the full article here - E-International Scientific Research

Transcription

JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is a joint publication
of 53 colleges and universities in the Philippines.
www.eisrjc.com · www.ejournals.ph · www.philair.ph
JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced using a QMS certified
to ISO 9001:2008 by AJA Registrars, Inc, UKAS and JAS-ANZ.
Certificate no. AJA12/16233
Certificate no. AJA12/0680
EDITORIAL BOARD
Editor in Chief
Adesoji A. Oni Ph.D. University of Lagos, Nigeria
Associate Editors:
Asmah Laili Yeon Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Daisy Jane C. Orcullo
Universiti Utara Malaysia, Malaysia
Manas Moulic
Global Institute of Management and Technology, India
Abdul Hannan Waheed
Queensland University of Technology, Australia
AIMS AND SCOPE
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research aims to publish new discoveries in
the various disciplines of knowledge which are contributed by member researchers.
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is an International peer reviewed
and Multidisciplinary Research that provides a venue for scholars to publish their
research findings for advocacy and utilization.
International Peer Reviewed Journal
JPAIR
Multidisciplinary Research
Volume 9 • August 2012
Print ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445
© 2012 by JPAIR Press
All rights reserved.
iii
JPAIR is a joint publication of 53 colleges
and universities in the Philippines.
Table of Contents
1
Learning for Jobs Flexibile Learning in Vocational
Education and Training
Jana Petnuchová
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7719/jpair.v9i1.19, Published Online: August 2012
15
The Study of Effect Meta Theoretical Curricula’s
Implementation in Educational Performances of Tehran
Universities in Educational Science
Mohammad Reza Sarmadi, Hassan Shahraki Pour & Negar Elhamian
26
Academic Reading Proficiency of Freshmen in the College of Education
of DMMMSU-SLUC: Input to the Design of Instructional
Modules for English 101
Dionisio M. Uychoco
39
Competencies in the Workplace of the Bachelor of Science in
Fisheries Graduates of the Western Philippines University
Elsa Carmen N. Montaño & Nelson S. Salvador
54
Psycholinguistic Extracts and Socio-Cultural Imprints
in Job Application Discourses: A Genre Analysis
Emmanuel J. Songcuan
83
Instructional Assessment of Technology
and Livelihood Education (TLE) Program
Vangilit G. Retome, Nonita C. Estrella, Avelina Sarvida
Imelda Yaoyao, Gary C. Garcia & Dominador Granada
93
Students’ Beliefs toward Mathematics as Related to Their
Performance in College Algebra
Gary C. Garcia
106
Employability of Teacher Education
Graduates of an Asian Public University
Helen Bihag-Boholano
123
Automated Class Scheduling System
Jeralyn M. Gamale, Edward C. Anuta & Zina D. Sayson
138
College Academic Performance of Teacher Education Students in a State
University of Northern Philippines
Juanita B. Pascua, Jane D. Navalta, Leila M. Dela Cruz
& Julius S. Valderama
153
Americanizing the Sulu Sultanate: Fragrance/Nightmare of
U.S. Foreign Policy (circa 1898)
Michael Vincent P. Caceres
188
Teaching Practices Promoting Communication Opportunities
in the Language Class
Samuel S. Poliden
208
Bisu Main Campus Electrical Energy Consumption:
Basis For Improvement
Ivy M. Bagsac, Roland Gabo, Teofanes Sarabosing,
Dave Pojadas, Anacleta Perez & Mae Remedios Virtucio
214
Students’ Opinion on the Faculty Performance Evaluation Instrument
Francis Ann R. Sy & Violeta B. Felisilda
234
Extent of Systems Performance of Caraga State University,
Butuan City, Mindanao, Philippines
Alvaro L. Salingay
248
Effectiveness of Problem-Based Learning Approach to the
Students’ Problem Solving Performance
Sylvino V. Tupas
269
The Six-Month Internship Training
Program for Medical Laboratory Science Education: An Initial Evaluation
Anacleta P. Valdez, Citadel A. Panganiban, Kevin Roi L. Lumanglas
Katreen A. Calingasan, Roxanne S. Divino, Pearl Janine P. Guico
Glenn S. Montalbo & Jhejiel M. Pronobe
284
Modular Instruction in Biology: It’s Effect
on Students’ Performance
Archel A. Bedaure
305
Factors Associated with and Notions Concerning Stress of the Administration
and Academic Personnel
Prose Ivy G. Yepes & Jude A. Duarte
vii
EDITORIAL POLICY
JPAIR: Multidisciplinary Research
Pursuant to the international character of this publication, the journal is indexed
by the following agencies: (1)Public Knowledge Project, a consortium of Simon
Fraser University Library, the School of Education of Stanford University, and
the British Columbia University, Canada; (2) E-International Scientific Research
Journal Consortium; (3) Philippine E-Journals; and (4) Google Scholar.
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is open to the global community
of scholars who wish to have their researches published in a peer-reviewed
journal. The journal is produced using a Quality Management System certified
for ISO 9001:2008 by the Anglo Japanese American Registrars, Inc. To facilitate
cross referencing, linking and citation tracking, the journal adopts Digital Object
Identifier (DOI) for every article. Contributors can access the website: www.eisjrc.
com, www.ejournals.ph, and www. philair.ph.
Articles are contributed by member researchers of the Philippine Association
of Institutions for Research. The frequency of issue is four times a year. The
efficiency and effectiveness of the editorial review process are critically dependent
upon the actions of both the research authors and the reviewers. An author accepts
the responsibility of preparing the research paper for evaluation by independent
reviewers. The responsibility includes subjecting the manuscript to evaluation by
peers and revising it prior to submission. The review process is not to be used as
a means of obtaining feedback at early stages of developing the research paper.
Open access and copyright policy
This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available
without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read,
download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles
in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author.
Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is committed to upholding the
highest standards of publication ethics and takes all possible measures against
any publication malpractices. All authors submitting their works to the JPAIR
Multidisciplinary Research for publication as original articles attest that the
submitted works represent their authors’ contributions and have not been copied
or plagiarized in whole or in part from other works. The authors acknowledge
that they have disclosed all and any actual or potential conflicts of interest with
their work or partial benefits associated xv with it. In the same manner, the JPAIR
viii
Multidisciplinary Research is committed to objective and fair double-blind peerreview of the submitted for publication works and to preventing any actual or
potential conflict of interests between the editorial and review personnel and
the reviewed material. Any departures from the above-defined rules should be
reported directly to the Editors-in-Chief who are unequivocally committed to
providing swift resolutions to any of such type of problems.
Reviewers and editors are responsible for providing constructive and prompt
evaluation of submitted research papers based on the significance of their
contribution and on the rigors of analysis and presentation.
The Peer Review System
Definition. Peer review (also known as refereeing) is the process of subjecting
an author’s scholarly work, research or ideas to the scrutiny of others who are
experts in the same field. Peer review requires a community of experts in a given
(and often narrowly defined) field who are qualified and able to perform impartial
review. Peer review refers to the work done during the screening of submitted
manuscripts and funding applications. This normative process encourages authors
to meet the accepted standards of their discipline and prevents the dissemination
of unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations and personal views. Peer
review increases the probability that weaknesses will be identified, and, with
advice and encouragement, fixed. For both grant-funding and publication in a
scholarly journal, it is also normally a requirement that the subject is both novel
and substantial.
Type. The double-blind review process is adopted for the journal. The
reviewer/s and the author/s do not know each other’s identity.
Recruiting Referees. The task of picking reviewers is the responsibility of
the editorial board. When a manuscript arrives, an editor solicits reviews from
scholars or other experts to referee the manuscript. In some cases, the authors may
suggest the referees’ names subject to the Editorial Board’s approval. The referees
must have an excellent track record as researchers in the field as evidenced by
researches published in refereed journals, research-related awards, and an
experience in peer review. Referees are not selected from among the author’s close
colleagues, students, or friends. Referees are to inform the editor of any conflict
of interests that may arise. The Editorial Board often invites research author to
name people whom they considered qualified to referee their work. The author’s
input in selecting referees is solicited because academic writing typically is very
specialized.
ix
The identities of the referees selected by the Editorial Board are kept unknown
to research authors. However, the reviewer’s identity can be disclosed under
some special circumstances. Disclosure of Peer Review can be granted under the
following grounds: as evidence to prove that the published paper underwent
peer review as required by the university for ranking and financial incentives,
for regularity bodies and as the Commission on Higher Education, Accreditation
of Academic Programs. Request for peer review results shall be made in writing.
Peer Review Process. The Editorial Board sends advance copies of an author’s
work to experts in the field (known as “referees” or“reviewers”) through e-mail
or a Web-based manuscript processing system. There are two or three referees for
x a given article. Two are experts of the topic of research and one is an expert in
research and statistics who shall review the technical components of the research.
These referees return to the board the evaluation of the work that indicates the
observed weaknesses or problems along with suggestions for improvement. The
board then evaluates the referees’ comments and notes opinion of the manuscript
before passing the decision with the referees’ comments back to the author(s).
Criteria for Acceptance and Rejection. A manuscript is accepted when it is (1)
endorsed for publication by 2 or 3 referees, (2) the instructions of the reviewers are
substantially complied; (3) ethical standards and protocols are complied for studies
involving humans and animals; and (4) the manuscript passed the plagiarism
detection test with a score of at least 80 for originality, otherwise the manuscript
is rejected. The referees’ evaluations include an explicit recommendation of what
to do with the manuscript, chosen from options provided by the journal. Most
recommendations are along the following lines:
• Unconditional acceptance
• Acceptance with revision based on the referee’ recommendations
• Rejection with invitation to resubmit upon major revisions based on the
referees’ and editorial board’s recommendations
• Outright rejection
In situations where the referees disagree substantially about the quality of a
work, there are a number of strategies for reaching a decision. When the editor
receives very positive and very negative reviews for the same manuscript, the
board will solicit one or more additional reviews as a tie-breaker. In the case of
ties, the board may invite authors to reply to a referee’s criticisms and permit
a compelling rebuttal to break the tie. If the editor does not feel confident to
weigh the persuasiveness of a rebuttal, the board may solicit a response from the
referee who made the original criticism. In rare instances, the board will convey
x
communications back and forth between an author and a referee, in effect allowing
them to debate on a point. Even in such a case, however, the board does not allow
referees to confer with each other and the goal of the process is explicitly not to
reach a consensus or to convince anyone to change his/her opinions.
Comments
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research welcomes submission of comments on
previous articles. Comments on articles previously published in the journal will
generally be reviewed by two reviewers, usually an author of the original article
(to assist the editor in evaluating whether the submitted comment represents the
prior article’s accuracy) and an independent reviewer. If a comment is accepted
for publication, the original author will be invited to reply. All other editorial
requirements, as enumerated above, apply to proposed comments.
Open access and copyright policy
This is an open access journal which means that all content is freely available
without charge to the user or his/her institution. Users are allowed to read,
download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of the articles
in this journal without asking prior permission from the publisher or the author.
Publication Ethics and Publication Malpractice
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is committed to upholding the
highest standards of publication ethics and takes all possible measures against
any publication malpractices. All authors submitting their works to the JPAIR
Multidisciplinary Research for publication as original articles attest that the
submitted works represent their authors’ contributions and have not been copied
or plagiarized in whole or in part from other works. The authors acknowledge
that they have disclosed all and any actual or potential conflicts of interest with
their work or partial benefits associated with it. In the same manner, the JPAIR
Multidisciplinary Research is committed to objective and fair double-blind peerreview of the submitted for publication works and to preventing any actual or
potential conflict of interests between the editorial and review personnel and
the reviewed material. Any departures from the above-defined rules should be
reported directly to the Editors-in-Chief who are unequivocally committed to
providing swift resolutions to any of such type of problems.
xi
GUIDE FOR AUTHORS
Manuscript Preparation
1. Organize the paper following these major headings: Title, Author(s)
and address(es), Abstract, Introduction, Materials and Methods for
experimental study or Methodology for non-experimental study, Results,
Discussion, Conclusions, Acknowledgment, and Literature Cited. The
Literature Cited should substantially consist of articles published in
current content-covered or peer-reviewed journals.
2. Type the entire manuscript double-spaced on a short white bond paper
(8.5x11 in) on one side only with 2.5 cm margins all around using a
Times New Roman font size of 12 References, Acknowledgments, Table
Titles, and Figure Legends should be typed double-spaced or numbered
consecutively on all pages including title page, figures, and tables.
3. Leave two spaces before and after the major headings and two spaces
before and after the sub-headings. Do not use footnotes rather use
endnotes if required by the discipline.
4. Spell out acronyms or unfamiliar abbreviations when these are mentioned
for the first time in the text.
5. Write the scientific names of species completely with author(s) when it is
first mentioned in the text and without author in succeeding references.
Scientific names should be written in italics or bold face.
6. Do not spell out numbers unless they are used to start a sentence.
7. Use the metric system only or the International System of Units. Use
abbreviations of units only beside numerals (e.g. 6 m); otherwise, spell
out the units (e.g. kilometers from here). Do not use plural forms or
periods for abbreviations of units. Use the bar for compound units (e.g.
1 kg/ha/yr). Place a zero before the decimal in numbers less than 1 (e.g.
0.25)
8. When preparing Tables and Figures, consider the journal’s printed
page of 5.75 in x 8.5 in and the reduction that will be necessary. Titles
of Tables and Captions of Figures should be as short as possible and
understandable without referring to the text. Captions of Figures should
be typed double-spaced on a separate sheet. Figures should consist only
of simple line drawings, computer-generated graphics or good quality
black and white photographs. Photographs should be original figures
that are not electronically enhanced and submitted in a jpeg or png file.
Label of Figures should be of such a size so that these are still legible
even after reducing the size by as much as 50%. Use preferably Adobe
Photoshop CS, Adobe Indesign CS and or PDF computer-generated
graphics.
xii
9. Cite references in the text as author (year). Writing of et al. in the list
of references/ literature cited is discouraged but instead all the names
of authors are mentioned; references in press as (author, in press) and
unpublished reference as (author, unpubl. data or author, pers.comm.). If
two or more references are cited, arrange them by year.
10. Manuscript should be as concise as the subject and research method
permit, generally not to exceed 4,000 words, single-space.
11. To promote anonymous review, authors should not identify themselves
directly or indirectly in their papers or in experimental test instruments
included in the submission. Single authors should not use the editorial
“we”.
12. A cover page should show the title of the paper, all authors’ names, titles
and affiliations, email addresses, and any acknowledgements.
Pagination: All pages, including tables, appendices and references, should
be serially numbered. Major sections should be numbered in Roman numerals.
Subsections should not be numbered.
Numbers: Spell out numbers from one to ten, except when used in tables and
lists, and when used with mathematical, statistical, scientific, or technical units
and quantities, such as distances, weights and measures.
Percentage and Decimal Fractions: In nontechnical copy, use the word percent
in the text.
Hyphens: Use a hyphen to join unit modifiers or to clarify usage. For example:
a cross-sectional-equation; re-form. See Webster’s for correct usage.
Keywords: The abstract must be followed by at least five keywords to assist in
indexing the paper and identifying qualified reviewers.
Data Availability: A line immediately following the Keyword identifiers
should indicate whether the data are available.
Abstract/ Introduction
An abstract of about 200 words should be presented on a separate page
immediately preceding the text. The Abstract should concisely inform the reader
of the manuscript’s topic, its methods, and its findings. Keywords and the Data
Availability statements should follow the Abstract. The text of the paper should
start with a section labeled “Introduction,” which provides more details about the
xiii
paper’s purpose, motivation,
methodology, and findings. Both the Abstract and the Introduction should be
relatively nontechnical yet clear enough for an informed reader to understand the
manuscript’s contribution. The manuscript’s title but neither the author’s name nor
other identification designations, should appear on the Abstract page.
Documentation
Citations: In-text citations are made using an author-year format. Cited works
must correspond to the list of works listed in the “Literature Cited” section.
1. In the text, works are cited as follows: author’s last name and year,
without comma, in parentheses.
2. For cited works that include more than one work by an author (or same
co – authors) that is published in the same year, the suffix a, b, etc., is to
follow the date in the within-text citations and in the “Literature Cited ”
section.
3. When the author’s name is mentioned in the text, it need not be repeated
in the citation.
4. Citations to institutional works should use acronyms or short titles where
practicable.
5. If the paper refers to statutes, legal treatises, or court cases, citations
acceptable in law reviews should be used.
Conclusions
Conclusions should briefly answer the objectives of the study. They are not
repetitions of the discussions but are judgments of the results obtained.
Literature Cited
Every manuscript must include a “Literature Cited” section that contains
only those works cited within the text. Each entry should contain all information
necessary or unambiguous identification of the published work.
Submission of Manuscripts
Authors should note the following guidelines for submitting manuscripts:
1. Manuscripts currently under consideration by another journal or publisher
should not be submitted. The author must state upon submission that the
xiv
work has not been submitted or published elsewhere.
2. For manuscripts reporting on field surveys or experiments: If the
additional documentation (e.g. questionnaire, case, interview schedule)
is sent as a separate file, then all information that might identify the
authors(s) must be deleted from the instruments.
3. Manuscripts should be submitted via email as Microsoft Word or PDF
file to the Managing Editor at email address: [email protected].
Please submit separate files for (1) the manuscript’s title page with
identifying information (not forwarded to reviewers), (2) the manuscript
with title page and all other identifying information removed, and (3)
any necessary supplement files such as experimental instructions and/
or response memoranda on invited revisions. A copy of the research
questionnaire or tools is encouraged for submission. The editors and the
reviewers need to refer to these tools.
4. Revisions must be submitted within 2 months from the decision letter
inviting a revision.
5. Vital information is available at this websites: www.eisrjc.com, , www.
philair.ph and www.ejournals.ph
Notes on Contributors and the Journals
First, Scopus and Thomson Reuters (formerly Institute of Scientific Information)
are particular about citations – in fact, weak citation is a major cause of journal
rejection in the evaluation process. How do we deal on this? We verify every author
we intend to use for citations gadget Google universal gadget. One just has to
search for “Citations Gadget” in Google. Then, we scroll down to find a box. Enter
the name of the authors to determine if he has an H-Index or Hirsch Index. This
proves that he has publications in Thomson and Scopus indexed journals. That is
strong citation. Why? So that our citation will contribute to their author citation
and Journal Impact Factor. Without those, the business of indexing is dead.
Second concern is inter-continental editorial board, writer contributors and
peer reviewers. This guarantees strong international or regional impact of the
journal.
Third is editor standing, meaning well published and have H-Index. This
implies eventually that H Index could become a requisite.
Fourth, sharply defined focus of journal content. Discipline specific journals
have their own clientele. In the case of JPAIR and IAMURE, given their
multidisciplinary nature, we could publish particular volumes solely for particular
disciplines or within the volume, there is section by discipline. International
Association of Multidisciplinary Research Philippine Association of Institutions
xv
for Research, Inc. Affiliate of Association of Institutions for Research Zone1,
Vamenta Blvd., Kauswagan, Cagayan de Oro City, Mindanao, Philippines SEC
Reg. No. CN200728844 Tel. No: +63 (088) 880-2007, Fax No.+63 (08822) 72-7459
http://www.philair.ph.
Fifth, global readership of the journal from page views to download and
ultimately, citation. Non cited authors are dead in their lifetime. The implication is
even authors have to find readers who could possibly cite them or they die from
anonymity.
English Writing Readability. Readability tests are designed to indicate
comprehension difficulty when reading a passage of contemporary academic
English. To guide teachers and researchers in the proper selection of articles that
suit the comprehension level of users, contributors are advised to use the Flesch
Kincaid readability test particularly the Flesch Reading Ease test. The interpretation
of the score is as follows:
Score Notes
90.0 – 100.00 Easily understandable by an average 11 year old student
60.0 – 70.0 Easily understandable by 13 to 15 year old students
0.0 – 30.0 Best understood by university graduates
Gunning Fog Index. Developed by Robert Gunning, an American Businessman
in 1952, Gunning Fog Index measures the readability of English writing. The index
estimates the years of formal education required to understand the text on a first
reading. A fog index of 12 requires a reading level of a US high school senior
(around 18 years old) or third year college / university in the Philippines.
Plagiarism Detection. Contributors are advised to use a software for plagiarism
detection to increase the manuscript’s chances of acceptance. The editorial office
uses licensed software to screen research articles of plagiarism. The standard set is
80 percent original to pass the plagiarism detection test.
Appropriateness of Citation Format. Contributors to the Asian Journal
of Health are advised to use the citation format prescribed by the American
Psychological Association (APA), Chicago Manual of Style, or the Council of
Science Editors for clinical studies.
Word Count, Spelling and Grammar Checks. Contributors are encouraged to
perform word count for the abstract (200) and the full text (about 4000 or more).
Spelling and grammar checks should be performed prior to submission. The
standard set is 80 percent to pass the Grammarly Software.
xvi
Vol. 9 · August 2012
doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.7719/jpair.v9i1.19
Published Online: August 2012
JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is produced using a QMS
certified to ISO 9001:2008
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Registrars, Inc.; United Kingdom Accreditation Service
Management System (UKAS); and Joint Accreditation System
of Australia & New Zealand (JAS-ANZ).
Learning for Jobs: Flexibile
Learning in Vocational Education
and Training
JANA PETNUCHOVÁ
[email protected]
ROMAN HRMO
Institute of Engineering Pedagogy
Faculty of Materials Science
Trnava, Slovak Republic
Abstract - The article describes importance of vocational education
and training (VET) which can play a central role in preparing young
people for work, developing the skills of adults and responding to
the labour market needs of the economy. The aim of this article is to
highlight the definitions and understandings of vocational education
and training (VET). Countries are now giving the long-neglected topic
of vocational education and training dramatically increased profiles,
reflecting recognition of its economic function. The aim of this article
is to highlight the definitions and understandings of vocational
education and training (VET). Personal philosophy of learning is based
on a person´s own fundamental values. It should provide answers to
the following questions: Why should I study continuously? Where
will success leads to and who will be beneficiaries? Will it be enough
if I benefit from process myself or do I want to help other people to
succeed?
Keywords - education, vocational education and training, vocational
teacher and trainer, labour market, qualification
1
INTRODUCTION
New information and communication technologies exceed the
traditional framework of the learning process. Learning and education
can no longer be viewed as a ritual that one performs only in the earlier
part of life.ICT are being used to cross the barriers of age ,time and
space, bringing lifelong learning to all. People of all ages, in all places
and in all different environmental contexts are learning all the time.
Therefore, regardless of what activities are performing-they comprise
the learning society (Queeney, 1995).
Knowledge is a valuable foundation of all social and cultural
development. However, information society in itself is not sufficiently
challenging to provide a goal for which we should strive. Only
knowledge is not enough. Humanity is more important than mere
knowledge.
The key issue in education is no longer the amount of knowledge
learned, but the ability to use knowledge and know-how. In order
to be able to find the essential knowledge among the information
overload and to be able to apply it in other contexts, people have to
learn the necessary skills. Knowledge and know/how alone, they are
not enough. Information and knowledge can be taught, but skills need
to be learned. The constantly changing environment makes the task
even more challenging. Instead of one uninterrupted educational chain
before entering the labour market, education in the learning society is
a continues process (Korhonen 1997).
Many countries are recognizing that good initial vocational
education and training has a major contribution to make to economic
competitiveness. Many of unskilled jobs which existed in OECD (
Organization for Economic Co-Operation and Development )countries
a generation ago are fast disappearing, either because they have been
replaced by technology or because these countries cannot compete
with less developed countries on labor costs. Instead, OECD countries
need to compete on the quality of goods and service they provide.
That requires a well-skilled labor force, with a range of midd-level
trade, technical and professional skills alongside those high-level skills
associated with university education. More often than not, those skills
are delivered through vocational programmes (Field et al., 2010).
2
Vocational education and training (VET) can play a central role
in preparing young people for work, developing skills of adults
and responding to the labor-market needs o the economy. It means
building a foundation of basic and transferable skills into vocational
qualifications, to reflect a world career flux and development rather
than one job for life. It means renewal of the career guidance profession
to deliver active guidance for all young leaders, well-informed by
knowledge of the labour market and vocational as well as academic
pathways. It means ensuring that teachers and trainers in VET
programmes have up-to–date industry experience (OECD, 2009).
Initial VET is designed to fill the gap providing the needed skills,
and research has shown that it can yield good economic returns from
the public investment involved. Countries with strong initial VET
programmes, like Germany, have been relatively successful in tackling
youth employment.
Historically, many vocational programmes were conceived
as a stepping stone to a single target occupation. But increasing
educational opportunities have challenged this. More and more young
people, including students in vocational programmes, now expect to
enter tertiary and other postsecondary education. For example; one
quarter of Dutch upper secondary vocational students continue into
tertiary VET, and around three-quarters of Korean upper secondary
vocational students do so (OECD, 2010).
Among general academic skills, numeracy and literacy are
of increasing importance in the labour market, and weaknesses in
these fields are very common those in vocational programmes. VET
programmes need to give sufficient weight to these skills, and students
should be systematically assessed at the point of entry to vocational
programmes as to ensure a basic minimum of skills and identify those
in need targeted support (Eurostat,2002).
In a review of adult education and vocational training in Europe,
Tuijnman draws on a range of studies carried out throughout Europe
to identify general trends in European training, and while he states that
countries are moving in different directions, the one common trend he
identifies is the marked quantitative growth in vocational education
and training (VET).
Thus, the concerns of governments and employers alike about
3
vocational training have been reflected by an increased investment into
this area, a number of European studies have argued that economic
success depends on having a competitive high-tech industry, and that
previous underinvestment into VET have undermined European efforts
to respond to changing economic conditions, thus most European
countries are now placing a heavy emphasis on policies to improve job
training“(Tuijman, 1992).
LEARNING FOR FUTURE
Faced with challenges such as intensified global competition, high
numbers of low-skilled workers and an ageing population, vocational
education and training (VET) is vital to prepare individuals for today’s
society and ensure Europe’s future competitiveness and innovation.
The necessity of lifelong learning is not merely a matter of political
will. It involves more aspects than the will to enhance the civilization
of all the citizens. It is also question of changes in the working life
and the challenges business enterprises. The entire industrialized
world continues to live in an extremely rapid pace of change. Parallel
to the persistently high unemployment rate, many areas of European
industry are suffering from a tremendous shortage of skilled
employees. The skills and knowledge of those employees who have
been engaged in working life for a long time are not sufficient for more
demanding tasks. On the other hand, the basic education of children
and young people does not sufficiently encourage them to find out
how they should learn to learn (Markkula, Suurla, 2000).
Personal philosophy of learning is based on a person´s own
fundamental values. It should provide answers to the following
questions: Why should I study continuously? Where will success
lead to and who will be beneficiaries? Will it be enough if I benefit
from process myself or do I want to help other people to succeed?
(Markkula, Suurla, 2000).
This kind of learning, which could be called maintenance learning,
is discussed by the Club of Rome in their book “No limits to Learning”
which was published in 1979 and is considered the basic volume on the
principle of lifelong learning. Traditionally, societies and individuals
have adopted this idea of maintenance of learning, which is only
4
interrupted by short period of reform (Botkin, 1979).
The philosophy of lifelong learning is not only about learning itself
but also about development in learning. Preparation for the unexpected
makes learning more effective both for individuals and society.
Although it has often been said that learning should be enjoyable, the
learners’ ´ duties and responsibilities for the development of their own
skills and the expansion of their scope of thinking are equal importance.
Learning is more effective if it is a goal-oriented. The goal and
career choices, even the meaning of life can change- and perhaps
they should change – during the course of a person´ life. Therefore
the policies lifelong learning should be re-assessed at regular intervals
(Schneeberger, 2007).
If a person learns to learn in early childhood the capacity of learning
will be tremendous enhanced. Learning begins at birth, and the first
four years of life are said to be the most essential for the development
of learning capacity,
The idea of lifelong learning challenges us to put our learning
potential to better use. People aged 65 or more could still learn
effectively and pass on their experiences by advising others and doing
creative work (Hagström, 1997).
As a consequence of educational reforms and developing
knowledge society, there are more initiatives and opportunities to
learn in various contexts, participating in processes of change. The
importance of assessing and recognizing the achievements of nonformal and informal learning has, therefore, increased in this context.
Education policy makers emphasize the necessity of raising the quality
and prestige o vocational education and training (VET), which is highly
dependent on the qualification and competence of vocational teachers.
The course of development processes in VET has caused changes in
the roles of vocational teachers, making their pedagogical activity
more complex and requiring them to make self-supporting decisions.
Teachers are therefore, being encouraged to continuously develop
their competences. It is important stress, that knowledge, skills and
abilities are not gained for life, and they need to be permanently
renewed throughout the care of a teacher (Field et al., 2010).
5
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING
On 22 September 2005 in Copenhagen (OECD 2005), the chief civil
servants of education ministries from across the OECD opened a twoday discussion. Their agenda was wide-ranging. They have been
asked to identify their most important policy priority in education in
the coming years. The answer they gave surprised many, for it was
neither schools nor universities, but in fact, vocational training and
education (VET).
Three factors stand out as reasons for growing interest of policy
makers in VET: economics, strains in the system and previous neglect.
• Economics-since OECD countries cannot compete with less
developed countries on labour costs, they need to compete in
terms of the quality of goods and services they provide. That
means highly skilled labour force, technical and professional
skills alongside those high-level skills associated with university
education (Field et al., 2010).
• Strains – there are strains in VET system. One of them is the lack
of workplace training places, and another is the lack of trainers.
In some countries the rapid expansion of tertiary education
has undermined school-based VET. For example in the United
States a new terminology of career and technical education
has replaced vocational education and training“to reflect an
orientation towards a career rather than a single occupation
(CEDEFOP, 2008).
• VET has been reglected .Challenging issues like how to go
about teaching practical skills, or the rapid expansion of tertiary
programmes, have received limited attention. The perceived low
status of VET has therefore also been a barrier to engagement in
the sector and how it has been viewed analytically. One object
of this review is to remedy this past neglect (Ludvig, Pfeiffer,
2005).
Vocational education and training (VET) includes education and
6
training programmes designed for, and typically to a particular job
or type of job. It normally involves practical training as well as the
learning or relevant theory. It is distinct from (academic) educationfor example in mathematics, which is relevant to a very wide range
of jobs. Education and training for some high level professions such
as medicine and law meets the definition even though they are not
normally described as VET.
Initial VET includes programmes mainly designed for and used by
young people (under 30) at the beginning of their career and commonly
before entering the labour market. It includes many upper secondary
and tertiary programmes.
Continuing VET is all other sorts of VET, including enterprise
training of employees and training provided specially for those who
have lost their job (OECD, 2010).
PHILOSOPHY OF VET
The philosophy of lifelong learning is not only about learning
itself but also about development in learning. Preparation for the
unexpected makes learning more effective both for individuals
and society. Although it has often been said that learning should be
enjoyable, the learners ‘duties and responsibilities for the development
o their own skills and the expansion o their scope o thinking are o equal
importance.
Learning is more effective if it is a goal-oriented. The goal and
career choices, even the meaning o life can change - and perhaps they
should change – during the course o a person´life.Therefore the policies
lifelong learning should be re-assessed at regular intervals (Markkula,
Suurla, 2000).
If a person learns to learn in early childhood the capacity of learning
will be tremendous enhanced. Learning begins at birth, and the first
four years of life are said to be the most essential for the development
of learning capacity,
The idea of lifelong learning challenges us to put our learning
potential to better use. People aged 65 or more could still learn
effectively and pass on their experiences by advising others and doing
creative work. (Hagström, 1997).
7
As a consequence of educational reforms and developing
knowledge society, there are more initiatives and opportunities to
learn in various contexts, participating in processes of change. The
importance of assessing and recognizing the achievements of nonformal and informal learning has, therefore, increased in this context.
Education policy makers emphasize the necessity of raising the quality
and prestige of vocational education and training (VET).which is
highly dependent on the qualification and competence o vocational
teachers. The course of development processes in VET has caused
changes in the roles of vocational teachers, making their pedagogical
activity more complex and requiring them to make self-supporting
decisions. Teachers are therefore, being encouraged to continuously
develop their competences. It is important stress, that knowledge, skills
and abilities are not gained for life, and they need to be permanently
renewed throughout the care of a teacher (Kézdi, 2006).
Learning is the systematic acquisition of new skills in a structured
environment, resulting in a positive transformation of a person´s
behavior .Working is the utilization of skills .Learning therefore leads
to working, and working leads to learning when workers realize that
they lack particular skills necessary for their job. So this is a nutshell
lifelong learning. An interest element in this definition is that learning
is linked with context. Recent studies show that only context-based
learning is effective (Botkin, 1979).
Cross P. and the Dutch Professor M.Boekaerts emphasizes
that learning is far more than teaching. Learning is about making
connections“. Especially cognitive learning strategies, rehearsal,
elaboration and organization (the what of learning) and met cognitive
learning startegies, planning, monitoring, and selfregulation (The how
of learning) are important connections. Experimental connections
are necessary to assure that students conduct an active lifelong
conversation between experience and learning (Queeney, 1995).
DO WE NEED GENERAL SKILLS?
Various studies highlight the importance of general content in
the curriculum. In modern economies an increasing number of jobs,
including blue-collar jobs, require sound generic skills. A study from
8
the United States (Levy, 2003) suggests that technological change has
made problem solving and complex communication skills much more
important in the labour market. The development of these skills is
underpinned by good literacy and numeracy skills (Levy, Murname,
2004).
Labor markets change rapidly and often unpredictably. As virtually
all workers will need to acquire new skills during their career, literacy
and numeracy are particularly valuable in the long run (Kezdi,
2006).Strong literacy and numeracy skills are associated with better
performance on the labour market.
For some students in VET programmes, very weak basic skills are
a serious difficulty. Basic skills problems are widespread, damaging,
often unrecognized, but remediable. It follows that there is a very strong
argument for systematically assessing the literacy and numeracy skills
of students at the point of entry to vocational programmes so as to
identify people in need of support. In Belgium, for example, jobseekers
complete a quick-scan test and, if it necessary, are directed to adult
basic education centers (Basic Skills Agency, 1997).
In many countries, surveys show that employers strongly value soft
skills, such as the ability to work team, communication skills and work
discipline. In Austria for example a survey found that the lack of soft
skills, such as reliability and adequate manners, was a common reason
for rejecting apprenticeship applicants (Schneeberger, 2007).
Other skills, such entrepreneurship, are highly relevant to many
occupations to which VET leads, but have been often neglected in
traditional vocational programmes.Some countries have recognized
the importance of entrepreneurial skills and have created programmes
in this area. In Belgium the Flemish agency for Entrepreneurial
Training (Syntra Vlaanderen) aims to stimulate enterpreneurship.It
offers a range of training programmes, including courses in business
management, entrepreneurial training as part of apprenticeships,
and specific entrepreneurial training at ISCED 4 (The International
Standard Classification of Education) level (Field et al.,2010).
Yet the importance of traditional skills has not declined. Moreover,
people do not master them as well as one might think. As the
International Adult Literacy Survey (IALS) showed, more than a
quarter of all adults in OECD countries do not have adequate skills
9
to function in today’s complex society. While the survey focused on
people’s ability to understand and use texts and illustrated documents,
it revealed that far more was at stake. The massive influx of electronic
tools onto the market has made writing and reading the most important
skills anyone should possess. Paradoxically, the Internet revolution,
electronic mail and global information flows are turning reading and
writing into skills that no-one can do without, be it to search an Internet
site or to apply for a job by e-mail. The range of absolutely essential
core skills has broadened from cognitive skills, whether developed in
initial education or elsewhere, the ability to handle information and
to use a computer, and knowledge of one or more foreign languages.
In addition to these basic skills, there are others that are sometimes
described as new and that give people control over their future in
society and in the work-place. But these new competencies do not
replace traditional skills; they complement and extend them, well
beyond the world of work. Team-working, problem-solving and
ICT (information and communication technology) skills are helping
people to play a full role in society and exercise their rights and duties
as citizens. The IALS (Institute of Advanced Legal Studies) showed a
worrying correlation between economic inequality and different levels
of literacy. Promoting basic skills has always been key to individual
and collective success, and the odds are that this applies to the new
competencies too (Pont, Werquin, 2000).
EU ( European Union) level activities are being developed to
address priority areas in each of the different levels of education
and training – early childhood, school, higher, vocational and adult
education – based on these overall aims.
These include, for example, expanding opportunities for learning
mobility or enhancing partnerships between education and training
institutions and the broader society.
Other actions are relevant to all levels of education, such as
promoting multilingualism, innovation, creativity and adoption of
ICT (Information and Communication Technology).
The benchmarks for 2020 are:
• at least 95% of children between the age of four and the age for
starting compulsory primary education should participate in
10
early childhood education;
• the share of 15-years old with insufficient abilities in reading,
mathematics and science should be less than 15%;
• the share of early leavers from education and training should be
less than 10%;
• the share of 30-34 year olds with tertiary educational attainment
should be at least 40%;
• An average of at least 15 % of adults (age group 25-64) should
participate in lifelong Learning (EC, 2009).
CONCLUSION
To move closer to a knowledge-based society, Europe needs an
innovation strategy to foster investment in, and the quality of human
capital. More effective use of resources, a future oriented style of VET
and new approaches to learning in schools and at work are essential
ingredients of such a strategy. Special attention needs to be given to
key competences, including ICT literacy, learning partnerships and
the creation o learning-conductive environments in all settings. To
move forward, governments should identify the key issues such an
innovation strategy, supported by public-private partnerships and
agreements on innovation pacts with social partners and stakeholders.
On 9 of June 2010, the European Commission presented a 10
year vision for the future of vocational education and training in
the Communication. A New Impetus for European cooperation in
Vocational Education and Training to support the Europe 2020 strategy.
It includes:
• Ensuring access to training and qualifications is flexible and
open at all stages of life
• Promoting mobility to make it easier to gain experience abroad,
or in a different sector of the economy
• Ensuring the highest possible quality of education and training
• Providing more opportunities for disadvantaged groups such
as school drop-outs, the low-skilled and unemployed, people
with migrant backgrounds and the disabled
• Nurturing creative, innovative and entrepreneurial thinking in
11
students
The economies of OECD countries need specific occupational skills
- in professional, managerial and technical jobs, in expanding fields
such as health care, as well as in traditional trades like electricians.
Vocational education and training (VET) systems, which supply these
skills, are now under intensive scrutiny to determine if they can deliver
the skills required, and ensure that they adapt to fast-changing needs
(OECD,2011).
LITERATURE CITED
Botkin,W,J., Mahdi,M.E.
1979 No limts to Learning: Bridging the Human Gap, New York.
Pergamon Press.
Basic Skills Agency
1997 Staying the Course. The relationship between basic skills
support and drop out, retentation and achievement in further
education colleges. Basic skills agency,London.
CEDEFOP
2008 Future Skills needs in Europe-Meduim term-forecast
,Office for Official Publications of the European
Communities,Luxembourg.
Eurostat
2002 European Social Statistics, Continuing Vocational Training
Survey (CVTS2),Luxemburg.
Field,S. Kuczera , M.
2010 Learning for Jobs.Synthetic report of the OECD Reviews
of Vocational Education and Traninig.OECD.
Fokiené, A. Duvekot, R., Gross, M., Lepanjuuri, A., Keurulainen, H.,
Gudzuka, S.
2000 Vocational teachers–Lifelong learners.In :Assessment of Prior
12
Learning in Vocatonal Teacher Education.Handbook for
Assessors. Leonardo da Vinci project “Transfer of Innovative
Methodology for teachers´ Prior Learning“.No .LLP-LdV-TOILLT-OOO4. Tallina : Printing House: Baltic Print & Banners
Hagstrom, A.
1997 The joy of learning. Implementing Lifelong Learning
in the Learning Society; Report of the Theme
Conference of the European Year of Lifelong Learning,
Espoo and Rovaniemi, Finland, 16-20 June 1996
Report 8. Helsinki. ISBN -9789529789061i.
Kézdi,G.
2006 Not only transition.The reasons for declining returns to
vocational education.CERGE_EI.
Korhonen,K. Educating Engineers of the 21.st century-The Challenges
of Higher 1997 Education in Finland.Helsinki.
Levy,F., R.J.Murnane,
2004 Education and the changing job market.Educational leadership.
Vol. 62, No. 2, pp. 80-83.
Ludvig,V., F. Pfeiffer
2005 Abschreibungsraten
allgemeiner
und
Ausbildungsinhalte, ZEW Discussion Paper.
beruflicher
Markkula,M., R.Suurla
2000 Passioin to learn- Benchmarking good Lifelong Practice. (9).
Espoo: International Association for Continuing Engineering
Education (IACEE), Dipoli, Finland
OECD
2009 Education at the Glance.OECD Paris.
OECD
2010 Designing Local Skills Strategies.OECD,Paris.
13
OECD
2011 Access to Participation,Education and Progress.OECD.
Pont, B., Werquin ,P.
2000 Literacy in a Thousand Words, The OECD Observer No. 223.
Schneeberger, A.
2007 Hemmende und fornderde Faktoren der Lehrlingsufnahme,
Ergenisse einer Lehrbetriebsbefragung,IBW-Bildung and
Wirthschaft No 41.
Tuijman,A.C.
1992 The expansion of adult education and trainig in Europe,Trends
and Issuses.International Review of education 38. Quintini
G.,Manfredi,T. Going Separate Ways?School-to-Work Transition
in the United States and Europe.OECD Social,Employment
and Migration Working Paper No.90,OEDC,Paris.2009.
Queeney,D,S.
1995 Assessing Needs in Continuing Education-An Essential Tool for
Quality Improvement.1.st .edition,Jossey-Bass Inc.,Publishers.
http://ec.europa.eu/education/lifelong-learning- policy/
framework_en.htm
Pursuant to the international character of this publication, the journal is
indexed by the following agencies: (1)Public Knowledge Project, a consortium of
Simon Fraser University Library, the School of Education of Stanford University,
and the British Columbia University, Canada; (2) E-International Scientific Research
14
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
The Study of Effect Meta Theoretical
Curricula’s Implementation in Educational
Performances of Tehran Universities in
Educational Science
MOHAMMAD REZA SARMADI
Payame Noor university ,Tehran, Iran
HASSAN SHAHRAKI POUR
Azad University, Roudehen, Iran
NEGAR ELHAMIAN
[email protected]
Kharazmi University,Tehran, Iran
Abstract - This research program to study the application
performance Meta theory Education Faculty of Educational Sciences at
the University of Tehran in the year 89-88 has been done. The aim of this
study is to examine that faculty of Educational Science, the curriculum
specialists and executives, to what extent the common teaching of
basic and fundamental vision benefit and which has higher priority.
The research in this study is a descriptive survey approach. Measuring
the validity and reliability of the questionnaire with 30 questions in
4 Meta theories Miller, Eisner, Hunecke, Walker and Questionnaire
in the five-choice Likert scale was determined. Was appointed and
Based on simple random sampling method and survey a sample of 87
people and then run the data analysis software SPSS 17. Descriptive
statistics were used in the indicator of central tendency. In order to
determine the relationship between variables in inferential statistics,
k- square method was used. Also the Friedman test analysis was used
to determine priorities.
15
The results of the survey questions suggest that Merit-oriented
elements in the Miller Performance Training Meta theory Faculty of
Educational Sciences at the University of Tehran to other applications.
This means that goals in education are used more tangible, more
visible and more specific cognitive characteristics.
Keyword - Curriculum, Meta theory, Educational Function,
implementation, Educational performance, Tehran University.
INTRODUCTION
At century 21, the curriculum was tried to facilitate at teaching and
learning as special domain for conceptualizing problems pertain to
human. For this purpose, there are different attitudes that are trying
to present curriculum as human structure at teaching and learning
course and evaluate it (Fathi Vajargah, 2011).
In fact, curriculum is alive phenomenon and its living are cited as it
divides as two classes those points to planning curriculum and some
domains that point to other sections that were cited in teaching and
learning. And can meet expectations, dreams and beliefs for society.
The thinkers for curriculum domains believe that this program has
a strong background and many courses like; psychology, sociology
and so on are extracted from this course. Whereas, the concentration
upon cases like; learning, research and the studies pertain to growth
and human evolution can be important in this course. There are many
important cases that pertain to lesson case like; Eisner, Huenecke,
Walker, Miller, Pioneer and Hemiyear and someone cites that we
can cite it more (Mehrmohamadi, 2011). Today, this methodology
can be increase its efficiency and one of the educational problem
are planning, and this problem can be site in curriculum and in this
respect, there is many problems that the supreme education confronts
with graduation and performance for graduation is important. The
high volume of contents, non lacking horizontal relation between them
and asymmetry curriculum with course can be important. Perhaps, the
decline for graduation and none lacking for society needs and another
part are so important.
All contents cited above were cited by thinkers and students by
16
academic and experimental pint of view as for a different definition,
and it provides that the researcher can play a role of Meta theory for
planning course and the performance for students can be important,
and we want to know that what is scale of their role? Do people who
have significant in this course, can play a different role? Do these
members can apply their role for educational performance?
Thus, this research can try to answer to this question and cite mat
theory in this field and discusses the effects of planning course upon
educational performance by the scientific committee for reducing
problems.
FRAMEWORK
Curriculum review shows that in many studies, the role of teachers
and administrators in curriculum planning has been considered
(Izadi, 2005). Faculty participation in curriculum planning has deep
historical roots and it is considered in various specialized works
(Guff, 2007). For curriculum planning, experts have proposed various
steps that despite the similarities in the type and number of steps,
there are differences between their views (Luttuca, 2009, Sturk, 2009,
Oliva, 2005, Eisner, 2002). Curriculum topic, set topics and issues
such as curriculum resources in the implementation and operation
are included. Curriculum theorists have brought about many matters
of curriculum components and concepts, interpretation and research
case definitions have been provided. These efforts are the first step in
formulating theories of curriculum, but should be considered in this
process.
Curriculum theory, intertwined set of perception, interpretation and
analysis of phenomena related to the curriculum. The phenomenon of
the curriculum includes: Overt and hidden curriculum that provides
learning opportunities for students in the school and the absence of the
curriculum, which can lead to learning issues.
This part of the curriculum by Eisner «null curriculum» has been
called (Eisner, 1979). The views expressed by the planning scheme
in higher education include behavioural approaches, thematic,
social, growth-oriented, cognitive process, humanistic, whole person
oriented or beyond. Meta theories are set of interconnected roles
17
include principles, rules or descriptions about what is both acceptable
and unacceptable and it means to explore the principles of a science
concept.
For example, a meta-theory may change the shape and make a
change or a new way to better understand a subject or topic is raised.
Curriculum is presented in the literature that the most important and
most diverse Meta theoretical curricula’s this classification examine
the theories of curriculum:
Table 1: Meta theories’ factor
Factor
Merit Orientation
Meta Theories’
Cultural
Orientation
Subject Matter Orientation
Growth Orientation
Cognitive
Orientation
Purposeful
Orientation
Miller
Social Adaptation and
social Reconstruct
Curriculum
As Technology
Personal Relevance
Academic
Rationalism
Development of
cognitive
processes
Eisner
Describe
scientific and
scholarly
Curriculum
Conceptualization Curriculum
Curriculum
Design
Theory
Rationalize
Curriculum
Walker
Theories of
Curriculum
Legitimization
Structural
Curriculum
Theories
Process
Theories
of curriculum
Conceptual
Model
Hemiyear
Re conceptualists
Conceptual Empiricists
Traditionalists
Pioneer
Substantive
Generic
Theorizing
Structural
Theorizing
Huencke
OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY
The objectives of the study are to determine the effect Meta
theoretical curricula’s implementation in educational performances of
Tehran universities in educational science: (1) to study and identify the
scale of cognitive process upon educational performance; (2) to study
and identify the effect of conceptualization upon planning course;
(3) to study and identify the function of orientation system upon
18
educational performance; (4) to study and identify the scale of generic
scale upon educational performance
MATERIALS AND METHODS
In all research performed in the field of human sciences and
education domain, the aim is to determine the relation between
phenomenon and different events. Therefore, for reaching this aim, we
have to evaluate the relation between the systems and the variables.
One of the important methods is its methodology. As for this aim and
evaluation for this system, we can find the variables that for this research
and the descriptive method is basic. In the present research, collection
data was performed based on asking questions that confirmed before
and, the descriptive method is evaluative.
Statistical society:
Statistical society consists of the scientific committee from
educational universities at Tehran and between 10 universities like;
Alame Tabatabaee, Tehran, Alzahra, Shahid Rejaee, Shahed, Payeme
nour, Research and science branch for Islamic Azad University,
Tarbiate Moalem and Tarbiyate Modarres at 2009-2010 total 116.
Volume sample statics:
For determining statistics sample, there are different methods
and was used from Morgan table and based on this table, number of
sample people is 87.
Sampling:
At sampling method, it was used simple randomly sampling as
well as occasional method. For this purpose, the list of the scientific
committee was prepared and after coordination the meeting was
appointed and, the day that the scientific committee has to respond
to questions was counted Referred at universities. At first, as for
conditions and limitation for time, the questionnaire distributed and
19
the remained were removed. In this field some of the professors were
not available and, at last, the 87 questionnaire were collected.
Tools for collecting:
The questionnaire was selected as only tools for collecting data.
Usually, it is estimated that the data derived from the questionnaire
are a reflection of mind networks for orientation and, relation between
individuals. At this field, there wasn’t questionnaire and it was
necessary to regulate questionnaire based on Lickert scale. Thus, the
questionnaire was prepared that consisted of 30 questions at 5 options
as if 5 (very much) and 1 (very low) is displayed.
Statistical method:
In this research, for determining the scale of meta theory upon
educational performance for the scientific committee , the variables
like average, display, mode deviant and abundant table and at
analyzing data, it was used two single Spearman correlation factor and
one way variance. In this research, the depend and in depend variable
were integrated and, scale for evaluation were not different that is
indispensable. Used from non parametric variable. In this test, there
are many parameters that used from Friedman test. This test is similar
as test F and based on minimum average evaluation.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
For the first question that what is scale of orientation systems upon
educational performance for the scientific committee? The results
derived from Spearman correlation show that the members attention
to individual differences, use of educational idioms and believed
that the skilful learner has valuable and, he can find many values
from this aim for studying and teaching. Between Meta theory for
Eisner, miller, Huencke and walker, there is converse relation between
medium average that is the people with another relation can find
many variables that use from Huencke relation with variable ( -0/45)
and walker variable( -0/42) that confirm this variable. As displayed, the
20
scales of two calculations have many effects upon suitable orientation
and planning course for the scientific committee based on Miller Meta
theory.
Table2: Miler result
Chi-Square
Df
Sig.
49/95
4
0000
For the second question what is the scale of generic variable for
planning course upon educational performance for the scientific
committee based on Huencke variable? The results derived from
Spearman correlation show that generic variable for planning course
has low effect upon educational performance for the scientific
committee. This Meta theory cites that we have to give more attention
in freedom, awareness, personality, thoughts and feelings for the
learner. They believed that education all respects and transmit many
values. But, as what happened at education learner and controls him,
thus it can be cited as a new field.
Based on the results derived from Spearman generic variable,
there is converse relation between its variables used by the scientific
committee for Tehran University. As displayed, the number of its scale
21
shows that generic variable influences upon educational performance.
Table 3: Huencke result
Chi-Square
Df
Sig.
18/115
4
0/001
At question three, that what scale of cognitive process influences
upon planning course? The results show that the cognitive process has
low effect upon Eisner Meta theory for educational performance and
this variable can influence another part that Eisner believes that this
method can be suitable in this region and can enhance logical process.
This capability can help to learners that enhances their learning. We can
consider the problem and don’t consider it between lesson processes.
At learning process, there are 4 theories based on their results, there
are direct relations between them and as displayed, the number of chisquare shows that cognitive process influences low upon Eisner Meta
theory.
Table 4: Eisner result
Chi-Square
Df
Sig.
23/747
4
0.000
At question 4, that to what scale, the conceptualization curriculum
walker Meta theory influence upon educational performance foe
scientific committee?
The results derived from Spearman correlation show that the
scientific committee had located walker variable based on John dewy
thoughts and believed that curriculum have to solve their problems
and enhance the methods for thoughts and apply it in educational
cycle. The most important point that was cited is the students consider
their problem and their professors play a role of directors. Because the
most important question is applying direct answers and considering
22
curriculum as new filed at educational performance; thus they believe
in critic and discussion of problems.
It is derived that based on results from Spearman and
conceptualization for Meta theory walker, there is a direct relation
between them that is the persons use it, utilize from two theories. As
displayed, and as for the number of K-square, it shows that educational
performance for the scientific committee at Tehran universities, they
exploit average of conceptualization variable for curriculum.
Table 5: Walker result
Chi-Square
Df
Sig.
17/310
2
0/002
CONCLUSIONS
General concluding after discussion 4 generic variable, cognitive
process, suitable method and conceptualization at 4 theories like;
Huencke, Eisner, Miller and Walker is explained that the members of the
scientific committee used Miller meta theory more at their educational
performance and the more their studying scale were based on
attention to individual differences, lowering subject parts at studying
and increase awareness for people who involve at universities and this
research shows that this application has theory base. The result shows
that the scientific committee members of Tehran universities confirm
upon suitability in their educational performance. Of course it is not
that they don’t use another theory but, their activity is confirmed this
Meta theory. The results pointed in non parametric test for Friedman
that confirms that miller Meta theory has more priority than other
Meta theories.
23
LITERATURE CITED
Izadi, S.
2005 “Teacher’s participatory Role in Decentralization of curriculum
Development;” in: M. Rezaie (Ed.); curricula and Methods of
teaching, cuidence and counseling, assessment and evaluation;
Tehran: institute for educational research (in persian).
Bates, M. J.
2005 An introduction to Metatheories , theories, and models,
Theories of information behavior ,edited by Karen E. fisher
Sandra Erdelez and Lynne (E. F) Mckechine .Medrord.
Beauchamp ,G.A.
1981 Curriculum Theory. Fourth edition. Wilmette Illionois : The
Kagg press.
Eisner, E.W.
1979 The educational imagination. Macmillan publisher.
Ellis, R.
1993 Quality Assurance for University Teaching: Issue and
Approaches” , in Ellis, R . (Ed). Quality Assurance for
University Teaching. Bristol: Open University Press.
Fathi vajargah, K
2011 Principle and concept in curriculum. (Nashre ostadan
publisher). Tehran, Iran.
Gough , N .
2003 Intertextual turns in curriculum inquiry: fictions, diffraction and
deconstruction. Submitted in fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Doctor of philosophy , Deakin University ,
Agust. 2003
Gaff, J.
2007 “What if the faculty really do assume responsibility for the
24
educational Program?”; Liberal Education, Vol. 93, No.4, pp.
6-13.
Kliebard ,H .
2004 The struggle for the American curriculum . NewYork : Rotledge
Falmer.
Lattuca, L. and Stark, J.
2009 shaping the college curriculum: Academic plans in context;
San Francisco: Jossey – Bass.
Mehrmohamadi, M
2011 The curriculum Theory . (Samt publisher). Tehran, Iran.
Nudzor .H. P.
2009 A critical commentary on combined methods approach to
researching educational and social issues. Issues in educational
research.(2)19.
25
certified to ISO 9001:2008 by the Anglo Japanese American
Academic Reading Proficiency
of Freshmen in the College of Education
of DMMMSU-SLUC:
Input to the Design of Instructional
Modules for English 101
DIONISIO M. UYCHOCO
dmmmsu-sluc.org
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial State University
La Union, Philippines
Abstract - The study described the academic reading proficiency
level of incoming college freshmen which served as an input to the
design of learning modules. It used a validated 50-item researchermade test and two sets of questionnaires to determine the adequacy
of learning activities and the extent of utilization of academic reading
strategies by content area teachers. The research found the studentrespondents unprepared for college work given the moderate
academic reading proficiency index. Concerned language and content
area teachers failed to provide enough learning activities and sufficient
opportunity and training in the use of academic reading strategies that
will enhance students’ level of proficiency in content area reading. It
is recommended that topics designed to develop academic reading
skills of senior high school students be included in the course content
in secondary schools; that English teachers provide more learning
activities and experiences expected in content area reading; and that
content area teachers become active reading teachers by facilitating
comprehension through the use of time-tested academic reading
strategies.
26
Keywords - academic reading strategies, proficiency test, content
area reading, instructional materials
INTRODUCTION
The quality of an institution and that of a system of higher education
are determined to a considerable extent by the abilities of those who
are admitted and retained as students. The global education sector
asserts this to be more than a fact, be it in basic education, collegiate, or
graduate studies level. Significantly, the issue of quality has snowballed
into a concern among public and private education sectors anywhere
in the world today. It is quite interesting to note that same has been
prevalent even among the premier colleges and universities in the
United States (LAO Report, 2001). The same has become a truism in
fully developed countries where compliance to continuing program
accreditation has become a catchword if not a status symbol among
colleges and universities that have the proclivity of maintaining
their stature on the map of excellence in higher education. Besides
continuing program accreditation, the performance rating of students
in licensure examinations determines to a large extent a college’s or a
university’s success or failure in its ability to produce quality graduates.
