Such a funny picture”.
183
From the Issues…
Chart 1: Types and criteria of verbal
valorisation in the scope of illustrations
such as paintings, drawings and
graphics in the subjective perspective
of a child in the pre-reading
age – a graphic presentation
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
painting interpretation
5
6
Overall
painting aestetics
painting artistic elements
painting presented word
40
30
Clarification
20
Types of given answers:
1 not providing an answer or giving a generalization expressed in a single sentence
10
0
1
2
3
4
drawning interpretation
drawning presented word
5
6
Overall
drawning aestetics
drawning artistic elements
2 providing general information on what
they can see
3 making an attempt to analyze what they
can see, but this information is disorganised
50
40
4 argumentation through providing answers
containing many details but chaotic in
nature
30
20
10
0
1
2
3
4
5
6
Overall
graphics interpretation
graphics aestetics
graphics presented word
graphics artistic elements
5 argumentation containing artistic qualities,
it means that children pay attention to shape,
form and colours
6 various answers
With reference to the graphic forms of illustrations, we can observe – like in
other areas of picture realizations – argumentation formed on the basis of generalization containing aesthetic elements and relative balance of motivation showing
interpretation and information on the topic of what a child can see, and thus
containing elements of the presented world. However, the aesthetic criterion, in
which attention is paid to beauty is the most important for children – “Because it
is also better”. “Because it is nice”, “Everything is nice”, “Because the window and
flower are nice”, “This teddy bear is funnier”, “The teddy bear is laughing and this is
so nice”, “Everything is so nice and clean; there is order”.
The analysis of the empirical material showed that such elements as colourfulness/colour of illustration/ pictured situation – an event, humour and a jolly
184
mood as well as a person’s appearance, activities, possessions and their aesthetics
constitute the child’s criteria of predilection for illustrative pictures.
Presenting the issue globally, it may be claimed that the majority of the argumentation is directed at giving an answer in a single general statement or providing
general information on what a child can see expressed as a bunch of disorderly
information. However, a small amount is composed of motivation containing pieces
of artistic qualities. It shows a necessity to develop communicative competences,
also in the area of artistic notions and terms also referring to vividness, something
that may be achieved only if one is a sensitive teacher possessing the appropriate
knowledge. Thus, it is so important to prepare nursery school teachers in the area
of aesthetic education.
Besides, it may be noticed that the young audience pays attention to both the
objective, perceivable by the senses, qualities as well as to the emotional aspect,
which is noticeable but not leading. It may be also noticed that the verbal justifications of the performed choices are characterized by chaos of thoughts. It is probably
caused by a lack of artistic language and difficulties in learning the visual code, and
– as it may be judged – by a lack of notions and terms necessary for interpreting
an image, i.e., a unique skill of interpreting a visual image, which shall be provided
by education.
Final thoughts
The presented conclusions prove that the child evaluates an illustration in two
areas: aesthetic, in which the child pays attention to beauty and ugliness and
artistic components pertaining to the structure of picturing (colour, structure,
shape, clarity), yet in dichotomous opposition there is the sphere for interpretation
and discovering the elements of the presented world, which constitute the aspect
of intellectual reception and valorisation. And thus the direction of search for
a properly constructed illustration in a literary book for children shall, on the
one hand, focus on meeting the child’s aesthetic preferences and qualities widely
emphasized in the analyses carried out by creators and researchers of the art of
illustrations, and, on the other hand, leave a margin of “openness” of the visual
picture in a literary book (referring again to the idea of U. Eco – U. Eco,1999;
1994) thanks to which a recipient may actively and intellectually participate in
the creation of the meanings of an illustration when it leads to deeper reflection
either because it is uniquely “incomplete” or because it contains elements reaching
beyond the presentation of the given world.
From the Issues…
185
Summing up, such a form of illustration shall be looked for which will combine
both dimensions – aesthetic and interpretative, and then we will fulfil the mission
of developing reading culture and let young recipients interpret a masterpiece
pointing out its hermetic and inter-subjective character, which yet has to become
an area of research in other studies.
Bibliography
Eco, U. (1999). Czytanie świata. Eseje, tł. M. Woźniak, Kraków: Znak-Społeczny
Instytut Wydawniczy Znak sp. z o.o.
Eco, U.(1994). Dzieło otwarte. Forma i nieokreśloność w poetykach współczesnych,
tł. J. Gałuszka, Warszawa: Czytelnik.
Kossowski, P. (1999). Dziecko i reklama telewizyjna. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo
Krasoń, K. Mazepa-Domagała, B. (2007). Ilustracja w książce dla dzieci – studium
pilotażowo-projektowe. In S. Juszczyk, A. Watoła, M. Musioł (eds.). Edukacja
w społeczeństwie wiedzy. Wieloznaczność rzeczywistości edukacyjnej, społecznej
i kulturowej. Katowice: Agencja Artystyczna PARA.
Mazepa-Domagała, B. (2008). O ilustracji w książce literackiej dla dzieci. In
K. Heska-Kwaśniewicz (ed.), Literatura dla dzieci i młodzieży (po roku 1980).
Katowice: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.
Pettersson, P. (2000). Alfabetyzacja w nowym tysiącleciu. Edukacja Medialna 3.
Pedeutology
Soňa Kariková
Reflections on the Teaching Profession Over the Last
Thirty-Five Years
Abstract
Teaching is among the professions that seem to be most discussed and described
not only by experts, but also by the lay public. It is a profession that everyone has
come into contact with, and this might be a reason why there are so many opinions
and statements that evaluate it according to their point of view. It is a profession
that evokes continuous discussions about its aims, about who can execute the
teaching profession, and about its contextual and professional fulfilment.
The aim of this paper is to compare research findings from the last thirty-five
years with respect to the teaching profession. We would like to point out the
differences in the opinions about teachers in research conducted in 1974 and in
2009. Therefore, theoretical cornerstones go hand in hand with the aim of this
research.
Key words: teaching profession, teacher’s career, feminisation of the teaching profession.
The teaching profession
In general, any profession can be considered from the sociological point of view
(its social status, amount of income, the level of adaptation of an individual in the
profession), from the psychological point of view (execution and self-fulfilment
in the profession, social adaptation), from the ethical point of view (the ethical
context of the profession, its meaning and ethical decision-making), from the
logistical-economic point of view (economic and power aspects of individual
190
Soňa Kariková
professions). All these points of view also relate to the teaching profession though
some of them are more or less stressed.
It seems that the teaching profession is mostly influenced by social changes,
which are also reflected in various legislative documents. During the last forty
years, society (as well as the teaching profession) has had to conform to the requirements of a socialist – centralistic regime, the transition to a democratic society
and the establishment of a new state, all of which affected the teaching profession.
The Pedagogical Dictionary (1995, p. 102) defines the teaching profession as “the
complex of activities the essence of which is to influence behaviour, beliefs and
feelings of pupils and to deliver them knowledge, skills and habits created by the
culture of previous generations.“
According to this definition, because the teaching profession considerably influences the personality of the child-pupil, it belongs among the most important
professions in any developed society. Work at school, education of morals and
youth education, after-school activities and others are among the activities teachers
perform that cannot be replaced by any other profession. Certainly, any teacher
realizes their potential in school surroundings mostly, as it is where he/she executes
most of his/her work, but it should be said that the profession surely exceeds the
boundary of school and it also overlaps with other spheres of social life.
According to J. Vašutová (2004), until the first half of the 20th century, the
teaching profession was identified with a mission based on enthusiasm, pedagogical optimism and ethical meliorism. The 1960s saw the beginning of a heyday
for the teaching profession, and its autonomy, social status and attractiveness
increased thanks to the requirement of university education. During the 80s and
the 90s the era of teacher de-professionalism began, including growing criticism,
pointing out teachers’ inadequate qualifications with respect to new educational
conditions, educational requirements, a high proportion of feminisation, and the
ageing of teaching staffs. It seemed as if the teaching profession was losing its
“attractiveness”, and J. Průcha (2005) openly speaks about the crisis of the teaching
profession. According to this author, the teaching profession is undermined by the
fact that it does not comply with certain requirements for other full professions. It
is understood as a semi-profession, or a developing profession. The following are
considered to be the symptoms of the crisis of the teaching profession:
• low social status,
• undefined term of “status“,
• modest salaries,
• uncontrolled dynamic changes of profession execution,
• poor working conditions,
Reflections on the Teaching Profession Over the Last Thirty-Five Years
191
• doubt in education as a traditional value,
• low consistency of educational aims as a traditional value.
According to B. Kosová (2005), the external symptoms of the teaching profession crisis include:
• ageing of teacher staffs,
• feminisation of the profession – the percentage of women in the teaching
profession at Slovakia’s primary schools reaches 91 %,
• shortage of qualified teachers – which is specifically addressed in Slovakia
by allowing a teacher to teach 50 % of their lessons in an unqualified way,
• modest salaries – Slovakia together with Hungary and Lithuania display the
worst situation among the EU countries in this regard,
• unattractiveness of the profession – low interest in the study of teaching,
teachers leave their profession,
• impossibility of career advancement –most teachers in Slovakia spend their
entire career in the same position – no career-oriented positions exist,
• high requirements for the profession – rapid development of pedagogical
science, techniques, requirements of the public, parents – no supportive
measures exist.
The symptoms of the teaching profession crisis have prompted several legislative
measures that react to some of the causes of the above-mentioned sources of the
situation. For example, Act No. 245/2008 Coll. on education (School Act), and
specifically, Act No. 317/2009 Coll. on pedagogical and professional employees,
which above all stipulates the status and career growth of teachers, or pedagogical
and other professional employees (pedagogues, job trainers, etc.). The Act follows
several regulations of the Slovak Ministry of Education relating to qualification
prerequisites for individual categories of pedagogical employees, specifying their
possibilities for continual education in various spheres related to the teaching
profession. It not only relates to new knowledge about concrete subjects, but also
the knowledge taking pupils’ personalities into account. These forms of education
also allow for the personal growth and development of teachers; for example, they
are specifically focused on beginning teachers in the form of so-called “adaptation education“, on the management of schools and specialists who participate
in the education process (e.g. educational counsellor, educational psychologist) .
The School Act grants teachers greater autonomy with respect to the execution of
various new programmes and educational forms.
The legislative measures mentioned above should also contribute to the increased
status of the teaching profession in contemporary society.
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Soňa Kariková
Status of teachers
The teaching profession is a demanding and high-responsibility one. This is
supported by J. Průcha (2002), who describes nine degrees of demands for various
professions, according to which he places the teaching profession in the 7th and
8th degrees:
7. Highly complex and qualified work with limited independence: managers
of large organisations, primary school teachers, personnel managers, legal
counsellors, professional athletes and others.
8. Highly complex and qualified work, multifaceted and independent: commanders of military units, dentists, interpreters, university and secondary
school teachers, pilots and others.
Despite this point, the status and position of teachers in our contemporary
society tends to fall. This trend may also be influenced by the overall satisfaction / dissatisfaction of teachers themselves with their profession. For example,
B. Blížkovský (2000) summarized the results of the professiographic analysis of
Czech, Slovak and Polish teachers as follows:
• The requirements and demands for teachers have been increasing, and
because of their modest salaries, teachers depend on income from additional
part-time jobs, causing the tension to increase between the gradation of the
requirements of top quality education and the stagnation and degradation
of the teacher’s social status.
• The professional capacities of teachers are almost totally exhausted by factual
school instruction and everyday preparation for lessons.
• Many pedagogical and socially important professional activities vital to
optimising school education are not executed sufficiently.
The status of teachers is closely interconnected with their social role and society’s
expectations of them. As a consequence of these expectations and demands, the
teacher acquires certain characteristic and required behavioural patterns. Thus,
the uniqueness of every individual plays an important role, because it is up to
every teacher how to “wrestle with” the requirements and demands of the society
where they work and live. “Social prestige, reception and appreciation is bound
to this interconnection of status and role. Social groups with high social prestige
are usually admired, and their members’ behaviour is imitated. Such social groups
are attributed with a significant influence on society and its development, which
corresponds to their political and economic situation. Thus, we can conclude that
teachers in our country do not belong among social groups with high prestige.“
(P. Ondrejkovič, 1990, p. 250)
193
Ondrejkovič proposes three statuses that are typical of the teaching profession:
1. inherent – specifically typical of feminisation (the fact resulting from the
status of a woman in our society). However, it may also be the other kind of
inherent status – e.g., family tradition to work as a teacher, resulting from
several generations of teachers in a family;
2. acquired – primarily determined by teachers’ social activities. The author
is convinced that it is the most contradictory category. “On the one hand,
we witness a high degree of social activity among teachers (on average),
specifically in comparison with other socio-professional groups; on the other
hand, it is just this high degree of social activity and its qualities that is the
source of low social prestige.“ This phenomenon is probably caused by the
fact that teachers, mostly in the past, during the period of socialism, had to
subordinate their social activities to political, state matters, very often against
their will and conviction;
3. attributed –given by the socio-economic position of teachers. As it is an
attributed status, its origin is not always conditioned by objective reality.
The subsequent economic situation of teachers, indicated primarily by the
amount of real income, average salary, accommodation situation and so on,
is the part of their attributed status.
Ondrejkovič concludes that the real position of education and erudition in
our society is a definite summarising denominator of teachers’ social status. The
averageness of teaching predetermined existing social development to prefer other
than professional aspects in the profile of the teacher’s personality, but also in the
working process. “Education as a final value, first and foremost represented by
teachers, was not considered to be important.“ (P. Ondrejkovič, 1990, p. 253)
What was so important in the teaching profession in the recent past?
Just to illustrate this, below we state several opinions and standpoints related to
the performance and the main orientation of the teaching profession. For example,
in 1979, the following was stated at the national conference of teachers:
”…school must constantly encourage and educate our young generation about political awareness, socialistic patriotism, proletarian
and socialistic internationalism, to instruct the young generation how
to acquire the ability to evaluate social phenomena and processes with
respect to classes and political party, to acquire high moral qualities
and to work creatively. School must create a strong conviction in the
young generation in the truth of communistic ideals, and strengthen
faithfulness to these ideals… “
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Soňa Kariková
”…our school primarily serves the interests of the nation, whereby it
mediates our nation’s children a high level of education interconnected
with the moral education about patriotism towards our socialist country,
in accordance with proletarian internationalism. Socialist society needs
young people who know a lot, who like to work and work well, who
execute socially desirable working occupations, who adopt a clear political standpoint, who are able to defend socialism against any attacks, and
who fulfil the revolutionary battle of the present day…“
What was emphasised was a team, mutual effort and teamwork, and the teacher
had to be a main “regulator” of this process; e.g., V. Špendla (1974, p. 25) states
“… the character of the school and work in it, as well as the teacher’s personality
in our country are specifically determined by Marxist-Leninist ideology, scientific
socialism, the ideology focused on building up socialism in our country. A scientific worldview, ideological maturity and political involvement are unconditional
fundamental prerequisites of the teacher’s personality.“
At the end of this brief reference to the recent past, we mention the opinion
of F. Kozel: “the teacher’s professional activities are based on the fact that he/she
provides pupils with knowledge and skills in individual subjects. The political
activities of the teacher are based on the fact that he/she uses the activities of
pupils during the lesson as well as overall school life to facilitate pupils’ acquisition
of a desirable social experience and the development of pupils’ social activity in
the proper direction.“ ( F. Kozel, 1974, p. 48). Stating this, we would like to point
out that not everything that the previous society regulated was incorrect and
subordinated to the political system. After all, we cannot criticise everything in
the previous educational system, because otherwise, the current adult generation
could not be so successful in various spheres of life.
Aims of research
Our research was inspired by the research by Vojtech Špendla and his co-workers
in 1974, the results of which were published in the monograph Učiteľ a učiteľská
profesia (Teacher and the Teaching Profession, 1974). Even the title of the publication
indicates its focus – it served as an interesting theme for comparison of opinions
on the teaching profession in the recent past and nowadays.
Our research is not only focused on presenting the teaching profession at present,
but on comparison between the present and the past, specifically the socialist era in
the first half of the 1970s. The activities of the teacher at school in the past differs
195
from the present in some aspects. Therefore, we decided to document this by using
an original questionnaire, in order to compare the results of our research with the
results obtained by the same questionnaire that was applied thirty-five years ago.
The main aim of our paper is to compare the results of the research conducted by
Vojtech Špendla in 1974 with a large sample of pedagogical and non-pedagogical
workers with our results and to infer comparative conclusions. We are interested
in the motivation of teachers with respect to the choice of the profession, positive
and negative features of their professions, and last but not least, their view on the
status of the teaching profession.
With respect to the aim of the research, we formulated the following research
questions (RQ):
RQ1: Do the motivation factors of the teaching profession choice differ from
the motivation factors of teachers thirty-five years ago?
RQ2: Do the views of contemporary teachers on the positive aspects of their
profession differ from the views of teachers during the socialism period?
RQ3: Do the views of contemporary teachers on the negative aspects of their
profession differ from the views of teachers in the past?
RQ4: Are there any differences in subjective satisfaction with the social status of
teachers between contemporary teachers and teachers in the past?
Research sample
The original research sample consisted of 2 900 teachers from various types of
school ((nursery schools, 1st – 5th year of ZDŠ (primary schools), 6th – 9th year
of ZDŠ, SVŠ (grammar schools), Stredné odborné a odborné školy (secondary
vocational schools and vocational schools), Učňovské školy a odborné učilištia
(training schools for apprentices and vocational schools for apprentices)). The
composition of the selection of schools chosen by the authors of the original
research corresponded with the school system of that time.
Our research sample consists of 125 teachers, and we tried to arrange their
school-type composition to approximate the original composition as much as
possible. Each group consists of the same number of respondents (n = 25). We
chose five kinds of schools: nursery schools, “ZŠ” (primary schools) (we consider
teachers of the 1st level of ZŠ and teachers of the 2nd level of ZŠ separately), then
“gymnázium” (grammar schools) and “stredné odborné školy” (secondary vocational schools).
196
Soňa Kariková
We find the first interesting difference after analysing the research sample
according to sex. Women comprise as much as 82.4 % of the total number of
teachers (N=125), and even 100 % in nursery schools and the 1st level of ZŠ, and
in 1974, the percentage of male teachers was higher by 10 %. This phenomenon
relates to the persistent significant feminisation of the teaching profession which
is also pointed out by the authors of the current publication “Riaditelia a učiteľky”
(headmasters and female teachers) (2009).
Execution of research and research method
The research was executed as a component of a thesis by L. Belková (2010). We
used the existing questionnaire “Dotazník o učiteľskom povolaní” (Questionnaire
on the teaching profession, 1974), by V. Špendla. The questionnaire consists of
seven sections of questions that are structured on a smaller scale according to
various sub-areas: Basic Data, Personal Data, Teaching profession in Your Life,
Views on the Teaching Profession, Life Satisfaction and Perspectives, Educational
Work and Value-Educational Work and Relations Among Teachers at School. As
stated above, this paper only focuses on three areas or individual parts of the
original questionnaire – motivation, views on the teaching profession with respect
to the positive and negative aspects of the profession, and the perception of the
teaching profession status.
We processed the data with the PC spreadsheet programme Microsoft Excel,
which allowed for data lucidity and organisation. With respect to our aim, we
determined the same process as V. Špendla. Individual percentages of our research
data were compared with percentages in individual items of his research. We
looked for significant differences and the possible occurrence of new phenomena.
Although we are fully aware of the difference between the numbers of the previous
and current samples, we are focused on indicating trends with respect to individual
research questions.
Results of research and their interpretation
Sphere of motivation for the teaching profession
When ascertaining a spontaneous interest in “becoming a teacher” relating to
the primary selection of the study, we found a significant decrease in the interest
in the profession, specifically with respect to the teachers of the 2nd level of ZŠ.
197
Figure 1: Graph of “spontaneous interest” motive in selection
of teaching profession
80
70
60
%
50
1974
40
2009
30
20
10
0
Materské
školy
1. stupeň
ZŠ
2. stupeň ZŠ
druh školy
Gymnáziá
SOŠ
Explanatory notes: materské školy = nursery schools; 1. stupeň ZŠ = 1st level of ZŠ (primary school),
2. stupeň ZŠ = 2nd level of ZŠ (primary school), gymnázia = grammar schools, SOŠ = secondary
vocational schools, druh školy = type of school .
We found out the following interesting differences during the analysis of concrete
motives. While in 1974, 63.1% of the teachers decided on this profession “based
on the influence of other persons“; in 2009, it was only 45.6% of the respondents.
This difference can be interpreted as a result of several factors: one of them is the
previous higher status of the teaching profession and the possible larger influence
of parents, who influenced the decision of prospective teachers, as well as the more
significant influence of their own teachers as role models.
This difference can also be related to the fewer possibilities for university studies.
On the one hand, this resulted from the lower number of universities, and on the
other hand, from the more limited choice of various study fields; after 1990, the
choice of study fields increased.
This interpretation also corresponds with the conclusion that the choice of the
teaching profession was motivated by “shortage of other opportunities“. While in
1974, this answer was stated by 23.1% of the respondents, it was stated by only by
10.4% of the respondents in 2009.
With respect to the sphere of motivation, we also studied the teachers’ willingness to decide on this profession again if given the chance. The results are shown
in Table 1.
Soňa Kariková
198
Table 1: Spontaneous choice of teaching profession and repeated, hypothetical
choice of teaching profession.
A
Nursery schools
1st level of ZŠ (primary schools)
2nd level of ZŠ
Gymnáziá (grammar schools)
SOŠ (secondary vocational schools)
Average (%)
2009
76.0
100.0
88.0
76.0
68.0
81.6
B
1974
92.3
89.4
84.3
78.3
54.4
79.9
2009
60.0
68.0
52.0
44.0
36.0
52.0
1974
86.7
86.9
73.1
64.2
52.7
72.7
Difference
2009
1974
–16.0
–5.6
–32.0
–2.5
–36.0
–11.2
–32.0
–14.1
–32.0
–1.7
– 29.6
– 7.2
A – spontaneous decision for teaching profession
B – repeated hypothetical choice of teaching profession
The spontaneity of profession choice of the contemporary teachers and the
teachers in 1974 is not changed markedly. However, we can see a greater decrease
in the repeated hypothetical choice of the teaching profession – almost 30 % of
the contemporary teachers would not choose the teaching profession again if they
could decide again.
With respect to this question, the original questionnaire also researched into
opinions on what the profession respondents would choose if given a freedom
of choice; the respondents stated a sequence of selected professions. In 1974, the
teaching profession was in the 1st place; in 2009, it was the profession of a psychologist.
Positive aspects of the teaching profession
We were interested in what the teachers consider to be the positive aspects of
their profession, and at the same time we compared whether these positive aspects
differ from what was stated by the teachers thirty-five years ago.
Similarly to V. Špendla, we divided the positive aspects into three groups based
on their original description. Work with children and young people comprises
the responses of psychological character. The second group of responses, those
of utilitarian character, includes ones such as advantageous working hours and
holidays. At this point, we would like to mention that among the answers of utilitarian character thirty-five years ago, Špendla included ones such as a good salary;
in 1974, 18.8% of the teachers were satisfied; such an answer did not occur among
199
our respondents at all. The third group of responses, those relating to personality,
includes responses such as personality growth and intellectual work.
Table 2: Positive aspects of the teaching profession
Type of school
Nursery schools
2nd level of ZŠ
Average (%)
Character of stated positive aspects
Psychological
Utilitarian
Personality
2009
1974
2009
1974
2009
1974
52.0
35.9
48.0
40.6
0.0
23.5
32.0
39.3
56.0
39.5
12.0
21.2
68.0
38.2
32.0
38.8
0.0
23.0
52.0
60.8
48.0
23.0
0.0
16.2
56.0
45.0
40.0
24.7
4.0
30.3
52.0
43.8
44.8
33.3
3.2
22.8
The most significant differences were shown in the personality-related positive
aspects of the teaching profession. Based on the collected data, we can presuppose a markedly slighter interest of the contemporary teachers in the particular
personal asset of the teaching profession and a slighter interest in self-education,
self-improvement and life-long education, but also a preference for the utilitarian
aspects of the profession.
Negative aspects of the teaching profession
Similarly to the positive aspects of the teaching profession, we were also interested in what the teachers consider to be the most demanding aspect of their
profession, or where they see the cause of the most frequent conflicts.
Table 3: Negative aspects of teaching profession
Type of school
Nursery schools
2nd level of ZŠ
Average (%)
Behaviour of pupils
2009
36.0
52.0
48.0
56.0
44.0
47
1974
–
3.6
7.5
3.3
5.5
4
Negative aspects
Communication
with parents
2009
1974
40.0
2.9
32.0
7.3
36.0
3.8
20.0
2.5
20.0
0.9
29
3.5
Legislative changes
2009
24.0
8.0
16.0
24.0
24.0
19
1974
0.5
0.7
2.0
1.7
2.6
1.5
Soňa Kariková
200
The results shown in the Table point out significant changes related to the
increase in the negative aspects of teaching. On the one hand, there is an increase
in pupils’ problem behaviour in all the types and levels of schools, as well as the
communication with parents. These two aspects also reflect overall social changes
unequivocally, specifically in the sense of an increase in various socio-pathological
phenomena, and also the problems in the behaviour of children and pupils. Similarly, the sphere of problems with the communication with parents may relate to
the overall attitude of the public to education, but also to the status (respect) of
the teaching profession. With respect to the dissatisfaction in the sphere of legislative changes, it is represented by the previous regime that main principles were
almost unchangeable, which was also reflected in the sphere of basic ideas of the
educational system.
Social authority of teachers
The last researched sphere is represented by the comparison of opinions related
to the social authority of the teaching profession. The following table shows three
degrees of social authority in percentage, and we used the terms of the original
questionnaire – high, average and low.
As shown, the major differences in the opinions of the teachers’ social authority
between the contemporary teachers and those thirty-five years ago concern average
and low authority. The increasing percentage of the teachers who consider the
social authority of the teacher to be low is a warning signal. No contemporary
teachers consider the status of teachers or their social authority to be high.
As a supplementary question, we asked the teachers what were the causes of the
decrease in the social authority of teachers in their opinion.
Table 4: Social authority of teachers
High
2009
0.0
Nursery schools
1st level of ZŠ (primary schools) 0.0
0.0
2nd level of ZŠ
0.0
SOŠ (secondary vocational schools) 0.0
Average
0.0
1974
2.7
0.7
0.3
0.0
2.7
1.2
Average
2009
1974
56.0
68.4
56.0
51.6
24.0
42.3
40.0
38.3
24.0
51.8
40.0
50.4
Low
2009
44.0
44.0
76.0
60.0
76.0
60.0
1974
27.0
47.2
57.0
61.7
45.5
47.6
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Table 5: Causes of low social authority of teachers – year 2009
Financial
compensation
Impact of non-school
authorities
No appreciation
of education at all
Nursery
schools
1st level of
ZŠ (primary
schools)
2nd level of
ZŠ (primary
schools)
Gymnáziá
(grammar
schools)
SOŠ
(secondary
52
40
32
56
40
44.0
12
16
16
16
4
12.8
36
44
52
28
56
43.2
vocational
schools)
%
The contemporary teachers consider the financial compensation of their work
and non-appreciation of education itself in the contemporary society to be the
main and almost equivalent causes of teachers’ low social authority.
Conclusion
The results of our research indicate several differences related to the status and
perception of the teaching profession between now and thirty-five years ago. They
include:
Increasing feminisation of the teaching profession. However, this phenomenon also has another dimension relating to the gender issue; it also relates to
the so-called dual labour market (M. Béreš et al., 2009), where a certain group of
professions is typical of men or women. From this point of view, teaching is such
a profession. One of the impacts of this situation is represented by horizontal and
vertical gender segregation, which manifests itself, e.g., in the fact that within
individual professions, different positions can be achieved depending on a person’s
gender. The school system is a typical example, as top positions are mostly held
by men (headmasters, deputy-headmasters), although the staff mostly consists of
female teachers.
However, the feminisation of schools has also an impact upon the social prestige of their professions. They are all professions preferred by women or typified
by feminisation, and among professions with a modest income as well as with
the lowest social appreciation. This conclusion relates to another finding of our
research to some extent: the decreasing status of the teaching profession and the
significant dissatisfaction of contemporary teachers with their financial compensation. In relation to this fact, A. Tokárová (in: M. Béreš et al., 2009) mentions the
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Soňa Kariková
paradox of the satisfied villain as the low income of female teachers is justified by
them by the specious “advantages” of the teaching profession – more free working
time, holidays during holidays at schools, “shorter” working hours, and so on.
These conclusions may relate to the results of our research and the increase in the
responses of utilitarian character among the contemporary teachers.
The responses and their significant differences by percentage relate to the
negative aspects of theteaching profession, where we ascertained an increase in
dissatisfaction with respect to the number of “problematic pupils” (even in nursery
schools), problems and conflicts in communication with parents as well as frequent
legislative changes. On the one hand, the negative aspects may be associated with
the above-mentioned gender segregation of the teaching profession having an
impact upon its prestige, but on the other hand, it may also relate to overall social
changes, such as the increase in socio-pathological phenomena and the changes in
values, which in turn relate to the decreasing value placed on education.
In the end, we submit that the change of the teaching profession status and the
elimination of its negative aspects relate to several issues, including overall social
changes. Therefore, we recommend:
• defining the career growth of teachers and its conditions clearly,
• increasing the average income of teachers – it should be higher than the
average income in the national economy,
• other professional employees should be employed at schools (educational
psychologists, special and social pedagogues and others), who would act
preventively to eliminate socio-pathological phenomena,
• society should attach greater importance and prestige to the issues of education and erudition.
Bibliography:
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Blížkovký, B., Kučerová, S., Kurelová, M. et al. (2000). Sťředoevropský učitel na
prahu učící sa společnosti 21. století. Brno: Konvoj.
Kosová, B. (2005). Spoločenské východiská, stav a perspektívy učiteľskej
profesie a vzdelávania. In Technológia vzdelávania, 13(2), 2–6.
Kosová, B. (2006). Kríza učiteľskej profesie v medzinárodnom kontexte. In Pedagogické rozhľady, 15(4–5), 20–24.
Kozel, F. et al. (1974). Triedny učiteľ v socialistickej škole. Bratislava: SPN, 1974.
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Ondrejkovič, P. (1990). K postaveniu učiteľov v spoločnosti. In Pedagogická revue,
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Průcha, J. (2005). Moderní pedagogika. Praha: Portál.
Průcha, J. (2002). Učitel. Současné poznatky o profesi. Praha: Portál.
Průcha, J., Walterová, E., Mareš, J. (2009). Pedagogický slovník. Praha: Portál.
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Vašutová, J. (2004). Profese učitele v českém vzdělávacím kontextu. Brno: Paido
Zákon č.317/2009 Z.z. o pedagogických zamestnancoch a odborných zamestnancoch
– Act No. 317/2009 Coll. on pedagogical and professional employees
Zákon č. 245/2008 Z.z. o výchove a vzdelávaní (školský zákon) – Act No. 245/2008
Coll. on education (School Act)
204
Rafał Piwowarski
Poland
Preconditions for Effective Teaching
(in the Light of Data from the TALIS 2008 Project –
Polish Perspective)
Abstract
The article contains some information, opinions and conclusions connected
with preconditions for effective teaching. The survey, which is partly presented,
involved 24 countries and was carried out among 90 thousand teachers (the stress
is put here on the “Polish perspective”). The teachers and schools were described
by over 50 factors (independent variables), comprising : profiles of teachers and
schools, teachers’ professional development, teaching practices and teachers’ beliefs
and attitudes, teacher appraisal and school leadership.
The two variables were regarded as preconditions for a teacher’s professional
success (they were classified as dependent variables). It was concluded that the
classroom climate and the teachers’ sense of self-efficacy were the key variables.
In Poland and in most countries – the model of the sense of self-efficacy was
dominated by variables on teacher beliefs about instruction and teaching practice.
The second model (classroom climate) – both in Poland and in most other countries there were equally strong contributions of variables from the “Practices and
beliefs” and “Socio-economic conditions” blocks.
Key words: TALIS, effective teaching, teachers’ practices and beliefs, classroom
climate, teachers’ self-efficacy.
TALIS – project highlights
The Teaching and Learning International Survey (TALIS) is an OECD interna-
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Rafał Piwowarski
tional research project involving 17 member states (Australia, Austria, Belgium/
Flanders, Denmark, Spain, the Netherlands, Ireland, Iceland, Korea, Mexico,
Norway, Poland, Portugal, Slovakia, Turkey, Hungary and Italy) and 7 partner
countries (Brazil, Bulgaria, Estonia, Lithuania, Malaysia, Malta, Slovenia).
The first presentation of the project report took place in June 2009 in Brussels
and since then the participating countries have been promoting their “national”
reports.
The main objective of this international effort was to offer reliable facts and
analyses on the broadly understood school environment defined as a place of
teaching, learning and a workplace. The main report and its national versions
cover the results of the first phase of the project completed during 2007 and 2008.
The research was coordinated by the IEA Data Processing Centre in Hamburg and
the whole project was overseen by the OECD Secretariat in Paris.
The survey was carried out among teachers of lower secondary schools (ISCED
2 level of education according to the UNESCO classification) and their principals.
The 90 thousand participants in the survey (from schools selected by Statistics
Canada) represented two million teachers employed in lower secondary schools.
The final analysis included responses from 70 thousand teachers, including 3,184
Polish teachers from 172 schools.
The international report and the national reports share a similar structure,
which normally comprises six main chapters: 1) A profile of teachers and schools
(demographics, educational background, experience, school resources, sense of
autonomy, climate/discipline at school); 2) The professional development of teachers (forms of improvement, unfulfilled needs, difficulties); 3) Teaching practices
and teachers’ beliefs and attitudes (also the climate in class and at school, sense of
self-efficacy); 4) School evaluation, teacher appraisal and feedback and the impact
on schools and teachers, 5) School leadership and management styles, 6) The
disciplinary climate in the classroom and teachers’ self–efficacy as key factors in
developing an effective learning environment.
The full reports are available in print with detailed information, an analysis
and a tentative interpretation. However, prior to tackling the main topic of this
paper, the author feels it may be helpful to share with the reader certain important
pieces of information and the conclusions of the TALIS project. Some findings
vary from country to country and others are universal. An example of the former
category would be the demographics of teachers as an ageing process observed in
some countries, e.g., in Italy, is non-existent in others, such as in Turkey where
the teaching population is predominantly young. On the other hand, women are
underrepresented among principals while they dominate the overall numbers of
Preconditions for Effective Teaching…
207
regular teachers in most of the participating countries. Teachers are found to be
developing their skills in general, but both their involvement and the availability of
financial aid from education authorities vary. In most of the countries the teachers
were dissatisfied with their professional improvement programmes.
In almost all the countries the teachers declared their constructivist beliefs,
which involved treating students as active participants in the teaching process.
At the same time, structured teaching prevailed in most countries. It seems that
it should be one of the educational priorities to overcome this contradiction for
the benefit of the overall education policy and practice in many countries. More
desirable methods involving student orientation and enhancement activities should
become more common, especially in teaching mathematics and other scientific
disciplines where structuring is currently prevalent. The teachers of humanities
and foreign languages far more frequently declared that they undertake student
orientation and enhanced activities.
The majority of the principals surveyed said that the most important relationship in school evaluation (generally understood as external evaluation) was the
teacher-student relationship. (Polish principals specifically thought that classroom
order and discipline were key factors in that evaluation). In terms of the management style principals were clearly divided between administration-focused and
teaching-oriented and Polish principals were in the latter category.