Fine performance in licensure examinations guarantees that taxpayers’
money is not wasted on individuals who do not have the will or are less
than ready to succeed in their studies. In other words, this implies that
the success or failure of a university depends on the success or failure
of the students who venture on a career. Obviously, this advances the
fact that a student’s degree of preparation in the basic education level
has positive significant effect to his success in college. The common
denominator then is a student’s degree of preparation. The question
is: how prepared are high school graduates to undergo the rigors of
college education?
In an electronically published news from the Association for Career
and Technical Education (ACTE), University officials of the California
State University (CSU) reported that more than two-thirds of freshmen
arrive “unprepared” for college level reading, writing or mathematics.
Lois Romano, The Washington Post Staff Writer, reported that the
reading proficiency of college graduates has declined in the past
27
decade with no obvious explanation. The report was based on the result
of an Adult Literacy Assessment given to some 19,000 sixteen year
olds or older. The Assessment which focused on reading proficiency
and mathematics pointed out glaring difficulties in reading tables,
following instructions, understanding labels, comparing viewpoints
on prose materials, locating facts on a document, general reading
comprehension; and using the library. Experts assume that this could
be attributed to the failure or lack of will by most state schools to select
the best from high school graduates for the sheer purpose of bolstering
enrollment.
This searing reality finds sharp congruency in Philippine setting
where the issue on quality college freshmen and quality graduates
seem not a real concern to bother anyone. State funded higher
education institutions are constantly being pressured to address the
issue over quality inputs (freshmen) and quality outputs (graduates).
In the local perspective, Ana Marie Pamintuan in her hard-hitting
column “Sketches” mentioned that 700,000 graduating high school
students – more than half of batch 2007 – are unfit for college, or that
rather than take technical-vocational education, a third of the graduates
prefer to become dancers and actors … for lack of aptitude for college.
The foregoing observations leave us no room for complacency. At this
point, a common denominator is clearly discernible: poor academic
reading skills of freshmen pose a threat to their success. This is a pretty
good reason that alarms us all.
Generally, high school students are spoon-fed, so to speak. The
result: freshmen feel lost at the cutting edge in tertiary education. In
great proportion, the precollege years of students are strongly shaped
and influenced by their high school teachers who perform the role of
the good and typical “classroom provider.” This results in a systemic
overdependence of students on their teachers which is likewise
aggravated by the severe lack of instructional materials particularly
textbooks that greatly boost student performance in the content areas
in particular and in their reading skills in general. Unwittingly and
perhaps due to the lack of flexibility, skill, and foresight, teachers in
the secondary level inadvertently deprive their students the chance to
work on their own to acquire and develop necessary coping skills for
them to survive in a university.
28
One of these coping mechanisms every freshman must possess
before entering a university is a well-developed array of study skills
extensively manifested in his reading skills in the content courses across
the curriculum. Academic reading, reinforced by class lectures in the
content areas as social sciences, biology, psychology, anthropology,
humanities, computer science, and many more, has become the
main medium in most academic classrooms in universities. As such,
incoming freshmen are expected to toe the line if they are to succeed
in academics besides the fact that this requires a great deal of applying
the language skills they have learned and acquired.
Conversely, reading activities in the tertiary level are more focused,
more direct, and more purposeful than the reading activities students
used to have in high school. As content areas become rich sources of
input for reading activities, the reading materials presented become
increasingly more technical and scientific, offering greater demands
upon the students’ comprehension skills. It is within this perspective
that content area teachers come in and play one important role.
The above mentioned reality has been exacerbated by the recent
paradigm shift being aggressively advanced in the teaching and
learning environment in the education system more particularly in
the tertiary level. With this present change of roles in the teaching
and learning environment, many freshmen often feel lost in big
campuses knowing not how to cope with the mainstream learning
trends employed by the experienced ones within the existing set up.
The reason is that many freshmen are ill-prepared and have difficulty
adapting to the new system.
DMMMSU more particularly the South La Union Campus in Agoo,
La Union, has its own share of the aforementioned dilemma as regards
the poor academic reading skills of its college freshmen. A more
glaring evidence of this is the annual measly performance of freshman
applicants in the English Proficiency Test which is an integral part of
the DMMMSU College Admission Test.
For this reason, there is a felt need to strengthen and enhance
reading instruction to enable unprepared students to cope with the
demands in college, particularly among those who will eventually
become teachers. Interestingly, the role of content area teachers expands
beyond mere instruction on content, for likewise; they serve as reading
29
teachers indirectly. This bridges the gap between the demands of
comprehending texts and the comprehension competencies of many
students. It is assumed therefore, that the content area teachers play a
crucial role by not merely suppressing the problem but by arresting it
as well, for unless these students receive adequate help from teachers
in making sense from reading materials in subject areas, they may find
themselves in the losing end.
In today’s educational context, where no student is to be left behind,
every content area teacher has a responsibility to help students access,
read, and understand texts successfully and productively. To achieve
this end, there is a felt need to enhance if not overhaul the existing
academic reading instructional strategies. At this point, retooling
the content of English 101 (Study and Thinking Skills) by seeing it as
academic reading-based is one measure to ease the problem and in
the present dearth of instructional materials which are institutionally
validated and recognized the need for this study gains much stronger
ground.
FRAMEWORK
Indisputably, college students read to learn. This is a clear departure
from learning to read in the elementary, and to some extent, even
in secondary schools. Reading to learn gains support from the
constructivists’ view of teaching. Constructivism spouses the theory of
learning which posits that students learn by actively constructing their
own knowledge (Colker; Schcolnik, 2006). Constructivism portrays
the reader as actively building a mental representation by combining
new information from the text with previously acquired knowledge
(Spivey, 1989).
Radical as it is, constructivism relegates rote memorization of facts
in the backseat while it supports the idea of problem solving as its
centerpiece. Ultimately, constructivists promote pedagogical practices
that are geared toward developing the productive skills of the learners
giving teachers enough information to uncover what learners want to
learn and how to organize activities that will induce the learners to
construct meaning, comprehend, and gain knowledge (Colker, 2006).
In support, Jackeline and Martin Brooks, in The Case for Constructivist
30
Classrooms, explained that people construct their own understanding
and knowledge of the world, through experiencing things and reflecting
on those experiences. Learners are seen, not as mere accumulators but
active creators of their own knowledge. This is reinforced by Schcolnik,
Kol, and Abarbanel (2006) citing von Glasersfeld (1995) and Duffy and
Cunningham (1996). Accordingly, concepts cannot be transferred from
teachers to students – they have to be conceived and that learning is a
process that involves active construction and not passive acquisition.
With this premise in view, and with the most conducive learning
environment, tools and equipment, and without dismissing the active
role of the teacher or the value of expert knowledge, the students learn
how to learn. The development of the students’ study and thinking
skills is a crucial adjunct to this learning perspective.
Constructivism recognizes the value and importance of prior
knowledge, or schema, including concurrent experiences, multiple
information sources, social negotiations of meaning and integration of
new understandings and existing knowledge networks (Shymansky,
1994).
Spivey (1989) mentioned that central to the constructivists’ view is
the concept of organization – not only organization of the knowledge
that readers bring with them, such as schemata, frames, and scripts,
but also the organization of the text and of the mental representation
built from the reading text. Briefly, readers must be able to approach
texts knowing how texts are conventionally organized and knowing
how to use text structure in forming representations.
In relation to this, Rummelhart (1976) explained how people learn
through the schema theory – a theory about knowledge – which
impacts both reading research and instruction. Schema (singular
for schemata) represents an individual’s stored knowledge such as
knowledge of the world, knowledge about language, and knowledge
about text structures. Added to this is the information on how to
use this knowledge. In short, a schema serves as a building block of
cognition or knowledge. An important principle, schemata or prior
knowledge posits that we cannot learn new information unless we can
link it with something we already know. Learning, therefore, depends
largely on the store of knowledge an individual has.
Hermosa (2002) echoes the work of Anderson & Pearson (1984)
31
regarding the use of schema in reading as an interactive process by
Rummelhart (1976). The schema theory asserts that meaning is absent
in a text, whether spoken or written, and that meaning is created only
by using background knowledge (schemata). Prior knowledge (in the
reader’s memory) interacts and helps in processing and clarifying the
incoming information (from the text) and how this knowledge must
be organized to support this interaction. More elaborately, two sets
of schemata – the reader’s and that of the text – come into play in a
reading act. Based on the theory, comprehension is greatly controlled
by the extent to which the reader’s and the text’s schemata match. It
can be deduced therefore, that the nearer the match between these two
schemata is, the better, if not keener is the comprehension. In a capsule,
prior knowledge is a keystone in reading comprehension.
This view of reading as a linking of previous knowledge with the
information in a text gives birth to some important implications more
particularly in classroom reading instruction. First, teachers must assist
readers in making a connection between what they already know about
a topic and that which is presented in a reading text before, during, and
after reading. Second, teachers must be acquainted with the different
types of text structure through timely exposure to a broad range of
reading materials like stories, news articles, poetry, essay and the like.
Moreover, both teachers and students become aware that reading is
an active, purposeful, and meaning-centered activity and that there
is a need to recognize the personal, social, and academic purposes for
reading. Lastly, content area teachers must observe a dynamic use of
strategies that guide readers to retrieve prior knowledge.
By its very nature, content area reading can be equated with
academic reading which finds a strong underpinning on contentbased instruction (CBI). Brinton, Snow, & Wesche (2003) as cited
by James (2006) explained that allied to academic reading in both
principle and practice, content-based instruction (CBI) is a language
teaching approach taking center stage in education setup today more
particularly in the secondary level. In its strictest sense, it refers to the
concurrent teaching of academic subject matter and second language
skills. With a combined focus on form and experiential techniques, it
aims to eliminate the artificial separation that exists between language
instruction and subject matter classes in most educational setup.
32
The enhancement of academic reading skills especially among
college freshmen likewise finds strong parallelism in the theoretical
underpinning of English for Specific Purposes which is a ‘hands on’
and skills-based approach in English Language Teaching. Hutchinson
and Waters (1990) contend that as English becomes the accepted
international language of technology and commerce, it has created
a new generation of learners who know specifically why they are
learning a language – businessmen and women who want to sell their
products, mechanics who have to read instruction manuals, doctors
who need to keep with developments in their field and a whole range
of students whose course of study include textbooks and journals
only available in English. All these and many others need English and
they know why they need it. Precisely, students know how to work
and function gainfully with it and carry the skills learned from it as a
lifelong useful experience.
In a nutshell, the figure below recaps the theoretical backbone upon
which this study was anchored.
Figure 1. The Theoretical Framework
Conceptual Framework
Academic reading is also referred to as subject matter reading
and reading in the discipline. It embodies what reading theorists
33
and experts call “reading to learn.” These terms refer to reading,
understanding, learning, and using content areas, subject matter, or
texts in the discipline such as science, history, or literature, for the
purpose of gaining, demonstrating, and possibly creating knowledge
in that discipline.
The pivotal question however, is whether students are proficient
or not in academic reading across content areas. If not, where do they
fall short of and to what extent in terms of proficiency? Proficient
academic readers typically possess the ability to apply useful study
skills and strategies in various learning situations. Likewise, he has a
profound understanding of the nature of reading texts and the many
forms they take.
Successful academic readers are those who possess mastery of the
following important skills. First, the reader understands meaning.
He must be able to deduce the meaning of unfamiliar words and
word groups, establish the relationships clearly among sentences
and recognize implications, categorize conceptual meanings, like
comparison, purpose, cause and effect. Second, the reader understands
relationships in the text. He considers text structure, assesses the
communicative value of sentences; spot relations between the parts of a
text through lexical and grammatical cohesion devices and indicators in
discourse. Third, the reader marks out important points, distinguishes
main ideas from supporting details; recognizes supported claims
and claims unsupported by evidence – fact from opinion; extracting
salient points to summarize; following an argument; reading critically
and evaluating the text. Fourth, the reader employs efficient reading
practices like surveying the text, chapter or article, skimming for
gist or general impression; scanning to locate specifically required
information and reading quickly. Finally, the reader is a note taker and
an efficient user of notes.
Content area teachers play a very important role in the development
of academic reading skills of college students as they provide the
authentic texts in various forms. With constant use of reading strategies
students gain proficiency in content topics and at the same time gain
proficiency in reading.
These academic reading skills and strategies are expected to be
utilized not only by English teachers during their reading classes but
34
also by content area teachers as they take up content topics. This means
that the content area teachers perform a two-way function: that of
becoming content area teachers and that of becoming reading teachers.
Obviously, it is bringing the act of reading outside the confines of the
regular English class into the content area classes. This is the original
concept of academic reading or reading in the content areas.
To simulate the real meaning and essence of academic reading or
at least to approximate what really takes place in content area classes
where much reading takes place, the reading teacher in a regular
English class uses subject matter-specific texts as launch pads. In this
manner the teacher brings the students closer to the actual learning
experiences in their respective subject areas. A dual purpose now
emerges: the students develop their reading skills and at the same time
learn content area topics.
With the above concepts, one thing becomes clear: that fundamental
to any learning activity in college is reading and central to any act of
reading is comprehension (Forgan, Harry W. and Charles T. Mangrum
II, 1990).
This study was conducted to determine the level of academic reading
proficiency of freshmen in the College of Education in DMMMSUSLUC which was a chief input to the design and development of
instructional modules for English 101. Likewise, this study looked into
the level of adequacy of learning activities in English 101 in terms of
developing academic reading proficiency and the extent of utilization
of academic reading skills and strategies by content area teachers.
The Descriptive Research Design was used in this study. It
attempted to get the current academic reading proficiency level of the
students in the College of Education by way of deriving data from a
120 incoming freshmen in the said College. This served as one of the
inputs that determined the nature of intervention measure to be done
to upgrade their reading skills.
35
A validated 50-item researcher-generated Academic Reading
Proficiency Test was used as the primary data-gathering tool to
determine the academic reading proficiency level of the respondents.
Secondarily, two sets of questionnaires were used to gather two sets of
perceptions: (1) the perception of the respondents as to the adequacy
level of learning activities in the course English 101that develop
academic reading proficiency; and (2) the perception of the respondents
as regard the extent of instructional utilization of academic reading
skills and strategies by content area teachers.
Frequency count, percentage, arithmetic mean (simple mean) were
the statistical tools used in analyzing the data in this study. Frequency
count and percentage were used to determine the academic reading
proficiency level of the respondent groups along the identified
academic reading areas.
For the perceived level of adequacy of learning activities in English
101 and the perceived extent of utilization of reading strategies by
content area teachers, the arithmetic mean (or simple mean) was used.
In general, the college freshmen in the College of Education
manifested a Moderate Proficiency level in academic reading.
Specifically, the freshmen showed low proficiency level in vocabulary
skills, reading comprehension skills, and note taking skills. As to the
adequacy level of learning materials and activities in English 101, the
sophomores who took the course during the previous semester were
given Moderately Adequate learning activities and experiences that
enhanced their academic reading proficiency on all six areas included
in this study. This study likewise found out that the sophomores were
exposed to academic reading strategies only moderately by content
area teachers in their classes.
Based on the above-mentioned findings, a set of Learning Modules
for English 101 was developed as a material to enhance the academic
reading proficiency of students in the College of Education of
DMMMSU SLUC.
36
CONCLUSIONS
The freshmen enrolled in the College of Education lack the necessary
preparation to assume college work as manifested in their moderate
academic reading proficiency level. As to the current adequacy level
of learning activities in English 101, the result of this study suggests
that teachers handling the course failed to provide their students
more than enough learning activities that will enhance their academic
reading proficiency. Significantly, content area teachers, particularly
those handling General Education Courses did not provide students
sufficient opportunity and training in the use of academic reading
strategies that will enhance their level of proficiency in content area
reading.
RECOMMENDATIONS
To arrest the prevailing problem, the following frontline measures
must be implemented.
First, topics that will develop the academic reading skills of senior
high school students must be included in the course content of fourth
year high school during the last quarter of the school year to prepare
them for college work.
Second, teachers in English 101 should provide varied and more
than adequate learning activities and experiences which approximate
what students are expected to do in content area reading.
Finally, content area teachers must go beyond being mere
content area teachers. They must assist their students in facilitating
comprehension by making them use time-tested academic reading
strategies. This makes content area teachers active reading teachers as
well.
LITERATURE CITED
Forgan, H. W. and C. T. Mangrum II.
1990 Teaching Content Area Reading Skills: A Modular Preservice
and Inservice Program, Fourth Edition. London: Merrill
Publishing Company.
37
Hermosa, N.
2002 The Psychology of Reading. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Open University.
Hutchinson, T. and A. Waters
1990 English for Specific Purposes: A Learning Centered Approach. New York: Cambridge University Press.
James, M. A.
2006 Transfer of Learning From a University Content-Based EAP
Course. TESOL Quarterly, 40: 783–806. doi: 10.2307/40264308
Pamintuan A. M.
“Sketches” (The Philippine Star, March 23, 2007:14)
Romano, L.
2005 Literacy of College Graduates Is on Decline:Survey’s Finding
of a Drop in Reading Proficiency Is Inexplicable, Experts Say.
The Washington Post Sunday, December 25, 2005; Page A12.
Rummelhart, D.
1980 Schemata: The Building Blocks of Cognition in Hermosa,
Nemah.
2002 The Psychology of Reading. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Open University
Schcolnik, M., S. Kol, and J. Abarbanel
2006 Constructivism in Theory and in Practice.
Forum. Vol. 44, Number 4.
English
Teaching
Spivey, N. N.
1989 Construing Constructivism: Reading Research in the United States. Occasional Paper No. 12.
38
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Competencies in the Workplace
of the Bachelor of Science in
Fisheries Graduates of the Western
Philippines University
ELSA CARMEN N. MONTAÑO
Western Philippines University,
Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines
NELSON S. SALVADOR
Holy Trinity University
Puerto Princesa City, Palawan, Philippines
Abstract - This study was conducted to assess the Bachelor of Science
in Fisheries’ graduates competencies and how they fare in their job as
assessed by the employers. The study employed the descriptive survey
and correlational methods of inquiry using a prepared questionnaire
that involved 46 graduates. The data gathered were statistically
treated and analyzed with the use of frequency, percentages, mean,
ranking, weighted mean, Chi-square and Cramer’s coefficient. Results
revealed that most of the graduates were employed in the government
agencies. The graduates’ competencies were indicative that they can
work with others. Employers confirmed the graduates are capable
and very prepared for work. A Significant association existed
between the graduates’ nature and status of employment in terms of
present employment status, place of work and employing skills and
their professional preparation as to reasons for taking the course.
The employers’ assessment of the graduates in terms of their job
performance, quality of graduates being employed, employment skills
and other skills were significantly associated to the graduates reasons
39
for taking the course. The study concluded that graduates nature and
status of employment are the results of their professional preparation.
Keywords - fisheries course, competencies, employers’ assessment,
nature of employment, workplace, job placement and skills
INTRODUCTION
Fisheries play an important role in the global provision of food
directly accounting for at least 15 percent of the animal protein
consume by humans and indirectly supporting food production by
aquaculture and livestock industries (Myers, et al., 2010). According
to Palma (2009), it provides about 50 percent of animal protein in the
Philippines, or as high as 80 percent for coastal areas.
Based on the economic role of fisheries in the national economy,
the Fisheries and Aquaculture Organization (FAO) states that, the
Philippines ranked eleventh among the top fish producing countries
in the world in 2003, with production of 2.63 million tonnes of fish,
crustaceans, mollusks and aquatic plants (including seaweed). Such
potential of fisheries resources can be attributed to the Philippines
as an archipelago that is composed of more than 7,100 islands with
a total coastline length of about 18,000 kilometers. The total land
area of water ratio is 1:7 with a land area of approximately 300,000
square kilometers and total water of 2.2 million square kilometers. The
population currently stands at 96 million with more than 60 per cent
living in coastal areas.
Being an archipelago, the country is endowed with a vast expanse
of coastal and inland water resources which is approximately seven
times larger than its land resources. Palawan province is one among
the provinces that contribute to the total national coastal and estuarine
resources. It has an almost 2,000 kilometer of irregular coastline which
is dotted with 1,780 islands and islets, rocky coves and sandy beaches.
It is also home to diverse marine organisms from top predators to small
reef fishes and numerous species of coral and marine algae (Gonzales,
et al., 2008).
40
With the nature of the Philippines as an archipelagic country and
Palawan as its largest island province, majority of its population
is residing in coastal areas with fisheries as the major source of
livelihood. Over the years, there is an increasing demand for fishery
products here and abroad. Together with this demand is the need to
produce people that would operate fishery industries not only in the
province of Palawan but also in Region IV, and in the attainment of fish
sufficiency for domestic consumption and for export. The government
itself campaigns to the academic institutions for support through
curricular offerings. One of the state universities that answer to this
call is the Western Philippines University (WPU) which has the main
campus in Aborlan, Palawan.
Galuba (2010) mentioned in his lecture that science and
technology thrusts of National Higher Education Research Agenda
(NHERA-2:2009-2018), these consist of: agriculture, forestry and
natural resources, health and medical science, biotechnology,
information and communication technology, microelectronics, earth
and marine sciences, fisheries and agriculture, environment, natural
disaster mitigation, energy, materials science and engineering and
manufacturing and process engineering.
Today’s students are striving to have a university education. They
believe that higher education is an investment and that competencies
needed for employment are usually taught in tertiary level. It is a longlife learning experience that will broaden their professional career
in the global society. The performance of the school is valued by the
society for it assures the graduates that they produce and the services
to be rendered are of consistent quality.
The Commission on Higher Education (CHED) has issued
Memorandum Order (CMO) No. 43 Series 2006 regarding Policies and
Standards for Bachelor of Science in Fisheries (BSFi) Program. This is in
accordance with the pertinent provisions of Republic Act (RA) No. 7722
otherwise known as the “Higher Education Act of 1994,” and by virtue
of Resolution No. 603 of the Commission en banc dated September 11,
2006 and for the purpose of rationalizing the undergraduate fisheries
education in the country with the end view of keeping at pace with the
demands of global competitiveness.
41
The new BSFi curriculum provides knowledge to students as
required in the Fisheries Code for proper fisheries and environmental
management and sustainable/responsible fisheries, and in the recently
approved duties and competencies of fisheries professionals. The BSFi
program has no majors and graduates are intended to be knowledgeable
in all aspects of fisheries. The paradigm shift from having majors to
non-majors is a call to provide competent fisheries professionals who
can contribute better to sustainable and responsible fisheries and total
approach to fresh water and marine coastal management, and would
be flexible in tackling job opportunities in both private and government
sectors. The program is designed to: educate students in the field of
fisheries who can contribute to the country’s need for sustainable/
responsible fisheries and proper concepts of fisheries management,
environmental management and multi-sectoral approach to coastal
management; make students knowledgeable in statistical tools,
computer use, social equity, extension service, economics, and proper
handling of fish to reduce losses; and help students acquire knowledge
and competencies in all aspects of fisheries such as aquaculture,
capture fisheries, post-harvest fisheries, aquatic resource and aquatic
ecology; and be capable to do research.
The Fisheries Program in the Western Philippines University
started in June 1983, three years after the signing of World Bank Loan
Agreement No. 1786 PH under International Bank for Reconstruction
and Development (IBRD). This project, Palawan Regional Institute of
Fisheries Technology (PRIFT) started with 125 Diploma in Fisheries
Technology (DFT) students. Ten Universities of the Philippines BS
Fisheries graduates pioneered the implementation of this project
(CFMT Bulletin of Information,2008).
Bachelor of Science in Fisheries is under the Fisheries and Allied
Sciences branch of the College of Fisheries and Maritime Technology
(CFMT). In 2009, it was identified as the National University of
Fisheries in Region IV-B under the National Agriculture and Fisheries
Education System of CHED. In 2000-2006, it was awarded the Center
of Excellence (COE) for Fisheries in Region IV by CHED. The BS in
Fisheries program has been accredited to Level III by the Accrediting
Agency of Chartered Colleges and Universities in the Philippines, Inc,
(AACCUP)(Dyke and Campbell, 2010). Since the offering of the course
42
in 1983 it had graduated 105 individuals. Some of them were employed.
However, no assessment was done in terms of how they fare with
their work and yet, the institution has continued serving the people of
the province in developing their knowledge and skills in fishing and
fishery management, and has built its capability as the center of viable
and environment-friendly fishery and aquatic technologies.
Instruction, research, extension and production works continued to
be the University’s central activity. For several long years, the Western
Philippines University is the only institution that offers Bachelor of
Science in Fisheries (BSF) Program in Palawan particularly at WPUPuerto Princesa Campus. The Campus revised goals and objectives
enable it to be more relevant and responsive to the present demands of
the society and communities. Despite of this, no assessment had been
done to find out the status of its graduates in terms of employability and
competencies. It was for these reasons that the researcher embarked
for this study.
FRAMEWORK
There are many assumptions on how graduate students who
graduated from a college degree acquire employment. For decades,
career development theories were reviewed. Some of these theories
have tenured while others are still evolving. It is through these theories
that an individual fashioning an identity. This study will be based on
the career anchor theory.
Visconti (2010) had written about life’s goals, it is clear that not
everyone has the same ambitions in work. Some are very content to
have a quiet, uneventful job, while others thrive to constant change and
excitement. He added that we are all different, and our motivators are
an “internal barometer” of who we are and what we want. Everyone
has dominant “anchor” and motivator, as it relates to work. This
shows the individuality of a person. Motivation is something innate to
himself. This includes his career.
He further cited Dr. Edgar Schein statements that an individual
holds a variety of career interests. There are eight main career anchors
which are as follows:
1. Technical/Functional Competence: This is described as
43
enjoying the use of core skills. It can be skills that don’t have to be
technical in nature. It can be a human resources worker or a secretary
who enjoys using the skills needed for a position. Likewise, they
are human resources who are motivated by learning new skills
and expanding current knowledge base. This is an aspiration that
focuses on the importance of knowledge and skill. To remain in this
orientation, professionals will require constant updating and learning
new knowledge and technology development.
2. General Management Competence: This views specialization
as limiting. This is a liked primarily by a human resource who wants
to manage or supervise people. One who enjoys motivating, training
and directing the work of others. One who enjoys authority and
responsibility, and when someone strips of control it is “demotivator;”
who thrives in three areas of competence- analytical, interpersonal/
intergroup, and emotional. This is an aspiration to exist in the
increasingly political, environment, analytical and financial skills, and
interpersonal competence to function in teams and negotiations. He/
She will be responsible for major policy decisions.
3. Autonomy/Independence: This explains that need and want
control over work and want to be recognized for achievements. This
is good for human resources who can’t tolerate other people’s rules or
procedures and that they need to do things in their own way: It can be
seen that independent consulting and contract work would be of good
fit for these people who want to be left alone to do their work; just give
them instructions on what you want, when you want it and let them
“go to it!” This aspiration focuses on the self-reliance that can reduce
their dependency on any particular organization or job. Employees
who have already built autonomous careers will be well adapted to
the future.
4. Security/Stability: This refers to one’s need to be safe, secure,
and motivated by calmness and consistency of work. This is good for
human resources who don’t like to take chances and are not risk-takers.
Stable companies are their best bets. They strive for predictability,
safety, structure, and the knowledge that the task has been completed
properly. Somehow their unused talents may be channeled outside
the work. This is an aspiration that focuses on professionals who seek
stability and continuity as a primary factor of their lives. They avoid
44
risk and wanting to remain with the same employer or place.
5. Entrepreneurial Creativity: Other persons like the challenge
of starting new projects or businesses. Those who have lots of interests
and energy, and often have multiple projects going at once. This is
different from autonomy in what the emphasis is on creating new
business: It can refer often to pursuing dreams at early age.This is an
aspiration that focuses on professionals who fond inventing things, be
creative and most of all, to run their own businesses.
6. Service/Dedication to a Cause: An individual is motivated by
core values rather than the work itself: It needs strong desire to make
the world a better place. This is an aspiration to maintain an adequate
income and also something meaningful in a larger context.
7. Pure Challenge: There are persons whose strongest desire
is overcoming obstacle; conquering, problem-solving; competition;
winning; constant self-testing; single-minded individuals. This is an
aspiration that is driven by constant challenge stimulation and difficult
problems.
8. Lifestyle Integration: Some persons have a high need to
balance work and the rest of life; enjoy work, but realize that works is
just one of many parts of life that is important; subscribe to philosophy
of “work to live”, rather then “live to work.”This is an aspiration to
stabilize life pattern and career by setting into a given region and
refusing to be moved by their company every few years.
With the above discussion, careers can be considered as an individual
preference. It takes place at several levels. One can choose what he
wants, what he wants to become and what he needs. It is a chosen
pursuit that is called profession. It is about one’s working life towards
professional achievement. Further, the theories cited give a picture that
one may need a particular career depending on his inclination. Along
this line, the researcher theorizes that graduates of WPU fisheries
course are heeding their professional career. It is also theorized that
they apply their knowledge and skills acquired from WPU in the
different employment agencies. These knowledge and skills serve as
their competencies which enable them to get employment.
To summarize the theories cited, these are captured in the research
paradigm.
45
Independent Variables Dependent Variables
Figure 1. Research Paradigm
The paradigm shows the relationship between the independent
and dependent variables. The independent variables are composed
of the graduates’ professional preparation as course, specialization
and professional examination passed and the nature and status
of employment as employment status, nature of work, job level
position and employment skills, whereas the dependent variables are
comprised of the graduates’ competencies brought by the curriculum
and their employers’ assessment of their job performance, quality
of graduates and employment skills. The data generated from the
dependent variables will serve as feedback which can serve as basis to
review the educational preparations of the graduates.
This study assessed the employment quality of the Western
Philippines University Fisheries graduates and evaluates their
performance in their workplace.
46
In this study, the descriptive and correlational methods of research
were employed. These methods were used to generate the needed
information regarding the graduates of the Bachelor of Science in
Fisheries at the Western Philippines University-Puerto Princesa
Campus. This was designed to use a self-completion questionnaire.
In this inquiry the profile, competencies, employment status and job
performance were dealt with.
Further, this study employed the descriptive correlational method
of study to correlate the graduates’ professional preparation to
their nature and status of employment and job performance and to
determine the relationship between the graduates’ competencies and
their nature and status of employment and job performance.
Respondents of the Study
The respondents of the study were the 105 Bachelor of Fisheries
graduates of the WPU-PPC from school year 1997-1998 to 2009-2010.
Based from the population of 105 Bachelor of Science in Fisheries
graduates since 1997 to 2010, the researcher opted to use 30 percent
as quota. In terms of the number of graduates per school year, these
were broken as follows: 10 graduates during the school year (SY) 19971998; 17 graduates in SY 1998-1999; four graduates in 1999-2000; ten in
2001-2002; six in 2002-2003; three in 2003-2004; five in 2004-2005; four
in 2005-2006; five in 2006-2007; nine in 2007-2008; 12 in 2008-2009 and
five in 2009-2010.
As targeted, 32 comprised the 30 percent of the total graduates.
However, in the actual administration of the questionnaire, 46 or 43.80
percent of the total 105 graduates responded to the study. There were
26 employers who also cooperatively responded to this study. This
number was larger than the one planned to be the respondents of this
study.
Data Gathering Instruments
The researcher developed her own data gathering instruments
47
which were patterned after the Commission on Higher Education
(CHED) tracer survey questionnaire and that of the University of
Mauritius particularly on its employers’ assessment questionnaire
with permission from their Quality Assurance Officer.
There were two sets of questionnaire. One set of the questionnaire
was intended to be answered by the graduates. This was composed
of the following: 1) personal related profile, 2) graduates’ professional
preparations or background, 3) competencies brought by the
curriculum, and 4) nature and status of employment. The other set
of questionnaire which was answered by the employers. This covered
the employers ‘assessment of the graduates being employed and
employment skills being sought by the employers to the graduates.
The researcher made questionnaire was pre-tested in WPU-Puerto
Princesa Campus to a group of College of Fisheries and Maritime
Technology (CFMT) students and faculty who graduated from other
courses on January 18, 2011. This was done to find out if there were
items that were difficult to understand. After this, corrections were
incorporated and then finalized and administered. The researcher
herself retrieved the questionnaires.
Statistical Treatment of Data
Data gathered were processed, analyzed and interpreted with the
use of the following statistical tools:
1. Frequency and percentages were used to describe the graduates’
profile.
2. Mean was applied to determine the centrality of some data in
the profile.
3. Rank was employed to show the positional importance of the
different
indicators as used in the study.
4. Chi-square was used to determine the association or correlation
between
variables.
5. Cramer’s coefficient was applied to find out the extent of
correlation.
48
The findings revealed that more BS Fisheries graduates were
male, married and were born during the year 1975-1979. Seven of the
respondents took and passed the career professional examination.
Majority were employed and worked in the City on contractual
basis as extension worker and as entrepreneur. Fourteen graduates
held executive or supervisory positions. Twenty-two were employed
in public-service oriented offices and six in business oriented
organizations. The graduates’ employing skills were technical
capabilities related to specialization, computer literacy and command
of both English and Filipino languages. As to graduates’ competency, majority of the graduates attested
to the relevance of the curriculum. The graduates’ competencies as to
communication skills were: make descriptive and narrative reports (
͞xR= 2.97) and use acceptable terms and language in making reports( ͞xR
= 2.97) and prepare basic communication ( ͞xR = 3.17). Their technical
skills were: capability to prepare project feasibility studies ( ͞xR =
4.09), implement data gathering and profiling of fisheries and aquatic
environment ( ͞xR = 4.97) and operate/use computer in the exercise of
my work ( ͞xR = 5.00). Their critical thinking skills were: capabilities
to evaluate/assess quality management program ( ͞xR = 4.09); assess
hazards in fish and fishery products ( ͞xR= 4.26) and prepare research
proposals ( ͞xR = 4.8). Their human relations skills were: work
harmoniously with colleagues and clientele ( ͞xR=2.86); consider
intellectual property rights ( ͞xR = 3.60); and consider one’s feelings
when suggesting or giving criticism ( ͞xR = 3.74). Their entrepreneurial
skills were: determine output target and costs ( ͞xR = 3.37); identify
resource to be harnessed by applying fishery technology ( ͞xR= 3.49)
and formulate business plan ( ͞xR =3.63).
As to employers’ assessment of the graduates, the graduates were
found to have the capacity for cooperation and teamwork; ability to
apply knowledge to the workplace; and adaptability/capacity to cope
with change. They were assessed to be very good, have average level
of theoretical and practical knowledge thus; employers were satisfied
with the quality and preparedness of the graduates. They considered
BS Fisheries graduates to have high level of prospects for employment.
49
The employment skills needed were: adequacy of knowledge in
appropriate field; time management; and capacity for cooperation
and teamwork. Other skills were: human relations skills and quick
response time.
Significant association existed between the graduates’ professional
preparation as to reasons for taking the course and the employers’
assessment of their job performance and that of graduates’ professional
preparation as to reasons for taking licensure examination and the
employers’ assessment of their other skills needed for employment
which rejected the null hypothesis at 0.05 level of significance.
As to correlation between the graduates’ competencies and the
nature and status of employment, graduates’ competencies as to communication skills significantly correlated to their nature and status
of their employment in terms of affirmation if employed and reasons
for changing job.
In terms of correlation between the graduates’ competencies and
the employers’ assessment of graduates’ job performance and skills,
the graduates’ competencies as to communication skills and technical
skills were significantly associated to the employers’ assessment of
their theoretical and practical knowledge.
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions are drawn based from the findings:
More graduates are married, male and in middle age. The
respondents of the study are BS Fisheries graduates who graduated
a year or two. They also have taken and passed professional and
government examinations. Majority of the graduates are employed
on contractual basis as entrepreneur and community worker but there
are some who hold executive or managerial position. They obtain
employment that is related to their degree in a particular organization
or agency that range from business related work to supervisory or
executive position. They are employed in the government agencies
because of their technical skills, being computer literate and good
command of English and Filipino languages.
50
The curriculum of the BS Fisheries course is affirmed to be relevant
by the majority of the graduates. The graduates’ competencies as
to communications skills are indicative of their capability to make
reports and communication that are needed in their employment. The
curriculum of the BS Fisheries prepares the graduates to acquire skills
in project feasibility studies preparation, profiling of fishery resource
situation and operate computer. The graduates of BS Fisheries are
capable to do quality management assessment hazards in fish and
fishery products assessment and do research proposals.
The BS Fisheries graduates’ competencies as to human relations
skills enable them to work with others, consider intellectual property
rights and considerate to the feelings of others particularly in
giving suggestions that will not offend them. The graduates have
entrepreneurial skills that can make them engage into entrepreneurial
related activities. The graduates according to their employers can
perform very well in the workplace. They are observed to work with
others, apply the knowledge learned and have the capability to cope
with change or innovations.
Employers are satisfied with the quality of the graduates they
employed. They find them very prepared for the work, average in
their theoretical and practical knowledge and considered to have high
level of prospect for employment. They prefer to hire graduates with
adequate knowledge in their area of specialization, conscious of time
or capable of managing time and can work with others. Other than
knowledge acquired, the employers like the graduates who have good
human relations and who can work under pressure.
The professional preparation of the graduates in terms of the reasons
for taking BS Fisheries is a determinant of their job performance;
quality of graduates being employed, employment skills and other
skills needed.
LITERATURE CITED
CHED Memorandum Order (CMO No. 43. Series 2006, Regarding
Procedures and Standard for BS Fisheries Program
College of Fisheries and Maritime Technology.
51
2008 Bachelor of Science in Fisheries Bulletin of Information.
Western Philippines University.
Colins Palawan-Live and Retire in the Philippines.
Retrieved January 13, 2011 from http://www.retirephilippines.
wetpaint.com/page/Palawan
Dyke, J. and A. Campbell.
2010 Bachelor of Science in Fisheries Brochure. Western Philippines
University.
FAO. www.fao.org/fishery/countrysector/naso_philippines/en
Galuba, H.
2010 “21st Century Competence: The Research Challenge in the Knowledge
Society”. Lecture presented during the National Research
Seminar and Forum on October 20-22, at the Cebu Business
Hotel, Cebu City
Gonzales, R. O. M.
2008 “State of Palawan Coasts”, Reefs Through Time. Initiating the
State of the Coasts Reports. Coral Reef Information Network of
the Philippines Series of Publications.
Palma, M. A.
2009 The Philippines as an Archipelagic and Maritime Nation:
Interest, Challenges, and Perspective. RSIS Working Papers
Series No,182. July 21,
Vizconti, R.
2010 Career Anchors. What are your real values. Retrieved
November 15, from, http://www.jobscareers.comarticles/
careeranchors.html
University of Mauritius. Report on Employer Evaluation of UoM
graduates.
Retrieved September 28,2010 from, http://www.uom.ac.mu/QA/
52
Employer/Report.pdf
University of Mauritius. Employer Evaluation Form. Retrieved
September 28,2010 from, http://www.uom.ac.mu/QA/forms/
Employer_EvaluationForm.pd
What is Job Competency Retrieved January 14, 2011 from http://www.
wisegeek.com/what-is-job-competency.htm
53
Psycholinguistic Extracts and Socio-Cultural
Imprints in Job Application Discourses:
A Genre Analysis
EMMANUEL J. SONGCUAN
Don Mariano Marcos Memorial
State University
Abstract - Genres represent purposive and staged ways of
communicating in a culture and enacting a range of important
institutional practices. Genre studies have paved the way for
understanding the way discourse is used in academic, professional,
and institutional contexts. This paper analyzed the psycholinguistic
realization and drew out socio-cultural imprints in the construction of
application letter and résumé in the Philippine setting. Qualitative and
quantitative methods were employed in the analysis of job application
documents representing different professions to determine the generic
structure and the linguistic features of the moves and strategies that
accomplish the communicative functions of the genres. Employers’
group survey and job interview extracts were also used to cross-validate
and provide snapshots on the interpretations made. A seven-move and
a five-move generic structure occurring in a flexible sequence define
the composition of job application letter and résumé, respectively.
The construction of these two types of discourse is influenced and
constrained by the applicant’s psycholinguistic repertoire, professional
background, and socio-cultural milieu. A genre-based pedagogy
is recommended to sensitize Filipinos of the existing genres and
textlinguistic variations in the workplace.
Keywords - discourse analysis, genre analysis, letter of application,
résumé
54
INTRODUCTION
Discourses may appear to occur in a random pattern at its surface,
but researches have documented highly patterned forms of language
use which do not only organize language itself but also structure
thoughts and construct societies and social activities.
It is in response to this notion that this research focused on
discovering language patterns in workplace environments particularly
on job application discourses is conceptualized. As Bakhtin argued,
“Learning genres is a fundamental part of language development, and
it is our ability to predict the compositional structure and length of
genres that enable us to communicate” (in Derewianka, 2003).
Notwithstanding, job application is an institutionalized social
activity whose import is seen in light of the need for the rendering of
service as part of a society’s economic activities. Given the significance
of an acquired language competence in the world of employment,
it is imperative for schools to produce graduate-applicants who are
competitive particularly in the area of communication. Peel (2000)
underscored the need to produce graduates who are literate and can
communicate. This is parallel to Ventola’s (1987, 2000) assertion that the
lack of knowing how to conduct linguistically (and non-linguistically)
basic social communications may result in rejection of the new host
society.
Unfortunately, teaching applicants how to hurdle the job application
stage is not a simple matter of teaching the parts, the formats, and
showing some idealized samples but more importantly, in making
learners understand the intricacies in the construction of the genres.
The problem, as Fagan (2008) notes, is the want of empirically derived
discipline-specific genre exemplars to be used in the L2 writing
classroom. Moreover, not many of the resources point out explicitly
and exactly what the elements in the text are, why some elements are
chosen, and how these elements are assembled.
With genre and corpus analyses at its methodological core utilizing
authentic corpora for functional description of language use, the
current research situates job applicants to see the construction and
interpretive process at work and get them used to the special and
specific genre features (Popken in Kiloran, 2009) as practiced by
55
different professions and society, as well as to describe the cultural
practices and norms embedded in writing application letters and
résumés. Specifically, it identified (a) the elements and the sequence
order of the moves observed in the genres under study; (b) the strategies
used to realize the moves; (c) the similarities and/or variations in the
generic structure of the application documents across profession;
(d) the linguistic features and dominant syntactic patterns used; and
(e) the communicative functions such linguistic features perform in
accomplishing the purposes of the identified moves and strategies.
FRAMEWORK
The present study is anchored on the concept of genre and corpus
analyses informed by views drawn from English for Specific Purposes,
Systemic-Functional Linguistics, New Rhetoric and Contrastive
Rhetoric Analysis, Ethnography of Communication, Pragmatics of
Language and Theories of Face and Politeness, Schema Theory, Corpus
Linguistics, and Psychology of Communication.
The term genre was first used in ESP context by Tarone et. al. (in
Flowerdew and Dudley-Evans, 2002) establishing the principle
that within the conventions of the genre studied, it was the writer’s
communicative purpose that governs choice at the grammatical and
lexical levels. Flowerdew & Dudley-Evans (2002) extends the concept
of genre analysis stating that it involves exploring established but not
necessarily codified conventions. Accordingly, the focus of the process
is to help students orient themselves to the English language demands
they encounter in their studies or professions.
Meanwhile, Systemic-Functional Linguistics (Halliday, 1975, 1978,
1994) espouses the role of language in the social construction of life.
This theory posits that language is systemic, that is, it offers systems of
choices in language and the user draws upon language resources to
accomplish a rhetorical act revealing the functional nature of language.
On the other hand, New Rhetoric focuses more on the detailed
analyses of the social and cultural contexts in which genres occur, with
an emphasis on social purposes, or actions, that these genres fulfill.
The emphasis, Freedman and Medway (1994) stressed, is on the fluid
and dynamic character of genres, and how they evolve and change
56
over time. Rather than attempting linguistic analysis for descriptions,
Hyon (1996, 2001) remarked that the concern of New Rhetoric is less
with the potential of genre for teaching patterns of text organization
and language, and more with helping university students understand
the social functions of genres. Littlefair (in Riley and Reedy, 2000),
likewise, believes that teachers’ sure knowledge of genre and register
provides them with linguistic tools with which to examine the texts
used in the classroom, and serves to enhance their understanding of
why, where, and when language learners need support.
Furthermore, the concept of genre assumes that there is a recurrent
feature that exists and built within the textual structure of written or
spoken texts. Anchored to this notion is the seminal work of Swales’
(1990) stating: “a genre comprises of communicative events, the
members of which share some set of communicative purposes…”
Following a sociological perspective, Bhatia (1993) cautions that a text
is not to be taken as a complete object possessing meaning of its own;
rather, it is to be regarded as an ongoing process of negotiation in the
context of social roles, group purposes, professional and organizational
preferences, and even cultural constraints.
Corollary to this is the Bakhtinian theory commonly tied to a
cognitive theory known as schema theory. Human consciousness,
Bartlett says, processes information by means of “template-matching”:
new “incoming” information is compared and accommodated to
a template that is permanently stored in memory. These schematic
templates are seen as a “combined standard against which all
subsequent changes of posture are measured before they enter
consciousness” (in Keunen, 2000).
Meanwhile, a literature search done suggests that a considerable
body of researches has already been conducted along the lines of
discourse analysis specifically genre studies. Landmark seminal papers
include those of Swales (1981; 1990) on the structure of academic
and scientific writing; Bhatia (1993) on sales promotion letters and
the legal profession; Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson’s (1973, 1979,
1986) and Schegloff et al. (2002) on the structure and organization of
everyday conversations and talk-in interactions; Labov and Waletzsky
(in Cameron, 2001) on the pattern of oral narratives, and Propp on
the descriptive morphology of folktales. Likewise, in many other
57
disciplines and cultural settings, there, too, have been established
overall structures and sequential patterns of moves operating in
said discourse communities. These include studies research articles
(Ruiying, 2003); service encounters (Hasan, 1995; Ventola, 1987, 2000);
academic lectures and academic writing (Eniko, 2000; Flowerdew,
2000, Cheng, 2008); newspaper law reports (Badger, 2003; editorial
articles (Flowerdew, 2004); business reports, letters of negotiation and
transactions (Pinto dos Santos, 2002; Crosling and Ward, 2002; Jung
2004; Yeung, 2007), transactional letter writing (Okamura & Shaw,
2000), mobile phone conversations (Weilenmann, 2003) and application
essays and letters (Bhatia, 1993; Connor, Davis and De Rycker, 1995;
Upton and Connor, 2001; Henry and Roseberry, 2001; Al-Ali, 2006;
Ding, 2007)--all of which have established patterns that again prove
the conventional unfolding of genres although some studies found
flexible and variable generic structuring.
Meanwhile, the ethnographic approach adds an external variable
in analyzing communication stressing the cultural specificity of rules
of communication and the totality of factors needing description.
In doing this, Hymes (1962, 1971) lists eight components to be
holistically described in a communication event: Situation (setting
or locale), Participants (speaker, addressee), End (purposes, goals,
outcome), Act sequences (message form and content), Key (tone,
manner), Instrumentalities (channel or mode: spoken, written, variety
of language), Norms (norms of interpretation and interaction), and
Genres (categories).
Related to this, Brown and Levinson (1987) theorized about
politeness strategies which are employed to save the hearers’ face (a
concept first created in 1963 by Erving Goffman defining face as a mask
that changes depending on the audience and the social interaction) when
face threatening acts are inevitable or desired. These include bald on
record, negative politeness, positive politeness, and off-record-indirect
strategies.
Furthermore, analytical practice in discourse analysis has evolved
into one which is interdisciplinary. This is in light of the fact that human
communication is a complex process which cannot be adequately
captured using just one frame of reference. In the field of linguistics,
another type of analysis comes in the form of identifying certain
58
specific features of language with certain types of writing or styles known as corpus analysis or corpus linguistics, or the study of language
based on examples of ‘real life’ language use. Corpus provides a broad
and naturalistic sample rather than a contrived data elicited under
artificial conditions (McEnery & Wilson, 2001).
Meanwhile, the contribution of psychology in genre analysis is
built in the tactical aspect of genre construction. This means that
although there is an organizational constraint implicitly imposed in
the structure of a genre, an individual has strategic choices in order
to execute his or her intention. In the language teaching jargon, this
is known as strategy, a sub-move serving a typical communicative
intention which is always subservient to the overall communicative
purpose of the genre (Bhatia, 1993).
Yet, aside from the linguistic, sociological, and psychological
analytic frames that are involved in the analysis of genre, the
relationship between linguistic communication and culture should also
be considered. Accordingly, these patterns and list, often meaningless,
can be made more beneficial by showing their communicative functions
such as how modals and hedges are used persuasively in different
socio-cultural contexts. Conrad (2002) opines that corpus-based
studies of grammar have the potential to revolutionize the teaching
of grammar by being more focused on conditions of use taking into
account functional descriptions and frequency information, as well as
an analysis of students’ needs.
Overall, the theoretical framework captures how the moves and
strategies in the letter of application and résumé define, organize,
and communicate the social and cultural expectations embedded
in the genre and with an end-view of educating ESL/EFL writers to
reader’s expectations and enculturating them to the target discourse
community.
This study aimed at determining the genre and textlinguistic
features of application letters and résumés across professions,
investigating how language is manipulated to meet the purposes of
those texts, describing the social and cultural embeddings in writing
59
them in Philippine context and comparing it with other cultures.
One hundred texts from different workplaces representing 10
professions were analyzed for their generic and textual features using
qualitative and quantitative methods. Using an instrument patterned
after Bhatia’s (1993), Upton and Connor’s (2001), and Henry and
Roseberry’s (2001), the different genre moves and move sequences were
identified and coded for their occurrence. Afterwards, the obligatory
and the optional moves were identified as a basis for making the
conclusion as to which moves are considered genre-defining. After the
coding and identification of the moves and strategies, the whole corpus
was processed for an arithmetical count of the items using Microsoft
Word Count and Anthony’s (2007) AntConc 3.2.1 Concordance
software. Thereafter, syntactic categorization was done by classifying
and framing particular linguistic categories in a matrix. The high
frequency count and ranking results observed for some lexicons were
further subjected to concordance and cluster analyses and explained
in terms of their role in realizing the communicative and rhetorical
function of the moves and strategies.
On the other hand, the employers’ perceptions on the importance
of moves were processed using weighted mean, and subsequently
matched with the applicants’ perception on the obligatoriness of said
moves using percentage.
Moreover, interview extracts were presented as vignettes to support
the statistical analyses. This is to build a genre and register typology
of job application discourses capturing the psychology and pragmatics
of communicating as well as explicating the possible recursion and
variation of different generic elements and the demarcating sociocultural differences among the texts studied. The analysis done was
informed using Hymes’ ethnography of communication framework.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
A. Generic Elements and Allowable Sequence Order in Job
Application Documents
60
Based on the analysis done, a 7-part schematic structure appeared
as the generic formula of an application letter in the Philippine context.
This is shown in Table 1 showing the obligatory elements (highlighted)
and the other optional elements.
Table 1. Obligatory and optional moves in an application letter
Moves
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
Opening
Greetings
Personal Identification
Identifying Source of Information/Referring to
Job Ads
Introducing Candidature/Applying for the
Position
Stating Reasons for Applying
Stating Availability
Promoting the Candidate
Stipulating Terms and Conditions of
Employment
Enclosing Documents
Naming References
Identifying Other Institutions Where
Application is Sent
Using Pressure Tactic
Soliciting Response/ Indicating Desire for
Interview
Polite Ending
Signing Off
%
(N=100)
Generic
Structure
Potential
98
31
27
47
94
16
4
91
8
81
3
0
0
89
61
94
Obligatory
Optional
Optional
Optional
Obligatory
Optional
Optional
Obligatory
Optional
Obligatory
Optional
Optional*
Optional
Obligatory
Obligatory
Obligatory
NOTE: A 50% occurrence is used as criterion for determining the
importance of a strategy in a move
* highlighted moves are considered obligatory *highly specific to Department of Education
The above obligatory elements showed similarity with the three
foreign models reviewed on what could be considered as genericdefining moves across cultures namely: Move 1 (Opening), Move 5
(Introducing Candidature), Move 8 (Promoting the Candidate), Move 14
61
(Soliciting Response), Move 15 (Polite Ending), and Move 16 (Signing
Off). This means that for an application letter to be effective and serve
its purpose, it must be opened formally and its nature stated, the candidate
is promoted, a response is sought, it must be ended in a polite manner, and it
must be closed formally.
On the other hand, the differences noted are: 1) the obligatory stature
of Move 10 (Enclosing Documents) which was not compulsory in Henry
and Roseberry’s (2001) model; 2) the non-obligatory stature of Move
4 (Identifying Source of Information) which was obligatory in Bhatia’s
(1993) and Upton and Connor’s (2001) models; and 3) the absence of
Move 13 (Using Pressure Tactic) which was present in Bhatia’s model.
Thus, the seven (7) “must have” moves define the generic structure
potential of the application letter in the Philippine context consistent
to Hasan’s (1995) conception of obligatory elements as a criterion for
defining whether texts are complete or incomplete. The existence of
this template is also supported by data showing a high correspondence
(i.e., 75% match) between the employers’ perception and the applicants’
written letters in terms of the relevance and obligatoriness assigned on
the different moves.
Notwithstanding, two other moves - Move 4 (Identifying Source
of Information) and Move 6 (Stating Reasons for Applying) - can be
considered obligatory depending on the “context of situation”. In this
case, the two moves deemed “important” by employers are included in
the letter only when it is not felt to negatively affect one’s application.
On the other hand, five (5) moves constitute the genre-defining
structure of the résumé. Table 2 shows the obligatory (highlighted)
moves and the optional moves.
Table 2. Obligatory and optional moves in a résumé
Moves in a Résumé
62
%
(N=100)
Generic Structure
Potential
1. Identification of Self
2. Detailing Contact
3. Stating Candidature
4. Stating Reasons
5. Previewing Qualifications
6. Promoting the Candidate
7. Providing Personal Information
8. Stipulating Terms and Conditions
9. Stating Availability
10. Providing/Offering References
11. Attesting Information Given
12. Claiming Ownership
13. Detailing Contact in Case of Emergency
100
98
7
30
9
100
72
1
1
72
12
15
1
Obligatory
Obligatory
Optional
Optional
Optional
Obligatory
Obligatory
Optional
Optional
Obligatory
Optional
Optional
Optional
NOTE: A 50% occurrence is used as criterion for determining the
importance of a strategy in a move
* highlighted moves are considered obligatory
The data suggest that for a résumé to be effective and functional,
the candidate must present himself/herself, give details for contacting him/
her, state his/her educational and professional qualifications and other related
experiences, provide relevant personal information, and offer references.
B. Dominant Strategies Used to Realize the Moves of the Job
Application Texts
Observed as obligatory among the psycholinguistic strategies are
the listing of educational qualifications (64%) and the listing of relevant
experiences, skills and abilities and how these were obtained (57%) for Move
8 (Promoting the Candidature). On the one hand, observed as a dominant
strategy for Move 15 (Soliciting Response) is asking for an interview/
favorable response (85%).
The use of such strategies implies that many Filipino professionals
recognize the purpose of the self-promotion move and know how to
exploit this move to their advantage by maximizing exposure in a
limited discourse environment. Statistically, the applicants devoted
more space to promote their candidature based on the 9,460 computer
63
word count for Move 8 which constitutes 54.94% of the total 17,308
words in the whole corpus. Specifically, more space was allotted to the
listing of experiences, skills, and abilities (n=4,058) followed by listing of
educational qualifications (n=1,924), demonstrating confidence of the skills
and abilities acquired from experience and education (n=1,012), naming and
describing the job/s held (n=993), and citing the benefits to be gained by the
company if the applicant is hired (n=870). This word count result implies
that both form and substance matter in a communication that aims
to persuade by apportioning a substantial space to more important
information.
But while there is a good percentage in the samples (91%) which
promoted candidature, there is a considerable percentage (9%) having
used the document simply as a transmittal letter. This is similar to
what Bhatia (1993) observed in the letters he analyzed noting that
80% of his Asian subjects made no effort to convince the readers
of the applicants’ worth. But the reason for this non-promotion of
candidature, at least in the Philippine context, is not without a cause.
Employing a content analysis of the classified ads section of two
national dailies, only 53.57% of the 112 ads used as references in this
study solicited the submission of a letter compared to 92.86% which
required a résumé. This documentary analysis is further validated
by the employers’ expressed preference for credentials to be used for
shortlisting applicants ranking the Résumé or Curriculum Vitae as
first in the order of importance (100%). This is followed by Transcript
of Records (80%), application letter (53.33%), certificates and proofs of
relevant trainings (20%), exams (13.33%), and professional eligibility
(13.33%). Interestingly, the low expectation for an application letter as
surveyed is captured in the following light: that the letter is required
for formality’s sake only (26.67%). Yet, even if the submission of the
letter is seen for purposes of formality, this perception reveals the
phatic function of the language in the whole gamut of job application
as a social practice. Just as some communications are done not to focus
on the message (i.e., the transactional function), the writing of a letter
is aimed at preserving existing social structures, that is, as part of
institutional ritual conducted by a “literate culture”.
In addition, the letter, if well-staged, can showcase the applicant’s
linguistic competence, and one’s ability to clearly identify skills,
64
values, interests, and other personal attributes which are among
the core strengths and ‘differentiating factors’ being looked into by
screeners. This reading is validated by the high statistical index of
the surveyed employers (93.33%) who admitted using the document,
when provided, as bases for shortlisting candidates and inferring from
it the applicant’s ability to summarize key points (100%), command of the
language (93.33%), matching skills (86.66%), presentation skills (66.66%),
and even politeness (60%) and handwriting (6%).
Indeed, image-building (through self-analysis of strengths and
weaknesses) can be a reason for the obligatory inclusion of Move 8
(Promoting the Candidate) in the genre in the same way that employers
put premium to this move particularly on the listing of educational and
professional qualifications (WX=1.73) and relevant experience, skills, and
abilities (WX=1.60), describing these two strategies as “very important”
pieces of information to be included.
The above findings, then, put the Filipinos similar to those in
English cultures (Clyne in Kaplan, n.d.) who tend to stress the written
language as main medium of effective communication as well as
emphasize concreteness and reasoning.
Notwithstanding, two (2) other strategies not listed in the coding
frame emerged and proves to be potential differences between English
cultures and Philippine culture. These are rationalizing the recognized
lack in skill, knowledge, experience, and other measures of competence as
required in the job (12%); and begging for the job (3%).
Move 14 (Soliciting Response), meanwhile, invites the reader to take
action on the application. This is done in three ways: a) inviting a
favorable response and asking for an interview (85%), b) offering to
provide further information (5%), and/or c) detailing contact (28%).
These strategies are employed to expedite communication and bring
the application to the next process by asking for an interview.
Similar to the application letter, in the résumé are the listing of
educational/professional qualification (98%), listing relevant experiences
such as trainings/seminars/workshops (63%), and presenting past and
present jobs held ( 94%) in Move 6 (Promoting the Candidate) which are
found to be dominant among the psycholinguistic strategies. These
strategies are perceived important since educational qualification is an
entry requirement in many jobs. The trainings received, meanwhile,
65
show how a perceived lack of formal education is supplemented to
give the idea of continual upgrading and keeping abreast with the
demands of the time and the profession.
C. Similarities and Variations of Moves across Professions and
Cultures
Factoring profession as a variable in comparing the staging of
the different moves, four (4) moves appeared obligatory to specific
disciplines wherein it can be said that the profession’s communication
style and preferences are encoded in the genre. These are Move
2 (Greetings) perceived to be important for inclusion by the legal
(50%), medical (50%), and medical-educational professionals (50%);
Move 3 (Identification of Self) deemed important by the Editors (50%);
Move 6 (Stating Reasons for Applying) which appeared significant
to Administrative Officers (50%) and Lawyers (50%); and Move 9
(Stipulating Terms) which is relevant to the group of Managers (70%).
Situational contexts and subculture seem to operate in these
specific professions such as hierarchical orientation, presence of an
advertisement to be responded, perceived power or (over)qualification, and
institutional preference/idiosyncrasies that make different professions put
relative importance on some moves and strategies. These contextual
factors reveal the distinct thought patterns of the Filipinos involving a
range of psycholinguistic and socio-cultural strategies encoded at the
lexico-grammatical level to achieve the transactional and interpersonal
functions of the genre.
This observation reiterates Swales’ conception (1990) that what
shapes the genre is the communicative purpose and the perpetuation
made by members of the professional community; and as Bhatia (1993)
explains, the expectations within the specialist circles put limit on
certain kinds of meaning and the positioning of certain elements.
Moreover, three sets of move patterns have been observed to exhibit
variability in their sequencing namely: a) Moves 3-10 (53 deviant
cases) with high interchangeability in the sequence of Moves 3-5 (12
cases), Moves 4-5 (9 cases), Moves 5-8 (10 cases), and Moves 8-10 (7
cases); b) Moves 9-15 (11 deviant cases) with high interchangeability
66
in the sequence of Moves 10-14 (9 cases); and c) Moves 14-15 (9 deviant
cases). This means that except for Moves 1 (Opening), 2 (Greetings), and
16 (Signing Off), all the moves can be rearranged. This pattern is similar
to the observed sequence variations in the moves of the foreign models
particularly for Moves 4 and 5, and Moves 8, 9, and 10.
All the above findings prove that the application letter genre does
not follow a straightjacket ordering of the moves similar to other
genres (see Ventola, 1987/2000; Flowerdew & Dudley-Evans, 2002;
Ruiying & Allison, 2003). Moreover, Filipino applicants can be said
to exercise more freedom in their presentation of the different moves
when constructing the genre.
Albeit, the observed differences in the move sequences can be
explained by the theoretical concept of interplay and interaction
forwarded by Bakhtin (n.d.) as well as Miller (1994), Freedman (1999),
and Miller & Shepherd (2004), that genre rule does not create a binding
constraint. Instead, human agents continually enact genres, and can
challenge and change these genres. This is to say that creativity is
possible everywhere. Anent to this, the dynamism observed in the
study can be ascribed to differences in terms of the linguistic ability
of the Filipinos (with English as a second language only) and may be
influenced by one’s specialization/profession and cultural uniqueness,
hence, the variation in the sequential presentation of some textual
elements compared to what Bhatia (1993), Henry and Roseberry (2001),
and Upton and Connor (2001) found out in their studies.
Along this observation, language and culture have been identified
in this research as determiners in disturbing and shaping the
application genre among the Filipinos - with the inclusion of Greetings
(31%), Identification of Self (27%), and Polite Ending (61%).
On the other hand, among the marked sociolinguistic strategies in
realizing the purpose of the application letter are Solidarity Enforcement
and Form Foregrounding in Move 2 (Greetings); Conflict-Avoidance/
Indirect Politeness, Information Presupposition, Adversarial Glorification and
Approbation in Move 5 (Introducing Candidature); Off-Record Politeness
Strategy and Adversarial Glorification and Approbation in Move 6 (Stating
Reasons for Applying); Self-Glorification, Approbation (Mentioning and
Highlighting), Sparkling Generality, Repackaging, Begging or Underdog
Psychology in Move 8 (Promoting the Candidate); Topic Avoidance and
67
Shifting, Negotiating for Flexibility, and Negative Politeness in Move
9 (Stipulating Terms and Conditions); Self-Glorification in Move 14
(Soliciting Response) and Negative Politeness in Move 15 (Polite Ending).
Meanwhile, the marked sociolinguistic strategies in the résumé include
Adversarial Glorification and Approbation in Move 4 (Stating Reasons),
and Self Glorification in Move 5 (Previewing Qualifications).
Indeed, the aforementioned moves and strategies have evolved not
only to make the purpose of the genre clearer, but, by modifying the
conventions, the intention is achieved most effectively by allowing
culturally constrained and specific ways of interacting, in this case,
reflecting solidarity, religiosity, hospitality, bestowing deference and an
‘unassuming’ coyness as a way of narrowing social distance.
Pragmatically-speaking, the application letter provides a voice and
focus which can negotiate and control the direction of communication
in a highly-structured, asymmetrical, and dominating workplace
environment. The application letter may not be the document on
which hiring decision may rest but one can sell himself/herself through
it similar to what ads do for products and ideas in a space-limited
discourse environment.
These conclusions support what Riley and Reedy (2000)
contended that conventional mode of interacting oils the wheels of
human intercourse constrained by highly context-specific modes
of communicating. Littlefair (in Riley and Reedy, 2000) captured
this essence articulating the idea that “a writer chooses a genre
which is suitable for his or her purpose and expresses details of the
communication in a register and style of language which is inevitably
constrained by the immediate situation.
D. Communicative Functions of the Observed Linguistic Features
in Accomplishing the Purpose of the Genre
Because the letter genre is limited in its form and content, it has
to be written pragmatically forceful and must be sociolinguistically
appropriate. This purpose is achieved through the use of linguistic
structures (lexical and syntactic) that ensure acceptability.
Lexically, the application letter is a highly predictable genre. Most
prominent in the corpus is the use of “I” communicatively serving as
68
a “lexical connector” and giving the sentences and the whole text a
sense of cohesion. This finding is similar to Henry and Roseberry’s
(2001) study that reveals not only the “generic-ness” and crosscultural similarity of the application letter genre but also suggests the
existence of a predictable lexical composition of the said text. This is
worth highlighting in English writing classes in terms of the role of
pronominal reference (and other lexical ties) as a cohesive device (see
Halliday and Hasan, 1976; Henry and Roseberry, 2001).
The “I” point-of-view is most pronounced in Move 5 (Introducing
Candidature), Move 8 (Promoting the Candidate), and Move 14 (Soliciting
Response) fulfilling extensive transactional and interpersonal functions.
This inference is supported by a computer count of the number of
words used in staging these moves. Notwithstanding, while the “I”
appeared frequently (n=832) so that the text seemed to appear as a selfcentered presentation, the writers mitigated it with the use of modal
auxiliary verbs (e.g., would, can, may, should, could) as well modal lexical/
mental cognition/affective verbs (e.g., believe, feel, think). The “I” is also
observed to combine with carefully planned syntactic devices such as
non-thematization and passivization techniques, that is, the use of phrases
(participial, prepositional) and clauses (conditionals, subordinate) in
an anticipatory staging as well as FTA-reducing defocalization of the “I”
through subject-operator inversion, nominalization, third person point-ofview, and use of non-referential it-cleft. All these are done to soften the
impact of an otherwise egotistic “I”.
These linguistic renditions exemplify Halliday’s (1975, 1978, 1985)
Systemic-Functional Linguistics espousing that in constructing a text,
the user draws upon language resources to accomplish a rhetorical act.
This is also consonant with what Christie (1999) and Christie & Martin
(1997/2000) averred that when people use language, they: a) make
choices within the linguistic systems; and b) represent ideational,
interpersonal, and textual meanings.
Following the argument, then, that successful communication
depends on the parties sharing background knowledge and
assumptions, the above textures of the text emerged to ensure a
smooth flow of communication and achieve the desired ‘linguistic
consequences’.
69
In the case of application letters, this is reflected in the words used
and syntactic choices described above and in the use of face-saving
strategies namely positive politeness ‘solidarity enforcement strategy’
(i.e., used to build up or intensify solidarity between participants),
negative politeness ‘conflict avoidance strategy’ (i.e., used to reduce the
force of disagreement), and ‘off record strategy’ (i.e., nonconventionally
indirect disagreement) similar to what Jung (2005) found out in Korean
business correspondence.
Such textualization is part of the linguistic strategy better known
as hedging which Salager-Meyer (1993, 2001) explains as being
employed in the communication process in order to guarantee a
certain level of acceptability while maintaining the existing balance (or
hierarchy) of human relations. Here, with the writer limited in making
a straightforward presentation and because of the asymmetrical tenor
of the discourse – the letter is so constructed to reflect social functions
but with a strong bargaining latitude through the use of politeness
strategies (Brown and Levinson, 1987).
As a whole, the requirement and utility of job application
documents indicate the existence of what may be called as ‘ritual’
in the linguistically-driven world of employment in the Philippines
particularly in professions where English is deemed relevant.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions are
drawn:
Application letters and résumés in the Philippine context, follow a
predictable generic structure similar to the Western and other South
Asian cultural patterns but occurring in a dynamic and more flexible
sequence pattern and variations across professions. Said genres are
responsive to creative maneuverings depending on the perceived
constraints of writing and influenced by the writer’s linguistic
proficiency, professional orientation, and cultural compass. Comparing
the above findings with the foreign studies reviewed, Philippine
languages and culture can be said to influence the construction of the
application letter with the inclusion of Greetings, Identification of Self,
Identifying Other Agencies where Application is Sent, and Polite Ending
70
as moves and Solidarity Enforcement, Topic Avoidance, Adversarial
Glorification and Approbation, Sparkling Generality, Rationalizing and
Repackaging, and Begging or Underdog Psychology as strategies.
These identified moves and strategies reveal the character of the
Filipinos namely a) putting premium on interpersonal relationship by
strongly foregrounding form through the use of positive and negative
politeness strategies; b) adoption of culturally-dictated institutional
preferences in job hiring; c) adoption of non-confrontational stance in a
communication encounter and coyness for up-front negotiations; and
d) exhibiting personal and emotional involvement as well as religiosity
and over bestowing of deference. Also, the use of extra moves and
wordiness in the letters reflect the verbose nature of Philippine
languages. These forms of linguistic and cultural conceptions of
communication are encoded in the application letter and ‘nativized’ as
a genre written in the English language.
Likewise, situational contexts and the operating subculture
in specific professions such as hierarchical orientation, presence of
an advertisement, perceived power or qualification and position, and
institutional preferences/idiosyncrasies are among the factors influencing
the importance consigned by the different professions on some moves
and strategies—in order to maintain the social structure and ethos of
the said professions.
Peripherally, the résumé has a higher utility compared to the
application letter based on the employer’s perceived importance
of these documents. However, the use of the application letter (as a
formality requirement) and the continued submission of letter by
applicants are indicative of the “phatic” function of the letter done to
preserve the existing social structures and ritual required in the literate
culture of Filipinos.
Pragmatically, the application letter provides a window for
showcasing one’s linguistic ability and allows voice and focus which
can negotiate in a highly-structured, asymmetrical, and dominating
social environment. Interestingly, most Filipinos recognize the value
of the application letter for self-promotion and know how to advertise
themselves using universal and culture-specific strategies as well as
linguistic devices in the lexical, syntactic, and discourse levels that
help realize the communicative functions of the application letter and
71
résumé. However, some moves and strategies need highlighting in
the English classroom since some of the samples analyzed failed to
manifest sociolinguistic competence. Some moves and strategies as
well as linguistic structures were used ineffectively and inappropriately
that led to the commission of face-threatening acts and increased the
risk of rejection.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In light of the import of job application as an institutional and social
practice, and the conclusions drawn from this research, the following
are recommended:
First, that genre-interested researchers and theorists explore further
the textual and pragmatic relationship of job application genres by
identifying how the written documents exert influence and control the
interview procedure. Likewise, a more comprehensive cross-cultural
contrastive analysis be done to further explore the role of culture in
workplace communication and gain a full understanding of the role
of language in the success of application. Furthermore, researchers
are also encouraged to study students’ writing of job application
discourses within a controlled environment. This is to explore
students’ degree of knowledge and sensitization of the said genres and
to determine differential effects of explicit teaching of the genres in
ushering employment. All these are suggested in light of the objective
of popularizing genre teaching as language pedagogy.
Second, that ESL teachers and job placement consultants familiarize
applicants of the composition of the genre and train them how to draft
the genres to maximize the pragmatic force of the texts and minimize
socio-cultural repercussions.
Third, that ESL materials writers and ESP practitioners incorporate,
through consciousness-raising strategy, the “beyond-the-form”
structures that are usually difficult to acquire in ESL/EFL contexts.
This will sensitize students to the sociolinguistic and semantic
blueprints, and pragmatic devices and help them gain some control
over the language forms that are socio-culturally appropriate and
pragmatically persuasive at a given level of formality - all in an effort
to maintain interpersonal relationships, conform to existing socio72
cultural structures, and achieve personal objectives.
Fourth, that language specialists and trainers revisit the pedagogical
applications of the discourse properties of the genres studied herein,
which include the formal and functional lexico-grammatical structures,
semantic features, and organizational aspects. These shall be funneled as
inputs during trainings of grassroot teachers in order to upgrade the
latter’s linguistic knowledge base.
And fifth, that ESL teaching as a whole incorporate the concept of
genre teaching in the Philippine educational system. This genre-based
pedagogy is presented as a model (see Figure 1) informed by historical,
social, cultural, economic, and political factors. Given the Bilingual
Education Policy of the country where English plays a specialized
function, the language curriculum must be made more responsive to
societal needs. It must reflect national development goals and industry
needs and it must be sensitive to emerging employment patterns forced
by shifting globalization trends. Among the skills to be developed
include the ability to use language appropriately for a particular
purpose and audience and the ability to demonstrate self-awareness,
self-promotion, action-planning, matching, decision-making, and
negotiating skills. To do this, curriculum planners, materials writers,
and language practitioners must view language teaching through
a multi- and interdisciplinary perspective that includes the areas
of linguistics, sociology, psychology, applied linguistics, literary
theory, cultural studies, anthropology, and communication and sieve
from them a more meaningful and functional language pedagogy.
Specifically, this can be done by conducting and/or assembling
discourse-based studies and using different types of activities/texts in
a society particularly those which exist in the workplace environment.
These studies and texts must include among others 1) knowledge
on how language varies in context, purpose, audience, and content;
2) knowledge of linguistic structures, features varieties of written /
spoken English and the multifunctionality of linguistic items; 3)
knowledge of language organization, cultural and linguistic patterns;
and 4) knowledge of organizational structure and how to adapt to
organizational subculture and its norms, attitudes, values. All these
insights of ‘real world’ discourses must be brought into the classroom
(reflected in the language syllabus) in terms of the content (language
73
and society), situation (business and corporate encounters), tasks
(applying for a job), skills (spoken and written), materials (authentic
texts) as well as using genre-inspired methods and activities that
capture the society as a literate and linguistically-driven environment.
This kind of pedagogy will sensitize the learners to the outside
environment as well as meet their pragmatic needs both as students
and later as professionals.
Indeed, for ESP teachers, knowledge of the moves, strategies, and
the corresponding linguistic structures (though narrow-angled in
focus) would make them better teachers towards helping their students
wade through the competitive and linguistically-demanding world of
employment. Such genre-based and functionally-focused teaching can
help bridge and transform today’s students into becoming employed
and productive citizens of tomorrow.
74
Fig. 1. Proposed paradigm on genre teaching
in language pedagogy
75
LITERATURE CITED
Al-Ali, M.
2006 Genre-pragmatic strategies in English letter-of-application
writing of Jordanian Arabic--English bilinguals. International
Journal of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism, 9(1), 119-139.
ERIC #: EJ742495.
Anthony, L.
2007 AntConc (forWindows). (Version 3.2.1) [Computer software].
Retrieved August 8, 2007 from http://www.antlab.sci.waseda.
ac.jp/
Badger, R.
2003 Legal and general: Towards a genre analysis of newspaper law
reports. English for Specific Purposes, 22, 249-263.
Bhatia, V. K.
1993 Analyzing genre: Language use in professional settings. New York:
Longman Group.
Bhatia, V. K.
2001 Applied Genre Analysis: A multi-perspective model. Iberica 4,
3-19.
Bhatia, V. K.
2004 Worlds of written discourse: A genre-based view. London:
Continuum International.
Bhatia, V.K.
2008 Genre analysis, ESP and professional practice. English for
Specific Purposes,27(2), 161-174
Brown, P. and S. Levinson
1987 Politeness: Some Universals in Language Usage. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press.
76
Cameron, D.
2001 Working With Spoken Discourse. London/Thousand Oaks,
California/New Delhi: Sage.
Celce-Murcia, M. C. and D. Larsen-Freeman
1999 The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL Teacher’s Course (2nd ed). USA:
Heinle and Heinle.
Cheng. A.
2006 Analyzing Genre Exemplars in Preparation for Writing: The
Case of an L2 Graduate Student in the ESP Genre-based
Instructional Framework of Academic Literacy. Applied
Linguistics, 29(1), 50-71.
Christie, F.
1999 Genre theory and ESL teaching: A systemic functional
perspective. TESOL Quarterly, 33(4), 759-765.
Christie, F and J.R. Martin.
1997/2000 Genre and Institutions: Social Processes in the Workplace and
School. London: Continuum
Connor, U., K. Davis, and T. De Rycker
1995 Correctness and clarity in applying for overseas jobs: a crosscultural analysis of US and Flemish applications. Text, 15(4),
457-475.
Conrad, S.
2002 Will corpus linguistics revolutionize grammar teaching in the
21st century? TESOL Quarterly, 548-560.
Crosling, G. and I. Ward
2002 Oral communication: The workplace needs and uses of business
graduate employees. English for Specific Purposes, 21(1), 41-57.
77
Derewianka, B.
2003 Trends and Issues in Genre-Based Approaches. RELC
Journal, 34(2), 133-154
Ding, H.
2007 Genre analysis of personal statements: Analysis of moves in
application essays to medical and dental schools. English for
Specific Purposes, 26(3), 41-57.
Drew, P. and J. Heritage, (Eds.)
1992 Talk at Work: Interaction in Institutional Settings. Cambridge:
Dudley-Evans, T.
1994 Genre analysis: an approach to text analysis for ESP. In
Coulthard, Malcolm (Ed.), Advances in Written Text Discourse,
(pp. 218-228). London/New York: Routledge.
Dudley-Evans, T.
2000 Genre analysis: a key to a theory of ESP? Iberica: Revista da la
Assocacion Europea
Enikõ, C. 2000 Academic lectures: An interface of an oral and literate
continuum. novELTy, 7(3)
Flowerdew, L.
2000 Using a genre-based framework to teach organizational
structure in academic writing. ELT Journal, 54(4), 369-378
Flowerdew, L.
2004 An integration of corpus-based and genre-based approaches to
text analysis in EAP/ESP: countering criticisms against corpusbased methodologies. English for Specific Purposes, 24(3), 321–
332
Flowerdew, L. and T. Dudley-Evans
2002 Genre Analysis of Editorial Letters to International Journal
78
Contributors. Applied Linguistics, 23(4), 463-489
Freedman, A.
1999 Beyond the Text: Towards Understanding the Teaching and
Learning of Genres. TESOL Quarterly, 33: 764–767
Gumperz, J. and Hymes, D. (Eds.)
1986 Directions in Sociolinguistics: The Ethnography of Communication.
Oxford: Basil Blackwell.
Hasan, R.
1995 The conception of context in text. In P. Fries & M. Gregory
(Eds.). Discourse in society: Systemic functional perspectives, (pp.
183-283). Norwood, NJ: Ablex.
Halliday, M.A.K.
1975 Learning How to Mean: Explorations in the Development of
Language. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K.
1978 Language as a Social Semiotic: The Social Interpretation of Language
and Meaning. London: Edward Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K.
1994 An Introduction to Functional Grammar. New York: Arnold.
Halliday, M.A.K. & R. Hasan
1976 Cohesion in English. London: Longman Group Ltd.
Henry, A. and R. Roseberry
2001 A narrow-angled corpus analysis of moves and strategies of
the genre: Letter. English for Specific Purposes, 20(1), 153-167.
Hyon, S.
1996 Genre in three traditions: Implications for ESL. TESOL
Quarterly, 30(4), 693-722.
79
Hyon, S.
2001 Long-term effects of genre-based instruction: a follow-up study
of an EAP reading course. English for Specific Purposes, 20(1),
417–438
Hymes, D.
1962 The ethnography of speaking. In T. Gladwin and W. Sturtevant
(Eds.), Anthropology and human behavior, (pp.13-53). Washington, DC: Anthropological Society of Washington.
Hymes, D.
1971 On Communicative Competence. In J. Pride and J. Holmes
(Eds.), Sociolinguistics, (pp. 269-293). Harmondsworth: Penguin
Hymes, D.
1974 Foundations in sociolinguistics: An ethnographic approach. NJ,
USA: University of Pennsylvania Press, Inc.
Jung, Y.
2005 Power and politeness in Korean business correspondence. In
Bargiela-Chiappini & M. Gotti (eds), Asian Business Discourses,
Peter Lang AG, European Academic Publishers, Bern
Keunen, B.
2000 Bakhtin, Genre Formation, and the Cognitive Turn:
Chronotopes as Memory Schemata. CLCWeb: Comparative
Literature and Culture. Retrieved September 5, 2005 http://docs.
lib.purdue.edu/clcweb/vol2/iss2/2
Kiloran, J.
2006 Self-published web résumés: Their purposes and their genre
systems. Journal of Business and Technical Communication, 20(4),
425-459.
McEnery, T. and A. Wilson
2001 Corpus linguistics: An introduction (2nd edition). Edinburgh:
80
Edinburgh University Press.
Miller, C.R.
1994 Genre and the new rhetoric. London: Taylor and Francis
Miller, C.R. and D. Shepherd
2004 Blogging as Social Action: A Genre Analysis of the Weblog.
Into the Blogosphere Rhetoric.
Peel, R.
2000 Beliefs about English in England. In R. Peel, et. al. (Eds.),
Questions of English: Ethics, aesthetics, rhetoric and the formation
of the subject in England, Australia and the United States. London/
New York: Routledge.
Popken, R. L.
1993 An empirical study of indirect speech acts in résumés. English
for Specific Purposes, 12, 239-249.
Riley, J. and D. Reedy
2000 Developing Writing for Different Purposes: Teaching About Genre
in the Early Years. London/Thousand Oaks, California/New
Delhi: Paul Chapman /Sage.
Ruiying, Y. and D. Allison
2003
Research articles in applied linguistics: moving from results
to conclusions. English for Specific Purposes, 22(4), 365-385
Sacks, H, E.A. Schegloff , and G. Jefferson
1979 A simplest systematics for the organization of turn-taking for
conversation. Language, 50.
Schegloff, E.A, I. Koshik , S. Jacoby and D. Olsher 2002 Conversation Analysis and Applied Linguistics. Annual Review
of Applied Linguistics, 22, 3-31
81
Salager-Meyer, F.
1993 I Think That Perhaps You Should: A Study of Hedges in Written
Scientific Discourse. Retrieved on June 9, 2006 from http://
www.exchanges.state.gov/education/engteaching/pubs/
BRfunctionalsec3_8.htm
Salager-Meyer, F.
2001 From self-highlightedness to self-effacement: a genre-based
study of the socio-pragmatic function of criticism in medical
discourse. LSP and Professional Communication, 1(2).
Swales, J.
1990 Genre Analysis: English in Academic and Research Settings. New
York: Cambridge University Press.
Upton T. A. and Connor, U.
2001 Using computerized corpus analysis to investigate the
textlinguistic discourse moves of a genre. English for Specific
Purposes, 20(4) 313-329.
Ventola, E.
1987 The structure of social interaction: a systemic approach to the semiotics
of service encounters. London: Frances Pinter Publishers.
Ventola, E.
2000 Discourse and community: doing functional linguistics. Germany:
Gunter Narr Verlag Tubingen.
Weilenmann A,
2003 “”I can’t talk now, I’m in a fitting room”: formulating availability
and location in mobile-phone conversations” Environment and
Planning A 35(9) 1589 – 1605 Yeung. L
2007 In search of commonalities: Some linguistic and rhetorical
features of business reports as a genre English for Specific Purposes, 26(2), 156-179
82
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Instructional Assessment of Technology
and Livelihood
Education (TLE) Program
VANGILIT G. RETOME
NONITA C. ESTRELLA
AVELINA SARVIDA
IMELDA YAOYAO
[email protected]
Education Department, Southern Leyte State University
San Juan Campus, 6611 San Juan, Southern Leyte, Philippines
GARY C. GARCIA
DOMINADOR GRANADA
[email protected]
Office of the Research, Development, and Extension,
Southern Leyte State University-San Juan Campus,
6611 San Juan, Southern Leyte, Philippines
Abstract - The study was conducted to assess the TLE program
instruction of Southern Leyte State University-San Juan campus. It
tried to evaluate the attitude of TLE teachers towards work, students
personal view about the course, and the physical and learning
environment of the school in relation to TLE program. It utilized
descriptive survey using two types of self-made questionnaire, the
Linkerts Scale and the Open-ended type survey. The data gathered were
treated using weighted mean and the frequency count. Results showed
that most of the teachers who are teaching TLE are in retiring age (7
out of 11 or 64%). The attitudes of TLE teachers toward the program
83
are moderately positive while the students’ personal view towards the
course is moderately low. Both teachers and students believed that the
school needs to update instructional materials, tools, and equipments,
and improve classrooms particularly home technology building. With
these findings, the researchers came up with recommendations which
are to revisit the TLE curriculum in order to ensure relevance of the
program to the present career pathways in Technology and Livelihood
Education Program of the Department of Education for secondary
schools to hire new teachers specializing TLE and to conduct proper
orientation of first year students about the TLE program.
Keywords - Technology
Instructional Assessment,
and
Livelihood
Education,
TLE,
INTRODUCTION
After decades of limited success in eliminating rural poverty, new
ideas about rural development are emerging. A number of prominent
agencies are currently revising their rural development strategies in
broadly similar directions. So-called ‘livelihoods approaches’ work
with people, supporting them to build upon their own strengths and
realized their potential, while at the same time acknowledging the
effects of policies and institutions, external shocks and trends (Carney,
1999).
According to Chambers & Conway (1992), livelihood is socially
sustainable which can cope with and recover from stress and shocks,
and provide for future generations. For policy and practice, new
concepts and analysis are needed.
The school is a very important institution which can provide a
variety of career pathways for students taking into consideration of
the need of the market on the community where the school serves.
The Southern Leyte State University-San Juan campus offered
Bachelor in Secondary Education major in Technology and Livelihood
Education (TLE) in 2006 in accordance to CHED memo # 30 series 2004.
This specialization replaced the Technology and Home Economics
(HET), and Trade Technology (TT) which were the first specializations
offered by the school in 1990 until 2006.
84
Offering TLE is a response to the need of the community considering
that the nature of the course would provide practical knowledge and
skills of vocational and technological efficiency and problem solving
in daily life. Under the Basic Education Curriculum (BEC) of 2002, TLE
is incorporated in Makabayan subject which then is considered as the
laboratory of life or practice environment. Thus, TLE becomes one of
the sources of practice environment for students in school.
In 2010, a refinement of the curriculum, now called 2010 Secondary
Education Curriculum was made and implemented in school year
2010-2011. The curriculum followed the Understanding by Design
(UbD) framework which provides for a personalized approach to
developing the students’ multiple intelligences through the provision
of special curricular programs. Under this curriculum, there are eight
subject areas that have to be taken by the students, one of which is TLE
now called Career Pathways in Technology and Livelihood Education
(CP-TLE). DepEd Order no. 76 s. 2010 prescribed that CP-TLE has been
expanded as to include the following special curricular programs:
Special Program in the Arts (SPA), Special Program in Sports (SPS),
Engineering and Science Education Program (ESEP), Special Program
in Journalism (SPJ), Technical-Vocational Education, and Special
Program in Foreign Language (SPFL).
Considering the scope of TLE as a subject in high school, DepEd
Order no. 76, s. 2010 stipulated that in the absence of full-time teachers
who can teach such livelihood courses, schools are authorized to
secure services of part-time experts (e.g. chefs, farmers, fishermen,
manicurists and IT specialists) as resource persons who may be paid
on honorarium basis, subject to the usual accounting and auditing
regulations of public funds are used for the purpose.
This development proves that there is really a need of teachers
specializing TLE. Likewise, there is also a need of the school to produce
BSED graduates specializing TLE in order to cater to the need of the
secondary schools today and in the future. However, the researchers
were alarmed with the decline of the enrolment of the BSED students
specializing TLE. During the school year 2010-2011, out of 53 second
year BSED students, none (0%) took up TLE; for third year BSED, out
of 70 students, 4 students (5.7%) took up TLE; for 57 BSED fourth year
students only one student (1.75%) took up TLE. Hence, this research
85
will be conducted in order to assess the TLE program instruction.
The study sought to determine the factors affecting the enrollment
in BSED-TLE program.
Specifically it aimed:
1.to determine the attitude of TLE teachers;
2.to determine the students’ personal view about TLE; and
3.to assess the physical and learning environment of the school in
relation to TLE program.
This study used descriptive survey method. Two types of self-made
questionnaire were administered in gathering data, the Linkerts Scale
and the open-ended type. The first part of the questionnaire was about
the personal profile of the respondents, followed by the students’
personal view about TLE, then the questionnaire to assess the physical
and learning environment of the school in relation to TLE program.
The research respondents in this study were BSED junior and senior
students who were taking TLE as their field of specialization and
SLSU-SJ faculty who were teaching TLE subjects. Complete sampling
method was used. Data were treated using weighted arithmetic mean
and frequency counts.
Table 1 presents the demographic profile of the teachers where 7
(64%) out of the 11 teachers teaching TLE are Instructors in rank and
4 (36%) are assistant professors. More than half or 55% are female, all
of them are married. Majority (64%) belong to the age bracket of 5160, 27% will retire this coming June 2011. As reflected, the educational
qualifications of the teachers are: 5 (45%) BS degree, 3 (27%) BS with
MA units, 2 (18%) are MA, only one with doctorate degree. As to their
86
experience in teaching TLE, 3 served from 1-5 yrs, 1 between 6-10 yrs
of service and 7 were serving from 20 years or more.
Table 1. Teachers’ educational profile
Position
Sex
Civil Status
Age
Instructors
Assistance Professor
Associate
Professor
Professor
7
4
0
0
Male
Female
5
6
Single
Married
0
Below 20
11
31-40
0
21-30
1
BS w/ MA
Units
1
5
3
1-5 years
3
Educational
Qualification
BS Degree
Experience
in Teaching
TLE
Widow
41-50
0
51-60
2
MA w/ Doc.
Unit
7
2
0
1
6-10 years
11-15 years
16-20 years
20- up
1
0
0
7
MA
Doctorate
Attitudes of TLE Teachers towards Job
As shown in Table 2, 7 out of 9 faculty disagreed in item number
1. This means that they are willing to adopt new strategies in teaching
the subject. Then 5 agreed and 1 strongly disagreed that they are busy
with designated task; all of them strongly disagreed that the teaching
TLE is impractical. One faculty strongly disagreed on items 7 and 15,
but most expressed their love in teaching TLE and considered teaching
TLE as their life. In items 16, 17, 18, all teachers affirm to make the
classroom activities interesting, to employ the most effective method
in teaching, and to encourage class participation and critical thinking.
Eventually, nobody agreed to give irrelevant assignments and projects
as shown (5 strongly disagree and 4 disagree) in item number 19, and
only one faculty disagreed to use updated curriculum as reflected in
item 20.
87
Table 2. Attitudes of TLE teachers towards job
Attitude of TLE teachers towards job
SD
D
A
SA
WM
1. I am old enough to change the method of teaching I used
to
1
7
1
0
2
2. I am busy with other designated task
0
3
5
1
3
3. I burn my midnight candle to study the topic
3
4
2
0
2
4. I am pursuing my graduate study
2
7
0
0
2
5. I spent own money to secure the needed materials
0
3
5
1
3
6. I surf in the internet for the additional information about
it
2
4
2
1
2
7. I love teaching TLE
1
0
5
3
3
8. I have limited idea on the subject
3
4
0
2
2
9. I encountered difficulty in securing instructional materials
4
4
1
0
2
10. I encountered difficulties in relating lesson to the real life 3
situation
6
0
0
2
11. My trainings in the subject are insufficient
1
5
3
0
2
12. Teaching TLE is impractical
9
0
0
0
1
13. I teach the TLE subject(s) merely to meet the required
teaching load
1
7
1
0
2
14. The subjects assigned to me do not motivate me to give
my best
3
5
1
0
2
15. Teaching TLE is my life
1
1
6
1
3
16. I make classroom activities interesting
0
0
5
4
3
17. I employs the most effective teaching method for every
topic discussed
0
0
7
2
3
18. Encourages class participation and critical thinking
0
0
6
3
3
19. I use to give irrelevant assignments and project
4
5
0
0
2
20. I use updated curriculum.
0
1
4
4
3
Students' Personal View on the Course
Item 1 in Table 3 indicates that students agreed that TLE is very
expensive course. However, students strongly agreed with the
statements in Items number 2, 6, 9, 11, and 13 which says, I love TLE
course, subject taught in the course are very relevant, the course is
very challenging, and I enjoy learning TLE respectively. It is a strong
88
indication that the students who are taking TLE have positive overview
with the course. Item number 8 with a weighted mean of 2 signifies
that TLE course is not boring. Students have different overview in
item number 10. Four students disagreed and 3 strongly agreed that
the course does not give assurance to land a job. Only one student
disagreed in item number 12 which says taking the course makes me
feel discriminated. It means that students who are taking TLE course
have a feeling of being discriminated.
Table 3. Students’ Personal View on the Course
Students’ personal view about the course
SD
D
A
SA
WM
1. It’s very expensive course
0
0
5
2
3
2. I love TLE course
0
0
3
4
4
3. I discourage my neighbor and relatives to take up TLE
course
4
3
0
0
1
4. I could not see any significance of the course
5
2
0
0
1
5. I don’t have any contentment in the subjects
4
1
2
0
1
6. Subject taught in the course are very relevant
0
1
1
5
4
7. I took up TLE because I have no other choice
4
3
0
0
1
8. Studying TLE is tiresome and boring
0
6
1
0
2
9. The course is very challenging
0
0
1
6
4
10. The course does not give assurance to land a job
2
2
0
3
3
11. I enjoy learning TLE
0
0
1
6
4
12. Taking the course makes me feel discriminated
1
0
5
1
3
13. I am a proud TLE student
0
0
2
5
4
14. I hate this course since high school
5
1
0
1
2
15. I learned a lot of survival (techniques) needs in this
course
0
0
4
3
3
Table 4 presents the students’ and facultys’ assessment on the
physical and learning environment. Items 1 and 2 show that no students
agree that the library has plenty of TLE reading materials, that internet
café are available for surfing anytime. Only 2 out of nine faculty agreed
89
on the said items. However, both students and faculty agreed on item
number 3 which says TLE subject references are not updated. In item
number 4, 5 students strongly disagreed and 2 agreed that the school
has sufficient instructional materials while 4 faculty disagreed and 5
agreed on it. About tools, 1 student strongly disagreed, 2 agreed and
4 strongly agreed that the tools are functional. While 3 of the faculty
disagreed, 4 agreed, and 2 strongly disagreed. Majority of the students
and the faculty disagreed that classrooms are conducive to learning.
For item 7, both the students and the faculty agreed that computer aide
instructional materials are not utilized. Eventually, nobody disagreed
that nursing art has been observed, and most agreed that the home
technology building is not well equipped for practicum.
Table 4. Students’ and faculty’s assessment on the physical
and learning environment
Physical and Learning Environment
STUDENTS
FACULTY
SD
D
A
SA
WM
SD
D
A
SA
WM
1. The library has plenty of TLE reading
materials
2
5
0
0
1.7
3
4
2
0
2
2. Internet café are available for surfing
anytime
0
7
0
0
2
3
4
2
0
2
3. TLE subject references are not updated
0
0
4
3
3.4
0
0
7
2
2
4. The school has sufficient instructional
materials
5
2
0
0
1.3
0
4
5
0
5. Tools and equipments are not functional
1
0
2
4
3.3
0
3
4
2
3
6. Classrooms are conducive for learning
0
6
1
0
2.1
2
3
4
0
2
7. Computer Aide Instructional Materials
are utilized
3
4
0
0
1.6
3
5
1
0
2
8. School buildings are clean
0
1
6
0
2.9
1
3
4
1
3
9. Lack of dummy materials for nursing art
0
0
1
6
3.6
0
0
5
4
3
10. Home Technology Building is not well
equipped for practicum purposes
0
0
2
5
3.7
0
0
5
4
3
Findings
The study has revealed the following:
1.Most of the teachers who are teaching TLE are in retiring age (7
out of 11 or 64%).
2.Attitude of TLE teachers toward the program is moderately
positive.
90
3.Students’ personal view toward the course is very low.
4.Both teachers and students believed that the school needs to
update instructional materials, tools and equipments, and
improve classrooms, particularly Home Technology building.
CONCLUSION
Based on the findings, the researchers formulated the following
conclusions:
Teachers still showed strong interest in teaching TLE. Students’
perception toward the course is an indication of a weak information
drive program in promoting TLE, its significance to the economy.
Finally, the institution needs to improve the school facilities, upgrade
tools and equipment, and update instructional materials.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.Since most of the TLE instructors are retiring from work, there is
a need to hire new teachers in TLE.
2.There is a need to revisit and update the TLE curriculum to make
it relevant to the present Career Pathways in Technology and
Livelihood Education program of the Department of Education
for secondary schools. (Dep Ed Order # 76 series of 2010).
3.The students, especially the first year should be properly oriented
about the course. Brochure or pamphlets should be provided.
4.Instructors handling TLE should be updated, oriented to some
new trends in teaching TLE by allowing them to attend trainings,
workshop seminars.
5.BSED instructors should encourage students to specialize a
course which is not only of their interest like but that which
provides them greater chances for employment.
LITERATURE CITED
2010 Secondary Education Curriculum, Curriculum Guide in Career
Pathways in Technology and Livelihood Education (CP-TLE)
91
DepEd Order #76 S.
2010 Policy Guidelines on the Implementation of the 2010
Secondary Education Curriculum
DepEd Memorandum #396 S.
2010 “The 2010 Secondary Education Curriculum (SEC) Online
Help DESK Anytime, Anywhere.
Ched Memo #30 S
2004 Direct Course Offering of the Teacher Education Curricula.
Chambers, R; Conway, G.
1992 Sustainable rural livelihoods: practical concepts for the 21st
century. Retrieved December, from http://opendocs.ids.ac.uk/
opendocs/handle/123456789/80
Carney, D.
1999 Approaches to Sustainable Livelihoods for the Rural
Poor. Retrieved December 2011, from http://hdl.handle.
net/123456789/497
92
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Students’ Beliefs toward Mathematics
as Related to Their Performance
in College Algebra
GARY C. GARCIA
[email protected]
Office of the Research, Development, and Extension,
Southern Leyte State University-San Juan Campus,
6611 San Juan, Southern Leyte, Philippines
Abstract - The study was to determine the beliefs of SLSU-San
Juan BSED freshmen towards mathematics and their performance
in college algebra . Data gathered were analyzed and interpreted
using Weighted Mean, Percentages, Pearson r, and the Point Biserial
coefficient of correlation. Findings showed that students’ educational
background is 62% and 38% from public and private respectively.
Majority (66%) strongly agreed that mathematics is a challenging
subject and 34% considered the latter as one of the difficult subjects.
Relationship between beliefs about mathematics and performance in
college algebra is statistically significant at 0.05. Relationship between
students’ educational background and performance in college algebra
was found to be not significant. The study proved that male students
have better performance in college algebra than female. Students with
positive beliefs about mathematics performed better in the subject.
Educational background of the students was not a determinant for
having good performance in college algebra. Considering the result
of the study, teaching development program focusing on giving the
importance of belief in teaching college algebra was recommended.
Thus, values formation towards mathematics will be integrated in
lesson planning to build positive beliefs.
93
Keywords - Students’ performance in Algebra, beliefs, gender and
educational background.
INTRODUCTION
Almost two decades of research revealed how students’ beliefs
shape their cognitive and affective processes in the classroom. In
learning environment, students’ belief might propagate the idea
for achievements and smoothness of learning. In the mathematics
learning process, student’s belief about the nature of Mathematics and
factors related to learning are two components that always concern
mathematics educator (Lester, Garofalo, & Kroll, 1989).
As mentioned in the National Council of Teachers of Mathematics
Standards (1998), students’ beliefs about learning and beliefs about
the nature of the subject matter affect their learning. This significantly
affects the appreciative dimension of the learning since students’
perceptions and beliefs about mathematics are based on what they do
in the classroom.
Past researches revealed how students’ beliefs shape their cognitive
domain in the learning processes. Students’ mathematics-related
belief systems are rarely intensively studied, in spite of the fact that
Schoenfeld (1999) even in his initial publication already pointed out
that the systemic nature is one of the key features of the functioning of
beliefs. He clarified that belief systems are one’s mathematical world
view, the perspective with which one approaches mathematics and
mathematical tasks.
Garcia (2008) on his unpublished thesis cited that students who
have Poor mathematical ability have beliefs far different from those
who are Excellent. It provides possible possibilities that beliefs have
direct implication in the performance of students in mathematics. He
added that a negligible relationship was found for beliefs in terms of
the students’ competency, teaching and learning of the subject. The
researcher developed interest to further examine the consistency or
contradiction of what have been cited from the previous studies.
94
FRAMEWORK
The conceptual framework for this study has been patterned from
Cobb & Yackel, 1998. They have concluded that beliefs and knowledge
operate in close interaction. Schemas or mental models are considered
higher-order constructs that characterize on a conceptual level the
integrated functioning of knowledge and beliefs. The current study
is aimed at testing the same relationship by using College Algebra
students’ data. The study considered the students’ beliefs about
Mathematics as the independent variable. The dependent variable
was the student’s performance in College Algebra. To further the
description and analysis of results, educational background was
considered as an intervening variable.
As shown in Figure 1, students’ beliefs about mathematics were
categorized as beliefs about the nature of Mathematics, competency of
students in Mathematics, learning and teaching Mathematics.
95
The purpose of this study was to determine the beliefs of SLSUSan Juan BSEd freshmen towards mathematics and their performance
in algebra. Specifically, this study aimed to determine students’
educational background, and student beliefs in terms of the nature
of mathematics, students’ competency in mathematics, teaching and
learning mathematics.
It also sought to test the significant relationship between students’
beliefs towards mathematics, and the relationship between students’
educational background and their performance in college algebra.
The study examined the students’ belief towards mathematics and
their performance in college algebra. It started at the early start of the
second semester of AY 2010-2011. The respondents of this study were
all SLSU-San Juan BSED freshmen students taking up college algebra.
The study utilized the following instruments:
a. Self-made assessment test in algebra,
b. Student portfolio/school records,
c. Questionnaire on the beliefs towards mathematics.
In order to meet the research objectives, a mathematics belief
questionnaire was constructed based on the outlined theoretical
considerations. Basically, the questionnaire consists of three dimensions
to represent four facets in student’s beliefs. The dimensions include
the beliefs about the nature of Mathematics, students’ competence in
Mathematics, and teaching and learning Mathematics,
The responses of the respondents on the items were categorized
using the following scales:
Scale
1
2
3
96
Interpretation
Strongly Disagree (SD)
Disagree (D)
Uncertain (U)
4
5
Agree (A)
Strongly Agree (SA)
Students' educational background was determined using form 137
and was categorized as (PVHS) Private High School and (PBHS) Public
High School.
The other instrument is the 40 items self-made assessment test
which was constructed based on the college algebra competencies.
Performance in college algebra of the students was categorized
based on the following scale:
Grade
70-74
75-79
80-84
85-89
90-95
Category
Poor
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Excellent
The data gathered from the responses in the questionnaires were
analyzed and interpreted using the following statistical tools: Weighted
Mean and Percentages which was used in describing the students’
beliefs towards mathematics and their performance in college algebra,
the Pearson r, the Point Biserial , and the coefficient of correlation.
Educational Background of the Student
Table 1 shows the educational background of the students where
62% of the students were coming from public high school and only
38% from private. In terms of population, female outnumbered male
in both private and public institutions. Relatively, previous survey
revealed that there were more women than men who enrolled in the
university during the SY 2000-2001 with 55.5% while only 44.5% for
men. Specifically, women outnumbered men in Trade and Craft and
Industrial courses and Mass Communication and Documentation
(National Statistics Office, 2002)
97
Table 1. Educational background of the students
Male
Female
Total
Percent
Private HS
4
20
24
41%
Public HS
6
28
34
59%
Total
10
48
58
100%
Students Performance in College Algebra
The weighted mean 3.1 and 2.42 shown in Table 2 implies that male
students perform better in algebra than female students. The same
table further shows that more than half 56% (26 out of 48) of female
students fall below average level compared to male with only 20% (2
out of 10) below average. Results revealed not in favor to Elizabeth
Spelke’s (2010) who claimed that males and females show no difference
in their intrinsic aptitudes for math or science. In her article published
in “American Psychologist,” Spelke rejects several aspects of the myth
that males outperform females in these subjects.
Table 2. Students performance in college algebra
E
AA
A
BA
P
TOTAL
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
f
%
wm
Male
1
10%
2
20%
5
50%
1
10%
1
10%
10
100%
3.1
Female
1
2.1%
9
18.7%
12
25%
13
27.1%
13
27.1%
48
100%
2.42
Total
2
3.4%
11
19.0%
17
29.3%
14
24.1%
14
24.1%
58
100%
2.53
Legend: 98
E = Excellent
AA = Above Average
A = Average
BA = Below Average
P = Poor
Beliefs of the Students towards Mathematics in Terms of the Nature of
Mathematics
Table 3 reflects the beliefs of the students toward mathematics in
terms of its nature. As shown, most (32 out of 58) of the students agreed
that mathematics is a way of thinking using symbols and equations.
The same number of students strongly disagreed that mathematics is
not important in real life. This implies that they were able to see the
usefulness and applicability of mathematics.
Similar results were observed in items 2 and 8, where (27 out of 58)
and (26 out of 58) respectively were undecided that mathematics is an
assurance to succeed, and mathematics enables men understand the
world better. However, majority (38 out of 58) of the students strongly
agreed that mathematics is a challenging subject. Indeed, 20 out of 58
or 34% of the students strongly agreed that mathematics is considered
as one of the difficult subjects.
Table 3. Beliefs of the students towards mathematics
in terms of the nature of mathematics
SA
A
U
D
SD
wm
1. Mathematics is a way of thinking using symbols
and equations.
Items
32
19
4
2
1
4
2. Mathematics is an assurance to succeed
2
22
27
7
0
3
3. Mathematics is not important in real life.
3
4
5
14
32
2
4. Mathematics is a field of manipulating numbers
and symbols.
24
27
3
3
1
4
5. Mathematics is a challenging subject.
38
16
3
1
0
5
6. Mathematics is considered as one of the difficult
subjects.
20
19
16
9
2
4
7. Mathematics does not provide foundations for applied sciences.
26
14
10
5
3
4
8. Mathematics enables men understand the world
better.
1
3
13
26
15
3
Beliefs of Students toward Mathematics in terms of their Competence
As shown, a total of 25 (10 strongly agreed and 15 agreed) the
99
statement “I like Mathematics”. It points out that the love for this
subject is rational. For Item 2 in the same table, only one strongly
agreed and seven agreed that they are not interested in Mathematics.
In addition, the weighted mean 2 indicates that majority disagreed the
statement. The preceding items 4, 7, and 8 show that students were
undecided (24 out of 58) if they can do mathematics problems, (27
out of 58) understand even the most difficult materials presented in a
mathematics course, and (35 out of 58) if they are good in computation.
Table 4. Beliefs of the students about mathematics
in terms of their competency
Items
SA
A
U
D
SD
wm
1. I like mathematics.
10
15
25
4
4
3
2. I’m not interested in mathematics.
1
7
14
20
16
4
3. I can understand even the most difficult material
presented in a mathematics course.
1
8
27
20
2
3
4. I don’t think I can do mathematics problem .
0
8
24
22
0
3
5. I have been doing well in mathematics.
3
27
21
6
1
3
6. I have been interested in mathematics since primary school.
6
18
21
9
4
3
7. I really hate mathematics since grade I
2
5
12
25
14
2
8. I am good in computation.
8
9
35
3
3
3
Beliefs of the Students toward Mathematics in terms of Learning and
Teaching the subject
Table 5 shows that in item 1 only 18 out of 58 agreed that learning the
origin of mathematics makes the subject not interesting. This implies
that majority of the respondents considered learning mathematics
as an interesting activity when they also learn its origin. Out of 58
respondents, 31 agreed and 12 strongly disagreed in Item 2 of the
same table. This indicates that most of the respondents believed on
the importance of drill and practice for better learning in mathematics.
In the succeeding item, three respondents did not believe that trying
to solve until the correct answer is determined makes mathematics
easy to understand. In item 4, (25 out of 58) were undecided if they
100
can do well in mathematics when their teacher let them discover how
to do mathematics on their own. However, similar results in items 5
and 6 confirmed that students would not ignore any mistakes when it
is being observed. Responses in item 9 proved independent learning
among tertiary students, as revealed, 44 out of 58 were not in favor
of copying answers from their classmates. However, team work was
also practiced by 55% of the students as reflected in item 10. In all
probability, students were challenged with unique mathematical
problems as shown in items 15 and 16 in which almost 100% responded
positively.
Table 5. Beliefs of the students about mathematics in terms of
learning and teaching the Subject
Items
SA
A
U
D
SD
wm
1. Learning about the origin of mathematics concept
makes mathematics not enjoyable.
3
19
18
14
4
3.05
2. I don’t believe drills and practice is one of the best
ways in learning mathematics.
2
7
6
31
12
2.24
3. Trying to solve until the correct answer is determined makes mathematics easy to understand.
20
24
11
3
0
4.05
4. I cannot do well in mathematics when my teacher
let me discover how to do mathematics on my own.
4
8
25
18
3
2.86
5. When I spot a mistake in the solution steps of a
11
problem solved on the board, which happens to be the
same mistake I usually commit in a test, I try to correct the mistake.
31
11
5
0
3.83
6. When I spot a mistake in the solution steps of a
0
problem solved on the board, which happens to be the
same mistake I usually commit in a test, I will ignore
everything.
3
9
35
11
2.07
7. When my classmates’ solution of a problem is entirely different from my own, I will compare solution
to his solution.
7
23
18
6
4
3.4
8. When my classmates’ solution of a problem is entirely different from my own, I will check or review
my solution.
14
35
6
3
0
4.03
9. When my classmates’ solution of a problem is entirely different from my own, I will copy the solution
of my classmate.
0
4
10
24
20
2.31
101
10. When my classmates’ solution of a problem is entirely different from my own, I will discuss the solution with my classmate.
5
27
19
6
1
3.5
11. When my teachers forget an important fact related
to the days lesson and refers the class to a book in the
library for verification, I will not go to the library.
1
5
14
26
12
2.26
12. When there are contradictions or inconsistencies between statement and words in mathematical
problem, I will ask the teacher to clarify or correct to
contradiction or inconsistencies.
7
31
16
3
1
3.69
13. When there are contradictions or inconsistencies
between statement and words in mathematical problem, I will analyze the contradiction or inconsistencies.
7
29
18
4
0
3.67
14. When I doubt whether my answer to a problem is
correct or not, I review or check my answer.
16
35
5
2
0
4.12
15. When I see that a mathematical problem is unique
and is so different from the problem I usually encountered, I will skip the problem.
0
10
23
18
7
2.62
16. When I see that a mathematical problem is unique
and is so different from the problem I usually encountered, I will try to solve it.
11
41
4
2
0
4.05
Significance of relationship between beliefs toward mathematics
and performance in college algebra
As presented in Table 6, the correlation coefficient between beliefs
about mathematics and performance in college algebra is 0.5475 and
is quite a bit higher than the critical value 0.2732. It indicates that
relationship between the two is statistically significant.
Table 6. Significance of relationship between beliefs about
mathematics and performance in college algebra
Variables
df
Critical
Value
Correlation
coefficient
Interpretation
Results
Beliefs about
mathematics vs
performance in
college algebra
56
.2732
0.7716
Very high
positive
correlation
Significant
Significant at .05
102
Figure 1 shows the graph of correlation between beliefs about
mathematics and performance in college algebra. The dots are closely
located at the line, it signifies almost perfect positive correlation of the
variables.
Figure 1. Correlation coefficient between beliefs towards
mathematics and performance in college algebra
Significance of Relationship between Student’s Educational Background
and Performance in College Algebra
Table 7 shows the computed value 0.0018 which signifies negligible
correlation. Hence, the computed value is lesser than the critical value
0.2732, the relationship between the two variables is not significant.
It means that the educational background of the students is not a
determinant to have good performance in college algebra.
Table 7. Significance of relationship between students educational
background and performance in college algebra
Variables
df
Critical
Value
Correlation
coefficient
Interpretation
Results
Public High
School vs
Private High
School
56
.2732
0.0018
negligible
not
significant
Significant at .05
103
CONCLUSIONS
From the findings of the study, the research formulated the
following conclusions:
1. Population distribution is an evidence of gender profession
preference.
2. Male students have better performance in college algebra than
female students
3. Majority of the students have positive beliefs about mathematics
4. Beliefs toward mathematics varied performance in college
algebra. Hence, students with positive beliefs about mathematics
perform better in college algebra than those who have negative
beliefs.
5. Educational background of the students is not a determinant of
students’ performance in college algebra.
RECOMMENDATIONS
From the aforementioned conclusions, it is being recommended
that there should be teaching development program focusing on
giving the importance of belief in teaching college algebra. Thus,
values formation towards mathematics will be included in lesson
planning to build positive beliefs. Finally, mathematics instructors,
department heads, dean of the undergraduate studies, parents and
other stakeholders should be informed on the result of this study so
they will be able to understand the importance of beliefs in learning
college algebra.
LITERATURE CITED
Frank, M. L.
1988 Problem solving and mathematical beliefs. Arithmetic Teacher,
35 (5), 32-34
Garcia, G.C.
2008 Beliefs about mathematics and problem solving strategies of
the Secondary Students of Saint Bernard, Southern Leyte.
Thesis
104
Kloosterman, P., Raymond, A. M., Emenaker, C.
1996 Students’ beliefs about Mathematics:
A
Three-Year
Study. The Elementary School Journal, Vol.97. p. 39-56.
Lester, F. K., Garofalo, J., Kroll, D. L.
1989 Self-confidence, interest, beliefs, and metacognition:
Key
influences on problem-solving behaviour. In D.B. McLeod & V.M. Adams (eds.), Affect and Mathematical Problem Solving,
New York.
Lim, C.S.
2002 A Study on Malaysian Mathematicians’ Way of Knowing. Report
on Short Term Research Grant, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
Penang
Schoenfeld, A.H.