This and many other details and opinions of teachers and principals were helpful in building a theoretical model designed to determine key preconditions for
efficient teaching. It was concluded that the classroom climate and the teachers’
self-efficacy were the key variables.
Assumptions in an effective teaching model
The two aforementioned variables are regarded as preconditions necessary for
the teacher’s professional success. In this study they are classified as dependent variables even if in other models they could be regarded as independent variables. This
means that they may be important in multiple contexts. The classroom climate may
have an impact on students’ performance, but in many countries it also constitutes
a significant aspect of their educational policies. Students’ classroom behaviour is
important for schools in terms of the security of the learning environment and for
this reason these variables may be a required dimension in teaching.
There is a vast body of published research which finds a relationship between
the students’ self-assessment of their own abilities and their actual performance at
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Rafał Piwowarski
school. A synthetic review devoted to self-efficacy can be found in “First Results
of Talis” (2009– pp. 222–223) . For example, the PISA 2006 project concluded that
a higher self-efficacy ratio (in 15-year-olds) in solving and overcoming difficulties
was positively correlated with higher performance. The 2003 edition of that project
also provides similar arguments: there is a positive relationship between students’
self-efficacy in mathematics and their actual performance in this subject.
These examples seem to build the plausibility of a proposition that teachers’ selfefficacy may also have several implications for school education. Self-efficacy may
also be treated as an indicator of teachers’ conduct in the classroom, as well as their
productivity. The self-efficacy index may also have an impact on the organisation
of work and on the school culture. Teachers with a high level of self-efficacy who
work in a diverse environment are better adaptable to the shifting challenges faced
by the school and may be likely to more frequently work towards modernising
these schools, especially in schools with a great diversity of student backgrounds
and cultural environments. The TALIS project found that there was a positive correlation between classroom atmosphere and teachers’ self-efficacy. For this reason
the matter is worth revisiting.
Multi-level modelling included all variables covered by the project. The modelling process investigated the cooperation and impact of multiple factors (variables)
on the classroom climate and on the teachers’ self-efficacy. An effort was made
to build a multi-dimensional model that would take into account all variables
in contrast to the project’s various parts, which typically looked at more detailed
aspects.
Analytical model
The modelling strategy involved identifying seven blocks of 51 independent
variables:
Socio-economic conditions at the level of the teacher, classroom and school
(8 variables):
• Teacher level (specific class and classroom): student abilities much lower
than average, student abilities much higher than average, students speaking
the teaching language;
• School level: students whose first language is the teaching language, students
who have at least one parent who has a higher education, students with
below and above average abilities.
209
Teacher characteristics (5 variables):
• Gender, full time employment, permanent contract employment, higher
than higher-occupational education, years in teaching.
Professional development of teachers (3 variables):
• Number of days devoted to professional improvement, stage/programme
for teachers new to school/profession, mentoring programme for new
teachers.
Teaching practices and beliefs (8 variables):
• Teacher-student relationship, teaching practices (structuring, student
orientation, enhanced activities), beliefs on direct knowledge transfer, constructivist beliefs, cooperation between teachers in teaching, cooperation
between teachers in other areas.
Teacher appraisal and teacher feedback (12 variables):
• No appraisal, no appraisal from school in the last five years, teacher rewards
(monetary or otherwise), student performance (teacher evaluation), innovative practices (teacher evaluation), teachers’ activity in professional improvement, salary change (as a result of evaluation), professional development
(as result of evaluation), public/private acknowledgement by headmaster
or colleagues (as a result of evaluation), change of responsibilities to more
attractive (as a result of evaluation), publishing of school evaluation, student
performance (school evaluation).
School leadership style (5 variables):
• School objectives, directing of the teaching process, direct supervision/
monitoring of the teaching process, accountability of the leadership function, bureaucratic management (centric procedure).
Autonomy and school resources (10 variables)
• Student delinquency (school climate), teacher morale (school climate),
personnel shortage, insufficient school equipment, influence of teacher
hiring and pay (autonomy), policy towards students and textbook selection
(autonomy), curriculum and course autonomy, average class size, public/
non-public school.
The modelling strategy can be described in the following simplified way:
a) “Block” models: two models were built (for the two dependent variables in
the paper title) in each of the topic blocks (without conditions):
– Model one (gross) took into account the variables in each block;
– Model two (net) took into account socio-economic conditions and
teacher characteristics as well as the block variables.
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Rafał Piwowarski
b) b) Final models (gross and net) were built by only taking statistically significant variables (p<0.05) into account.
The grouping of variables into blocks simplified the task of analysing the relationships between each of the independent variables and the two main dependent
variables (self-efficacy and classroom climate). This does not rule out a further
analysis of relationships between the variables in each block. For example, teachers who took part in advanced forms of professional improvement are likely
to apply specially selected teaching practices. This may have an influence on
building a climate of classroom discipline or on the sense of efficacy which were
not taken into account in the block modelling. For this reason the estimated
final models include only those variables from each block that were statistically
significant.
Teachers’ self-efficacy
The sense of professional satisfaction and fulfilment at work are important
concepts in psychology, work organisation and education policy. The sense of
professional satisfaction may be both an effect and a precondition for quality work.
Teachers in general have a positive attitude towards their work and their level of
satisfaction increases with the number of years on the job.
The sense of self-efficacy was studied and described, among others by A. Bandura
(1994) – one can guide one’s behaviour so as to achieve the set targets. A strong
sense of self-efficacy can protect teachers from the burnout syndrome. It may also
be likely that teachers with a strong sense of self-efficacy achieve a better didactic
success with students.
TALIS finds that there is a positive relationship between teachers’ self-efficacy
and their professional satisfaction. Indeed, Norwegian teachers rated themselves
highest in “efficacy” and “satisfaction”, while Korean and Hungarian teachers rated
themselves lowest on both.
The self-efficacy indicator was calculated using aggregated responses to the
following statements:
• I feel I am making a significant educational difference to the lives of my
students.
• If I try really hard, I can make progress with even the most difficult and
unmotivated students.
• I am successful with the students in my class.
• I usually know how to get through to students.
211
Teachers could mark that they: 1) Definitely disagree, 2) Do not agree, 3) Agree,
4) Definitely agree.
The data analysis shows that most countries had indicators close to nil (TALIS
average). Negative values meant that in those country teachers had lower sense of
self-efficacy than the overall average for 23 countries. The Polish teachers placed
slightly below that average (-0.14). The Norwegian teachers had a very high sense
of efficacy and the Koreans rated themselves the lowest. This latter result may
be a little surprising if we remember how well Korean 15-year-olds came out in
PISA tests. Perhaps the Korean teachers thought they could teach even better or
maybe they had low self-esteem? This may be a question for Korean researchers
to investigate.
This collective indicator comprised responses to individual statements and
despite the fact that nearly all the teachers thought that they had didactic and
formative successes at work, a thorough analysis revealed substantial differences.
The Polish teachers also thought they achieved success here and their responses
may be described as “moderate optimism”. Nearly 79% agreed and 18% definitely
agreed that they contributed to students’ lives. This compares to 65% “definitely
agree” in Norway, less than 9% in Hungary and 23% on average in the 23 countries.
The lowest ratings were received in the second module (I can make progress
with even the most difficult and unmotivated students) with nearly 83% responses
on the whole (87% in Poland). The Portuguese and Spaniards rated themselves
the lowest (65–66%). The Polish teachers also thought they were only moderately
successful in their classes (87%). Only 12.5% gave the strong positive response to
this while there were many countries where strong responses went into 25–35%
(TALIS – 19%).
In the final statement (I usually know how to get through to students) nearly all
the teachers gave positive responses. Across all the participating countries there
were 73% positives and 23% strong positives. Poland rated very low on strong
positives and at 8.5% came second from the bottom just before Korea (7.9%),
which was much lower than the top rated Norwegians (45%) and Mexican teachers
(34%).
Classroom climate
Classroom climate was primarily looked at in terms of keeping discipline. Just
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Rafał Piwowarski
as with the self-efficacy indicator, classroom climate was based on the teachers’
responses to four statements:
• When the lesson begins, I have to wait quite a long time for students to
quieten down.
• Students in this class take care to create a pleasant learning atmosphere.
• I lose quite a lot of time because of students interrupting the lesson.
• There is a lot of noise in this classroom.
The teachers reported whether they strongly agreed, agreed, disagreed or strongly
disagreed with each of these statements. They were responding on a randomly
selected class and specifically they were asked to rate the first class they taught on
Tuesday after 11:00 am or the following day if they did not teach on Tuesdays.
The overall average is nil and most countries were close to that value. Positive
values reflected the majority of the teachers with a higher than average rating of
their classroom atmosphere and vice-versa.
The Polish teachers rated their classroom atmosphere slightly above the average, at 0.14. The data show that the Estonian teachers thought they worked in
the best classroom conditions (0.45) while the Spaniards thought the opposite of
themselves (-0.47).
The analysis of the individual modules building the overall classroom climate/
atmosphere indicator (primarily in terms of discipline) shows that the Polish teachers were moderately optimistic about their junior secondary school experience.
More than 86% of the Polish teachers disagreed with the statement that they had
to wait quite a long time for students to quieten down (compared with the TALIS
average of 71%). The only country that came close to that score was Bulgaria (85%),
which means that the Polish and Bulgarian teachers were dealing with either the
“best mannered” students or that they believed they were capable of controlling
the class. (Only 23% of the Icelandic teachers disagreed with the statement).
A relatively large proportion of the teachers agreed with the statement that the
students in the rated class took care to create a pleasant learning atmosphere. In
Poland 69% agreed and 9% definitely agreed (TALIS: 59 and 13%). The strongest
“definitely agree” response came from Austria (24%) and Mexico (21%). The highest shares of those who disagreed that the students took care to create a pleasant
learning atmosphere were in Estonia, Malta and Spain (39–37%), while in Poland
the figure was only 22%.
Close to 29% of all the respondents agreed with the statement that they lost quite
a lot of time because of the students interrupting the lesson. The score in Poland
was somewhat lower (23%), but in several countries it exceeded 40% (Spain and
Iceland 43%, Norway 41%, Portugal 40%).
213
In the final module, which was also the basis for building a combined index of
classroom atmosphere, the teachers were asked to respond to a classroom noise
statement. The average “agree” score was 24%, while in Poland the figure was only
a little more than 16%. In the light of the responses, the largest number of the
teachers had to put up with a great deal of noise in Brazil and Australia (39%),
while the lowest number was in Italy (12.9%), Bulgaria and Poland.
Sense of self-efficacy of Polish teachers (final model)
As mentioned before, a final model was developed for each country and it only
included statistically significant variables. In most of the countries those variables
that went into the models were dominated by the variables on teacher beliefs about
instruction and teaching practices. This was also the case for Poland.
Individual models differed in the number of variables significantly correlated
with the sense of self-efficacy and in the values of factors that described that correlation (factor β). Australia, Mexico and Turkey had only six variables in their
models, while Korea and Austria had more than twice the number (16 and 15,
respectively).
The Polish model had ten variables, including six from block three: “Practices
and beliefs about teaching”. Two variables were socio-economic and there was one
each from the “Teacher characteristic” and “Autonomy” blocks.
Table 1. Sense of self-efficacy. Final model variables for Poland.
Block/group of variables
Variable
School autonomy
Formulating and allocating budget
Teacher characteristic
Women teachers
Socio-economic conditions Ability of students higher than average (teacher level)
% of students in class speaking the teaching language
Socio-economic conditions
(teacher level)
Practices and beliefs
Constructivist beliefs
Direct transmission beliefs about instruction
Professional collaboration
Enhanced activities
Structuring
Teacher-student relationship
β factor
value
–0.156
–0.098
0.098
0.205
0.118
0.097
0.064
0.152
–0.048
0.217
Source: Table 7.5.: Significant variables in the final models for teachers’ reported self-efficacy for each
country; in: OECD – Second Draft of Initial TALIS International Report, 1.04.2009
Rafał Piwowarski
214
In Poland the indices reflecting the relationship between independent variables
and the teachers’ self-efficacy (dependent variable) did not reach high values. It
seems that the following aspects may have a certain influence on the sense of
the Polish teachers’ self-efficacy: teacher-student relations, enhanced activities in
teaching and a constructivist approach to teaching.
The self-efficacy of the Polish teachers is inversely correlated with the index of
budget formulation and with gender (lower among women). This may be a result
of the teachers’ minor role in setting the amount and allocation of the budget and
with female lower self-confidence.
There seems to be a rather obvious relationship with the variable reflecting the
degree to which the teaching language and the students’ mother tongues are the
same. However, a very strong negative correlation was found in Denmark, which
seems to mean that the Danish teachers had a greater sense of self-efficacy when
working with non-Danes.
Classroom climate in Polish schools (final model)
The classroom climate models were built on 10–12 variables in most cases. The
number of variables ranged from 5–6 (Mexico, Turkey) to 14–15 (Italy, Brazil and
Austria). The Polish model involves 12 statistically significant variables. Both in
Poland and in most of the other countries there were equally strong contributions
of variables from the “Practices and beliefs” and “Socio-economic conditions”
blocks.
Table 2. Classroom climate. Final model variables for Poland
School autonomy
Teacher characteristics
Variable
Teacher hiring, setting salaries
School resources – insufficient equipment
Ability of students higher than average (teacher level)
Ability of students lower than average (teacher level)
Percentage of students in class with at least one parent
with a PhD degree (teacher level)
Socio-economic conditions Ability of students lower than average (school level)
Teachers in permanent employment
Years of teaching
Constructivist beliefs
β Factor
value
0.117
0.050
0.242
-0.348
0.317
-0.665
0.146
0.011
0.102
Variable
Direct transmission of beliefs about instruction
Student-oriented practice
Teacher-student relationships
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β Factor
value
-0.116
0.112
0.106
Source: Table 7.4. Significant variables in the final models for classroom climate for each country;
in: OECD – Second Draft…
Just like in the models of the sense of self-efficacy, the classroom climate models
also differed between countries with respect to the number and type of variables
and to the values of the β factors.
In the Polish case the relationships were stronger in the classroom climate than
in the self-efficacy model and there was a strong socio-economic influence in
addition to that of beliefs and practices.
There are significant, if not surprising, negative correlations: the lower the
assessment of student abilities at the class/teacher level and at the school level the
more difficult it is to build a pleasant atmosphere for work. On the other hand,
better students may have a positive influence on the classroom climate (positive
correlations).
A pleasant atmosphere is helped by a higher share of teachers employed permanently and by a greater school autonomy measured by at least a partial influence
on the formulation of teacher salaries and teacher hiring. There is also a likelihood
of constructivist beliefs and student-oriented practices.
The teachers’ beliefs about direct instruction do not serve the building of a good
classroom climate well (negative correlation). Similar relations were also found
in Korea and Slovenia where, like in Poland, there was also a positive correlation
with constructivist beliefs.
Conclusions
Numerous variables have been found to be significantly linked with the classroom climate, discipline and teachers’ self-efficacy in teaching. There was also
a notable range of differences between the variables which were significant in
individual countries. This would suggest that structurally and at the school level,
the various factors function differently in different countries.
There are some general patterns that are true across all or nearly all of the
participating countries. The most important are the characteristics (independent
216
Rafał Piwowarski
variables) strongly correlated with the two dependent variables. The teachers’
beliefs are significantly correlated with the classroom climate and with the sense of
self-efficacy in all of the countries. In most countries there are also correlations with
other classroom factors, such as student abilities and class size (not in Poland). At
the TALIS level the strongest and most significant correlations were unsurprisingly
found between teachers’ beliefs, practices of instruction and classroom discipline/
climate, on the one hand, and the teachers’ self-assessment as to how efficient they
were at work on the other.
In most of the countries two other independent variables also played a role:
the number of years of teaching and practices of instruction that favoured a good
teacher-student relationship.
The fact that the aforementioned variables played such a prominent role does not
mean that other issues, such as the professional development of teachers, school
appraisal and school leadership, are unimportant. Their influence may be indirect
and may emerge in the longer term, which would suggest longitudinal research.
Most of these factors were clearly seen in the gross and net models (but not in the
final models for Poland).
The two dependent variables, which are clearly of a qualitative nature and are
thus difficult to measure, could be used as independent variables in other studies
if these would adopt school leadership, school assessment or teacher appraisal as
their main subjects.
Finally, there is a host of opinions voiced in discussions during and after the
presentation of the national report to the effect that teachers had “learned” how to
respond to surveys. Perhaps some teachers responded the way they thought was
expected of them. Perhaps this suggests a certain kind of empathy on their part?
This cannot be ruled out in certain situations, especially in the countries of the
former Soviet bloc where several questions may have been perceived as a form of
control.
Bibliography
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-Efficacy. In V.S. Ramachaudran (ed.), Encyclopedia of
Human Behaviour, Academic Press, New York
Creating Effective Teaching and Learning Environments: First Results of TALIS
(2009), OECD, Paris
OECD (2004), Learning for Tomorrow’s World: First Results from PISA 2003, OECD,
Paris
217
OECD (2007), PISA 2006: Science Competencies for Tomorrow’s World, OECD,
Paris
OECD – Second Draft of Initial TALIS International Report (1.04.2009), OECD
Piwowarski, R. & M. Krawczyk (2009), Talis, Nauczanie – Wyniki Badań 2008,
Poland na tle międzynarodowym, MEN IBE, Warszawa
Iran
Conceptualization
of Needs Based Curriculum Leadership: Scenarios and
Possibilities for Curriculum System of Iran
Abstract
Exploring the teacher role in curriculum decision-making has proved an
interesting research area over the last few decades. The increasing understanding of teacher and other stakeholders effective roles as well as the reflection of
effective and useful experiences regarding School Based Curriculum Leadership
and other efforts of curriculum specialists have resulted in the fact that School
Based Curriculum Decision-Making should be done by central roles of teachers
and involvement of parents, students and community members. The objective
of this paper is to identify decision-making nature and qualities using different
scenarios, their characteristics and their possibilities for the educational system
of Iran. Methodologically speaking, a mixed model has been used for the study,
consisting of quantitative and qualitative methods and results have been reported
for theoretical and practical purposes in Curriculum decision-making system with
special focus on Iran.
Key words: curriculum needs assessment, curriculum decision-making, curriculum
leadership, teacher role in curriculum.
Introduction
The educational system in Iran has been administrated in a centralized manner
for years. In such a situation, the school curriculum, mainly, is developed and
sent, by central organization, to schools in a specific form (textbooks) for fidelity
220
implementation. The school administrators and teachers have to implement the
curriculum based on regulations and specific time–schedule without any permission to change or modify it. In this situation, in practice, the dominant system of
education presents the curriculum without taking into consideration schools realities. The final result of this method is lack of paying attention to the educational
needs, students, as well as social problems and scientific development.
The vast range of educational and professional criticism against following such
a system and also negative consequences of the centralized curriculum decisionmaking is the main reason for more interest in revision of curriculum planing and
management at the state level and also giving more authority to schools regarding
curriculum decision-making. This important issue has been in the centre of concern in the recent decade through which our country has experienced some basic
political and economic changes and macro – policy making aimed at more civic
participation of the nation in all spheres, consequently, the educational system of
Iran and school curricula were affected. The present paper, in fact, is an effort for
conceptualization of curriculum leadership in various situations so that real needs
of students and schools can be considered.
Theoretical Framework
The curriculum field, from the very beginning, has faced some key questions
of which the most important are: What to learn at schools? Which subjects or
contents are more valuable? What are the criteria for selection and inclusion of
different subjects and themes in the curriculum? And who should participate in
this process (Fathi, 1999; Tilly,2005 Stanovich & Stanovich, 2003). ). All these
questions are concentrated on curriculum decision–making. Although till 1970 the
centralized systems responded to such questions, they failed in a broad range, due
to the fact that the nature of their decisions was not based on current real needs
of schools, and what is nowadays referred to as School Based Curriculum or Curriculum Leadership at schools is, in fact, a movement to remove the problems of
centralized curriculum (Fathi, 1999, Hong; 1996, Shumba, Maphosa and Shumba,
2008). The main characteristics of centralized curriculum is to separate Curriculum
Design and Curriculum Implementation domains, and, consequently, the teacher’s
role was limited to the use of a mandatory and preplanned curriculum that led to
a decrease in curriculum effectiveness.
The increasing understanding of the teacher’s and other stakeholders’ effective
roles as well as the reflection of effective and useful experiences regarding School
Conceptualization of Needs Based Curriculum Leadership
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Based Curriculum Development and also other efforts of great curriculum specialists such as Goodlad, Sabar, Sckilbeck, Connelly and others, resulted in the fact
that School Based Curriculum Decision-Making should be done by central roles
of teachers and involvement of parents, students and community members.
Although, at the beginning, curriculum decision-making at the school level
faced challenges, doubts, concerns and various difficulties (Abrams, 2000; Gilbert,
2005), the curriculum literature is rich enough regarding research and studies to
support this curriculum method (Tyler and Dianne, 1999; Wildly, 1997; Gough;
2000; Elbaz; 1999; Fathi; 1999; Marsh etal; 1991).The most important message of
School Based Curriculum is giving more authority to school for making decisions
about curriculum so that school curricula should be designed and implemented
based on situational needs (Sabar, 1983; Siklbeck, 1985, Rahamatica, 2009).
Therefore, one can claim that making decisions about Needs Based Curriculum
is aimed at identifying real and important needs in the educational process and
school curriculum. In other words, the increase in educational quality, the student’s
learning and the effectiveness of teaching and learning activities is based on paying
more attention to study and identification of needs and also on using them in
school curriculum decision – making.
What is Needs Based Curriculum Leadership?
If it is admitted that SBCD without needs assessment deviates from its real
mission and if it is, also, admitted that teachers are closer to and more familiar
with school problems and difficulties, then, needs assessment is the most critical
issue at the school level.
Curriculum Leadership, basically, deals with decision-making as the most
important issue in the curriculum process, and its primary goal is facilitation
of more effective central participation of teachers and other school stakeholders
(Mcpherson, 2000, Henderson, 1999, Howell,2003), and because making logical
curriculum decisions requires sufficient data on real needs, then needs assessment
is one of the most important domains of curriculum leadership. In spite of the
role and importance of needs assessment (students, community and study of the
scientific development) and the inclusion of needs assessment results in curriculum
objectives, the degree of effort and scientific and practical actions seems insufficient.
Even in the curriculum leadership literature, although broad studies have been
conducted in different dimensions, there is little information available regarding
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the style and mechanism used for curriculum needs assessment; therefore, the
main objective of the present paper is to achieve a specific model for NBCL, so
that activities and essential actions for needs identification and its inclusion in
curriculum decision–making are described based on this model and then used as
practical guidance.
Research questions
As a result, the following questions form the main framework of this paper:
1. What are NBCL major characteristics?
2. What are NBCL fundamental assumptions and principles?
3. What are NBCL different types?
4. Which types of NBCL are closer to the curriculum system of Iran?
5. What measures are required to reach the desirable state of NBCL in Iran?
6. What are implementation solutions to reach a desired state in Iran?
Methodology
Since the main goal of the present study was to reach a comprehensive model
for needs based curriculum leadership, the research was organized in two sections:
theoretical studies through which an effort was made to design a relative model by
using available sources in the curriculum literature and also conducted studies and
experiences at the international level and then a survey study. After developing the
NBCL model, primary framework was delivered to five curriculum specialists and
suggestions and corrections were received. At the second stage, after correcting the
primary framework, the validation and the comprehensiveness of the model was
exposed to judgement and assessment by two reference groups and, based on their
views, some essential modifications were applied in the NBCL model.
First all curriculum specialists throughout the country. In this section all university professors who were, in fact, curriculum specialists or played an outstanding
role in curriculum research, were considered. There were forty-five of them and
they had been involved in academic affairs and their views were obtained through
a questionnaire. At the second stage, all the curriculum experts in the Ministry
of Education (fifty) participated in the research and left some suggestions about
the model and its implementation possibility. In this section to study the experts’
views questionnaire and workshop were employed.
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Results
All the project, carried out in the form of theoretical studies, was directed
towards designing a model for NBCL and then, based on the survey studies, the
model was revised and reconstructed.
In this paper, I will introduce the NBCL model without data analysis presentation.
NBCL MODEL
NBCL Model has various components as follows:
• NBCL specific characteristics
• NBCL assumptions and principles
• NBCL different scenarios
• Comparing the curriculum system of Iran with different NBCL pre–
conditions.
• NBCL implementation strategies
NBCL Characteristics
Considering the SBCD literature, the leadership of the curriculum needs assessment process consists of the following specific characteristics:
1.1. Reactive characteristic: curriculum should be either developed in a central
manner and, then, sent to schools to be implemented or should be developed in
a decentralized manner at the district or school level, there are some principles,
rules and frameworks based on which curriculum needs assessment should be
carried out. In the centralized system, formally or informally, curriculum will be
modified based on the implementation conditions (Smyile, 1994 MacBeath, Moos,
2004) and, also, in decentralized systems, schools make decisions, regarding the
selection, development and modification of curriculum (Li, 2006; Fathi, 1999;
Sabar, 1991; Marsh etal, 1991). Therefore, in the centralized manner, schools are
not allowed to change school curricula, and any needs assessment activity must be
based on the approved curriculum, yet, in the decentralized system, curriculum
should be developed based on the national goals, guidelines and frameworks.
NBCL, in fact, must be carried out based on some national principles (either in
a centralized or decentralized manner).
1.2. Normative characteristic: The situation in which curriculum is implemented is formed through people’s beliefs, values, and views. In other words, needs
are affected by reference group priorities, current concerns and specific ground
on which needs assessment takes place; therefore, curriculum needs assessment
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cannot be carried out without including the preferences and values of people whose
needs are at work.
1.3. Professional characteristic: Curriculum needs identification requires being
professional in needs assessment domain (Taba, 1962; Shung, 1999, Tyler, 1949,
Haung, 2004). Teachers, school administrators and staff can play an essential role
in curriculum needs assessment only if they have in-service education.
1.4. Innovative characteristic: To adopt curriculum with implementation
conditions (which include the classroom structure, ecology, effectiveness and
atmosphere, effectiveness and ability of teachers, and student conditions), different
decision-making processes are required and, since implementation conditions of
curriculum are different from place to place, it is the class or school situation that
justifies curriculum needs assessment innovation (Sowell, 1997; Skilbeck, 2005).
Innovative characteristic of NBCL does not mean the violation of needs assessment
principles and framework, but it means the employment of framework based on
the user’s creativity.
1.5. Conflict characteristic: The conflict characteristic of school curriculum
needs assessment can be justified in two ways: On the one hand, the groups
involved in curriculum needs assessment process have values and interests that
bring about some difficulty in the recognition of main needs (Gentry, 1994; Li,
2006), and on the other hand, due to the fact that needs assessment deals with
determining a desired situation, it requires value judgement (Fathi, 1999,; Howell,
2007). Dependence of needs on values introduces needs based curriculum leadership as a process based on conflict.
NBCL principles and Assumptions
NBCL is based on some principles and assumptions of which the most important
are the following:
NBCL is, mostly, possible in situations in which schools have independent educational identity: This principle refers to the fact that schools must have enough
authority in relation to decision–making and planing.
School staff have enough motivation and ability for NBCL. This principle refers
to the fact that teachers and other staff, because of being close to the realities of the
school and classroom environment, are the most qualified ones to conduct needs
assessment and, thus, they should be scientifically and professionally supported.
NBCL requires flexible and democratic structures: This principle means that the
nature of communication among schools, local and national educational authorities and, also, communicative structure at the school level must be open, flexible
and democratic.
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NBCL is a participatory process: This principle means that all the people who
are affected by school curriculum must be involved in needs assessment. These
people include a large degree of internal school groups (students, specialists and
other staff ) and external school groups (parents, social groups, institutions).
Curriculum needs assessment is carried out through employing several information sources (students, society and subject matter) but the nature and the degree
of emphasis on each of the sources will be different based on needs assessment
conditions.
Needs assessment products are unstable: The instability of needs assessment
results means that, on the one hand, needs are changing and on the other hand,
students are permanently transferring from one grade to another. Therefore, the
results of needs assessment cannot be used in a long period and, in return, needs
assessment should be conducted continuously.
Different scenarios for NBCL
Generally NBCL includes different states and positions but the conducted studies and surveys show that at least three main scenarios can be identified for NBCL.
These scenarios are the following:
• Limited NBCL
• Conservative NBCL
• Liberal NBCL
The names assigned to each scenario are based on their degree of attention to the
basic needs of students, local community and scientific changes. Limited scenarios
pay little attention to these needs while in the liberal scenario all curriculum decisions are made based on these needs and the conservative scenario acts in balance
between the liberal and limited scenarios (as shown in Figure 1).
Figure 1: The degree of attention paid to curriculum needs
Different Scenarios for NBCL
Liberal
High
Conservative
mid
Degree of attention paid to curriculum needs
Limited
Low
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The above design shows the comparison of three needs based curriculum leadership scenarios. As shown, other scenarios can be identified in different parts of
the design, but these three scenarios are the major ones. Now, let us explain each
of them.
Limited Needs Based Curriculum Leadership Scenario
(Limited NBCL)
The first scenario is specific to those countries that have centralized curriculum
systems or national curriculum at work. In such a situation, a curriculum from central authorities is sent to school for implementation without the possibility to make
change in the curriculum based on the current needs of the school implementation
environment. Under these conditions, although teachers do not participate in the
process of curriculum development, they can study students needs and problems
based on their group works. The following table shows the characteristics of the
limited scenario.
Table1: Limited NBCL Components
Curriculum Needs Assessment
Variables
1. Approach
2. Agent
3. Level
4. Type
5. Goal
6. Partcipatory Model
7. Dominant Data Source
8. Tools
9. Steps
Secnario Characteristics
Central/Adoptive
Teacher as curriculum user
Classroom
Diagnostic
Achieving curriculum objectives
Instructional model
Student
Tests, interviews, survey
1. Adaptation mandatory curriculum by school
2. Studying curriculum guide
3. Conducting needs assessment
4. Analyzing collected data
5. Decision making about necessary changes
6. Implementation conditions
As shown in Table 1, the limited NBCL is, mostly, applied to centralized systems
whose curriculum change is forbidden. The main agent of leadership in this scenario is the teacher in the classroom. Using a diagnostic needs assessment, which
is pathological in nature, the teacher puts the mandatory curriculum in the centre
of attention and tries to assess the students’ academic positions in relation to the
curriculum.
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As the centralized curriculum is developed, primarily, based on the students’
characteristics, who have normal abilities in any class positions, some of the
students place lower than average while some other place higher than the average
level. Thus, the teacher tries to assess the students’ weak and strong academic performance. For some students who have problems with pre-requisites, supportive
programs are provided and for those students who have high academic achievement the teacher makes a richer mandatory curriculum with the use of additional
curriculum materials. The teacher is the main agent in this scenario, and although
he/she employs various data sources, the main source of information is the curriculum. In interaction with students the teacher deals with their weak and strong
points. The participatory model used in this scenario is a model that we called
“instructional co-operation”. The teacher’s role is accompanied with students in
the class environment without any interference of other stakeholders. The teacher
uses some specific tests, interviews and questionnaires to assess students’ needs.
The important point is that this model makes changes in students’ conditions so
that the mandatory curriculum is implemented in a more effective manner but,
in practice, they are not allowed to make changes in the curriculum based on the
needs of students, society and so on.
Conservative Needs Based Curriculum Leadership Scenario
(Conservative NBCL)
In comparison with the limited scenario, there is another scenario that is specific
to systems in which, although curriculum is developed by central authorities and
then sent to schools to be implemented, there is, in practice, given some authority
to effective forces on curriculum at the school level to change the curriculum
based on current realities and needs. In this scenario, also, the teacher and other
stakeholders have no opportunity to participate in curriculum design, but they are
permitted to make changes in curriculum based on needs assessment. The table 2
shows this scenario components.
As shown in Table 2, this scenario is specific to the decentralized systems or
ones following a reformative approach. The reformative approach means permission to make changes in the mandatory curriculum at the school level by teachers
and other stackeholders. In this scenario, the teacher at the classroom level or
the teacher at the school department level through team work follow the needs
assessment process. They establish a needs assessment committee and carry out
needs assessment. In this scenario, the primary goal is that the present curriculum
based on the identified needs is changed without any change in the main structure
and framework of the curriculum.
228
Table 2: Conservative NBCL components
Variables
1. Approach
2. Agent
3. Level
4. Type
5. Goal
8. Tools
9. Steps
Semi Adaptive/ Reformative
Teacher(s)
Classroom/Department
Discrepancy
Limited curriculum change in order to achieve curriculum objectives
Organizational model
Student/Subject matter
Tests, interviews, situation analysis
1. Adaptation of mandatory curriculum
2. Conducting needs assessment studies for data
sources
3. Analyzing needs assessment results
4. Changing curriculum based on identified needs.
5. Curriculum implementation
Needs assessment committees are, mainly, affected by the organizational cooperation model. The organizational model is a form of participation in which
a needs assessment committee consists of all the people that are connected with the
organization of school. Therefore, in this scenario, besides teachers and students,
school administrators, staff, parents, and others take part in curriculum needs
analysis. A needs assessment committee with the leadership of school teachers
identifies students’ needs and also other needs related to community problems and
based on the collected data, makes essential decisions to change curriculum. The
needs assessment tools in this scenario include: tests, interviews, questionnaires,
analysis of school conditions and environment.
Liberal Needs Based Curriculum Leadership Scenario
(Liberal NBCL)
The third scenario which is the broadest NBCL type is formed at the school level.
This scenario is mostly used in the decentralized system in which the dominant
approach is the creative one. The creative approach means that teachers and other
stakeholders have the most freedom in paying attention to needs based curriculum
development.
Table 3 indicates the characteristics of liberal scenarios. As shown in Table 3,
this type of NBCL is possible in some systems which are based on giving freedom
and authority to schools for curriculum decision–making. The teacher at a school
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department or with the participation of other school teachers carries out needs
assessment activity. By cluster school I mean some neighboring schools which
have scientific and educational contributions with each other. Therefore, needs
assessment can take place either at a school department or at various schools
departments.
Table 3: Liberal NBCL components
Variables
1. Approach
2. Agent
3. Level
4. Type
5. Goal
8. Tools
9. Steps
Adaptive/ Creative
Teacher(s) at school department or school cluster
School department/interdepartmental
Innovative/Directive
Decision making on creation or selection of curricula
based on real needs
Democratic model
Student/Society/ Subject matter
Interviews, Focus group/Advisory committe
1. Studying framework or goals at national level
2. Conducting needs assessment
3. Analysis of needs assessment results
4. Establishing committe for development of selection
curriculum
In this scenario, by collection of essential data about needs of students and local
community as well as scientific changes in relation to specific curriculum, and
based on needs assessment results, teachers can select or design a suitable curriculum. The participatory model in this scenario is “democratic co–operation”.
Contrary to the instructional co–operation model in the limited scenario and
also contrary to organizational co–operation in the conservative scenario, a broad
range of stackeholders take part in this scenario. Democratic co–operation includes
not only people who are involved in organizational co–operation but community
members who take part in a form of “citizen committees” or representatives of
social organizations and institutions, where all the interested people do not take
part directly in needs assessment, or if it cannot be conducted, information regarding their expectations can be considered.