1999 Mathematical thinking and problem solving. Journal of Mathematical Behavior.
Spelke’s, .ES. 2010 Non-symbolic arithmetic abilities and mathematics
achievement in the first year of formal schooling. http://scholar.
harvard.edu/espelke/publications
National Council of Teachers of Mathematics Standards
1998 www.nctm.org/about/ Content.aspx?id=210
105
Print
ISSN 2012-3981 • Online ISSN 2244-0445
Employability of Teacher Education
Graduates of an Asian Public University
HELEN BIHAG-BOHOLANO
[email protected]
Associate Dean, College of Teacher Education
Cebu Normal University
Abstract - The employability of graduates from an institution is
very important to note. It is through education and proper training
that one may get a decent job after graduation. This study intends to
show the employability of teacher education graduates in an Asian
public university. The methodological approach was both quantitative
and qualitative. Interviews were semi-structured and used a standard
set of questions; however graduates were encouraged and motivated
to share stories and explain how and why they had arrived at their
conclusions and to describe any relevant experiences in the workplace.
The findings reveal that the graduates who specialized in English,
Mathematics and Sciences are academically talented and motivated
group with considerable aspirations to be the teaching model. The
study also highlights that Science majors are the most employable
graduates while Mathematics majors able to handle other learning
areas such as Computer Education and Economics. Many Mathematics
major graduates can diversify further through postgraduate studies,
either into research or advanced courses in Mathematics in order to be
promoted an also for professional and academic growth. It is therefore
concluded that there are three top priorities in the workplace for
graduates, these includes: challenging/interesting work, a high salary
and professional growth.
106
Keywords - teacher education graduates, Asian public university,
employability, workplace
INTRODUCTION
The study focused on the employability of the English, Mathematics
and Sciences graduates of the College of Teacher Education in Cebu
Normal University. It is through education and proper training that
one may get a job after graduation. Education is formal schooling
before the first job. Many educators will attest to the effectiveness of
learning if the students are able to apply them in everyday living.
There is a very strong competition of having a job after graduation.
In Hills, Robertson, Walker, Adey, and Nixon (2003) as cited in de
Guzman and de Castro (2008), a role of the higher education sector is
to supply suitably skilled graduates to the workplace.
In most cases, students will enroll in any higher institution to
gain and acquire new knowledge and skills that is applicable in
the workplace. The responsibility of University/College in training
students is not limited to imparting academic skills.
The development of employability skills in teacher education
institutions requires members of the academe to have informed
knowledge of current industry practice and an awareness of how
different workplaces are structured and function. Teaching skills,
as well as knowledge, means that faculty members are required
to move beyond traditional lecturing and use a range of teaching
methods (Commonwealth of Australia, 2007). As well as teaching
‘about’ particular skills, professors can model those skills and
develop them through the teaching methodologies they use. Certain
courses, such as science or information technology, have always had
a strong practical component, in both teaching and assessment, yet
increasingly universities are encouraging the use of different teaching
methodologies to develop graduate attributes in their students
(Commonwealth of Australia, 2007).
Employability in teaching depends on many factors such as
educational qualification, academic performance, communication
skills, technology skills and demonstration skills. Warraich (2008)
stressed that graduates will have to develop market oriented skills
107
to meet the challenging as well as changing needs of the employers.
Graduates have to improve their communication skills, attitude in
problem solving and decision making, information literacy, technology
skills, presentation skills and proficiency in English language.
The employability of graduates has become an aim that governments
around the world have, to varying extents, imposed on national higher
education systems (Yorke, 2006). This interest in employability reflects
an acceptance of human capital theory (Becker, 1975). Under human
capital theory, the task of government is to foster conditions that
encourage growth in the stock of human capital, since this is seen as
vital to the performance of knowledge based economies in a globalized
society. It is, however, given little attention in other societies, many of
which prefer to consider the ‘work-readiness’ of graduates as a means
of guaranteeing economic competitiveness in an increasingly global
market-place (Little, 2003).
The main objective of the study is to determine the percentage of
employment of the CNU graduates and the factors that influence the
employability of the teacher education graduates.
FRAMEWORK
Education and training providers have a statutory duty to evaluate
their own activities and participate in external evaluations. Evaluation
is used to collect data in support of education policy decisions and
as a background for information- and performance-based steering.
According to Levin (1989), skills are earned through education. The
major function of schools is to prepare workers to meet the labor
demand and skills requirement. Education therefore should design
curricula that prepare workers for job compatibility. The implication
of this theory is that educational institutions should design curricula
for “Social efficiency” by preparing workers for the existing economic
stability.
Smith et al (2000) mentioned that employability has been used as
a performance indicator for higher education institutions. According
to Hills, Robertson, Walker, Adey, and Nixon (2003) in de Guzman
(2008) a role of the higher education sector is to supply suitably skilled
graduates to the workplace. The growing awareness of employability
108
in higher education is viable in the context of the development of a
knowledge based economy, a more diverse student intake, and changes
in the nature of graduate employment (Harvey, Locke & Morey, 2002;
Kimani, 2005; Shah et al, 2004) as cited in de Guzman (2008).
For employers, a general ‘graduates’ (HEQC, 1997) appears to be
deemed to be sufficient, which should be understood to include the
possession of general dispositions, qualities and skills. (Purcell and
Pitcher, 1996, noted that for many years over 40% of advertisements
for ‘graduate jobs’ had been more or less indifferent to applicants’
subject of study.
Students, therefore according to Yorke (2006) will develop their
employability in ways that reflect their particular circumstances. It
might be hoped that they would become ‘capable’ in the sense outlined
by Stephenson (1998): Capable people have confidence in their ability
to: 1. take effective and appropriate action; 2. explain what they are seeking
to achieve; 3. live and work effectively with others, and 4. continue to learn
from their experiences, both as individuals and in association with others, in
a diverse and changing society. [. . .]
The Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) in the Philippines (public
and private institutions) are aware that today’s employers are looking
for more than just a degree qualification. Academic qualifications
alone no longer guarantee that an individual will get a job. School/
colleges and universities should be a place where students grow
intellectually (cognitive competence), morally (character education),
socially (interpersonal skills), and personally (self-reliant, selfconfident, resilient and a lifelong learner). According to the DOLE in
the Philippines, the unemployment, which had averaged about 4.5
percent during the 1970s, increased drastically following the economic
crises of the early 1980s, peaking in early 1989 at 11.4 percent.
In matching theory, labor market ‘failure’ on the part of individual
graduates – unemployment or underutilization of graduate-level
skills in employment -- reflects mismatches between graduates and
employers which may come about for a number of reasons (Mason,
2006). For example, Coles and Smith (1998) emphasize that in a random
matching model mismatches between job-seekers and employers may
arise because of imperfect information, resulting in time and search
costs for prospective partners to obtain information about better
109
matches.
According to Mason (2006), in a recent investigation of labor market
mismatches in the Netherlands, Allen and van der Velden (2001) find
that ‘education-job mismatches’ (individuals holding jobs for which
their formal qualifications are higher or lower than required) do not
correspond closely with ‘skill-job mismatches’ (individuals holding
jobs for which their skills are above or below those required).
The study conducted includes the graduates of the College of
Teacher Education in the Bachelor of Secondary Education from
Academic Year 2008-2010.
The methodological approach was both quantitative and qualitative.
Interviews were semi-structured and used a standard set of questions;
however graduates were encouraged to share stories and explain how
and why they had arrived at their conclusions and to describe any
relevant experiences. Most interviews were face-to-face and most were
one-on-one. Some of this was through face book especially if they were
not in Cebu City.
For the graduate questionnaire, the most used standard breaks
include year of graduation, field of specialization, degree program
attended, economic sector in which employed, employment status
and special skills that makes them competitive in the workplace. The
generated tables formed the basis for data analysis and interpretations.
110
62
72
BSED
Mathematics
BSED
English
48
52
BSED Science
Other Field of
Specialization
(Social Sciences,
MAPEH, Filipino)
No. of
Graduates
Degree Program & Major
10
53
48
41
Employed
(Public
School
System)
2008
20.83%
73.61%
77.42%
78.85%
%
2009
54
72
60
26
14
37
34
15
25.93%
51.39%
56.67%
57.69%
48
84
52
19
BSED Biological
Sciences
BSED
Physical
Science
No. of
Graduates
BSED Biological
Sciences
50%
%
13
9
Employed
(Public School
System)
18
BSED Physical
Science
No. of Graduates
8
33
21
8
4
Employed
(Public
School System)
2010
Table 1. Number of CNU graduates employed as teachers in the public schools
16.67%
39.29%
40.38%
42.1%
30.77%
%
111
To gather in-depth information on employability of the CNU-CTE
graduates, e-groups was retrieved and the researcher communicated
the respondents personally, via phone call or Face book. Structured
interviews was conducted and the interviews sought respondents’
views on definitions of employability; learning, teaching and
assessment of employment-related skills and knowledge; employer
involvement with programs of study; student work experience; and
other employability initiatives. The findings revealed that in 2008,
Science majors have the greatest employability rate in the public
schools. Out of 52 graduates 41 or 78.85% of them were employed
in the public high schools. With the Science majors, all respondents
acknowledged that they were competitive in the workplace especially
in terms of teaching strategies, creating, producing and using
instructional materials which are innovative in nature.
Table 1 also shows that Mathematics majors also have high
employability rate which is 77.42%. Aside from teaching Mathematics,
some of them were also assigned as Computer Education teacher
and Economics. BSED Math graduates possess knowledge and skills
that will enable them to make a contribution beyond other subject
areas particularly where a combination of analytic, numerical and
communication skills are valued (Hibberd et. al, 2006). Additionally
many Mathematics major graduates can diversify further through
postgraduate studies, either into research in universities or advanced
courses towards specialist employment opportunities within many
industrial and commercial sectors as mention by Hibbard in 2006. In
2004, 24% of all Mathematics graduates went into further study and
another 11% combined both employment with study (Hibberd et. al,
2006).
Furthermore, Table 1 reveals that BSED English majors are also
employable. There are good in communication skills and are trainable.
73.61% of them were in the public schools. According to Brennan et.
al. (2003) the employability of English graduates is rather poor light;
at six months after graduation over half of English graduates were
in full-time paid employment but this was below the proportions for
all English major graduates. Based on interviews with the graduates
employers can easily distinguish between graduates in English and
graduates in other Arts and Social Science subjects. One recent study
112
of six large graduate employers reported that employers felt that
Arts and Humanities graduates could lack certain essential skills
(teamwork and project work with presentation elements) compared to
English majors graduates (Brennan, 2003)..
Conversely, other field of specialization such as Filipino, Music,
Arts, Physical Education and Health and Social Sciences have low
employment rate as teacher in both public and private school. Most of
them were employed as call center agents. Out of the 48 graduates in
2008, only 10 or 20.83% were teachers in the public schools.
Table 1 also discloses that in 2009, that the highest rates of
employment as teachers in the public schools were the Biological
Science majors. It was followed by the Mathematics majors then
Physical Science majors. This implies that teachers specializing in
English, Mathematics and Science have high hope to be employed as
teachers than those other field of specialization. English proficiency,
as well as the degree of this knowledge plays a significant role on
employment characteristics.
As shown in Table 1, the same trends were observed from 20082010. BSED Science majors were mostly employed in the public
schools. This entails that they are academically talented and motivated
group with considerable aspirations. As cited in Verhaest and Omey
(2009), Wetch (1970) argues that education and skill possession
produce two effects-------more pay and more productivity. He is in
effect saying that education creates work effects which enable workers
to more productivity in terms of speed and quality of work which in
turn translates to more pay, because there is greater knowledge and
proficiency in understanding specific tasks within the context of the
work organization.
Mathematics and English are second and third, respectively. The
education and training provided to teachers should not only focus on
familiarizing them with various instructional models. But it should also
put emphasis on deepening their understanding of the mathematical
content, their interpretations of the mathematical content in the context
of facilitating meaningful learning, their knowledge of learners’
conceptions and learning difficulties (Shulman, 1986).
There is strong evidence supporting the need for teachers to
have rich mathematical content knowledge and deep understanding
113
(Brown & Borko, 1992, p. 209). Many studies prove teachers trait are
related to student achievements. Montalvo et al. (2007) stressed that
students will put forth greater effort and demonstrate a higher degree
of persistence if they like their teachers. In the study of Wayne and
Youngs (2003), they found out that teacher quality in their analysis
of studies, examined the characteristics of effective teachers and their
link to student effectiveness.
It was found out that basic skill, attitude and behaviors were
very important to be employed, while competence was seriously
considered in the supplementary education industry. Still, other filed of
specialization were the least number of teachers employed in the public
schools. It is revealed in the study that most of them were employed
in the company and other establishment. Chou (2011) stressed that the
employable skills required for the supplementary education industry
were mainly represented by work enthusiasm, responsiveness,
proactive approach, optimism, and communicative competence,
interest in teaching, caring, patience and a good expressive ability. As
a mathematics community there is an increasing call to enhance, to
better articulate and evidence the skills that are, or could be developed
in the study of mathematics-based program (Golden, 2008).
114
62
BSED
Mathematics
Other Field of
Specialization
(Social Sciences,
MAPEH, Filipino)
48
72
52
BSED Science
BSED
English
No. of
Graduates
Degree Program &
Major
7
11
10
8
2008
Employed
(Private
School)
14.58%
15.28%
16.13%
15.38%
%
54
72
60
26
11
22
17
8
20.37%
30.56%
28.33%
30.76%
48
84
52
19
BSED
Biological
Sciences
BSED
Physical
Science
No. of
Graduates
BSED
Biological
Sciences
33.33%
%
13
6
2009
Employed
(Private
School)
18
BSED
Physical
Science
No. of
Graduates
9
39
21
8
6
2010
Employed
(Private
School)
Table 2. Number of CNU graduates employed as teachers in the private schools
18.75%
46.43%
40.38%
42.1%
46.15%
%
115
Table 2 reveals the percentage of employment of CNU graduates
employed in the private schools. In the year 2008, out of 62 BSED
Mathematics graduates 10 or 16.13% of them were employed in the
private schools. A degree in mathematics does not train for a specific
job rather it gives a range of skills which enable teachers to enter any
of a wide range of careers. It is therefore a versatile qualification. A
number of studies found that teachers’ years of experience positively
correlate with students’ achievement. In the study of Betts, Zau and Rice
(2003 as cited by Ogbonnaya and Osiki (2007) reported that teachers’
experience significantly correlates with students’ achievement in
mathematics. It is followed by Science majors and then English majors.
Written and oral communication skills and critical thinking are just
some of the strengths mentioned by English graduates themselves
which will qualify them to be employed in private sectors.
Verhaest and Omey as cited by Chou (2011) believed that excessive
investment in education could influence the accumulation of working
experience [13]. From the perspective of the human capital theory, the
holder of a college degree is believed to have greater resources and
higher productivity than general and vocational high school graduates
in labor force utilization and work adjustment (Chou, 2011).
As shown in Table 2, other field of specialization (Social Sciences,
MAPEH, Filipino) had the lowest number of teachers employed in
the private schools. The job a graduate might hold six months after
completing his or her studies is very often one that the graduate would
not consider as permanent, or one that is a ‘real’ first destination
(Brennan, 2003). The main sectors for these graduates are business,
consultancy and research, wholesale and retail trade, manufacturing,
community, social and personal services.
Most of the BSED Biological and Physical Science majors were
employed in the private schools in 2009. Of the 44 graduates, 14 of
them or 31.82% were teachers in the private schools. Through faceto-face interview, the respondents confirmed that professional and
personal development was given by the school administrators to them.
The trend is different, second highest percentage of employment as
teachers in the private school in 2009 was the English majors. The
program for English majors is designed to lay a foundation for careers
in writing, teaching, scholarship, and research, as well as for many
116
other types of position in the business and professional world where
skills in communication, creative, critical, or analytical writing, public
relations, editorial skills, advertising, or the like are required. On the
other hand, 28.33% of the BSED Math graduates were also employed
in the private schools.
According to those who are employed in call centers and other
establishments, searching for employment starts way before graduation
for most of the graduates. The period of seeking employment
sometimes lasted for 3-6 months.
In 2010, most of the English majors were employed in the private
schools. Because English majors have learned how to write, analyze
material, and communicate effectively, and are good problem solvers,
they work in private schools and are highly appreciated. A large-scale
audit presents summary data at national level which do not account
for provincial and local variations in teacher employment policy and
planning. Science majors are employable followed by the Mathematics
majors. Hill, Rowan and Ball (2005) found that teachers’ specialized
mathematical knowledge was significantly related to student
achievement. Still the least number of graduates employed is Other
Field of Specialization (Social Sciences, MAPEH, and Filipino) which
is only 18.75%. Teachers in the private schools after the employment
contract will transfer to public schools for security purposes.
Table 3: Abilities, competencies and skills acquired
by the CNU graduates
117
The use of professional knowledge and skills acquired during
studies was a very important factor in job satisfaction. Table 3 presents
the abilities, competencies and skills acquired by the CNU graduates
and was developed in the workplace. Most of the graduates are
hardworking and trainable. Mathematics majors confirmed that their
superior usually commented on the hard work and perseverance they
have showed in the workplace. Most of the graduates are excellent in
written and oral communication skills.
CONCLUSIONS
In conclusion, the study presented the percentage of employment
of Cebu Normal University graduates who are employed as teachers
in both public and private schools. The study showed that the Bachelor
of Secondary Education with specialization in Science, Mathematics
and English were mostly employed as teachers. They acquired
enough abilities, competencies and skills needed to be competitive in
the workplace. The qualifications should provide teachers with the
necessary amount of subject content and skills to become effective
in their classrooms. Furthermore, the findings reveal that the Cebu
Normal University graduates who specialized in English, Mathematics
and Sciences are academically talented and motivated group with
considerable aspirations. The study also discloses that these graduates
are employed as teachers in both public and private institution. Many
of them who are employed in the private schools want to transfer
to the public schools for security of tenure reasons. The study also
highlights that Science majors are the most employed graduates
while Mathematics majors able to handle other learning areas such as
Computer Education and Economics. As revealed in the study there
three top priorities in the workplace for graduates, these includes:
challenging/interesting work, a high salary and professional growth.
LITERATURE CITED
Allen, J. and R. Van der Velden
2001 Educational mismatches versus skill mismatches: effects on
wages, job satisfaction and on-the-job search, Oxford Economic
Papers, 3 (2001), pp. 434-452.
118
Becker, G.S.
1975 Human capital. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
Betts, J. R., A. C Zau & L.A.Rice,
2003 Determinants of student achievement: New Evidence from San
Diego. San Francisco, CA: Public Policy Institute of California.
Brennan, J.
2003 The English Degree & Graduate Careers
Brennan J., B. Johnston, B. Little, T. Shah, A. Woodley
2001 The employment of UK graduates: comparisons with Europe
and Japan, Bristol: HEFCE (01/38). www.hefce.ac.uk/Pubs/
hefce/2001/01_38.htm)
Brown, C. A., & H. Borko,
1992 Becoming a mathematics teacher. In D. A. Grouws (Ed.),
Handbook of research on mathematics teaching and learning: A
project of the National Council of Teachers and Mathematics (pp.
209-237). New York: Macmillan
Coles, M. and E. Smith
1998 Marketplaces and matching, International Economic Review, 39
(1), pp. 239-255.
Collias, K., E. Pajak & D. Rigden
2000 One cannot teach what one does not know: Training teachers in
the United States who know their subjects and know how to teach
their subjects. Retrieved from http://www.c-b-e.org/PDF/
OneCannotTeach.pdf.
Chou, C.M. and C. H. Shen
2004 Analysis on employment conditions of business and
technical workforce. Bulletin of Educational Research, 50, 2, 147178.
119
Chou, C.
2011 Where to be a teacher? The demands of the supplementary
education industry
De Guzman, A. and De Castro, B.
2008 Employment and employability profile of a select group of
Filipino college graduates.
Golden, K.
2008 Developing Graduate and Employability Skills within a
Mathematical Sciences Programme
Harvey, L., W. Locke, A. Morey
2002 Enhancing employability, recognizing diversity. London:
Universities UK‐CSU.
Hibberd
2006 A Response to the Royal Society paper: Science Higher
Education in 2015 and beyond – call for evidence
Hill, H. C., B. Rowan & D. L. Ball
2005 Effects of teachers’ mathematical knowledge for teaching on
student achievement. American Educational Research Journal,
42(2), 371-406.
Levin, J. A., A. Rogers, M. Waugh & K. Smith
1989 Observations on educational electronic networks: Appropriate
activities for learning. The Computing Teacher, 16(May), 17-21.
Little, B.
2003 International Perspectives on Graduate Employability. Briefing
Paper. York. The Higher Education Academy. http://www.
heacademy.ac.uk/search, Date Accessed 25th May 2006.
Mason
2006 Employability Skills Initiatives in Higher Education: What
Effects Do They Have On Graduate Labour Market Outcomes?
120
Purcell, K. and J. Pitcher
1996 Great expectations: the new diversity of graduate skills and
aspirations. Coventry: Institute for Employment Research,
University of Warwick.
Shulman, L. S.
1986 Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching.
Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.
Stephenson, J.
1998 The concept of capability and its importance in higher
education. In Stephenson, J. and Yorke, M. (eds.) Capability and
quality in higher education. London: Kogan Page, 1-13.
Verhaest, D. and Omey, E.
2009 The relation between formal education and skill acquisition in
young workers’ first job
Warraich, N. F.
2008 LIs Graduates Employability Needs and Expectations of the Library
Information Science (LIS) Curriculum at the University of the
Punjab (PU): AN Appraisal of the Pakistani LIS Professionals.
World Library and Information Congress.
Wayne, A. M., and Youngs, P.
2003 Teacher characteristics and student achievement gains: A
review. Review of Educational Research
Yorke, M
The Employability Research and Publications Advisory Board
reviews all Higher Education Academy Employability.
Yorke, M. and P. Knight
2006 (Reprinted) Embedding employability into the curriculum. York,
Higher Education Academy.
121
ONLINE DATABASES
http://www.heacademy.ac.uk/assets/documents/employability/
id116_employability_in_higher_education_336.pdf
http://www.dest.gov.au/highered/bihecc
http://maths.sci.shu.ac.uk/conferencepapers/23June2008/
122
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Automated Class Scheduling System
JERALYN M. GAMALE
EDWARD C. ANUTA
ZINA D. SAYSON
[email protected]
Bohol Island State University, Main Campus
C.P.G. Avenue, Tagbilaran City, Bohol, Philippines
Abstract - The study tested the functionality of Automated Class
Scheduling System in terms of speed, data handling, accuracy,
security, stability and adaptability in making class schedules. This
study was conducted in Bohol Island State University Main Campus,
Tagbilaran City during the second semester of school year 2010-2011.
The respondents of this study were the 6 expert instructors in the field
of computer programming. They tested and evaluated the functionality
of the program in terms of its design, accuracy, data handling, security,
stability and adaptability. Another 8 instructors who are in charge of
making class schedules determined the functionality of the system in
terms of speed, accuracy, data handling, stability and adaptability of
the software. Separate set of questionnaires were given to two groups of
respondents. The study concluded that the manual and the automated
class scheduling systems are both functional. However, the automated
system is more functional because of its extra features which solve the
primary problems in creating class schedules.
Keywords - class scheduling system, scheduling software,
automated class schedule
123
INTRODUCTION
One of the remarkable and much known products of technology
advancement is the conversion of manually-operated system into
automated system. Automation produces a great impact in the lives
of man, particularly in the field of industry, business, medicine, and
education.
Bohol Island State University Main Campus as an educational
institution offers services to the clientele more particularly the students,
community and stakeholders. The primary operations of the school
are non-stop starting from pre-enrolment up to the post-graduation
activities. These activities require money, labor force and time.
It is a fact that arranging class schedules, instructor’s load and
room utilization for the students and faculty in every department is
one of the many activities that each department heads must prepare
before classes start. But the school used the manual way of preparing
the class schedule. With the manual system, more time and labor
force is required to plot, arrange, and revise the class schedules, room
utilization and instructors’ load provided by the department heads.
With these problems, the researchers had come up an idea of
creating an automated class scheduling system using MySQL database
and PHP programming language. Through this advancement, errors
in operations have been minimized and time and manpower have
been conserved.
This study aims to design an automated class scheduling system
and test its functionality in terms of speed, accuracy, data handling,
security, stability and adaptability in making class schedules. This
study was conducted in Bohol Island State University Main Campus,
Tagbilaran City during the second semester of school year 2010-2011.
124
1.
Resources
MySQL Database was used for the database of the program. It was
being incorporated with PHP and HTML programming languages for
the Graphic User Interface.
2. Hardware and Software Requirements
The program can be installed in a Windows operating system
or higher. A physical memory requirement of at least 512 MB memory
with at least 20 MB of free disk space is also required.
3.
Operating Procedures
Figure 1.Administrator log-in form
This is the administrator login form. Before the administrator can
login, he must enter the username and password which are predefined
or preset in the system’s database. After the administrator has login,
he can add another user of the system in the Users tab and have an
equal power with him as administrator.
125
Figure 2. Home page
Figure 2 is the Home page. After the administrator has login, this
page appears. Accessibility to all the other tabs which corresponds to
the different pages of the system, such as the system tab, instructor
tab, students tab, schedules tab, users tab, notifications tab, schedule
conflicts, and help tab starts here.
Figure 3. Instructors schedule
126
Figure 3 shows the schedule of the instructor. This schedule is based
on the schedule made in the Section Tab. All the subjects handled by
the instructor will be displayed here with their corresponding units.
The time and the room that the instructor conduct his class will also
be displayed. The schedules displayed in this page is already conflictfree.
Figure 4. Room schedule
This page helps one to view the schedule of different rooms. The
instructors who are handling specific subjects on certain rooms are
listed. One cannot create, edit or update the schedule except for the
one in charge to make the schedule. This schedule is based on the
schedules of the instructors and the section. The room schedule is
automatically created with the section and instructors’ schedule.
127
Figure 5. Section schedules
Figure 5 shows the section schedules wherein can create, edit or
update schedule of the selected section of classes. The black-colored
boxes that appear in the schedule side represent the conflicting data
either a conflict with the room to be used or with the instructor who
is handling the subject. If the back tab is clicked, schedule that has no
conflicts between the room and the instructors will be displayed. Thus
the schedule presented provides final accommodation of room and
final assignment of instructor.
Operations Manual
After a correct user name and password has been entered into the
system, the user can perform any of the functions that follow:
Adding a New User. Go to the ‘Home’ then click on the ‘User’
button and click the ‘New User’ to add a new user. Fill up the required
details for the new user and save.
Edit the User Details. Go to the ‘Home’ then click on the ‘User’
128
button and click the user you want to update. Fill up the new details
for the user and save.
Remove a User. Go to the ‘Home’ then click on the ‘User’ button
and click the user you want to remove. Click the ‘Delete User’ button,
a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’ to remove the user.
Adding a New Course. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab
as default and click the ‘New Course’ to add a new course. Fill up the
required details and save.
Update a Course. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab as
default and click the ‘Course’ you want to update. Fill up the new
details for the course and save.
Remove a Course. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab as
default and click the ‘Course’ you want to remove. Click the ‘Delete
Course’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’ to
remove the course.
Adding a New Section. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab
as default and click the course where you want to add a new section.
Click the ‘New Section’ button to add a new section under the course
selected. Fill up the required details for the new section and save.
Update a Section. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab as
default and click the course where you want to update a section. Click
the section that you want to update under the course selected. Fill up
the new details for the section and save.
Remove a Section. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab as
default and click the course where you want to remove a section. Click
the section that you want to remove under the course selected. Click
the ‘Delete Section’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and click
‘Proceed’ to remove the section.
Adding a New Department. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course
129
tab as default and click on any courses displayed. Viewing the course
details, click on the word ‘Department’ to view the department list.
Click the ‘New Department’ button to add a new department. Fill up
the required details for the new department and save.
Update a Department. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course tab as
default and click on any courses displayed. Viewing the course details,
click on the word ‘Department’ to view the department list. Click the
department that you want to update. Fill up the new details for the
department and save.
Remove a Department. Go to the ‘System’, viewing the course
tab as default and click on any courses displayed. Viewing the course
details, click on the word ‘Department’ to view the department list.
Click the department that you want to be removed. Click the ‘Delete
Department’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’
to remove the department.
Adding a New Subject. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Subject’
tab to view the subject list. Click the ‘New Subject’ to add a new subject.
Fill up the required details for the new subject and save.
Update a Subject. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Subject’ tab
to view the subject list. Click the subject that you want to update. Fill
up the new details for the subject and save.
Remove a Subject. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Subject’ tab
to view the subject list. Click the subject that you want to be removed.
Click the ‘Delete Subject’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and
click ‘Proceed’ to remove the subject.
Adding a New Room. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Room’
tab to view the room list. Click the ‘New Room’ to add a new room. Fill
up the required details for the new room and save.
Update a Room. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Room’ tab to
view the room list. Click the room that you want to update. Fill up the
130
new details for the room and save.
Remove a Room. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Room’ tab
to view the room list. Click the room that you want to be removed.
Click the ‘Delete room’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and
click ‘Proceed’ to remove the room.
Adding a New Building.. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the
‘Room’ tab to view the room list. Click on any room in the room list,
click on the word ‘Building’ to view the building list. Click the ‘New
Building’ button to add a new building. Fill up the required details for
the new building and save.
Update a Building. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Room’ tab
to view the room list. Click on any room in the room list, click on the
word ‘Building’ to view the building list. Click the building that you
want to update. Fill up the new details for the building and save.
Remove a Building. Go to the ‘System’ and click on the ‘Room’
tab to view the room list. Click on any room in the room list, click
on the word ‘Building’ to view the building list. Click the department
that you want to be removed. Click the ‘Delete Department’ button,
a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’ to remove the
department.
Adding a Subject in each Course Go to the ‘System’ and click on
the ‘Checklist’ tab to view the course list. Select a course where you
want to add a new subject. Select the school year to view the semester
list. Viewing the semester list, click the ‘New Checklist Subject’ button
to add a subject under the semester selected. Fill up the required details
for the subjects and save.
Update a Subject in each Course Go to the ‘System’ and click on
the ‘Checklist’ tab to view the course list. Select an course where you
want to update a subjects. Select the school year to view the semester
list. Viewing the semester list, click the subject that you want to update
under the semester selected. Fill up the new details for the subjects
and save.
131
Remove a Subject in each Course. Go to the ‘System’ and click
on the ‘Checklist’ tab to view the course list. Select an course where
you want to remove a subjects. Select the school year to view the
semester list. Viewing the semester list, click the subject that you want
to remove under the semester selected. Click the ‘Delete Checklist
Subject’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’ to
remove the subject.
Adding and Information in the Checklist. Go to the ‘System’
and click on the ‘Checklist’ tab to view the course list. Click on the
‘Information’ tab and fill up the required information then save.
Adding a New Instructor. Go to the ‘Instructor’ to view the
instructor list. Click the ‘New Instructor’ to add a new instructor. Fill
up the required details for the new instructor and save.
Update an Instructor. Go to the ‘Instructor’ to view the instructor
list. Click the instructor that you want to update. Fill up the new details
for the instructor and save.
Remove an Instructor. Go to the ‘Instructor’ to view the instructor
list. Click the instructor that you want to remove. Click the ‘Delete
Instructor’ button, a confirmation box will pop-up and click ‘Proceed’
to remove the instructor.
Adding a Class Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’, viewing the section
tab as default and click a section that you want to add new class
schedule. After selecting a section, now select the semester where you
want to add the class schedule. To add a class schedule, click on the
subject available below the section detail box. Select an instructor for
the subject and a room for the class schedule. Select the time schedule
in the time table by highlighting the cell. Click the ‘Schedule (Lec)’
button for the lecture schedule and ‘Schedule (Lab)’ for the laboratory
schedule. To go back to the subject list click the ‘Back’ button.
Update a Class Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’, viewing the section
tab as default and click a section that you want to update a class
132
want to update a class schedule. To update a class schedule doubleclick on the subject in the time table where you want to update. Select
a new instructor to change the instructor and a new room for the new
schedule. Select a new time schedule in the time table by highlighting
a new cell. Click the ‘Update (Lec)’ to update the lecture schedule and
‘Update (Lab)’ for the laboratory schedule. To go back to the subject
list click the ‘Back’ button.
Remove a Class Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’, viewing the section
tab as default and click a section that you want to remove a class
want to remove a class schedule. To remove a class schedule doubleclick on the subject in the time table where you want to remove. And
click the ‘Delete’ button to remove the schedule. To go back to the
subject list click the ‘Back’ button.
Viewing and Printing an Instructor’s Schedule. Go to the
‘Schedule’ and click the ‘Instructor’ tab. Showing the instructor list,
click on the instructor that you want to view a schedule. Select a
semester that you want to view the schedule of the instructor. Select
a type of schedule that you want to view. Click the ‘Print Schedule’
button to have a printout copy of the instructor schedule.
Viewing and Printing a Room Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’ and
click the ‘Room’ tab. Showing the room list, click on the room that you
want to view a schedule. Select a semester that you want to view the
schedule of the room. Select a type of schedule that you want to view.
Click the ‘Print Schedule’ button to have a printout copy of the room
schedule.
Adding an Exam Schedule.Go to the ‘Schedule’ and click the
‘Exam’ tab. Click a section that you want to add an exam schedule.
After selecting a section, now select the semester where you want to
add the exam schedule. To add a exam schedule click on the subject
available below the section detail box. Select an instructor for the
subject and a room for the class schedule. Select the time schedule
133
in the time table by highlighting the cell. Click the ‘Schedule (Exam)’
button for the exam schedule. To go back to the subject list click the
‘Back’ button.
Update an Exam Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’ and click the
‘Exam’ tab. Click a section that you want to update an exam schedule.
update a exam schedule. To update a exam schedule double-click
on the subject in the time table where you want to update. Select a
new instructor to change the instructor and a new room for the new
schedule. Select a new time schedule in the time table by highlighting
a new cell. Click the ‘Update (Exam)’ to update the exam schedule. To
go back to the subject list click the ‘Back’ button.
Remove an Exam Schedule. Go to the ‘Schedule’ and click the
‘Exam’ tab. Click a section that you want to remove an exam schedule.
remove a exam schedule. To remove a exam schedule double-click on
the subject in the time table where you want to remove. And click the
‘Delete’ button to remove the schedule. To go back to the subject list
click the ‘Back’ button.
The respondents who are in charge of making the class schedules
are serving as instructors in the institution for about 5 years and below.
The range of the number of years they experienced in making schedules
is from 1 to 6 years. From the respondents’ data, it was found out that
100% of them experienced conflicting schedules that are hard to check
and consumes more materials such as papers, pencils, and others as
the topmost problem being encountered during the preparation of
their respective class schedules using the manual system.
The expert respondents rated the functionality of the automated
class scheduling systems in terms of speed, accuracy, data handling,
stability and adaptability as “Very Good”. Based on the data gathered
from the 8 respondents, the average weighted mean for the functionality
of the two systems in terms of speed, accuracy, data handling, stability
134
and adaptability are shown below:
a. Automated. The average weighted mean is 3.779 which is
described as “Very Good”.
b. Manual. The average weighted mean is 2.602 which is
described as “Good”.
The study found out that there is a significant difference between the
automated class scheduling system and the manual class scheduling
system in terms of their functionality and acceptability level. This is
attested with the average weighted mean of 3.19 or Good (based on the
experts’ perception) and 3.779 or Very Good (based on the respondents’
perception) for the automated system and 2.602 or Good (based on
the respondents’ perception) for the manual system. It was found out
there was no single item for the manual class scheduling system that
was being rated higher than the automated class scheduling system.
CONCLUSIONS
The manual system is adaptable and useful in the making of
class schedules. However, the automated class scheduling system is
more functional because of the distinctive performance in the aspect
of speed, project design, accuracy and stability of the system in the
preparation of class schedules, room schedules and instructors’ load.
With these features, the automated system can really solve the primary
problems being encountered during the class schedule preparation.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Add ‘School Year’ and ‘Term’ in the database for easy retrieval
of data on the specific school year and term being entered by the user.
2. Enhance the code of the program that will improve its aesthetics.
3. It must be used in other campuses of Bohol Island
State University provided that there is an orientation conducted to
the end-users on how to operate the system.
135
LITERATURE CITED
Anderson, D.
2006 Management information systems: Solving business problems
with information technology. (4th ed.). New York: McGrawHill Irwin.(http://www.articlecube.com)
ONLINE DATABASES
Scheduling for Group Classes.
http:/www.appointmentquest.com/scheduling/education/group_
classes Class Scheduling.
http:/www.redicker.com/class_scheduling_software.html Online
Schedule of Classes.(n.d.).
http:/www.schedule.berkeley.edu/about.html
Employee Scheduling – Online.(n.d.).
http:/whentowork.com
Software.
http://www.plantautomation.com/article.mvc/An-Overview-ofProduction-Scheduling-Software-0001
http://www.its.qmul.ac.uk/mail/thunderbird/identities.html
http://altmedworld.net/holistic-medicine-course-hmd-program.htm
http://altmedworld.net/membership.htm
http://www.amccindia.com/modeofpayment.aspx
http://www.stepbystep-nursery.net/rooms.htm
http://bearcatbaseball.com/
136
http://www.hempfieldsoccerclub.org/rptscores.html
http://www.hometeamsonline.com/teams/?u=GRWILSON5&s=lacros
se&t=c
http://www.finduniversity.ph/universities/bohol-island-stateuniversi...
http://www.htc.com/us/mobile/sprint/hero/02e_Tools.09.4.html
http://www.plantautomation.com/article.mvc/An-Overview-ofProduction-Schedulinghttp://www.articlecube.com
137
College Academic Performance
of Teacher Education Students in a State
University of Northern Philippines
JUANITA B. PASCUA
[email protected]
JANE D. NAVALTA
LEILA M. DELA CRUZ
JULIUS S. VALDERAMA
nvsu.edu.ph
Nueva Vizcaya State University
Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines
Abstract - The study determined the factors that influence the
college academic performance of the respondents. This study used
the descriptive and correlational survey methods of research with
document scanning. It was found that gender and degree/course
of the respondents were not significant factors in college academic
performance; HS GPA was a significant factor that influences college
academic performance; Admission Test Score in English and Science
had no significant relationship on the college academic performance but
in Mathematics, however, the higher the overall Admission Test Score,
the higher is the college academic performance; male respondents
did not differ in college academic performance when compared with
their female counterparts and the BEED respondents did not differ in
college academic performance when compared with their BSIE and
BSED counterparts; and there was no significant difference between
Admission Test Scores in General Information and Science when
compared with their academic performance; however, when grouped
138
according to admission test in English, those who obtained average
and above average scores performed better in college than those who
got failing and below average scores while in Mathematics, those who
obtained average and above average scores performed better in college
than those who failed and got below average scores.
Keywords - academic performance, grade point average, admission
test score
INTRODUCTION
College life is nothing more than a tough challenge to beat. It entails
rigorous academic work that would separate the “chaffs” from the
“grains,” the “able and “unable.” It’s a whole new world that high
school graduates who are dreaming to finish a degree would enter
with much excitement and apprehension.
In order to thrive in college, freshmen acquaint themselves with
strategies that would help them survive their university years. These
strategies are boosted by the quality of basic education that they bring
with them in the University. Facility in the tool subjects Mathematics,
English and Science provide the incoming college students the
necessary knowledge, skills as well as the relevant attitudes in beating
the rigors of academic work. As students push themselves towards
achieving their goals, their ability and proficiency in dealing with
every academic endeavor, may give them an edge over those with
lesser ability and lower in proficiency level.
Predictors of a freshmen’s survival in university education needs to
be determined. These may provide decisions on classifying freshmen
students and fitting them to courses that suits their abilities and
inclinations.
FRAMEWORK
Grade Point Average (GPA) as one of the main factors associated
with the admission test result of student measures how well one is
doing in his academic studies. It is the average obtained by dividing
the total quality hours for course for which one is registered for any
139
state or period of time. GPA ensures that a student’s performance is
easily understood by many institutions around the world that rely on
GPA in the assessment of the performance of students prior to, and
during their course of studies. All good grading systems recognize and
reward multi-skilled students. Under GPA, performance in a given set
of courses summarizes overall performance (tru.ca/policy/allpolicy.
html).
High school GPA is considered a reliable gauge of future college
achievement because it measures academic performance over a fouryear period. Students in college preparation classes gain familiarity by
studying some of the same liberal arts classes they will encounter in
college, including English and the social sciences. Similar approaches
to teaching that rely on lectures, tests, term papers, labs and final
exams also make the transition to college classes easier (Briggs, 2011).
Moreover, Admission Test Scores (ATS) measures a high school
chance of academic success on their college studies. The Educational
Testing Service (ETS) also claims that the test measures not just how
capable individuals answer questions but how they will perform in the
academic world (http//:www.philippineeducation.edu).
Students can take the Scholastic Admission Test (SAT) subject test to
show colleges their mastery of specific subjects like English, History and
Social Science, Mathematics, Science and Language. The SAT subject
test gives students an additional opportunity to distinguish themselves
and showcase their skills in a particular subject area (http//:www.
collegeboard.com/parents/tests/testing overview/2194html).
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The study was conducted to determine the factors that influence
the college academic performance of the respondents.
The study used the descriptive and correlational survey methods
of research with document scanning. The descriptive part described
the demographic profile of the respondents, and the level of college
academic performance. Correlation procedure was used to determine
140
the relationship between the demographic profile variables and the
level of college academic performance of the respondents. Comparative
analysis was used to determine the differences between selected
demographic profile variables and the level of college academic
performance of the respondents. Document scanning was used to
gather the profile of the respondents.
Demographic Profile of the Respondents
Gender
The table shows that out of 211 respondents, there were 167
(79.15%) male and only 44 (20.85%) female respondents. Most of the
respondents were male.
Table 1. Demographic profile of the respondents
Demographic Profile
Frequency
Percent
114
79.72
Gender
Female
Male
Total
29
20.28
143
100.00
Degree/course
BEED
65
BSIE
10
6.99
BSED - MAPEH
18
12.59
BSED - GS
13
9.09
BSED - TLE
5
3.50
BSED - ENG
Total
32
143
45.45
22.38
100.00
HS GPA
75.00 - 79.99
8
5.60
80.00 - 84.99
54
37.76
85.00 - 89.99
65
45.45
141
90.00 - 94.99
95.00 and above
Total
15
10.49
1
0.70
143
100.00
Degree/course
The data show that 97 (45.97%) of the respondents belonged to
BEED, 45 (21.33%) were BSED English majors, 24 (11.37%) were BSED
MAPEH majors and 18 (8.54%) BSED General Science, 15 (7.11%) BSIE,
and 12 (5.695) were BSED TLE majors. Majority of the respondents
were BEEd students.
HS GPA
Based on Table 1, 67 (44.37%) of the respondents obtained a high
school Grade Point Average ranging from 85.00 - 89.99; 55 (36.42%)
got an average ranging from 80.00 - 84.99; 19 (12.58%) obtained a GPA
of 90.00 - 94.99; nine (5.96%) got 75.00 - 79.99; and only one (0.66%)
obtained a HS GPA of 95.00 and above.
Most of the respondents got a HS GPA ranging from 85.00 - 89.99.
It implies that the college advisers concerned followed admission
requirements except for few cases.
Level of Admission Test Score of the Respondents
General Information
As presented in Table 2, 78 (54.55%) of the respondents belonged to
the average group; 47 (32.87%) were above average; 14 (9.79%) obtained
scores under below average category; and only 4 (2.79%) were superior.
Majority of the respondents got an average admission test score in
General Information.
English
Based on the table, 93 (65.03%) of the respondents got below average
142
scores in Admission test; 40 (27.97%) obtained average scores; 7 (4.90%)
failed; and only 3 (2.10%) got above average scores. More than half of the
respondents got below average admission test scores in English.
Science
Table 2 shows that 87 (60.84%) out of 143 respondents belonged to
score range below average; 44 (30.77%) obtained average scores; 8 (5.59%)
failed; and only 4 (2.80%) got above average scores in Science component
of the admission test. Most of the respondents got below average scores
in Science.
Mathematics
It could be gleaned on the table that, 77 (53.85%) obtained below
average scores in Mathematics component of the Admission test; 43
(30.07%) failed; 20 (13.99%) got scores under average category; and 3
(2.09%) obtained above average scores.
Almost one-half of the respondents got below average scores in
Mathematics component of the Admission test.
Table 2. Level of admission test score of the respondents
Level of Admission Test Score
General Information
Frequency
Percent
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Superior
Total
English
14
78
47
4
143
9.79
54.55
32.87
2.79
100.00
Failed
Below Average
Average
Above Average
7
93
40
3
4.90
65.03
27.97
2.10
143
Total
Science
143
100.00
Failed
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Total
Math
8
87
44
4
143
5.59
60.84
30.77
2.80
100.00
Failed
Below Average
Average
Above Average
Total
43
77
20
3
143
30.07
53.85
13.99
2.09
100.00
Legend:
General
Information
Failed
Below average
Average
Above Average
Superior
0-9
10-14
15-19
20-24
25-29
English
Science
Math
0-19
20-29
30-39
40-49
0-13
14-20
21-27
28-34
0-11
12-17
18-23
24-29
Level of College Academic Performance of the Respondents
English
Out of 143 respondents, 66 (46.15%) got a college GPA of 2.00-2.49
which was described as good in their English subjects; 40 (27.97%)
obtained a college GPA range of 2.5 – 3.00, described as fair; 31 (21.68%)
belonged to GPA range of 1.50-1.99 which was described as very good;
and 6 (1.00 - 1.49) obtained a GPA of 1.00-1.49 which was excellent.
144
Table 3. Level of college academic performance
of the respondents
College GPA
English
1.00 - 1.49
1.50 - 1.99
2.00 - 2.49
2.50 - 3.00
Total
Science
1.00 - 1.49
1.50 - 1.99
2.00 - 2.49
2.50 - 3.00
Total
Frequency
Overall GPA
1.00 - 1.49
1.50 - 1.99
2.00 - 2.49
2.50 - 3.00
Total
Legend:
College GPA
1.00 - 1.49
1.50 – 1.99
6
31
66
40
4.20
21.68
46.15
27.97
100.00
2
13
56
72
1.40
9.09
39.16
50.35
100.00
5
8
30
100
143
3.50
5.59
20.98
69.93
100.00
5
22
78
38
3.50
15.38
54.55
26.57
100.00
143
143
Math
1.00 - 1.49
1.50 - 1.99
2.00 - 2.49
2.50 - 3.00
Total
143
Percent
Qualitative Description
- Excellent
- Very Good
145
2.00 - 2.49
2.50 – 3.00
- Good
- Fair
Most of the respondents were described as good in their college
academic performance, specifically in English subjects.
Science
Seventy-two (50.35%) of the respondents obtained a GPA of 2.50 3.00 in Science described as fair; 56 (39.16%) got 2.00-2.49 GPA which
was evaluated as good; 13 (9.09%) obtained 1.50-1.99 GPA which was
noted as very good; and only 2 (1.40%) were evaluated as excellent with
GPA of 1.00-1.49.
The data imply that most of the respondents got only a grade of fair
in Science subjects.
Mathematics
It could be noted from the table that 100 (69.93%) of the respondents
got a College GPA in Mathematics ranging from 2.50 - 3.00 described
as fair; 30 (20.98%) got a GPA of 2.00-2.49 which was evaluated as good;
8 (5.59%) obtained a GPA of 1.50 - 1.99 which was noted as very good;
and 5 (3.50%) got a PA ranging from 1.00-1.49 which was evaluated as
excellent.
The data connote that most of the respondents got only fair marks
in Mathematics subjects.
Overall GPA
The data indicated that 78 (54.55%) of the respondents obtained
an overall GPA of 2.00 - 2.49 which was noted as good; 38 (26.57%)
obtained a rating of fair under the GPA range from 2.50 - 3.00; 22
(15.38%) obtained a overall GPA of 1.50 - 1.99 which was evaluated as
very good; and 5 (3.50%) got an excellent overall GPA of 1.00 - 1.49.
This data imply that more than one-half of the respondents obtained
an overall GPA which was evaluated as good. This further implies that
the respondents are good in English, Science, and Mathematics.
146
Relationship between College Academic Performance and the
Demographic Profile Variables of the Respondents
Table 4 presents the relationship between college academic
performance specifically in English, Science and Mathematics and the
demographic profile variables of the respondents.
Table 4. Relationship between college academic performance and the
demographic profile variables of the respondents
Gender
Degree/Course
HS GPA
GPA in College (College Academic
Performance)
r
Sig*
0.009
0.904
-0.048
0.498
-0.310
< 0.001
Admission Test Scores
General Information
English
Science
Mathematics
Total
-0.035
-0.093
0.044
-0.188
-0.246
* .05 level of significance
0.618
0.190
0.537
0.008
0.001
As presented in Table 4, the computed r value -0.310 indicated that
there is significant relationship between college academic performance
and high school Grade Point Average. Based from the result, the null
hypothesis was rejected.
The result further implied that the higher the HS GPA, the higher is
the GPA in college/ college academic performance.
The result of the study supports the findings of Briggs (2011),
that grades accurately predict college GPA than standardized tests
regardless of the quality or type of high school. Although standardized
tests are used to estimate the performance of incoming freshman,
grades attained over a four-year period in high-school most closely
align with those over four years of college. These numbers are similar
147
regardless of academic discipline or major.
Moreover, the result of the study of Comeaux (2005) suggests
that students with high GPAs in high school tend to get high GPAs
in college. Likewise, Niu and Tienda (2009) in their study, found that
high school class rank is a better predictor of college performance than
standardized test scores.
In Mathematics, the obtained r value -0.188 indicated that there was
significant relationship between college academic performance and
Admission Test Score in Mathematics.
It could be inferred that the higher the Admission Test Scores in
Mathematics the higher is the GPA in college.
The overall computed r value -0.246 indicated significant
relationship between the college academic performance and overall
Admission Test Score. This further indicated that the higher the overall
Admission Test Score, the higher is the college academic performance.
Admission Test Scores (ATS) measures a high school chance of
academic success on their college studies. The Educational Testing
Service (ETS) also claims that the test measures not just how capable
individuals answer questions but how they will perform in the
academic world (http//:www.philippineeducation.edu).
Difference on the College Academic Performance when grouped
according to Demographic Profile Variables
Table 5 presents the test of difference on the college academic
performance when grouped according to gender, degree/course, HS
GPA, and Admission Test Scores.
Based on Table 5, the result indicated the test of difference on
the college academic performance when grouped according to the
Admission Test Scores in General Information, English, Science and
Mathematics.
148
Table 5. Difference on the college academic performance when
grouped according to demographic profile variables
Demographic Profile
Variables
Gender
Male
Female
Mean
SD
2.241
0.355
2.252
0.540
2.251
0.638
BSIE
2.339
0.287
BSED -MAPEH
2.422
0.324
BSED – General Science
1.999
0.411
BSED –TLE
2.474
0.271
BSED –English
2.180
0.300
General Information
Failed
2.173
0.261
Below Average
2.378
0.303
Average
Average and Above
Average
2.324
0.650
2.131
0.349
2.202
0.273
2.343
0.596
2.086
0.394
2.213
0.266
Below Average
2.247
0.291
Average
2.287
0.851
Above Average
2.226
0.578
Degree/Course
BEED
T/F
sig
0.015
0.904
2.011
0.079
1.781
0.134
3.212
0.024
0.176
0.913
Admission Test Score
English
Failed
Below Average
Average and Above
Average
Science
Failed
149
Mathematics
Failed
Below Average
Average and Above
Average
2.307
0.660
4.206
2.268
0.292
2.020
0.399
0.007
English. The computed t value of 3.212 indicated significant
difference on the college academic performance of the respondents.
The respondents whose scores are with failed category differ in their
academic performance compared with those in the average and above
average category. Respondents who scored under below average differ
significantly in their college academic performance than those whose
scores belong to average and above average scores category. In general,
respondents who obtained average and above average Admission Test
Scores in English, performed better in college than those who got
failing and below average scores. This could be true since English is
commonly used as medium of instruction in the classroom except for
Filipino subjects.
Mathematics. Based on the computed t value of 4.206, it indicated
significant difference in college academic performance when grouped
according to Admission Test Scores in Mathematics. Respondents
who failed and got average scores in Mathematics Admission Test differ
in their college academic performance; those who got average scores
differ in their academic performance with those who obtained above
average scores. Those who got below average scores differ significantly
with those who obtained average scores those who obtained average
scores differ in their college academic performance with those whose
scores are above average.
Generally, respondents who obtained average and above average
scores in Mathematics component of the Admission Test, performed
better in college than those who failed and got below average scores.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the findings of the study, the following conclusions were
150
drawn:
High School Grade Point Average was a significant factor that
influences college academic performance of the respondents. The
higher the HS GPA, the higher is the GPA in college/college academic
performance.
In Mathematics Admission Test Score, the higher the overall
Admission Test Score, the higher is the college academic
performance.
When grouped according to Admission Test Score in English,
respondents who obtained average and above average scores performed
better in college than those who got failing and below average scores.
In Mathematics Admission Test Score, respondents who obtained
average and above average scores performed better in college than those
who failed and got below average scores.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results of the study, the following recommendations
are given:
1.The College of Teacher Education Screening committee should
adhere to the quality standards of admission and retention set
for education students.
2.There is a need to further review the items included in the
Admission test given by the University Testing Center to really
determine what course or specialization is suited to the student
concerned.
3.Further study is recommended and to consider other variables
which could be perceived to be directly affecting the college
academic performance of the students and to be conducted in a
wider scope.
LITERATURE CITED
Briggs, J.
2011 High School Grades and College Performance. Retrieved on
June from http://www.ehow.com/about_6308320_high-school151
grades-college performance.html
Comeaux, E.
2005 Predictors of academic achievement among student-athletes
in the United States Sports Academy - “America’s Sports
University”. Retrieved on June 2011 from http://www.
thesportjournal.org/article/predictors-academic-achievementamong-student-athletes-revenue-producing-sp
Niu, S. X. and M. Tienda
2009 Testing, ranking and college performance: does high school
matter? Princeton University. [email protected], tienda@
princeton.edu
The Relative Predictive Validity of ACT Scores and High School
Grades in Making College Admission Decisions.
2011 Retrieved on June from http://www.act.org/research/
policymakers/ pdf/ PredictiveValidity.pdf
ONLINE DATABASES
tru.ca/policy/allpolicy.htmlhttp//:www.collegeboard.com/parents/
tests/testing overview/2194html
http//:www.philippineeducation.edu
152
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Americanizing the Sulu Sultanate:
Fragrance/Nightmare of
U.S. Foreign Policy (circa 1898)
MICHAEL VINCENT P. CACERES
Zamboanga State College of Marine Sciences and Technology
Zamboanga City, Philippines
Abstract - When the war broke out between Spain and the United
States, the Spaniards had fought only with wooden ships against
modern American warships. This event was known as the Battle of
Manila where it made the United States a world super power. The
Filipinos fought side by side with the Americans against Spanish
colonialism. There was a sense of euphoria a certain scent of fragrance
on the interference of the United States as a new player in the Asia
Pacific region. When the Treaty of Paris was concluded between Spain
and the United States on December 10, 1898 it finally gave the U.S.
government an access to enter the Philippines. The presence of the
Americans in Sulu was regarded as a new form of colonialism better
known as imperialism in the modern age of West America. It affected
the status of the sultanate and weakening the century old institution
in the east. The coming of the Americans can be considered both as
a form of blessing and cursed. The United States, represented by its
military and civilian governors introduced policies that affected the
entire Sultanate in almost its entire political facet. The paper looked
into the strategic programs and designs that made their campaigned in
Sulu either as a success or a failure coated with fragrance of promises
on one side and nightmare on the other side.
Keywords - Imperialism, Treaty, Assimilation and Land grabbing
153
INTRODUCTION
It was on May 1, 1898 that Admiral Dewey destroyed the Spanish
fleet in the Bay of Cavite. The combined efforts of Americans and Emilio
Aguinaldo on August 13 pacified Manila against the Spaniards. This
alliance entered by the Philippines and those from the United States
was not recognized by the American Government after the signing of
the Treaty of Paris on December 10, 1898. “…the Muslims did not know
that the Treaty of Paris which had ceded the Philippine Archipelago
to the American, include their land as well” (CCP Encyclopedia of
Philippine Arts, Vol. 11, 1994). The American authorities believed that
those Americans who participated in the signing of alliances between
the Philippines and the United States do not have the mandate
from the American authorities to do so. The treaty ended the three
century rule of Spain in the Philippines (333 years) and the rise of new
found imperialist from west America. 1 The treaty as also signified
the culmination of the war between Spain and the United States (E.
Aguilar, 1994). This agreement was approved by Rear Admiral Dewey,
who asked only for the occupation of Manila by the American forces.
However, it luck the signature of President McKinley.” 2One of the
principal considerations of the treaty was to define the territorial limit
of the Philippines to be ceded to the United State from Spain. 3 The
treaty of Paris gave the United States government an access to occupy
the Philippines. Eventually, found them penetrating the interior of
Mindanao. The American Government, like Spanish authorities,
put up their own version of Moro Campaign in Sulu. On January 1,
1899, Emilio Aguinaldo proposed to congress that the Republican
Government be given the power and authority to negotiate with the
Moro of Sulu and Mindanao on establishing national solidarity and
respect regardless of beliefs and traditions (Majul, 1999.370).