Studying Current Conditions of Curriculum System in Iran and Possibility
of Different NBCL Scenarios
The educational system of Iran is a centralized one, consequently, curriculum is
developed by curriculum experts in a central organization and then sent to schools
230
for implementation. Teachers are obliged to implement mandatory curriculum
as prescribed by central authorities. Neither teachers nor students are permitted
to make changes in the curriculum, they do not have any role in curriculum
development.
The dominant role for students is learning the content of curriculum, and the
participants of the curriculum and needs assessment process are limited to experts
and specialists. In the provided curriculum, parents, school managers, community
members and school departments have the least effect, that is to say, in the educational system there is no possibility for the mentioned agents to participate in
curriculum needs assessment and development.
Nonetheless, in the present conditions of the educational system in Iran, there
is such an opportunity for teachers, students and parents to get involved in needs
assessment and pave the way for the achievement of curriculum goals without
making any change in mandatory curriculum.
Comparing the three NBCL scenarios, the curriculum system of Iran adapts
perfectly none of the related scenarios at the present time, but it seems that the
curriculum system of Iran is closer to the Limited NBCL scenario and at the second
stage it has enough potential to approach the conservative NBCL. Therefore, the first
two scenarios are suggested for application in the curriculum system of Iran.
Conclusion
Based on the survey results, the validity of the NBCL model and its related
scenarios were approved by curriculum experts and specialist at the national level.
Furthermore, research led to some qualitative results which were divided into two
sectors:
1. Facilitating factors and conditions.
2. Implementation strategy.
Facilitating factors and conditions
The analysis of open ended questions in the survey showed that the most
important facilitating factors and conditions for NBCL implementation from the
point of view of curriculum experts and specialists are as follows (rank order by
frequency):
1. Promotion of scientific and professional abilities of teachers, school administrators and staff regarding needs assessment and curriculum planning
through in-service education.
231
2. Making change in educational regulations for giving authority to schools in
relation to curriculum decision-making.
3. Establishing curriculum advisory network at the regional level.
4. Development of decentralized curriculum or national curriculum permitting making changes in school curricula.
5. Publishing various textbooks in relation to any subject-matter.
6. Making reform in teacher education system so that teachers’ qualities should
improve for curriculum leadership.
7. Promotion of public participation culture at the school level.
8. Activating a curriculum needs assessment committee through teacher
associations, school parent associations, etc.
9. Providing required financial resources to put NBCL in action.
10. Community education through mass media for participation in NBCL.
Implementation strategies
To implement NBCL effectively, regardless of related facilitating factors and
conditions that play a role in NBCL successful implementation at least two different
strategies based on the analysis of survey qualitative data can be offered:
1 – NBCL linear and step by step strategy
Figure 2: NBCL linear strategy
Liberal Model
3
Conservative model
2
Limited Model
1
Taking specific positions of the NBCL model (limited, conservative, liberal)
into consideration, apparently, based on the survey, the curriculum system of Iran
has most adaptation with the limited model. Although this model is not perfectly
carried out in our country, the available dispersed data and the analysis of the
curriculum system in Iran indicates that there is a suitable context for limited
NBCL implementation. After the limited model, as the second step, the conservative model can be implemented in the curriculum system of Iran. Therefore, the
first two scenarios can be offered for application in the curriculum system of Iran.
232
It seems that in the present situation the ground for the implementation of the
limited scenarios can be provided – and then at the second stage by preparing the
required conditions, the implementation of the second scenario can be started.
This linear approach is shown Figure 2.
2 – NBCL situational strategy
Undoubtedly, the practical method in the linear strategy will bear much criticism of which the most important is lack of attention to complexities, diversity
and situational needs in our country. In other words, in the inear strategy the
main point is that the curriculum system should, at first, move toward the NBCL
limited model and then take a move toward the conservative model, since in such
a situation, on the one hand, the ground for giving more authority to teachers will
be provided and on the other hand, the present forces at the school level acquire
required abilities for moving toward the conservative model.
This way of looking at the issue is a black and white view to the whole curriculum system and the current situations in different states. In other words, all
provinces and local centres should wait for NBCL limited model implementation
and then start implementing the other two models. However, it means neglecting
so many abilities and potentialities that are available in some provinces regarding
school–based curriculum development. On the other hand, employing each of
the scenarios depends on the nature of the curriculum that is to be implemented.
In any curriculum which should be based on local needs and conditions, just
development of curriculum, themes and framework are prepared centrally and
decision-making about the details of curriculum components is delivered to
schools, while other curricula which are important at the national level should be
developed in a mandatory manner.
The main implication of the situational strategy is that all the three scenarios
at the same time should be introduced to the curriculum system of Iran and curriculum centres should follow three activities regarding curriculum planning as
follows:
1. Development of detailed curriculum and its implementation at schools,
based on the NBCL limited model in relation to specific curriculum that
has a national and country nature.
2. Development of curriculum framework to give authority for curriculum
adaptation revision based on local conditions and NBCL conservative
scenarios.
233
3. Identifying general themes in specific curriculum that can include local and
district needs and, also, giving authority to schools for following democratic
NBCL.
Taking into consideration the nature and flexibility of the situational strategy,
this paper suggests curriculum centres to follow this strategy.
Next Actions
What is considered in this paper is the NBCL model at the school level that
has three different scenarios. While the theoretical study of this model is finished,
a specific design, namely, “pilot implementation of three scenarios” at some secondary schools in Tehran, the capital city of Iran, will begin in the next school year.
It is hoped that the practical results of the implementation of different scenarios
will be presented in the next conference.
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Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec,
Slovenia
Perceived Expectations of Prospective Teachers
Regarding Their Career Choice
Abstract
This paper presents the perceived expectations of prospective preschool teachers
on the appropriateness of their career choice and their expectations regarding the
acquired knowledge and skills necessary for being able to practise their future profession. The concept of the study was based on previous research, specifically that
of Cencič (2000), Cencič and Čagran (2002) and the Ivanuš-Grmek and JavornikKrečič (2005), on motivational factors for choosing the teaching career. We had
expected that the inner motivational factors (altruistic and self-realisational)
would prevail amongst the motives for choosing teaching as one’s career choice.
We acquired the data by means of a questionnaire in which students at the Faculty
of Education at the University of Maribor were asked about the motivation for
their career choice, their views on the confidence of having made the right choice
and their expectations as regards the acquired knowledge and skills necessary in
their future work. We have established that the altruistic motives prevail over other
motives for their career choice. The former are reflected above all in the desire to
work with children, in the inclination towards the career of a preschool teacher
and the satisfaction arising from practising this profession. With regards to the
confidence in having chosen the right profession, we were able to observe that the
majority of the students questioned were in fact sure of their career choice.
Key words: motives behind the choice of study, confidence in one’s career choice,
expectations regarding knowledge and skills acquired during the studies.
238
Jurka Lepičnik Vodopivec
1. Introduction
Throughout the history of preschool teacher education we often come across the
question of why individuals opt for a career in this field. The question coincides
with the emergence of preschools and the issue of preschool teacher education,
which date back to the years after 1880 in Slovenia when pre-school education first
began at women’s colleges under the Austro-Hungarian Empire. According to Pavlič
(1991), any girl under 16 years of age that was morally pure, healthy and had the
talent for music and the required education to be admitted to college, could enrol
on a one-year course for teachers. Two reasons that are often recognised as the key
drive for pursuing a career in education are the satisfaction arising from working
with children and the earnings. These two career choice motivations have been
present throughout the history of teacher education, in particular during the period
of the breakneck development of institutionalised pre-school education in Slovenia
after 1960, when the demand for educated teachers exceeded the supply.
The teacher role has been changing with the development of society, yet there
were hardly any changes in the expectations that teachers should work with dedication, represent a source of quality knowledge, represent role models in terms of
behaviour, and always observe the well-being of their wards (Toman, 2001, p. 23).
The teacher is the first person that the child is brought to directly from the family
environment. Their influence on the child’s development reaches far into his or
her future life. Improper conduct of a teacher can thus cause irreparable damage,
so each individual should make the decision to pursue a career as a teacher with
considerable thought and conscience. Only those who are prepared to take the
responsibility for children’s safety and development should become teachers.
Even today, career choice is regarded as one of the most important decisions
in one’s life. It is influenced by the social environment on the one hand any by
the individual’s personality on the other. In choosing one’s future career, one is
faced with a vital decision which, according to Cvetko (2002), is influenced by
external factors (parents, teachers, media) and internal-personal factors (ambition, self-evaluation, motivation). London’s multi-dimensional concept of career
motivation is one of the motivation theories according to which the differences
among individuals can be grouped into three areas of career motivation: career
resilience, career insight and career identity.
1.1. Motives behind choosing the professional career of teaching
As previously stated, London (Cencič, 2000) included career resilience, career
insight and career identity in the multi-dimensional concept of career motivation.
Perceived Expectations of Prospective Teachers Regarding Their Career Choice
239
He sees career resilience as the ability to adapt to changing circumstances, even
destructive ones. This component is comprised of variables such as self-trust,
achievement motivation, willingness to risk, etc. They advance with career maturity
and are influenced by incentives from the environment. Career insight is regarded
as the ability to have realistic perception of oneself and one’s profession. It includes
variables that are linked to setting clear career goals and to knowing the strengths
and weaknesses of the chosen professional career. Career identity is, according to
the author, the degree to which people define themselves by their work. The typical
variables include: identification of work and organisation, professional involvement and the need for acknowledgement, promotion and taking over a leadership
role.
According to London’s theory, one’s decision for a particular career depends
largely on identification with the work pertaining to the profession, a realistic
assessment of one’s own capabilities, and on perseverance in circumstances that
might not support their decision. Ivanuš-Grmek and Javornik-Krečič (2005) claim
that London’s theory does not apply to the motivation of prospective educators,
because his model was developed for company employees, highlighting salary as
one of the key motives in choosing a career. As for prospective teachers, working
with children is associated with joy, desire and other altruistic motives prevailing
over the financial incentive. This was proved by a number of research papers, most
of which examined the reasons for and motives of choosing a professional teaching
career in general. The number of those focused on the career of a preschool teacher
is much lower.
Cencič (2000), and Cencič and Čagran (2002) quote Daniel and Ferrell (1991)
who analysed nineteen studies, conducted between 1925 and 1987, on the reasons
why young people decide to pursue a career in teaching. Based on the results
obtained from the analyses of the studies, the authors have developed a hierarchical list of reasons for choosing the teaching profession. The ten most frequent
reasons were as follows: fondness of children and youth and the desire to work with
children/young people, employment security and/or adequate payment, favourable
work conditions (e.g., working hours, long holidays), interest in a specific subject,
the possibility of lifelong learning, the possibility of teaching or pursuing other
careers, work for humanity, influence of a relative or a teacher, interest in the
education sector and the possibility of pursuing a creative and stimulating career.
A similar outcome was obtained in the recent study by Montecinos and Nielsen
(1997), analysing students of pre-school education and primary school teaching.
The study revealed that the main reason for which students decided on a teaching
career was fondness of children. Among the key factors that had influenced their
240
decisions, students stated prior experience in working with children, the desire to
follow their role-model teachers and the influence of their families.
The research by Cencič and Čagran (2002), the objective of which was determining the motivational factors in the choice of one’s studies and the professional
career of a preschool teacher, was based on a sample of 149 students of the first
year of study for pre-school teaching in the 2001/2002 academic year. The results
showed that the principal motivation of Slovenian students was also the desire to
work with children, followed (with minor differences of frequency) by an awareness that this career enabled them to fully engage all their abilities, a general
recognition of teaching as valuable public work, being role-models to children
while pursuing the goal of earning a university degree. Based on the factorisation of the sample of variables covered, the two authors developed five groups
of basic motivational factors: inner calling to pursue the teaching career, influence
and self-realisation; social and economic benefits; alternative goals; and aspirations
and stereotypes.
Ivanuš-Grmek and Javornik-Krečič (2005) also developed a similar grouping
of motivations, although their research was focused on the reasons for pursuing
a primary or secondary school teaching career. It included 237 students in the
second year of educational programmes at the Maribor Faculty of Education in the
2003/2004 academic year. The authors divided individual reasons for choosing the
teaching career (by means of abstracting joint characteristics and the factorisation
which had been completed within the previously mentioned research by Cencič
and Čagran) into five groups: self-realisational, altruistic and material reasons,
inspiration – and stereotype-based reasons and alternative reasons. The groups
are listed according to the frequency of being named by students included in the
research (from the most to the least frequent).
2.2. Study programme: Pre-school Education
Pre-school education courses of study enabling students to obtain graduate
qualifications, take three years (or six semesters) to complete and are available at all
rhe three faculties of education in Slovenia (at the universities of Maribor, Ljubljana
and Koper). The key objective of this course of study is to produce teachers who
are highly educated, cultivated and competent in their field of expertise. During
their studies, students gain knowledge and skills on the following areas:
• Pedagogical-psychological knowledge; knowledge of children and education, encompassing special knowledge pertaining to pedagogy (theories of
education, didacticism and pre-school pedagogy), psychology (development
and pedagogical psychology), sociology, philosophy, special education and
241
health education. Knowledge from these fields especially includes various
perceptions of childhood and education in the past and present, as well as
different theories on the development and education of pre-school children.
Knowing children’s rights is also important.
• Knowledge from individual fields of the curriculum; theoretical and practical
knowledge of various fields of the curriculum (motion, language, mathematics, art, science and society). Students gain in-depth knowledge of the
subjects, which is then upgraded with methodology, helping them adopt the
ways and forms of delivering knowledge to pre-school children at different
development stages.
• Skills of communicating with children and adults; this includes verbal and
non-verbal communication and artistic expression. Students learn to converse (dialogue, group discussion), discourse freely (rhetoric), deliver the
information to the listener (to modify speech according to children’s age,
parents’ level of education, or laymen / expert audience, etc.), and listen and
consider the opinions of others. It is also vital that they learn how to study
expert literature on their own (understanding, critical analysis, etc.), how
to write expert discourses, work in a team, etc.
• Scientific and critical reasoning (this means that students gain the abilities of
expert argumentation, scientific criticism, analytic thinking and synthesis
of thought).
In Slovenia, the academic programmes are currently being renewed, as part of
the changes applied to the Slovenian as well as the wider European higher education area; the Bologna process gives faculties a chance to reform the content of
their programmes in addition to implementing purely formal adjustments to and
alignments on the new standards. According to Rugelj (2006), this should (along
with the shorter duration of studies) allow for its greater efficacy, as more attention
is paid to the subject matter and new work methods.
Comparability is one of the key objectives of the Bologna process, which can be
understood, as Zgaga cautions (2006), as comparability of different things rather
than equality of the same. In view of cultural, historical and institutional differences among teacher education systems, which have been illustrated in several
comparative analyses of teacher education in several European countries (such as,
e.g.,Niemi and Jakku-Sihvonen 2006, Luzzatto 2006, Åstrand 2006, Berg 2006), it
is undoubtedly vital to observe and recognise structural as well as content-related
elements of academic programmes, which are shown through the three cycle system, the European Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS), the quality
assurance system, etc.
242
2. Research
2.1 Subject of the research
The objective of the research was to examine the motives of students for choosing
their course of study, their confidence in the choice of their future career and their
expectations regarding the acquired knowledge and skills necessary to practise
their profession. Furthermore, we also wanted to establish whether the answers
to the inquiry questions posed to the students changed with regard to the year of
their study. Due to the extremely small number of male students enrolled in the
Pre-school Education programme, we did not focus on the role of gender.
Three main questions that our research was based on were:
• What are the motives of prospective preschool teachers for choosing this
career?
• How sure are they of having chosen a proper career?
• What are the expectations of prospective preschool teachers regarding the
acquired knowledge and skills, necessary to practise their profession?
2.2. Research methodology
2.2.1. Research method
We used a descriptive and casual–non-experimental method of empirical education research.
2.2.2. Sample
The research sample consisted of 102 students of the Faculty of Education at
the University of Maribor, of which 36 people were first-year students, 32 were
second-year students and 34 were third-year students. The ratio among the groups
of students of different years who were included in the sample is rather balanced,
as the first-year students accounted for 35.3% of the questioned people and second
– and third-year students accounted for 33.3% and 31.4% respectively. Based on
the criteria, i.e., the year of study, the sample was considered balanced.
2.2.3. Data collection process
We used the quantitative method for data collection. Students of the first, second
and third years of pre-school education were asked to participate. The questionnaire
predominantly comprised closed questions. It was prepared based on selected and
reviewed bibliography on the research subject. Following a probe questionnaire (on
a sample of 21 students, seven from each year) we eliminated recorded irregulari-
243
ties and verified the clarity of instructions as well as the suitability of answers to
each of the questions set. Following that, we corrected the questionnaire which was
later used with the research sample. Prior to the survey, we informed the students
of our research objective, upon which the students filled in the questionnaires
independently and without guidance or time restrictions.
2.2.4. Description of measuring instruments
The survey questionnaire for students focuses on the reasons which led them
to choose a career in pre-school teaching. The first question provided us with
information on the year of study while the thirteen questions that formed the
second part of the questionnaire inquired about our research objective. All but
the third were closed questions with multiple choice and descriptive answers. The
questionnaire included seven cluster questions.
2.2.5. Data processing
We used quantitative data processing. In the first phase, we excluded one of the
questionnaires for not having been completed adequately. We processed the data
obtained from the questionnaires using SPSS computer software and represented
them in table formats, quoting absolute frequencies (f) and those expressed in
percentage (f%). We tested the independence of variables with the χ2 test.
3. Results and interpretation
3.1. Motives for choosing the career of a preschool teacher
In the analysis of the students’ motives for choosing their course of study or
career we based on the previously completed factorisation (Cencič and Čagran,
2002; Ivanuš-Grmek and Javornik-Krečič, 2005). Individual motives were thus
classified into the following five groups: self-realisational, altruistic and material
motives, inspiration – and stereotype-based motives and finally, alternative motives.
The table below shows these motives, ranked according to the frequency of being
listed in the questionnaire.
The results show that altruistic reasons are by far in the lead with regards to the
motives for the study choice of pre-school education and the career choice of a preschool teacher, as 85 of the students opted for this answer. This category of motives
encompasses inner motivation factors that derive from one’s personal interests.
These exhibit themselves in the wish to work with children, the ever-present desire
to be a preschool teacher and the satisfaction arising from practising this career.
244
Table 1: Categories of motives for the study choice of pre-school education
and the career choice of a pre-school teacher, ranked by their frequency
Rank
1
2
3
4
5
Motive category
Altruistic reasons
Self-realisational reasons
Alternative reasons
Aspiration – and stereotype-based reasons
Material reasons
f
85
18
9
6
4
Self-realisational ranked second, being specified by 18 of the interviewed students. This category of answers is marked by students’ aspirations of personal and
professional growth and their wish to do valuable work which is also influential.
They expressed viewpoints such as: “the career of a teacher is socially valuable
work”, “as a teacher I will represent a role model to children”, “being a teacher will
enable me to give something to children”, “the career of a teacher fosters creative
work” and similar.
Ranking third are the alternative reasons which were expressed by nine interviewees and denote the external motivation in deciding for the respective study,
owing to unfulfilled requirements for a course of study of their own choice. This
cluster encompasses reasons such as: “I was not able to enrol on a course of study
of my first choice”, “my secondary school grades and results were insufficient to
choose a different faculty”, and “I somehow ‘fell’ into this programme”.
The next category is inspiration – and stereotype-based reasons, which was chosen
by six of the interviewees. The reasons included in this group are: “parents wanted
an academic education for me”, “studying at the faculty is important for me”, “other
relatives of mine practise this career”, and “this career is suitable for women”.
Material reasons came last with only four of the interviewees choosing them.
This category refers to external motivation for choosing one’s study and is based
on favourable economic and social benefits the respective career brings and on the
possibilities of promotion and further education. The reasons found within this
group are: attractive working conditions (e.g., shorter working hours, holidays,
etc.), the possibility of further education, the possibility of practising other professions, financial safety upon retirement and a solid income.
Based on the obtained results, we concluded that the inner motivation factors,
which are based above all on one’s personal interest, are of utmost importance
in deciding for a career in pre-school teaching. It is an interesting fact that this
category of replies has represented the key career-choice motive throughout the
history of pre-school teacher education.
245
In view of the results that prove that altruistic reasons are of highest importance
in deciding on one’s career, we further investigated the degree to which students
are sure of their choice of study, which can be considered a preparatory step for
practising their future career.
The previously obtained results were reconfirmed through the answers that the
students provided to the question of their confidence regarding their career choice.
The share of the students who are convinced of having made the right career choice
is 73.5%. Over a fifth (21.6%) are not sure whether they opted for the right career
or not, while five students believe that they made a wrong decision.
3.2. Analysis of the students’ views on the appropriateness
of their career choice
Table 2 shows the students’ views on their assurance of having chosen the
appropriate career.
Table 2: Academic year in relation to the view of the students on
their assurance of having made the right career choice.
The right
career choice
Yes
No
I do not
know
Total
f
f%
f
f%
f
f%
f
f%
Academic year
1st year
2nd year
3rd year
29
22
24
80.6%
68.8%
70.6%
1
3
1
2.8%
9.4%
2.9%
6
7
9
16.7%
21.9%
26.5%
36
32
34
100%
100%
100%
Total
75
73.5%
5
4.9%
22
21.6%
102
100%
χ2 = 2.899
g=4
p = 0.575
The data show that there are no statistically typical differences regarding the
appropriate choice of career in relation to years of study (P > 0.05). However, we
could draw a conclusion that the majority of the students in each year are confident
about having made the right choice regarding their study and further on their
career. Most of these are the students in their first year, whereas later the number of
246
the interviewees that are convinced of the appropriateness of their choice of study
somehow balances. This observation is definitely encouraging and comparable
with the results obtained in the research by Cencič and Čagran (2002), in which
75% of the students of the Maribor Faculty of Education expressed assurance of
having made the right career choice; this most certainly significantly impacts their
future work.
It is slightly less encouraging that the percentage of the students who are not
sure about having made the right course study and career choice is decreasing with
each year and, at the same time, there is also a marked decline in the number of
those who are confident about their choice. We did not analyse the reasons behind
this as it was not the subject of our research. However, we should not neglect the
results, even though the reasons for the career choice of a preschool teacher are
predominantly altruistic, reflected in the wish to work with children, in the ever
present desire to pursue the career of a preschool teacher and in satisfaction arising
from practising this profession. In this segment, there is also a correlation between
our research findings and those of Cencič and Čagran (2002).
3.3. Analysis of prospective teachers’ expectations regarding the
acquired knowledge and skills, necessary to practise their future
profession
We asked the students about their expectations regarding the knowledge and
skills they were to acquire during their studies and which they would need in
practising their future profession.
The data reveal that 58.8% of the interviewed students expected that they would
gain most knowledge pertaining to individual fields of the curriculum, 36.3% of
the students are partially convinced of this, while 2.0% believe that they would
not acquire this knowledge during their studies and 2.9% are unsure about it.
Slightly fewer students (56.9%) are convinced that they would acquire pedagogicalpsychological knowledge. A slightly higher percentage (38.2%) believes this to
some extent, while 4.9% of the students assume that they will not gain this insight.
The results further show that 41.2% of the students firmly believe that they would
acquire didactic-methodological knowledge but even more of them (53.9%)
suppose that they would only gain this knowledge to a certain extent. Moreover,
5.0% of students are unsure whether they would gain didactic-methodological
knowledge or not.
As for communication skills with children, 48.9% of the students are positive
about gaining them, slightly fewer (40.2%) of them are only partly sure about this
while 9.8% of the students presume that they would not acquire these skills. In con-
247
Table 3: Figures (f ) and structure percentage (f %) on the students’ replies
to the question: “Do you expect to have gained the following
knowledge and skills during your studies?”; ranked by average marks.
Knowledge and skills
Pedagogical-psychological
knowledge
f
f%
Knowledge of individual
f
fields of the curriculum
f%
Didactic-methodological
f
knowledge
f%
Communication skills with f
children
f%
Communication skills with f
adults
f%
Scientific and critical reason- f
ing
f%
Yes
(4)
58
56.9%
60
58.8%
55
41.2%
49
48.0%
34
33.3 %
20
19.6 %
Partly
(3)
39
38.2%
37
36.3%
42
53.9 %
41
40.2 %
44
43.1 %
60
58.8 %
No
(2)
5
4.9%
2
2.0%
0
0%
10
9.8%
21
20.6 %
9
8.8 %
I do not
know
(1)
0
0%
3
2.9%
5
4.9%
2
2.0%
3
2.9 %
13
12.7 %
Total
102
100%
102
100%
102
100%
102
100%
102
100 %
102
100 %
Average
mark
3.5196
3.5098
3.4412
3.3431
3.0686
2.8529
trast, 43.1% of the students assume they will partly acquire adult communication
skills, yet only 33.3% are entirely convinced about it. It is interesting that as many
as 20.6% of the students maintain that they would not acquire these skills during
their studies at all and 2.9% of the students express their uncertainty about it. As
turns out, the students have the lowest expectations with regard to the acquisition
of scientific and critical reasoning: only 19.6% of the students are convinced that
they will grasp this during their studies, 58.8% agree with this to a certain degree,
8.8% of the students replied negatively and 12.7% are not sure whether the course
allows for acquiring this type of knowledge or not.
The results obtained can be explained by the fact that the students participating
in the research are well aware that they chose a high-education academic programme the key objective of which is to train experts for work with young children.
In this respect, we can also understand why the expectations regarding scientific
and critical reasoning received the lowest marks. This is the reason why we chose to
research further, trying to establish whether there was a difference in the students’
expectations regarding the acquired knowledge and skills, depending on the year
of study. The results are presented in Table 4.
The results of the Kruskal-Wallis test of differences in assertions T1 to T6 with
regard to the year of study show that pedagogical-psychological knowledge and
didactic-methodological knowledge are statistically typical.
248
Table 4: Results of the Kruskal-Wallis test of differences in
assertions T1 to T6 with regards to the year of study.
Knowledge and skills
Pedagogical-psychological knowledge
Year
first
second
third
Knowledge of individual fields of first
the curriculum
second
third
Didactic-methodological knowlfirst
edge
second
third
Skills of communicating with
first
children
second
third
Skills of communicating with
first
adults
second
third
Scientific and critical reasoning … first
second
third
–
R
66.76
45.53
40.96
49.18
49.98
55.38
62.26
40.92
50.06
56.08
48.70
49.28
51.97
53.00
49.59
54.26
50.69
49.34
χ2
g
P
19.995
2
0.000
1.189
2
0.552
11.553
2
0.003
1.629
2
0.443
0.267
2
0.875
0.661
2
0.719
The results further show that the students in their first year are more certain
that they will be able to completely acquire the respective knowledge, compared
to their counterparts in the second or third years. In contrast, it is more frequent
with the second and third year students that they expect (compared to their first
year colleagues) to be able to gain this knowledge only to a certain degree. What
accounted for the different results are mainly higher expectations of freshmen and
more realistic expectations of students in their second and third years; they are
nearing their degree and are able to assess their expectations much more realistically.
In view of the year of study, there is a statistically significant difference in the level
of expectations regarding the acquisition of didactic-methodological knowledge.
First year students also lead here. Another interesting point is that the larger part
of the students, assuming that they will only acquire the didactic-methodological
knowledge to a certain extent is the third year students.
Although no major statistically significant differences were discovered with
other assertions in view of knowledge and skills acquisition, we estimate that at
the beginning of their studies students normally have high and possibly somewhat
249
idealised expectations. However, with each year and through broadening their
knowledge and acquiring skills, their expectations become more realistic. They
realise that they will not be able to acquire all the knowledge and skills necessary
to practise their profession during their studies and that learning is a lifelong
process.
4. Conclusion
The objective of our empirical research was to discover what motives drive
students of the pre-school education programme at the Faculty of Education of
the University of Maribor to choose this particular course of study, how confident
they are about having made the right career choice and what their expectations
are regarding the acquisition of knowledge and skills (during the course of their
studies) necessary to practise the profession of their choice. We also wanted to
discern whether there was any variance in the replies of students in different years
of study.
Based on the results obtained, we can conclude that altruistic motives are of
utmost importance to prospective preschool teachers, followed by the motivation
of self-realisation. According to L. Marjanovič-Umek (2002), self-realisation is
a crucial factor in one’s professional growth and work satisfaction, which refers
mainly to the possibility of expressing one’s own initiative (e.g., as regards implementing changes and introducing new things in preschool), to evaluating one’s own
professional competences, to perceiving work as interesting and to feeling that one
has accomplished something. If a preschool teacher feels that he or she is valuable
and successful, they will develop a sense of affiliation to their profession and to
the discipline. A prerequisite for expressing one’s initiative is a safe environment
in which a teacher enjoys support of the colleagues. The frequently mentioned
good and encouraging relations, based on trust and proper communication are
essential for all of the above.
An important reassurance of a successful future career of our students is the
fact that as many as 73.5% of them are convinced of having chosen the right field
of study, which is certainly good to note. What is slightly worrying is the fact that
this share is declining and that the number of students who do not know whether
they have made the right decision or not is increasing.
The data analysis further revealed that statistically significant differences are
seen mostly in greater confidence in first-year students regarding the acquisition
of pedagogical-psychological and didactic-methodological knowledge. We had
250
initially foreseen that third year students would show more self-confidence given
that they have more theoretical knowledge and experience. However, the analysis
showed that it is actually the theoretical and practical knowledge of older students
that allows for a more realistic insight into the complexity of individual tasks awaiting prospective preschool teachers. Furthermore, it is the acquired knowledge and
skills that helped the students recognise and acknowledge their weak points and,
consequently, made them more critical of themselves and of their qualifications
for their future work. To summarize, we can say that the students who are sure of
their career choice display greater self-confidence and self-assuredness in themselves and in their abilities. It is these students who experience joy of teaching and
inclination towards their profession. In addition, they are motivated from within
and therefore – in our opinion – are more ambitious.
Bibliography
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In P. Zgaga (Ed.) Posodobitev pedagoških študijskih programov v mednarodnem
kontekstu. [Modernization of Study Programmes in Teachers’ Education in an
International context]. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta, 72–84.
Berg, B. (2006). Development of Teacher Education in Norway with Focus on Fouryear Undergraduate Study. In: P. Zgaga (Ed.) Posodobitev pedagoških študijskih
programov v mednarodnem kontekstu. [Modernization of Study Programmes in
Teachers’ Education in an International context]. Ljubljana: Pedagoška fakulteta,
85–97.
Cencič, M. (2000). Razlogi študentov za izbiro učiteljskega poklica. Vzgoja in
izobraževanje, 31 (5), 53–58.
Cencič, M. and Čagran, B. (2002). Motivacijski dejavniki izbire študija in poklica
vzgojitelja predšolskih otrok. Sodobna pedagogika, 53(5), 104–121.
Cvetko, R. (2002). Razvijanje delovne kariere. Koper: Znanstveno-raziskovalno
središče Republike Slovenije; Ljubljana: Fakulteta za družbene vede.
Marjanovič Umek, L. (et al.) (Ed.) (2002). Kakovost v vrtcih. Ljubljana: Znanstveni
inštitut Filozofske fakultete.
Ivanuš Grmek, M. and Javornik Krečič, M. (2005). Mnenja študentov o ustrezni
izbiri študija. Pedagoška obzorja, 20(2), 51–60.
Ivanuš Grmek, M., Javornik Krečič, M. (2008). Does undergraduate education
influence teachers’ perceptions of learning and teaching?: the case of the Republic of Slovenia. Educational studies 34(5), 433–442.
251
Pavlič, S. (1991). Predšolske ustanove na Slovenskem 1834–1945. Ljubljana: Zavod
Republike Slovenije za šolstvo in šport.
Toman,U. (2001). Poklic vzgojiteljica, vzgojitelj. Vzgojiteljica, 3(3), 23–25.
Turkey & Poland
Language Teachers’ Views and Suggestions on the
Central Teacher Selection and Recruitment Exam
in Turkey
Abstract
This study inquires into whether prospective English language teachers consider
the central exam, KPSS (The Selection Examination for Professional Posts in Public
Organizations) valid to select and recruit English language teachers, and what
suggesttions they have concerning the improvement of the exam. The fndings
indicate that the majority of the participants have negative attitudes towards the
exam and think that it is not valid. Moreover, they point out that the exam must
include the subject knowledge. Therefore, there is an urgent need for the policy
makers to know what they want teachers to do in classrooms and schools, then
test and select teachers accordingly.
Key words: teacher selection, teacher recruitment, language teachers, Turkey.
Introduction
Growing enrolment and pending retirement have given rise to an increasing
demand for teachers in any country. The supply of teachers, on the other hand,
has been declining. According to Dolan (2008), “the relationship between teacher
supply and demand is such that supply represents the number of teachers eligible
to teach, and demand represents the number of teaching positions available” (4).
However, in some countries such as Turkey, this relationship is rather problematic.
In some school subjects, trained teachers are available in excess of the requirements
of the system, while in others untrained teachers have to be appointed due to
254
non-availability of trained persons. This can be attributed to the fact that YÖK
(the Higher Education Council) is responsible for teacher training, increasing/
decreasing the number of faculties and the number of students to be accepted at
the faculties of education, resulting in failing to control the demand and supply of
teachers. With the number of teachers available in excess of the requirements of
the system in certain subjects, an examination is naturally required.
Teachers working in state schools in Turkey are employed as civil or public servants as in other countries, such as Austria, Germany and Italy (Grenfell, Kelly, and
Jones, 2003) and unlike such countries as Poland or the UK. A competitive central
exam, KPSS (The Selection Examination for Professional Posts in Public Organizations) is used as the selection process for teaching positions in state schools, while
the private sector has its own approach such as conducting formal, standardized
interviews, testing basic and subject matter skills, and observing actual teaching
performance during a demonstration teaching lesson.
KPSS is implemented by The Student Selection and Placement Centre (ÖSYM)
and can be taken only once during a year. Teachers take the exam in two sessions.
In the morning session, general knowledge and ability questions are taken, while
the afternoon one consists of questions pertaining to educational sciences. The
exam is composed of three sections, featuring multiple choice questions on general
knowledge and ability such as the Turkish language and mathematics, general
culture such as the history of Turkey and geography and educational sciences such
as principles of learning and teaching:
1) General knowledge and ability: this section aims to measure candidates’
knowledge and ability in the Turkish language and mathematics, testing the
basics of the language and the basic maths skills.
2) General Culture: this section deals with the history of Turkey with a focus
on the Principles of Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Turkish Republic, the
geography of Turkey, Turkish Culture and Popular Topics.
3) Educational Sciences: This section measures pedagogical background,
focusing on the general principles of learning and teaching, curriculum and
instruction, guidance and counselling.
The exam does not include any items on subject knowledge and candidates are
penalized for guessing, four mistakes take one correct response away. Scoring is
done out of 100 and there is no passing grade, i.e., the minimum scores are set by
the number of teachers taking the test. There is no content (subject area) assessment, i.e., although there are different subject areas that a candidate can teach,
such as mathematics, English and biology, all candidates are required to answer
the same questions. That is, there are not any different sections or questions for
255
Language Teachers’ Views and Suggestions…
the candidates who will be teaching a specific age group, which means that any
candidate who will be teaching grades 1–8 or grades 9–12 will respond to the
same questions. The exam is used to assign teachers to public schools in need,
while it is not used as a way of licensing to teach. Private institutions or schools
do not require the KPSS exam. Instead, they have their own way of selecting and
recruiting teachers.