On November 16, 1899, Zamboanga was occupied by the American
naval forces and the neighboring Muslims flocked to the town for
trading and petty business. This event signaled American grand
planed on pacifying the Philippines. Since the American occupation,
the condition in Sulu turned to worst. This can be described by a
letter of Kiram II informing the Governor of Sulu that while he was in
Singapore his subjects were in turmoil because of the armed conflict
154
among them (Majul, 1999.370). It provided armed conflict and feuds
among local communities. “The rise of internal conflicts such as the
Kadatuan (datus), Kahadjian (religious leaders), Kabanuwahan (local
leaders), and the ambarayat (masses) struggle against each other
seeking to get American favors and support (Tan, 2005.xxxviii).”
Kiram II informed to Governor Sweet, on the current situation in Jolo.
Below is the report on Local Conflict related to bandit, that if he resists,
he should be killed (Tan, 2005.23).
1.There had been so many people killed by the soldiers of Jolo;
these were women, children, the old who were unarmed and
not the relatives of the bandits, deprived of their livestock.
Moreover, the market on the other side which was attacked by
the soldiers witnessed people killed as well as wounded. They
were also unarmed.
2.In the month of Ramadan, five good people, followers of
Panglima Bandahala, were pursued by the soldiers and killed
at sea in Buhangin Putih (white sand). They were unarmed and
were all killed.
3.People like Imbang and his two companions, who were tending
their fishing nets, were accosted by the soldiers. One was killed,
and two were wounded.
4.within the month of Ramadan, Isad, in Tayungan mosque was
killed by Nasilim, the secretary in Bual, for being armed with a
Barung.
5.Sattamari was arrested by the soldiers in an island and upon
reaching Pitugu was likked for resisting arrest.
6.Within the month of Ramadan, Abu, an old man, sisy years old,
was plowing his farm with a weapon for protection against the
outlaws. He was met by the soldiers and killed. I was told by the
wife who escaped to the island of Tulayan.
The letter appealed to the Governor and to his men to stay within
the Jolo fortification as well in Fort Bakud. The event was referring to
the current armed conflict among the Taosugs, that the “arm conflict in
Europe was far different from Sulu”, stressed by Kiram II. The governor
was also informed that these troubles were not coming from the
155
Sultanate but from lawless elements. This should take effect until such
time condition would be pacified (Surat 17 see Tan, 2005, 42).
Weakening of the Sultanate and the Moro Resistance
The “Benevolent Assimilation” was issued by President McKinley on
December 21, 1898. The proclamation was the first official indication of
American policy regarding the Philippines. The proclamation stressed
the intention of the United States to stay in the Philippines. It should
exercise American power over the Filipinos. 4The period from 1898 to
1903 was five years of American military operation and government
in Tawi-Tawi. Colonel Sydney A. Cloman was the first military
commander and military governor of Tawi-Tawi. The outbreak of
the war in the Philippines gave the idea to the United States to take
advantage of the situation.
The power of the Sultan lay mostly on the strength of the Datu.
Alliances of some Datus to the Americans strengthened American
position in Sulu for this would mean that the alliance of every datu
as well the Sultan would weaken the sultanate. The Americans were
successful in taking over the Walled City of Jolo in 1899 the series of
battles continued from the brave Tausug of Sulu. This provided no
option for local leaders but to be submissive to the Americans.
Muslim sentiments in Sulu further felt against the American
administration. An example of this sentiment was in 1902, Kiram II
asking the Governor of Sulu, Colonel Sweet for help for the use of
the boat and if not available at least riffles expecting that this should
be provided in the same way the Spaniards did (Surat 75 see Tan,
2005.214). However, his request was not granted completely. In 1903,
Kiram II, explained to the Governor General of the Philippines on
the money that he received from Major Scott was not enough. This
caused the Sultan humiliation in his territory. Sultan Kiram-II, further
expressed his sentiments (Surat 82 see Tan, 2005. 234):
Before I own the land and sea in the archipelago an
eagle in the cage appreciating whatever is your offer to
me. At first you gave me $5 a month and late $500 still
it is not enough looking at my lifestyle as the Sultan.
156
You are my elder, and as an eagle I am waiting for my
food because I have no income and no resources.
The political pressure exerted by the American authorities left the
Sultan with no option but to give up his power. Sultan Jamalul Kiram
II gave his temporal power to colonial America under the Carpenter
Agreement in 1915 (Abubakar, 2007.3). This symbolic gesture marked
the Sulu Sultanate’s existence from 1450 and lasted to 1915. However,
resistance against the American authorities continued in 1913 like the
Battle of Bud Bagsak and again in 1951 kamlun uprising.
The American invasion to Sulu without a clear manifestation on the
declaration of war was a violation of article 1, section 8 of the American
Constitution. The invasion and occupation was done through the
“Bates Treaty” as a way of friendship (Julkarnain, 2010).5On June 9,
1921 the neighboring sultan and other 57 prominent Sulu Muslim
leaders petitioned the United States appealing for the full restoration
of the independence of Sulu sultanate, and reiterated strongly with
greater patriotic fervor a resolution for independence and selfdetermination of political which was placed the official record of the
United States congress in 1926 was the “declaration of rights and
purpose (Julkarnain, 2010).
A conservative estimate of deaths from the abrogation
of the Bates Agreement in 1904 to the end of Wood’s
tenure as Governor in 1906 puts Muslim dead at 3, 000
and Americans at 70.
The most sensational attack Wood ordered was the
battle of Bud Dajo in Sulu. Balking on the peso cedula
tax imposed by the Americans and the American
sovereignty this implied, 1, 000 Muslims (men, women
and children) grouped by the crater of the extinct
volcano Dajo hill, armed with no more than krises,
spears, bolos, and a few rifles. Opposite them were
800 crack American soldiers, equipped with the most
modern weapons in the American arsenal. The result
was of course expected. The Muslims were annihilated,
157
with only 21 Americans killed.
Leonard Wood was convinced that deaths and killings
were the only means to take Mindanao-Sulu. The
battle of Bud Dajo was in itself insignificant, militarily
speaking; its principal purpose was to serve as a lesson
to Muslims that there was no alternative to resistance
but death.
Wood’s successor, Tasker H. Bliss, continued the same
armed policy of his predecessor, as can be seen from the
many military expeditions ordered across Moroland
during his term (Salgada see Abinates, SN. 17-19).
When John Pershing, who would later become an
American hero of World War I, assumed the reins of
governorship of Moroland, he introduced a measure
that sent the Muslims into a war footing. This was the
disarmament order of September 8, 1911, wherein it
was declared “unlawful to any person within the moro
Province to acquire, possess or have the custody of
any rifle, musket, carbine, shotgun, revolver, pistol or
other deadly weapon (Salgada see Abinates, SN. 19).
In a parallel moved to prevent the eventual annexation and
incorporation of Mindanao and Sulu to the body politic of the
Philippines under the proposed 1935 Philippine Constitution as
mandated by the Tydings-McDuffie Law, otherwise known as the
Philippine Independence Act of 1934 providing for a 10-year transition
period as Commonwealth Government before the final grant of selfgovernment to the Philippines, on March 18, 1935, a historic assembly
of more than 100 Maranao Leaders passed a strongly-worded manifesto
known as the Dansalan Declaration addressed to the United States
President vehemently opposing the annexation of Moro Homeland to
the Republic of the Philippines upon proclamation of its independence
and self-government on July 4, 1946 in compliance with the TydingsMcDuffie Law.
Despite the petition of the 57 prominent Sulu Muslim leaders
on June 9, 1921 and the Declaration of Rights and Purposes in 1924
158
signed by Sultan Jamalul Kiram II for the Sultanate of Sulu to be either
made a permanent American territory or to remain as constitutional
Sultanate. The Sultanates of Sulu and Mindanao were incorporated to
the Philippine Republic when the Government of the United States
granted independence on July 4, 1946 (Julkarnain, 2010).
The Moro fought for home and country, for freedom to pursue their
religion and the way of life, and for liberty to rove the seas which so
ever they would, for over three hundred years they made a shambles
of Spain Moro Policy. Expert guerilla fighters, the Muslims exacted
a heavy toll of casualties…they fought ferociously, and their usual
tactic was to wear down their attackers, obliging them gradually to
withdraw,” (Gowing, 1977.12).
Bates Treaty: The United States Foreign Policy (1899)
The Americans later controlled the Sultanate of Sulu and abandoned
its earlier policy of “noninterference” on the belief the Sultan was
unable to govern (Kiefer, 2003.3). The United States immediately
implemented its colonial policy in the Philippines that would ensure
United States objectives in the Far East. The U.S. government planned
to come up with a separate treaty to the Sultanate of Sulu. Aside from
the operation of the Moro Province some special arrangements were
also made with the Sultan of Sulu. The First was the Bates agreement
in 1899 wherein the Sultan acknowledged the sovereignty of the US
government, and his capacity as the spiritual head of Islam in his realm
was in turn recognized by the US government (B.R. Rodil, 2004.26). The
American government appointed General John C. Bates to negotiate
a treaty with the Sultan by which the Muslims and Americans could
co-exist peacefully. Brigadier General John Bates (Assigned in the
American war and Cuban campaigned) was commissioned on this
project. It was through the effort of Gen. John C. Bates, the Americans
were able to conclude a treaty with the sultanate to station their forces
in Sulu (Orendain, 1984.91). “The Bates treaty, provided (AgoncilloGuerrero, 1977. 221);
“The sovereignty of the United States of the whole
archipelago of Jolo and its independencies are declared
and acknowledged” that the “rights and dignities of
159
his highness the sultan and his datos shall be fully
respected,” that the Muslims “shall not be interfered
on account of their religion,” and that no one shall
prosecute on account of his religious beliefs”.
John C. Bates concluded a treaty with Sultan Jamalul Kiram II in
August 1899 (Bates Treaty), which made the Sulu Sultanate a protected
state of the United States. It was through the effort of Gen. John C.
Bates, the Americans were able to conclude a treaty with the sultanate
to station their forces in Sulu (Orendain, 1984.105). The treaty was
ambiguous in its nature and made it appear that the Sultan was unable
to understand international legal matters. The Bates was a reflection
of American foreign policies, which expressed its intention on the
suppression of piracy and slavery and at the same time recognizing the
sultan’s power in Sulu (Salman, 2001.69. Article IV of the Bates Treaty
concluded between the United States of America and the sultanate of
Sulu on August 20, 1899 states;
“Any person can purchase land in the archipelago
of Jolo and hold same by consent of the Sultan and
coming to a satisfactory agreement with the owner
of the land; and such purchase shall immediately
be registered in the proper office of the United State
Government “The United States will not sell the island
of Jolo or any other island of the Jolo Archipelago to
any foreign nation without the consent of the sultan of
Jolo.”-article XIV of the Bates Treaty.
The Bates Treaty had a total of 15 Articles that tackled United States
role in Sulu including the sovereign power over the Sulu archipelago,
though American authorities respected the rights and dignities of the
sultan and the Datus. The Sultan and his Datus agreed to cooperate in
the suppression of Piracy. The American Government agreed to pay
the Sultan and his leading men monthly salaries in Mexican dollars
ranging from $15 to$250. In 1900, Kiram II informed Brig. Gen. John
Bates that the Spaniards returned Siasi to him and the American
government should not deny this to him. At the same time asking what
160
was due based on the recapitulation at the soonest possible time (Surat
85 see Tan, 2005.252). Later it abrogated the Bates Treaty on March 2,
1904 because of the inability of the sultan to suppress resistance.6
Paduka Mahasari Maulana Sultan of Sulu and the colonel of
Regiment No.23 entered into provisions on John Bates and the Sultan
in Sulu. The agreement could be revised from time to time. For
examples, if a Taosug committed a crime against fellow Taosug or
other nations within the Jurisdiction of American soldiers, he must be
surrendered to an American judge. A crime committed by a Taosug
to fellow Taosug outside the American jurisdiction, the sultan should
render justice (Surat 53 see Tan, 2005.154).7
Schurman-Taft Commissions (1900)
The first Philippine Commission also called the Schurman
Commission by Jacob Schurman as chairman. The participation of rear
admiral George Dewey, major general Elwell Otis, Dean Worcester
and Charles Denby served as members. They arrived in Sulu in May
1899 and discussed the 1878 Treaty (of Spain) and the Bates Treaty in
1899. One of the many unresolved issues was on slavery, which was
started by Spain. Issues on colonialism and slavery on the Philippines
took shape in the form of race, labor, and progress (Salman, 2001.4). It
was McKinley who denounced slavery on October 4, 1900 as inhuman
and yet Sulu was still practicing the century old tradition.
In 1901, Kiram II informed Maj. Gen. Arthur MacArthur on the
delivery of the ordered bullets to be delivered by the Kat Balaguiar
Company and therefore seeking permission for the transport of these
bullets (Surat 84 see Tan, 2005.245).
On November 4, 1901, the Sedition law was enacted by the Philippine
Commission. It expressed that any advocacy of independence was
punishable. Whether by peaceful or forcible means, death penalty or
long imprisonment should be imposed. From Schurman Commission,
McKinley appointed the second Philippine Commission (also called the
Taft Commission) with William Howard Taft as chairman. This was in
preparation of the groundwork for the gradual Filipinization of the
government. Jamalul Kiram II confirmed to the Philippine Commission
in 1908, the $500 monthly budget was received by the Sultan. It further
161
informed that the budget was not enough to support his children and
wife.
Moro Province and the Department of Sulu and Mindanao (1913)
It was during the time of Sultan Jamalul Kiram II when the
Mindanao settlement took effect. The American colonizers encouraged
the coming of the Christian settlers. By 1903, the Moro Province was
created by the Philippine Commission Act No. 787 and General
Leonard Wood became its first governor. When the Moro province
constituted as workable government unit, its Legislative Councils on
October 29, 1903 created municipalities in the Moro province (Kurais,
1979.85). Reorganization was made in the Act 2408 in the Philippine
Commission on September 1, 1914 in this new setup; Tawi-Tawi was
gradually integrated into the Philippine Commission scheme. The
Battles in Sulu continued in Bud Dajo in 1906 and Bud Bagsak in 1913
as the last resistance against colonial America in Sulu.
The Philippine Commission created the Department of Mindanao
and Sulu in 1913 and lasted in 1920. Its first civilian governor was Frank
Carpenter who introduced the policy of attraction. In 1915 governor
Carpenter entered in an agreement recognized the Sultan as spiritual
leader of the Muslims in Sulu Archipelago.8 On December 20, 1930 the
five districts were created namely Cotabato, Lanao, Davao, Sulu and
Zamboanga and by the Act 2309 provinces of Agusan and Bukidnon
were included in the new setup. 9
The Jones Law in 1916 intensified the Filipinization of Moro land
by increasing the number of natives from the north (Abubakar,
2007.5).” It also enacted in 1916 to give representation to the Muslims
in the National Legislature, and it was Hadji Butu who represented
Sulu from 1916-1931. In May 1919, the last treaty was signed between
the Sultan of Sulu and the United States. It renounced its temporal
sovereignty within the Philippines including their claim to lands
(Ututalum-Hedjazi, 2002. 106). Some Muslims desired to incorporate
the Philippines, Sulu in particular to the United States. Series of
initiatives and petitions were made by Muslim prominent leaders in
Sulu in 1921. In 1924, “Declaration of Rights” was sent by the group of
Muslim datus at the United States Congress. By 1935, Maranao Datus
requested President Roosevelt for the continuation of American rule or
162
to grant them separate independence. This petition was signed by 121
Maranao datu at Dansalan in Marawi city (Turner, 1992.126).
In 1926, the coming of the Christian families from Cebu to settle
in Tawi-Tawi took placed. The second wave for Mindanao settlement
was to offer land to the Huks, the Philippine communists in Luzon
(Mercado, 2002.312). Sultan Jamalul Kiram II replaced Hadji Buto as
senator from 1932 to 1934 for the District of Sulu and Mindanao. Sultan
Kiram II died on June 7, 1936.
Having become uncomfortable with the continuing exercise by
traditional Moro leaders, chief among them was the Sultan of Sulu,
of lead roles in the resolution of conflicts among their people; the
American government insisted that the Sultan signed the Memorandum
of Agreement between the governor-general of the Philippine Islands
and the Sultan of Sulu-the second arrangement. In 1914, the Moro
Province was abolished and the Department of Mindanao and Sulu
which had jurisdiction not only the former Moro Province but also
over the special province of Agusan (B.R. Rodil ,2004.27).
From Commonwealth to the New Republic (1935)
Sydney A. Cloman became the first governor of Tawi-Tawi and
was the commanding officer of the US 23rd Infantry Contingent of 185
officers who were ordered to occupy and govern Tawi-Tawi (Kurais,
1971.91). After Cloman, Lieutenant Jose Tando (one of the heroes
in Bataan in World War II) administered Tawi-Tawi and achieved a
relatively peaceful Taw-Tawi. During his incumbency in the thirties,
there was a relative peace and order in Tawi-Tawi. In 1932, the first
election was held in the province of Sulu which the Sama of TawiTawi and other communities of the Sulu archipelago experienced the
membership of the House Representative of the Philippines.
The American controlled bicameral legislature where Wazir
(Prime Minister) Hadji Butu Abdul Baqui accepted the appointment
as senator in December 1915 representing Sulu. His appointment was
made possible through Governor General Francis Burton Harrison,
reappointed in 1928 by Governor General Henry Stympson making
him as the first Filipino Muslim parliamentarian. Senator Hadji Buto,
sponsored the bill on the creation of the Philippine Military Academy,
163
Philippine Naval Academy and military training to all colleges and
schools in the Philippines.
The Commonwealth of the Philippines was inaugurated on
November 15, 1935. After the death of Sultan Jamalul Kiram II in 1936,
there was no male heir to the throne. This prompted a great dilemma
creating a vacuum in the sultanate. A number of claimants came out
since 1936 to the present claiming as the legitimate heir. However it
simply worsens the condition.
The Law that Made Land Grabbing Legal (1935)
The Quirino-Recto Colonization Act” also known as the Legislative
Act No. 4197 enacted on February 12, 1935 (Ocampo, 2010). Constituting
the core of the Philippine land property system, the regalian doctrine
has been and is still enshrined in the Philippine Constitution of 1935,
1973 and 1987.
With it, the state declares right to classify it for
purposes of proper disposition to its citizens. Thus,
lands classified as alienable, and disposable may be
owned privately and title to themselves, by individuals
or corporations; a land forest areas, bodies of water,
and so on which were described as inalienable and
nondisposable are state-owned and are not open to
private ownership. They may; however be lease for a
specified period (B.R. Rodil, 2004.30). The Republic of
the Philippines inherited the regalian doctrine from
Spain, as it also adopted hook, line and sinker all laws
affecting land and other natural resources enacted and
implemented by the American colonizers (B.R. Rodil,
2004.30).
Following the Tenth Philippine Legislature first session begun
and held at the City of Manila on Monday, the sixteenth day of July,
Nineteen Hundred and Thirty-Four. An act to facilitate and promote
the occupation and cultivation of public land at present unoccupied by the
establishment of settlement districts, appropriate the sum of one million pesos
164
for the said purpose, and for other purposes was passed. It was enacted
by the Senate and House of Representatives of the Philippines in
Legislature assembled and by the authority of the same.10
The American Administration
Major General Leonard Wood (1903-1906) was named the first
military governor of the Moro province which included all nonChristian areas in Mindanao and Sulu. He was followed brigadier
general Tasker H. Bliss (1906-1909) then by the brigadier general
John Pershing ward administration as headmen- but only with
authorization from the American district governor (civil governor)
Frank W. Carpenter (Tan.xxx71).
The US Congress Passed, the Jones Act of 1916 replaced the
Philippines Bill of 1902. Part of the government reorganization that
followed was the creation of the Bureau of Non-Christian Tribes
(1917-1936) - not the same entity as that headed by Dr. Barrows (B.R.
Rodil, 2004.28). In 1912, Gen. John Pershing made Zamboanga as the
autonomous city through the legislative Council of the Moro Province
It was through the effort of Gen. John C. Bates, the Americans were
able to conclude a treaty with the sultanate to station their forces in
Sulu (Orendain, 1984.91).
In 1921, the Bureau of Non- Christian Tribe took over of the role
of the Department of Mindanao and Sulu. In 1922, Hadji Muhammad
Kurais of South Ubian, Datu Muhammad Maulana of Tandubas, Tuan
Salip Masdal of Balimbing, Datu Halun Sakilan of Bonggao, Datu
Amilbangsa Ulanhutan of Simunul, and Datu Jaafar Salapuddin of
Sibutu were appointed municipal district presidents under the new
Bureau of Non- Christians Tribes. All were replaced in 1924, except
Datu Jaafar who served until 1932 (Tan, 2001.171).
Commonwealth Act No. 75 (24 October 1936) abolished the Bureau
of Non-Christian Tribes. All the powers of the Bureau were conferred
upon the Secretary of the Interior. Also, the position of Commissioner
for Mindanao and Sulu was created with the rank and salary of
Undersecretary of the Department of the Interior (B.R. Rodil, 2004.28).
In 1906, Act No. 167 (20 June 1906) on compulsory education for
children of school age, not less than seven and not older than 13 years
165
old, was implemented in the Moro Province (B.R. Rodil, 2004.61).
In 1913, 1,825 Moros and 525 pagans were enrolled in the public
schools of the Moro Province. In 1918, the enrollment of the Moros in
the five provinces (of Sulu, Zamboanga, Cotabato, Lanao, Davao) had
increased to 8,421 and pagan pupils to 3,129 (B.R. Rodil, 2004.61).
In 1914, public schools were established in Tawi- Tawi. Primary
grade was set up in south Ubian, Tandubas, Bonggao, Simunul, and
Sitangkai (Tan, 2001.171). A Girl’s dormitory managed by a Christian
Filipino matron and financed by American ladies in New York was
established in 1916 in Jolo. This contributed substantially in breaking
down Moro prejudice against sending their daughters to school (B.R.
Rodil, 2004.61).
The First Christian settlement was established in Batu- Batu in
1926. The First Protestant Mission to operate in Sulu and Tawi-Tawi
was the Christian and Missionary Alliance with their boat ministry
among the Sama. The First school to operate was the Notre Dame in
Bongao under Fr. George Dion, OMI, who later opened another branch
in Ungus Matata. Subsequently, several Notre Dame high schools
were established: in Sibutu under Fr. Gerard Rixhon, in Cagayan de
Sulu under Fr. Maurice A. Hemann, in Tongkalang under Fr. Henri
Lavallee, and in Tabawan under Fr. Leopold Gregoire (Tan, 2001.171).
From 1903 to 1936, Moro lives lost from the fighting were estimated by
the Americans to be 15,000 to 20,000 (B.R. Rodil, 2004. 60).
Economic Development in 1900s
From Marine economy Sulu shifted to the agricultural economy to
sustain the demands of the western powers till the advent of American
imperialism. American Policy towards slavery affected the sultanate
of Sulu as an institution. Its survival primarily depended on its man
power specifically on slavery. When piracy ceased, both the sultan
and the Datu lost their income. The practice of slavery was not only
common in Sulu but also in other Southeast Asian Kingdoms.
The operation of piracy by the Sulus mostly occurred within the
Philippines, probably from the Visayas Islands of the Philippines, and
at the end of the nineteenth century, from the highlands of Mindanao
(Salman, 2001.54). During the American occupation more and more of
these slaves were seeking freedom and the most common means was
166
to escape. On October 4, 1900 McKinley denounced slavery and yet he
recognized slavery in Sulu. Efforts were exerted for the abolishment of
the slavery system in Mindanao.
In 1901 Jamalul Kiram II negotiated to the Governor General,
regarding the opium contract he entered into since the time of
the Spaniards that, Kapitan Tiana (Chinese trader) was to operate
the opium trade and shall remit the dues and pay the levy of five
pieces and thirty pesos (Surat 11 see Tan, 2005, 24). In 1902, Kiram
II requested the Governor of Sulu for the lease on the opium trade
in Jolo. The Chinese paid three hundred pesos (P 300) a month. They
were willing to pay exactly same about like the Chinese if granted
(Surat 69 see Tan, 2005 198). In 1903, the legislative council enacted act.
No. 8 making the ownership of slaves a crime punishable for twenty
years of imprisonment (Umehara and Bautista, 2004. 40).
In 1903, Kiram informed Governor Sweet on the lease of Palawan
for 50 years to A. Torrey an American trade (Surat 36 see Tan, 2005.90).
By 1911, the logging industry came to Tawi-Tawi which was started by
William Schuck, a German factor who held a rank of rajah (superior
datu) in the sultanate of Sulu, a rank awarded to him by Sultan Jamalul
Kiram (Kurais, 1979.88). Tawi-Tawi’s first national office was the Bureau
of Customs with a sub-port in Sitangkay. Mr. Percy Machlin was the
first custom official designated as Deputy Collector of Customs, and
he remained in that post until the 1920’s (Kurais, 1979.88).
Concluding Note
The coming of the Americans in the Philippines was of no accident, it
was not even a coincidence to establish political programs and designs
in Sulu. Their interference to the political affairs of Sulu was part of
their mandate to control all political entities around the world for the
preservation of their power. The reshaping of the political affairs of the
sultanate with the promised of abundance was a perfumed of hope,
but in reality it was a nightmare in the preservation of the sultan’s
power which eventually collapsed and ceased to exist. It will remain a
debate whether the United Sates intervention in Sulu was successful or
not. What is certain, they controlled the sultan through false promises
which formed part of the changing landscape of Sulu.
167
(Endnotes)
Treaty of Peace between the United States and Spain; December 10,
1898
1
The United States of America and Her Majesty the Queen Regent of Spain,
in the name of her august son Don Alfonso XIII, desiring to end the state
of war now existing between the two countries, have for that purpose
appointed as plenipotentiaries: The President of the United States,
William R. Day, Cushman K. Davis, William P. Frye, George Gray,
and Whitelaw Reid, citizens of the United States; And Her Majesty the
Queen Regent of Spain, Don Eugenio Montero Rios, president of the
senate, Don Buenaventura de Abarzuza, senator of the Kingdom and
ex-minister of the Crown; Don Jose de Garnica, deputy of the Cortes
and associate justice of the supreme court; Don Wenceslao Ramirez
de Villa-Urrutia, envoy extraordinary and minister plenipotentiary
at Brussels, and Don Rafael Cerero, general of division;Who, having
assembled in Paris, and having exchanged their full powers, which
were found to be in due and proper form, have, after discussion of
the matters before them, agreed upon the following articles: Article
III. Spain cedes to the United States the archipelago known as the
Philippine Islands, and comprehending the islands lying within the
following line: The United States will pay to Spain the sum of twenty
million dollars ($20,000,000) within three months after the exchange
of the ratifications of the present treaty. Article V. The United States
will, upon the signature of the present treaty, send back to Spain, at
its own cost, the Spanish soldiers taken as prisoners of war on the
capture of Manila by the American forces. The arms of the soldiers in
question shall be restored to them. Spain will, upon the exchange of the
ratifications of the present treaty, proceed to evacuate the Philippines,
as well as the island of Guam, on terms similar to those agreed upon
by the Commissioners appointed to arrange for the evacuation of Porto
Rico and other islands in the West Indies, under the Protocol of August
12, 1898, which is to continue in force till its provisions are completely
executed. Article VIII. In conformity with the provisions of Articles I,
II, and III of this treaty, Spain relinquishes in Cuba, and cedes in Porto
Rico and other islands in the West Indies, in the island of Guam, and in
168
the Philippine Archipelago, all the buildings, wharves, barracks, forts,
structures, public highways and other immovable property which, in
conformity with law, belong to the public domain, and as such belong
to the Crown of Spain.
1.The Independence of the Philippines shall be proclaimed;
2.A federal republic , a government with provisional members
named by Emilio Aguinaldo shall be established;
3.This government shall recognize the temporary intervention
of the American and European commissioners designated by
admiral Dewey;
4.It shall recognize American protectorate under the same
condition as those that will be made in Cuba;
5.Philippine ports will be opened to international trade;
6.Precautionary measures shall be taken against the Chinese
immigration in order that it will not harm the livelihood of the
natives;
7.The existing corrupt (sic) judiciary system shall be reformed and,
in the meanwhile, the administration of justice shall be entrusted
to competent European judges;
8.complete freedom of the press and of association shall be
proclaimed;
9.General religious toleration shall be established; measures shall
be adopted for the abolition and expulsion of the religious orders
which have demoralized the present civil administrations;
10. Measures for the exploitation of the natural resources of the
country shall be adopted;
11. Development of the wealth of the country shall be facilitated
by the construction of roads and railways
12. Existing hindrances to industrial enterprises and the heavy
taxes on foreign capital shall be lifted;
13. The new government shall maintain public order and impose
rules to prevent all reprisals against Spaniards;
REGALIAN DOCTRINE/ Generally, under this concept, private
title to land must be traced to some grant, express or implied, from the
Spanish Crown or its successors, the American Colonial Government,
3
169
and thereafter, the Philippine Republic In a broad sense, the term
refers to royal rights, or those rights to which the King has by virtue
of his prerogatives. The theory of jure regalia was therefore nothing
more than a natural fruit of conquest. THE 1973 CONSTITUTION
REITERATED THE REGALIAN DOCTRINE AS FOLLOWS-Section
8. All lands of public domain, waters, minerals, coal, petroleum and
other mineral oils, all forces of potential energy, fisheries, wildlife, and
other natural resources of the Philippines belong to the State. With
the exception of agricultural, industrial or commercial, residential, or
resettlement lands of the public domain, natural resources shall not be
alienated, and no license, concession, or lease for the exploration, or
utilization of any of the natural resources shall be granted for a period
exceeding twenty five years, except as to water rights for irrigation,
water supply, fisheries, or industrial uses other than development
of water power, in which cases, beneficial use may by the measure
and the limit of the grant. THE 1987 PROVISION HAD ITS ROOTS
IN THE 1935 CONSTITUTION WHICH PROVIDES— Section 1. All
agricultural timber, and mineral lands of the public domain, waters,
minerals, coal, petroleum, and other mineral oils, all forces of potential
energy and other natural resources of the Philippines belong to the
State, and their disposition, exploitation, development, or utilization
shall be limited to citizens of the Philippines or to corporations or
associations at least sixty per centum of the capital of which is owned
by such citizens, subject to any existing right, grant, lease, or concession
at the time of the inauguration of the Government established under
this Constitution. Natural resources, with the exception of public
agricultural land, shall not be alienated, and no license, concession,
or lease for the exploitation, development, or utilization of any of the
natural resources shall be granted for a period exceeding twenty-five
years, renewable for another twenty-five years, except as to water
rights for irrigation, water supply, fisheries, or industrial uses other
than the development of water power, in which cases beneficial use
may be the measure and limit of the grant.
EXECUTIVE MANSION, WASHINGTON, December 21, 1898
(http://filipino.biz.ph/history/benevolent.html/ Accessed April 11,
2011)
4
170
The destruction of the Spanish fleet in the harbor of Manila by the
United States naval squadron commanded by Rear-Admiral Dewey,
followed by the reduction of the city and the surrender of the Spanish
forces, practically effected the conquest of the Philippine Islands and
the suspension of the Spanish sovereignty therein. With the signature
of the treaty of peace between the United States and Spain by their
respective plenipotentiaries at Paris on the 10th instant, and as a result
of the victories of American arms, the future control, disposition, and
government of the Philippine Islands are ceded to the United States. In the
fulfillment of the rights of sovereignty thus acquired and the responsible
obligations of government thus assumed, the actual occupation and
administration of the entire group of the Philippine Islands becomes
immediately necessary, and the military government heretofore
maintained by the united states in the city, harbor, and bay of Manila is
to be extended with all possible dispatch to the whole of the ceded territory.
Finally, it should be the earnest wish and paramount aim of the
military administration to win the confidence, respect, and affection of
the inhabitants of the Philippines by assuring them in every possible
way that full measure of individual rights and liberties which is the
heritage of free peoples, and by proving to them that the mission of the
United States is one of BENEVOLENT ASSIMILATION substituting
the mild sway of justice and right for arbitrary rule. In the fulfillment
of this high mission, supporting the temperate administration of
affairs for the greatest good of the governed, there must be sedulously
maintained the strong arm of authority, to repress disturbance and to
overcome all obstacles to the bestowal of the blessings of good and
stable government upon the people of the Philippine Islands under the
free flag of the United States.
Be invaded and occupied eventually by the American force
without a separate declaration of war by the U.S Congress as explicitly
required in the American Constitution (1787), which prohibits a war
of conquest, unless actually invaded, to wit: “To declare War, grant
Letters of Marquee and Reprisal and make Rules Concerning captures
on land and water.” and’’ To define such and punish piracies and
Felonies committed on the Law of Nation.”- Article I, section 8 of the
1787 U.S Constitution. Article I, Section 8 (10). “No state shall, without
5
171
the consent of Congress, any Duty of , keep troops, or Ships of war
in time of peace, enter into any Agreement or Compact with another
State, or with foreign Power, or engage in War, unless actually invaded,
or in imminent Danger as will not admit delay.’’-Article I, Section 10(3)
AGREEMENT BETWEEN GENERAL JOHN C. BATES, UNITED
STATES ARMY AND THE SUTAN OF SULU, TOGETHER WITH
CERTAIN SULU CHIEFS, SIGNED AT JOLO, AUGUST 20, 1899
(Excerpt from Ututalum-Hedjazi (2002). The Rise and Fall of the Sulu
Islamic Empire (1675-1919). 137). Between Brig. Gen. John C. Bates,
representing the United States, of the one part, and His Highness the
Sultan of Jolo. The Dato Rajah Muda, the Dato Attik, and the Dato
Calbi, and the Dato Joakanain, of the other part, it being understood
that this agreement will be in full force only when approved by the
Governor of the Philippine Islands and confirmed by the President of
the United States, and will be subject to future modifications by the
mutual consent of the parties and interest..
ARTICLE I. The sovereignty of the United States over the whole
Archipelago of Jolo and its dependencies is declared and acknowledged,
ARTICLE II. The United States flag will be used in the archipelago
of Jolo and its land and sea.
ARTICLE III. The rights and dignities of His Highness the Sultan
and his datos shall be fully respected; the Moros shall not be interfered
with on account of their religion; all their religious customs shall be
respected; and no one will be prosecuted on account on his religion.
ARTICLE IV. While the Unites States may occupy and control such
points in the archipelago of Jolo as public interests seem to demand,
encroachment will not be made up in the lands immediately about
the residence of His Highness the Sultan, unless military necessity
requires such occupation in case of war with foreign power; and where
the property of individuals is taken, due compensation will be made
in each case.
Any person can purchased land in the archipelago of Jolo and
hold the same by obtaining the consent of the Sultan and coming to a
satisfactory agreement with the owner of the land; and such purchase
shall immediately be resigned in the proper office of the United States
Government.
6
172
ARTICLE V. All trade in domestic products of the archipelago of
Jolo, when carried by the Sultan and His people with any part of the
Philippine Islands and when conducted under American flag, shall be
free, unlimited, and undutiable.
ARTICLE VI. The Sultan of Jolo shall be allowed to communicate
direct with the Governor General of the Philippines Islands in making
complaint against the commanding officer of Jolo or against any naval
commander.
ARTICLE VII. The introduction of firearms and war material is
forbidden except under specific authority of the Governor General of
the Philippine Islands.
ARTICLE VIII. Piracy must be suppressed, and the Sultan and his
datos agree to heartily cooperate with the United States authority to
that end, and to make everithing possible effort to arrest and bring to
justice all persons engaged in piracy.
ARTICLE X. Where crimes and offenses are committed by Moros
against Moros, the Government of Sultan will bring to trial and
punishment the criminals and offenders, who will be delivered to
the government of the Sultan by the United States authorities if in
their possession. In all other cases persons charged with crimes and
offences will be delivered to the United States authorities for trial and
punishment.
ARTICLE X. Any slave in the archipelago of Jolo shall have the right
to purchase freedom by paying to the master the usual market value.
ARTICLE XI. In case of any trouble with the subjects of the Sultan,
the American authorities in the islands will be instructed to make
careful investigation before resorting to harsh measures, as in most
cases serious trouble can thus be avoided.
ARTICLE XII. At present, Americans or foreigners wishing to go
into the country should state their wishes to the Moro Authorities and
ask for an escort but it is hoped that this will become unnecessary as
we know each other better.
ARTICLE XIII. The United States will give full protection to the
Sultan and his subjects in case any foreign nations should attempt to
impose upon them.
ARTICLE XIV. The United States will not sell the island of Jolo or
any other island of the Jolo Archipelago to any foreign nation without
173
the consent of the Sultan of Jolo.
ARTICLE XV. The United States Government will pay the following
monthly salaries:
Mexican Dollars
To the Sultan
250
To Dato Rajah Muda
75
To Dato Attik
60
To Dato Calbi
75
To Dato Joakanain
75
To Dato Puyo
60
To Dato Amir Hussin
60
To Hadji Butu
50
To Hadib Mura
40
To Serif Saguin
15
Signed in triplicate, in English and Sulu, at Jolo, this 20th day of
August, A.D. 1899
(13th Arabuil Abil 1317).
(Signed) J.C. Bates
Brigadier General, United States Volunteers
(Sgd) THE SULTAN OR JOLO
(Sgd) DATO RAJAH MUDA
(Sgd) DATO ATTIK
(Sgd) DATO CALBI
(Sgd) DATO JOAKANAIN
Shortly after the sneak invasion and occupation of the Sultanate of
Sulu by the American forces, the Sultan of Sulu was pressured to sign
an acknowledge otherwise referred to as the Bates treaty, wherein he
was asked to acknowledge the sovereignty of the united State over the
Sultanate of Sulu which only officially and documentarily negated its
sale and cession to the United State by Spain under the December 10,
1898 Treaty of Paris. The Bates Treaty is the most authentic and valid
do0cument which explicitly attests and confirms that the Sultanate
of Sulu still belong to the propriety right of the Sultan of Sulk up to
the present since the Bates treaty was abrogated by the United State
President without the concurrence and consent of the other party in
interest… (Julkarnain, 2010).
7
174
MEMORANDUM
OF
AGREEMENT
BETWEEN
THE
GOVERNMENT OF THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS AND THE
SULTAN OF SULU BEING THE COMPLETE RENUNCIATION BY
THE LATTER OF HIS PRETENSIONS OF SOVEREIGNITY AND
DETERMINATION OF HIS SATUS ZAMBOANGA, MARCH 22, 1915
(Excerpt from Ututalum-Hedjazi (2002). The Rise and Fall of the Sulu
Islamic Empire (1675-1919). 140) (Note- Prior to American occupation
the Sultanate of Sulu had been for more than 400 years an independent
sovereignty; during the latter portion of the Spanish regime the
Sultanate had partially relinquished the exercise of that sovereignty
as to foreign relations and to a lesser degree as concerned the port of
Jolo and the four other points occupied by Spanish military garrisons;
a temporal- sovereignty, partial but nevertheless de facto, existed and
was recognized by the Bates treaty in the term “Government of the
Sultan,” to which the American authorities were by that agreement
required to turn over and trial cases “ where crimes and offenses are
committed by Moros against Moros” (Art IX).
8
(The Abrogation of the bates treaty was premised upon other
matters than the de jure sovereignty of the Sultan, who subsequently
neither by conquest or otherwise lost or relinquished his claims to
sovereignty so far as concerned internal affairs of government of the
Sulu Archipelago until he signed this agreement of March 22, 1915, at
Zamboanga.) Copy of the agreement of August 20, 1899, between Gen.
John C. Bates, United States Army, and the Sultan of Sulu (the Bates
treaty) also herewith.
The Government of the Philippine Islands
Department of Mindanao and Sulu,
Office of the Government
ZAMBOANGA P.I., MARCH 22, 1915
MEMORANDUM .The Governor of the Department of Mindanao
and Sulu, Frank W. Carpenter, duly authorized by His Excellency the
Governor General and the Sultan of Sulu, Hadji Mohammad Jamalul
Kiram, together with the officers of the government, as well as various
councilors of the Sultan, after due discussion of the declarations of
175
the Governor General and president of the Philippine Commission,
Luke E. Wright, and the said Sultan of Sulu, and their respective
associates, in certain hearings held in manila on July 19, 20, and 26,
1904, following the abrogation of the so –called Bates treaty by the
President of the United States, March 21, 1904, reach the following
mutual understanding of the result of said hearings : Whereas the
Sultan of Sulu is titular spiritual head of the Mohammedan Church in
the Sulu Archipelago, with all the rights and privileges which under
the Government of the United States of America may be exercised by
such an ecclesiastical authority, and subject to the same limitations
which apply to the supreme spiritual heads of all other religions
existing in American territory, including the right to solicit and receive
voluntary popular contributions for the support of the clergy, rites,
and other necessary lawful expenses of an ecclesiastical character.
The Sultan of Sulu, on his own account and in behalf of his adherents
and people in the Sulu Archipelago and elsewhere within American
territory, without any reservation or limitation whatsoever, ratifies and
confirms his recognition of the sovereignty of the United States of America,
and the exercise by His Excellency the Governor General and the
representatives of that Government in Mindanao and Sulu of all the
attributes of sovereign government that are exercised elsewhere in
American territory and dependencies, including the adjudication by
government courts or its other duly authorized officers of all civil and
criminal causes falling within the laws and orders of the Government.
The Sultan of Sulu and his adherents and people of the Mohammedans
faith shall have the same religious freedom had by the adherents of
all other religious creed, the practice of which is not in violation of
the basic principles of the laws of the United States of America. In
testimony of the above mutual understanding we, the undersigned,
the governor of the department of Mindanao and Sulu and the Sultan
of Sulu, do herby affix our signature in permanent record thereof.
(Signed)HADJI MOHAMMAD JAMALUL KIRAM
Sultan of Sulu
(Signed) FRANK W. CARPENTER
Department Governor
Witnesses to above:
176
(Signed) DATO RAJAMUDA
(Signed) PETER E. TRAUB
Colonel, United States army
District Chief, Philippine Constabulary
(Signed) HADJI BUTU
Special Assistant to the
Provincial Governor of Sulu
(Signed) DATO MOHAMMAD
(Signed) ISIDRO VAMENTA
Department Secretary
(Signed) ABDULLAH AWANG
Secretary to Sultan
(Signed) PACIANO REYES
Department Attorney
(Signed) HADJI MOHAMMAD
(Signed) GUY N. ROHRER
Governor Province of Sulu
(Signed) PANGLIMA TAHIL
(Signed) H. GULAMA RASUL
Aid- de- camp of the Department Governor
Sulu Sultanate was unilaterally and unconstitutionally joined with
Mindanao Sultanate by virtue of Philippines Commission Act No.
2408 notwithstanding these officially documented attestations and
declarations of top American Officials that Mindanao and Sulu were
not component part of the Philippine Islands. The Americans continued
the unlawful occupation and position of American sovereignty over
the Sultanate of Sulu and proceeded to create the Department of
Mindanao and Sulu by virtue of Philippines Commission Act No.
2408 providing for Temporary Government of Mindanao and Sulu as
a separate political subdivision from the Philippines Islands known as
Department of Mindanao and Sulu without the express consent of their
reigning Sultans, their Royal Datus and their respective adherents and
in contravention to the universal right of peoples to self-determination
as enshrined in the Law of Nations and specifically Article IV, Section
3 of the United States 1787 Constitution which explicitly states that;
“New states maybe admitted by the congress into the Union; but no
9
177
new states shall be formed or created within the jurisdiction of any
other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more
states, or parts of states without the consent of the states concerned as
well as the Congress” (Julkarnain, 2010).
Section 1. Six months after the approval of this Act and from
time to time thereafter, the Director of Lands, with the concurrence
of the Directors of Forestry, Plant Industry, Health and Public Works,
shall recommend to the Governor-General the reservation of tracts
of public land of not less than three hundred hectares each, taking
into consideration their conditions as regards fertility, accessibility,
proximity to markets, and sanitation and hygiene, for the establishment
of such settlement districts as may be approved by the GovernorGeneral, subject to the conditions hereinafter specified.
Section 2. Immediately upon the reservation of settlement district
by the Governor-General, the Director of Lands shall order the same
to be surveyed and subdivided into four-hectare lots. Upon receipt
by the Governor-General of the certificate of the Director of Lands
that a settlement district has been properly surveyed and subdivided
into lots, the said Governor-General, by proclamation or executive
order, shall declare said district open for settlement and shall turn the
administration thereof over to the Secretary of Labor. The Secretary
of Labor shall in due time announce and publish the lots surveyed in
the vernacular of the province in which said districts are located, and
in two newspapers, one in English and the other in Spanish of general
circulation in the Philippine Islands.
Section 3. Any citizen of the Philippine Islands or of the United
States, over the age of twenty-one years, who has the other qualifications
required by existing law of homestead applicants may apply to the
Secretary of Labor for the occupation and cultivation of four lots of the
land subdivided as provided in the next preceding section. When a
reasonable number of applications has been received and the Secretary
of Labor is satisfied with regard to the good faith of the applicants and
their capacity to property cultivate the land applied for, said Secretary
shall address a request for the preparation for cultivation of said lots
to the Director of Plant Industry, who shall order the lots included in
the approved applications to be cleared and broken. As soon as the
10
178
lots applied for have been cleared and broken or when an applicant
is ready to take possession immediately, the Secretary of Labor shall
place the applicants concerned in possession of said lots. The Secretary
of Labor may, if he deems it necessary, provide for the construction of
a suitable house for each applicant and his family, which houses shall
be built at a cost not to exceed fifty pesos each, and he may also turn
over to the applicants one carabao for each lot applied for, as well as
the agricultural implements and the seeds required by the applicants
for the first crop year, in the judgment of the Director of Plant Industry.
The Secretary of Labor may also grant to each applicant a loan not to
exceed two hundred pesos during the first year of occupation, which
shall be paid in periodical monthly payments and shall be repaid
beginning with the first harvest, with interest at the rate of four per
centum per annum: Provided, That naturalized citizens shall not be
entitled to the benefits of this Act until five years after the date of their
naturalization.
Section 4. The Secretary of Labor shall concentrate as many settlers
as possible on contiguous land in a locality, organizing them into
settlements in such manner that the government aid and cooperative
action between them shall be easiest and most effective. Whenever
such settlements are founded, the Secretary of Labor may, if he should
deem it advisable, set aside a suitable portion of the lands selected for
town sites and the necessary area for roads, schools and other public
necessities.
SEC. 5. The Secretary of Labor is authorized to appoint for each
district or for two or more contiguous districts a superintendent with
a salary not to exceed thirty-six hundred pesos per annum and such
additional personnel as may from time to time be approved by the
Governor-General, on recommendation of the Secretary of Labor. When
necessary, the Secretary of Labor may also provide for the construction
of a house for the office and residence of the superintendent, at a cost
not to exceed one hundred pesos.
Section 6. Each applicant shall state in his application: (a) that he
binds himself to cultivate and plant not less than sixty per centum of
the area of the land applied for and assigned to him, to such crops or
products as the district superintendent, with the advice of the Director
of Plant Industry, may prescribe; (b) that in case he should be declared
179
incompetent to engage in agriculture, or for any other good reason,
his application may be cancelled, in which case his rights and interest
in the land assigned to him under the provisions hereof shall revert
to the Government; (c) that he, his successors or assigns, will not
sell, assign or transfer the land awarded to him to any person not a
citizen of the Philippine Islands or the United States; and (d) that he
will strictly comply with the regulations and by-laws of the settlement
and with the orders and instructions issued from time to time by the
superintendent thereof.
Section 7. Whenever in the judgment of the district superintendent
the number of settlers in any of the settlement districts established
hereunder warrants it, it shall be his duty to establish therein an
organization whereby a cooperative spirit and action can be easily
encouraged among the occupants and through which Government aid
can be efficiently extended to them, and for this purpose he may, with
the approval of the Secretary of Labor, purchase tractors, agricultural
implements, draft animals and other equipment, to be used under
his administration and control or under those of his authorized
representative, for tilling the land and, in general, for carrying on such
work as the individual settlers cannot carry on unaided, with their
own resources and of their own initiative. In the performance of this
duty, the settlement district superintendent shall to the greatest extent
possible employ as laborers the settlers of the respective districts at such
wages as are generally paid by agricultural concerns in the locality. In
case the laborers are the settlers themselves, they shall be paid only
the portion of their wages considered necessary for the subsistence of
each and his family, and the balance shall be retained and credited
as payment on their indebtedness to the settlement. The district
superintendent shall debit each settler with the cost of the survey,
clearing, and breaking of the land he occupies, including all expenses
defrayed by the Government for the construction of his house, the cost
of the carabaos and implements issued to him or purchased on his
account, and the unpaid balance of the two hundred pesos he received
in accordance with section three thereof, plus a sum equivalent to four
per centum per annum of the money spent by the Government on his
lots. The total sum so charged to each settler shall be paid by him in ten
equal annual installments, beginning on April first of the fifth year of
180
occupation of the lots concerned.
Section 8. In order to facilitate the sale of the produce of the
settlements established under this Act, the settlement superintendent,
whenever it is possible and advisable, may, with the approval of the
Secretary of Labor, provide for the construction in the district of a
warehouse for storing the produce and shall in every possible way
aid in securing the most favorable prices for the same. To this end, the
settlement superintendent is authorized to grant loans to the settlers
pending the sale of the produce belonging to them, on the security of
their warehouse receipts, not to exceed fifty per centum of the current
market price of the produce stored, after deducting the expense of
transportation to the market. Such warehouses shall be managed as
nearly as possible like bonded warehouses. Any money lent to the
settler under the provisions of this section shall be used for paying his
indebtedness to the settlement or for such other purposes as may be
approved by the Secretary of Labor or his authorized representative.
From the proceeds of the sale of the of the produce of any settler, the
district superintendent shall retain such sum as may be necessary
to pay his indebtedness to the Government, in such manner as he
Secretary of Labor may prescribe.
Section 9. As soon as the conditions of a settlement district
permit it, the superintendent thereof shall promote among settlers
the organization of a corporation under the Corporation Law for
the purchase and administration of the Government property
and equipment such as warehouses, buildings, tractors and other
agricultural machinery, and draft animals, used in the settlement,
and to this end the settlement district superintendent shall direct each
settler to invest annually, after paying his indebtedness, part of his
income in stock of said corporation. The money derived from such
investments shall be used for the purchase of the Government property
and equipment on the installment plan, as above provided. When said
property and equipment shall been fully paid for, the superintendent
shall surrender the same to the corporation.
Section 10. To foster or insure the success of a settlement district,
the Director of Lands, on recommendation of the Secretary of Labor,
shall grant title to the property applied for the settler, subject to the
following terms which the applicant must accept under oath:
181
(a.) The settler must, during the time that he occupies the land,
cultivate at least sixty per centum of the area thereof each year. The
heirs and assigns of the applicant shall likewise be subject to these
conditions.
(b.) Beginning on April first of the fifth year after the occupation of
the land, the settler, his heirs and assigns, shall refund to the settlement
district superintendent, in ten equal annual installments, the expenses
incurred in surveying, clearing, and breaking the land, and the cost
of the house, carabaos, implements, and seeds furnished to him, with
interest at the rate of four per centum per annum.
(c.) In case any occupant , his heirs and assigns, should without
good reason fail to cultivate at least sixty per centum of the area of
the land occupied by him or them for three consecutive years during
their occupation, before having completely paid their indebtedness in
accordance with the next preceding paragraphs, unless prevented by
force majeure, the title to the said land shall, after due investigation by
the settlement district superintendent , be revoked and the property
shall revert to the Government of the Philippine Islands, and the
settler, his heirs and assigns, may thereafter continue to occupy the
land as lessees, subject to the condition specified in paragraphs (a) and
(b), upon payment of a monthly rental of fifty centavos per hectare
from and after the date of the revocation of the title, and in case the
settler, his heirs or assigns, fail to pay such rental for two consecutive
months, the Secretary of Labor may eject him or them, without need of
any judicial proceedings. However, the settler shall be entitled to have
his rights restored to him upon payment of his indebtedness.
(d.) Any transfer of the land and any contract relative to it shall
be approved by the Secretary of Labor and recorded in the office of
the local register of deeds, subject to the conditions prescribed in this
Act. Any sale of the land shall be null and void unless the settler, his
heirs or assigns, have paid the entire indebtedness to the Government
before the transfer is made in accordance with this section.
Section 11. The Secretary of Labor is hereby authorized to promulgate
such regulations and by-laws for the settlement as may be necessary
to properly enforce the provisions of this Act. The settlement district
superintendent shall also be authorized to request the assistance of the
Bureaus of Public Works, Plant Industry, Animal Industry, Forestry,
182
and Commerce in connection with the direction and supervision of
the cultivation of the district, the construction of buildings and roads,
the care of the draft animals, the sale of the produce, and in any other
form or manner insuring the success of the settlements provided for
in this Act.
Section 12. The Secretary of Labor, with the approval of the GovernorGeneral, is hereby authorized to make the necessary readjustment in
the personnel and activities of the Bureaus and Executive Departments
concerned in order to bring such personnel under the jurisdiction
of the Secretary of Labor, in which case, and until the Legislature
shall provide otherwise, the salaries and expenses of the personnel
transferred shall be paid out of the appropriation made in this Act.
Section 13. The sum of one million pesos, or so much thereof as may
be necessary, is hereby appropriated, out of any funds in the Insular
Treasury not otherwise appropriated, to carry out the purposes of this
Act, in accordance with the provisions of the next following section
and with such rules and regulations as the Secretary of Labor, with the
approval of the Governor-General, may prescribe.
Section 14. The fund created by this Act shall be under the control
of the Secretary of Labor who, through his representatives, shall have
charge of all disbursements there from, of the amount thereof, and of
all transactions concerning the establishment of the settlement districts
herein authorized, and all refunds of expenses incurred in laying out,
clearing, plowing, and surveying the land, and the cost of the houses,
carabaos, agricultural implements, and seeds furnished to the settlers,
with interest at the rate of four per centum per annum, and all other
collections that may be received from the settlement districts shall
constitute a special fund which shall be available for disbursement in
the same manner and for the same purposes for which the original
fund authorized in the next preceding section was established.
Section 15. No settlement superintendent shall engage in any private
business within the settlement in which there shall be transactions
with the settlers.
Section 16. Upon the express or implicit approval of this Act by
the President of the United States, as provided in the Act of Congress
approved on August twenty-ninth, nineteen hundred and sixteen,
entitled “An Act to declare the purpose of the people of the United
183
States as to the future political status of the people of the Philippine
Islands, and to provide a more autonomous government for those
Islands.” The Governor-General shall so announce forthwith, by
means of a proclamation, and this Act shall take effect on the date of
such proclamation.
For one thing, President Manuel L. Quezon did not show enough
respect for the customs and culture of the Muslims. The Americans,
in fact, had accepted as laws of the land a codification of certain
Muslim customs and traditions. But Quezon did not want any of these,
arguing that all Filipinos are equal. There was to be no exception to the
universal laws and customs of the nation. He laid down his policy in a
speech to Lanao Moros on June 6, 1936 (Salgada see Abinates, SN.24).
Quezon and his associates likewise followed the land policies of
their American predecessors. Plantations were encouraged and more
American and Japanese entrepreneurs came to establish plantations.
Mindanao became a real haven for huge abaca, rubber, coconut,
pineapple and other plantations, for the benefit especially of foreign
owners. The huge size of Japanese land holdings, for example, “could
easily be gleaned from the fact that no less than 231, 700 hectares of
Japanese agriculture lands mostly located in Davao, were confiscated
and transferred by the Americans to the Philippine government by
the of the war” (Salgada see Abinates, SN.25). Of course, the problem
would have been solved by breaking up tenancy in the Visayas and
Luzon as the farmers demanded. But the local elite would not let go of
their haciendas. They had been accustomed to the good life, amassing
wealth at the cost of the tenants’ sweat, that it was unthinkable they
would divest themselves of their lands. For them, the answer lies in
Mindanao. To defuse unrest in Luzon and the Visayas, the excess
peasants were to be brought to the “land of promise”. Never mind if in
the process the Lumads and Muslims get disposed of their lands. The
important thing is that there is peace in the Visayas and Luzon, and the
landlords’ land remains intact (Salgada see Abinates, SN.22).
184
LITERATURE CITED
Abubakar, Asiri J.
2007 Persistent Themes in the History of the Sulus. Paper presented
at the National Conference on the History and Culture of the
Tausug, Ateneo de Zamboanga University.
De la Costa , Horacio S.J
1967 Asia and the Philippines. Solidaridad Publishing House,
Manila, Philippines.
Fatwas Islamiyah: Islamic Verdicts Vol. 5
2002 Darussalam. Riyadh.
F. Landa Jocano
2001 Filipino Prehistory: Rediscovering Precolonial Heritage.
Punland Research House Inc., Metro Manila, Philippines.
George,T.J.S.
1980 Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in the Philippine Politics.
Oxford University Press.
Jimenez, Jose Victor
2004 The Birth of Filipino Historical Interpretation: Rizal’s
Annotation to Morga’s Sucessos De Las Islas Filipinas see, Ad
Veritatem UST Graduate Journal. Manila.
Kiefer, Thomas M.
2003 ”The Tausug Polity and the Sultanate of Sulu: A Segmentary State
in the Southern Philippines”. People of the Current Sulu Studies
Revisited. National Commission for Culture and the Arts,
Manila.
Kurais, Muhammand II
1979 The History of Twai-tawi and its people. MSU Sulu College of
Technology and Oceanography, Bungao, Tawi-Tawi.