Table 1. The sections and the number of questions in KPSS
Section
The morning session
General knowledge and ability
General Culture
The afternoon session
Educational Sciences
TOTAL
Number of questions
The overall weight
in the exam
60
60
30%
30%
120
240
40%
100%
Time allowed
(minutes)
120
150
270
Importance of the study
According to the General Directorate of Teacher Training (MEB, 2008) in Turkey, the competences determined for teachers are expected to be used mainly in
the personal and professional development of teachers, pre-service and in-service
teacher training and selection of newly assigned teachers. Below there are some of
the main competences prepared for English language teachers:
• Planning English language teaching.
• Using materials and sources for English language teaching.
• Developing students’ language skills such as speaking, listening, reading
and writing.
• Monitoring and testing students’ language development.
Of these competences, developing students’ language skills is of utmost importance as the students in Turkey are mostly exposed to the target language in the
classroom, which is the place where they get input (Krashen, 1985) for language
learning, which implies that an English teacher should be competent in these skills
and s/he has a very important role to play in students’ performance and success
in English language learning. However, although the competences are aimed to
be used in the selection of teachers in general, KPSS still lacks the subject knowledge.
256
Some studies investigated the KPSS exam for prospective teachers’ views, anxiety
levels and predictive validity. In the study by Çoban, Gündoğdu and Zirek (2009),
the physical education and sport teacher candidates stated that KPSS is not a valid
exam to select and recruit language teachers. Moreover, the participants stressed
that the exam excludes subject assessment. In another study, Gündoğdu, Çiğmen
and Turan (2008) investigated the perceptions of junior and senior prospective
teachers about KPSS. According to the results, the exam was considered to be
unsatisfactory in selecting quality teachers and it caused anxiety. The anxiety was
also stressed by the participants in the study by Tümkaya, Aybek and Çelik (2007).
Examining the predictor validity of KPSS for science and technology pre-service
teachers, Baştürk (2008) found that there is an important relationship between
a candidate’s Grade Point Average (GPA) and his/her performance in the exam,
though the significance is low.
Method
The participants of this study were four hundred undergraduate senior students
from the English Language Teaching (ELT) departments of six universities randomly selected in Turkey. All the students were senior students and had knowledge
about the exam. Of the participants, 322 were female and 78 male. All of the
students took the exam upon graduation; however, approximately half of them
had taken practice tests and/or practised some parts of the exam.
To collect data, a survey developed by the researcher was used. The survey
included 17 statements (Table 2) and the participants were asked to read each of
the statements and indicate their agreement or disagreement on a 4-point Likert
scale (1= I totally disagree, 2= I do not agree, 3= I agree, 4= I totally agree). In
order to analyze data, descriptive statistics measures were applied. The survey was
completed by the participants through online survey tools.
Analysis and Discussion
As can be seen in Table 2, the participants do not agree that KPSS is a valid exam
for selecting and recruiting English language teachers (M= 1.17). The participants
gave various responses to the test questions included in the exam. The test questions
on mathematics and the geography of Turkey were considered to be unnecessary.
However, the questions on the Turkish language and pedagogical knowledge of
257
teaching and learning were highly appreciated. Moreover, the participants highly
recommend that there be questions on subject knowledge (the English language)
and GPA and the grades in their school experience course be taken into consideration. Since the exam does not include testing language proficiency, a language
proficiency exam is suggested.
Table 2. Descriptive statistics on the responses provided
to the statements in the questionnaire.
N
M
Sd
Agreement/
Disagreement
The test questions on the Turkish language are
necessary.
400
3.70
.457
Totally agree
2. The test questions on mathematics are necessary.
400
1.24
.521
Totally
disagree
400
3.60
.548
Totally agree
400
3.53
.500
Totally agree
400
1.56
.631
Don’t agree
400
1.70
.605
Don’t agree
400
2.90
.736
Agree
400
3.58
.494
Totally agree
400
3.64
.480
Totally agree
400
2.94
.794
Agree
400
1.17
.518
Totally
disagree
400
3.66
.476
Totally agree
400
3.59
.493
Totally agree
400
3.21
.895
Agree
Statements
1.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
The test questions on Turkish culture and civilization are necessary.
The test questions on Ataturk, his principles and
history of the Turkish republic are necessary.
The test questions on the geographical knowledge
of Turkey are necessary.
The test questions on the basic knowledge of
citizenship are necessary.
The test questions on general knowledge and
current issues in Turkey and around the world are
necessary.
The test questions on psychology of learning and
development are necessary.
The test questions on program development,
principles of learning and teaching, testing and
assessment are necessary.
The test questions on guidance and counselling
are necessary.
KPSS is a valid exam for selecting English language teachers.
There must be questions on subject knowledge
(methods, approaches, testing and evaluation, use
of technology.
In addition to the exam, there must be a language
proficiency exam such as TOEFL and KPDS (The
Foreign Language Examination for Civil Servants
– Turkey).
GPA must be taken into consideration.
258
Statements
15.
Grades in the school experience course must be
taken into consideration.
16. I attend a preparatory class for the exam.
The courses I have taken/ am taking are useful for
17.
the exam.
Agreement/
Disagreement
N
M
Sd
400
3.43
.679
Yes
300
%
75
No
100
%
25
203
50.8
197
49.3
Agree
The research findings of this study show that the majority of the participants
had negative attitudes towards the exam, and they think that it is not a valid exam,
which is also supported by the studies conducted by Çoban, Gündoğdu and Zirek
(2009), Gündoğdu, Çiğmen and Turan (2008) and Özoğlu (2010). Moreover, they
point out that the exam must include the subject knowledge such as methods,
approaches, testing and evaluation and use of technology together with a language
proficiency exam. This is an important factor to take into account if we are to
make the selection and recruitment process more effective and efficient. If the
exam is to measure knowledge that is irrelevant to the subjects as taught in the
school system, some qualified candidates can score poorly on the exam and be
eliminated. This also raises questions about the validity in teacher selection and in
measuring applicants’ potential for teaching. Since they are going to teach English
in the near future, it is not acceptable to exclude test items checking their level of
English, especially when we consider that the exam includes the same questions
for all teachers, though their fields are different. The exam cannot test the skills and
competences that language teachers are expected to possess. One cannot suppose
that a language teacher who has passed the exam but cannot speak the language
well and efficiently will contribute to his/her students’ development. One key finding emerging from the studies shows that students taught by teachers with a greater
verbal ability learn more than those taught by teachers with a lower verbal ability
(Wenglinsky 2000; Andrew, Cobb, and Giampietro 2005; Stronge 2007). Verbal
ability, knowledge of teaching and learning and content knowledge seem to be the
most important qualifications that we can expect from our teachers, though Aloe
and Becker (2009) found that teacher verbal ability is not the strongest predictor.
The findings of the study also show that a great majority of the participants
attend a preparatory class outside the university to pass the exam, which is in line
with the findings of Çoban, Gündoğdu and Zirek (2009). This finding signals that
there might be a discrepancy between the program followed at the department
and the content of the exam. If the participants are not satisfied and consider extra
preparation necessary, they may feel that the curriculum they follow is not useful,
259
thereby leading those to pay more attention to preparation for the exam than the
skills required in their teaching profession, in which language teachers should be
equipped with literacy skills.
Conclusion
The responses provided to the questionnaire revealed that KPSS is not viewed as
a valid exam for selecting and recruiting English language teachers mainly due to
the lack of subject knowledge and assessment of the language skills that a language
teacher is expected to have. When the competences prepared by The General
Directorate of Teacher Training in Turkey are analyzed, English language teachers are expected to develop students’ overall English communicative proficiency
through communicative activities, focusing on the four skills. However, KPSS is
a test that focuses on the acquisition of technical and cognitive skills, rather than
certain features of alternative, continuous and formative assessment. As stated by
the participants in the study, KPSS leads the prospective English language teachers
morph into teacher candidates attending to cognitive skills required by the test
rather than advancing their communicative skills, subject knowledge and methodology. Subject knowledge in the language teaching profession is an indispensable
part of the profession. Therefore, policy makers together with teacher educators
urgently need to improve the exam in accordance with the competences that they
have specified in order to put into practice what they want teachers to do and
achieve in the classroom.
Bibliography
Aloe, A.M. , & Becker, B.J. (2009). Teacher verbal ability and school outcomes:
Where is the evidence? Educational Researcher, 38(8), 612–624.
Andrew, M.D. , C.D. Cobb, & P.J. Giampietro (2005). Verbal ability and teacher
effectiveness. Journal of Teacher Education 56(4), 343–354.
Baştürk, R. (2008). Predictive validity of the science and technology pre-service
teachers’ civil servant selection examination. Elementary Education Online, 7(2),
323–332. http://ilkogretim-online.org.tr/vol7say2/v7s2m7.pdf
Çoban, B., Gündoğdu, C., & Zirek, O. (2009). The evaluation of ideas of the physical education and sport teacher candidates about the public personnel selection
examination. E-journal of New World Sciences Academy, 4(4), 244–255.
260
Dolan, A.L. 2008. Supply, demand, recruitment and retention. In T.L. Good (ed.),
21st Century Education: A Reference Handbook (vol. 2), (pp. 3–11). California:
Sage Publications, Inc.
Grenfell, M., Kelly, M., & Jones, D. (2003). (eds.). The European language teacher: Recent
trends and future developments in teacher education. Oxford: Peter Lang AG.
Gündoğdu, K., Çiğmen, N., & Turan, S. (2008). Öğretmen adaylarının kamu personeli seçme sınavına (KPSS) ilişkin görüşleri [Perceptions of prospective teachers in relation to civil servant selection exam (KPSS)]. Ahi Evran Üniversitesi
Kırşehir Eğitim Fakültesi Dergisi (KEFAD), 9(2), 35–43. Retrieved from http://
kefad.ahievran.edu.tr/archieve/pdfler/Cilt9Sayi2/JKEF_9_2_2008_35_43.pdf
Krashen, S.D. (1985). The input hypothesis: Issues and implications. London: Longman.
MEB (2008). The book of competences for teachers. http://otmg.meb.gov.tr/
alaningilizce.html
Özoğlu, M. (2010). Türkiye’de öğretmen yetiştirme sisteminin sorunları [The problems of the teacher education system in Turkey]. Ankara: SETA.
Stronge, J.H. (2007). Qualities of effective teachers (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tümkaya, S., Aybek, B., & Çelik, M. (2007). A prediction of hopelessness and statetrait anxiety levels among teacher candidates before the KPSS Exam. Educational
Sciences: Theory & Practice, 7(2), 967–974.
Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters: Bringing the classroom back into
discussions of teacher quality. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service.
Beata Pituła,
Małgorzata Kitlińska-Król
Poland
Teachers’ Personal Qualities as the Determinants
of Their Empathetic Abilities
Abstract
Empathy is one of the basic factors of teachers’ didactic efficiency and the educational actions undertaken by them. It includes not only the knowledge about
the needs and the correct development of the child/pupil but also their ability to
perceive inter-subjectively the child’s/pupil’s world and express their own behaviours reflecting understanding and sympathising.
Thus, the search for the answer to the question what relations between the
teacher’s constant individual features and empathetic abilities are, seems to be vital.
This attempt has been made on the basis of the constant individual personality traits
concept put forward by Professor Jolanta Wilsz, the frame of which is constituted
by the autonomous systems theory. The basic factors, such as analysis adaptation,
retrieval, preference, ability to communicate ideas, tolerance and vulnerability have
been applied in the research for the individual didactic efficiency analysis of the
surveyed teachers.
The research results undeniably complement the knowledge about teachers with
reference to the diagnosis of their vocational aptitude.
Key words: teachers’ empathetic abilities.
Introduction
The term “empathy” was presumably first used in the German aesthetics to
refer to the inclination/ability to identify oneself with the observed object. The
contemporary subject literature as well as popular references provide similar
262
definitions of the notion, which emphasise that “empathy” is an ability to sense
and evoke the same feelings and emotions felt by the observed object and treat
it as an indispensable tool to establish and maintain interpersonal relations,
to provide for the need for security and acceptance, finally to understand and
explain human behaviours (Wilsz 2009: 193–255). No wonder, then, that in
the caring professions requiring constant contact with the other person (e.g.,
teachers, doctors, social workers) this ability is considered to be one of the most
important factors influencing professional efficiency. Thus, the knowledge about
what level of empathy is represented by teachers and what factors determine
its development is both interesting and beneficial from the social perspective,
therefore the issue needs thorough exploration and the concept of constant
individual personality traits put forward by Professor Jolanta Wilsz might be
a perfect point of departure for the diagnosis of teachers’ future professional
career and their vocational aptitude.
Basic Assumptions of the Constant Individual Personality Traits
Concept by Jolanta Wilsz
The theoretical frame of the constant individual personality traits concept is constituted by the autonomous systems theory (Wilsz 2009:261), which is based on the
validated assumption that treating a human being as one of the specific cases of the
general autonomous system model allows for examining his/her personality as a set
of constant individual personality traits which are independent of the environment
and the variable qualities dependent on the environment. Constant individual personality traits correspond with the constant steering properties of an autonomous
system, whereas variable qualities correspond with the variable steering properties
of the system and differentiate between intellectual functions qualities (analysis
adaptation and transformation, retrieval, perfection) and interpersonal relations
qualities (ability to communicate ideas, tolerance, vulnerability).
Analysis adaptation and transformation is understood as the level of the thinking domain perfection; retrieval as the level of the perceptive and mnemonic
domain perfection; perfection/talent as the level of perfection in a certain domain
of activity. There is also a division into a positive ability to communicate messages
signifying the inclination for giving out the resources to the environment and
a negative ability to communicate messages being the inclination for absorbing
resources from the environment. Tolerance is defined as a range of the environment
influence meeting with the individual’s voluntary adequate reaction. Vulnerability
Teachers’ Personal Qualities as the Determinants…
263
is a range of the environment influence meeting with the individual’s adequate
reaction while being under pressure (Wilsz, in: Lewowicki et al. 2001).
The knowledge of the constant individual personality traits provides a person
with the information about the situation they should head for, what is the most
suitable solution for them and which of them guarantees personal or professional
success. The elements of situations are constituted by people who also posses
their own constant individual personality traits, thus the correspondence of the
situations in which people having their own constant individual personality traits
perform depends on the constant individual personality traits of other people.
Practically, the total correspondence of constant individual personality traits with
a situation may be obtained when there is a possibility to create a proper situation
for each individual, i.e., a situation being in accordance with his/her traits due
to the selection of people representing the traits required for a specific situation
(Wilsz, 2001, 2009).
The above-quoted features system is based on the construction of the information and energy connected processes (loading, processing, storing, giving
information and energy), which are characterised by functional dependence
enabling the individual to sustain the state of relative balance. The dimension and
type of human functional balance disturbance is defined by situational factors.
The self-regulating functions occurring in a human being are determined by his/
her constant individual personality traits (permanent individual differences) and
variable traits (non-permanent individual traits) (Wilsz 2001, 2009).
Thus, it is assumed by the concept that all people share the same constant
individual personality traits, but the traits are not identical. The individual
dimension of traits designates differences between the proportions of the same
traits in different people (Wilsz 2009). Moreover, human behaviours reflecting
their constant individual personality traits are reactions evoked by the steering
energy flow between the elements receiving information from the environment
through the stimuli sensed by the receptors and elements returning the information to the environment by the effectors. Those reactions are dependent on the
constant individual personality traits of a human being : analysis adaptation and
transformation, retrieval, talent, ability to communicate messages, tolerance and
vulnerability.
To describe analysis adaptation and transformation, a three-grade scale (high,
medium, low) was applied, assuming that an individual of high analysis adaptation
and transformation is characterised by impressive intellectual prowess, easiness
of deciphering and understanding other people’s intentions, possession of his/her
own view on any issue, versatility and world curiosity, efficacy in the undertaken
264
actions and a complex approach to problems, while an individual of low analysis
adaptation and transformation has difficulty in associating facts and occurences,
feels helpless, frequently misinterprets situations, is reproductive/imitative and his/
her actions are usually ineffective. Medium analysis adaptation and transformation
is interpreted as the intermediate state.
The same scale has been applied in the description of retrieval, assuming that
a person of high retrieval has a very good memory, learns easily and quickly and is
frequently an erudite, a person of low retrieval has difficulty in fast and permanent
memorising as well as learning and solving problems. Again a medium retrieval
level refers to the intermediate stage.
The observations of a performing person, his/her passion for something and
the results of his/her actions have become a frame for describing the kind and the
size of his/her talent. Therefore, it has been agreed that a person of great talent
shows interest and creativity in a given domain, treats it with passion and feels
a continuous need to process and transform the elements constituting it. A person
of little talent does not feel the need to process and transform the data, and what
is more, avoids acquiring and processing the information which definitely entails
difficulty in generating new data/information.
The ability to communicate messages represents individuals aims. To describe
the feature, a five-grade scale has been used (high positive, medium positive, zero,
medium negative, high negative). The behaviours of people of a great positive
ability to communicate messages are characterised by spontaneity, impulsiveness
and changes dynamics. Their actions are usually immediate, extemporaneous,
naive, whimsical and reckless/inconsiderate. People representing this feature so
extensively tend to be thriftless and wasteful, to break the rules and search for
new sensations irrespective of the consequences and freely express their thoughts
and feelings.
The actions/behaviours of people of a medium ability to communicate messages
are intermediate with references to the high positive ability and zero ability. For
instance, the inclination towards confabulation is reduced to “colouring’ reality,
impetuousity is visible mainly in the gestures and style, wastefulness is replaced by
claptrap and the need for risk-taking is limited to behaviours aiming at pleasing
others.
The behaviours of people of a zero ability to communicate messages result
from the internal balance between distracting and collecting information. They
are marked out by conscientiousness, efficacy, rectitude, a need to keep law and
order, control and adherence to principles. Starting a relationship with others is
based on partnership and ethical imperatives.
265
The acting of people of a medium negative ability to communicate messages
results from their predominance of gathering information over distracting. Thus,
their priority is to multiply their wealth and extend their knowledge.They aim
at efficient target-meeting. They are cautious, foreseeing, operative, continuously
pursuing higher career stages.
The acting of people of a high negative ability to communicate messages is the
outcome of their immense disproportion between the processes of gathering over
collecting. Such individuals are money – and power-oriented irrespective of the
physiological or moral cost. Their typical feature is possessiveness and autocracy.
It is yet worth noting that the ability to communicate messages changes with age,
from high positive to high negative.
Another important determinant of human behaviours is tolerance referred to
in the concept in three dimensions: great, reasonable, little (high, medium, low).
People showing a high level of tolerance are capable of voluntary acceptance of
difference and diversity, open to a new quality and changes, disposed to cooperation and joint action. People representing a low level of tolerance focus on the
defence of their own standpoint, are disinclined towards changes, cooperation or
joint actions.
Another constant individual personality trait in interpersonal relations is
vulnerability. Individuals of high vulnerability are able to accept coersive situations enforced by unwanted stimuli. They easily submit to pressure and compulsion, frequently becoming victims of abuse. They gladly follow instructions and
orders, aiming at peaceful coexistence with others. People of low vulnerability are
inflexible, they fight for their rights defending their views and decisions but still
respecting other people’s views and decisions. People of medium vulnerability are
characterised by actions intermediate between the two mentioned levels.
The Choice of a Professional Career from the Perspective
of Constant Individual Personality Traits
Choosing an optimal professional career for an individual implies the necessity to compare the set of constant individual personality traits with the features
indispensable to acquire knowledge, skills needed in the profession and properties
essential for performing the job/profession. The described concept is a specific
matrix on the basis of which such comparisons can be made conscientiously and
scientifically validated. The concept, then, is applied to problem-solving in terms
of an individual’s professional functioning, such as preparation for making the
266
right professional choice, selecting of a vocational education specialisation, planning professional development, diagnosing a successful professional career and it
might also constitute a tool in obtaining knowledge about individual professional
usefulness and be the basis for pre-marital and marital counselling.
Value of the Teacher’s Constant Individual Personality Traits with
Reference to Empathetic Competence
The teacher’s empathetic abilities in the domain of intellectual functions are
favoured by the high analysis adaptation and transformation ability allowing for
recognising emotions and their sources as well as naming and interpreting them.
Medium analysis adaptation and transformation seems to be sufficient guaranteeing
the adequate knowledge and skills to share in the didactic and educational process.
Moreover, a high level of empathy is favoured by the ability to communicate messages which is close to zero, tolerance which is placed between reasonable/medium
and high and vulnerability between low and medium.(Wilsz 2001)
Own research on the issue
Assuming the adequacy of constant individual personality traits, research was
conducted aimed at validating the following hypothesis: the greater the accordance
of the teacher’s analysis adaptation and transformation ability, ability to communicate messages, tolerance and vulnerability values with the values shown by the
model, the higher the level of his/her empathetic abilities.
The research comprised 15 primary school teachers during the school year
2008/2009. The constant individual personality traits were defined on the basis of
different behaviours observed in miscellaneous school situations and interviews
with the headmasters, the descriptions of which are illustrared by the charts
below.
The description of characteristic behaviour for different values of the teacher’s
analysis adaptation and transformation ability: (own study based on the constant
individual personality traits model by J.Wilsz).
High – the teacher easily associates the facts and analyses/processes a lot of data
concerning his/her pupils. He/She is able to draw conclusions from previous
behaviour and does not neglect the occurring problems but solves them
efficiently and in a complex way.
267
Medium – the teacher’s behaviour is intermediate between the high and low
levels of analysis adaptation and transformation ability.
Low – the teacher has difficulty in directing the didactic and educational process,
drawing apt conclusions, associating facts quickly and estimating situations
properly.
The description of characteristic behaviour for the different values of the teacher’s
ability to communicate messages:
High positive – the teacher’s behaviour is characterized by recklessness, high
mood dynamics, lack of consequences participation. His/Her reactions are
usually violent, impatient and frequently inadequate in particular situations.
Medium positive – the teacher’s behaviour is intermediate between medium
positive and zero.
Zero – the teacher’s behaviour is marked out by efficiency and righteousness,
discipline, composition and patience, reactions are thought-over and considerate, fully reflecting the general norms and principles.
Medium negative – the teacher is fully involved and devoted. His/Her reactions
are thought-over and considerate as well as target-oriented.
High negative – the teacher shows an authoritarian behaviour, full of dos and
don’ts, whose actions/reactions are characterized by exaggerated adherence
to rules and distance.
tolerance.
High – the teacher willingly works with the pupils deriving enjoyment and
satisfaction from the work, but still respecting the subjectivity principle. He/
She is understanding, composed and patient.
Reasonable – the teacher’s behaviour is intermediate between the high and low
level of tolerance.
Low – the teacher has difficulty in accepting all the pupils. His/Her behaviour
stimulates and escalates conflicts. He/She is inflexible as well as demand – and
instruction-oriented.
Source: own study based on the constant individual personality traits model
by J.Wilsz
vulnerability.
High – Conformist behaviour prevails. The teacher does not often have his/her
own viewpoint or is afraid to express it. He/She is labile in his/her opinions
268
and judgments, often changes them and is easily influenced. The teacher is
not credible and does not enjoy the pupils’ respect.
Medium – the teacher’s behaviour is intermediate between low and high vulnerability.
Low – the teacher has his/her own viewpoints and often shares them. He/She
is not easily influenced but respects other people’s opinions and beliefs. He/
She enjoys the pupils’ respect and friendliness.
Chart 1. Values of the constant personality specific individual
features of the surveyed/observed teachers.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
From medium
to high
high
high
medium
high
high
high
high
medium
high
high
high
high
high
high
high
From medium positive
to medium negative
medium negative
medium negative
medium positive
medium positive
medium positive
zero
medium negative
medium negative
medium positive
zero
zero
medium positive
zero
zero
medium negative
From medium
to high
medium
medium
low
medium
medium
high
medium
low
medium
high
high
high
high
high
medium
From low
to medium
medium
medium
high
medium
medium
low
medium
high
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
medium
source: own research
The research result analysis proves the validity of the hypothesis that the greater
the accordance of the constant individual personality trait values with the values
shown in the model, the higher the teacher’s empathetic competence level. Certain features which are unfavourable while performing professional tasks were
represented by the teachers who were in discordance with the model, illustrated
by teachers 3 and 8 who frequently got involved in conflicts, faced problems with
consistency and requirements as well as had difficulty in accepting all the pupils
in the class.
269
Teacher’s code
Chart 2. The list of the headmaster interview results with reference
to the observed behaviours of the examined teachers.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
Observed behaviours categories
Enters into Shows warm- Loses control
conflicts with heartedness
in the prespupils
to pupils
ence of pupils
(gets angry)
never
always
never
rarely
very often
very rarely
often
often
often
very rarely
very often
never
very rarely
very often
never
always
never
very rarely
often
never
rarely
rarely
very rarely
often
rarely
never
very often
never
never
very often
often
very often
often
never
always
never
never
always
never
very rarely
never
Appropriately
Is able to
and skillfully
detect/see
talks with
t pupils’
pupils
interests
always
very often
very often
often
rarely
very often
very often
very often
very often
always
always
always
often
rarely
rarely
often
often
very often
very often
very often
very often
very often
very often
always
very often
always
very often
very often
very often
Properly
interprets
pupils’ behaviuors
very often
often
rarely
often
very often
always
very often
rarely
often
very often
very often
very often
always
always
very often
Source: own research
Conclusions
The educational process is a continuous array of interpersonal relations to a large
exetent created by the teacher’s empathetic abilities. Research shows that tolerance,
compared with other constant individual personality traits, determines the level
of empathy to the greatest extent. Thus, this feature should be vital while deciding
on employing a person as a teacher.
The analysis adaptation and transformation ability is another feature in the
hierarchy responsible for the teacher’s empathethic abilities advocating the idea
of high requirements to be met by candidates, showing clearly that a prospective
teacher ought to represent a high intellectual capacity, an extensive knowledge of
the subject (it might be useful to prepare a set of questions and tasks revealing
a candidate’s erudition level during an interview) as well as general knowledge
guranteeing a critical view and interpretation of the observed facts and phenomena
270
and also an ability to work out efficacious didactic and educational strategies.
Therefore, simulated tasks are worth considering in candidate selection.
In the context of the presented research (the findings of which, for obvious
reasons, are only partly presented) the ability to communicate messages occupies
the third place which, to my mind, should oblige school headmasters and daily
care centres principals (employers) to get to know candidates’ views not only on
education and up-bringing but also on the role of the teacher in the contemporary
world.
The last factor reported is vulnerability which might be observed via individual
contact with the person applying for the post of teacher.
The research findings induce the reflection on the question of teacher additional
training and developing further skills. Still, a rough analysis of the curricula implemented at schools and teachers’ workshops show that efficient communication
training, very fashionable and popular nowadays, is limited to presenting the
ways of learning instrumental negotiation techniques or basic empathy “tools”
such as paraphrasing, probing/testing, concluding and reflecting feelings (Egan
2007:153–156). Without a thorough anthropological knowledge the techniques
might be not only ineffective but also applied dubiously from the ethical point
of view, e.g., in a cynical way (i.e., in order to manipulate). Responsible empathy
use is possible only when the teacher perceives the pupil/student from a wide
perspective, realising his/her capabilities as well as limitations and impediments
requiring intervention. Thus, systematic monitoring of the quality of the offerred
workshops and training for teachers seems to be well-founded.
Bibliography:
Wilsz J., (2009). Teoria pracy (Theory of Work). Kraków (Crocow): Impuls
Wilsz J., (2001). Psychologizowana wersja koncepcji stałych indywidualnych cech
osobowości i jej wykorzystanie przy wyborze zawodu (A Psychologised Version
of Constant Individual Personality Traits and Its Application in the Choice of
Profession). In T. Lewowicki, J. Wilsz, I. Ziaziun, N. Nyczkało, (eds.), Kształcenie
zawodowe: Pedagogika i Psychologia nr III (Vocational Training: Pedagogy and
Psychology Vol. 3). Częstochowa-Kijów
Wilsz J., (2002). Implikacje wynikające z koncepcji stałych indywidualnych cech
osobowości dla procesu przygotowania zawodowego(‘‘Implications Resulting
from the Constant Individual Personalisty Traits Vital for Vocational Training)
in Pedagogika Pracy (Pedagogy of Work) 42
271
Wilsz J., (2001.) Znaczenie koncepcji stałych indywidualnych cech osobowości dla
poradnictwa zawodowego (The Significance of the Constant Individual Personalisty Traits For Job Counselling), Pedagogika Pracy (Pedagogy of Work) 38
Wilsz J.,(1996). Znaczenie niekształtowalnych cech osobowości człowieka w procesie
kształcenia przedzawodowego (The Importance of Man’s Inflexible Personality
Traits in the Process of Pre-Vocational Training). Częstochowa
Egan G.,(2007). Kompetentne pomaganie (Competent Helping). Poznań
Dorota Turska,
Ryszarda Ewa Bernacka
Poland
Maths Lessons –
Are They Gender Neutral in the Polish Perspective?
Report on the Third Stage of Research
Abstract
The purpose of this article is to determine the behaviour of male and female
teachers of mathematics in the perception of Polish secondary school male and
female students. The results obtained suggest that female students, compared to
male students, assess four elements of the Teacher Conduct Scale in a less favourable manner in the behavior of the teacher of mathematics. Referring to the question posed in the title of this article, it seems justified to contend that lessons of
mathematics conducted in Poland are by no means gender neutral. Both teacher
and student genders are significant modifiers of the perception of such lessons.
Key words: gender stereotypes, maths achievement, Rosenthal’s Four-Factor Theory
(Climate, Feedback, Input, Output), Golem effect, the teacher’s behaviour.
Introduction
It is a popular stereotype that mathematics is a domain for males (Gavin, Reis,
2003, pp. 32–44; Leder, Forgasz, Solar, 1996, pp. 932–961), and this stereotype
is common knowledge to all participants of the educational process: teachers,
students, and their parents alike. This stereotype determines the perception of
children’s competence by their parents attributing success to daughters’ efforts
and to sons’ mathematical abilities (Eccles, 1993, pp. 145–218) and, by extension,
shaping more favourable perception of their competence by average male students
than female students. More importantly though, this stereotype has an effect on
274
the gender-related expectations of mathematics teachers with respect to their
students (Leder, Forgasz, Solar, 1996). These expectations are the root cause of
different approaches employed by teachers, which has been the subject of numerous analyses (cf.: meta-analysis by Li, 1999, pp. 63–76). Besides the diagnosis of
the “educational state of affairs”, these studies fostered greater awareness among
teachers of the discriminatory nature of this stereotype towards female students
(Gavin, Reis, 2003).
Summarising 30 years of research on teaching mathematics (Leder, Forgasz,
Solar, 1996) indicates that the stereotype is most visible among English-speaking
nations. The effect of the stereotypic assumptions of German teachers of mathematics on the perception of male and female students is presented by Tiedemann
(2002, pp. 191–207). Gibbons (2000, pp. 389–415) asserts that the evidence in
support of pan-cultural similarities as regards gender stereotypes far outweighs
cultural diversity. Therefore, it can be safely argued that specific Polish educational
activities are also affected by the gender of those to whom they are addressed.
Interestingly enough, Polish empirical psychology does not report such situations.
The only psychological studies conducted in Poland refer to the effects of gender
stereotypes that are different from the way in which student perception is shaped.
Such studies focus on the effects of the stereotype on the level of performance in
mathematical tests. The studies show that Polish female students, compared to male
students, have more problems in solving mathematical tests when the instructions
given constitute a threat of gender stereotyping (Bedyńska, 2009, pp. 327–335;
Babiuch-Hall, 2007, pp. 67–83). The results of the studies described indicate in the
first place that the stereotype whereby mathematics is a male domain is strongly
rooted in Poland and is common knowledge, also among females, against whom
it is addressed. Thus, these explorations refer to the level of the diagnosis and to
the symptoms of the phenomenon under examination. Necessary as they are, they
are nevertheless insufficient.
Mathematics seen as a “critical filter” (Sells, 1973) holds sway at prestigious
technical universities where women account for approximately 10 per cent of all
students (Tymowski, 2008). “Girls for Universities of Technology” campaigns and
similar ones will remain futile unless a decent diagnosis of gender gap generating
educational activities in mathematics is performed and a program of counteracting
measures is implemented. This is how the goal of our studies presented in this
article is defined.
The self-fulfilling prophecy in education (Rosenthal, Jacobson, 1968) constitutes
a theoretical basis for the studies presented. Following up on the above, it was
assumed that gender dependent stereotypes which determined teacher expectations
275
activate the Pygmalion effects towards male students and Golem effects towards
female students (Madon, Jussim, Eccles, 1997, pp. 791–809).
In order to analyse the mechanism of the effects of different expectations on
genuine student achievements, Good’s six-stage model (1980, pp. 57–72) was
employed: 1. The teacher formulates different expectations of individual students.
2. The teacher’s different convictions lead to a diverse course of action, albeit in
compliance with the teacher’s own expectations, towards individual students.
3. Such a diverse approach of the teacher communicates to all students what type of
achievement and/or conduct the teacher expects of them. 4. The teacher’s conduct
begins to affect students’ self-assessment, degree of their motivation, their level
of aspirations and interaction with the teacher. 5. The said aspects and students’
aptitude are generally in compliance with teacher expectations, which are subsequently reinforced. 6. The teacher’s disparate expectations cause students’ different
achievements only to perpetuate the self-fulfilling prophecy in education.
For the purpose of this article, the two initial stages of the model are of particular
importance. It was assumed that the essence of the first stage is described by the
Pygmalion and Golem effects. The contents of the second stage become a more
precise subject to the operationalisation of the teacher’s diverse conduct in class.
To this purpose the Four–Factor Theory by Rosenthal (1973) was evoked. These
factors determine: atmosphere during lessons (climate), quality of feedback offered
to students (feedback), degree of difficulty of the tasks provided and characteristics
of gratification (input), degree of activating students in class (output).
The studies conducted also accounted for the gender of the teacher of mathematics as a potential modifier of behaviour towards male and female students. The
relevant literature indicates that it is men rather than women who cling to the
stereotypic perception of mathematics as their own domain (Tiedemann, 2002).
Female teachers, on the other hand, can serve as a positive model, most notably
for female students (Gavin, Reis, 2003).
Empirical data at hand are not unambiguous and do not constitute a viable basis
on which to verify the assumptions made (Li, 1999).
Numerous studies have been conducted with due respect for the fundamental
premise of educational psychology, i.e., the relation between teachers’ expectations
and their behaviour towards students during mathematics lessons. This paradigm
came down to measuring the degree of Rosenthal’s factors in teachers’ behaviour
by outside observers (Mazurkiewicz, 2006).
276
Research programme
Apart from the fact that the coding procedure usually puts an emphasis on
some of the four factors of teacher conduct, it simply ignores another fundamental
premise of educational psychology. Evidently, for any human being objectively
confirmed external influences are as important as the subjective perception of such
influences. Demonstrating significant differences in the way in which teachers of
mathematics behave towards male and female students will not provide information
whether female students actually notice such practices and whether they perceive
them as discriminatory in nature. Only such an interpretation (“My teacher does
not expect me to succeed”) will allow for the activation of the third and fourth step
in Good’s model (1980) of the self-fulfilling prophecy in education. The research
procedure employed by the authors of this paper focused on determining all the
four factors of teachers’ behaviour as perceived by their students.
The following questions were posed: 1. What are the differences, if any, in the
behaviour of teachers of mathematics in the perception of male and female students?
2. Assuming that such differences exist, are they teacher gender-dependent?
Method
It was assumed that the studied variable, i.e., the teacher’s conduct, in accordance with Rosenthal’s theory, comprises four elements. To measure the variable,
a Teacher Conduct Scale developed by D. Turska was employed. The whole scale
comprises 24 items where each element of a teacher’s behaviour is described by six
statements. The person examined is to assess the degree of accuracy with which
a given statement describes the behaviour of a teacher of mathematics (in the scale
from 4 – “totally true” to 1 – “totally untrue”). Theoretically, the raw result of each
subscale ranges from 6 to 24 points.
The studies presented constitute the third stage of the research program. The first
stage (2008) involved secondary school students from Lublin, Poland. During the
second stage of the research (2009) there were middle school pupils participating
in the study, which aimed at identifying various assessments of teacher conduct
relative to the stage of education. Because the explorations were essentially of
a preliminary nature, the results obtained (Turska, Bernacka, 2008, pp. 77–88;
Turska, Bernacka, in print) justify undertaking more research.
This study (third stage 2010) was conducted on 921 students from 17 secondary schools located in small towns of the Lubelskie Province. Such a selection of
277
respondents increased the ecological validity of the results obtained. The studies
conducted hitherto by the author as well as other Polish research projects were
carried out exclusively in large cities.
Results
In order to answer the first question posed, a single factor ANOVA variance
analysis was made with respect to the results obtained from the four subscales and
the global result of the Teacher Conduct Scale. Statistical conclusions are presented
in Table 1.
Table 1. Conduct of teachers of mathematics in the
perception of female pupils and male pupils
Persons
examined
Female pupils
Male pupils
Value F (1,919)
Significance
Climate
16.66
17.25
6.31
p<.01
Feedback
17.39
17.90
4.65
p<.05
SUBSCALE
Input
17.55
18.35
8.37
p<.01
Output
16.89
17.73
10.19
p<.001
Total conduct
68.50
71.23
10.45
p<.001
The data presented in Table 1 indicate that significant differences in the assessment of the male and female pupils refer to all subscales and to the global result
of the Teacher Conduct Scale. All the analyses performed indicate that females
evaluate the conduct of mathematics teachers lower than males do. The student
gender as a distinguishing variable acquires particular pertinence on the Output
subscale
In order to answer the other question posed, i.e., whether the differences
reported are teacher gender-dependent, a two factor variance analysis was applied:
student gender x teacher gender. The data obtained were subsequently classified
under three analytical categories.
The first one refers to the results reported on the Climate subscale (Figure 1).
An analysis of the results in terms of student gender indicates that the evaluation
of females (relative to that of males) is less favourable both with respect to male
(p<.05) and female teachers (p<.05) of mathematics. Another comparison (in
terms of teacher gender) points out that the male and female students assess the
conduct of female teachers (compared to male teachers) significantly less favourably (p<.001).
278
Figure 1. Assessment of the conduct of maths teacher. Comparative
analysis : student gender x teacher gender. Subscale Climate
18.5
18
subscale values
.05
17.5
.001
17
female teacher
.001
male teacher
16.5
.05
16
15.5
female student
male student
student gender
Feedback is the second subscale of the Teacher Conduct Scale under analysis (Figure
2). In this case, the lower evaluation provided by the female students (compared to the
male students) refers only to the conduct of female teachers (p<.05). The assessment of
male teachers (p<.87) does not disclose any diversity of opinions in terms of student
gender. Similar to the Climate subscale, the value and significance of the evaluation
(p<.001) of female teachers (compared to male teachers) remains the same.
analysis : student gender x teacher gender. Subscale Feedback
19
.87
subscale values
18.5
18
17.5
.001
.001
female teacher
17
male teacher
16.5
.05
16
15.5
female student
student gender
male student
279
The third analytical category refers to the results obtained on the Input (Figure
3), Output (Figure 4) and Total subscales (Figure 5). Here the diversity of the female
students’ (compared to the male students) assessment is to a larger degree but only
with respect to female teachers (p<.001). Both the male and female students give
lower grading (p<.001) to female teachers (compared to male teachers).
analysis : student gender x teacher gender. Subscale Input
19.5
.92
19
subscale values
18.5
.001
18
.001
female teacher
17.5
17
.001
male teacher
16.5
16
15.5
female student
male student
student gender
analysis : student gender x teacher gender. Subscale Output
18.5
subscale values
18
.44
17.5
17
.001
female teacher
.001
male teacher
16.5
.001
16
15.5
female student
student gender
male student
280
analysis : student gender x teacher gender. Total conduct
78
76
.59
subscale values
74
.001
72
70
female teacher
.001
68
male teacher
.001
66
64
62
female student
male student
student gender
Discussion
In order to interpret the results obtained during the third stage of the research
(rural environment) it is worth recalling the results of the previous pilot studies.
The answers to the first question collected in secondary schools in Lublin suggest
that female students (compared to male students) have a less favourable perception of a male teacher of mathematics in terms of Climate and Feedback (Turska,
Bernacka, 2008). The perception of female middle school pupils differs from that
of male pupils. Female pupils gave male teachers lower grading on the Input and
Output subscales (Turska, Bernacka, in print). The results of the third stage of the
research indicate – for the first time in the analyses conducted so far – that this
unfavourable perception of females is manifested in all subscales which diagnose
the teacher’s conduct. Interestingly, the degree of the perception diversity between
males and females is also increased.
As regards the second question, it was demonstrated that female secondary
school students (from Lublin) gave a lower grade to both male and female teachers.
However, the conduct of female teachers was perceived most unfavourably on
the Climate subscale. The results obtained for middle school pupils were quite
disparate. The data presented in this study indicate that the female students give
a lower assessment to the conduct of male teachers exclusively. The results of the
third stage of the research suggest that the lower assessment of female teachers
281
(compared to male teachers) in the perception of the female pupils (compared
to the male pupils) refers to all the subscales of the Teacher Conduct Scale. Such
a situation can be observed with respect to male teachers only on the Climate
subscale.
Apparently, irrespective of the milieu (a large or a small town) and of the teacher
gender (be it a male or a female teacher) the climate of a mathematics lesson is
invariably perceived by female secondary school students as less favourable. Equally
interesting are the conclusions drawn from a detailed analysis of the answers provided by the male and female students. Where mathematics was taught by a female
teacher, the female respondents unanimously contended : “Comments maliciously
on students’ failures to perform a task”. Such a perception – characteristic of the
Golem effect – was not shared by the male students (F1,919=15.74; p<.001), who,
in turn, tended to agree with the statement : “Supports students responding in all
possible ways, smiles and nods” when the teacher is a man (F1,919=17.41; p<.001).
This example shows that a male teacher can play the role of Pygmalion for the male
part of the class, a conclusion in line with the meta-analysis by Li (1999).
Furthermore, the results of the third stage of the research shows less favourable
perception of the feedback received from female teachers by the female students –
“The teacher notices and praises even when the progress made is not significant”
(F1,919=13.06; p<.001). The female students highlighted a lower degree of patience
and a greater sense of emotional detachment of the teacher in individual contact
with female students. Such data seem to confirm a hypothesis of “the lack of motivation” (Hyde, Fennema, Lamon, 1990), as an attempt to explain bigger achievements
in mathematics among males, notably at later stages of their education.
The hypothesis of the lack of motivation does not hold with respect to the
disparity in the perception of the male and female students reported on the Input
and Output subscales with respect to female teachers. The female secondary school
pupils taught by female teachers gave a lower grade to the actual course of the
lesson. In the perception of the female pupils (compared to male pupils), a lesson
of mathematics becomes less effective and less frequently used to enhance abilities
(Output; “The teacher ensures that each student can take their chances at solving
a problem on the board in front of the class”, F1,919=19.72; p<.001).
The female pupils see that female teachers activate only certain pupils, whereas
the male pupils tend to admit that female teachers attempt to get each pupil
involved. The data obtained are therefore congruent with the results obtained by
Mazurkiewicz (2006) in which – by way of coding and from the standpoint of
an outside observer – greater activation of male students during science classes
was confirmed. The authors’ observations lead to a conclusion that such a varied
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stimulation is perceived not only by an outside observer but also by female pupils
present in the classroom! Only when this fact is confirmed, is it possible to move
on to the third and fourth stages of Good’s model of self-fulfilling prophecy in
education.
A lower assessment by the female students on the Input subscale (“Requires
that the student explain a given notion or phenomenon using his/her own words”,
F1,919=14.49; p<.001) indicates that female teachers stimulate thinking processes
of female students to a smaller degree than male students’. With this in mind, one
could risk a statement that female students are not only motivated to a lesser degree
but also taught “in an inferior” manner by female teachers in particular! The results
obtained are rather disturbing. First of all, in Poland the teaching profession is
extremely feminized with a significant preponderance of female teachers also in the
area of mathematics. It follows that a statistical female student has more opportunities to work under a female teacher than under a male one. Secondly, the conduct
of female teachers (compared to male teachers) is perceived as inferior by male
students. The latter phenomenon shall be the subject of a separate study. Referring
to the question posed in the title of this article, it seems justified to contend that
lessons of mathematics conducted in Poland are by no means gender neutral. Both
teacher and student genders are significant modifiers of the perception of such
lessons.
Bibliography
Babiuch-Hall, M. (2007). Czy matematyka jest wciąż tylko dla mężczyzn?. In:
M. Czerwińska-Jasiewicz, E. Dryll (eds): Rozważania o rozwoju i wychowaniu.
Warszawa: Wydawnictwo Instytutu Psychologii Polskiej Akademii Nauk.
Bedyńska, S. (2009). Disabling the able: stereotype threat and women’s deductive
reasoning. In: S. Popek, R.E. Bernacka, C.W. Domański, B. Gawda, D. Turska, A.M. Zawadzka (eds): Psychologia twórczości – nowe horyzonty. Lublin:
Wydawnictwo UMCS.
Eccles, J. (1993). School and family effects on the ontogeny of children’s interests,
self-perceptions, and activity choice. IN: J. E. Jacobs (ed.): Nebraska Symposium
on Motivation. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.
Gavin, M. K. & Reis, S. M. (2003). Helping teachers to encourage talented girls in
mathematics. Gifted Child Today, 1.
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Gibbons, J. L. (2000). Gender development in cross–cultural perspective. In:
T. Eckes, H. M. Trautner (eds): The Developmental Social Psychology of Gender.
Mahwah: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Good, T. (1980). Classroom expectations: teacher–pupil interactions. In: J. McMillan (ed.): The Social Psychology of School Learning. New York: Academic Press.
Hyde, J. & Fennema, E. & Lamon, S. (1990). Gender differences in mathematics
performance: a meta–analysis. Psychological Bulletin, 107.
Leder, G. C. & Forgasz, H. J. & Solar, C. (1996). Research and intervention programs in mathematics education: a gendered issue. In: A. Bishop, K. Clements,
C. Keitel, J. Kilpatrick, C. Laborde (eds): International Handbook of Mathematics
Education. Dordrecht: Kluwer.
Li, Q. (1999). Teachers’ beliefs and gender differences in mathematics: a review.
Educational Research, 1.
Madon, S. & Jussim, L. & Eccles, J. (1997). In search of the powerful self-fulfilling
prophecy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 72.
Mazurkiewicz, G. (2006). Kształcenie chłopców i dziewcząt. Naturalny porządek,
nierówność czy dyskryminacja? Warszawa: Centrum Edukacji Obywatelskiej.
Rosenthal, R. & Jacobson, L. (1968). Pygmalion in the Classroom. New York: Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.
Rosenthal, R. (1973). On the Social Psychology of the Self-Fulfilling Prophecy. New
York: AA MSS Modular Publication Module 53.
Sells, L. (1973). High School Mathematics as the Critical Filter in the Job Market.
Proceedings of the Conference on Minority Graduate Education. Berkeley: California.
Tiedemann, J. (2002). Teachers’ gender stereotypes as a determinants of teacher
perceptions in elementary school mathematics’. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 50.
Tymowski, W. (2008). Kobiety! Co wy wiecie o Politechnice? http://miasta.gazeta.
pl/Warszawa/
Turska, D. & Bernacka, R.E. (2008). Lekcje matematyki – czy mają płeć? Psychologia.
Edukacja i Społeczeństwo, 5.
Turska, D. & Bernacka, R.E. (in print). Conduct of male teachers of mathematics
in the perception of female and male pupils. A lower secondary school perspective.
Early School
Pedagogy
Poznań, Poland
Conflict Situations among Children
Abstract
The work presented here, prepared on the basis of my own research, addresses
the dynamics of the conflict process among children at an early school age. The
phase of children’s entry into conflict was outlined on the basis of a set of motives
underlying the behaviours of 7–10-year-olds which get them to start conflicts with
their contemporaries. The phase of escalation of the conflict process among children
is characterized by interactions between conflict partners which are predominantly
aggressive in nature. On the other hand, the phase of conflict resolution (conflictending methods) is distinct for a strategy of compensatory behaviours involving
various forms of apology. The problem of the destructive and constructive impact of
conflict situations on children’s life is also addressed. A special focus is on the development potential of situations referred to above, involving the teacher performing
a role that is hard to overestimate. The results of the esearch discussed in the paper
were obtained mainly on the basis of attributive projection.
Key words: interpersonal conflict, dynamics of conflict, stages of the conflict process
in younger school-age children, destructive and constructive impact of conflicts on the
child, activation of educational processes through conflict, attributive projection.
Introduction
Interpersonal conflicts are a consequence of differences existing between people;
a result of these differences emerging in mutual interactions between individuals.
We all differ in our habits, systems of values, needs, interests and goals we strive
to achieve. Consequently, conflicts should be recognized as a natural phenomenon occurring among human beings and an integral element of our everyday
288
life. Conflicts mean that each individual is capable of expressing themselves and
has the legitimate right to be different. They are a manifestation of authenticity
and individuality of human beings. Therefore, they are unavoidable – and even
desirable.
Interpersonal conflicts are difficult situations for the individual. This is why
special attention should be paid to such situations occurring during childhood
because standards of behaviour and problem-solving strategies are imprinted in
this very period of each individual’s life, clearly impacting the child’s future.
Conflicts among children exhibit a certain pattern of dynamics which can be
divided into entry into conflict, conflict escalation and conflict resolution. The
dynamics is presented here in reference to conflicts which take place between
younger school-age children. The research project involved a total of 150 children
from three primary schools in the city of Poznań. The results presented in this
paper were obtained in projection studies. Using the technique of attributive
projection (based on attributing one’s own motives, feelings and behaviours to
others), children were placed in a fictitious conflict situation referring to different conflict participants (characters from projection stories reflecting children’s
peer or family environment). The importance of projection questions (verbal
techniques) in analyzing the conflict process among children has been stressed by
a number of researchers including: M. Thomas, B. Wright, L. Boehm and L. Düss.
Projection techniques – as J. Rembowski notes – are much better suited for the
purpose than direct questions. It seems that asking children openly about conflict
situations could make them anxious about the disapproval of people around them,
or – as J. Rembowski points out – give rise to “anxiety typical of study situations
resembling an exam” (J. Rembowski, 1975, p. 268). The study results will also be
used to outline the meaning of conflicts in children’s life: their destructive and
constructive aspects.
Dynamics
of the conflict process among younger school-age children
Research suggests that the phase of entry into conflict among seven – to tenyear-old children is characterized by a number of motives triggering the conflict
process. The motive categories are listed below:
• the motive of possession (41.3% in girls and 44% in boys),
• the motive of recognition (26.7% in boys),
• the motive of attractiveness (17.3% in girls),
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• the motive of maintaining a bond with a partner (18.7% in girls),
• the motive of loyalty (13.3% in girls) (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 40–49).
The studies listed above suggest that the most common conflict-triggering
event observed in middle and late childhood (i.e. among early school children) is
the interaction partner’s refusal, at a particular moment, to let the other partner
dispose of (borrow, exchange) a specific object: a toy or an item that is useful for
the achievement of goals (the possession motive). It is worthwhile to note that in
younger school-age children this situation also acquires a normative dimension,
related to the norm prohibiting the violation of other people’s property. In the
opinion of seven – to ten-year-olds, children quarrel when their friend has taken
something, has “borrowed” something (for example a pen, pencil eraser, ruler,
pencil case, crayon, etc.) without asking the owner’s permission, or has borrowed
something and refused to give it back.
As M. Debesse (1996, p. 70) notes, pupils at an early school age yearn to be
popular and successful, and their desire can lead to events initiating conflicts
among their peers. As my own research demonstrates, boys compete over who is
more capable (“…the boys quarrelled about whose homework is done better…”, “…
who is a better pupil…”, “…who is stronger…” and the like) [motive of recognition].
In contrast, girls seek success, satisfaction and appreciation by displaying their
physical attractiveness < beauty, trendy outfits > (“the girls quarrelled about who
is prettier…”, “…about whose hair is nicer…”, “… who has better clothes…”, etc.)
[motive of attractiveness].
It ought to be added that every child aged seven to ten years has the social need
for having a friend so that they can spend their leisure time together, involve in
joint activities and cooperate in making decisions. This unique personal attitude
in children’s life is mainly visible in motives triggering conflicts between girls.
These include: the motive of maintaining a bond with a partner (“…Katie argued
with her girlfriend because she played with someone else…”, “because she was
jealous about her girlfriend”) and the motive of loyalty (“…Katie argued with her
girlfriend because she had disclosed Katie’s secret…”, “…because she failed to keep
a secret…”).
The phase of escalation of conflict situations, in the child’s perception, is filled
with aggressive behaviours. My own studies have demonstrated that conflicts
occurring in early school-age children have a largely escalatory nature, as they
are dominated by the exchange of negative influences. In the majority of cases
children respond to aggression with aggression, i.e. one person’s actions regarded
as negative make the other side “retaliate” with similar actions. In the phase of
conflict escalation children mainly perceive the contamination of direct physical
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aggression and direct verbal aggression (main character: 46%, secondary character:
44.7%) (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 49–55).
According to D.R. Peterson, an important factor in conflict escalation is incorrect conflict perception and attribution of overall responsibility for the conflict
to the other side. Both sides of the conflict are inclined to blame others for the
outbreak of conflict rather than themselves or the circumstances. Furthermore,
personalization of conflict blows the disputed matter out of proportion. Studies
by such authors as K. Thomas and L.R. Pondy show that “people usually perceive
themselves as having cooperative intentions, while their partners are typically
attributed with a competitive intent” (K. Balawajder, 1992, p. 87). This tendency
also finds confirmation in my own studies showing that children from grades 1 to
3 usually put the blame for conflict outbreak on a secondary character (50%) rather
than the main character (37%), which indicates that the blame tends to be “shifted”
to an interaction partner (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 142–144).
The studies also show that children aged seven to ten typically end conflicts
(conflict resolution stage) by employing various forms of apology (strategy of compensatory behaviours – main character: 80%, secondary character: 78%) (“Adam/
Katie will apologize to each other, shake hands to make up…”). It turns out that
children regard apologies as a sufficient way to resolve a conflict. They see no need
to work out a solution and have it accepted by both sides of the conflict situation
(M. Cywińska, 1994, pp. 62–71). In addition to the above-mentioned strategy of
compensatory behaviours, other possibilities of ending a conflict situation enumerated by children are:
• strategy of strengthening contacts with the partner (59.3%) (“… you can
invite a friend round, you can play games together…”, “…you can walk
together in a pair, do homework together…” etc.);
• strategy of gratification behaviours (20.7%) (“…you can make up a quarrel
by giving (him/her) a cookie…”, “…you can give (him/her) a present…”, “…
you can give (him/her) a birthday gift….”);
• strategy of partnership-based behaviours (16%) (“… you can help (him/her)
with the homework…”, “…. you can lend stuff to each other…”);
• strategy of withdrawal behaviours (1.3%) (“…. you can move away from
your friend…”) (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 138–142).
The material obtained during the studies gives grounds for a conclusion that
a large proportion of conflicts observed among early school children are not
antagonistic in nature. They do not lead to mutual hostility or dislike among
the parties involved (which can be referred to the post-conflict process – consequences of the conflict process). It turns out that despite having quarreled with
291
a partner, children are ready to start playing games together and enter into a close
interpersonal relationship with them. They see a lot of positive feelings in mutual
relations: 95.3% of the studied children notice a positive reference to their partner
after quarrelling with him/her, while 92.6% of the children attribute their friends
with a similar attitude to themselves after ending a quarrel (M. Cywińska, 2004,
pp. 136–138 and 179–183).
Meaning of interpersonal conflicts in children’s life
Interpersonal conflicts are generally believed to have an adverse effect on the
individual. The emphasis is usually on the fact that conflicts represent various forms
of struggle between people, waged either openly or secretly, producing powerful
negative emotional tension. Moreover, it is claimed that problematic situations
of this type imply disadaptive behavioural responses hindering effective action,
lowering the affected person’s self-esteem and making it impossible to satisfy such
important development needs as security, respect or self-fulfilment. The conflicts
described above can become a source of subsequent conflict-type interactions
which not only fail to eliminate existing disputes but even amplify them, giving
rise to attitudes characterized by hostility and mutual antagonism.
My studies show that destructive manifestations of conflict situations among
younger school age children include:
• dominance in children’s behaviour (in the phase of conflict escalation), direct
physical and verbal aggression, exchange of negative influences, responding
to aggression with aggression (both in girls and boys) (M. Cywińska, 2004,
pp. 49–55);
• high and very high increase in emotional tension experienced by children as
a result of conflict, causing a very high degree of disorganization of their behaviour (particularly in girls) (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp.112–115; 121–125).
• formulation (under the influence of a conflict with peers) of a critical
self-image (block of self-knowledge), negative self-evaluation and negative
representation of what others think of them (“reflected self ”), which means
an overall negative influence of the conflict situation on the child’s “self ”,
posing a threat to his/her sense of stability, coupled with development of
the self-image that is based on non-constructive knowledge about oneself
(both in girls and boys) (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp.150–162).
However, interpersonal conflicts can also include aspects which have a constructive impact on the individual and integrate interpersonal relationships. These
292
aspects are less frequently perceived in situations of this kind. They are related to
the possibility of both partners working out a solution satisfying both sides, an
“I win – you win” solution that increases self-esteem and helps shrug off stress, feel
joy and fulfilment; develops the partners’ communication competence setting off
non-conformist behaviours, increasing curiosity and ingenuity, and encouraging
partners to seek new unconventional problem-solving strategies. Constructive
aspects of childhood conflicts are also filled, as my studies demonstrate, with
a cathartic dimension. 23% of the studied children after quarrelling with their
peers saw a possibility of tightening emotional ties with them and actually liking
him/her more than before. For children in this category a conflict most probably
represents an opportunity to clarify existing differences in expectations towards
each other. In this way, a conflict is an event that improves a tense atmosphere
(M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 168–173).
The constructive elements present in conflict situations among younger schoolage children identified in my own studies are also expressed in:
• stimulation of their intellectual capabilities (opposition gives a child
a chance to confront different points of view, look at a social situation from
the standpoint of other people and coordinate various perspectives, which
contributes to interpersonal decentration determining the development of
empathy and pro-social behaviours);
• stimulation of children’s emotional skills. Conflict helps children develop
the skill of controlling their emotions, cope with anger, irritation, sadness
and fear. My own research indicates that in order to reduce emotional tension associated with the conflict situation, younger school children try out
the effectiveness of a defence mechanism based on suppression, reflecting
the conscious effort to avoid thinking about traumatic and stressful events.
Children from grades 1–3 appear to employ two suppression strategies: not
thinking about a problem – by consciously guiding their thoughts towards
pleasant situations and events – and not thinking about a problem – by
becoming involved in enjoyable activities, either alone or with a friend,
watching films, reading stories, etc.(M. Cywińska, 2004, pp. 71–78).
• stimulation of children’s social skills. Conflicts get participants to seek ways
to interact with the other conflict party, to learn life strategies improving
situations adversely affected by the conflict and test their effectiveness. They
are: the strategy of compensatory behaviours mentioned above, the strategy
of strengthening contacts with the partner, the strategy of gratification
behaviours, the strategy of partnership-based behaviours or the (previously
unmentioned) strategy of declared improvement of behaviour (“…Katie will
293
not be mean any more…,” “…(he/she) will lend the ball…”, “…Adam will not
call anyone names any more…”, “…he will not hit anybody anymore…”). It is
worthwhile to take note of the fact that the last of the strategies enumerated
above represents self-reflection of themselves and their behaviour. It plays
an important role in extending children’s self-knowledge and awareness of
strong and weak points (M. Cywińska, 2004, pp.126–130).
Concluding remarks
Opposition and conflict resolution, as S.V. Sandy and K.M. Cochran point out,
are a key step in children’s development (2005, p. 318) in that they make children
cope with contentious issues. They are a source of constructive change contributing
to the development of the conflict culture, demonstrative active ways of overcoming the conflict, respect for other people’s point of view, acceptance of differences
and diversity. The role of the teacher is extremely important in giving conflicts
occurring among children a developmental dimension. It consists of dialogueoriented education and development of negotiating attitudes – the skills necessary for finding a conflict resolution that would satisfy both sides of the conflict.
Meanwhile, our educational system is dominated, as X.R. Jares (2001) and other
scholars stress, by a negative perception of phenomena of this type. This tendency
seems to be confirmed by the results obtained in my studies. Even though they
were pilot studies (questionnaire studies, performed in April 2010, included a total
of 100 pre-school teachers working with 6-year-old children in Poznań and the
Wielkopolska province) and thus not broad enough for drawing general conclusions, they clearly show that a large proportion of teachers are unaware of the fact
that conflicts actually represent educational situations. Not fewer than 46% of the
surveyed pre-school teachers only pointed out negative consequences of conflicts
for the child (teachers stressed that “conflicts among children disturb order…”,
“they set off aggression…”, “lead to an unpleasant atmosphere,” etc.). These remarks
reveal that a large proportion of teachers fail to teach children how to address the
issue of individual differences. They do not show them any constructive aspects
of conflict events and do not provide them with positive models of behaviour
in such challenging circumstances. Consequently, it is vital to enrich teachers’
knowledge of the meaning of conflict in people’s life and in children’s development, as well as the phenomena and processes occurring throughout the conflict
situation and strategies of constructive conflict resolution. This knowledge could
become an important basis for teachers in the process of using situations described
294
here, involving difficult children, for the activation of educational processes and,
therefore, as a starting point for developing such desirable personality traits as
active and critical attitudes to reality, tolerance, open thinking, kindness, readiness
to cooperate, development of the capacity for self-control, and self-fulfilment.
Bibliography
Adler, R.B. , Rosenfeld L.B., Proctor II R.F. (2007). Relacje interpersonalne. Poznań:
Dom Wydawniczy REBIS.
Balawajder, K. (1992). Konflikty interpersonalne: analiza psychologiczna. Katowice:
Uniwersytet Śląski.
Balawajder, K. (1998). Komunikacja, konflikty, negocjacje w organizacji. Katowice:
Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Śląskiego.
Białyszewski, H. (1983). Teoretyczne problemy sprzeczności i konfliktów społecznych.
Warszawa: PWN.
Cywińska, M. (2004). Konflikty interpersonalne dzieci w młodszym wieku szkolnym
w projekcjach i sądach dziecięcych. Poznań: Wydawnictwo Naukowe UAM.
Debesse, M. (1996). Etapy wychowania. Warszawa: Wydawnictwo „Żak”.
Deutsch, M. (1969). Conflicts. Productive and destructive. Journal of Social
Issues, 1.
Jares, X.R. (2001). Educación y Conflicto, Madrid: Editorial Popular.
Peterson, D.R. (1983). Conflict. In H.H. Kelley, E. Berscheid, A. Christensen,
J.H. Harvey, T.L. Huston, G. Levinger, E. McClintock, L.A. Peplau, D.R. Peterson
(eds.). Close relationships. New York: W.H. Freeman and Company.
Rembowski, J. (1975). Metoda projekcyjna w psychologii dzieci i młodzieży. Zarys
technik badawczych. Warszawa: PWN.
Ryborz, H. (1991). Menschen, erkennen, durchschauen, verstehen, München:
Goldmann Verlag,
Sandy, S.V. , Cochran, K.M. (2005). Rozwój umiejętności rozwiązywania konfliktów u dzieci. In M. Deutsch, P.T. Coleman (eds.). Rozwiązywanie konfliktów.
Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskiego.
Kamil İşeri
Turkey
Evaluation of the Writing Disposition of Elementary
School Sixth Grade Students
Abstract
The objective of this study is the evaluation of the writing disposition of sixth
grade students from the perspective of different variables using the Writing Disposition Scale developed by Piazza & Siebert (2008) and adopted into Turkish
by İşeri & Ünal (2010). At the conclusion of this study we note that the writing
disposition of elementary school sixth grade students in the confidence and passion sub-categories, and in the scale as a whole, showed meaningful differences
according to the school they attended but that a meaningful difference in writing
disposition could not be observed in the persistence sub-category.
Key words: writing, writing disposition, grade, gender.
Introduction
The area of activities in teaching the mother tongue for the second level of
elementary school consists of the four basic skills and as a subject area, the use of
grammar, spelling and punctuation (Sever, Kaya & Aslan, 2006:25–30). What can
be considered as integrated language skills in Turkish teaching must be separated
into equal time periods and in order to develop language skills it must be made up
of writing of a literary nature. This objective will enable school textbooks presented
to education and teaching settings to increase the productivity of Turkish teaching
as noted in the literature (İşeri & Ünal 2010; Aslan, 2007; İşeri, 2007; Akyol, 2006;
Demirel & Şahiner, 2006; Özbay, 2003, 2005; 2006; Sever, 2004; Sever, Kaya &
Aslan, 2006; Kavcar, Oğuzkan & Sever, 2004; Yangın, 2002; Göğüş 1978). In terms
296
Kamil İşeri
of the productivity of teaching Turkish, it is necessary for the areas of basic skills
to be developed in an “integrated” manner with a sufficient, effective and suitable
level of activities.
The New Program of National Education (MEB, 2006) provides the necessary
examples of activities in order for the individual to accomplish the gains associated
with the four basic language skills. Looked at from this perspective, the new education program provides information that will assist the teacher in many areas. For
an individual living in a society, the use of linguistic skills gains importance in language based communication with other individuals. Keçik & Uzun (2004:10) note
that in communication based on language, neither sounds, words nor sentences
take on a task by themselves but that the basic unit of linguistic communication is
texts and that individuals use texts in communicating with one another. For this
reason, texts must provide examples of writing performance in language teaching.
The act of writing makes it compulsory that text writing should be a text producing performance, a linguistic communication activity and that in language based
communication, texts should be used and that concepts such as communication,
text, type of text, text writing, textualization (Keçik & Uzun, 2004:1–30) should
be taught to students.
Many researchers have attempted to define the act of writing. Hübner, Nückles
and Renkl (2010:18) indicated that writing is an activity that is as widespread
as the activity of homework. As one of the four basic language skills, the act of
writing, is defined, according to Özbay (2006:121) as the expression of emotions,
thoughts, wants and events according to certain symbols based on certain rules
and points out that the act of writing is a necessity. Kirby & Liner (1998) stress
that writing is a complex and high level human behavior (cited in Oral, 2008) and
that a good writer must be honest. The Ministry of National Education (MEB,
2006) defines writing skills as the activity of transferring and telling in writing
of seen and lived emotions, thoughts and knowledge. The writing skills achieved
by students at primary school age aims at teaching to write words correctly and
thus to have them gain the practice of reading and speaking, to recognize a new
word, to learn the rules of writing and to have them develop the desire and habit
of correct writing.
Akyol (2006) has indicated that in order to eliminate this problem children
must first be aware of the existence of different kinds of writing and information
on the target audience. In order for students to form different types of texts it is
necessary that varied types and sufficient representation (İşeri, 2007b) of these
types should be compared to these texts. Eliminating incomplete parts in written
narrations, producing a text at the required level is possible through education.
Evaluation of the Writing Disposition of Elementary School Sixth Grade Students
297
According to Sallabaş (2009:95), producing a good text requires observation, reading, thinking and using the mother tongue well. During presentation the structural
characteristics of the language should be given attention. The objective here is to
inform, convince and please the listener or reader. Since acquiring writing skills
is an intrinsic situation and requirement of individuals, it makes it mandatory to
give importance to writing activities in every field. Therefore, this situation makes
writing activities all the more important.
Graham, Berninger & Fan (2007:516) evaluated the three structural relationship
models between the writing success and writing attitudes of elementary school
students. These models are: (a) Writing attitude effects writing success in a single
direction. (b) Writing success effects the writing attitude in a single direction, and
(c) the effects of the writing attitude and writing success are reciprocal. The model
that is most consistent with the data is the assumption that the writing attitude
affects writing success. In addition, the direct effect between attitude and success in this model is statistically important. There are also definitions that equate
attitude with disposition. In the area of teacher training a thing that is taught by the
concept of disposition that is not fully understood is due to the lack of theoretical
identification. Disposition must be related to the analysis of the cognitive structure
in reflective and moral areas that includes how an individual lives, thinks and
acts as a result of various experiences. By accepting and taking into consideration
the teacher’s particular characteristics, disposition becomes characteristics that
are attributable to the teacher and these characteristics develop when he or she
participates in occupational training programs (Lisa & Alan, 2007).
Sockett (2009) states that disposition is a virtue in the individual’s success against
obstacles by that individual and which has intrinsic motivational characteristics.
For Piazza & Siebert, (2008:275) disposition is accepted as a wide structure whereby
the act of writing includes self-discipline, perseverance in the face of difficulties,
tolerance of ambiguity, autonomy, willingness to take risks, motivation, self-efficacy
and interest. The term disposition in the past was defined by psychologists as an
expression of inner characteristics that includes creative and personality features
that can effect the individual’s interaction with others and with his or her environment (Ziegler, Bain, Bell, McCallum & Brian, 2006:60).
Even though researchers express effective structures as the individual’s present
mental characteristics that explain a previous cognitive balance to learning, an
increasing number of researchers see the effect as an interaction during the social
process (Hayes, 2006). In this new understanding of conceptual relationship, the
view that disposition affects and is affected by (a) cognitive factors such as skills,
content or writing knowledge and strategic processes, and (b) social factors such as
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Kamil İşeri
meaningful duties, achievement targets, various learning conditions and environment is argued. This interaction of dispositions in cognitive and social factors
results in effective reactions that – positively or negatively – explain the writer’s
attitude to writing (Piazza & Siebert, 2009:275).
Purpose
The objective of this study is to present the writing disposition of elementary
school sixth grade students based on different variables. Towards this end, the
answers to the following questions were sought: To the question, “What is the
writing disposition level of elementary school sixth grade students?” the following
related sub-questions were added: Are there meaningful differences in writing
dispositions according to the student’s gender?
Are there meaningful differences in writing dispositions based on the schools
that they attend?
Method
The subject of this research is an attempt to define an event, individual or object
within its own conditions and as it appears. No effort is made to change or affect it
in any manner (Karasar, 1999:77). For this reason a survey model was employed.
This study is limited to sixth grade students during the 2008–2009 school year in
central Niğde province.