185
Majul, Cesar Adib
1999 Muslims in the Philippines. University of the Philippines Press,
Diliman, Quezon City.
Mulder, Neils
1999 Filipino Images: Culture of the Public World. New day
Publishers
Salman, Michael
2001 The Embarrassment of Slavery: controversies over Bondage
and Nationalism in the American Colonial Philippines. ADMU
Press.
Saleeby, Najeeb M
1963 The History of Sulu. Filipinana Book Guild.
Tan, Samuel K.
2005 Surat Sug: Letters of Sultanate of Sulu, vol. I. National Historical
Institute, Manila.
Tuban Rita
1994 A Genealogy of the Sulu Sultanate. Philippine Studies Vol.
42, no. 1. Ateneo de Manila University. Accessed www.
philippinestudies.net/ October 05, 2010.
Ututalum, Sururul-Ain and Abdul- Karim Hedjazi
2002 The Rise and Fall of the Sulu Islamic Empire: 1675-1919.
Professional Press, Chapel Hill, NC., U.S.
Ututalum, SururulAin and Abdul-Karim Hedjazi
2003 The Genealogy of the Sulu Royal Families. Professional Press,
Chapel Hill.
Zafra, Nicolas
1974 The colonization of the Philippines and the beginnings of
the Spanish City of Manila. National Historical Commission.
Manila, Philippines.
186
Electronics
http:www//islamic-world.net/khalifah/khalifahp.htm/Accessed
February 27, 2007.
http://tripatlas.com/List_of_Sultans_of_Sulu/ Accessed September 28,
2010
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/257679/Hayam-Wuruk/
Accessed September 28, 2010
Zhongli, Guo (2002). “A state in present-day Malaysia” date 03-31-02
http” //www.asiawind.com/forums/read.php/943/ Baguinda/
Bagindah/Accessed February 27, 2007.
187
Teaching Practices Promoting Communication
Opportunities in the Language Class
SAMUEL S. POLIDEN
[email protected]
Benguet State University,
La Trinidad, Benguet, Philippines
Abstract - The study investigated the teaching practices that
promote communication opportunities in the language class. Four
teaching practices, six language functions and preferred error
correction method were observed, recorded and analyzed using
weighted means, frequency counts, percentages, ranks and the
Cochran Q-test. Findings revealed that building on prior knowledge
and communitarian teachings were predominantly used followed by
multiple representations and protracted language event, the least.
Eliciting, on the other hand was commonly used by the English
teachers in engaging the students in classroom proceedings followed
by evaluating, sociating, directing and organizing. The most preferred
methods of correcting errors were for the teacher to point out the
error and provide the correct form; and to explain why the utterance
is incorrect. The study showed that teachers use varied teaching
practices to provide communication opportunities for students. The
study recommends that: (1) the use of multiple representations and
protracted language event should also be utilized by teachers to
provide students with varied activities and to develop with confidence
their communication skills; (2) Activities given to students should be
more challenging to encourage them to ask questions that develop
their critical thinking; 3) Teachers should adopt more implicit error
identification techniques for students to reflect on and repair their own
errors.
188
Keywords - communication opportunities, teaching practices,
teaching functions, error correction
INTRODUCTION
The current trends in teaching English as a Second Language stress
the importance of providing learners with opportunities for real and
meaningful communication. This motivated the researcher to study
the Teaching Practices Promoting Communication Opportunities in
the Language Class.
Indeed, the natural way to learn a language is to use it, not just
study it. In other words, English teachers teach the language not by
focusing on the language itself, but by using it to talk about other
things, particularly in real life situations and for academic purposes.
This is a simple fact that lies at the heart of the reform of English
language teaching. English teachers must fulfill what Kasper as cited
by Cruz (2002) calls the main objective of teaching English as a second
language. That is, students should be able to use the English language
as a means of acquiring knowledge, in the process engaging in the
active analysis, interpretation, critique and synthesis of information
presented in English.
Today, language students are considered successful if they can
communicate effectively in their second or foreign language, whereas
two decades ago the accuracy of the language produced would most
likely be the major criterion contributing to the judgment of a student’s
success or failure (Richards & Rodgers, 1987). These developments in
language teaching - the promotion of “functional” or “communicative”
ability have moved from the goal of accurate form toward a focus on
fluency and communicative effectiveness.
This study will then inculcate in the minds of the language
teachers that communication in the classroom should mirror the
authentic communication that occurs in the real world. It should also
encourage informal, unrehearsed use of language along with a relaxed
classroom environment. This is because communication in language
classes is an important link in the process of students’ learning and
thinking development. It provides a foundation for the development
of other language skills. As students talk about themselves and their
189
experiences, they are learning to organize their thinking and to focus
their ideas (Lyle 1993).
It is subsequently important to provide opportunities for
oral communication to continue to grow in the language class.
Before students achieve proficiency in reading and writing, oral
communication is one of the important means of learning and of
acquiring knowledge. Throughout life, oral language skills remain
essential for communication of ideas and intelligent conversation.
Concomitant to the development of the communication skills of the
students inside the language class is the growth in their confidence
when communicating in a wide variety of social contexts to a wide
variety of audiences. One of the most effective ways to facilitate oral
communication is to take into account the background and everyday
life experiences of the students.
Proficiency in oral communication is central to all learning, critically
useful to the individual in all areas of life, and is a developmental process
in which skills acquired early serve as a foundation for subsequent
learning activities. The idea that communication could and should
take place in the language class becomes more and more popular.
With changes in practice come changes in roles and responsibilities.
The role of the language teacher is no longer supposed to be that of the
drill leader. Instead, the teacher is charged with providing language
learners opportunities for communication, that is, opportunities to use
the language in contexts other than memorized dialogues and pattern
practices.
This study will also shed light on the kind of teaching practices
teachers will utilize to promote communication opportunities for
students. In this context, teachers would be able to devise language
activities to enhance/negotiate meaning with their students. Moreover,
language teachers take into account that learners learn in many ways
and that the use of different teaching practices should be considered
thus deviating from the traditional lecture method where the
classroom setting is dominated by the teacher talk thereby depriving
their students to use the second language.
Results of this study will enlighten language teachers to treat errors
with tact and understanding to avoid a stigmatic effect on the learners.
Thus, it is important to know how linguistic errors be handled by
190
language teachers as preferred by their students.
Findings of this study will help principals, head teachers, chairs
of departments and administrators to evaluate language teachers on
the variety of language practices they use in the classroom to create
active participation in language class activities that would stimulate
critical thinking thus creating opportunities for communication and
interaction.
FRAMEWORK
There are a number of theories and models for educational research
on teaching practices to address effective learning. This study focused
on the teaching practices, teaching functions, and preference of
students on error treatment by teachers.
Teaching Practices/Strategies
Individual differences play an important role in learning. Hence, the
kinds of teaching practices used in the classroom that accomplish both
course content goals and active engagement on the part of students
depend on the teacher.
Building prior knowledge.
Building on prior knowledge is an overall approach to teaching
in which teachers work to connect students’ lives to school themes.
Nearly every effective lesson design model suggests that one of the
first tasks of the teacher in the instructional event is the activation of
prior knowledge.
Activation of prior knowledge serves as an important tool for the
construction of meaning. This background knowledge can also serve
to help students interpret new cultural information or contrast that
information with values and practices common to their own culture.
It means that the teacher’s teaching should mirror the cultural
background of the students. Teachers must also understand what
students already know so they may build on the knowledge students
have.
191
Schema building is related to one’s ability to interpret text
meaningfully. Schemata are the fundamental elements upon which all
information processing depends and Rumelhart (1977) calls them the
building blocks of cognition.
Brown and Yule (1983) also point out that background knowledge
can guide and influence the comprehension process. He added that
comprehension outcome is based on the previous knowledge of similar
texts. That is, if the reader regularly reads a newspaper and is aware
of all the events and issues either locally, nationally or internationally,
then comprehension would be easier.
Communtarian teaching.
Communtarian teaching practice is the first teaching practice
uncovered by the qualitative research synthesis which was related to,
but extended well beyond, what is commonly known as cooperative
learning or collaborative learning.
Communtarian teaching practice provides increased time for
communication and promotes the give and take necessary for
negotiating meaning. It also opens the door for the students to engage
themselves in communicative activities. It enhances language learning
even when no student in a group has strong proficiency in English
because it improves not only the learners’ language skills but also
allows them an opportunity to share their cultural frame with other
students (Téllez, & Waxman, 2005).
One reason why communtarian teaching practice or cooperative
learning provides increased time for communication and promotes the
give and take necessary for negotiating meaning is that group members
assume that they constantly assess their own speeches or actions in
relation to that of their partners. This is because conversation is a
collaborative enterprise that makes demands on both partners. Hence,
negotiation and repair play a part in all interaction and are unique
forms of language behavior involving non-native speakers.
Many experimental (and most often quantitative) studies have
demonstrated the positive effects of cooperative learning among
English Language Learners (ELLs) (Calderon, Hertz-Lazarowitz,
& Slavin, 1998). They generally believed that interactional learning
192
encouraged a strong form of social cooperation and discourse.
Multiple representations.
Multiple representations rely heavily on the use of graphic
organizers, juxtaposed text and images, films and other multimedia
equipment. English teachers who use multiple representations help the
students to remember easily vocabulary when they have acquired it by
figuring out its meaning when watching a video, seeing the teacher act
out words, or matching new vocabulary with pictures or real objects
set in a meaningful context.
The use of multiple representations can enhance what learners read
by reading and interpreting visuals accurately, and by creating their
own related visuals. Vacca and Vacca (1993) believe that when students
learn how to use and construct graphic representations, they are in
control of a study strategy that allows them to identify what parts of
a text are important, how ideas and concepts are encountered, and
where they can find specific information to support more important
ideas. Learners need to see these relationships and learn how to link
ideas. When students use graphics while studying a concept, they
build these links.
Visuals provide a wealth of information that both reinforces and
supplements text content. The ability to read, interpret, and construct
graphic displays is of growing importance in an increasingly visual
world as students interact more with computers and electronic texts
which often rely heavily on graphic interfaces and graphic aids.
Since visuals are found frequently in all types of expository text
materials, and since they provide an abundance of text-related
information, the need for instructional activities that help students
understand and use them seems clear.
Protracted language events.
Protracted language events are strategies in which teachers work
to maximize verbal activity. In other words, language can be learned
through its use. That is, effective second language instruction must be
built upon lengthy dialogues, referred to in this paper as protracted
193
language events. This concept is similar to Gallimore and Goldenberg’s
(1992) instructional conversations in language learning class.
Role-playing and simulations in class can be an excellent way
to engage students. A well-constructed role-playing or simulation
exercise can emphasize the real world and require students to become
deeply involved in a topic. This teaching strategy would make students
learn best when they have ample opportunities to internalize meanings
before they have to produce them.
Teacher Talk and Teaching Functions
As used in this study, teaching functions refer to teacher acts in
urging the learners to participate in class discussion. The figure below
describes the different acts a teacher does in the process of teaching
(Bowers, 1980).
Category
Description
Responding
Any act directly sought by the utterance of another speaker, such as answering
a question
Sociating
Any act not contributing directly to the teaching/learning task, but rather to the
establishment or maintenance of interpersonal relationships.
Organizing
Any act that serves to structure the learning task or environment without
contributing to the teaching/learning task itself.
Directing
Presenting
Evaluating
Eliciting
Any act encouraging nonverbal activity as an integral part of the teaching/learning
process.
Any act presenting information of direct relevance to the learning task.
Any act that rates another verbal act positively or negatively.
Any act designed to produce a verbal response from another person.
Figure 1. Bowers’ (1980) categories for analyzing
classroom interaction
Hughes (1959) described seven categories of teacher-talk:
Controlling, imposing, facilitating, developing content, responding,
positive affectivity, and negative affectivity.
194
Controlling empowers the teacher to structure, regulate, set
standards, judge, or otherwise control learner behavior.
In imposing, the teacher moralizes, gives help without asking,
appraises, and imposes himself into the situation rather than employing
a routine. A teacher also checks for information, clarifies procedures
and demonstrates procedures when he does facilitating.
Developing content gives authority to the teacher to stimulate,
clarify, summarize, evaluate, answer questions, agree or otherwise
develop content for learning while responding makes the teacher
to clarify learner problems, interpret situations or feelings, and/or
respond to learners in terms of content and learner’s effort to learn.
In positive affectivity, the teacher encourages, praises, gives
recognition, offers solace, or shows positive regard for learners while
in negative affectivity, the teacher admonishes, reprimands, accuses,
threatens, ignores or shows negative regard for learners.
Brown (1994), on the other hand, gave similar descriptions of teachertalk but suggests that teacher-talk undergoes through a continuum of
directive to non-directive methods: controlling, directing, managing,
facilitating and resourcing.
According to Brown, controlling is focused on simply organizing
the class hours. e.g. “You have 15 minutes to discuss the problems
reflected in the story. After which, five minutes will be given in
presenting your output.
Directing is also keeping the process of interaction flowing smoothly
and efficiently to bring uniqueness in communicative skills. e.g. In her
essay “Three Days to See”, Helen Keller enumerated the things she
will do in three days while she can see. If you are put in the same
situation, where the optometrist tells you that you will only have three
days left to use your sight, how will you spend these days?
Managing is simply planning the lessons, modules, activities but
allowing each learner to be creative within the parameters set. e.g.
Before you defend your propositions in front, submit to me first your
written arguments.
In facilitating, the teacher capitalizes on intrinsic motivation
allowing students to discover language, by using it pragmatically
rather than telling about the language while resourcing implies the
students to take initiative to go to the teacher (for advice or counsel)
195
allowing them to proceed with their own linguistic development.
Brown (1994) claims that the key to interactive teaching is to play
toward the non-directive end of the continuum, gradually enabling
students to move from their roles of total dependence (upon the
teacher, the textbook, etc.) to relatively total independence. The
proficiency level of the class will determine to some extent, which roles
will dominate. But when at the lowest levels, some interaction can take
place and the teacher’s role must be one that releases the students to
try things for themselves.
Linguistic Errors and Error Treatment
Error treatment has been very controversial issue in language
teaching (Allwright and Bailey, 1991). The way errors are treated differs
in approaches and methods of teaching. Learner’s age, proficiency
level, and goals are some of the examples that determine how a teacher
should treat errors. (Brown, 1994). From a teacher’s and student’s
perspectives, there also appear to exist numerous factors involved in
this regard. Some teachers might think that correcting errors would
lead students to pay more attention to form so that students can gain
accuracy to a greater extent in their interlanguage. Others may believe
that error treatment should be avoided because of their fear that it will
certainly inhibit students from communicating freely.
On the other hand, some students might well be concerned about
their linguistic performance in terms of correctness. They may have a
preference for feedback from their teachers over no treatment. Other
students may place priority on fluency so that teachers’ frequent
interruption would discourage them to get across what they mean in
target language (TL).
Error correction has been treated differently. Celce-Murcia (1991)
points out six variables that grammar teaching has to consider: age,
proficiency level, educational background, language skills, register,
and needs and goals.
Based on the six variables, ESL/EFL instructors would make
a decision on the degree to which form is focused with a group of
students. Murcia asserted that it would be safe to say that age is
an important variable in that whether grammar should be taught
196
implicitly or explicitly depend on the learner’s age.
This study aimed to determine the teaching strategies that promote
communication opportunities of freshman students in the language
class at Benguet State University.
Research Design
This study used descriptive – survey method and language class
observation to record and videotape class proceedings to determine the
teaching practices and teaching patterns of the English teachers. Four
teaching practices from the meta-synthesis of Qualitative Research
on Effective Teaching Practices for English Language Learners were
observed in the English classes. Bowers’ model (1980) was used
to determine which teaching functions enhance communication
opportunities for students. A questionnaire was administered to
determine the students’ preference for error correction.
Locale and Time of the Study
This study was confined to Freshmen English classes at the
Department of Humanities, College of Arts and Sciences, Benguet
State University. Freshmen English classes came from the eight degree
programs representing the eight colleges in the university: Bachelor
of Science in Agriculture (CA), Bachelor of Science in Information
Technology (CAS), Bachelor of Science in Agricultural Engineering
(CEAT), Bachelor of Science in Forestry (COF), Bachelor of Science
in Home Economics (CHET), Bachelor of Science in Nursing (CN),
Bachelor in Secondary Education (CTE) and Doctor of Veterinary
Medicine (CVM) who were enrolled during the school year 2009-2010
at the Benguet State University, La Trinidad, Benguet Philippines.
197
Data Collection Instruments
Classroom proceedings of the English teachers were observed and
recorded to analyze their teaching practices. The model of Bowers
was employed to determine the teaching functions of teachers. A
questionnaire on the students’ preferred method of correcting their
errors was administered to the student – respondents. A five-point
scale was used to describe the students’ preference in treating their
errors: 5 – strongly agree; 4 – moderately agree; 3 – agree; 2 – slightly
agree; 1 – do not agree.
Treatment of Data
Data gathered were summarized, analyzed and cross-tabulated.
Summary statistics like weighted means, frequency counts,
percentages, ranks and Cochran Q-test were used to analyze the
teaching strategies and teaching functions of the English teachers. To
analyze the preferred error correction of the students, t-test, frequency
and rank were likewise used.
Summary of Teaching Practices
by English Teachers
Table 1 shows the teaching practices the English teachers used
in the language class. The table illustrates that building on prior
knowledge and communtarian teaching practice were predominantly
used followed by multiple representations. Protracted learning was
the least teaching practice.
The findings reveal that building on prior knowledge is an overall
approach to teaching in which teachers work to associate students’
lives or experiences to school themes. In almost all lessons, the teachers
involved prior knowledge of students before starting the lesson proper
and the importance of interaction between the students and the
teachers and among the students themselves.
Communitarian teaching is also a manner of instruction built
around community while protracted language event is a strategy in
198
which teachers work to maximize verbal activity. The use of multiple
representations is a method designed to support language lessons
with objects and indices.
Table 1. Teaching practices used by English teachers
Teaching Practices
n
Building on Prior Knowledge 18
Communtarian
18
Multiple Representations
15
Protracted Language
9
Qc = 19.059*
prob. = >0.01
Percent
Rank
100
100
83.3
50.0
1.5
1.5
3
4
*significant
Statistically, the findings of the study reveal that there is a significant
difference in the teaching practices the English teachers used. Hence,
the hypothesis that there is a difference in the teaching practices the
English teachers used is accepted.
The English teachers adopted what is termed as communicative
approach to English language teaching following the general trend
in the field of second language teaching and learning, moving away
from methods that emphasize the memorization of grammatical rules
and extensive use of drills and pattern practice and toward methods
which emphasize meaningful communication in the second language.
Classroom activity is less teacher-dominated but more learnercentered.
The findings strengthen the role of the teachers in the classroom
which is more facilitative than directive, allowing students a greater
share of the conversational turns than a traditional Initiate – Respond
– Evaluate (IRE) interaction pattern.
These findings are in congruence with Widdowson (1978) who
distinguishes between expression rules which govern the learner’s
use of the language and are developed when the learner is engaged
in communication and reference rules which represent the learner’s
knowledge of the system of the second language and are learned in
classroom situations where the focus is on correct form.
199
Teaching Functions of Teachers
This portion of the study presents the analysis of the teaching
functions using Bowers’ categories. It points out or identifies the
functions of teacher behaviour in the process of teaching. It also
determines which of the teaching functions promote communication.
Bowers’ (1980) teaching categories consist of responding, sociating,
organizing, directing, presenting, evaluating, and eliciting.
In summary, the study shows that classroom interaction is
dominated by eliciting followed by evaluating and sociating.
That is, asking question inside the language class has the bulk of
initiating communication between and among the learners and
the teachers. At times, most students are passive hence eliciting is
indisputably an effective tool to engage them in class discussion. This
reflects the relatively high priority of teachers in conducting more
language activities and establishing good rapport with the students.
Consequently, responding was not used by the teacher since there was
no question students asked.
The findings indicate that as teachers evaluate students’
performances, they tend to make a move to socialize by praising
their performance. This may be considered important in a language
classroom to create an environment conducive for learning.
The findings also corroborate with Hughes (1959) who described
seven categories of teacher-talk: Controlling, imposing, facilitating,
developing content, responding, positive affectivity, and negative
affectivity.
Controlling empowers the teacher to structure, regulate, set
standards, judge, or otherwise control learner behavior.
In imposing, the teacher moralizes, gives help without asking,
appraises, and imposes himself into the situation rather than employing
a routine. A teacher also checks for information, clarifies procedures
and demonstrates procedures when he does facilitating.
Developing content gives authority to the teacher to stimulate,
clarify, summarize, evaluate, answer questions, agree or otherwise
develop content for learning while responding makes the teacher
to clarify learner problems, interpret situations or feelings, and/or
respond to learners in terms of content and learner’s effort to learn.
200
In positive affectivity, the teacher encourages, praises, gives
recognition, offers solace, or shows positive regard for learners while
in negative affectivity, the teacher admonishes, reprimands, accuses,
threatens, ignores or shows negative regard for learners.
Summary of the Teaching Functions
Table 2 encapsulates the teaching functions used by the teachers in
the classroom.
Table 2. Summary of teaching functions
using Bowers’ categories
Example 1
Example 2
Example 3
Example 4
Example 5
Example 6
eliciting
eliciting
sociating
eliciting
presenting
eliciting
presenting
sociating
eliciting
directing
directing
presenting
directing
presenting
presenting
presenting
eliciting
organizing
sociating
organizing
organizing
evaluating
organizing
directing
organizing
directing
directing
sociating
evaluating
evaluating
evaluating
evaluating
evaluating
sociating
sociating
While these teaching functions used in the language class are
intertwined with each other, eliciting is predominantly the first
teaching function employed by the teachers in the class to initiate
communication between and among students and the teachers as
means of presenting the lesson. On the other hand, evaluating and
sociating are also the teaching functions used by the teachers to end
their classes. The rest of the teaching functions are interchangeably
used in the classroom depending on the classroom lesson and class
activities. Responding was not initiated by the teachers because there
was no question from the students for the teachers while organizing
is not also used by the teacher in example 4. This may be associated
to the behavior of the students where they do not generally have the
courage to ask questions even they did not understand the lesson.
When presenting the lesson, the teacher uses series of questions.
201
Initially, after presenting the lesson, the teacher directs and organizes
the class activities. In general, the last function of the teacher is
always evaluating students’ activities which are usually followed by
sociating. According to Hughes (1959), one of the functions of teacher
talk is positive affectivity which means that the teacher praises, gives
recognition or shows positive regards for learners’ performance.
In summary, there is a pattern the teacher uses in the classroom.
The teacher presents the lesson in a series of questions or putting the
class in a conducive mood. Then the teacher organizes and directs
class activities. In the process of interaction, the teacher evaluates
students’ activities using positive affectivity. This pattern is in contrary
to the traditional classroom interactions of Initiate – Respond –
Evaluate (IRE) discourse pattern. (Mehan, 1979). Mehan has described
traditional classroom interactions as an Initiate – Respond – Evaluate
(IRE) discourse pattern. In this pattern, teachers initiate a discussion
topic, most frequently by posing a question, to which students are
expected to respond, and teachers then evaluate students’ responses.
The IRE pattern has been labelled as “monologic discourse pattern”
(Alexander, 2006), in which teachers take turns at will, decide on what
topics are important to discuss, decide who will talk and for how
long, and interject their responses and interpretations controlling the
pace and direction of the discussion. Teachers in traditional discourse
patterns dominate classroom discussions, speaking more than fifty
percent of the time, control the direction of the discussion by asking
particular types of questions, and endorse the responses of particular
students that align with what has been predetermined to be important
or correct.
Preferred Error Correction Method of the Learners
This section dealt with the students’ preferred method of correcting
their errors in the language class. Table 3 reveals the learners’ preferred
method of correcting their errors in class. The table shows that the
students strongly agree for teachers to point out the error and provide
the correct form with a mean score of 4.32.
Ranked second is for teachers to explain why the utterance is incorrect
with a mean of 4.18 followed by to correct the error immediately (4.02).
202
The least methods of error correction were to give hint which might
enable the student to notice the error and self-correct and present the
correct form when repeating all or part of the students’ utterance with
a mean of 3.92 each. Last in rank is to delay the correction of errors
(after class) with 2.19.
Table 3. Students’ preferred error correction method
CORRECTION METHOD
XW
DE RANK
T-VALUE PROB.
T corrects the error immediately
4.02
MA
3
24.843*
<0.5
2.19
SA
6
17.216*
<0.05
3.92
MA
4.5
26.275*
<0.05
4.18
MA
2
31.856*
<0.05
4.32
MA
1
42.354*
<0.05
utterance.
3.92
MA
4.5
25.415*
<0.05
*significant
T delays the correction of errors
(after class)
T gives a hint which might enable
S to notice the error and self-correct
T explains why the utterance is
incorrect.
T points out the error and
provides the correct form
T presents the correct form when
repeating all or part of the S’s
The findings show that when the English teachers give out their
feedbacks on errors, they are not judging but supporting their students.
This means that when students’ errors occur, they can remodel it by
saying it correctly, paraphrase it by saying it in different ways, or
prepare a grammar lesson at the end of a class for students (Mantello,
1997).
Errors are invariably a demonstration of originality, creativity and
intelligence. Errors show that students are motivated to learn new
things. Students who commit errors are not only creative; they also
demonstrate that they are intelligent learners. Students’ errors come
from positive and negative transfer from the mother tongue. They
come from false analogy and overgeneralization of rules and patterns.
They come from attempts to simplify the input to reduce the strain of
working memory. In short, errors are the outward manifestation of an
203
inwardly active mind.
Students’ errors are signs of learning and depending on the types
of errors and situations, teachers need to offer students the correct
ways or usages of the language, and students have the rights to know.
Teacher needs to know when, what, and how to correct a student’s
error, but it is also easy to get carried away and lose the focus.
CONCLUSIONS
In connection with the findings of this study, the following
conclusions were formulated: Teachers use varied teaching practices to
provide communication opportunities for students. Teaching functions
of teachers follow certain patterns for better comprehension of lessons
and to engage the students in class activities/discussion. Treatment
of errors in the class is a significant tool for teachers to consider in
enhancing communication opportunities.
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the findings and conclusions of the study, the researcher
recommends that: Since building prior knowledge and communitarian
teaching practices are commonly used by teachers, the use of multiple
representations and protracted language learning should also be
utilized by teachers thereby providing students with varied activities to
develop with confidence their communication skills. Responding was
the least of teachers’ functions. In this context, activities/tasks given to
the students should be more challenging to encourage students to ask
questions that develop their critical thinking and to enhance interaction
with the teacher. Teachers should avoid putting answers directly on
students’ errors, but adopt more implicit error identification techniques
for students to reflect on and repair their own errors. Similar research
on communication opportunities in the language classroom should
be conducted to determine the trend of teaching practices, teaching
functions, and students’ preferred correction method.
204
LITERATURE CITED
Alexander, R.
2006 Towards dialogic teaching: Rethinking classroom talk (3rd
ed.). Cambridge, UK: Dialogos.
Allwright, D. and K. Bailey
1991 Focus on the Language Classroom: An introduction to
Classroom Research for Language Teachers. Cambridge:
Bowers, R.
1980 Verbal behavior in the language teaching classroom. Ph.D.
Thesis, University of Reading.
Brown, H. D.
1994 Teaching by Principle. London: Prentice – Hall Regents.
Brown, G. and G. Yule
1983 Teaching the Spoken Language. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Calderon, M., R. Hertz-Lazarowitz and R. Slavin
1998 Effects of cooperative integrated reading and composition
on students making the transition from Spanish to English
reading. Elementary School Journal, 99(2).
Celce-Murcia, M.
1991 Grammar Pedagogy in Second and Foreign Language
Teaching. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Cruz, I.
2002 Philippine Star. National Daily Newspaper.
Gallimore, R., and C. N. Goldenberg
1992 Tracking the developmental path of teachers and learners: A
Vygotskyan perspective. In F.K. Oser, A. Dick, & J-L. Patry
205
(Eds.), Effective and responsible teaching: The new synthesis.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Hughes, M. M.
1959 Assessment of the quality of teaching in elementary schools.
Utah University Press, Utah.
Lyle, S.
1993 An Investigation into Ways in Which Children Talk Themselves
into Meaning. Language and Education.
Mantello, M.
1997 Error correction in the L2 classroom, Canadian modern
language review (Vol.54, No. 1). http://www.utpjournals.
com/jour.ihtml?lp=product/cmlr/541/541_TCL_Mantello.html
Mehan, H.
1979 Learning lessons: Social organization in the classroom.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Richards, J. C. and T. S. Rodgers
1987 Through the looking glass: Trends and directions in language
teaching. RELC Journal.
Rumelhart, D.E.
1977 Towards an Interactive Model of Reading. In Attention and
Performance, S. Dionic (ed). Hillside, Erlbaum. Academic
Press.
Téllez, K. and H. Waxman
2005 A Meta-Synthesis of Qualitative Research on Effective Teaching
Practices for English Language Learners In J.M. Norris & L.
Ortega (Eds.), Synthesizing research on language learning and
teaching. Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing.
Vacca, R.T., &J. L. Vacca
1993 Content area reading. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
206
Widdowson, H. G.
1978 Teaching Language as Communication. London: Oxford
University Press.
207
Bisu Main Campus Electrical Energy
Consumption:
Basis For Improvement
IVY M. BAGSAC
ROLAND GABO
TEOFANES SARABOSING
DAVE POJADAS
ANACLETA PEREZ
MAE REMEDIOS VIRTUCIO
Bohol Island State University
C.P.G. Avenue, Tagbilaran City
Abstract - The research was conducted at the Bohol Island State
University Main Campus. It aims to assess the status of the electrical
power system of the university as well as determine the perceptions of
the electrical experts on the satisfaction rating of the school’s electrical
system. It was found out that the overall rating of the electrical system
of BISU Main Campus is “fair”. This means that there are several
aspects that need improvement such as the implementation of a
maintenance program and the hiring of maintenance personnel. The
researchers recommend that the personnel should not be the instructors
themselves but designated electrical technologists must be hired.
Furthermore, there should be a periodic inspection so that defects
may be detected and given remedies the earliest time possible to avoid
accidents. There should also be fund allotment that should be imposed
for the maintenance and personnel. Furthermore, the university must
purchase more electrical supplies, tools and equipment solely for
electrical maintenance. There must also be a separate maintenance
shop for maintenance purpose only. An alternative electrical power
source should be employed by the university such as the solar power.
208
Because of the very high and expensive electrical energy consumption,
there is a need to use a more efficient alternative source and that is the
solar power.
Keywords - electrical power system, electrical energy consumption
INTRODUCTION
Electricity has become a necessity for all people. Even the farthest
barrios of any municipality clamor for electrical connection. This is
because with electricity, people are able to carry on their daily tasks
more easily and conveniently. Transportation and communication
have become faster and more efficient because of the presence and use
of electricity.
Bohol Island State University Main Campus (BISU MC) is one of
the universities in the province of Bohol that utilizes a considerable
bulk of electrical energy. Its four colleges: College of Engineering and
Architecture, College of Teacher Education, College of Industrial and
Allied Sciences, and College of Business, Arts, and Sciences have their
own electrical equipments and facilities that provide convenience
to teachers and students in the conduct of their teaching learning
activities.
Moreover, the enrolment of the university had increased noticeably
over the past years. These are contributory to the school’s need for
additional facilities and sufficient electrical supply. It is aggravated
by the physical aspects of the present electrical system. Some of
electrical installations of the campus do not conform to the established
standards of the Philippine electrical code. The electrical experts
within the campus had observed the nuisance tripping of protective
device and sometimes the sparks in the electrical connections. These
are indications of a make-shift installation of electrical wiring. The
preceding situations had moved the group of researchers from the
electrical engineering to conduct a study of the present BISU electrical
system. Faulty electrical connections mean greater input but lesser
output. In other words, the university is paying more than what it
receives in terms of electrical consumption. As a consumer, it is fair for
BISU to pay the services that it actually consumes.
209
Actual inspection of the electrical devices, equipment, and wiring
methods was done by the researchers. After the study was conducted,
the data gathered were then analyzed and interpreted. The researchers
will formulate a development plan for the energy-saving measures.
Questionnaires were also distributed to experts in electrical wiring
and connections. They include the Electrical Technology and Electrical
Engineering faculty of the university.
Table 1. The profile of electrical energy consumption
of BISU-MC year 2010
ELECTRICAL
CONSUMPTION
2010
MONTH
KWHR
COST(pesos)
January
30706
183379.88
February
52011
310609.95
March
41541
248085.28
April
28193
168369.69
May
26623
158994.46
June
38014
227023.84
July
34772
207662.72
August
47666
284663.71
September
48698
290829.01
October
55702
332654.13
November
36880
220251.98
December
42464
ELECTRICAL
253596.53
CONSUMPTION
2011
MONTH
KWHR
January
43460
240510.10
210
COST
259545.22
Average cost International Peer Reviewed Journal
As reflected in Table 1, the energy consumption rates during the
months of February, August, September, and October are greater than
the other months’ consumption of the same year. The researchers have
found out that the months with greater energy consumption are school
months where the equipments were being constantly used. The rest of
the months were vacation periods. The peak months were February
and October. This is because most of the students in the shop classes
were given semestral projects near the end of the semester.
Table 2. Electrical loads of BISU-MC
Convenience
Outlet
Light-
Aircon
Cooking
Motor
& Heating Loads
Building
(Watts)
(Watts)
(Watts)
(Watts)
(Watts)
Engineering
Building
48136
28878
14625
1000
92639
Science & Math
Building
17400
3120
1500
1000
23020
Extension Buildings
10800
480
3000
14280
Electronics
Buillding
12600
2000
5625
1000
21225
Automotive &
Computer Bldg.
16200
5440
3000
1000
25640
WAF Building
25200
4800
12000
80000
122000
Hometel & Multimedia
16000
3440
25875
3000
48315
Gymnasium
3600
11800
15400
Decorative lights
500
500
Covered walk
220
220
ing
Total
(Watts)
As can be seen in Table 2, the WAF building has registered the
highest electrical energy consumption among the buildings. This may
be attributed to the large electrical consumption of the equipment found
211
in the building. Furthermore, all welding equipments are plugged in
to the electrical power source of the said building. The Refrigeration
and Air Conditioning Department is also located in the said building.
The satisfaction rate of the experts regarding electrical supply is
“satisfactory”, safety standard of electrical system is “fair”, maintenance
program is “fair”, and the implementation of school project facilities
that also utilize existing electrical system is “fair”.
The Implementation category got a description of “poor”. This
means that the plans for the electrical system have not been realized.
There have been no maintenance report documentation and report for
maintenance variance report of budget against expenditure. Had this
been done, the electrical system of the school would have been more
effective and functional. Generally, the rating is “fair”.
There must be an approved program for the maintenance of the
BISU Main Campus electrical system and its personnel. The personnel
should not be the instructors themselves but designated electrical
technologists must be hired. Furthermore, there should be a periodic
inspection so that defects may be detected and given remedies the
earliest time possible to avoid accidents.
A fund allotment should be imposed for the maintenance and
personnel. The university must purchase more electrical supplies,
tools and equipment solely for electrical maintenance. There must
also be a separate maintenance shop for maintenance purpose only.
An alternative electrical power source should be employed by the
university such as the solar power. Because of the very high and
expensive electrical energy consumption, there is a need to use a more
efficient alternative source and that is the solar power.
LITERATURE CITED
Geddes & Grosset
2002 Webster’s universal dictionary and thesaurus. Poland: ISBN 184205
189 X.
Fink, D. & H. Beaty
2002 Standard handbook for electrical engineers. India: The McGrawHill Companies, Inc.
212
Jaiswal, M.
2006 Encyclopedia of electrical engineering. New Delhi India: ANMOL
Publications PVT. LTD.
McPartland, J. & B. McPartland, (Eds.)
1999 National electrical code handbook. USA: the McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.
The Institute of Integrated Electrical Engineers of the Philippines, Inc.
2000 Philippine electrical code. Quezon City:
213
Students’ Opinion on the Faculty
Performance Evaluation Instrument
FRANCIS ANN R. SY
VIOLETA B. FELISILDA
Southern Leyte State University Tomas Oppus
Philippines
Abstract - Students’ feedback on faculty performance is an influential
measure in obtaining the objectives of teaching effectiveness. Southern
Leyte State University-Tomas Oppus usually experiences student
evaluation reactions on faculty performance. Considering that success
of the evaluation process is the instrument itself, this research dealt
with students’ degree program profile and academic performance;
determined their opinion on the criteria’s appropriateness and the
instrument’s validity, reliability, objectivity, and utility and their
attitude upon it; and, determined relationship between academic
performance and degree program on opinions of the four criteria.
Through the descriptive one shot survey, stratified sampling was
employed to college freshmen, juniors and seniors with different
courses of SY 2010-2011. The mean, percentage, frequency, and chisquare were used. The students’ opinion on the appropriateness of
the criteria was very appropriate and very high on the four criteria.
They manifested positive attitude on the instrument. Their academic
performance and degree program have no significant relationship with
their opinion on the instrument. Student’s opinion of the evaluation
instrument was very appropriate, yet, it has to be revisited because
some items, though minimal, were moderately appropriate.
Keywords - Performance Evaluation Instrument, Southern Leyte
State University-Tomas Oppus
214
INTRODUCTION
Student evaluation on faculty performance is one of the appraisal
devices used in the academe. The baseline information is sources
of specific characteristics in designing an accommodating teaching
atmosphere. Since student ratings are influential measures of teaching
effectiveness, active participation by and meaningful input from
students can be critical in the success of such teaching evaluation
system. Nevertheless very few studies have looked into students’
opinion of the teaching evaluation system and their motivation to
participate (Heine, 2010).
Conversations among university colleagues on the topic of faculty
evaluations are typically animated and full of opinions, myths, war
stories and frustrations (Heine, 2010). It is because teachers normally
have mixed reactions when their performance is being measured
through certain standards. The case of student evaluation is a sensitive
matter since teachers could not help but take into consideration that
these evaluations have value only if done for faculty development. If
they are for venting personal issues and conflicts, they will lose their
significance. Further concern is the many reliability and validity issues
related to teacher evaluations done by the students.
While individual situations and personalities may be able to lend
some credence to the description of student evaluations as unreliable,
invalid, and useless, the literature does not support these claims. For
over thirty years, research on student evaluations has ben compiled
which remain useful tools in impacting the teaching-learning process
on the higher education front (Scriven, 2009).
The Southern Leyte State University is not spared from negative
insights and reactions pertaining to student evaluation on faculty
performance. Yet, Scriven (2009) emphasized that students have a front
row seat to observe teacher behaviours and classroom processes, and
are the best judge of what they have learned. The use of standardized
evaluations implies, though, that students have the ability to make fair,
overall judgments about teaching effectiveness based on legitimate
factors that actually relate to effective teaching and learning. Moreover,
researchers have that college students, in general, possess self-insight
into how they make judgments concerning their instructors since they
215
have an implicit awareness of the relative importance of the factors
they are considering.
With all the reasons cited herein and with the desire to improve the
SLSU faculty evaluation instrument through the student evaluation,
this study was conducted.
FRAMEWORK
The study is anchored on this argument that students are the best
indicator on numerous faculty behaviors associated with effective
teaching and student learning. It is an important element in the
evaluation of faculty to assess the instructional skills of the faculty,
and the academic quality of the course according to Hassanein,
Abdrbo, & Al Ateeq (2012). In fact, there have been many studies on
evaluating faculty based on students’ opinion with a lot of objectives.
Rifkin (1995) confirmed that the primary purpose is formative; that
is, facilitating faculty growth, development, and self-improvement.
Secondly, student evaluations are used for summative purposes and
often play a vital part in tenure, promotion, reappointment, and salary
decisions.
Teachers were evaluated in various methods and ways. Simmons
(1997) in his study said that a fairly common sort of evaluation that
may actually be used for the best intentions but often facilitates the
most common abuses is the use of student opinion in the decisions
that affect teachers. Togomori (1993) as cited in Simmon (1997)
established that the assessment used by universities and colleges
to appraise a professor’s teaching effectiveness were conducted by
evaluation through instruments they design, borrow, or adapt from
other universities and colleges. The reliability of the instruments
used is generally unknown. A comprehensive content analysis of
faculty evaluation instruments has not been conducted. As a result,
faculty members in higher education may be evaluated with flawed
evaluation instruments, conceivably leading to unfair assessment of
their teaching performance.
A proposed paradigm was adapted from Arnoult and Anderson
(1988) to provide for a better paradigm for the evaluation of teacher
effectiveness in the academic environment so as to reduce an evaluator’s
216
biases: (a) gather as much evidence as possible, (b) employ multiple
evaluators who have different viewpoints and interests, (c) vary the
observational circumstances to provide for different emphasis in the
environment, (d) review video tapes for greater accuracy, (e) compare
the criteria on balance sheets to establish evidence for and against an
evaluation, (f) solicit an explanation of the results and the subsequent
conclusions made by evaluators to reveal gaps in reasoning. This
paradigm constitutes constructive advice for the evaluations we make
of others in a professional setting. In fact, in SLSU_Tomas Oppus a
teacher is evaluated by four evaluators, namely: students, peers,
immediate supervisor, and herself. This was implemented in order to
get the holistic view of his teaching effectiveness.
Accordingly, students need to be active partners in the enhancement
of teaching in higher education. Seeking students’ responses to faculty
evaluation are considered an honor and support the teaching-learning
process. Student evaluations provide instructors with important
feedback from their point-of-view. Also, student’s evaluation can
contribute to the teaching-learning process and teachers must be
receptive to their ideas. Additionally, student evaluation is of value
to administrators and department chairs in assessing perceived
effectiveness of instruction in line with the study of Hassanein, Abdrbo,
& Al Ateeq (2012). Huitt; and Stockham, and Amann as quoted in the
study of Hassanein, Abdrbo, & Al Ateeq (2012), presented the following
principles: “1. Learning is an active process and student involvement
is an integral part of that process; 2.Teachers view their teaching with
regard to the paradigms of their students in order to facilitate change
and build for their growth; 3. Teachers recognize that students can
make important contributions to the teaching learning process; 4. The
teaching learning process is dynamic and should change over time
and with context”.
Student evaluations can be a productive part of improving teaching
strategies, course content, and student learning. Student evaluation of
faculty is just one component of an important process in education.
Most higher education faculty consider that the teaching learning
process is an active process, ever-changing interaction between
the student, teacher, and environment that should be focused on a
particular outcome. It is therefore reasonable to expect students to
217
make important contributions to this system and it is imperative that
teachers be receptive to student feedback as extracted from Hassanein,
Abdrbo, & Al Ateeq (2012). Thus, this study was formulated so as
to find out the students’ opinion if the instrument still needs some
enhancement.
The diagram illustrates the concept of the study. This study was
conducted at SLSU-Tomas Oppus to the selected college students.
It focused to determine on their opinion to the faculty performance
evaluation instrument and their attitude upon it. Students’ degree
program and academic performance were also being considered
as these were assumed that these could affect their opinion on the
evaluation instrument. Furthermore, the profile was correlated to the
four criteria, namely: validity, reliability, objectivity, and utility of the
faculty evaluation instrument. Finally, the study was conducted to
enhance the instrument based on the result of the study.
Figure 1. The Conceptual Framework of the Study
The study focused on determining the students’ opinion on the
faculty performance evaluation instrument at Southern Leyte State
University-Tomas Oppus, SY 2010-2011.
Specifically, this study answered the following objectives:
218
1.
Established the profile of the student evaluators in terms of:
1.1 degree program; and
1.2 academic performance.
2. Determined the extent of the students’ opinion on the
appropriateness of the existing criteria of the faculty performance
evaluation instrument.
3. Evaluated the students’ opinion on the existing criteria of the
faculty performance evaluation instrument in terms of the following:
3.1.
3.2.
1.1
3.3.
validity;
reliability;
objectivity; and
utility.
4. Assessed the students’ attitude on faculty performance
evaluation instrument.
5. Correlated the students’ academic performance and degree
program to the following criteria:
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
validity;
reliability;
objectivity; and
utility.
This study utilized the descriptive method of research using the
questionnaire as a tool in gathering data. This was conducted at
Southern Leyte State University-Tomas Oppus. The respondents were
sampled according to the degree program from the third year to fourth
year levels.
There was only one set of a questionnaire but consisted of four
parts, namely: Part I are the personal profile, Part II is the existing
219
criteria of the evaluation instrument of faculty performance, Part III is
on the criteria on validity, reliability, objectivity and utility, and Part
IV is the attitude of the students towards the faculty evaluation.
Furthermore, part I asked about the degree program of the students.
Although, academic performance of the students was needed in the
profile, but it was not reflected in the questionnaire since the students
could not provide their exact Grade Point Average (GPA). Instead, the
researchers asked their GPA from the Registrar’s Office. In part II, a
scale was established in order to rank the students’ perception to the
existing evaluation instrument. Instruction, critical factors, comments
and suggestions from the students on the teachers’ performance were
included here. Relatively in part III, was an adopted instrument of
Bayon (2006) on the criteria in terms of validity, reliability, objectivity
and utility. Lastly, part IV was the attitude of the students towards
faculty performance evaluation which was patterned on the questions
of Solis (2010) where it consisted of seven questions.
The researchers followed the standard operating procedure of
conducting a research. They were observing the ethical side of doing
a research specifically on giving the respondents an assurance that
their responses will be used only for this study and for research
purposes only. Initially, permission to conduct the study was sought
from the university president through the campus administrator.
After the reproduction of the instrument, the researchers personally
administered the questionnaire to the respondents. They thoroughly
discussed the instrument especially it required opinion from the
students. After an hour, the questionnaires were retrieved and
was checked if all the items were completely answered. Those
questionnaires with lacking information were returned and given back
to the respondents in order for them to fill up the skipped items. After
which, tallying, consolidation and analysis of data were done followed
by the interpretation of results. The data gathered in problems 1, 2,
3 and 4 were analyzed using percentages, frequency counts and
weighted mean while Pearson-r and chi-square were used to answer
problem 5.
220
A. Profile of the Students in terms of Degree Program and
Academic Performance
Two figures will be shown in terms of degree program and academic
performance.
Figure 1. The profile of the student in terms
of degree program
It could be inferred from the data in figure 1 that the majority of the
students were the education students. The willingness of the education
students to participate in the evaluation process was manifested. A
remarkable circumstance is to be considered because the majority of
the evaluators are future teachers who would, in their profession, be
subjected to performance evaluation (Bayon, 2006).
Figure 2. The students’ profile in terms of academic performance
221
The results in figure 2 implied that majority of the students’ were
doing very good in their academic performance. Thus, this would
yield meaningful results because they composed the bulk of the
respondents.
B. Extent of Students’ Opinion on the Appropriateness of the
Existing Criteria of the Faculty Performance Instrument
Table 1. The Students’ opinion on the appropriateness of the faculty
performance evaluation instrument criteria
CRITERIA
MEAN
DESCRIPTION
PART I. INSTRUCTION
a. Commitment
4.47
VA
b. Knowledge of Subject
4.52
VA
c. Teaching for Independent Learning
4.46
VA
d. Management of Learning
4.43
VA
a. Does not engage in unofficial matters like chatting,
eating, telephoning, texting, etc. while the student is
waiting or watching
4.21
VA
b. Observes proper grooming and dressing, possesses
self-confidence, poise, and a pleasing personality,
wears proper uniform attire, and school ID,
4.45
VA
a. Demonstrates a sense of responsibility
4.54
VA
d. Shows patience, understanding and self-control
4.52
VA
e. Uses sound principles and exhibits value-based behavior and observes standards of morality.
4.50
VA
PART II. CRITICAL FACTORS
PART III. COMMENTS AND SUGGESTIONS
a. The practices that I like most…
3.66
A
b. The practices that I like least…
3.33
MA
c. To improve learning in this subject, I suggest the following…
3.61
A
Legend: 222
4.21-5.00 = Very Appropriate (VA),
1.81-2.00 = Less Appropriate (LA)
3.41-4.20 = Appropriate (A),
1.00-1.80 = Not Appropriate (NA)
2.61-3.40 = Moderately Appropriate (MA)
The criteria in Part I were rated very appropriate by the majority of
the students as shown in Table 1. It was a very professional document.
It was a product of the intellectual minds of the faculty in Southern
Leyte State University (SLSU), (Sy, 2012). Specific areas were taken
into consideration consistent with the standards and policies of the
university, and Civil Services Commission (CSC). Arreola (2000)
called this as “institutional parameter values” that set minimum and
maximum weights for each of the faculty performance dimensions.
Part II obtained a similar overall description with that of Part I
which was very appropriate while part III was appropriate. Though
part III was perceived by the students to be appropriate, but this part
was the least rated among other parts of the instrument. It is a fact
that teaching is a multidimensional activity (Arreola, 2000). There is
no single measure adequate to assess the total domain of teaching
effectiveness. To widely cover the dynamic performance parameter
required of the faculty, it was forethought that the faculty performance
instrument was set into three.
C. The Students’ Opinion on the Validity, Reliability, Objectivity
and Utility of the Faculty Evaluation Instrument
Table 2. The Students’ opinion on the validity
of the instrument
INDICATORS
MEAN
DESCRIPTION
1. The criteria show teachers’ strength and weaknesses.
4.3
VH
2. They enhance professional growth of the faculty.
4.4
VH
3. They bring about classroom improvement.
4.4
VH
4. They help develop motivation to grow in the
academe.
4.4
VH
5. They introduce curriculum improvement.
4.4
VH
6. They institute curriculum improvement.
4.3
VH
7. They help maintain academic standards.
4.1
H
8. They serve as a guide for self-appraisal.
4.4
VH
223
9. They are bases for awarding tenure and benefits.
4.3
VH
10.They help meet standards for accreditation.
4.1
H
11. They enhance public relations with students and
parents.
4.4
VH
12. They identify potential scholars.
4.3
VH
13.They determine rank classification.
4.3
VH
14. They determine teaching performance and enhance
learning.
4.4
VH
15. They build faculty morale.
4.3
VH
4.31
VH
Grand mean
Legend: 4.21-5.00 = Very High (VH)
1.81-2.00 = Low (L)
3.41-4.20 = High (VH)
1.00-1.80= Very Low (VL)
2.61-3.40 = Moderately High (MH)
A very high opinion was evident in table 2 from the students’
perception on the validity of the instrument. It gave an idea that the
instrument can be used as a meaningful source of teachers’ performance.
Thus, the students approved that the instrument measured what it
intended to measure.
Table 3. Students’ Opinion on the Reliability
of the Instrument
Criteria
MEAN
DESCRIPTION
1. There are enough students in the class who made the
evaluation.
4.4
VH
2. The same criteria have been used every year.
4.2
H
3. The criteria are formulated by a group of repute.
4.2
H
4. The evaluation is administered by the same individual
or group.
4.2
H
5. The evaluation is administered regularly.
4.3
VH
6. It has clear and specific instructions.
4.3
VH
7. The same system of interpretation of data is employed.
4.4
VH
224
8. The criteria for assessing performance were clear prior
to evaluation.
4.3
VH
9. Evaluation criteria are designed with specific purposes.
4.3
VH
10. The criteria are clearly worded in measurable terms.
4.5
VH
11. They are specific, properly laid out and are legible.
4.3
VH
12. They yielded satisfaction among the faculty.
4.3
VH
13. They have enough items to ensure credible results.
4.3
VH
14. They are job-related.
4.3
VH
4.3
VH
4.37
VH
15. They are acceptable to all.
Grand mean
1.81-2.00 = Low (L)
3.41-4.20 = High (VH)
1.00-1.80 = Very Low (VL)
Most of the descriptions in table 3 were very high. So, students
affirmed that the instrument is reliable. The students agreed with
each other on the indicators present in the instrument. Further, it can
be administered to a different group of students as well as it can be
used to evaluate different teachers based on the result with 4.37 as
grand mean. Huemer (2010) further elaborated that a test is said to
be “reliable” if it tends to give the same result when repeated; this
indicates that it must be measuring something.
Table 4. Students’ opinion on the objectivity
of the instrument
MEAN
DESCRIPTION
1. The criteria are approved by the faculty and evaluators.
INDICATORS
4.6
VH
2. They are cooperatively planned and executed.
4.5
VH
3. They are formulated encompassing all agreed purposes
4.4
VH
4. They are formulated by an independent group of good
repute.
4.3
VH
5. The evaluators are randomly selected.
4.2
H
225
6. Common formula of evaluation is approved by all.
4.3
VH
7. The teacher stays outside while the evaluation takes place.
4.3
VH
8. The evaluation is done by impartial and independent
group.
4.3
VH
9. The evaluators observe anonymity.
4.3
VH
10. There is ample time for evaluation.
4.3
VH
4.5
VH
4.35
VH
11. The faculty is evaluated by the students.
Grand mean
Legend: 4.21-5.00 = Very High( VH)
1.81-2.00 = Low (L)
3.41-4.20 = High (VH)
1.00-1.80 = Very Low (VL)
The students described the instrument as very objective with a grand
mean of 4.35. Of the 11 items, only one (1) item was perceived high
by the students. According to Elmore (2008), the best way to evaluate
quality objectively is to establish several rankings for different types of
work and to give them consensus values. In the case of the evaluative
indicators, different aspects of establishing objectivity are manifested
by the eleven options. The very high description marked that the
students believe in the objectivity of the evaluation instrument.
Table 5. Students’ Opinion on the Utility of the Instrument
INDICATORS
MEAN
DESCRIPTION
1. The criteria show teacher’s strengths and weaknesses.
4.5
VH
2. They enhance professional growth of the faculty
4.4
VH
3. They bring about classroom instruction improvement.
4.5
VH
4. They help develop motivation to grow in the academe.
4.5
VH
5. They introduce curriculum improvement.
4.6
VH
6. They institute curriculum improvement.
4.4
VH
7. They help maintain academic standards.
4.5
VH
8. They serve as a guide for self-appraisal.
4.4
VH
9. They are bases for awarding tenure and benefits.
4.4
VH
226
10. They help meet standards for accreditation.
4.4
VH
11. They enhance public relations with students and parents.
4.4
VH
12. They identify potential scholars.
4.4
VH
13. They determine rank classification.
4.4
VH
14. They determine teaching performance and enhance
learning.
4.4
VH
15. They build faculty morale.
4.4
VH
4.5
VH
Grand mean
1.81-2.00 = Low (L)
3.41-4.20 = High (VH)
1.00-1.80 = Very Low (VL)
The students observed that the instrument was highly utilized by
them as shown in table 5. It was their experienced to evaluate their
teachers every semester. This is a reason why it has a very high
description among them. So, they were very satisfied that it was used
often. According to Sy (2011) in her study, the teachers as respondents
perceived the faculty performance instrument as good. So, the
students had a higher perception of usefulness of the instrument than
the teachers in this case.
D. Students’ Attitude
Evaluation Instrument
Towards
the
Faculty
Performance
To gather information about the students’ attitude towards the
Faculty Evaluation Tool seven questions were considered by the
researchers patterned after the questionnaire of Solis (2010).
These were the following:
A. What do you think are the institutional purposes of the faculty
evaluation (FE)?
B. What would you personally identify as the single most important
purpose of the faculty evaluation?
227
C. What do you think are the steps of the course evaluation
system, from the beginning to the end?
D. Do you think that faculty evaluations are useful?
E. What would you personally identify as the most attractive
outcome of the FE?
F. What would you personally identify as the least attractive
outcome of the FE? and,
G. Do you think the present system of evaluation is designed
properly?
The data showed that for question A, the students have different
diction but their ideas were focused on one concern, and that is for
the attainment and the improvement of institutional and professional
goals. It could be made more concrete through some sample as … to
determine the performance of the teachers inside the classroom; to
promote good, effective and productive faculty; to improve teaching
strategies; to identify the needs of the students; to monitor whether
the students approve or like the strategies of the teacher through their
performance; to improve the quality of education through teaching
effectiveness; to rank high; to measure the competency of the faculty
with regards to their field; for them to adjust the kind of students they
have.
Question B covered on what the students identify as the single
most important purpose of the faculty evaluations. Yet, the evaluators
answers were similar in thought with that of question A like to improve
the strategies of the teacher; to know the satisfaction of the students; to
maintain academic standards; to identify the problems of the students;
to know the comment, suggestion, reaction, likes and dislikes of the
student towards the personnel of this institution; to give information
to the faculty on what they need to improve and where they excel.
Question C basically paved the way for answers on what the student
evaluators think as the steps, from the beginning to end, of the course
evaluation system. This question yielded limited and varied answers
from the respondents, but they were geared towards the positive side
of it like low to high strategies; the lowest to the highest strategies;
first, it will be planned then they will be observed and recorded.
Question D would lead back again to the answers of questions A
228
and B as they were quite similar. Question D was on the usefulness of
the evaluation and they commonly answered positively with reasons
like: for them to know about their standard of teaching; so that the
faculty performance will be evaluated by the students, and the faculty
will know of their strength and weaknesses and they can improve their
weaknesses; so that they will know the feedbacks from the students
about their performance; to be able to reach the expectation of the
students.