Working group
The working group in this study consists of 1166 students in the sixth grade
from 24 elementary schools (5 Şubat, 19 Mayıs, 23 Nisan, 75. Yıl Mustafa Altuncu,
Ali Ulvi Arıkan, Alparslan, Asım Ve Zeynep Ecemiş, Atatürk, Behzat Ecemiş,
Cumhuriyet, Dr. Sadık Ahmet, Gazi, Halil Kitapçı, Hazım Tepeyran, İnönü, Kemal
Aydoğan, Kemal Çetintürk, Mehmet Emet Aydoğan Okulu, Memnune Türker
Altuncu, Murtaza Ve Naile Uyanık, Nezihe ve Tahsin, Sakarya, Selçuk, Zahide
Sefer) in central Niğde province. The schools in question are official elementary
schools in Niğde Province. Since the compulsory elementary school age in Turkey
begins after the child has turned six, the working group consists of sixth grade
299
students between 12 and 13 years of age. In the period following the permission
received from the Niğde Province National Education Directorate, the schools
were visited one by one and the Scale forms distributed to the guidance counselors.
Information was provided on how the Scale was to be applied. The average response
time to the Scale by the sixth grade students is between 15 and 18 minutes. The
working group consisted of 1166 students of whom 587 were female and 579 were
male students.
Data collection method
The Writing Disposition Scale is an evaluation tool developed by Piazza &
Siebert (2008) to determine the writing disposition of elementary and middle
school students. The Scale was applied to fourth, fifth and sixth grade students in
six different schools involving 884 students. The Scale covers three sub-categories
of confidence, persistence and passion.
As a result of the reliability and validity work done on the Scale, the last version
consisted of eleven items of which three are in the confidence, four in the persistence and four in the attitude sub-categories. The lowest points to be obtained from
the Scale are 11 and the highest 55. The higher points indicate that the writing
dispositions of the students are in a positive direction, while the lower points
indicate that writing dispositions are negative. The Cronbach alfa reliability coefficient for the Scale as a whole was .893 while the confidence, persistence and
passion coefficients were .806, .749 and .914, respectively. The sample of the Scale
was found to be reliable and valid.
The Turkish version of the Scale was compiled by İşeri & Ünal (2010) and
as a result of the factor analysis conducted on the Writing Disposition Scale,
three factors were obtained. The first factor indicates that the total variation in
relation to the Scale is 30.08 percent; the second factor is 8.45 percent and the
third factor is 7.73 percent. The total factor variation, therefore, is 46.26 percent
of the Scale. After factor rotation, the first factor of the Scale consisted of 11
articles, the second factor of 8 articles and the third factor of 4 articles. The load
values of the articles in the first factor varied between 0.601 and 0.702; between
0.561 and 0.668 in the second factor and between 0.632 and 0.748 in the third
factor. The Cronbach alfa coefficient was used to calculate the findings relating
to the Scale reliability and was found to be .874 for the Scale as a whole; .882 for
the passion sub-category; .734 for the confidence sub-category and .639 for the
persistence sub-category.
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Kamil İşeri
Findings relating to the validity and reliability of the scale
In this context, the KMO test measurement results require a .50 or above value
and statistically the Barlett’s test of sphericity results should be significant (Jeong,
2004:70). As a result of the tests conducted, the KMO test results were .92, the
Barlett’s test of sphericity result was found to be significant (P<0.01) and a factor
analysis can be conducted on this Scale. When the slope inclination graphic relating to the factor analysis and the factor 1 load value is examined, the Scale again is
found to have three factors. In the first factor, the total variance was 30.05 percent,
for the second factor it was 8.81 percent and for the third factor it was 7.90 percent.
The total factor size accounts for 46.77 percent of the Scale. Findings relating to the
reliability of the Scale were calculated according to the Cronbach alfa coefficient
and the Scale as a whole was found to be .87, the passion sub-category was .89, the
confidence sub-category .71 and the persistence sub-category.63
Analysis of data
Prior to the analysis of the collected data a sequence number was given to each
survey. The evaluations were based on a scale of 1166. In order to calculate the
points to the answers provided, 5 points were assigned to “fully agree,” 4 points to
“agree,” 3 points to “undecided,” 2 points to “not agree” and 1 point to “fully disagree.” The lowest points that can be obtained from the Scale are 21 and the highest
105. As a result of the analysis, the findings obtained from the problem sentence
were given a range as a basis in the following manner: 1.00–1.79 for “fully disagree,”
1.80–2.59 for “not agree,” 2.60–3.39 for “undecided,” 3.40–4.19 for “agree” and
4.20–5.00 for “fully agree.” The findings relating to the sub-problems were analyzed
according to the independent sample t test and the one way ANOVA.
Results and interpretations
The results relating to the problem sentence (“What is the writing disposition
level of elementary sixth grade students?”) of the analysis are given in Table 1.
While analyzing Table 1 we note that the writing disposition in the confidence
(x– =3.81), passion (x– =3.62) sub-categories and the Scale as a whole (x– =3.63) is
at the “agree” level and positive while the persistence sub-category (x– =3.38) is at
the “undecided” level.
301
Table 1: writing disposition levels of elementary school 6th grade students
Category
Confidence
Persistence
Passion
Complete Scale
x–
3.81
3.38
3.62
3.63
N
1166
1166
1166
1166
Level
Agree
Undecided
Agree
Agree
The results in the first sub-problem (“Are there differences according to the
pupil’s gender in the writing disposition levels of elementary school sixth grade
students?”) are given in Table 2.
While analyzing Table 2 we note that the confidence (t(1164)= 6.024, P<.01),
passion (t(1164)= 4.943, P<.01) sub-categories of the writing disposition of sixth
grade elementary students and in the Scale as a whole (t(1164)= 5.850, P<.01)
showed meaningful differences according to the student’s gender. However, in the
persistence (t(1164)= 1.919, P>.01) sub-category, writing disposition does not show
a meaningful difference. In analyzing the mean points from the sub-categories
related to the Scale and from the Scale as a whole, it can be seen that the confidence
and passion sub-categories as well as the Scale as a whole show a difference in favor
of the female students.
Table 2: Independent t test results in the writing disposition of
xelementary school sixth grade students according to gender
Category
Confidence
Persistence
Passion
Writing Disposition
Gender
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
Female
Male
n
587
579
587
579
587
579
587
579
x–
3.94
3.68
3.44
3.33
3.76
3.48
3.75
3.51
s
.732
.725
.990
.922
.985
.925
.704
.689
t
p
6.024
.000*
1.919
.055
4.943
.000*
5.850
.000*
*p<0.01
The findings in the second sub-problem (“Are there meaningful differences
in the writing disposition of sixth grade students based on the school that they
attend?”) are given in Table 3.
In reviewing Table 3 we note that the confidence (F (23 – 1142)= 2.120, P<.01),
passion (F(23 – 1142)= 2.903, P<.01) sub-categories of the writing disposition of
Kamil İşeri
302
sixth grade students and in the Scale as a whole (F(23 – 1142)= 2.750, P<.01) showed
meaningful differences according to the schools they attended. However, in the
persistence (F (23 – 1142) = 1.150, P>.01) sub-category, writing disposition did not
show a meaningful difference.
Table 3: Independent t test results in the writing disposition of elementary
school 6th grade students based on the school that they attend
Category
Confidence
Persistence
Passion
Complete Scale
Group
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Between Groups
Within Groups
Total
Sum of
Squares
26.087
611.034
637.121
24.192
1044.832
1069.024
59.887
1024.348
1084.235
30.528
551.269
581.797
df
23
1142
1165
23
1142
1165
23
1142
1165
23
1142
1165
Mean
Square
1.134
.535
F
P
2.120
.002*
1.052
.915
1.150
.283
2.604
.897
2.903
.000*
1.327
.483
2.750
.000*
*p<0.01
In order to determine the source of the difference, a Tukish HSD test was carried
out. In reviewing Table 3, we note that among Gazi, Sakarya, Alparslan, Asım Zeynep Ecemiş, Kemal Çetintürk, Zahide Sefer Elementary Schools in the confidence
sub-category, a meaningful level of difference was found between Gazi and Zahide
Sefer Elementary Schools. In analyzing the descriptive statistics, we note that in the
first sub-category (confidence) the difference was in favor of Sakarya Elementary
School and that in the second sub-category (persistence) it was in favor of Gazi
Elementary School.
In the third sub-category, passion, a meaningful difference was found among
Sakarya, Alparslan, Atatürk and Gazi Elementary Schools in favor of Sakarya
Elementary School; and among Murtaza Naile Uyanık, Alparslan and Gazi Elementary Schools in favor of Murtaza Naile Uyanık Elementary School. As to the Scale
as a whole, we note that among Sakarya, 23 Nisan, Alparslan, Asım Zeynep Ecemiş,
Gazi, Atatürk and Zahide Sefer Elementary Schools a meaningful difference was
found in favor of Sakarya Elementary School; and between Alparslan and Murtaza
Naile Uyanık Elementary Schools a meaningful difference was found in favor of
Murtaza Naile Uyanık Elementary School.
303
Conclusions
This study concluded that the writing disposition among sixth grade students
was positive, that the writing disposition of female students compared to male
students was more positive and that the writing disposition levels of schools
showed differences among each other. In terms of the writing disposition, the
Sakarya Elementary School in the confidence sub-category of the Scale; the Gazi
Elementary School in the persistence sub-category and Sakarya and Murtaza Naile
Uyanık Elementary Schools in the passion sub-category were found to have a higher
writing disposition compared to other elementary schools. In the Scale as a whole,
again the Sakarya and Murtaza Naile Uyanık Elementary Schools were found to
have a higher writing disposition compared to other elementary schools.
As Piazza & Siebert (2008:280) indicated, the common objective of teachers it to
teach their writing skills and strategies to their students. In order for this objective
to be realized, the approach of the teachers should be not merely to fulfill their
writing requirements but also to accompany the students on subjects they enjoy
writing about and which they attach importance to and thereby develop their
writing dispositions.
Based on the conclusions of this study, similar studies can take place in other
provincial centres or in elementary schools outside provincial centres and in
line with the data obtained from these schools more objective results can be
obtained.
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Andragogy
Poland
Integration of Elderly Citizens through Learning
Abstract
The basis of thinking on education for the elder citizen, as conceived within the
U3As in Poland (or in the majority of them), is the idea that it should be holistic
and its main aim should be the pleasure of learning and meeting other people in
conducive surroundings. One problem is the methodology of educational work
and another the integrity of educational influence. We are especially concerned
with the need for integrity and for the holistic nature of education, which means
that in every area of development both of these elements should be treated with the
same degree of importance. For the past few years we can say of the Polish model
of the U3A that the concept of holistic education is one of the most important
characteristics. Integration is the main aim of learning. Retirement is often connected with the risk of social exclusion, which can lead to despair, acceleration
of ageing and untimely, even early death. All forms of inclusion counteract this.
The learning process in the U3A has as its aim a form of inclusion, very complex,
because it is composed of different elements. The philosophy underlying every kind
of occupation or class is social inclusion.
Key words: senior citizens’ learning process, University of the Third Age, holistic
education, ageing society.
Holistic education based on the needs of students in the Polish
model of the U3A
The basis of the thinking on education for the senior citizen, as conceived within
the U3As in Poland (or in the majority of them), is the idea that it should be holistic
310
and its main aim should be the pleasure of learning and of meeting other people
in conducive surroundings.
The “conducive surroundings” are the most important factor which must be
always taken into consideration when planning and realizing all kinds of classes for
our seniors. It means that in education we are not concentrating on the effect but
rather on the process of learning. People who come to the U3A do not expect to
get any kind of diploma, university degree or to achieve formal qualifications. The
reason is very simple – they do not expect it because they do not need it. They are
not looking for a new job or any kind of job at all because they already have means
and financial resources and they do not need additional formal qualifications.
The motivation of the candidates for education in the third age could usually be
summarised as:
• self – development need (candidates would like to avoid the ageing process,
or brain deterioration / atrophy);
• need for meeting other people, establishing new social contacts, finding new
friends and perhaps even love as well;
• need to feel important, significant, decisive (they want to assure themselves
that they are able to attract someone who would pay attention to them; it is
closely related to affiliation needs, but not the same);
• need for something more, something important in their lives – a small
number of candidates consists of very active people who simply are not
able to spend their free time without any activity. Usually they are very
busy, and because of it, their activity in the U3A is always much higher
than average.
None of the above-mentioned needs is connected with the need to earn money,
so we can suppose that qualifications are not the main aim for people attending
but rather the need for self-development should be treated as the basic reason. The
offer of education should always be fitted to the needs.
Integrity of the educational influence
One problem is the methodology of the educational work and another the
integrity of the educational influence. We are especially concerned with the need
for integrity and for the holistic nature of education, which means that in every
area of development both of these elements should be treated with the same degree
of importance.
311
The methodology of teaching is elaborated by gerontologists, psychologists,
and teachers and instructors who are aware of the basis of our older students’
motivation. It is characteristic that all generations are engaged in the educational
process: young children, younger students, PhD candidates, younger and older
university professors and of course seniors as well. Most of them have the right
academic preparation and know a lot about the rules of teaching for the third age
(e.g., students and PhD candidates had assisted classes in gerontology or adult
education in their curricula, school children were engaged in all kinds of intergenerational projects and seniors were educated in seminars and special lectures
on the psychology of ageing).
A further component of the holistic nature of education needs to be addressed.
The student candidates usually speak only about the basic reasons of motivation.
We should consider not only the development of the human being, but much more,
we need to think about the harmony of development. Non-harmonious development, not integrated with other areas of human life, could be only slightly positive.
If we were to take into account only people’s declarations, we would be concentrating on two or three specific topics or areas of activity. Incoming candidates realize
neither the need of the ageing process theoretical knowledge nor basic academic
science. They do not expect it but finally when they receive the main information
about the rules in theU3A, they understand the need for basic knowledge and the
concept of studium generale as foundations for intellectual work.
Intellectual work is only the start of the much more complex process of holistic
education. Besides lectures and seminars, the older student can participate in physical activity training, art workshops, ICT and training in psycho – social behaviour
(like communication, biography experience reconstructing, intergenerational
cooperation).
There are many areas of learning but the most important thing is not the diversity
of subjects – but rather the new social contact and social integration.
The Polish model of the U3A
For the past few years we can say of the Polish model of the U3A that the concept
of holistic education has been one of the most important characteristics. For our
seniors it means that they can expect the highest standard of academic education
treated as a composite of various elements of learning, prepared according to their
specific needs and potential. The principal areas of education are: academic education, physical activities, art and culture, spiritual development and languages.
312
In principle, there are three current model types of U3A. The strongest one is
always connected with a kind of university or simply it exists as part of the college
or university (as in the case of the U3A in Wrocław or Kraków). We can compare
it with the French model of the U3A. The strength of this model is related to its
institutional power – universities are very prestigious and university professors’
prestige can be compared in Poland only with the importance of the president of
the state (in fact no occupation is more important on the prestigious values scale).
Institutional power also means efficiency and accuracy of public administration.
The huge public institutions always have the best specialists in law and economics,
which means that there is no problem with accounting for European founds. In this
model academic knowledge is the priority for the educational process and there is
adequate staff in the institution for appropriate classes and lectures.
The second and most popular model is built on associations and clubs. It could
be compared with the English way of education for seniors. U3As are independent
and financed only by the members without any support or occasionally with a little
support from the city/ town council. In this model academic education is not the
most important aim. They concentrate much more on establishing social bonds
and supportive structures to avoid individual consequences of ageing. Certainly,
the concentration on social activity automatically means a lower average number
of academic lectures, sometimes there could even be just one lecture a month.
More and more often we see the emergence of a hybrid U3A, which seeks to
mix the institutional power of the university with the flexibility of associations. For
example, if we have a U3A established by any university, after a period of time the
members want to build an association, which could be able to support their activity
in learning, organization and accounting independently of the public funds which
are coming from and accounted for by the university.
Typical forms of education in the U3A at the University of Wroclaw
There are many basic forms of education in the U3A at the University of
Wrocław, which is an example of the Polish academic model of the U3A:
• lectures and seminars are typical examples of academic education. What
is characteristic and distinctive is the fact that typical academic lectures by
professors are interspersed with others – delivered by people very important
for our social lives such as great politicians, museum directors and the most
outstanding, intelligent and wise PhD candidates;
313
• training in physical activity is prepared and provided by specialists in
rehabilitation and medicine, working as scientists for the University of
Physical Education. Cooperation with this kind of scientists is very rare
and expensive. For the universities which provide this kind of education it
is always a strong point of the learning process and a big advantage;
• workshops especially in art and intergenerational integration, most often
organized by adult education students and PhD candidates in pedagogy;
• conversations in foreign languages, mostly prepared and taught by older
teachers (retired translators, interpreters, and teachers with whole life work
experience);
• civic responsibility training (self-aid section) – organizational work, not
regular classes, but very important for the functioning of the U3A.
Integration is the main aim of learning. Retirement is often connected with
the risk of social exclusion, which can lead to despair, acceleration of ageing and
untimely, even early death. All forms of inclusion counteract this. The learning
process in the U3A has as its aim a form of inclusion, very complex, because it is
composed of different elements. The philosophy underlying every kind of occupation or class is social inclusion. People who attend are not only seeking learning
but also to escape from loneliness and solitude. Other forms of integration are
included in the learning process as well.
Conclusion
What needs to be done? The most serious problem for the future, needing fast
resolution is international cooperation and intergenerational exchange of ideas,
thoughts and experiences. The philosophy of integration should be continued much
more effectively. Three years ago, when I started my managerial work, I used to
meet only a few younger students who had to have their teacher practice in adult
education. Now very often we encounter tandems, in which younger and older
students work together. The key for success is the establishment of common aims
for conceptual and organizational work. The main question is why it does not work
like in Germany in Gaststudium? First of all: we do not need special Gaststudium
for senior citizens, because there is no barrier or gate to recruit seniors. The only
barrier for all candidates for the regular university studies is a high score in final
exams at high school. Actually it does not matter if someone is 20 or 60 years
old.
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The problem consists in the specific characteristics of seniors learning processes
and their expectations. Without speaking about details, the process of learning
of younger and older students is totally different. The younger have, for example,
a higher capacity of memory, whereas the process of learning of the older students
depends much more on their life experience. It was always the reason for our seniors for not mixing in groups of learners. They were always simply afraid that they
could not absorb new information as quickly and effectively as younger students.
The fear should be overcome very slowly and the learning process must not be
treated or perceived as a kind of competition.
Bibliography:
Gałdowa, M. (2000): Powszechność i wyjątek. Rozwój człowieka dorosłego.
Kraków.
Otten, D. (2008): Die 50+ Studie. Wie die jungen Alten die Gesellschaft revolutionieren. Reinbek bei Hamburg.
Penn, Mark J. (2007): Microtrends – the small forces behind tomorrow’s big changes.
New York – Boston.
Stützle, P. (2008): Generation Abgrund. Stirbt Europa aus? Lahr/ Schwarzwald.
Viera Prusáková
Slovak Republic
The Andragogical Base
for the Analysis of Educational Needs
This study represents an outcome of research, VEGA
1/ 0598/08 project “Theoretical and Methodological Framework for the Analysis of Educational Needs of Adults”.
Abstract
The study is focused on the andragogical theoretical basis for the analysis of
educational needs. It is based on the results of primary andragogical research specifically focused on defining terms and on determination of applied andragogical
disciplines according to interest (career, social and cultural andragogy). Furthermore, it is also focused on determination of target groups, on characteristics of
sources and on principles for the analysis of their educational needs.
Key words: analysis of educational needs, career andragogy, cultural-public educational andragogy, social andragogy, target groups of adult education.
Introduction
Adult education has developed intensively during the last years. Social practice
required to formulate new methods, forms, to establish new educational institutions, to develop strategies, to accept and to apply foreign experience. All these
are quite important reasons for theory development. There is also another strong
reason, i.e., an increasing importance of adult education as a specific element for
economic and social policies developments. The continuity of life-long education
at both vertical (in every age) and horizontal (life-long education, in several educational spheres and types) levels is inevitable.
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The focus of life-long education on flexible formation of occasions for man
brings a need to overlap the educational structures that exist, but which are not
compatible enough. It specifically relates to the formation of the knowledge-based
society and to the relevant development of human resources based on competences. The development of the concept of “education and development according
to competences“ is significant from the andragogical point of view, and it represents
a new paradigm (Veteška, 2010).
This mostly relates to the overlapping of formal and informal education. The
incentives with respect to the flexible system of life-long education, integral part
of which is represented by a further education, are declared in almost all the EU
documents related to education. They represent the general principles that can be
used at the supranational level.
However, the expansion of adult education, either within cultures or among
them, is an extremely complex process, which we understand in a too simple way.
It is partly due to the fact that we do not distinguish the adult educational process context from the process. We very often forget the fact that any insufficient
analysis of educational needs, which the determination of aims and the creation
of curriculum depend on, represents one of the fundamental problems in both
formal and informal educational systems. We have been currently dealing with
the theoretical and methodological issues of educational needs analysis in the
research task VEGA 1/ 0598/08 “Theoretical and Methodological Framework for
the Analysis of Educational Needs of Adults” that will be completed at the end
of 2010. The solution of research tasks was mostly based on the previous results
of primary research “Identification of Target Groups of Andragogical Influence“
(research team leader J.Perhács, 1999–2002, VEGA MŠ SR č.1/6227/99) and “The
Trends of Andragogy Development and Its Systematisation “(research team leader
V.Prusáková, 2003–2005, VEGA MŠ SR č.1/0225/03). The study is specifically
focused on the andragogical theoretical basis.
1. Analysis of educational needs
1.1. Analysis of educational needs as an andragogical issue
Preparation of the educational process should always start with an analysis of
educational needs, which we understand as a process of acquiring and analysing
the information that is necessary for determining the parameters of education.
Educational needs originate as a hypothetical state (conscious or unconscious)
when an individual lacks any knowledge or skills that are important for their
The Andragogical Base for the Analysis of Educational Needs
317
further existence and preservation of their psychic, physical and social functions.
As far as adult education is concerned, the need for an educational needs
analysis is now apparent with respect to education for the labour market and
retraining education. Firstly, educational needs used to be identified more or less
accidentally, they were subordinated to fashionable educational trends. This fact
manifested itself in low effectiveness of re-training education; e.g., in Slovakia,
retraining successfulness was only 30 %. It is an absence of theoretical basis that
is one of the causes of insufficient application of educational needs analysis. The
theoretical base becomes inevitable with respect to the concept of learning and
knowledge-based society. The following questions with respect to the development of the knowledge-based society will become key issues: What knowledge is
indispensable for everyone? What combination of knowledge do all of them need?
What is ”quality” with respect to education? Probably, it will be necessary to define
the term “educated man “ again, and similarly the term “educational needs“ and
their social and individual contexts.
The analysis of educational needs represents a cornerstone of the systematic
approach to education. The analysis should be based on finding out the differences
between a current state and the state we wish to have. The following findings can
be solved through education. The formation of target groups for adult education
should be based on identical educational needs. Therefore, when compiling educational projects for specific target groups, the analysis of their educational needs
means an initial step. If necessary, a description of the target groups should include
some determination of input prerequisites for an educational event.
The educational needs of adults originate under the influence of the situations
that are experienced by an individual, group, society or nation. The situations are
both special and common. Besides the research as mentioned above, the Department of Adragogy, Pedagogical Faculty, Matej Bel University, also participates
in the primary research “Theoretical and Methodological Framework for the
Analysis of Educational Needs of Adults” during 2008–2010 (research team leader
V.Prusáková). It is focused on the following aims:
• to systemise theoretical knowledge about the analysis of educational needs,
and based on it find out an andragogical theoretical base and consider the
needs of the adult learner, learning group or community.
• to clarify the complexity of the process related to the identification and
analysis of educational needs, and based on it determine generally acceptable means for structuring the educational needs as one of the fundamental
prerequisites for the motivation to learn.
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The research is focused on various levels of generalization and various spheres
of andragogical influence within the context of the knowledge-based society.
Theory and practice in this sphere overlap and depend on one another. At
present, we can say that the andragogical theory owes to practice a lot with respect
to the analysis of educational needs.
The andragogical theoretical base depends on the concept of the andragogical theory. Our theoretical base relates to the concept of integral andragogy (V.
Jochmann, 1990).
1.2. Andragogical base
The development of andragogy is not proportional. It can be said that the needs
of practice push the development of andragogical science forward, specifically with
respect to the need of andragogical workers for practice. Therefore, the study field
of andragogy has been developing at universities, and the development of andragogy as a science reflects the need for practice. Similarly, individual andragogical
disciplines have not been developing proportionally. We can see efforts to develop
andragogy as a science, specifically with respect to systematic development of
andragogy.
The term “systematic” supersedes the term “general andragogy”, which in our
opinion corresponds much better with the efforts for universalism of the system of
andragogical thinking. When considering the development of andragogical science
and practice, the systematic understanding of andragogical phenomena and processes seems to be functional and clarifying. The system allows to find relations, the
relations allow to find causes and consequences. We can see where we can expect
regularity, stability and where to expect dynamics and changes. Systematic andragogy comprises the most general principles, conditions and research procedures.
Its core comprises methodological foundations as well as the formulated general
aims of andragogical thinking.
The genesis of andragogy in Slovakia after 1990 is historically determined with
the origin and development of adult pedagogy in former Czechoslovakia, and the
transformation period from adult pedagogy to andragogy was crucially important.
(Perhács, 2005 ).
However, the concept of andragogy is more broadly compared to adult pedagogy.
Andragogy as a science of adult education deals with the intentional socialisation of
adults, the issues of aid for adults in all spheres of their life. Andragogy researches
into the reality of adult education and it deals with adults in educational situations. Such research requires an interdisciplinary approach because adults enter
into the situations together with all their relations to reality. However, andragogy
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researches into these relations with specific purposes and aims. They are focused
on the above-mentioned intentional socialisation of adults through the processes of
education and not on psychological or sociological phenomena, but on andragogical phenomena.
Andragogy as a science about adult education differentiates internally. We can
find various systematic characteristics of andragogy in the literature, which results
in various basic andragogical disciplines. We found inspiration in the Polish literature, where the science of adult education was developing intensively and several
important books were published. Andragogical monographs (Wujek,1996, Turos,
1993, Aleksander, 1998, Pachociński, 1998, Czerniawska, 2000) usually offer the
following system of andragogy:
• basic discipline – general andragogy, and
• sub-disciplines – history of adult education and andragogical thinking,
adults didactics, theory of adult education, and special –
• applied andragogical disciplines focused on specific issues of adult education, either on institutions (e.g., school andragogy, enterprise andragogy,
military andragogy and university andragogy) or on actually researched
issues such as family life, self-education, and others.
Turos (1995) mentions that development is disproportional with respect to
special andragogical sciences. Wujek (1996) agrees with this structure, but he
also includes cultural andragogy (it has a long-lasting tradition in Poland) and
comparative andragogy among basic disciplines.
As stated above, we see the concept of andragogy development in Slovakia
according to the understanding by Jochmann (1990, 1994); i.e., as integral andragogy.
V. Jochmann´s concept of integral andragogy is based on understanding man as
a social human being who only exists in society and with society. He is convinced
that education represents a basic feature of a man and one of basic social functions.
In his opinion, education is:
1. personalisation, formation of personality as a social human being, cultivation of man in all his aspects;
2. socialisation, inclusion of man in society, acquisition of social regulations
and preparation and execution of social roles;
3. enculturation, inclusion of the individual in culture, transfer of culture to
the individual.
Andragogy has its own application space that is based on the subject of its
research. It can be said that the current andragogical practice has accelerated,
which is due to our accession to the European Union.
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With respect to the understanding of andragogy as one of practical sciences or
practical-theoretical sciences by the majority of authors, it seems to be necessary
to analyse the application field of andragogy in detail.
Andragogy is dynamic and changeable in time and space. The applied disciplines of andragogy also formed dynamically and their integrity depended on the
development of andragogical theory and practice.
In general, we can speak about the application of theoretical andragogical
knowledge to three fundamental spheres of educational influence:
Education of adults and profession – career andragogy
Education of adults and leisure time – cultural-public andragogy
Education of adults in social context – social andragogy.
These subsystems are based on three fundamental spheres of adult life in which
the adult faces changes most, looks for life orientation, looks for ways of further
shaping, self-improvement and social aid. These spheres are as follows: profession,
leisure time and social security. With respect to applied andragogy, these spheres
overlap, and there are a lot of ambiguities and subjective understandings (points
of view).
Andragogical science can be applied to practice to a large extent and thus, if
we want to develop education, we must also develop the science about education
and to invest in it. Scientific knowledge allows the professionalization of adult
education, comparison and generalization, the knowledge of substantial issues
and the determination of specific issues. Scientific knowledge allows to see the
future.
Andragogy with its broadest understanding of term, apart from others, should
reflect practice – (Beneš, 2003, p. 138).) But this reflection of practice has its limits
and restrictions from the point of view of science; and as M. Beneš continues “in
relation to social science we cannot request to formulate concrete instructions
for concrete activities, to formulate a policy, a method of execution, to propose
an organization, financing, practical management and so on. The problem is that
social practice needs all of these.“ It is important that scientific knowledge acquired
through knowing phenomena, processes and relations among them will be applied
to practice and therefore the interconnection of andragogical theory and practice
is necessary, specifically in three fundamental spheres – career, cultural and social.
All these represent a theoretical background based on which we develop the theory
of educational needs.
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2. Fundamental determinants for the analysis of educational
needs of adults
2.1. Target groups in adult education as a base for the analysis of
educational needs from the point of view of applied andragogical
disciplines
The identification of target groups is very important for the application of andragogical knowledge. Based on this identification, special andragogical disciplines
focused on a specific target group, originate, such as military andragogy, teacher
andragogy (a close relative of pedeutology), medical andragogy, seniors andragogy
(geragogy) and others.
The target group of adult education is understood as a group of people with
a determined educational project (Palán, 2002); every kind of education has its
target group and tries to respect its specific educational needs.
Target groups can be formed based on:
• profession (e.g., doctors, pharmacists, managers, lecturers);
• organization (e.g., employees of companies, enterprises, departments,
ministries );
• age (e.g., graduates of secondary schools, pre-pension age groups, pensioners), etc.
Thus, the target group in education is characterized by the level of the acquired
education, the possibilities and needs of education for the group of people who
are associated through the same work activities or their level in an organization
or through the same interest and so on. The target group is formed based on the
same educational needs. If necessary, the description of target groups should also
comprise the determination of input prerequisites for an educational event.
First of all, motivation to become a member of any target group points out
the social aims that represent efforts to find a “road” that will be more successful
by means of education. Motivation for education mostly relates to educational
needs.
The usual motives of persons in relation to educational needs can be as follows:
• Persons with individual motivation look for informal education for their
personal growth.
• Persons with social motivation in its narrow sense – those who try to improve
their current position of parent, partner, or in a specific community.
• Persons with social motivation in its broader sense – efforts to be better, e.g.,
in the role of parent, voter, pensioner, etc.
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• Persons with economic motivation – to find a better job, to keep the current
position at work, to innovate their own education, etc.
• Persons with educational motivation – those who would like to prepare
themselves for other forms of education.
It is also possible to mention two other motives of persons:
• persons who mostly participate because of social contacts,
• persons who are required to have such an education. (De Winter, 2004, p.
164)
The compilation of the theoretical base and practical recommendation usually
integrates knowledge of two or three applied andragogical disciplines.
Andragogical literature as well as other literature specifically devote full attention
to the education of the following target groups:
• seniors (Čornaničová 1998, Balogová 2005, Határ)
• managers (Mužík 2000, Prokopenko, Kubr, a kol.1996, Letovancová 2002)
• teachers (Kosová 2006, Vašutová 2002, Kasáčová 2006, Kolláriková 1993,
Pupala 2006)
• adult educators (Frk 2003, Pirohová 2006, Prusáková 2005)
Besides the above-mentioned target groups, the system of education for doctors,
nurses and lawyers is also worked out well in practice.
With respect to the concept of new law on further education in Slovakia, within
the framework of the National Project funded by the European Social Fund, the
Strategy of Life-Long Education was worked out and then approved by the Slovak
Government. The first task of the Project was “The Creation and Implementation
of Obligatory Concept for Monitoring, Research and Design of Educational Needs.“
The target groups on which the process of monitoring, research and design for
educational needs should be focused were also specified. (the Strategy of Life-Long
Education and Counselling, 2006). The following represent the target groups:
• Key target groups
• Risky target groups
• Other target groups
Key target groups:
Individual
• This group is in demand by the labour market; a person from this group has
no problems of orientation and to find employment at the labour market.
Company
• the company bringing effects to national economy (domestic or foreign),
• the company operating for a long period in prospective surroundings,
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• the company with prospects of development,
• the company dealing with IT and communication technologies,
• new investors.
Community
• the main factor will be the so-called growth potential of regions,
• the use, size ad quality of a region´s growth potential closely relates to its
economic effectiveness, competitiveness and jobs offered.
Risky target groups
An individual
• belonging to a marginalized group (the unemployed of Romany minority,
citizens after the execution of a punishment, inmates from various shelters
and asylums, immigrants, homeless people and asylum seekers). It is a disintegrated, unmotivated and socially excluded group of inhabitants that
not only has lost any possibilities to be employed, but finds itself below the
poverty line. Furthermore, because of insufficient educational and social
adaptability, this target group is not able to get out of this social situation
without some professional aid.
• from socially disadvantaged surroundings (individuals who receive social
aid because of poverty, and low income groups of inhabitants)
• disadvantaged persons at the labour market – in accordance with law on
services for employment
Company
• a company that manufactures the unmarketable products that will be
replaced by new products,
• a company that is not able to be competitive,
• a bankrupt company,
• a company with ineffective management,
• a company whose production is only sold on one market (without any
prospects to acquire new markets) or just on a minimum market,
• a company operating in the sector of industry that is affected by crisis (e.g.,
the textile industry in Slovakia ,…)
• a company operating in the sector with a shortage of qualified personnel.
Society
• towns, districts, regions with a high rate of unemployment,
• towns, districts, regions without sufficiently built up infrastructure and
without any possibility of future investment,
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• towns, districts, regions with a high percentage of inhabitants belonging to
socially disadvantaged groups.
Other target groups
• The most important factors for forming this group will be – education,
improved business possibilities, improved conditions for life and business in
society – the improvement evoked by the individual’s, company’s or society’s
own efforts.
If we look at these groups from the theoretical point of view of andragogy, it
is possible to research into them based on the knowledge of three sub-systems of
andragogy as well as its applied disciplines – career andragogy, cultural-public
andragogy and social andragogy. The most prominent seems to be the groups
determined by the strategy life-long education and life-long counselling as key and
risky groups. The key target groups are more related to career andragogy and its
subject of research, and the risky target groups to social andragogy and its subject
of research. All spheres overlap at their target focus and interest education, which
is the subject of cultural-public andragogy research.
Career andragogy is focused on research into adult education during career life.
In other words, its subject is to research into the intentional socialization of adults
in the sphere of career. We can speak about a specific career socialisation (Švec,
1995, p. 137) as a process of transmission and acceptation of career behaviour
models, acts, thinking as well as specific forms of professional work culture.
We can also find another term in the literature. It is “andragogy of work“ (Turos,
1993, p. 222), which is defined as a scientific discipline researching into adults
in the sphere of their work, preparation for employment, adaptation to work
circumstances and qualification process.