In the same manner, question E has answers which were in the
same vein with that of the answers given for questions A, B, and D
because it deals with the what the respondents personally identify
as the most attractive outcome of the faculty evaluation. The answers
were as follows: it would help the faculty to know his/her weaknesses
and strengths; they will be aware on what to do to improve their
teaching techniques; for positive a outlook; positive changes will
happen in the institution; to improve teaching ability of the teachers;
it allows the faculty to have strategic planning for the improvement of
their teaching.
However, question E also has very interesting answers which were
not in the same frame with the answers of questions A, B and D and
these were: there is a possibility that the teachers will have anger with
the one (who has evaluated) even if he does not know who the rater
really is, and there is the tendency that the whole class will suffer;
probably there is a conflict of the results in the perception between the
faculty and the students; students will not be truthful of their answers
to the evaluation. In this question, the respondents were being honest
on the possible outcome of the evaluation process and their answers
could affect the teachers’ record. As emphasized by McDaniel (2008)
that student evaluation could threaten academic freedom or be misused
by administrators. But, he countered that his own experience and chair
and dean for 28 years suggests that it is an outside possibility at best.
He further stressed that in arguments about evaluations statistics tend
to be used by instructors more than by administrators.
Question F was the opposite of Question E which caters to the
evaluators’ opinion on the least attractive outcome of the faculty
evaluation. The students did not hesitate to answer in the following:
some or may students are not honest in answering the questions; I
229
hope there will be change after this activity; sometimes we feel tired
to answer the FE; it is not valid because there is no action from the
faculty for those with negative comments; it irritates the students;
having proper outfit and having their make-up; it really hurts on the
side of the teacher who is evaluated unfairly because of what we call
“revenge” maybe because the students acquire low grade from the
teacher.
For question F, the students were just being logical of their answers;
what they mentioned are some of the least attractive outcome of the
evaluation. It could then be inferred that the students’ answers will
have shed light on the shadows of the evaluation process. Basically,
the students’ responses will be used to add to the qualitative data to
improve faculty evaluation.
Question G guided the students to be more honest about faculty
evaluations as their answers are a mixture of Yes, No and Maybe to
answer if they feel the present system of student evaluations is welldesigned and properly implemented. There is also one who said it
well-designed but not properly implemented. One also claimed that
it is not properly implemented in matters of the schedule in which
it is conducted. One bravely commented that the suggestions of the
students are not being realized by the teachers. There is also a comment
on the random procedure in the conduct of the evaluation which for
him affects it’s effectively.
E. The Relationship between the Academic Performance and
Degree Program of the Students and their Opinion on the Faculty
Evaluation Instrument in terms of Validity, Reliability, Objectivity,
and Utility
Table 6. The Relationship Between the Students’ Academic
Performance and Degree Program and their Opinion on the Criteria
of the Faculty Evaluation Instrument
P-value
DESCRIPTION
Academic Performance and Validity
VARIABLE
0.287
Not Significant
Academic Performance and Reliability
0.265
Not Significant
Academic Performance and Objectivity
0.220
Not Significant
230
Academic Performance and Utility
0.265
Not Significant
Degree Program and Validity
0.261
Not Significant
Degree Program and Reliability
0.261
Not Significant
Degree Program and Objectivity
0.213
Not Significant
Degree Program and Utility
0.261
Not Significant
Table 6 displayed the result that academic performance of the
students has no significant relationship to the criteria which means
that the academic performance does not affect their opinion towards
validity, reliability, objectivity and utility of the instrument. It could
then be implied that whether the student is below average or above
average, his opinion is not affected by his performance. Thus, it can be
said further that they have the same perception towards the criteria.
On the other hand, it shows that there was no significant relationship
between the students’ degree program and their opinion on the Faculty
Evaluation Tools’ criteria. It implies that whatever degree program
the students had taken, had nothing to do with their opinion on the
criteria.
CONCLUSION
The instrument of SLSU-Tomas Oppus met the criteria of a valid,
reliable, useful and objective tool.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1.Students should be assured that their evaluation results will be
treated with extreme professionalism and confidentiality so that
they will deal with it in all honesty.
2.A post-evaluation conference should be announced to the
students so that they will be aware that their evaluation will
reach to the faculty concerned.
LITERATURE CITED
Arreola
2000 Establishing the Dynamic Role Parameter. Retrieved May 28,
231
2010 from the World Wide Web:http://www.missouristate.
edu/assets/provost/MeritPln-MGT.pdf
Bayon, A. M.
2000 Faculty Evaluation Tools of Government Colleges in Southern
Leyte: A Proposed Common Assessment Portfolio. A
Dissertation Study. University of San Carlos, Cebu City
Elmore, H.
2010 Toward Objectivity in Faculty Evaluation. Retrieved May 31,
2010 from the World Wide Web:http://www.aaup.org/AAUP/
pubsres/academe/2008/MJ/Feat/elmo.htm
Heine, R.
2010 Student Perceptions of the Faculty Course Evaluation Process:
An Exploratory Study. Retrieved May 27, 2010 from the World
Wide Web:http://[email protected]
Huemer, M.
2010 Student Evaluations: A Critical Review. Retrieved may 31, 2010
from the World Wide Web:http://home.sprynet.com/~owl1/
sef.htm
McDaniel, J.
2006 Student Evaluations of Instructors: A Bad Thing. Retrieved May
31, 2010 from the World Wide Web: http://www.facultyfocus.
com/author/jmcdaniel/
Salwa H., Amany A., and Elham A. Aq.
2012 International Conference on Management and Education
Innovation. IPEDR vol.37 (2012) © (2012) IACSIT Press,
Singapore. College of Nursing, Cairo University, Egypt.
College of Nursing – Al Ahsa, King Saud bin Abdulaziz
University for Health Sciences, KSA
Scriven
2009 Increasing Teacher Effectiveness. Retrieved November 19,
232
from the World Wide Web: http//www.teach.valdosta.edu/
whuitt/files/cheval.pdf
Theall, M.
2010 Faculty Evaluation. Retrieved June 1, 2010 from the World
Wide Web: http://www.ntlf.com/pod/facultyevaluation.htm
Simmons, T.L.
1997. Shiken: JALT Testing & Evaluation SIG Newsletter. Student
evaluation of teachers: Professional practice or punitive policy?
Rifkin, T. and E. C. f. C. Colleges.
1995. The status and scope of faculty evaluation: ERIC Clearinghouse
for Community Colleges.
233
Extent of Systems Performance
of Caraga State University, Butuan City,
Mindanao, Philippines
ALVARO L. SALINGAY
[email protected]
Liceo de Cagayan University
Abstract - This study adopted a descriptive survey design to
assess the extent of systems performance processes of Caraga State
University in Butuan City, Mindanao, Philippines with the aim of
gauging the extent of systems performance processes as rated by 164
respondents consisting of 38 Administrators, 71 Faculty Members and
55 Non-academic Staff. Results show that the school’s extent of systems
performance processes was moderately achieved. The different
perception of respondents on the extent of systems performance
processes shows incongruence of perceptions among administrators,
faculty and staff that leads to the gap in understanding the degree of
university performance with regards to the financial aspects, customer
satisfaction, internal business process efficiency and learning and
innovation. The school needs to improve its processes especially its
processes on customer satisfaction, internal business process efficiency
and learning and innovation to improve its financial performance.
Keywords - Systems Performance Processes, Customer Satisfaction,
Internal Business Process Efficiency, Learning and Innovation.
234
INTRODUCTION
Balanced Scorecard concept explains that financial results alone
cannot capture value-creating activities which means financial measures
are lagging indicators and, as such, are not effective in identifying
the drivers or activities that affect financial results (Karathanos &
Karathanos 2005). Organizations should develop a comprehensive
set of additional measures to use as leading indicators, or predictors,
of financial performance. Kaplan & Norton (2001) suggested that
measures should be developed to address four perspectives: (1)
financial perspective - measures in this perspective should answer the
question; “How should we appear to our shareholders?” (2) customer
perspective - measures should answer the question; “How should we
appear to our customers?” (3) Internal business processes perspective
- Measures in this perspective should answer the question; “What
processes must we excel at?” (4) Learning and growth perspective.
These measures should answer the question; “How can we sustain our
ability to change and improve?” A critical factor for an effective BSC
is the alignment of all the measures in the four perspectives with the
company’s vision and strategic objectives. The BSC allows managers
to track short-term financial results while simultaneously monitoring
their progress in building the capabilities and acquiring the intangible
assets that generate growth for future financial performance (Kaplan
& Norton, 1996). Thus, the BSC enables managers to monitor and
adjust the implementation of their strategies and to make fundamental
changes in them. Devie dan Tarigan (2010) states that each perspective
in BSC is interdependent among one another, especially the first
three perspectives (customer perspective, internal business process
perspective and learning and growth perspective), which are the factors
that support financial perspective. It means that organizational effort
to increase performance in customer perspective, internal business
process perspective and learning and growth perspective will assist
the make-up of performance in financial perspective.
In this study, the four aspects of BSC were adapted as variables
in measuring the extent of systems performance processes of Caraga
State University in Butuan City, Mindanao Philippines.
235
FRAMEWORK
The study considers the theory of Norton & Kaplan (2001) about
Balanced Scorecard (BSC) – which states that performance outcomes
(results) and performance drivers (strategies) have causal relationships
that cover four perspectives namely: financial perspectives, customer
perspectives, internal business process perspectives, and learning and
growth perspectives. These perspectives are chosen as variables for
systems performance.
The Balanced Scorecard has four perspectives, namely; financial
perspective, customer perspective, internal business process perspective
and learning and growth perspective. Each perspective in BSC could not
stand by itself or they are reliant to one another. As an illustration,
competence of every people in organization will not be useful if each
individual does not work along with others. The figure below depicts
how each perspective in BSC is interdependent among one another,
especially the first three perspectives (customer perspective, internal
business process perspective and learning and growth perspective),
which are the factors that support financial perspective. It means
that organizational effort to increase performance in customer
perspective, internal business process perspective and learning and
growth perspective will assist the make-up of performance in financial
perspective (Devie & Tarigan 2010).
In this study, financial performance is categorized into attainment
of cost objectives, control of non-conformities and the effective
use of resources. The attainment of cost objectives is measured in
terms of budget allocation, fund utilization, materials procurement,
professional development, information technology and strategic
quality planning. While control of non-conformities is measured in
terms of non-conformance to CHED requirements, recurrence of nonconformities, non-conformance to specifications standards, and nonconformance to IQUAME. The effective use of resources is measured
in terms of budget expenditure attainment and the maximum use of
information system.
Meeting customer requirements is one level of customer
commitment. IWA 2 provides that the educational organization top
management should identify and document the needs and expectations
236
of learners, defined as curriculum requirements that include; learning
outcomes and specific performance indicators. Learners’ requirements
are often implied. Customer satisfaction is measure in terms of
stakeholder’s satisfaction level. Customer satisfaction is a strategic issue
to companies in this competitive era. Customer satisfaction can affect
customers’ trust (Omar et al., 2009) and their future behavior intention
(Clemes et al., 2008). Furthermore, the increase in customer satisfaction
will also affect on economic returns, i.e. profitability, market share,
and return on investment (Sik Sumaedi, et al., 2011). In an educational
institution, students are the main costumer of the organization (IWA,
2007). Thus, in a university, its main costumer is the college student.
Students’ satisfaction should always be considered by the university
due to intensive competition among universities, internationalization
spirit, higher expectation of customer to higher educational institution,
an increase in the tuition fee, and the classification of education as a
marketable service (Kwek et al., 2010).
Furthermore, student satisfaction is important to be discussed,
considering that there is a good effect if the students are satisfied,
and vice versa. Letcher and Neves (2010) reported that “psychologists
have found that student satisfaction helps to build self-confidence,
and that self-confidence helps students develop useful skills, acquire
knowledge”. On the other hand, student dissatisfaction can lead
to negative student activities, such as a bad grade, an unpleasant
relationship between the student and the staff, faculty, and friends
(Letcher and Neves, 2010).
237
Figuire 1. The Balanced Scorecard Perspective
(Devie dan Tarigan 2010: Kaplan 2004)
Educational organizations typically provide a service that is
intangible, not storable, and consumed during delivery. Educational
organizations should provide the opportunity for learners to study
existing knowledge and to practice its application (IWA 2:2007).
When learning takes place in an educational organization’s classroom
buildings, expectations may include (but are not restricted to) the
following safe, clean facilities with someone in charge; two-way
communication procedures between interested parties and the
educational organization are responsive; the organization’s personnel
treat everyone with respect; and appropriate activities are conducted
by qualified personnel.
Thus, in this study, internal business process efficiency, is measured
in terms of management of needs and expectations of interested parties,
quality system conformance and IQUAME conformance, procurement
improvement, and other process efficiency factors. The management of
needs and expectations is composed of internal customer satisfaction,
238
employee satisfaction, and community relations projects. The quality
system conformance and IQUAME conformance is measured to quality
management system and IQUAME. The procurement improvement
is measured in terms of shopping, public bidding and negotiated
bidding processes.
On learning and innovation, IWA 2 states that the education
environment and the rapid evolution of knowledge leads to periodic
curricula and syllabus review, and resulting revision. These changes
should be identified, documented, authorized and communicated.
The revision of any subject should include the evaluation of its effect
on the entire curriculum, and records should be maintained. Learning
and innovation is composed of skills and competence improvement,
better understanding of roles, responsibilities and goals, consistent
and visible involvement of management, continuous improvement
of performance and other learning and innovation factors. Skills
and competence improvement is measured in terms of training
implementation, increase in competence level. Better understanding
of roles, responsibilities and goals is measured in terms of manpower
availability and overtime over available man hours. Consistent
and visible involvement of management is measured in terms of
management reviews, internal audit, and closing of nonconformities.
Continuous improvement of performance is measured in terms of
improvement of projects.
OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY
The main objective of the study is not to measure the quality of
education but rather to determine the extent of systems performance
processes and the difference of perceptions of administrators, faculty
and non-academic staff of Caraga State University.
This study utilized the descriptive survey design adapting the
questionnaire based on the Philippine Quality Award Criteria for
Performance Excellence and Application Guidelines (PDC-DAP:2004)
and the Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Criteria (Calingo, 2000) to
239
assess the extent of system performance.
Random sampling procedure was done for the selection of
respondents, which consists of 38 Administrators, 71 Faculty
(Educators) and 55 Staff (Non-educators). Permission and authority
was secured from the School’s President through the Office of the
Quality Assurance (QuaMs). The researcher solicited help from
QuaMs Staff in distribution and retrieval of the questionnaire. The data
retrieved were collated and tabulated for purposes of determining the
extent of system performance of the school. Unstructured interviews
were conducted to supplement the ratings of the respondents.
The following statistical techniques were used to quantify the
results of the data: Frequency Count and Percentage, Weighted Mean,
Standard Deviation - for the descriptive part of the analysis. f-test for
Independent Samples - testing the significant difference in the ratings
of administrators, faculty & staff of the extent of system performance
of Caraga State University. While One-Way Anova – was used to
determine the significant difference of ratings of respondents in the
extent of systems performance.
1.
On Extent of Systems Performance of Caraga State University
Table 1 presents the summarized perception on the extent of
system performance at the Caraga State University. The overall mean
of 2.81 (ME) was based on the weighted scores of 2.62 (ME) from the
administrators, 2.76 (ME) from the faculty, and 3.05 (ME) from the
staff. Highest impact is perceived on customer satisfaction, with an
item mean of 2.92 (ME), based on the weighted scores of 2.75 (ME)
from the administrators, 2.82 (ME) from the faculty, and 3.19 (ME)
from the staff.
The next highest score is on learning and innovation with a
rating of 2.80 (ME) based on the weighted scores of 2.58 (LE) from
the administrators, 2.81 (ME) from the faculty, and 3.01 (ME) from
the staff. Financial performance is perceived by the respondents as
equal to internal business process efficiency which both indicators
have a score of 2.76 (ME). This entails that the implementation of the
quality management system at Caraga State University denotes a good
240
performance level in most areas of importance to the organization’s
key business requirements, and there are no pattern of adverse
trends. Results are reported from most areas of the organization’s key
business requirements which indicate an attainment of 41% to 60% of
an excellent performance target.
Table 1. Summary of the extent of system performance
INDICATOR
ADMINISTRATORS
FACULTY
STAFF
MEAN
RATINGS
VD
RATINGS
VD
RATINGS
VD
RATINGS
VD
A. Financial Performance
2.58
LE
2.71
ME
3.00
ME
2.76
ME
B. Customer Satisfaction
2.75
ME
2.82
ME
3.19
ME
2.92
ME
C. Internal Business
Process Efficiency
2.59
LE
2.70
ME
2.99
ME
2.76
ME
D. Learning and
Innovation
2.58
LE
2.81
ME
3.01
ME
2.80
ME
GRAND MEAN
2.62
ME
2.76
ME
3.05
ME
2.81
ME
On Financial Performance
In an interview, the VP-Academic Affairs confirmed the ratings and
said that it is an honest result given the fact that the school has been
on the process of revising its procedures and processes with regards to
the financial performance. The budget planning and implementation
was done based on the approved General Appropriations Act
(GAA) from the DBM and also done basing on the available Special
Thrust Fund (STF) generated from the collection of tuition fees and
miscellaneous as approved by the Commission on Higher Education.
The implementation of the budget is subject to the internal audits (the
pre-audit and the post audit) as required by the Commission on Audit.
This was also confirmed by the in-charge of the scholarship grant of
the university on how the university controls its budget utilization.
The interview reveals that the school has no budget for the
capital expenditures to support its big projects like; school buildings
and facilities. They rely only on their collection of tuition fees and
241
other donors from the cause oriented groups, non-governmental
organizations, and other national agencies like the Department of
Agriculture and also from the different political personalities like from
the senators and congressmen. Hence, the school has a limited funds to
perform its scheduled work, although utilization of funds was subject
to internal audit and liquidation.
As a whole, the university need to review its overall system in order
to attain the highest efficiency targets that leads to favorable financial
performance.
On Customer Satisfaction
The study shows the average rating of 2.92 (ME) entails moderate
extent of system performance in the aspect of customer satisfaction
based on the group average of 2.75 (ME) from the administrators, 2.82
(ME) from the faculty, and 3.19 (ME) from the staff. This indicates
that the university needs to enhance its processes that have significant
impact on stakeholders satisfaction.
During the interview, the school is not conducting a periodic
survey to its stakeholders, what they did was a tracer study on how
many graduates are able to land a job. The conduct of the survey to
its partner agencies or community is done only during the visit of the
AACCUP, hence, there is no concrete evidence of the satisfaction of
its stakeholders. Although, during the interview, the student council
confirms that the current administration is very supportive to its
officers, and they opined that they are happy as of the moment to the
attention the university extended to them. Issues on collection of fees
from the university are still the most lingering problems being faced
by the students. In the interview, the administrator confirms about the
problem on collection of fees, the intervention they made was through
open forum and consultations.
On the other hand, the school able to demonstrate the customer
satisfaction by engaging its programs with trans-national sister
universities through their 1st international sister university the National
Pingtung University of Science and Technology (NPUST) in Pingtung,
Taiwan and it is working on its partnership with Toyo University in
Tokyo, Japan.
242
On Internal Business Process Efficiency
The study shows that the respondents perception on efficiency of its
internal business process to a moderate extent. The efficiency of internal
business process of the university was adequately perceived within
the organization which leads to moderate attainment of efficiency in
delivering the needs and expectations of interested parties.
During the interview, the respondents opined that the school was
not conducting an internal survey on how was the performance of the
university, this is the first time that the survey is made hence they have
no idea about the needs and expectations of the different interested
parties. This was confirmed by the academic affairs. The conduct of
survey for the internal customer satisfaction was not done, and also
with the employee satisfaction. The Survey on community relations
project was done but not periodic. Hence, the respondents cannot
ascertain in a balanced way in considering the needs and expectations
of all interested parties to have an effective and efficient system.
As a whole, the result shows a moderate extent 2.76 perception
based on the group mean ratings of 2.59 (ME) from the administrators,
2.70 (ME) from the faculty, and 2.99 (ME) from the staff. This means
that the university able to attain good performance level in most
areas of importance to the organization’s key business requirements
specifically on internal business process efficiency, and there are no
patterns of adverse trends.
On Learning and Innovation
The study shows the extent of system performance in the aspect
of learning and innovation. The perceived extent is moderate with a
mean rating of 2.80 (ME) based on the weighted mean of 2.58 (ME)
from the administrators, 2.81 (ME) from the faculty and 3.01 (ME)
from the staff.
Learning and innovation through other factors is perceived
moderately by the respondents as evidenced by the mean score
of 2.82 (ME) based from the weighted rating of 2.63 (ME) from the
administrators, 2.84 (ME) from the faculty, and 3.01 (ME) from the
staff. The respondents highest score is on “encourages recognition and
243
reward factor” 2.94 (ME) based from the weighted rating of 2.73 (ME)
from the administrators, 3.01 (ME) from the faculty and 3.09 (ME)
from the staff. This is because, the university has policies with regards
to the recognition and rewards as confirmed during the interview. The
recognition and rewards is implemented every department and there
is also a university wide recognition and reward system. They have a
reward and recognition program for the students and for the faculty.
If the students will top in the national board examination, the students
can avail the monetary reward and recognition.
As a whole, the respondents felt moderately the learning and
innovation of the university.
On Test of Difference Using One-way Anova on the Ratings of
Administrators, Faculty and Staff on the Level of System Performance
of Caraga State University
Table 4. Test of difference using one-way anova on the ratings of
administrators, faculty and staff on the level of system performance
of Caraga State University
Analysis of Variance
System Performance Mean
Variables
FINANCIAL
Administrator
PERFORMANCE
Faculty
Staff
VD
2.5766
ME
2.7124
3.0625
ME
ME
CUSTOMER
SATISFACTION
Administrator
2.7895
ME
Faculty
Staff
2.8169
3.1887
ME
ME
INTERNAL
BUSINESS
PROCESSES
Administrator
2.6205
ME
Faculty
Staff
2.6982
2.9951
ME
ME
LEARNING AND
INNOVATION
Administrator
2.6358
ME
Faculty
Staff
2.8090
3.0074
ME
ME
244
F-value
P-value
Interpretation
7.17
0.001
Significant
3.73
0.026
Significant
4.88
0.009
Significant
3.45
0.034
Significant
GROUP
CONSENSUS
Administrator
2.6553
ME
Faculty
Staff
2.7599
3.0625
ME
ME
5.43
0.005
Significant
The table shows that there is a significant difference in the ratings of
administrators, faculty, and staff in the extent of system performance
at Caraga State University. The respondent differs significantly on
their ratings because of the different outlook in their position. The
administrators being the head of the school are considering the extent
of systems performance processes are at the true state because they are
the one knows the systems processes.
All the respondents agreed that the implementation of the quality
management system contributes moderately to the performance of the
school in terms of financial performance, customer satisfaction, internal
business processes and learning and innovation. The mutual feelings
of the respondents may be attributable to their internal relationship as
prime movers in making the agricultural school into a State University,
their eagerness to be recognized as the state university with distinct
history somehow align their perceptions on the extent of systems
performance processes.
CONCLUSIONS
The following are the conclusions: (1) The moderate extent of
system performance of Caraga State University revealed that they
need to enhance its systems processes in order to attain significant
improvements of the school. The respondents differ significantly in
their ratings on school’s systems performance processes. The different
perception of respondents on the extent of systems performance
processes shows incongruence of perceptions among administrators,
faculty and staff that leads to the gap in understanding the degree of
university performance with regards to the financial aspects, customer
satisfaction, internal business process efficiency and learning and
innovation
245
RECOMMENDATIONS
The following recommendations are offered for consideration:
(1) Implement a thorough review of all the interrelated processes to
have a system in place and adapting the Balanced Scorecard Concept
in every process so as to fully grasp the performance of the school.
The school needs to improve its processes especially its processes on
customer satisfaction, internal business process efficiency and learning
and innovation to improve its financial performance. (2) Conduct a
specific study per department to identify the specific unit that needs
overhauling of its system processes.
LITERATURE CITED
Calingo, L. M.
2000 Survey Instrument for Self-Assessment Using the Baldrige
Award Criteria for Performance Excellence. The Corporate
Guide to the Singapore Quality Award, EPB Publishers Pte
Ltd.
Clemes, M.D
2008 An Empirical Analysis of Customer Satisfaction in International
Air Travel. Innovative Marketing
Devie dan Tarigan, Josua
2007 Implementing Balance Scorecard in Higher Education, Petra
Christian University - Surabaya (SEAAIR Conference 2007,
Bangkok,Thailand.)
IWA2:
2007 Quality Management Systems – Guidelines for the Application
of ISO 9001:2000 in Education.
Kaplan, R. S. & D. P. Norton
2001 The Balanced Scorecard. HBS Press.
Karathanos & Karathanos,
246
(2005) Applying the Balanced Scorecard to Education. Southeast
Missouri State University Cape Girardeau, Missouri
Kwek, C. L.
2010 The ‘Inside-out’ and ‘Outside-in’ Approaches on Students’
Perceived Service Quality: An Empirical Evaluation.
Management Science and Engineering,
Letcher, D.W. and Neves J.S.
2010, “Determinant of Undergraduate Business Student Satisfaction”,
Research in Higher Education Journal
Malcolm Baldrige National Quality Program
2000 Education Criteria for Performance Excellence.
Omar, N.A.
2009 Parents Perceived Service Quality, Satisfaction and Trust of a
Childcare Centre: Implication on Loyalty. International Review
of Business Research Papers
Philippine Association of Colleges and Universities Commission
on Accreditation (PACUCOA). Self-Survey Instrument for
Accrediting Program.
Sik Sumaedi
2011 The Effect of Students’ Perceived Service Quality and Perceived
Price on Student Satisfaction.
247
Effectiveness of Problem-Based
Learning Approach to the
Students’ Problem Solving Performance
SYLVINO V. TUPAS
[email protected]
John B. Lacson Colleges Foundation-Bacolod
Bacolod City, Philippines
Abstract - The Philippines’ ranking in Trends in International
Mathematics and Science Survey (TIMSS) is indicative of how
mathematics is taught in the classrooms. This descriptive research
determined the performance of 12 BSMT and 17 BSMarE freshmen
students in solving general mathematics problems. They were
preselected cadets who enrolled in a Maritime School in the Philippines
first semester school year 2009-2010. Two sets of test instruments of
similar context and style were used as pretest and posttest. The selected
problems included routine or nonroutine and multistep problem and
within the context and level of the students. Result shows a significant
improvement in the performance of both BSMT and BSMarE students
and as a whole at 0.05 alpha. Further, students developed various
heuristics which includes Guess and Test, Working Backwards, Act it
Out, Use of Diagram, Use of Algebra, Direct Counting, and Systematic
List. Significant performance of students in the posttest is an indicator
of the effectiveness of the problem-based learning (PBL) approach.
Exposing them to various routine and non-routine problems enable
students to apply mathematical concepts and understanding into real
life problem situations. This makes mathematics more relevant which
enhanced students’ interest and level of performance in mathematics.
248
Keywords - TIMSS, math performance, heuristics, mathematics
instruction, nonroutine problem, real life problem
INTRODUCTION
Singapore, being one of the top performers in the Third International
Math and Science Survey (TIMSS) in 2003 claimed that mathematical
problem solving (MPS) is at the centre of the framework of the
mathematics curriculum in Singapore (Ministry of Education, 2000).
On the same survey, the Philippines ranked 35th of the 40 countries that
participated. The poor performance in mathematics is brought about
by the kind of mathematics instruction currently followed in most of
our mathematics curriculum (Tan, 2008). According to Limjap (2001),
mathematics instruction in the Philippines is taught starting from
teaching standard algorithms to develop arithmetic skills, followed by
board work and seat work to develop mastery level. This is because
many mathematics teachers in a typical classroom setting chooses
to focus on the learning of fundamental mathematical concepts
with limited time spent in exposing students to various nonroutine
problems. Unfortunately, most of our mathematics curriculum in the
Philippines is made with the development of these skills as its ultimate
goal.
According to Schoenfeld (1992), mathematics instruction should
provide students of the general concept of mathematics, its scope,
power, uses and history. It should develop students’ conceptual
understanding and procedural understanding of mathematical
concepts and processes rather than mere acquisition of mechanical
skills. It should also provide students the opportunity to explore
a broad range of problem situations and to apply various problemsolving heuristics in dealing with such problems. Moreover, it should
develop students’ analytical skills and ability to reason in extended
chains of argument. Moreover, it should help students learn to present
their analyses in clear and coherent arguments using the language of
mathematics acceptable in the mathematics community.
With these goals in mind, school mathematics should engage
students in problem solving and reasoning learning activities.
[Mathematics] instruction should not be limited to plain mastery of
249
algorithms or development of certain mathematical skills but should
involve them into investigations that promote reflective thinking
among students (Limjap, 2002).
Furthermore, Schoenfeld (2007) stresses that if teachers want to
help their students become good problem solvers, then instruction
in mathematics should be approached as a problem solving domain.
This means that problem solving in mathematics classroom should not
be taught as a separate topic but as an approach in the teaching and
learning process.
John B. Lacson Colleges Foundation-Bacolod (JBLCF-B) is destined
to pass Level III accreditation by the Philippine Association of Colleges
and Universities Commission on Accreditation (PACUCOA). One of the
criteria to be met is for the school to exhibit a reasonably high standard
of instruction; that is, exposure of students to scientific problemsolving method is evident in classroom instruction (PACUCOA, 2005).
To comply with the said requirement, the researcher experiment on
the integration of problem-based learning (PBL) approached in a
selected mathematics class for a possible improvement in students’
mathematics performance.
In JBLCF-B, teachers make use of instructor’s guide (IG) in teaching
a course. Analysis of the IG for Math 11A/Math 1 plus revealed that
mathematics is taught as a closed system characterized by “chalk-talk”
instruction and board works. Problem solving is merely one of the
topics being discussed towards the end of the course.
This study attempts to explore various common heuristics in
dealing with the general mathematics problems, to determine the
possible improvements in the students’ performance in mathematics.
The experiment employs problem-based learning (PBL) approach in a
constructivist-inspired environment.
FRAMEWORK
A constructivist-inspired instruction employing problem-based
learning (PBL) approach is a student-centered, experiential, contextspecific and process-centered learning. This approach is inductive in
nature and builds on prior learning of students (Brunner, 2007). It
aims to develop critical and creative thinking skills of students, and
250
to promote an active, interactive and cooperative type of learning (De
Gallow, 2000). Students are allowed to logically think any possible
solution through any possible representation and medium. The subject
focus changes from facts and algorithms to process approached. This
approach gives the teacher the opportunity to process the learning
deeply rather than to identify and enumerate the contents, thus
learning is leading towards higher order thinking.
Schoenfeld (1992) suggest that school mathematics should engage
students in problem solving and reasoning learning activities. It should
not be limited to plain mastery of algorithms or development of certain
mathematical skills but should involve them into investigations that
promote reflective thinking among students (Limjap, 2002). Teachers
shall motivate their students to go beyond the study of rules, it makes
mathematics more abstract. According to Michalewicz and Fogel
(2004), there is a great deal to be gained from solving problems; and a
great deal to be lost if students solved them poorly.
Generally, problems are categorized as routine and nonroutine
problems. The types of word problems usually solved in a typical
mathematics class are called routine problems. On the other hand,
Green (2003) presented nonroutine problems as those whose solutions
are not immediately obvious and the method of solving is not readily
known.
Polya (1973) presented problem-solving process as a series of five
stages. These stages are neither independent nor consecutive (Krulik
and Rudnick, 1996). A person engaged in the problem-solving process
moves back and forth, sometimes unconsciously with a goal for each
stage. Contrary to the linear model for solving problem, Polya’s
problem-solving stages are dynamic and cyclic in nature that promotes
his goal of teaching students to think (Wilson et al., 1993). The five
stages include Read and Think, Explore and Plan, Select a Strategy,
Find an Answer, and Reflect and Extend (Green, 2003; Krulik and
Rudnick, 1996). In the Read and Think stage, problem is analyzed and
critical thinking begins. Facts are examined and evaluated, physical
setting is visualized, described and understood. Furthermore, problem
is translated into students’ language, relationships between problem
parts are identified and the question asked is identified. In the Explore
and Plan stage, given information are analyzed for completeness
251
while irrelevant information are identified and eliminated. Data are
organized in tabular or graphical form (drawings, models, graphs and
the like), and a plan for finding the answer is developed. The Select a
Strategy stage is considered by many as the most difficult part of the
problem-solving process. Since there are many established heuristics
(strategies and techniques), a good problem solver should be able
to select appropriately one or a combination of available heuristics.
The Find an Answer stage makes use of students’ algorithmic skills.
The use of calculator and other technology is made applicable at this
stage. In Reflect and Extend stage, answers are checked for accuracy
to determine if the question has been answered correctly. Creative
thinking is maximized in this stage wherein variations to the original
conditions can be applied to create new yet related problem situations
(Krulik and Rudnick, 1996).
Krulik and Rudnick (1996) describe heuristics as more than
just strategies and algorithms but are “road map” that directs an
individual’s path towards a solution and resolution of a problem
situation. Unlike algorithms, heuristics are more general approach
and cannot guarantee success. However, if students are taught these
heuristics, they are in a good position to resolve problems successfully
(Krulik and Rudnick, 1996). The common heuristics available include
guess and check, make a systematic list, act it out, simplify the problem,
look for pattern, working backwards, use of diagram or model, direct
counting, use of an equation or algebra, and many more.
To synthesize the conceptual framework, a schematic diagram of
the conceptual framework of the study is presented.
252
Figure 1. Schematic Diagram of the Study
Figure 1 above shows the schematic diagram of the conceptual
framework of the study. Students were given the opportunity to
engage in solving routine and nonroutine problems involving general
mathematics problems within a constructivist-inspired instruction
using PBL approach. The students’ problem-solving process was
evaluated in terms of problem-solving performance reflective of their
level of conceptual and procedural understanding and the problemsolving heuristics employed.
This study aimed to evaluate the students’ level of problemsolving performance and heuristics employed by the freshmen BSMT
253
and BSMarE Odfjell projects students during Math 1A/Math 1 Plus
instruction using PBL approach.
Significance of the Study
This study may be significant to the following:
Curriculum Developers. The result of this study may be used as
their basis for developing a curriculum that develops higher order
thinking skills among the learners.
Teachers. This study may serve as a motivating factor and
an awakening for teachers to explore further beyond traditional
instruction, that is, to use different pedagogical approaches in teaching
mathematics that are suited to the type of learners. It may encourage
teachers to exert more efforts in teaching students the real mathematics.
Parents of the students. This study may serve as evidence to prove
that educators are doing something to improve the learning capability
of their children. Thus, their full support for the enhancement of their
children is also expected.
Students. This study may serve as a benchmark in developing
metacognitive skills among students and as an inspiration to perform
well in mathematics as well as in other related discipline particularly
in solving various problems.
Scope and Limitation
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the problem-solving
process of the students in a constructivist-inspired instruction in Math
1A/Math Plus using Problem-based Learning (PBL) approach.
The participants of the study were the 12 freshman BS Marine
Transportation and 17 BS Marine Engineering students of John B.
Lacson Colleges Foundation–Bacolod under the NSA/Odfjell project
enrolled during the first semester, school year 2009-2010.
The researcher-made evaluation instruments were the 5 routine
and nonroutine problems for the pretest and similar 5 routine and
nonroutine problems for the posttest.
254
A descriptive research method using the quantitative-qualitative
approach was employed. It aimed to evaluate the performance of
the students in the problem-solving process and the heuristics they
employed in solving general mathematics problems using Problembased Learning (PBL) approach. Baseline information was gathered
using the pretest. The participants were exposed to various mathematics
problems during the course of study. A posttest was administered to
measure the improvement made thereafter.
The participants of this study were the 12 freshman BS Marine
Transportation (BSMT 1) and 17 BS Marine Engineering (BSMarE 1)
students who were enrolled in Math 1A/Math 1 plus during the first
semester of the school year 2009-2010. The group is under the NSA/
Odfjell cadetship project and underwent prior selection process
from the company. The participants were considered small enough
to consider the entire population. They were not informed about the
study in order to avoid any biases or subjectivity as well as to maintain
the normality on the performance of the class.
Two sets of test instruments of similar context and style as pretest
and posttest were used. The pretest consisted of two (2) routine and
three (3) nonroutine problems involving general topic in mathematics.
The posttest consisted of two (2) routine problems by virtue of being
repetitive from the pretest and three (3) nonroutine problems by virtue
of its complexity.
The selected problems included in the test instruments should
qualify as routine or nonroutine and multistep problem and within the
context and level of the students in the maritime program as perceived
by the researcher. These routine and non-routine problems were taken
from The New Sourcebook for Teaching Reasoning and Problem
Solving in Junior and Senior High School by Krulik and Rudnick
(1996) and from the personal collection of problems developed by the
researcher.
Students who answer each item has a minimum score of 1 point and
a maximum score of 5 points. A perfect score of 25 points is awarded
to students who answered all the problems excellently as describe
in the rubrics for determining the performance in solving a general
255
mathematics problem. A score of zero is given only if there was no
attempt had been made to answer the problem. The 5-point scale is
interpreted and described as follows:
Mean Score
Interpretation
Description
5
Excellent
• Uses common sense and knowledge in mathematics
to identify relationship variables leading to a correct
answer.
Excellent representation of the problem situation.
4
Very Good
• Uses known formula to relate various elements of
the problem situation leading to a correct answer.
Very minimal item is missing.
3
Good
• Identifies basic information correctly. Represents
the problem situation correctly. Some representation
of the problem situation is missing leading to a
wrong answer.
2
Fair
• Identifies given information correctly. Uses
erroneous relationship among variables leading to a
wrong answer.
1
Poor
• Minimal attempt has been made to answer the
problem.
The mean score that determines the level of performance in
solving general mathematics problem is distributed and interpreted
as follows:
Mean Score
Interpretation
Description
21 – 25
Very High
• Wider range of knowledge and understanding of
the mathematical concept and algorithmic skills
16 – 20
High
• Wide range of knowledge and understanding of
the mathematical concept and algorithmic skills
11 – 15
Average
• Average knowledge and understanding of the
mathematical concept and algorithmic skills
6 – 10
Low
• Limited knowledge and understanding of the
mathematical concept and algorithmic skills
256
0–5
Very Low
• Very limited knowledge and understanding of
the mathematical concept and poor algorithmic
skills
Validity of the Research Instruments
The test instruments used were subjected to a content validation
by three mathematics professors who are experts in the field of
mathematics. The criteria developed by Good and Scates (1995) were
used. The experts rated the test instruments with a mean rate of 4.03
interpreted as very good.
Data Gathering Procedure
The following procedures were followed when gathering data for
this research study.
1. Researcher-made rubrics were developed based from various
literature readings. The rubrics were submitted to the experts for
critiquing.
2.The pretest and posttest consisting of routine and nonroutine
problems were finalized. The instruments were subjected to
content validity and readability test by three (3) subject experts
from various schools.
3.A pretest consisting of two routine and three nonroutine problems
was administered on day 1 of the regular class schedule.
4.Regular classes follows adopting the topics presented in the IG
of Math 1A/ Math 1 plus. Additional topics on problem-solving
processes, techniques, and heuristics were discussed. Students
were exposed to various problems in general mathematics.
5.Students were normally grouped into two or three members in
solving word problems on their seats. Quizzes and assignments
were given as part of the formative process and for the purpose
of giving grades.
6.The posttest was administered as part 2 of the regular final
examination to ensure that the participants will perform their
best in answering the problems.
7.Individual answers were scored and analyzed. All information
were organized and synthesized and presented quantitatively to
257
answer the specific problems presented.
8.The problem solving heuristics manifested by the students was
determined using a rubric for determining students’ problemsolving heuristics.
Data Analysis
To establish objectivity in the analysis of the respondents’ answers
in the ten routine and nonroutine problems, the following rubrics and
the corresponding statistical tools were used:
1.To determine the students’ level of performance in solving
general mathematics problem during pretest and posttest, mean
was used. Mean is the most stable of the measures of central
tendency. It is appropriately used when the data are categorized
as ratio and if higher statistical treatment is further desired.
2.To determine the significant improvement on the performance of
students in solving general mathematics problem in the posttest,
paired sample t-test was used.
3.To determine the problem-solving heuristics students employed
in solving routine and nonroutine general mathematics problems,
a rubric for determining problem-solving heuristics adopted
from Singapore’s Primary Mathematics Syllabus available at
http://sc-math.com/math/heuristics.php and frequency count
was used.
The level of students’ performance in solving general mathematics
problems during the pre-test when grouped according to BSMT,
BSMarE and as a Whole are shown in table 1.
Table 1. Level of students’ performance in solving general
mathematics problems during the pre-test and posttest.
Pre-Test
Respondents
258
N
Mean
Interpretation
Posttest
Mean
Interpretation
BSMT
12
8.0
Low
21.8
Very High
BSMarE
17
10.1
Average
20.2
High
As a Whole
29
9.2
Low
20.9
Very High
Table 1 shows that the BSMT level of performance in the pretest is
low as indicated by their mean score of 8.0. Analysis of their pretest
showed that 8 or 66.7% of the BSMT students had obtained a score of
zero in at least 1 item because they left the item unanswered. Table1
also showed the BSMarE students level of performance in the pretest
is Average as indicated by their mean score of 10.1. Analysis of their
pretest showed that 12 or 70.6% of the BSMarE students leave at least 1
item unanswered while 9 or 52.9% students have a level of performance
of Average to Good.
Further, Table 1 shows the level of students’ performance in the
posttest with a mean score of 21.8 for the BSMT interpreted as Very
High. Contrary to the pre-test, analysis of their posttest showed that
9 or 75.0% of the BSMT has a level of very high while none of them
leaved any item unanswered. One cadet or 8.3% got the lowest score
of 9 interpreted as Low while two others or 16.6% got a score of 16–20
interpreted as High and five of them or 41.5% got the highest level of
performance as indicated by a perfect score of 25 points. Of the total
BSMT group, 11 or 91.7% of them exhibited high to very high level of
performance as indicated by their scores of 19 and above. Table 1 also
showed the BSMarE students’ level of performance in the posttest with
a mean score of 20.2 interpreted as High. Analysis of their posttest
showed that 8 or 47.1% of the BSMarE students had a very high level of
performance and none of them left any item unanswered. The lowest
score in the group was 15 interpreted as average and three of them or
17.6% got the highest level of performance as indicated by a perfect
score of 25 points. Of the total BSMarE group, 16 or 94.1% of them got
a high to a very high level of performance as indicated by their scores
of 16 and above.
As a whole, the level of performance in the pretest is Low while the
posttest performance is Very High as indicated by their pretest and
posttest mean scores of 9.2 and 20.9 respectively.
The significant improvement on the level of performance of the
259
students in solving general mathematics problems in the posttest as
revealed by the result of paired-sample t-test is shown in table 2 below.
Table 2. Significant improvement on the level of performance in
solving general mathematics problem on their posttest.
Program
Mean
Improvement
df
t
p-value
Interpretation
BSMT
13.8
11
7.614
0.000
Significant @ 0.05 α level
BSMarE
10.2
16
12.493
0.000
As a Whole
11.9
28
12.499
0.000
Table 2 revealed that the performance of the students in solving
word problems improved significantly in the posttest. This is due
primarily on the intervention that is the use of problem-based learning
approach in dealing with mathematics instruction during the duration
of the course in Math 1A/Math 1 plus.
Statistically, table 2 showed that the mean improvement of the
BSMT group is 13.8 greater than that of the BSMarE group which is
10.2. As a whole, the mean improvement of the participants’ score in
the posttest is 11.9. Paired sample t-test reveals that the improvement
of participants’ performance in solving general mathematics problems
as indicated by their posttest scores are significant regardless of as
groups or as a whole. This implies that exposing students to various
word problems of real life situation significantly improve their
performance in solving mathematics problem. Analysis on their
posttest performance showed that none of the cadets neither BSMT
nor BSMarE left any of the 5 problems unanswered. This is in contrary
to their pretest performance. That simply shows how enthusiastic they
are in taking time to analyze each of the problem situation in order
to arrive at a correct answer. That attempt to solve a problem simply
implies that during the 5-month period, the participants developed
some level of belief in them that in some way or the other, they knew
that they had the capacity to solve a problem.
Furthermore, independent sample t-test between the improvement
of BSMT and BSMarE groups revealed a t-value 2.03 and a significant
260
value of 0.052 interpreted as not significant at 0.05 alpha level. This
means that the higher mean improvement of the BSMT students is not
a strong evidence to claim that the BSMT students performed better
in the posttest than the BSMarE students. This implies that there are
BSMarE students who are as good as much as there are BSMT students.
Inversely, there are BSMT students who are not so good in as much
that there are BSMarE students who are quit slow. It just happened
that in this particular group, there are more bright cadets in the BSMT
than in the BSMarE, making their mean score higher as compared to
that of the BSMarE group.
Table 3 below shows the list of heuristics employed by students in
solving general mathematics problems during the posttest.
Table 3. Heuristics employed during the posttest.
BSMT
B S Mar E
Heuristics
Frequency
Heuristics
Frequency
Use of Algebra
6
Use of Algebra
16
Guess & Check
8
Guess & Check
14
Use of Diagram
6
Use of Diagram
10
Systematic List
1
Systematic List
3
Act it Out
0
Act it Out
1
Direct Counting
6
Direct Counting
9
Working Backward
4
Working Backward
2
Assumption
1
Assumption
2
Table 3 showed that the Use of Algebra is the most frequently used
heuristics. Nevertheless, they also made use of Guess and Check,
Use of Diagram, and Direct Counting as the next frequent. Further,
the BSMarE group used eight (8) kinds of heuristics while the BSMT
group used seven (7) types of heuristics.
Figure 2 shows how cadet D7 made use of systematic list as a
heuristic to come up with a scientific guess in solving the problem. He
261
listed the possible combinations of 11, 15, and 12 to be able to conclude
using the diagram that the sizes of the gates are 4 & 7, 7 & 8, and 8 & 4.
The solution is logical and does not violate any mathematical concept,
thus considered correct.
This problem can be solved using Algebra. Cadet E12 used the
concept of systems of linear equations in solving the problem situation
as shown in figure 3. He uses three equations in 3 unknowns A, B, C
representing the lengths of the gates. Substitution method was further
used to solve for the values of A = 7, B = 4, and C = 8. The answer
satisfies the condition stated in the problem, thus the solution is
logically correct. This simply shows that their knowledge of heuristics
allows them to generate more than one way of solving a particular
problem.
Figure 2. D7 solution of problem 5 using systematic
list and guess & check.
262
Figure 3. E12 solution of Problem 5 using Algebra.
Figure 4 illustrates the use of the diagram and direct counting as
heuristics to answer problem 4. Cadet D4 used diagram to visualize a
ship traveling as presented. In his diagram, he was able to emphasize
that there are variations in speed at specified intervals. He used direct
counting to determine the time element in the last lap. With some
mathematical relationship among distance, speed, and time, cadet D4
was able to determine the distance traveled by the ship as being asked
in the problem. The problem solution was short; this is because the
diagram in itself is a solution as a product of his understanding of the
problem situation. If indeed he made an erroneous diagram, chances
are he ended with a wrong answer.
263
Figure 4. D4 solution of problem 4 using diagram and
direct count as heuristics.
Figure 5 illustrates how cadet E14 uses guess and check commonly
known as trial and error to answer problem 1 in the posttest. Guess
and check is a useful heuristic to some problems that learners should
be familiar of; or else using this heuristic will lead learners into an
extraneous solution, a waste of time.
In his work, he made three trials, making the third one satisfies
the given condition and concluded to be correct. This item actually
is an indeterminate situation consisting of 3 equations with 6
unknowns. The learner should be creative enough to be able to
determine the required numerical combinations. Trial & error is the
most appropriate heuristic to be used. This item aims to develop the
student’s creative thinking skills.
CONCLUSIONS
The level of performance of the students in solving general
mathematics problems regardless whether grouped by program or
as a whole improved significantly in the posttest. This is an indicator
of the effectiveness of the PBL approach in developing students’
264
Figure 5. Cadet E14 solution of problem 1 using trial
and error as heuristics.
skills in solving problems which is considered as the essence of
mathematics instruction. Exposing students to various routine and
non-routine problems enable students to apply mathematical concepts
and understanding into real life situation making mathematics more
relevant; thus enhanced their interest that makes them more eager to
solve problems. During the past 5 months, they experienced difficulty
in solving problems at the same time they also experienced the joy
of triumph whenever they solve problems with competence and
excellence.
Heuristics are new things for this group of students. They found
it effective and practical in solving general mathematics problems.
Students enjoy exploring and using heuristics to solve nonroutine
problems. Familiarizing themselves with various heuristics makes
them in a better position to answer problems (Krulik and Rudnick,
1996). They realized that there are many ways of attacking a particular
problem such that when one approach fails there are a lot more others
to try. Creative thinking was developed during the process. This is a
manifestation of a development of higher order thinking skills (HOTS)
that quality education aimed for to be developed among students.
265
RECOMMENDATION
The following recommendations were drawn based from the
above-mentioned conclusion:
1.Contents in Math 1A/Math 1 plus should be revised to include
exposure of students to various routine and non-routine
problems in real life situation to make them appear more relevant
and interesting.
2.Teaching students to solve problems is a difficult task. Thus,
teachers should exert more effort to spend more time in
teaching word problems among students. They should consider
immersing themselves in experiencing the pain and joy in
solving non-routine problems.
3.Teachers should be open-minded enough to allow students to
explore various methods and use various heuristics in solving
problems in mathematics.
4.A training program on Constructivist Philosophy and the
use of problem-based learning approach (PBL) be designed
and implemented among teachers to be initiated first by the
mathematics and science teachers.
LITERATURE CITED
Brunner, J.
2007
Constructivist Learning Theory. Retrieved October 11, from
http://tip.psychology.org/bruner.html.
Constructivist Theory. Retrieved October 11, 2007 from http://
enwikipedia.org/wiki/ constructivism_ (learning_theory).
De Gallow
2000 What is Problem-Based Learning? Retrieved December 14, 2007
from http://aspirant.rggu.ru/ article.html?id=50759
266
Devlin, K.
2007 What is conceptual understanding? Mathematics Association of
America.
Green, W.
2003 Mathematical Adventures for Teachers and Students. Diliman,
Quezon City: UP NISMED.
Guided Problem Solving 1. Retrieved October 13, 2007 from http://
www.teachervision.fen.com/tv/printables/scottforesman/
math3TIT1-2.pdf
Krulik, S., J. Rudnick
1996 The New Sourcebook for Teaching Reasoning and Problem Solving in
Junior and Senior High School. Needham Heights, Massachusetts:
Allyn & Bacon.
Learning, Technology and educational Transformation. From Philosophy to
Pedagogy Retrieved October 19, 2007 from http://education.
ed.pacificu.edu/bcis/workshop/philosophy.html.
Limjap, A.
2001 Individual and Social Aspects of Learning: Developing
Framework for a Deeper Understanding of School Mathematics
in the Philippines. Sangguni Centennial Issue, xii (1), 65
Michalewicz, Z., Fogel, D.
2004 How to Solve It : Modern Heuristics. Springer-Verlag
Heidelberge, Germany.
PACUCOA (2003). Survey instrument for accrediting program in maritime
education.
PACUCOA (2005). Manual of Accreditation.
Polya, J.
1973 How to Solved It. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University
267
Press. Primary math problem solving heuristics. Retrieved October
10, 2007 from http://sc-math.com/math/ heuristics.php
Schoenfeld, A.
1992 Learning to Think Mathematically: Problem Solving, Metacognition,
and Sense-making in Mathematics. New York: Macmillan
Publishing Company.
Tupas, S., Go, J.
2009 An Evaluation of Students’ Problem-Solving Process in a
Constructivist-Inspired Environment. 5th Asian Mathematical
Conference Proceedings (Volume III), June 2009, pp 515 – 521.
ISBN: 978-967-5417-55.
Wilson, J., M. Fernandez, N. Hadaway
1993 Research Ideas for the Classroom: High School Mathematics. New
York: McMillan.
268
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
The Six-Month Internship Training
Program for Medical Laboratory Science
Education: An Initial Evaluation
ANACLETA P. VALDEZ
CITADEL A. PANGANIBAN
KEVIN ROI L. LUMANGLAS
KATREEN A. CALINGASAN
ROXANNE S. DIVINO
PEARL JANINE P. GUICO
GLENN S. MONTALBO
JHEJIEL M. PRONOBE
researchlybat @yahoo.com
College of Allied Medical Professions,
Lyceum of the Philippines University,
Capitol Site Batangas City
Abstract - In 2006, the Commission on Higher Education (CHED)
released CHED Memorandum Order (CMO) no. 14 which changed the
duration of internship training program to six months as opposed to
the previous memorandum order, CMO no. 27 s. 1998 which required
a one-year internship schedule for Medical Laboratory Science (MLS)
students. Thirty-eight graduates of CMO No. 14 s. 2006 from Lyceum of
the Philippines University-Batangas and 13 chief medical technologists
(CMT) or senior medical laboratory staff from identified affiliatehospitals were surveyed about their perception on the attainment of the
objectives, as well as the strengths and weaknesses of the said program.
Results show that objectives were achieved even if the duration of the
training period was shortened. The graduate-respondents favored the
269
6-month internship training program while the CMT preferred the
one year timetable. This study can be used as a pilot study for other
higher education institutions implementing the same CMO and can
be used as a basis for a curricular reform by assessing the different
parameters that were identified in order to enhance further the sixmonth internship training program in producing globally competitive
medical laboratory scientists.
Keywords - internship training program, medical laboratory
science, curriculum improvement, memorandum order, interns,
affiliating hospital
INTRODUCTION
The development of an effective curriculum guide is a multistep, ongoing, and cyclical process. The process progresses from
evaluating the existing program, to designing an improved program,
to implementing a new program and back to evaluating the revised
program. During the last decades, effectiveness of curriculum
change has been evaluated although questions that emerged on the
competencies of medical professionals affected by the curriculum
change is a complex one and cannot be answered by a single outcome
study (Peeraer 2009).
According to researches, curricular reform is mainly affected by
the internationalization in higher education. Likic (2005) stated in his
works that the process has established itself as a pivotal concept and
dominant driving force that can mainly influence the reform processes
and shapes academic communities worldwide. Moreover, the process
is creating an awareness of the importance and value of an intercultural
and international dimension in higher education.
As mentioned earlier, evaluation of the revised program is one of
the most important course of action done when curriculum change
is to be implemented. One of the main reasons is that it is a chance
for practitioners to test for themselves that their plan is working
as well as the identification of the strengths and weaknesses of the
said intervention. Evaluation is based on evidence or data which
are systematically obtained from those who are participating in the
270
program by different methods such as surveys, interviews, analysis of
documents, and performing a background check. The results gathered
from these will be the basis of evaluation (Shackman 1999).
The Medical Laboratory Science (MLS) program is one of the
health science programs in the Philippines offered in various higher
education institutions. It is a program that aims to develop competent
medical laboratory scientists and to meet the demands for competent
manpower in the healthcare service with the use of highly innovative
technologies (CMO no. 14, 2006). Its curriculum is based on the
memorandum order mandated by the CHED which is composed of a
school-based learning focused on the different principles employed in
the discipline and importantly on the critical and analytical thinking
abilities of the learner. Furthermore, the curriculum has an internship
training program geared on developing the entry-level competencies
of graduates (Green 2011).
In the year 1998, the CHED initially released a memorandum
order which is CMO No. 8 also known as the “Updated Policies
and Standards for Medical Technology Education” which states the
different requirements needed by an institution should it want to offer
a Bachelor in Medical Laboratory Science program. Later in that year
as well, another memorandum order was released which is CMO No.
27 known as “Curriculum for the Common 2-year Associate in Health
Science Education,” which is a program that will prepare students
as they enter to the practice of health services. These memorandum
orders serve as the first bases of different schools offering medical
laboratory science education.
In 2006, the CHED mandated the implementation of Memorandum
Order No. 14 for Medical Technology education. The CMO is a revised
account of the previous memorandum order and became the basis for
most of the schools offering the said program.
This study determined the degree of attainment of the six-month
internship training program objectives. It also identified the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of the new program which will serve as the
basis for further studies and formulation of plan of action for curriculum
modification that is most suitable to learners for the development of the
necessary core competencies needed in the practice of the profession.
271
MATERIALS AND METHOD
Research Design
The descriptive research design was used. The proponents
formulated a self-structured, open-ended survey questionnaire relating
to the evaluation of the six-month internship training program. The
questionnaire was divided into two parts: first was on the degree of
attainment of the objectives of the program and the second part was
on the respondent’s perceived strengths, weaknesses of the program
and recommendations for the improvement of implementation. The
questionnaire was validated by the Office of the Dean of the College
of Medical Technology of Our Lady of Fatima University together
with ten randomly selected individuals from the target population. A
focus group discussion and analysis of available documents were also
conducted to validate the responses. These were pen recorded and
summarized.
Participants
There were two groups of respondents: first, the graduates of the
CMO No. 14 of the LPU-Batangas, Batch 2010 and 2011 and the chief
medical technologists or the senior medical laboratory staff of the
hospitals where LPU interns were affiliated.
Statistical Analysis
Statistical tools that were used are weighted mean, frequency,
distribution, and percentage.