If it is a task of theory to observe new phenomena, facts and relations among
them and to depict some system of knowledge, then career andragogy has an
ambition to become the theory in the sphere of career education, education and
counselling. As it researches into these spheres and reveals the possibilities of aid
for adults with respect to solving their problems, it becomes a significant part of
andragogy. It is its important task to produce the theories that assist us to plan
our careers, and at the application level, they offer methods and techniques for
management of stress situations during our career. It is one of the most important
tasks of career andragogy to research into the educational needs of the target
groups in relation to the specific professions that are significant from the social,
commercial and individual points of view. With respect to the previous structure
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of target groups, research will be focused on key target groups. However, it is also
necessary to devote full attention to retraining education; i.e., on the education
of the target group of the unemployed.
Social andragogy is an applied discipline focused on adult education in the
social context. Social andragogy researches into the relation between social surroundings, the social situation of adults and their education.
J. Perhács (2006) states that it is an aim of social pedagogy to improve social
relations, to help adults to create their interpersonal relations and to improve their
social roles, and to improve and to reach maturity of social relations and better
communication resulting in partnership and solidarity. Social andragogy deals
with a social function of researching into adult socialization from the point of view
of educational activation. It is necessary to accentuate counselling activities, where
both ethical and educational influences are interconnected.
It is a mission of social andragogy to offer society a scientifically proved material
thanks to which it is possible to facilitate a complex process of adult education and
adaptation to a large extent. Information used by a social pedagogue can be applied
to educational and therapeutic techniques during the process of the individual’s
integration into society. (Tokárová and collective, 2003).
The sphere of social andragogy research includes education of adults in relation
to unemployment and other social problems, penitentiary and post-penitentiary
education, charity organizations and so on. It also relates to educational-social
issues in employers’ organizations. With respect to the analysis of educational
needs, the priority will be the identification of risky groups’ needs.
Cultural-public andragogy in fact represents the sphere where the interests of
all the target groups, key group and risky group, overlap, and new target groups
are formed based on interests. It means that the interests of individuals are more
important than their needs.
The identification of needs in this sphere is a demanding process, and it is interconnected with a wide scale of interests. Similarly, the analysis of educational needs
is demanding, but also important, because it is closely related to the individual
development of citizens.
The formation of specific target groups in the sphere of interest education
requires a special methodology to research into educational needs and interests,
and in our opinion, it relates to age, region and traditions. The subject culturalpublic andragogy research specifically includes the andragogical issues in the
sphere of culture; i.e., the issues of cultural-public education of adults.
The subject of cultural andragogy, as mentioned by Z. Palán (2003), is to assist
adults with enculturation and to keep adults’ cultural competences during the
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process of adaptation to the changed conditions and to cultivate their personalities.
The relation between education and culture is interesting; on the one hand, there
is an educational influence in the sphere of culture, cultural-public activities, and
on the other hand, education is part of society’s culture. Leisure time is one of the
fundamental categories of andragogy, as it represents some space for doing the
above-mentioned activities. Leisure time can be understood and interpreted as
a significant value at the individual, social, pedagogical and andragogical levels.
(Krystoň, 2006).
The core of the cultural-public subject of andragogy, as mentioned by
R. Čornaničová (2006), is represented as public-educational, cultural-creative,
cultural-experience and other educational-cultural activities focused on the
development of personality during leisure time and in extra-work roles, on various
interest target groups, on local, regional and national culture and cultural-public
activities and on a wide cultural-educational aspect of society’s development.
All these spheres of the research subject of andragogy should be based on the
fact that target groups are not static, but they change dynamically. Therefore, it is
necessary to research into not only current target groups which have been identified so far, but also to focus on the new target groups that have been unnoticed,
but their needs are evident. More incentives in relation to looking for new target
groups can be found in the publications that result from the project carried out
within the framework of SOCRATES projects, “The Identification of New Target
Groups in Adult Education “ (Attracting…, 2002).
2.2. The principles and sources of analysis of educational needs.
2.2.1. The general principles of data collecting.
Educational needs result from the individual’s efforts to reach a balance between
their possibilities and a possible social fulfilment and employment. Educational
needs are specifically influenced by personal and social factors. The educational
needs of the individual correlate with society’s educational needs and they result in
social requirements. However, educational needs must be elicited for some social
groups. (Palán, 2002)
It is possible to determine three basic principles for collecting the data of the
educational needs analysis:
a. to determine a concrete aim – why do you need information and what
will you do with it ?
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With respect to the concretization and the precise formulation of the aim, it
is necessary to ask the variants of the question in relation to the identification of educational needs. It is necessary to identify
• the educational needs of a concrete target group
• the obligations and tasks of specific activity
• the best way of specific performance execution
• the tasks that are difficult for individuals and the task that are executed
incorrectly or the tasks that individuals are interested in
• the problems of surroundings
b. to determine the starting point as high in the hierarchy of a specific sphere
(career, social or cultural-public spheres) as possible.
If we start the analysis of educational needs at the highest level, it will allow
to see the overall picture as well as to acquire the support of managers for
the overall analysis, planning and the execution of education.
If it is necessary to identify the educational needs of a small homogenous
group, we should look at the needs in a broader sense, so that we might
understand the surroundings where the needs originate.
c. to check whether we acquire information from the right source and to
acquire information from several sources.
The size of a sample and also its depth is important. The sample must be
sufficiently big so that we might make any statistical analysis, but also sufficiently small so that the information might be effective with respect to
cost.
The depth of the sample should be appropriate, because e.g., the opinions
of a chosen target group need not necessarily result in the most objective
pictures about the needs of education. It is also necessary to ask people from
the surroundings they live or work in.
2.2.2. The sources for the analysis of educational needs
There are several possibilities in the policy of further education. The increase
in the individual’s responsibility for education is more and more discussed. The
opinions who should manage or regulate further education differ. There are several
possibilities:
• state,
• state and social partners,
• educational market.
After 1990, such opinions as “it is necessary to let the market regulate education
and so-called ´good education´ will enforce itselfˇ” were quite common. However,
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the educational market was suffering from the absence of quality criteria and
furthermore, there was no control of adult education top quality. In relation to
the analysis of educational needs, we should be aware of the fact that it crucially
depends on the national policy of education. The character of the approach to
further education also influences the theory and practice of educational needs
analysis. If we agree with the standpoint that the market and interest of the
individual are the most important, then we would focus on the analysis of the
individual’s educational needs, and we would collect them without any relation
to the needs of society, regions and organizations; i.e. also without any context to
the possibilities of the individual’s employment in society. Within this context, we
conclude that the sources of the analysis of educational needs should be understood in a complex way. The document “The Strategy of Life-Long Education and
Life-Long Counselling” defines the sources as follows:
The sources of the analysis of educational needs include:
• needs and strategies for the development of society and its spheres,
• needs and strategies for regional development,
• needs and strategies for the development of organizations,
• needs for the development of addressed target groups,
• needs for the development of individuals.
If we accept as a starting point the situation of adult education in practice, we
could conclude that reality is too complex and no theory can solve the issue in its
full extent. There are several theoretical possibilities and experience in various
countries. However, there are also some system elements that necessarily manifest
themselves in all the theories and in all the forms of educational practice. One
of them is represented by the fact that if we analyse educational needs and we
determine them exactly, they would offer a sufficient base for the concretization
of educational aims and educational effectiveness. An important role is also played
by the process of addressing both the key and risky target groups, as well as by the
process of new target groups identification. However, various theoretical alternatives should be considered, so that they might be flexibly used with respect to the
tradition of a country and its current possibilities.
Bibliography
Aleksander, T. (1998). Optymalizacja pozaszkolnej edukacji zawodowej dorosłych.
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Attracting New Target Groups in Adult Education. In T. Saarinen (ed.) Manual for
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Special
Pedagogy
Šárka Portešová
Slovak Republic
Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness in
Educational Context: Present State of Research and
Situation in Czech Schools*
Abstract
The proposed study introduces the reader to the issue of the so-called twice
exceptional children – i.e., intellectually gifted learners with a handicap. In the
context of school, giftedness is most frequently combined with a specific learning
disability. The author pays attention to issues related to identifying this specific
group of learners in school environment, to their social and emotional characteristics, problems and risks that can prevent their exceptional potential from real
developing. Moreover, the paper also presents a synthesis of empirically verified
basic educational and educational-psychological foreign procedures and measures,
which are most used in educational care for this very specific population of learners, and it acquaints the reader with the situation in the Czech Republic.
Key words: giftedness, extraordinary intellectual abilities, gift with a handicap,
specific learning disabilities.
Introduction
Recently, we have witnessed in the Czech Republic an ever-growing interest in
the issue of extraordinarily intellectually gifted children, especially those whose
* This paper was written with the support of the Czech Science Foundation project registered under number 406/06/0676 and Ministry of Education project registered under number
MSM0021622406
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Šárka Portešová
abilities are distributed equally and harmonically. This group of learners and
students tends to be well-identified by educators as early as in kindergarten or
elementary school.
On the other hand, it has become clear that for many non-specialists and even
for a number of experts, it can be difficult to acknowledge simultaneous existence
of intellectual giftedness and continuous partial malfunctioning, i.e., a handicap.
However, talent can co-exist with any handicap – somatic or sensory, with a psychiatric diagnosis (most frequently with Asperger syndrome), and with poor school
skills. Children of this specific, yet populous group are referred to in the literature
as the so-called “twice-exceptional”. Diagnostically, educationally and interventionally speaking, it is a very inhomogeneous group of children, students as well as
adults, with specific educational needs and specific psychological problems.
In the school and educational-psychological context standing in the centre of our
attention, the most represented group is the group of gifted children with specific
learning disabilities (referred to as SLD). This group, most often formed by learners
with dyslexia, dysgraphia or dysorthographia, is rather difficult to be identified, as
a result of which there is no re-education or effective compensation of the existing
partial handicaps or development of extraordinary intellectual abilities, giftedness.
Hence, this has a negative impact on social and emotional maladaptation of these
children, their self-esteem and reduced, inadequate evaluation of their own abilities
and impairments (Brody; Mills 1997).
1. Diagnostic Delimitation
Not even specific diagnostic criteria have dealt with the above-mentioned double
exceptionality so far. On the one hand, foreign literature contains dozens of definitions of talent and giftedness, such as high general intelligence (Terman 1925),
an extraordinary ability in a specific academic area (Stanley 1976), interactions
between motivation, creativity and extraordinary abilities (Renzulli 1983), and
others.
On the other hand, there are precise diagnostic delimitations of specific learning disabilities (DSM-IV), which, in a general perspective, originate as a result of
partial dysfunctions, necessary for acquiring school skills.
Attempts at identifying and describing cognitive and other characteristics of
intellectually gifted students with a learning disability stem entirely from separate
definitions of both exceptionalities, which often results in a rather oversimplified
view of this specific population.
Learning Disabilities and Intellectual Giftedness in Educational Context…
335
Baum (1990: 3) suggests how to overcome the absence of an existing definition
of both exceptionalities when she characterizes gifted children with a learning
disability as those who show an extraordinary giftedness and abilities in one area
and have disadvantageous insufficiencies in another area. Foreign literature, aware
of difficulties with defining the population of the gifted, also often refers to the
so-called “smart kids with school problems” (Vail 1989).
2. Typical Groups of Gifted Children
Anglo-American researchers, predominantly, have repeatedly agreed with the
fact that it is possible to identify three main groups of intellectually gifted children
with a handicap in the area of school skills (Baum 1990, Brody; Mills 1997).
The first group is formed by learners and students labeled by teachers as intellectually gifted but who, at the same time, face abundant problems in some school
subjects. Teachers often characterize these learners and students as very clever but
lazy, lacking motivation and interest in school and education as a whole. Research
findings have reached a conclusion that it is this group where disabilities are hardly
ever discovered; moreover, with growing demands imposed by the school, the
child is burdened more and more, which eventually keeps him/her from achieving extraordinary results in the area of his/her talent. Table 1 shows some typical
modes of behavior of gifted children with SLD that can be wrongly and negatively
assessed by the adult, usually the teacher.
Table1: Typical Behavior Characteristics of Gifted SLD (Bees 2000: 324)
Characteristics
Perfectionist
Fear and feeling of failure
Idealist
Highly sensitive
Problems with social skills
Socially isolated
Low self-esteem
Hyperactive, distractible
Inattentive
Fails to complete assignments
Psychomotor inefficiency
Frustrated
Need for control
The “Jaundiced“ Eye
Lazy
Self-indulgent
Immature
Snob, depressed
Helpless
No control
Doesn’t care
Sloppy, doesn’t care
Overemotional
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Excessively critical of oneself and
others
Rebellious against drill and excessive
repetition
Different learning style
Disparaging of work required
Become an expert in one area and
dominate discussion in this area
Deny learning disability
Teacher dependent
Bored
Ethical
Unpleasant
Spoiled
Arrogant, stubborn
Show-off
Defensive
Hard to get along with
Self – righteous, intolerant
According to contemporary empirical data, the second group of gifted children
with SLD is formed by students whose handicap is very serious and thus also
apparent. These children are labelled by the teacher as problematic with a handicap
in the area of school skills, but lacking extraordinary abilities. This group is the
most frequently represented one among gifted children with a learning disability.
Their extraordinary intellectual abilities are never really discovered and hence their
school performance is permanently underestimated and underrated; success tends
to be attributed more likely to coincidence than their real abilities.
The third group contains children whose handicap and extraordinary abilities are
mutually disguised and compensated. The abilities and school performance of this
group of children are assessed as average, problem-free and lacking a significant
talent. These children are never enrolled on corrective educational programs due
to the existing learning disability or on an acceleration program aimed to develop
their talent.
The mutual characteristic feature that is shared by children from all the abovementioned groups is inadequate development of abilities and difficulties in the area
of social and emotional adaptation.
3. Identification of Gifted SLD Learners
Scholars (such as Baum 1990, Brody; Mills 1997) studying, in the long term,
identification strategies for identifying gifted children describe basic impediments
preventing them from an early discovery of extraordinary potential and specific
learning disabilities.
Above all, there are:
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• Stereotypical expectations that children with a particular disability, most
frequently with a learning disability, are intellectually inferior.
• Delayed development in children with learning abilities, especially in the
verbal area and often evident in reading and writing, results in failing to
identify them as gifted.
• Incomplete information about the child, which leads to ignoring his or her
strengths.
• Child’s inability to show his or her exceptional abilities due to the emphasis
on the presentation of verbal skills in class.
3.1. Wrong Diagnoses
However, some contemporary research, based on the analysis of the performance
of gifted children with SLD in class, stresses the danger of wrong identification,
i.e., the so-called wrong diagnoses. Very frequently, children that are gifted and
do not suffer from any learning disability tend to be misclassified to the group of
gifted children with SLD. Nevertheless, at school they give a very unstable and
unsteady performance, which can mislead the teacher while analyzing the learner’s
abilities.
Some scholars (Terrassier 1985) believe that in these cases there are more likely
development inequalities, the so-called dyssynchrony, which the teacher must
be well acquainted with in order to prevent wrong evaluation of the child. Most
frequently, there are the following types of dyssynchrony:
• Internal dyssynchrony:
– Advanced cognitive development in some areas but normal psychomotor
development (Yewchuk 1985). These children’s thinking is often much
faster than their average and below-average psychomotor abilities. Consequently, the child thinks faster than he/she reads or writes. Thus, he/
she often makes pseudo-dysorthographic or pseudo-dyslectic mistakes
(they most frequently leave out letters or even entire words).
• External dyssynchrony:
– Advanced cognitive development in non-verbal areas, which contradicts
the socially desirable homogenous and balanced intellectual development laying emphasis especially on verbal giftedness.
– Advanced non-verbal intellectual development, the child prefers the
visual-spatial model of learning versus the sequential-auditory style of
teaching (Terrassier 1985).
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3.2. Typical Discrepancies in Abilities and School Performance
Many authors point out that also wrongly diagnosed gifted children, even though
they do not really suffer from a learning disability, are permanently absolutely
underestimated and underrated, often up until they enter universities. The mutual
denominator prohibiting the identification of gifted children with SLD and children
with dyssynchronic development is the excessive concentration on the learner’s or
student’s weaknesses, which has a constant negative impact on the formation of
the child’s positive self-esteem. The lack of understanding on the part of educators
often goes hand in hand with insufficient educational support and wrong school
guidance of these children.
On the other hand, it is evident that the identification process itself is rather
intricate, both for the teacher and the psychologist. In order to get a better understanding of these children’s typical problems and manifestations, McCoach (2004)
proposes a detailed system of careful identification, based on a series of consecutive
steps. They should involve observation of the learner’s behavior in class in various
subjects, an individual psychological examination, an analysis of the cognitive
profile and the way of information processing, an analysis of the performance test
profile and interviews with the student aimed at his/her attitude to education.
The primary guidelines applicable by any educator are often typical discrepancies
in these children’s abilities, which have been repeatedly described in a number of
studies. For example, Tannenbaum and Baldwin (1983) give a detailed account of
the contradiction between individual abilities and school performance; following
their research, they refer to the specific population of gifted children as the socalled “paradoxical learners”. They show that these children have extraordinary
academic abilities, even though they are hardly ever labelled as gifted.
Baum (1990) describes some chosen typical discrepancies in individual abilities
more thoroughly:
• Bad memory for facts, bad short-term memory, difficulty with rote memorization but good long-term memory, ability to sort, classify and compare
information.
• Difficulty with reading, writing, applying grammatical rules but good
vocabulary and verbal production.
• Great difficulties with “simple tasks“, with simple, sequentially sorted material; on the other hand, good ability of complex thinking manipulations and
operations, abstract thinking, better results in more demanding tasks.
• Extraordinary creativity and inquisitiveness, imagination.
• Good ability of giving arguments and reasons.
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• Ability to concentrate for an unusually long time on a topic that they are
interested in but unable to control behavior and attention when they do not
find the topic or the subject interesting.
• In certain extracurricular, not school activities, they can be assessed as very
gifted or motivated.
Brody and Mills (1997) also start from the described typical discrepancies in the
individual functions and abilities of gifted children with SLD and they reflect upon
a clear specification of general criteria one must usually stem from in psychological
and educational diagnosis. Above all, they are an extraordinary ability, giftedness,
talent, discrepancy between expected and real performance, existing deficit of
individual functions, and other characteristics. (e.g., wide knowledge database,
creative thinking, large vocabulary, holistic approach to learning but also low
self-esteem, attempts at hiding and masking one’s weaknesses, awareness of being
different, high degree of frustration, etc).
Gifted SLD children show significant discrepancies between the so-called aboveaverage and below-average abilities and subsequent performance. In a number
of individual abilities, they resemble more likely gifted children than ordinary
children with SLD. A better understanding of the manifestation of giftedness on
the one hand and giftedness with a learning handicap on the other hand are shown
in Table 2 presented below.
Table 2. Distinguishing Characteristics of Gifted students and
Gifted Students with Learning Disabilities (Nielson 2002)
Characteristics of Gifted Students
Ability to learn basic skills quickly and easily
and retain information with less repetition
High verbal ability
Early reading ability.
Keen powers of observation.
Strong critical thinking, problem-solving and
decision-making skills.
with Disabilities
Often struggles to learn basic skills due to
cognitive processing difficulties, needs to learn
compensatory strategies in order to acquire
basic skills and information.
High verbal ability but extreme difficulty in
written language in inappropriate ways and at
inappropriate times.
Frequently has reading problems due to cognitive processing deficits.
Strong observation skills but often has deficit in
memory skills.
Excels in solving “real world“ problems, outstanding critical thinking and decision-making
skills, often independently develops compensatory skills.
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Long attention span – persistent, intense concentration.
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with Disabilities
Frequently has attention deficit problems but
may concentrate for long periods on areas of
interest.
4. Compensation Mechanisms
As mentioned above, identifying a learning disability and extraordinary abilities in the population of gifted learners and students is rather difficult. According
to many authors, the main cause of difficulties in distinguishing gifted children
with SLD are conscious and unconscious compensation mechanisms that are used
by learners from the beginning of their school attendance. As a result of these
mechanisms, the individual starts to “mask” his/her individual handicaps, which
makes it much harder for the teacher to identify them.
In this respect, one can ask why it is necessary to identify gifted children with
SLD when they themselves are able to compensate for their handicaps with their
extraordinary abilities. Silverman (1989) points out that even though compensation does help the gifted learner adjust to the conditions of school demands
and requirements, it is not possible to take it for granted in any situation, as it is
a rather unstable mechanism. Compensations cannot be made at all times and in
every subject and they require a great amount of physical, emotional and cognitive energy in every assignment. In situations when the learner is more stressed
or, on the contrary, destabilized, compensation fails and the teacher can observe
great changes in the learner’s performance. If the teacher is not, at the same time,
acquainted with the real cause of learners’ problems, he/she may attribute the
fluctuation in their performance to poor home studying or their self-indulgence
and laziness.
Moreover, compensation can be specifically related to certain situations or
school subjects. The learner’s failure is then partial, which does not make the
teacher become suspicious of the learning disabilities of the particular learner or
lead him/her to a purposeful development of the learner’s extraordinary abilities.
Furthermore, a number of compensation mechanisms seem to “function” only at
the beginning of school attendance, i.e., in the period when most children with
SLD are identified by experts and when their re-education is started. In higher
years of school attendance when most educators are no longer willing to take
into account the SLD hypothesis, it can result in significant learning problems in
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these unidentified children, lack of professional guidance and misapprehension of
the real causes of their difficulties. Consequently, it usually results in permanent,
chronic underachievement, which is hard to overcome (Whitmore 1981).
Unfortunately, this population of SLD children tends to be identified too late,
mostly at secondary schools (Reis; Neu; Mc Gurie 1995), i.e., at the time when the
persisting learning disability and unsuccessful attempts at its overcoming have
already considerably hindered the development of giftedness and reduced the
student’s aspirations to further develop his/her abilities. The unfavorable conditions have a rather negative impact on the social and emotional adaptation of this
group of gifted children. A detailed analysis of the empirical research into the
consequences of school problems of SLD children shows that these children tend
to be intensively frustrated in particular subjects, and they constantly expect failure
and disappointment; however, paradoxically, they also fear being successful, as it
is not clear whether they will be able to repeat outstanding performance (Baum;
Owen 1991). Besides, they also lack motivation (Olenchak 1995), which can be
close to chronic underachievement (Rimm 1986). One of the typical strategies of
fulfilling more difficult tasks and stress situations is a strategy of learned helplessness (Whitmore 1981). These children’s self-esteem is considerably low in all areas,
not only school (Brody; Mills 1997).
In order to avoid potential social and emotional difficulties and also to develop
the extraordinary abilities of this group of children, it is necessary to identify and
diagnose both exceptionalities in due time and develop them via appropriate
educational measures.
5. Education of Gifted SLD Children
It seems to be crucial to identify basic mechanisms enabling the children to
overcome the handicap and develop extraordinary abilities. For example, Robinson
(1999) identified four significant factors in gifted adults with SLD, which seem to
be essential in this respect. The first one is grasping the real causes of one’s own
difficulties and reasons for partial failure completed with a detailed description of
weaknesses and extraordinary abilities. The second factor is a change in self-esteem,
i.e., transition from negative perception of one’s own performance and a permanent
school failure to perception and evaluation of oneself in the context of a more
balanced, more likely positive perspective of one’s own weaknesses and strengths.
The third significant factor is a clearly defined idea of the future occupation and
goals based on a realistic evaluation of the possibilities of one’s own professional
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career, related to well-thought-out strategies of accomplishing the goal. The fourth
factor is parents’ and friends’ permanent support.
Early identification of both exceptionalities connected with suitable educational procedures can have a very positive, permanent impact. Understanding
the handicaps and strengths, an educational program focused on developing
giftedness, together with the teacher’s optimistic perspective are measures that can
significantly change these children’s self-esteem as early as at elementary school.
Thus, contemporary research empirically verifies advantages of applying certain educational measures to this group of gifted children. It deals mainly with
the issues of curriculum differentiation, enriching the subject matter in certain
subjects, co-operation with a tutor and integration. Having conducted a detailed
analysis of a series of resources, in the following overview we tried to synthesize
educational measures verified by research, which are successfully applied while
educating these learners.
5.1. Basic Organization of Gifted SLD Children’s Education
Resources have repeatedly emphasized that in choosing any educational measure,
it is necessary to stem from basic educational needs of gifted children with learning
disabilities. Firstly, one should identify their extraordinary abilities and individual
handicaps, create an educational environment that will respect individual differences, and develop effective compensation strategies. These requirements seem to
be best met by:
• Partial acceleration of extraordinary abilities and overcoming the handicap
with the help of a special education teacher completed with tutoring of
a successful SLD adult (Olenchack; Reis 2002).
• Curriculum enrichment in the domain of giftedness, possibility of the development of interests and abilities (Baum; Renzulli; Hebért 1995; Olenchak
1995).
• An individual education plan taking into account giftedness and handicap
redress (Fox; Brody; Tobin 1983).
• Providing special classrooms for gifted SLD children (Yewchuk 1985) or
specially formulated programs for this group of children. (e.g., program
HIGH HOPES, Baum; Cooper; Neu 2001).
• Tutor’s intensive involvement – a successful adult with a learning disability
(Silverman 1989).
In every ordinary class where it is not possible to modify, for whatever reason,
the education program as mentioned above, at least the style of teaching should
be adapted, in order to enable the SLD gifted to be successful and develop their
343
abilities. Furthermore, ordinary compensation aids should be used fully, such as
audio-taped books, laptops, spell checks, calculators, or dictaphones (Neihart; Reis;
Robinson; Moon 2002).
The foreign special education re-education procedures stem from the abovedescribed educational needs of gifted SLD learners together with a series of
empirical findings. They are obviously based on entirely different principles from
the traditional redress of learning disabilities practised in the Czech Republic.
These procedures are intended to develop and support giftedness, find suitable
compensation strategies and provide a supportive environment appreciating
individual differences.
Due to the negative impact of these learners’ school underachievement on
the well-balanced development of their personalities as well as their social and
emotional adaptation, it is highly advisable to complete the above-mentioned
educational measures with psychological support, or also psychological counselling. Most frequently, it is group counselling, discussion groups with an expert
specialized in the specifics of the particular group of children, counselling focused
on preventing social and emotional difficulties, counselling focused on successful
coping with the transition between elementary and secondary schools and building
positive peer relationships, in order to prevent these children’s isolation in their
class (Olenchak; Reis 2002).
6. Situation in the Czech Republic
In the Czech educational and psychological context, special care for these
extraordinarily gifted learners has only started to develop. In the neighboring
Slovakia, they have more experience with educating extraordinarily gifted children. Since 1993 (Laznibatová, Jurášková), there has been an expanding network
of schools and classes for extraordinarily gifted learners; a number of them are,
apart from being gifted, also handicapped (most often SLD or ADHD syndrome).
In the period between 2000–2005 (Dočkal, 2005), an integration alternative of
educational care for the extraordinarily gifted was successfully developing on an
experimental basis, also with integrating gifted learners handicapped in the field
of learning disabilities. Moreover, Dočkal (2001, 2005) has been dealing with the
issue of gifted children with somatic and sensor handicap on a long term basis and
thus he makes a significant contribution to scientific and practical findings, also
concerning the group of the so-called twice exceptional children.
Recently, in the Czech Republic, there have been formed favorable initial condi-
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Šárka Portešová
tions for the further development of professional care for extraordinarily gifted
children, i.e., also those handicapped with SLD. We consider as an essential step the
passing of the new School Act (Act N. 561/2004 Coll.), which entered into force on
January 1, 2005. This document, in many aspects a breakthrough one, defines and
determines extraordinary giftedness and at the same time also imposes the duty
of specific changes in the educational program for the children with diagnosed
extraordinary intellectual abilities. Above all, it is a possibility of partial or overall
school acceleration of extraordinary gifted learners, developing an individual
education plan and enriching the curriculum.
Regarding the changes described above, there has been a significant change in the
country’s educational policy. A sign of these changes is the transformed structure
and mission of curricular documents. There are the so-called Referential Education
Programs (REP), which are related to the so-called School Education Programs
with an embedded duty to specify the educational approach of a particular school
to extraordinary learners, i.e., also the extraordinarily gifted with SLD. Perhaps the
first analysis of the specific curriculum of extraordinarily gifted learners in school
education programs was conducted by Filová; Havel, Kratochvílová (2007). It
became apparent that there is a great difference between individual Czech schools
in the level of processing of the particular document, both in its extent and content.
Most of them concentrate on describing typical behavior characteristics of gifted
learners and do not specify methods of care for extraordinary learners at school.
More likely, they refer to extracurricular activities of these extraordinarily gifted
individuals. According to the above-mentioned authors, a number of the analyzed
documents do not take a closer look at the issue of identifying extraordinarily
gifted learners, or the extraordinarily gifted with a somatic or educational handicap
or any other disability.
Based on direct experience with particular extraordinarily gifted learners, especially with SLD, at elementary schools (grades 1–5), which we obtained so far in our
research conducted at Masaryk University Brno (Portešová, 2006), we would like
to emphasize the issue of the identification of extraordinarily gifted learners with
SLD, and as early as at elementary school. It has become evident that the process of
identifying these learners in all grades of elementary school (not only 1–5 but also
6–9) is still troublesome in the Czech Republic, and in many cases even insufficient.
Many teachers have been complaining about the lack of appropriate tools necessary
for proper identification of the so-called twice-exceptional children; on the other
hand, in psychological counseling, learners’ performances tend to be “averaged”
by being converted to the total IQ value.
We assume that an appropriate identification procedure should not be derived
345
from the usual school performance of such a learner, as it is possible in generally
gifted children, nor should it be based on the total score achieved in intelligence
tests in psychological examinations. Primarily, a corresponding identification
strategy should always stem from looking for giftedness (not a handicap), even
though extraordinary abilities emerge in partial areas, which is typical of these
learners. Extraordinary intellectual abilities can be identified both by teachers
in class (products, interests, strategy solutions analysis, etc.) or by psychologists
focused, when making the final diagnosis, mainly on performance in individual
partial subtests and subtest profiles of standardized intelligence tests. It is necessary
to remember that a handicap in the area of learning has a negative impact on the
learner’s performance itself in most available intelligence tests.
Moreover, it would be also apt to take into account the question of searching
for these children at the beginning of their school attendance. Subsequently, the
group of learners and students identified via screening should undergo a detailed
psychological and educational diagnosis, in order to detect the degree of their
disability, to adopt correctional and re-educational procedures and, above all, to
further assess the degree of giftedness. Another suitable step (Baum, 1991) is to
apply the so-called dynamic identification; i.e., to set specific tasks directly corresponding to learners’ particular abilities. Examiners (experts in specific professions) consequently analyze the child’s behavior when solving presented tasks, they
record ways, originality of solving, elaboration and tendency to continue in similar
tasks or to give up and change to another activity, etc.
As an example of this kind of identification and the subsequent development
of abilities in the Czech Republic, we can mention Talnet project (Zelenda, 2007),
i.e., on-line education in natural-scientific disciplines, especially physics, chemistry,
biology and geography, intended for students of higher grades of basic school and
high school students. Since 2003, this project has been run by the Department of
Physics Education at the Faculty of Mathematics and Physics at Charles University
in Prague. Teachers, parents and psychologists engage in the project gifted students
with distinct interests in a particular area of natural sciences. A number of them
have, along with their giftedness, also a learning disability which they successfully
compensate for with professional assistance and focus on talent development; vice
versa, this helps them to increase their self-confidence and target their education in
a meaningful direction. Moreover, intensive participation of the so-called mentor,
an adult expert in a particular area, most frequently a university teacher with
a similar ability profile as the identified student, has proved to be a good educational model for this group of students. A similar model is being implemented
by some Czech universities (Charles University, Masaryk University, and others),
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Šárka Portešová
which focus on search for extraordinarily gifted high school students in their new
programs.
The conception of care of extraordinarily gifted learners is formulated in our
country by the Institute of Educational Counselling of the Czech Republic. An
important role will be assumed in this system of care of extraordinarily gifted SLD
children, mainly at the identification stage, by newly-formed school counselling
centers as well as coordinators in charge of the care for the extraordinarily gifted,
i.e., psychologists, educational counselling centers employees from all districts
closely co-operating with schools, which have been functioning successfully
since 2003. Furthermore, the offer of systematic education intended for teachers
and psychologists organized by the Institute of Educational Counselling and the
National Institute for Further Education, gives good conditions for further professional development of the care of extraordinarily gifted SLD learners in the Czech
Republic.
7. Conclusion
Intellectually gifted learners with learning disabilities are a specific population
endangered by specific risks in the academic, social and emotional domains. The
analysis of contemporary foreign research shows that there are elaborate special
programs aimed to identify these learners and students as well as to prepare education programs fulfilling their educational needs. Nowadays, this issue is one of the
most intensively dealt with in the psychology and education of the gifted, especially
in Anglo-American countries. However, it is a new issue in our environment.
Therefore, we believe that it is necessary to pay much greater professional attention
to the gifted in our environment as well.
Above all, we are aware of the lack of systematic, obligatory education in this
area at Faculties of Education, as there has been nothing like that so far. In any
case, it is a long-term process, as SLD learners remain the most misunderstood,
weakly identified and perhaps the least developed group of learners even in the
world (Jones, 1986).
347
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Pedagogy
of Health
Mirosław Kowalski
Poland
Television as a Health Value Carrier.
World of Illusion – World without Health?
Abstract
Trying to evaluate contemporary messages from the media one can notice – in
reference to the value of health – a comparison of positivist traditions and idealistic
visions with contradictory standpoints and opinions. It is important to recognise
and understand messages of consumer and pop cultures which reflect the pursuit
of the world of illusions and dreams. In this world medical and scientific debates
frequently blend with popular convictions and myths. It seems that individual and
subjective concepts referring to health as a value are becoming decisive categories
in designing the concept of freedom. Health, then, is a factor that enters “cultural
flexibility” as an element of cultural pressure, connected with concrete physical
and psychological results.
Key words: health education, health, television.
Health (understood as a lack of illness) is undeniably considered as one of the
most important values by a major part of every society. It seems that this value – it
can be identified with good, activity and well-being – has a universal character and
appeals to most cultural systems created by humans. Health – as a value being the
main factor determining attitudes and health behaviours – should be given a suitably high position in the hierarchy of demands and aspirations of every human
being (Syrek E., 2000, 2008). Nevertheless, it should be pointed out, that on the one
hand, health is a value that in social awareness is commonly recognised, understood and accepted, but on the other hand, (which we often experience ourselves)
is not commonly respected. What can explain that kind of attitudes? K. Janicka
(1990) remarks, appealing to human awareness, that there are two independent
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Mirosław Kowalski
areas existing in its structure. The first one, embracing abstract thinking, which
contributes to giving the health value the highest importance, and the second one
concerning concrete thinking, which can contribute, in everyday-life confrontation, to a decrease in the importance of this value.
It is equally important to point out that health, which is more and more often
not the highest value, is being appreciated only if some symptoms of an illness
are noticed. K. Puchalski (1997, p. 74) states: (…) the value which people actually
associate with health is definitely different from the one it should be given. It appears,
that the health value is very often lower in the hierarchy than other values, like
career or financial funds. That can result in a supposition that the listed values lead
to creation of instrumental values, which mediate in the realisation of particular
desires. If career, as well as wealth, become an aim, then the value of health should
be equally important as the one which appears to be necessary in order to achieve
the primary aim. The value of health perceived in this way is a means (to achieve
other important values for the individual and/or society) which of course is not
alternative, should not create any dangers in the selection of actions (Słońska Z.,
1989). H. Sęk (1997, p. 52) emphasises this, by writing that actions (…) should not
be associated with the human values system, while health is not usually treated as
an autotelic value but a servile one.
On the other hand, treating the value of health as one of the most important
values, which all the others are dependent on, seems to be self-limitation, omitting
the significance of other equally important priorities (health, family happiness,
‘the existential minimum’). Nevertheless, without any doubt, health is the value
‘in itself ’, ‘obvious’, and commonly accepted and in this sense autotelic (Kowalski
M., Gaweł A., 2006; Borzucka-Sitkiewicz K., 2006).
Health – depending of how it is understood – can be analysed from the perspective: of declared values (health is universally perceived as something very important, which people care about and take as a condition of happiness); accepted values
(everybody thinks that health should be respected and taken care of); demanded
values (to achieve health, keep, or improve it, one has to be ready to sacrifice
time, energy, financial resources, etc.); practised values (actual actions aimed at
improving health and using it in order to achieve other goals) (Ratajczak Z., 1997,
pp. 58–59).
According to that, it seems that it is most significant to search for the way that
would make it possible to recognise the value of health, and at the same time would
not minimalise the importance of other – not less valuable things or objects. Eventually, the research based on reading the made choices between the value of health
and other values will not contribute to an in-depth analysis of health as a value
Television as a Health Value Carrier. World of Illusion – World without Health
355
(especially its place in the hierarchy), as well as the correct view on the importance
if this value in human life. It can result from the fact that the valuating relation to
health is of a dynamic character, which can contribute – from the perspective of
other value influence – to changing our judgement about this value.
The multitude of independent multimedia messages, often contradicting each
other, having different sources, ‘identifying themselves’ with authority, whose
power is too big to oppose, contributes to the development of freedom. Freedom establishes the basis of functioning, it is the element of order and is often
understood as a way to or away from the universal values. F. Mayor (2001, p. 11)
says: We cannot look into the future, because it will never be what it was. We can
prepare it, because it is not written down in the ’great book’, but is the uncertainty,
the crossroads, the creation of accident. However, it is in our hands, because it is the
freedom, the liberty: to a significant degree it will be what we make of it.
It is worth (however only for a while) thinking about the relationship between
freedom and responsibility for health (our own and others’). The mental stereotype
indicating that it is freedom that is the condition of responsibility, including health,
is very often repeated. Perhaps the above elements should be analysed inversely: the
responsibility for health is the condition of freedom. Not getting deep into details,
I would like to emphasise the fact that, as far as health is concerned, freedom and
responsibility could (or perhaps even should) be taken as a whole – a unity. A unity
that from the point of view of the performer (e.g., media-health factors) appears
as responsibility and from the perspective of the receiver – as freedom. It seems
that thinking, and especially, actions in the area of health which are separated from
freedom and responsibility can become the cause of disintegration of being free and
responsible (Juszczyk S., 2000; Kowalski M., Dróżdż M., 2008). In connection with
this, I will try – on the background of freedom and responsibility – to illustrate the
value of health from the perspective of the influence of the media-health messages
on the contemporary youth.
It is often said that health is the value ‘in itself ’, ‘obvious’, and commonly accepted
and in this sense autotelic. It is also said that health is ‘a banner slogan’ (H.D.
Lasswell’s definition), a social key-symbol. Yet, is health undeniably recognized as
one of the most important values by society? Does not the never ending mediahealth carnival around the body and human health create a sense of defencelessness
and uncertainty, contributing to intensified anxiety about health? Then, does the
multitude of media images (signs, symbols) make it possible to make a rational,
responsible choice in the area of the value of health?
On the one hand, health as a value is recognised with good, activity and wellbeing, but on the other hand, with the effectiveness of the preventive measures,
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Mirosław Kowalski
unusual efforts, and exceptional caution. T. Lewowicki (1994, p. 21) wrote: The
visions of the world of values are neither solid nor obvious. They are shaped in constant struggle, disputes and dilemmas. Even the universally accepted values (like good,
beauty and truth, or freedom, the right to live, and unlimited development, etc.) are
being subjected to different attempts at relativisation. In the individual dimension
(…) it is often a heroic struggle, choices, doubts. Analysing the value of health from
the cultural point of view, we can state that it is a conception shaped by society in
cultural development, which shows itself in different forms of social awareness,
bio-psychosocial balance of a human being in the environment. It seems that this
value has a universal character and refers to the majority of cultural systems created
by humans (Zalewska D., 1994, p. 50).
Nowadays, the body became, on the one hand, the receiver of sensations, an
instrument of pleasure, and, on the other hand, a synonym of a subject of desire
associated with an increasingly idealised image of youth, health and beauty.
B. Baczko (1994, p. 42) remarks that (…) the power of images is possible thanks to
the connection of the truth and norm, information and values, made by symbolism.
It can appear to us that the value of the body is the higher, the closer it is – in its
corporeality – to the perfect model, preferred by the media-health factors. This
image can be compared to terror in the area of health and beauty (Wolf N., 1991).
The specific advertising of the human corporeality is overwhelming in the mass
media, which has a strong influence on the way we perceive and interpret the
world. The words of U. Eco (1997, p. 20) are symptomatic here: (…) we live in the
world where the mass media not only exist but also determine our way of thinking,
even if we feel effectively isolated in our academic towers of ivory, resistant to the
charm of coca-cola, closer to Plato than to Madison Avenue, (…) the way we, or in
any case, our students read Plato – if they do – is determined by the existence of the
’Dallas’ series even for those who do not watch it at all. A person with a body of
a high value is not insensible to life’s pleasures, does not react drowsily to visual,
auditory, sexual or gastronomic temptations, he/she has a wide variety of desires
and demands. His/her happiness, from the perspective of the functioning of his/
her body, is formed through actions aimed at creating deep, passionate, exciting
sensations and experiences. These – subjective – sensations are hard to survey, or
try to describe them using measurement tools. It is even harder to compare them
form the perspective of normality and anomaly. There is a game around the human
corporeality and health, in which the body wears a shirt with the name ‘product’,
so something which is made, advertised, sold, and often striven for. The game
around the human body and health is played on a field with no side lines (nothing
symbolises where the field ends), there is no half-time break (for the body to have
357
a rest), there are no referees, who would be authorities in the world of ‘health
consumerism’. The ‘Health game’ is played on an arena surrounded by experts,
who by propagating ‘healthy’ articles that are supposed to help in exercise, diets,
hygienic or surgical interventions, bring a temporary ease for a human being, and
at the same time burden them with responsibility for their own outlook. In other
words (…) there is a desire created which makes him/her want to adjust him/herself
to the model of his/her tendencies. An escape into dreams is the compensation he/
she receives. Usually he is given such ideals, that will create a tension between him
and them (…) and that will make the tension escape only by projection, not chain of
effective actions that would aim at changing anything (Eco U., 1995, p. 27).
A total medicalisation of life, an increasing addition to the pharmaceutical industry’s products, are the elements that are more and more often noticed by a human
being from the perspective of the media influence. Every day, medical experts have
‘clients’ with an illusion of an illness, by the use of a few lines on a chart thousands
of medical apparatuses analyse if a person is ‘still’ healthy or already ill. As a result
of the influence of the media-health messages we can notice a ‘panic’ belief among
people that their lifestyle is incorrect because it is often wrong according to the
rules made by the so-called medical ‘professionals’. Advertising healthy attitudes –
by creating a sense of guilt – often makes treating people as ‘consumers’ and health
as a ‘product’ seem to be the right thing to do. Paradoxically, we can get a feeling
(as a result of the influence of media-health messages) that, e.g., pharmaceutical
concerns only do not want people to have headaches, and the experts in plastic and
aesthetic surgery do not want to impose ‘fake needs’ of always having a young body
at all. Those elements associated with the common, widespread in the media idea
of ‘keeping health, body and the car in good condition’ cause people to be under
the constant pressure of having a particular lifestyle and rhythm. The obsessive,
mechanical use of – often changed – orders and bans, ‘experts’’ advice and imitating the models promoted by the media can directly lead to bulimia or anorexia
(Melosik Z., 1996, pp. 157–160). The media very often promote ambiguity in the
area of health and the body. On the one hand, the ‘idea of slimness’ as the present
ideal of a woman, as an effect of which the body is being subjected to more and
more rigorous norms, and on the other hand, thanks to a slim body an individual
is allowed to (…) achieve better results, stimulate the senses, (…) the tension on
individual success is increasing (Vigarello G., 1997, p. 283). Thus, it is possible to
state that being in the vortex of health consumerism, in some extreme cases we
take on the media-health identity and our life has a more and more commercial
character (Kowalski M., Falcman D., 2008, pp. 70–84).
More and more often we can get an impression that the inhuman ‘health com-
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Mirosław Kowalski
mercialism’ is based on instant, every day producing and advertising new products
symbolising health, which irretrievably replace the items which were useful yesterday. As an effect of the constant repetition of a story, the health novelty/obsolete
stops being a useful guide, a subject of healthy activities, becoming a wanderer
around the media signs/symbols of health. The media space of health-images of
contemporary man is at its full capacity. The effort of making the right choice in
the area of health-chaos, where the items do not have a recognisable shape – only
shadows – contributes to creative destruction, serves the choice of sensations,
experiences which create the individual’s own ‘healthy world’. To make a conscious
choice means to separate the shape from the shadow, the need from the desire, the
dream from reality. It also means to design and build one’s own dustbin it which
there will be buckets signed ‘to be taken away’. To take up an attitude of a ‘dialectic
distance’ (definition by M. Nowicka–Kozioł) appealing, on the one hand, to being
open, susceptible to new elements from the area of health and, on the other hand,
being closed for media-health images implying emotional involvement.
Contemporary media-health does not simplify the pro-health images, signs/
symbols, trying to portray ‘the reality’ of the aims regarded as ‘possible only
sometimes’ to realize and at the same time precluding the reflection from the
field of vision of the individual. The projects, which are in abundance, are created
in the name of the human being’s and world’s pro-healthy, ‘positive’ health of the
dream – receivers. Each health project, recognized more than once as a reliable
one and not burdened with a risk, is simultaneously an attempt at glossing over
the consequences of the previous project. The number of the projects, the zeal of
their creating, not taking into account the costs of the actions, have an influence
on the whole process, which is disregarding for the idea of health, or else, to be
more sensitive in interpretation – ‘worthless effect of the health illusion’. The value
of health treated as a ruthless ‘rule of society’ has to precede the media reality.
Since creating media-health projects is endless, the problem, not only about their
interpretations, but first and foremost of their removing occurs. Thus, the mediahealth projects having clear-cut boundaries of ‘dialogue without freedom’, more
than once are to present a crooked image of the health reality, the stereotypes of
‘the health civilisation’.
Obviously, one can ask an uncomfortable question whether by any chance we are
careless spokesmen of uncertainty and fear not to recognise the discussion about
‘our wonderful pro-healthy lifestyle’? A lifestyle which is equally fertile and capricious, restricted and at the same time very firm about undertaking fast actions,
where the key to success will be… access to the mass media. The health-circle has
been closed. The presence of the media signs, symbols of health, excuses itself
359
through making a promise of health-safety for each person and simultaneously
identify to us the impossibility of offering resistance from the perspective of the
softness of the human body (this represents the transmission: if you eat cereals
from the ‘X’ company, enriched in vitamins and iron, you can eat fewer vegetables
and fruit, or ‘by exercising regularly in a gym you will secure smooth skin and
a slim figure for yourself ’). It is the power in the area of health relied more than
once on fear creating media-health shadows, popularizing health-relativism, seems
to be the key to creating ‘the existential fear’(as S. Kracauer names it) among individuals. Therefore, the main reason for the media-health power functioning is the
defencelessness and health uncertainty of a human being around whom one has
to constantly and regularly create (or remind of) elements that can be a threat to
him/her (which intensifies the increase in the demand of pro-health elements).
A true understanding of the television health source nature is the resultant of
two factors: a young person’s cognitive activeness, which translates into insightful
learning the content of health nature, quantity, kind and the forms of information of broadely defined health, which is made available by television content and
images. The health culture of society is shaping in a very widely defined educational
process, in which school, parents, and television play the crucial roles. At first
television provided the knowledge especially to the young person in the area of
health of the issues not undertaken (or rarely undertaken) by school and parents.
Contemporary television shapes the health problems (mainly by advertisement),
creates health behaviour patterns towards the pleasure sphere, associated with
human corporeality, preparing the young person for specific roles towards the
possible health consumption strategies, therefore educating to health and not to
health. In accordance with these problems doubt appears if it is really possible to
talk about communicative democracy with reference to television (in the health
area?). It seems that it should consist in providing cognitive tools to the recipient,
for conscious and critical reception of announcements of health nature. If it is not
in this way, you can talk about the so-called functional television ( or even wider,
media) “health ignorance”, where the recipient, client-to-be does not analyze things
he/she hears and sees. Such a situation can have far-reaching consequences for
health activeness especially for young people, who obtain the major part of the
information about health from television advertisements.
In accordance with this, it is possible to formulate new tasks for contemporary
school, teachers and parents. Their role should not only consist in providing
knowledge, but also in organizing the knowledge obtained by students from different kinds of sources, and making good use of them in the didactic process.
The mass media do not influence young people automatically, but it is possible to
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acknowledge them as a partner , among others, as an educational process teacher.
It depends on how children and young people use it, it they can consciously choose
programmes and absorb the content shown on the television screen, and also if
they can use the obtained, in this way, knowledge in the educational process.
Crooked reflections of ‘the healthy nature’ of a human being, so much visible in
the mirrors of everyday life as well as the ‘health-media mess’ undoubtedly contribute to the theatrical acting on the stage of ‘the sense of fulfillment”. Everyday
health-media fight about the physical experiences contributes to the confusion
around the health signs/symbols and thought. The multitude of acted plays through
the ‘masks’ of the poets and health clowns, thinkers and leaders of health, saints and
sinners of health, point at the necessity of standing at the doorstep of the dressing
room. Only here, in the full light, without spotlights, extras, choreography, one can
understand the rules of the endless acting. The imitation of the health-media culture
each day sets free everyone who desires it (wants to) from the illness of their own
inside by the skin and body retouch, with simultaneous ‘resetting’ healty and moral
‘dilemmas’ (by Z.Kwieciński) (here you will buy the thing you are thinking about).
An honest game in ‘the media supermarket’ about the value of health, will be carried
on only when the sense of health responsibility of all players is based on ‘the real
intellectual opposition’ – the dialogue based on critical reflection. The reflection
which can protect the youth against experiencing the characteristic solitude in ‘the
crowd of health commercials’, against the superficiality of the interpretation and the
fragmentarization of the ways of reasoning in the ‘health’ value area.
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Chosen
Aspects of
Psychology
Grażyna Mendecka
Poland
Parents or Peers – Controversy over the Dominant Role
in Child Nurture and Development
Abstract
The article deals with the answer to the question: “Who plays a more important
role in nurture: parents or peers?” From discussion it results that both are important and that they are complementary to each other.
Key words: parents, peers, child nurture and development.
Introduction
According to psychological theories and social beliefs parents play an important
or even indispensable role in man’s life. In psychology any person who is of great
importance to the individual’s life, marking profoundly their development, is called
significant other. Among such persons parents hold a special position, which results
from a number of factors.
In human life, parents are the first people an infant makes contact with. Without
parental care a baby would be unable to survive and it is natural that children are
recipients of an unconditional love. Parents initiate their child into the world of
language and culture. Owing to everyday contact between parents and the child,
their intimacy and common set of genes it is easier for them to become syntonic.
As a result of such emotional proximity and kinship the impact of parents on their
child’s life lasts for many years and persists even after their death, when the child
decides to stick to the ideas and behaviours inherited from their parents.
Before man is born his development takes place in the mother’s womb. The
mother’s body does not reject the baby, even though it is foreign for her immu-
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nological system. On the contrary, both organisms cooperate benignly, keeping
the rapidly developing human foetus alive (cf.: Flanagan 1973, Kornas-Biela 1992,
2000). From the very moment of conception the attachment and interaction are
inherent in human life.
The theory of attachment was developed by Bowlby (1969, 1971) in search for
the reasons for emotional disorders in infants deprived of their mother by force of
major events (such as hospitalization, abandoning or death). Bowlby put forward
a hypothesis that each man has an innate tendency to create strong emotional
bonds with other people called attachment. Such attachment is, at a certain period
of life, indispensable for proper psychological development of the individual. It
derives from human nature, which is interactive, and from the need to socialize.
A baby develops in their mother’s womb, so the first form of attachment is the
mother-child dyad. The bond between the mother and the child evolves and can
be divided into three stages:
• Incorporation (child in mother’s womb)
• Dependence (on birth)
• Attachment (child feels emotionally bound with mother).
A small child tends to remain physically close to their mother, which results
from the safety need. When children start to be able to move around they stay
close to their mother, protest when she goes away, stick to her when they feel
insecure and treat their mother as an attachment figure – as a safe starting point
to explore the environment (Bowlby, 1969). The cognitive structures which make
such attachment possible, as well as the proper functioning of the child in their
life are internal working models (Bowlby, 1971). These models can be interpreted
as “general perception of what the nature of reality is” (in: Kofta & Doliński, 2000,
p. 567).
Working models constitute central personality components, which organise
thinking, affections and behaviour according to the experience of attachment
(Bowlby, 1973). The working models consist of the following mental representations:
• Working model of the person the individual is attached to
• Working model of self
• Working model of the relations between self and attachment figure.
Those working models are acquired through interpersonal interaction patterns
between attached persons. Once these models are constructed, they are omnipresent in the child’s experiences which are filtered through them. The interpretation of
current events and anticipation of the events to come is dependent on the internal
models conceived by the individual. Up-to-date research and contemporary
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367
theories show that an infant may attach not only to their mother but also to other
caretakers.
Thus, the relationship with other people is generalized from the relationship with
a caretaker in early childhood. If the child experiences a hostile relationship with
a caretaker, they will expect hostility from other people, in neutral environment.
Perceiving people as not trustworthy the child will avoid them.
The attachment theory and further research have demonstrated that parental
influence on child development is far-reaching. The separation anxiety disorder
of childhood is a dramatic argument showing the importance of mother in the
child’s life. Two different psychological theories – psychoanalysis and behaviourism argue that early-childhood experiences gathered in interactions of children
with their parents are of key importance for shaping personality and influence
the functioning of the individual in adult life. Freud held parents responsible for
traumas suffered in childhood, which remain in the subconscious and are at the
origin of anxiety and other difficulties of the adulthood. J. Watson expressed the
view, from the standpoint of behaviourists, that using reinforcements from the very
first days of human life: rewards and punishments, parents influence the child’s
behaviour in a significant way.
Judith Rich Harris in her book entitled “The Nurture Assumption. Why Children Turn Out the Way They Do” questions all of the above psychological theories,
claiming she wants to put an end to the myth of parental nurture. According to
Harris, these are not parents, but peers that play a decisive role in the nurturing
process. Harris received the American Psychological Association’s George A. Miller
Award for an Outstanding Recent Article in General Psychology. The Polish
publisher, Jacek Santorski, asks the readers to approach the book with courage
and open-mindedness. It is worthwhile to face her challenging assumption and
find a proper place both for parents and peers in the nurturing process, which
constitutes an important factor in the development of the individual.
Family system as the context of nurture
Life span psychology is a contemporary stream of developmental psychology,
which strongly emphasizes the fact that developmental changes take place throughout life. Taking this into account we must insist on the fact that in the interaction
between parents and the child both sides are constantly developing. This fact
needs to be considered in analysing the way parents influence their children in
nurture.
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Explaining this influence is particularly important for a systemic approach
towards family. Such an approach views family not as a group consisting of
individuals, but as a system of relations between those individuals (Tyszkowa,
1990). Family is a network of mutual relations between interdependent individuals,
which results in constant development of all the family members. Each activity of
the individual provokes a reaction in the other family members, who constitute
a benchmark for each other, a transmitter of behavioural patterns and activity
models (Tyszkowa, 1996). That is why not only parents influence their child’s
behaviour, but also the child provokes a specific behaviour in their parents and
sometimes also transmits behavioural patterns to them.
The analysis of the role of family environment in individual development should
take into account two aspects of parental influence on the child: delay and developmental nature of parental patterns (Harwas-Napierała, 1995). The delay makes
it possible for children to benefit from the experience gathered by their parents
during childhood and adolescence. Every child is one generation younger than
their parents, which is on average 25 years. Such an important age difference does
not prevent the child from being familiar with information on the way their parents
lived: what their problems were when they were children and in what way those
problems were solved at the time. Children enjoy such stories and ask parents or
grandparents to tell them again and again, as it allows them to become familiar
with the facts of parents’ life. This enriches children’s experience with their parents’
experience, which may be similar or completely different, and in such a way gives
them a deeper insight into social relations.
The delay also has an impact on parents in their adulthood. Having children
is not only a new experience, but it also triggers the necessity to view one’s own
childhood from a new perspective (Birch, 1992 ). As they watch the children,
parents compare their behaviour with their own reactions at the time, recall their
own experiences, recall and judge the behaviour of their own parents in similar
situations. These memories shape their own parental behaviour.
The developmental nature of parental patterns means that the child, watching
their parent who is older than themselves in different periods of their life, has
an opportunity to watch closely how they cope with developmental tasks of an
early, middle and late adulthood. Parents show their children what it means to be
a mother or a father, what attitude one should have towards work and duties, how
to support each other in case of an illness or a failure, how to become a grandmother or a grandfather, how to cope with an illness, taking retirement, death.
Different behavioural patterns during life span are learnt at different moments of
life, as we make friends at school, university, army or at work. It has been calculated
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369
that parental patterns remain active for 50 years on average (Harwas – Napierała,
1995).
This influence is also exceptional because personality patterns seen in parents are
of very intimate character. In family environment parents are relaxed and behave
spontaneously, taking off the mask of official behaviour and they show the most
deeply hidden emotions. Repetitive behaviour in everyday common situations at
home becomes more or less consciously incorporated by children into the set of
their long-term behaviour patterns.
The overtness of parental behaviour is possible in a family which constitutes
a coherent, well-functioning system with an appropriate communication system. If
a family system encounters serious communicational difficulties and functions in
a chaotic manner, parental patterns tend to be rejected. In such a case an adolescent
seeks behavioural patterns outside family.
Focusing on the parental influence, psychologists and social scientists very often
fail to notice and emphasize that the transmission of behavioural patterns is of
mutual nature. Mother and father make it possible for their children from the
very first days of their lives to make contact with their language and culture, they
teach their children how to function in a given civilization. Parents familiarize
their children with their tradition and culture and as a result the children become
anchored to it, become its guardians and transmitters. Parents are anchored in the
past, which makes their children feel safe, stable and well-ordered.
By confronting the child’s own behaviour forms, as conditioned by parents, with
a peer group children realize which of them are anachronistic and not compatible
with the contemporary world. Negotiating with their parents, children provoke
changes in their behaviour. As a result, little by little, children start to guide their
parents in the rapidly changing contemporary world. Children teach their parents
a new language, modern behaviour, encourage them to use technical novelties and
to change their lifestyle into one better adapted to future challenges. This is a very
important role, which offers parents an opportunity to develop under the influence
of their own children.
Thus, not only children need parents, who by exerting a long-term influence
allow them to be better prepared for their own life, but also children play a comparable role for their parents. Two related intergenerational courses of development,
mutually optimizing, making it possible for the young generation to be anchored
in tradition and for the older generation to face future challenges. Such a bilateral
process of intergenerational exchange is more efficient when it involves individuals
of similar genetic outfit. Such dynamic changes come about in any family system,
be it efficient or not.
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Peer group
as nurturing environment in the perspective of J. Harris
Man is social by nature and conscious of belonging to a social group. Starting
from infancy, children feel best in the company of other children. When they see an
adult it does not arouse such interest and joy as when they see another child. Toddlers like playing by themselves, they are unable to cooperate, but still they prefer
to play when other children are around, rather than being entertained by adults.
People naturally divide into groups of people similar to each other and the sole
fact of belonging to a group makes one’s own group more attractive than other
groups. In this way people divide themselves into “us” and “them,” i.e., groups of
people showing certain similarities. J. Harris notes that even infants under the age
of one are able to divide people into groups according to their age and sex. Sixmonth-old babies start to be able to make a distinction between people they know
and strangers of whom they are afraid. However, fear is provoked only by adults,
not by children they do not know. Thus, already infants accept a group of children
as their own, unlike a group of adults, which appears as unfamiliar, as “them”.
On this basis Judith Harris concluded that children are mostly influenced by
their peers and not by adults, who belong to a different group, to the group of
adults. The essence of nurture is socialization and the parental dyad is too weak to
carry out the socialization process. Peer groups are strong enough to do that and
that is why only they can socialize and in consequence to nurture efficiently. Most
children aspire to behave in the same way as their peers and not like adults, which
is poorly judged and for which they are punished (Harris, p. 158). A peer group has
a number of penalties at its disposal, which are used to enforce without mercy the
rules applied by the group. Laughter, copying, ignoring, giving a low-profile role in
the group or expelling from the group are severe sanctions imposed on those who
break the group rules. Children’s groups operate by the majority rule – anyone who
is different has to change (p. 158). This is how the members of a group assimilate
by eradicating differences.
Taking this into account Judith Harris argues that the socialization of the young
generation takes place not in the family environment, but most importantly in
the peer group. She provides a number of arguments to support this assumption. Children do not belong to their parents, but to the future, which is better
understood by their peers (p. 329). Socialization is not done to children, but it is
something that children do to themselves because they want to belong to a certain
group. Children want to be like their peers (p. 158). S. Asch demonstrated in an
experiment that children under 10 are most prone to group pressure. Peer pressure
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is the most merciless during childhood (p. 268). Even if a group rejects the child,
it does not prevent the child from identifying with the group (p. 159).
J. Harris calls into question the rule stemming from Bowlby’s attachment
theory that the behaviour shaped in the family environment is transferred to
other environments. J. Harris quotes the research by M. Lamb and A. Nash (1989)
demonstrating that the attachment relationship with mother, as well as the motherchild attachment pattern do not determine the quality of social competence with
peers. According to D. Detterman (1993), a learning theorist, there is no evidence
that people transfer what they learned in one situation to another one. A number
of research studies confirm this fact. Swedish studies (Rydell, Dahl and Sundelin,
1995) on picky eaters demonstrated that only 8% of the children examined showed
problems both at home and at school, while 30% of the children were picky either
at home or at school, without transfer of this behaviour to the other environment.
Studies by Fagot (1995) and Goldsmith (1996) showed that children’s behaviour
at home is different from that at day nursery. Zimmerman and McDonald (1995)
reported that infants of depressed mothers show serious, still faces only in the
interactions with their mothers and not in other contexts. G. Fein and M. Fryer
(1995) concluded that a child playing sophisticated roles with their mothers does
not do so when playing alone or with a playmate.
The statement by William James that man “has as many different social selves
as there are distinct groups of persons about whose opinion he cares” (p. 53)
means that man’s behaviour changes in different social contexts. Children learn
how to behave in different social situations and they do not transfer behaviour
patterns from one context to another. That is why parents’ favourite child will not
be accepted by their classmates.
J. Harris makes reference to traditional societies to demonstrate that parents are
not indispensible to raise children. Research carried out among others by I. EibelEibesfeldt (1995) in African tribes demonstrated that children spend only the first
years of their lives with their parents, mostly with mothers. As soon as they learn
to walk they join children play groups. Older children, who feel responsible for
the younger ones teach them everything – the language, local customs, proper
forms of behaviour and how to play. Younger children are teased, ridiculed and
harassed by the older ones, who are impatient, so the younger want to become like
the older ones as soon as possible. In such circumstances children learn fast and
their personality develops rapidly. “In some sense they stop being their parent’s
children and become the community’s. Any adult in these societies can admonish
a child if he or she sees the child doing something wrong” (p. 150).
Also in Europe similar cases happen: during the Second World War a group of
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children became a kind of substitute family for its members. J. Harris quotes a story,
reported by Anna Freud, of six children who had survived a Nazi concentration
camp. The children lost their parents soon after they had been born and were cared
for by different camp prisoners, none of whom survived. In their life there was only
one scrap of stability, which made their life in this horrible chaos better: the fact
that they remained together at all times. Three boys and three girls between three
and four years of age were, after liberation of the concentration camp, brought to
a nursery in England, where Anna Freud studied their behaviour.
In the new environment the children acted like little savages. During the first
days they destroyed all the toys and damaged much of the furniture. Their attitude
towards adults was hostile – when approached they would hit, spit and use bad language. However, their relations with each other within the group were completely
different. They became upset when separated from each other, even for short
moments. In their attitude towards each other there was no jealousy, rivalry or
competition. At mealtimes they would “take turns” and were eager that everybody
should have their share. They were not envious of each other’s possessions, on the
contrary, lending them to each other with pleasure. On walks they were concerned
about each other’s safety in traffic.
Thus, it turned out that a mother cannot replace peers to her child, while other
children may, in some circumstances, replace mother. A peer group plays a very
important role in the case of immigrants, where peers socialize the child for living
in the new environment. While the origins of adults remain evident until the end
of their lives, because of their accent, poor vocabulary and strange behaviour,
the children of immigrants are in no way different from their peers as regards
their expression and behaviour. If socialization, like J. Harris says, does not mean
something that is done to children, but something that children do to themselves,
it should be added that they do it by using the patterns available to them. That is
why small children want to be like their mum and dad, and older children want to
be like their peers. This is because contacts with other children, particularly with
peers, are so important, the children of immigrants accept the culture and language
of their peers, which very often goes together with rejection of parents’ lifestyle,
who attempt to preserve the customs and language of their home country.
Parents – peers – mutual impact
It is worth mentioning that the opportunity to be around a peer group constitutes
a civilization achievement and is connected with the introduction of compulsory
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education for children of all citizens This gave children the opportunity – which
earlier had been impossible – to grow up and perform developmental tasks together
with their own cohort, i.e., a peer group. Spending time with one’s peers offers
unique opportunities of: alternating interactions, sharing leadership and playing
different roles, managing aggression and violence. One child is running, another
one is chasing, one is hiding another one is seeking. They can alternate, because
they are of the same age and they can change roles easily – they are partners of
equal status. J. Piaget remarked that children cease to think in an egocentric way
when, during interactions with peers, they get to know different perspectives from
which other people view a situation. Attending a class with peers makes children
more empathic.
The relationship between peers is different for instance from the relationship
between siblings, where one child is older and another one is younger and where,
apart from the mutual relationship, other complementary aspects are at stake: the
younger one receives support, the older one dominates, but also takes care of the
younger one. Even in the case of twins one child (the one born first) dominates.
Taking age into account, which is connected with life experience, human
relations can be divided into vertical and horizontal ones (Schaffer, 2006). The
vertical ones refer to asymmetric relation, when one party to the interaction has an
advantage over the other due to age, life experience, role played, power structure,
influence exerted, etc. Such a relationship exists between children and adults, who
dominate because of their superior status. The vertical relationship is most often
of complementary nature: the child needs help or safety, which is provided by
adults. The child needs also to be directed and to be taught, which adult, especially
teachers educated for that purpose, can provide them with.
The vertical relationship does not provoke objection in children who are
subordinate to adults. On the contrary, as noted by A. Maslow when developing
his hierarchy of needs, children need subordination, as it makes them feel safe.
L. Wygotski insisted on another aspect of adult domination over children – by
giving children tasks ahead of their current competences, adults show the children
their zone of proximal development, without which their development would be
much slower. Thus, the vertical relationship plays a significant role and is important
for development and nurture.
The horizontal relationship is of egalitarian nature and it involves people of the
same social position, most of all peers. As a matter of fact, there are abilities one
may acquire only from one’s equals. Such abilities include mainly cooperation
and competition, but also solidarity and loyalty. Such experience is gained only in
relationship with peers. It is also provided by subcultures, which also teach how
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to cooperate, act together with loyalty and solidarity. They are complementary to
the competences achieved in the vertical relationship and they would be hard to
achieve in another relationship. A description of these two kinds of relationship is
impossible without mentioning their cultural background. One of them dominates
in society, while the other one is widespread in the individual one.
In contemporary Western culture the time the individual spends with a peer
group becomes longer and longer. In many countries nursery school has become
obligatory for small children and the years spent at school are ever longer, which
gives the individual an opportunity to spend more time with peers, which has an
impact on socialization by this social group.
It is worthwhile to mention, in the context of the impact peers have on the child’s
development, that to a large extent children still depend on parents, who play the
role of “managers” in their children’s social life (Schaffer, 2006). Parents choose
where the family lives and which school the child attends. This is parents’ choice
whether the child graduates in home country or abroad.
Early in children’s life parents regulate their social contacts. Overprotective or
possessive parents very often isolate their children, not allowing them to play with
other children at the playground, in the neighbourhood or even they forbid their
children to see friends from school and do not tolerate the presence of children’s
friends at their house.
Some parents decide who their children can make friends with and with whom
they dare not have contact, they are judgmental about what children say to their
friends or how they play with their peers. Such parents feel obliged to manage
their children’s social contacts by monitoring them and demanding a certain kind
of interactions only. Such a parental behaviour results in the child’s difficulty to
make spontaneous social contacts with peers and prevents the possibility of gaining
a number of competences they could learn in such contacts. So, before peers start
to influence the child, they must deal with parental attitudes, which may favour
or inhibit such contacts.
Attending school enables the child to make contacts with peers, even if parental
attitude prevents such contacts. It does not mean, however, that at school children
make contact with a culture that is completely different from their culture at home.
Apart from some exceptions, all children raised in families sharing common culture have similar behavioural patterns, which are shown in the group and which
are judged by the group. Most common patterns are immediately accepted by
the majority rule. What is common becomes popular. Rare patterns have weaker
chances of being preserved by the group and only the ones that are very attractive
are not rejected. All original, surprising or weird patterns are ridiculed, condemned
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and “invalidated” and the child will try to reject them. In such a way children create
a culture of their own, but its starting point always consists of family patterns.
J. Harris emphasizes (p. 159) that even children expelled from a group, who
remain at its margin, are influenced by the group and attempt to be similar to its
members. A child whose behavioural patterns learned at home are not popular
in the group will try to negotiate with parents that they change their ways. In this
manner, whether they like it or not, parents also adjust little by little to the lifestyle
accepted by their child’s peer group. Such a change in the way the parental role is
performed contributes to the development of parents, also by understanding that
their parental power has its limits.
Conclusion
In her book, Judith Harris presents a number of arguments which she strongly
believes are sufficient to abolish the nurture assumption and to show that peers
are responsible for the socialization of the child. This however means replacing
one myth with another – that of parental socialization with the peer one. Harris is
mistaken in claiming that emphasizing the peer role she automatically diminishes
parental impact, while both roles are of equal importance and of complementary
nature. One cannot compensate fully for the lack of the other.
The system of interactions creating the family environment has certain boundaries separating it from the rest of society. This boundary makes family a separate,
intimate subsystem within the general social system. However, this does not mean
that family is isolated from the rest of society. It is exceptional, as being clearly
distinctive, it is at the same time open to social influence. This fact should make it
clear that mutuality of relationship refers not only to family members, but also to
the socialization between family and society in general. Keeping this in mind, we
can understand that neither parents nor peers (whose impact is strong in a longterm perspective because contacts at school last many years) are dominant in
children’s development and nurture. Both environments are mutually dependent
and interconnected, performing complementary functions. Judging either of the
two as less important would constitute a serious material mistake. Therefore, the
answer to the question: “Who plays a more important role in nurture: parents
or peers?” is that both are important and that they are complementary to each
other.
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