CHED Memorandum Order No. 14 also known as the “Policies,
Standards and Guidelines for Bachelor of Science in Medical Laboratory
Science were implemented in 2006. The improvements and changes
done in this curriculum were the results of curriculum benchmarking
studies that were conducted internationally.
272
A thorough review of the old curriculum and the new CMO
showed several modifications. One of which was the change in the
nomenclature of the program from Bachelor of Science in Medical
Technology to Bachelor in Medical Laboratory Science Program.
Another significant modification in the CMO was the courses required
for the program. In the old curriculum, Qualitative Chemistry and
Quantitative Chemistry were offered as separate subjects with 5 units
each. With the present CMO these two courses were joined together
as a 5-unit course now termed Analytical Chemistry. Furthermore,
the following core courses were added: Basic Statistics, Introduction
to Medical Technology with Science, Technology and Society, and
Principles and Strategies in Health Education. Pharmacology and
Cytogenetics were offered as new professional courses. Laboratory
Management was previously incorporated in Medical Technology
Laws and Ethics (3 units) but now offered as separate courses (2 units
and 3 units respectively). There were also changes in the nomenclature
of some courses namely: Clinical Microscopy which is now known
as Analysis of Urine and Other Body Fluids and Blood Banking to
Immunohematology.
Another major change was the duration of the internship training of
the senior students. Based on the previous curriculum, the internship
training program entails 12 months in the fourth level. In the new
CMO, the 12 months was shortened to six months that require going
on-duty at 40 hours per week in 27 weeks with total minimum training
hours in the clinical laboratory of 1080 hours. The 1080 hours were
divided as follows in the different sections of the laboratory: Clinical
Chemistry (230 hrs.), Hematology (120 hrs.), Blood Bank (150 hrs.),
Immunology and Serology (100 hrs.), Bacteriology (150 hrs.), Clinical
Microscopy and Parasitology (230 hrs.) and Histopathology and
Cytology (100 hrs.).
Results of the survey showed 38 graduate-respondents of batch
2010 and 2011 and 13 CMT from the affiliate hospitals namely: Mary
Mediatrix Medical Center (MMMC), Daniel Mercado Medical Center
(DMMC), Veterans Memorial Medical Center (VMMC), National
Children’s Hospital (NCH), and Philippine Heart Center (PHC)
participated in the study.
Likert scale was used in assessing the degree of attainment of the
273
objectives of the training program. The scale used the following ranges
and verbal interpretation to assess the overall degree of attainment:
4.50-5.00 = Great Extent (GRT); 3.50-4.49 = Moderate Extent (MOD);
2.50-3.49 = Less Extent (LSS); 1.50-2.49 = Lesser Extent (LSR); 1.00-1.49
= Did Not Agree (NOT).
The responses on the open-ended questions on the perceived
strengths and weaknesses of the internship training program
implementation as well as recommendations were validated with a
focus group discussion and analysis of documents available.
Table 1 presents how the respondents perceived the degree of
attainment of the objectives of the six-month internship training
program.
Table 1. Perceptions of the respondents on the degree
of attainment of the objectives of the mls six-month internship
training program
Objectives of the
6-month Internship
Training Program
(CMO # 14 s. 2006)
1)Enhance the
knowledge,
skills, and attitudes needed
for a member of
the health care
delivery team
who with precision and accuracy performs the
clinical laboratory
physician in the
proper diagnosis,
treatment, and
prevention of
disease.
274
Weighted
mean
Graduate
Respondents
4.37
Rank
Verbal
Interpretation
Weighted Mean
Chief
Med
Tech
2
MOD
4.33
Rank
1
Verbal
Interpretation
MOD
2.) Develop among
students a wellrounded personality
with a healthy outlook and oriented
towards intelligent,
ethical, and active
participation in professional as well as
community welfare
activities.
4.35
3
MOD
4.23
3
MOD
3.) Develop critical
thinking skills that
will enable them
to participate in
research endeavors/
activities and respond to challenges
of the profession.
4.32
4
MOD
4.15
4
MOD
4.) Develop humane
and competent
medical technologists who are globally competitive,
and committed to
serve the health
needs in both local
and international
communities
4.39
1
MOD
4.25
2
MOD
AVERAGE
4.35
MOD
4.25
MOD
Data in Table 1 show that both the graduate-respondents (weighted
mean of 4.35) and the CMT (weighted mean of 4.25) agree to moderate
extent that the different objectives of the six-month internship
training program were achieved. They differ only on the ranking of
how these objectives were met. The graduate-respondents believed
that the training program greatly helped them to become humane
and competent medical technologists who are globally capable and
committed to serve the health needs in both local and international
communities. This particular objective was ranked first with a mean
value of 4.39. Second in rank (mean of 4.37) was on enhancing their
knowledge, skills and attitudes that are needed to become effective
and efficient members of the healthcare team. This pertains to the
competencies they should develop during the training period so they
275
can perform laboratory tests with accuracy and precision and help in
the proper diagnosis, treatment and prevention of diseases. On the
other hand, this particular objective ranked first among the CMT. The
training officers felt that they have exerted their best effort in helping
the students develop the core competencies expected of an entry-level
medical laboratory scientist in the practice of the profession. These
claims were validated by the documents showing the results of the
performance evaluation in both written and practical examinations
that were conducted during the internship training period. Likewise,
the graduates claimed that they were able to put into practice what
they have learned in their professional courses while at school.
Surprisingly, results showed that both groups of respondents
agree that the following objectives ranked third and fourth in their
mean values: the development of well-rounded personality with a
healthy outlook and orientation towards intelligent, ethical, and active
participation in professional as well as community welfare activities
and the development of critical thinking skills that will enable them
to participate in research activities and respond to challenges of the
profession. These were validated through the research outputs that
the graduates were able to produce most especially in areas where
the research work entails data gathering in the clinical laboratory. In
addition, the interns were able to participate in different community
extension services that require the use of different laboratory tests in
the medical and dental activities of hospital as well as the school.
These results can call the attention of the curriculum developer
and educators thus may serve as guide in planning for curriculum
improvement to address the weak areas.
Table 2 presents the respondents’ perceived strengths of the sixmonth internship training program.
276
Table 2. Perceived strengths of the six-month
internship training program
Areas
Responses of Graduate-respondents
(no. of responses/total no. of respondents)
Responses of the CMT
1. Duration and
quality of internship
training
Interns learn to manage their
time efficiently because of the
specific number of training
hours required in rotating in
the different sections of the
clinical laboratory. (30/38)
On the theoretical aspect of the
training, the CMT felt that the required training hours is enough to
develop the competencies needed
for the students to help them pass
the board examinations (12/13)
The interns felt that the duration of the training in the
clinical laboratory gave them
enough time to go back to the
school and spend the remaining six months to review for
the board examinations (22/38)
2. Training
staff
The training staffs are more
focused on mentoring the interns rather than giving them
extra works or errands that are
not related to internship training. (29/38)
Because of the limited time,
the staff follows the schedule
of the lectures that should be
conducted within the 6 months
rotation. (25/38)
3. Financial
expenses
It entails lesser expenses on the
part of the interns especially on
the affiliation fees and payment
for the boarding house. (38/38)
Since the training entails only 6
months, the MT staff involved
in training the interns can spend
the other 6 months in attending
continuing professional education
programs so they can be updated
also in the practice of the profession. (10/13)
The medical staff involved in training can maximize the time allotted
for the lecture since they have to
follow the policies embodied in
the training program. (12/13)
Lesser expenses on the part of the
students since they will be paying
their affiliation fees for 6 months
only instead of 12 months. (12/13)
On the perceived strengths of the six-month internship training
program, majority (79%) of the graduate-respondents believed that
they were able to manage their time efficiently given the required
specific number of training hours per section in the clinical laboratory.
Moreover, they claimed that they (58%) had sufficient time to go
277
back to school for the seminars and review classes conducted by the
clinical instructor and invited resource speakers in preparation for the
licensure examinations. Likewise, the CMT (92%) claimed that because
of the shortened number of weeks of rotation per section, they strictly
follow the policies and guidelines of the internship training program
stated in the memorandum order thus, the lectures and mentoring
were conducted as what they reported in the documents the staff
submitted to the technical committee members and CHED assessors
who evaluated the program and the clinical laboratory during the
accreditation of the program and facility that is being used by both
parties in the training of the interns. Similarly, many of the CMT
(77%) cited that one advantage of the new training program was that
they will have the opportunity to also attend continuing professional
education activities during the latter half of the year when there are no
interns training in the laboratory. These conferences and seminars will
update and enhance their leadership and management skills so they
can deliver effectively their role as training officers.
On the other hand, both groups of respondents (100%) agreed that
the six-month training program entails lesser expenses on the part of
the students. These include the affiliation fees, transportation expenses,
board and lodging and their daily allowances during the six months
training in the hospital especially for interns who are living far from
the assigned hospital.
Table 3 portrays the perceptions of the respondents on the
weaknesses of the six-month internship training program.
278
Table 3. Perceived weaknesses of the MLS six-month
internship training program
Areas
Responses of Graduate-respondents
Responses of the CMT
1. Duration and
quality of internship
training
The interns were not given the
opportunity to be rotated in other
hospitals. (35/38)
The training hours is not
enough to teach everything
that the interns need to known
in all the different sections of
the clinical laboratory. (8/13)
The number of contact hours is not
sufficient to learn all the tests in
the different sections of the clinical
laboratory. (28/38)
The shortened duration of training is not enough to develop their
confidence in performing different
laboratory examinations. (29/38)
Limited exposure to different types
of patients and laboratory tests being requested and done. (20/38)
Limited exposure to different
types of patients and their
needs. (10/13)
Their orientation of their role
in the hospital is also affected
since the interns will be training for 6 months only. (10/13)
2. Training
staff
Because of the limited time, the
staff is not able to teach all they
want to teach the interns especially
on complicated test procedures and
trouble shooting of the equipments
when technical problems happen in
the laboratory. (20/38)
Because of the time constraint,
the training staff felt that they
cannot deliver the expectations of the interns and the
teachers from the school
where the interns came from.
(8/13)
3. Financial
expenses
No identified weakness
No identified weakness
Data in Table 3 showed that both groups of respondents have
almost the same perceived weaknesses which focused on the
shortened number of months of rotation in the hospital. Because of
the nature of the new program, a lot of the activities which they used
to carry out during the one-year program were also modified. One of
these is the chance to be assigned in other hospitals. Almost all (92%)
of the graduate-respondents complained of not having been able to
rotate in other hospitals due to the shortened period. Both groups of
respondents felt that the rotation in different hospitals will help the
students develop the necessary knowledge, skills and values in the
practice of the profession. To be sent in two or three different hospitals
279
especially if the assignment is a mixture of private and public rotation,
the interns will have the chance to immerse themselves in different
clinical situations and different approaches. The opportunity to learn
is greater when exposed in different hospitals because of the different
methodologies and approaches that the medical technology staffs use
in the day to day activities and situations they face in the hospitals
where they work. In effect, the graduate-respondents perceived that
the shortened duration of training is not enough to develop their
confidence in performing different laboratory examinations.
Times run so fast, that even if the number of contact hours is the
same as that in the one-year program, the CMT (62%) perceived that
the training hours is not enough to teach everything that the interns
need to know in all the different sections of the clinical laboratory thus
they feel that they were not able to meet the expectations of the clinical
instructors as well as the students.
Furthermore, the CMT (10/13) claimed that the interns lost the
opportunity to learn other clinical cases that entails different clinical
laboratory tests especially seasonal diseases since the training starts in
November and ends in April. They claimed that if the training is for
one year then there is great chance to see and learn clinical diseases that
are common during the months of May to October. They perceived
that this kind of experience will help the students see and experience
the actual clinical cases which they read on the books.
The responses of the CMT and the graduate-respondents on the
perceived weakness all point out to the limited number of months of
the training program because in planning their program the senior
medical technologists assigned in training the interns were more
oriented on working on the one-year training program.
Moreover, both groups of respondents claimed that the financial
aspect involved in training was not seen as weakness but was perceived
as one of the advantages of the new curriculum.
Table 4 presents the recommendations of the respondents on how
the present program can be improved.
280
Table 4. Recommendations of the respondents on the mls
six-month internship training program
Recommendations of the Graduaterespondents
Recommendations of the senior medical technologists involved in the training program
Retain the six-months internship training program but there is a need to have
better planning of those involved in
training like the chief medical technologists of the different hospitals and the
clinical supervisor of the school so that
a better program can be formulated.
(38/38)
Some of the CMT (5/13) recommended to go
back to the one-year internship training program.
It is also recommended that the six
months can be divided into 2 or 3 programs such that the interns may be able
to rotate in two or three different hospitals for better exposure and experiences.
(36/38)
Some (15/38) of the graduate-respondents recommended that the six months
be focused on hospital duties only and
the pull out for seminars in school be
given another period after the internship training so they can also have time
to rest after their hospital duties and
further lessen the expenses.
Many of the respondents (9/13) are very much
open to retain the six months duration and
strongly recommend that a planning workshop can be done together with the clinical
instructor or supervisors of the schools so that
they can come up with a better and concrete
program that will really address the needs of
the interns in preparation for the board examinations and the practice of the profession in
the future.
To lessen the pull-out of interns from the hospital duties for seminars in school. The schedule for the seminars be programmed after the
training so the interns can focus on their responsibilities and assignments in the laboratory at the same time the medical technology
staff they can fully monitor the activities of the
interns on rotation.
Data on Table 4 revealed different points of view when it comes
to recommendations on how the six-month internship training
program can be improved based on the perceived strengths and
weaknesses of the program. While all the graduate-respondents agree
that the six months can be retained but with some modifications in
terms of approaches in planning the schedule of rotation, all of them
recommended to increase the number of hospitals where they can be
assigned so they can have varied experiences in the different types of
management and leadership of the senior medical technologists and
the approaches in the clinical setting.
In contrast, the CMT vary in their recommendations. Some (38%)
believe that the one-year training program is better than the six-month
program. However, many (90%) are open to the idea of coming up
281
with a better planning by the interns coordinators and training officers
of the different hospitals so a well-defined program can be formulated
and may guide them in the implementation and evaluation.
On the other hand, both groups agree that the pull-out of interns
from their hospital duties to school activities and seminars be lessened
or be assigned a different schedule after the six months of training.
CONCLUSION
The objectives of the six-month internship training program
embodied in CMO No. 14 series of 2006 were realized to a moderate
extent. There were strengths and weaknesses in the implementation of the
modified program which need to be addressed. The recommendations
warrant consideration to improve its implementation.
LITERATURE CITED
CHED
1998 CMO No. 08 “Update of Policies Standards for Medical Technology Education” [Online], Available: www.ched.gov.
ph. CHED
1998 CMO No. 27 “Curriculum for Common 2-Year Associate In
Health Science Education (AHSE)”[Online], Available: www.
ched.gov.ph.
CHED
2006 CMO No. 14 “Policies, Standards and G u i d e l i n e s f o r Medical Technology Education” [Online], Available: w w w .
ched.gov.ph.
Likic, R., T. Dusek and D. Horvat
2005 Analysis and prospects for curricular reform of medical
schools in Southeast Europe. Medical Education, 39, 833-840.
282
Green, B., and P. Graybeal
2011 An Exploratory Study of the Effect of Professional Internships
on Students’ Perception of the Importance of Employment
Traits. Journal of Education for Business. 86, 100-110.
Peeraer, G., B. De Winter, A. Muijtjens, R. Remmen, L. Bossaert, and
R.A. Scherbier
2009 Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum change. Is there a difference between graduating curricula? Medical Teacher, 31,
e64-e68.
Shackman, G.
1999 Evaluation: A beginners’ guide. The Global Social Change
Research Project.Amnesty International. http://www.amnesty.
org/en/library/in for/POL32/003/1999.
283
Modular Instruction in Biology: It’s Effect
on Students’ Performance
ARCHEL A. BEDAURE
[email protected]
Carlos Hilado Memorial State CollegeCollege of Fisheries
Negros Occidental, Philippines
Abstract - This investigation ascertained the effect of modular
instruction on the performance in Biology of freshmen fishery
students at the Carlos Hilado Memorial State College (CHMSC) College of Fisheries during the second semester of the school year
2009-2010. Experimental research using the pre - test, post - test control
group design was employed to achieve the objectives of the study.
Participants were grouped into the experimental and the control
groups. The experimental group was exposed to modular instruction
while the control group was exposed to lecture-discussion approach.
The pre-test performances of both experimental and control groups
were fair. The post-test performance of the experimental group taught
by modular instruction was superior while that of the control group
taught by lecture-discussion was very good. A significant difference
was found between the pre - test of the modular and lecture-discussion
groups in favor of the latter group. A significant difference was found
between the post - test results of the control group in favor of the
experimental group. Significant differences were found between the
pre - tests and post -tests of the experimental and control groups hence,
modular instruction was better than the lecture -discussion approach
in effecting students’ performance in Biology.
284
Keywords - Modular Instruction, Students’ Performance, Pretest, Post-test, Control group, Experimental Group, Lecture-discussion
INTRODUCTION
One of a teacher’s most challenging tasks is to accommodate
teaching or instruction to the individual differences of students. Given
the diversity of students, Elliott, et. al. (2000) believed that most of
the methods or techniques that teachers use to provide appropriate
levels of instruction have serious drawbacks. For instance, ability
groups in which students remain in heterogeneous classes can work to
the disadvantage of the far advanced or below-performing students.
Group-based mastery learning, on the other hand, does not require
permanent ability groups of students; one danger here is that in the
traditional class period, corrective instruction can slow down the
entire class.
One important issue is matching tasks to students’ abilities, or
vice versa.Teachers must adapt instruction to the students’ level of
knowledge and development, motivate them to learn, and manage
their behavior. Consequently, for instruction and learning to become
effective, the teacher must be concerned with: the quality of instruction
which means that instruction must make sense to the students; the
appropriate strategy to use; the incentive to the students for them to
learn; and sufficient time for learning to occur.
Whatever approach a teacher uses should have certain important
features to be effective, among which are: a clear focus and explicit
learning outcomes that students understand and are held accountable
for learning; material or materials presented in a manner that elicits
active inquiry and interest; guidance provided by the teacher as
students interact with new materials or tasks; and feedback about the
quality of students’ learning.
One instructional strategy which has recently gained popularity is
modular instruction. According to Goldschmid and Goldschmid (1992),
a module is a self-contained independent unit of a planned series of
learning activities designed to help a student accomplish certain welldefined objectives. The learner is able to proceed at his own rate and
choose his own learning mode. Ideally, a module should include a pre285
test, objectives, criteria for success, instructional activities, a post-test,
and remedial instruction.
Generally considered as one very important area of study is
the world of Natural Science, one component of which is Biology.
Today, many innovations have been made to enhance the teaching
of science including Biology. One of its primary concerns is on the
research-based direction for instructional refinements. Revision as an
endless developmental process requires a large extent of producing
instructional materials in bringing about the desired learning outcome.
Anchored on this developmental process, tertiary education or post
secondary schooling referred to in the Education Act of 1982 as higher
education leading to a degree in specific profession or discipline,
recognizes a growing realization that it is best to provide students a
variety of learning situations rather than attempt to develop a standard
method of instruction for all courses.
To properly address the need for instructional innovation, this study
is intended to focus on modular instruction in Biology and determine
its effect on students’ performance. Further, to facilitate the inquiry into
the effectiveness of modular instruction, the study aimed to determine
whether the use of module in biology would show positive results as
compared to the lecture-discussion approach in teaching.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
This research work is anchored on a number of theories or ideas on
the efficacy of instruction by leading educators worldwide discussed
hereunder.
Ornstein (1992) averred that teacher behavior and teaching methods
consistently relate to student’s achievement, although different teacher
behavior and teaching methods have different effect on different
students, grades, subjects, classroom groups, and school settings. In
order to facilitate learning, he further believed, the teacher must learn
to match an instructional method with its appropriate tasks with the
students’ abilities and background knowledge. Success in matching
or in the choice of the most appropriate strategy can be judged by
student’s performance.
This view is supported by Elliott, et. al. (2000), he believed that
286
effective teachers must have a wide range of activities and strategies
in their instructional repertoire for interacting with students and
facilitating learning. Such strategy may involve or include lectures,
questioning, problem-solving, practice and drill, and the like. Although
teachers can use different approaches, effective teaching has common
features. What the teacher does is to adapt instruction or “match the
mix” between student aptitudes and the method and materials used.
According to Riasat 2005, the key element, he said, is mastery
learning, for it is this goal that all other means are intended to achieve.
Mastery learning is tied closely to the quality of instruction and must
be considered in the light of individual learners. Do the students
understand what they are to learn and how are they to learn it? It is
the answer to this question that illustrates the interaction between
students’ ability and quality of instructions and curricular material.
Since schools are highly verbal, ability to understand is linked to
language ability and reading comprehension. Modifying instruction
by using a variety of techniques - tutorial, group, text, and media - can
benefit students’ comprehension.
Based on the Southeast Asian Ministers of Education Regional
Center for Educational Innovation and Technology (SEAMEO
INNOTECH), as cited by Mijares, 2008, the idea of using modules as
a strategy for learning within the context of education is relatively
recent. One of its functions is to upgrade content of the text where old
materials are replaced with updated information. It is used to cater
individual differences in learning. A variety of instructional activities
are used to optimize learning on given topics. It provides an avenue
for active participation where students learn by doing. Each is actively
involved in manipulating the instructional materials.
This form of instruction is usually successful in courses that
stress acquisition of knowledge. Berliner (2007) also discussed the
implication of academic achievement as one of the variables that
educational psychologists have found to be important in classroom
teaching which include the time teachers allocate to instruction, the
amount of content they cover, the percent of time that students are
engaged in learning, the congruence between what is taught and what
is tested, and the ability of the teacher to give clear directions, provide
feedback, hold students accountable for their behavior, and create a
287
warm, democratic atmosphere for learning. These findings suggest a
continuing process of innovations on instructional materials, as further
cited by Mijares, 2008.
In contribution to this guiding principle on instructional innovations,
the researcher attempted to study the effect of modular instruction in
biology on freshmen fishery students’ performance. She designed a
module for use by modular instruction.
She theorized that by using modular instruction in teaching Biology
to students in an experimental setting, she would be able to determine
its effect on students’ performance and thereby determine its worth
as an instructional strategy. The usual method used by teachers in
teaching the subject – lecture - discussion, was to be the control variable.
To provide a vivid presentation of the direction of the study, the
schematic diagram illustrating the framework of the study is hereby
reflected.
It specifically sought to: establish the pre-test performance of the
freshmen students on modular instruction and on lecture-discussion
approach; establish the post-test performance of both groups;
determine the significance of differences between the pre-test as well
as the post-test performance of both groups; determine the significance
of the difference between the pre-test and post-test performance of
the modular group; and finally, determine the significance of the
288
difference between the pre-test and the post-test performance of the
lecture-discussion group.
HYPOTHESIS
The following hypotheses were advanced:
1.There is no significant difference between the pre - test
performance of students on modular instruction and those on
the lecture -discussion approach.
2. There is no significant difference between the post - test
performance of students on modular instruction and those on
the lecture -discussion approach.
3.There is no significant difference between the pre and post - test
performance of the modular group.
4.There is no significant difference between the pre and post - test
performance of the lecture - discussion group.
The focus of this investigation is to determine the effect of modular
instruction in Biology towards the performance of freshmen students
of CHMSC-Binalbagan campus. Accordingly, this investigation uses
the experimental type of research. This design uses the treatment
variable in the experimental group and the usual way of doing things
(Lecture - discussion), in the control group. Before the treatment, a
pre-test was made, and after the treatment, a post-test to ensure that
results can be attributed to the treatment only.
The participants of this investigation were the 66 Freshmen students
of CHMSC-Binalbagan campus who were taking up Foundations of
Biological Science course during the Second Semester of the School
Year 2OO9-2010.
In equating the two groups, the grade of the participants in Natural
Science 1 subject was taken from their first semester’s record filed in
the Registrar’s Office of CHMSC-Binalbagan campus. The Natural
Science 1 grades of the students were used as valid marks and as bases
in equating the two participating groups.
289
The grade in Natural Science 1 of each group was arranged from
highest to lowest. The students with highest and lowest grades were
eliminated. There were 33 respondents from experimental group (
modular) and 33 from the control group (lecture-discussion approach)
who have equal means and were identified as subjects for this
research. To ensure its validity, the same treatment of data was used in
dichotomizing the grade in natural science 1 of the two groups.
To determine the level of performance of the two groups in terms
of theoretical knowledge, the mean scores equivalent were computed
based on the approved grading system of the College, as stated in
Circular No. 15, Series 1961.
This grading system is reflected as follows:
Score
Grade Equivalent
Description
27-30
1.0
Excellent
24-26
1.5-1.1
Superior
21-23
2.0-1.6
Very Good
18-20
2.5-2.1
Good
15-17
3.0-2.6
Fair
The grade ranges from 3.0 to 2.6 are rated Fair; from 2.5 to 2.1 are
rated Good; the grade of 2.0 to 1.6 are rated Very Good; from 1.5 to 1.1
are given the equivalent rating of Superior; and, 1.0 is rated Excellent.
The researcher employed other statistical tools to treat the gathered
data to equate the two groups on the basis of grade in natural science
1 and age, the means and standard deviations of the students were
computed. To test the significance of the difference between the means
of independent samples, the t-test was used.
In equating the two groups in age, the exact dates of birth of the
subjects were taken from the birth certificates of students filed in the
Registrars Office of Carlos Hilado Memorial State College-Binalbagan
campus.
The ages of students in each group were arranged from youngest
to oldest. Treatment was made by eliminating those who were very
young and those who were very old. Median or the middlemost value
290
was used by the researcher in dichotomizing ages.
Table 1 shows the number of respondents, the means, the standard
deviation and the probability test value on the basis of their grade in
Natural Science 1.
Table 1. Comparison of the experimental and control groups as to
grade in natural Science 1
Group
n
mean
sd
Experimental
33
1.76
0.21
Control
33
1.82
0.24
p < .05 significant at .05 alpha
t-alpha
t-prob
0.05
0.31
As reflected in Table 1, the results show that the modular group
has a mean of 1.76 with a standard deviation of 0.21, while the control
group obtained a mean of 1.82 with a standard deviation of 0.24. When
the results of the two groups were computed, it yielded a probability
test value of 0.31 which is higher at .05 level of significance. Since there
is no significant difference between the two groups, this result shows
that they were equated as to their average grade in Natural Science 1.
Table 2 shows the comparison of the means, standard deviations,
standard error of the difference between means and the critical ratio
of the two groups in age. The exact dates of birth of the students were
taken from their birth certificates submitted at the Registrar’s office.
Table 2. Comparison of the experimental and control
groups as to age
Group
n
mean
sd
Experimental
33
18.00
1.03
Control
33
17.76
1.00
t-alpha
p-value
0.05
0.34
291
As shown in Table 2, the mean score of the modular group is 18 and
the standard deviation is 1.03, while the control group got a mean of
17.76 with a standard deviation of 1. 00. The probability test value of
0.34 is greater at .05 level of significance which means that two groups
are considered equal in age.
The test instrument used in the study was a researcher-made
questionnaire. The items in the questionnaire were based on the course
contents of the identified topics in Biology. For the appropriateness
of use, a face validation was made together with the validation of the
proposed module as assessed by the jurors. After the validation, the
test instrument was revised.
A test-retest method was conducted to the 33 college students who
were not the subjects of the study and with the same characteristics as
the actual respondents.
Table 3. Reliability test using pearson r correlation
post test
pre test
Pearson Correlation
.728
p-value
.000
N
33
Correlation is significant at 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Based on the result of Pearson r correlation, given the p-value of
0.00 which is less than 0.05 revealing a significant result, implies that
there is a significant relationship between the members of the dry run
group which means the questionnaire established high reliability.
At the onset of the experiment, the freshmen students who
were to participate in the study were grouped into the control and
experimental groups. They were equated on the basis of their grades
in Natural Science 1 and age.
Their means and standard deviations were computed and the
significance between means was tested through the t-test. No significant
difference were found between the experimental and control groups
when they were compared as to grade and as to age, so they were
292
equated. After they were equated, both groups were briefed and were
given careful instructions on procedures to be observed as follows:
A.Modular Instruction (Experimental group). At the start of the
experiment, the students were given the direction on how to use the
module. Each student was provided with a material. Since this teaching
strategy is an individualized instruction, the module was designed for
effective self-learning. Students progress according to their own pace.
The instructional material begins with an introduction, general and
specific objectives.
The module also presented program requirements or the prerequisite knowledge and learning skills, the time frame, the learning
episodes and the procedure on how to use the module. Furthermore,
the material provides the basic information and fundamental
development of theoretical and conceptual skills. Included in the
module are exercises and individual and group activities.
Topics are presented in small segments where the learner can
answer each bit in the lesson before going to the next learning task.
The module begins with a pre - test and ends with a post - test to check
students mastery of the concepts and skills developed within the
lesson. A pre-test of 30-items were given to the students before they
go through the activities. They were made to write their responses on
a separate answer sheet. The score obtained in the pre-test determined
their learning needs while the post-test described their delayed recall
and mastery of the lesson. Before the start of the study, the students
in modular group were briefed as to the purpose of the experiment,
strict implementation and safe keeping of the modules for the validity
of the results.
They were also urged to cooperate to the fullest to avoid possible
leakage of information which can spoil the experiment. To avoid such,
the module was distributed to every student gradually based on the
topic or as the time needs. The post - test was checked by the students
with the presence of the teacher, using the key to correction found at
the last pages of the module. After which, the lessons in the module
has started and ended with learning activities and exercises which
were designed to assess the students learning skills.
293
B.
Lecture-Discussion Approach (Control group). The control
group was teacher-directed. The teacher gave a brief introduction
about the contents of the topic and suggested various reference books
and textbooks for students’ use. Students were then required to go
through the relevant pages of these books and come prepared for
discussion of the topics on a specified day. The topic of discussion was
announced to the students well in advance. The teacher motivated the
students and guided their thinking. The comprehension of the class
was promoted through lectures and discussion using chalk and board
and other teaching media such as DLP Projector. They were directed to
take down notes while the teacher did lectures and discussions.
The control of time and the span of the lesson were dependent on the
teacher. Students learning were measured through class participation,
individual and group activities and daily quizzes.
The students were given their own photocopies of the handouts
which contain textual information if necessary especially when they
are required to answer their assignments. They were asked to copy
the written instructions on the blackboard. The reference materials
and the sequence of lessons used by the teacher were also the same as
those students in the experimental group except on the design of the
instructional material used. The same quizzes, pre and post-experiment
and periodic tests were given to the two groups of students except on
the use of modules.
Figure 2 shows the schedule of the pre - tests and post - tests, interval
of days, weeks and the number of months it took for the conduct of the
experiment. The legend consists of different colors which correspond
to the schedule of implementation shown in the chart.
November
T
W
December
Week
M
1
9
11
Th
13
F
2
16
18
20
3
23
25
27
M
4
5
294
7
T
W
Th
January
F
2
4
9
11
M
T
W
Th
F
6
16
17
7
2
8
5
9
12
7
9
Figure 2. GANTT chart for the pre-test and post-test performance
of the experimental and control groups
Total number of days: 22 meetings.
Legend:
= Pretest and Post-test in Lessons 1-6 in biology
= Implementation of Module in biology (21 hours from November 9, 2009 to January 12, 2010.)
As shown in the figure, at the start of the 2nd semester, the
implementation of Modular instruction in biology started on November
9, 2009. The pre –test of the two groups was given on that day, the post
– test was given after the completion of the six lessons. There were
21 meetings or 21 hours spent for the experiment which maximized
the required number of hours and days for the mid-term of the 2nd
semester. Biology is offered to the freshmen Business Management
students in the second semester for three (3) hours or for three (3)
meetings per week. As indicated in the chart, January 14 and 15, 2010
were scheduled for the mid-term exam based on the College calendar.
Statistical Treatment
1. To determine the level of the pre-test and post-test performance
of freshmen fishery students on modular instruction and
lecture-discussion approach made use of the mean and standard
deviation.
2. To determine the significant difference in the pre-test and posttest performance between freshmen fishery students on modular
instruction and those on lecture-discussion approach made use
295
of the t-test for independent sample.
3. To determine the significant difference between the pre and post
test performance of the experimental group, the t-test was used
for independent sample.
4. To determine the significant difference between the pre and
post-test performance of the lecture-discussion (control) group,
the t-test was used for independent sample.
1. The pre-test performance of students using modular instruction
in terms of theoretical knowledge in lessons 1-6 is lower compared to
the mean observed in the pre-test performance of the control group.
The pre-test performance of both groups was interpreted as fair.
the mean scores equivalent were computed based on the approved
grading system of the College, as stated in Circular No. 15, Series 1961.
Table 4. Level of pre-test performance of the experimental and
control groups
________________________________________________________
treatment
m
interpretation
sd
_______________________________________________________
modular
2.95
fair
.24121
lecture-discussion
2.80
fair
.25510
________________________________________________________
As reflected in the table, the performance of the participants in
terms of theoretical knowledge shows that the experimental group
got a mean of 2.95 which described their performance as Fair in the
pre-test, while the control group obtained a mean of 2.8 which also
described their performance as Fair in the pre-test. This shows that the
two groups similarly performed in the pre-test.
Psychological and educational testing depends almost entirely
upon the phenomenon of individual differences and therefore upon
variance. The significance of any score is ordinarily its usefulness in
placement of a person somewhere in the group. The standard deviation
296
therefore describes the spread or scatter of a certain sample from a
point of reference which is usually the mean.
The standard deviation of both groups show a certain extent of
homogeneity as they are not too far spread, the difference between the
standard deviations of both being approximately 0.05.
It may also be further observed from their mean grades that the
lecture – discussion group scored higher and obtained a better rating
in the pre – test than the modular group even if the verbal descriptions
of their scores are the same.
2. The post-test performance of students using modular instruction
in terms of theoretical knowledge in lessons 1-6 was superior while
the post - test performance of students on lecture - discussion was
very good. Students on modular instruction performed better than the
students taught using the lecture-discussion approach.
Table 5. Level of post-test performance of the experimental and
control groups
A post – test was administered to the participants in the study after
22 days of the experiment, which period constituted the mid – term
period of the semester in which the study was conducted.
__________________________________________________
treatment m
interpretation sd
__________________________________________________
modular
1.50
superior
.30825
lecture-discussion 1.90
very good .33400
__________________________________________________
Table 5, shows that the experimental group got a mean of 1.5 which
described their performance as Superior, while the control group
obtained a mean of 1.9 which described their performance as Very
Good. This shows that the experimental group performed better than
the control group.
Based on these results, it can be seen that modular instruction
brought about better performance and therefore better learning of
students than the lecture – discussion approach.
297
3. The null hypothesis stating that there is no significant difference
on the pre-test performance between the modular and lecturediscussion group was rejected, since results showed a significant
difference between the two groups.
As shown in Table 6, when the pre-tests of the two groups in lessons
1-6 were compared, the computed probability value is lesser than the
0.05 level, indicating that the difference was in favor of the lecture –
discussion group who had the higher mean score, indicating that their
prior knowledge was better than that of the experimental group prior
to the experiment.
This result, led the researcher to reject the hypothesis, which stated
that no significant difference exists between the pre – test performance
of the modular and the lecture - discussion groups.
Table 6. Difference in the pre - test performance between the
students on modular instruction and lecture - discussion.
Group
df
M
SD
t-prob
Interpretation
Decision
2.777
.007
Significant
Reject Null
Hypothesis
2.95 .24
Modular
64
Lecture Discussion
t-value
2.80
.25
on the post-test performance of the modular and lecture-discussion
group was rejected, since results showed a significant difference
between the two groups.
Table 7 shows the computed t - value of – 4.711 at df 64 at .05 level,
the result yielded a significant difference in favor of the experimental
group. This means that the group taught by the modular approach
performed better than the group taught by the lecture-discussion
298
method on the basis of the post-test results pertaining to Lessons 1-6.
In addition, the results also revealed the effectiveness of the
modules augmenting instruction and improving the theoretical
knowledge of the learners. This module provided for both the teacher
and students varied activities required in designing novel materials
for instruction. This learning package comprises concepts, activities
both for theoretical and manipulative skills. Every activity is provided
with strategic procedure at the end of every lesson. Its component
has concretized pretty well the principle of allowing each student to
proceed at his/her own pace. In this study, the use of module was
considered as reinforcement in teaching biology. With the help of
the teacher and modules, every student was provided with wider
opportunities to learn in terms of theoretical knowledge in lessons 1-6.
Table 7. Difference in the post-test performance between the
students on modular instruction and lecture - discussion.
Group
df
Modular
M
SD
1.5
.31
64
Lecture
Discussion
1.9
t-value
t-prob
Interpretation
Decision
-4.711
.000
Significant
Reject Null
Hypothesis
.33
In addition, the results also revealed the effectiveness of the
modules augmenting instruction and improving the theoretical
knowledge of the learners. This module provided for both the teacher
and students varied activities required in designing novel materials
for instruction. This learning package comprises concepts, activities
both for theoretical and manipulative skills. Every activity is provided
with strategic procedure at the end of every lesson. Its component
has concretized pretty well the principle of allowing each student to
proceed at his/her own pace.
In this study, the use of module was considered as reinforcement
299
in teaching biology. With the help of the teacher and modules, every
student was provided with wider opportunities to learn in terms of
theoretical knowledge in lessons 1-6.
Based on this result, hypothesis 2 which postulated that no
significant difference exists between the two compared groups was
rejected.
between the pre and post-test performance of the modular group was
rejected, since results showed a significant difference between the two
tests.
As shown in Table 8, results of the statistical analysis on the pretest and post-test of the experimental group by the use of the t – test
yielded the t – value of 20.992 with df at 64, at .05 level, this indicated
a significant difference in favor of the post – test, affirming the
improvement in the performance of the students in biology who were
taught by modular instruction in Lessons 1-6.
Table 8. Difference in the pre-test and post-test
performance of experimental group
Type of test
df
M
SD
t-prob
Interpretation
Decision
20.992
.000
Significant
Reject Null
Hypothesis
2.95 .24
Pre-test
64
Post-test
t-value
1.5
.31
These findings further revealed that the experimental group
learned better after the intervention of modules in terms of theoretical
knowledge. Students learned better with the use of modules since they
were provided with sequential topics and activities wherein previous
topics could be reviewed many times as they wanted. The concepts and
theories were well defined with illustrations and concrete examples in
300
terms of graphical representations of vague ideas. The teacher took
over when confusions arose.
Questions were entertained to cater to query and immediate
reinforcement was then established. Through the help of a module,
absenteeism with valid reasons was solved since all the topics discussed
could be read and understood even without the teacher.
This finding led to the rejection of hypothesis 3 which stated that
no significant difference exists between the pre – test and post – test
performance of the experimental group.
between the pre and post-test performance of the lecture-discussion
group was rejected, since results showed a significant difference
between the two tests.
Table 9. Difference in the pre-test and post-test performance
of the control group
Type of test
df
Pre-test
M
SD
2.8
.26
64
Post-test
1.9
t-value
t-prob
Interpretation
Decision
12.136
.000
Significant
Reject Null
Hypothesis
.33
As shown in Table 9, the computed t – value arrived at was 12.136
with df of 64 at .05 level, this value indicated a significant difference
between the two groups. This means that there was improvement in
the performance of the students in Biology from the pre – test to the
post – test.
Based on the pre-test and post-test results in theoretical knowledge
from lessons 1-6, the control group has shown improvement after the
lecture - discussion method. This means that this method of teaching
also offered good results. The teacher in the lecture-discussion method
provided the control group available perspective about the subject
301
matter in times of difficulties. The teacher illustrated clear examples
for the students who needed vivid and concrete examples and ideas.
Students in this group were provided with handouts and lectures to
clarify abstract and complex ideas into simple form. The handouts
contained textual information with the same topics as the experimental
group.
Based on the obtained result, hypothesis 4 which postulated that
no significant difference exists between the pre – test and post – test
performance of the control was rejected.
Altogether, biology teachers involving the module represent well
the emerging nontraditional and unconventional teaching styles.
This type of instruction easily breaks the space-time syndrome
closely related to traditional teaching of Biology –in which both the
teacher and students stayed together in the classroom, at the same time
in order that the teaching-learning process can conveniently proceed.
Under the modular instruction, students can continue learning by
themselves even without the presence of the teacher.
A study conducted by Silkwood (2000) contradicts with the
findings of Mijares, Agpaoa, Cenarosa, Solano, and Haneghan where
his findings imply no significant difference between the modular
taught section and the traditionally taught section. The performance
of the two groups failed to be statistically significant and gave no
support on the effectiveness of modular teaching method while the
study conducted by Maximo as cited by Mijares (2008), Agpaoa (2006),
Riasat (2005), Cenarosa (2005), Solano (2003), and Haneghan as cited
by Halpern (2002) which concentrated on the development of modules
focused on their respective specification which aimed to achieve
quality education, supports the findings of this research study. They
found out that experimental group obtained better performance than
the control group in their post-test mean score results. This suggests
that modular instruction is far better than the traditional methods of
teaching.
302
CONCLUSIONS
Both the experimental and control groups were similar with
fair performance on the pre-test. The modular group performed
better in the post - test than the control group. The post-test results
confirmed the advantage of using modular instruction over lecturediscussion approach in teaching Biology. This result led the researcher
to conclude that using the modular instruction in Biology brings
about better students’ performance than using the lecture-discussion
method since modular instruction allows students to learn at their
own pace and according to their individual capacities. Generally,
modular instruction is a more effective teaching-learning process for
Biology course compared to lecture-discussion method since modular
instruction provides students with an opportunity to learn at their
own pace and according to their ability level and need. In spite of the
fact that students in the modular approach outscored the students
working in the lecture-discussion method, there are still factors to
be considered on the performance of students like their background
regarding the basic knowledge of the subject.
RECOMMENDATIONS
It is hoped that this teaching-learning innovation would give ideas to
teachers to help them design instructional modules to produce quality
graduates both in education and technology courses. Furthermore,
the insights which the students may gain from experience can be
translated into a more sensitive understanding of the learning process.
LITERATURE CITED
Agpaoa, R. C.
2006
“The Effects of Modular Instruction in Teaching Physics on
the Achievement of College Freshmen” (Masteral Thesis,
Philippine Christian University, Manila,).
Cenarosa, N. S.
2005 “Modular Instruction: It’s Influence on the Mathematics
303
Achievement of High Performing Pupils” (Masteral Thesis,
University of San Agustin, Iloilo City).
Chanco, C. R.
2002 Biological Science. Pasay city: Christine R. Chanco, c.
Elliott, S. N.
2000 Educational Psychology. New York; McGraw-Hill Co..
Halpern, D. F. (ed.)
2002 Enhancing Thinking Skills in the Sciences and Mathematics.
Hillsdale, New Jersey: East Baum,.
Mijares, C. D.
2009 “Modular Instruction in the Enhancement of Students’
Performance in Drafting”. Unpublished Dissertation, CHMSC,.
Riasat, A.
2005 Development and Effectiveness of Modular Teaching in
Biology at Secondary Level from http://prr.hec.gov.pk
retrieved February 7, 2010.
SEAMEO INNOTECH Handbook, 2000
304
by the Peer
AngloReviewed
Japanese American
International
Journal
Factors Associated with and Notions
Concerning Stress of the Administration
and Academic Personnel
PROSE IVY G. YEPES
JUDE A. DUARTE
Southern Leyte State University, Philippines
Abstract - Noticeably, stress has affected the performance of the
university’s manpower which result to sagging morale in the workplace.
Thus this study evaluated the factors associated with and notions
concerning stress of the administration and academic personnel of
SLSU. A descriptive-survey method was employed to gather data from
the 125 respondents using a Stress Audit instrument adopted from
Miller and Smith (1993). The data gathered were consolidated and
statistically analyzed using percentages and Pearson-r. On the whole,
the administrative and academic personnel of SLSU had manifested
serious susceptibility to stress sources and stress symptoms which
were significantly affected by the academic personnel’s age profile,
and slightly affected by the length of service of both academic and
administrative staff. The academic personnel’s number of office
designations had affected both their perspective on stress sources
and symptoms. It can be deduced that the SLSU administrative and
academic personnel’s notions concerning stress sources and symptoms
vary due to the nature and gravity of the tasks they perform. Therefore,
it is recommended that a comprehensive “Welfare Administration
Program” for the SLSU personnel be implemented to reduce health
risks caused by stress and to promote the welfare and well-being of all
SLSU employees.
305
Keywords - Stress susceptibility, stress sources, stress symptoms,
performance, academic staff, administrative personnel
INTRODUCTION
Building a high performance organization is a popular topic in the
training and development field (Lee, n.d.). In order to compete with
the rest, companies require understanding as to what factors influence
performance. Lee further stressed that one of the most significant
factors is stress.
Stress affects the mind, body, and behavior in many ways. The
specific signs and symptoms of stress vary widely from person to
person. Some people primarily experience physical symptoms, such
as low back pain, stomach problems and skin outbreaks. In others, the
stress pattern centers on emotional symptoms, such as crying jags or
hypersensitivity. Still for others, what predominate are the changes in
the way they think or behave.
Lee (n.d.) stated that traditionally, stress has been viewed as an
inevitable consequence of work life; or at most a health care issue. Caple
quoted in Schultz and Schultz (n.d.) averred that everyone experiences
stress on a daily basis, but a label of normalcy does not make it benign.
It can lead to serious health problems, and it deserves attention. It is
commonly accepted that an underlying stress issue causes over 60% of
all visits to medical doctors. Seventy-two percent of American workers
experiences frequent, stress-related physical or mental conditions that
greatly increase health care costs. Forty percent of employee turnover
is due to stress. Approximately, there are one million employees per
day who are absent from work due to stress related disorders (Wolley
as stated by Schultz and Schultz, n.d.).
Everyone faces different challenges and obstacles, and sometimes
the pressure is hard to handle. When one feels overwhelmed or unsure
how to meet the demands placed on him, he experiences stress. In
small doses, stress can be a good thing. It can give you the push you
need, motivating you to do your best and to stay focused and alert.
Stress is what keeps an individual on his toes during a presentation
at work. When the going gets tough, and when life’s demands exceed
one’s ability to cope, stress becomes a threat to both his physical and
306
emotional well-being. Research shows that stress indeed, interferes
with human intellectual, emotional, and interpersonal functioning,
Lee (n.d.) added.
The potential causes of stress are numerous and highly individual.
What one considers stressful depends on many factors, including one’s
personality, general outlook on life, problem-solving abilities, and
social support system. Age, length of work service, and role overloads
of personnel are also seen to affect how he or she addresses stress.
Something that is stressful to a certain person may not faze others, or
what is stressful for others maybe enjoyable for some.
The pressures and demands that cause stress are known as stressors.
Everybody usually thinks of stressors as being negative, such as
exhausting work schedule or a rocky relationship. However, anything
that forces people to adjust can be a stressor. Regardless of whether
an event is good or bad, if the adjustment it requires strains a person’s
coping skills and adaptive resources, the result is stress (Holmes-Rake,
2007).
In his seminal review, Cox (1993) noted that (1) there is evidence
that the experience of stress at work is associated with changes
in both behavior and physiological functions, which may both be
harmful to employees’ health; (2) only a minority of organizations
were purposely practicing stress management in their workplace;
(3) most stress management interventions were individually focused
and (4) measurement of the current state of work-related stress and
the effectiveness of an intervention require a standard or target to be
meaningful.
In gaining an understanding of the complexities of stress several
researches and concepts were examined. Gill et al (2007) averred that job
stress can be prevented through two methods: (1) Though management
programs and training for employees, and (2) organizational changes
that improve working conditions. The first methods make use of
Employees Assistance Programs (EAPs) which are designed to help
workers with personal problems that may be adversely affecting their
on-the-job performance. The confidential service includes counseling,
mental health assessment and referrals, workshops on topics such as
time management and relations, and legal and financial assistance. The
second methods applied organizational changes that improve working
307
conditions. Institutional changes such as employees’ participation
from the bottom up implement policies that take employees’ needs
into account, and empower employees to do their best. Sharing
information with employees to reduce uncertainty about their jobs
and futures clearly define employee’s roles and responsibilities; make
communication friendly and efficient, not mean spirited or petty.
Workers must be given opportunities to participate in decisions that
affect their jobs. They have to be counseled on employees scheduling
and work rules. Unrealistic deadlines must be avoided, and the
organization should show that individual workers are valued. On the
other hand, rewards and incentives must be accorded; employees must
be praised verbally and institutionally for good work performance;
and opportunities for career development must be provided and
entrepreneurial work climate that gives employees more control over
their work must be promoted.
The Yerkes-Dodson Laws as cited by Yerkes, et al. (1996) indicate
that when learning situation is more complex, the optimal relationship
between performance and stress gets stronger. Beyond an optional
level, stress impairs performance. Janis and Man (1977) suggest that
under stress, individuals may make decisions, based on incomplete
information. This is supported by Friedman and Man (1993) who
suggest that when under conditions of stress, individuals may fail
to consider the full range of alternatives available, ignore longterm consequences, and make a decision based on over simplifying
assumptions.
Stress can also contribute to performance decrements by slowing
cognition and individual information processing. Idzikowski and
Baddekey (1983) find that the time to complete a given task doubled
with the introduction of an external stress. McLeod (1977) looks
specifically at stress in the form of “task overload” asking an individual
to perform more than one task under a time constraint and finds that
the addition of multiple required tasks reduce the quality of individual
performance and increase the magnitude of the performance decrement
as compared with the case in which the individual has only one task
to perform.
Rule VIII, Section 1 of the Rules and Regulations Implementing Book
V of the Executive Order No. 292 otherwise known as Administrative
308
Code provides that every official and employee of the government is an
asset or resource to be valued, developed and utilized in the delivery
of basic services to the public. Hence, the development and retention
of a highly competent and professional workforce in the public service
shall be the main concern of every department or agency. Taking into
account on programs on stress reduction or elimination definitely will
promote this directive.
Social supports such as comfort, care, esteem or help from an
organization is needed by people. Such support would include
emotional support in the expression of empathy, caring and concern
toward the person. Esteem support occurs through people’s expression
of positive regard for the person, encouragement or agreements with
the individual’s ideas or feelings and positive comparison of the
person with others such as people who are less able or worse off. This
kind of support serves to build the individuals feelings of self-worth,
competence and of being valued. Tangible or instrumental support
involves direct assistance. Informational support includes giving
advice, suggestions or feedback while network support provides a
feeling of membership in a group of people who share interests. (Cobb,
1976).
Southern Leyte State University, the only state university in Southern
Leyte with its enormous role to provide excellence in education in the
province is not spared from the agonizing effects of stress caused by a
variety of sources. Noticeably, stress is taking its toll in the university
manpower affecting grossly personnel performance resulting to
sagging morale of the workforce. Although several researches on
stress and performance in the workplace have already been done, no
research to assess the factors associated with and notions concerning
on stress between the administration and academic personnel has been
conducted in SLSU, hence this research study.
FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
This study is based on the theories of Robbins et al. (2005), Medina
(2006), and Papalia (2004). It is also supported by Section 1, Rule VIII
of the Omnubus Rules Implementing Book V of Executive Order # 292.
According to Robbins, an employee who is experiencing high stress
309
may become depressed, accident prone, or argumentative; may have
difficulty making routine decisions; and may be easily distracted. The
manager’s concern is to reduce the stress that leads to dysfunctional
work behavior, through controlling certain organizational factors to
reduce organizational stress, and to a more limited extent, offering help
for personal stress. This is supported by Dessler (2001) who averred
that stress can lead to psychological problems. People who are under
stress tend to perceive things less objectively than those who are not.
Organization is a great potential source of stress for the employees,
among the organizational factors that may confront the workers are
interpersonal demands created by other employees, excessive rules
and lack of participation in decisions, leadership styles that breed
tensions, fear, and anxiety among employees.
When stress has become severe and work is affected the individual,
it may adapt any of the following strategies: increased physical
exercise, relaxation training and expanding the social support network.
The organization may implement sound HRM practices like effective
selection and training procedures, clearly write job descriptions to
reduce worker anxiety regarding job responsibilities, effective reward
system to relieve stress regarding pay expectations, increasing formal
organizational communications with employees to reduce worker
uncertainty by lessening role ambiguity and role conflict, increasing
employee involvement in decision-making and redesigning jobs so
employees can have more responsibility, more meaningful work, more
autonomy, and increased feedback which result to reduced stress
(Medina, 2006).
Papalia et al. (2004), laments that the more stressful the changes
that take place in a persons life, the greater the likelihood of illness
within next year or two. Some people react to stress by getting sick. The
connection between stress and illness has long been observed, but only
recently have we begun to understand more about how stress produces
illness and why some people handle stress better than others. Intense
or prolonged stress seems to weaken the immune system and increase
susceptibility to illness. Occupational stress has become a worldwide
epidemic. Workplaces are generally designed for efficiency and profit,
not for workers well-being but human costs can hurt the bottom-line.
When people feel they are in the wrong job or when efforts to meet job
310
demands are out of proportion to job satisfaction and other rewards,
stress can result. Employees who feel overwhelmed, or who believed
that their skills are not adequately recognized, or who do not have
clear goals, tend to show high stress and low morale and productivity.
Section 1. Rule VIII of the Omnibus Rules Implementing Book V
of Executive Order # 292 clearly underscored that every official and
employees of the Philippine government is an asset or resource to
be valued, developed and utilized in the delivery of basic services
to the public. Hence the development and retention of a highly
competent and professional workforce in the public service shall be
the main concern of every department or agency. Each department or
agency shall therefore establish a continuing program for career and
personnel development for all agency personnel at all levels, and shall
create an environment or work climate conducive to the development
of personnel skills, talents, and values for better public service. Section
2 also provides that the career and personnel development plan shall
include provisions on merit promotion, performance evaluation,
in service training, overseas and local scholarships, and training
grants, suggestions, incentive award systems, provisions for welfare,
counseling, recreation and similar services, and other human resource
development interventions.
This research study is aimed to determine the factors associated
with and notions concerning stress between the administration and
academic personnel of SLSU.
Research Method. This study used the descriptive survey as
a method of research. The research instruments were fielded to the
academic and administrative staff of the five campuses of Southern
Leyte State University.
Research Environment. This research work was conducted in the
five campuses of Southern Leyte State University (SLSU) namely:
311
SLSU- Sogod, SLSU-Tomas Oppus, SLSU-Bontoc, SLSU-San Juan, and
SLSU-Hinunangan. SLSU as an institution is greatly affected with
the policies in rationalization and moratorium of creation of items
wherein additional jobs are given to both academic and administrative
staff without giving any additional monetary compensation; only
de-loading scheme for the academic staff while nothing for the
administrative personnel.
Research Respondents. The respondents of this study were the
regular academic and administrative staff of the Southern Leyte State
University. A stratified random sampling method was utilized in this
particular research endeavor.
Table 1. The research respondents
Campuses
SLSU-Bontoc
SLSU-Hinunangan
SLSU-San Juan
SLSU-Sogod
SLSU-Tomas Oppus
Total
Academic Staff
Total
12
Administrative
Staff
11
11
12
13
17
9
18
23
22
35
65
60
125
12
10
23
22
Research Instruments. The study used an adopted tool on
Stress Audit by Miller and Miller (1993).
Data Gathering Procedures. Permission to conduct this research
study was sought from the University President through the
Campus Administrators particularly for the administration of the
research instrument to the academic and administrative staff of the
five campuses of the university. The research questionnaires were
personally administered to and retrieved from the respondents by
the researchers. After which, consolidation and analysis of data were
done followed by the interpretation of results and preparation of the
technical report.
312
The Research Population Distribution Per Campus
The respondents of this research study were both the academic
and administrative staff of Southern Leyte State University (SLSU)
particularly from its five campuses, namely: SLSU-Bontoc; SLSUHinunangan; SLSU-San Juan; SLSU-Sogod; and SLSU-Tomas Oppus.
Out of the total population of the research study, 23 (18% are from
SLSU-Bontoc, 23 (18%) from SLSU-Hinunangan, 22 (18%) from
SLSU-San Juan, 22 (18%) from SLSU-Sogod, and 35 (28%) are from
SLSU-Tomas Oppus. Figure 1 presents the distribution of research
respondents per campus.
The population of this research study constitutes 32.13% of the total
population of the University. Hence, forms a representative sample of
the entire university employees. This would mean that the responses
of the respondents truly stand for what is the general characteristics
of the SLSU employees as regard their age, length of work experience,
designation stress susceptibility, sources, and symptoms.
Figure 1. The research population distribution per campus
313
The Demographic Profile of Research Respondents
Table 2 presents the research respondents’ age profile which is
classified into four categories. It can be gleaned that faculty respondents
were more or less equally distributed among the four age groups; 16
(24.6%) are under the 21-31 years age group; 16 (24.6%) are in the 32-42
years age group; 16 (24.6%) are under the 43-53 years age group and
17 (26.2%) are in the 53-64 years age group. As for the administrative
staff, 6 (10%) are under the 21-31 years age group; 19 (31.7%) are in the
32-42 years age group; 27 (45%) are in the 43-53 year age group and 8
(13.3%) are under the 53-64 years age group. On the whole, majority of
the respondents’ age range fall under the 43-53 age group with 43.4%
followed by 28% who are in the 32-42 age group. This implies that the
university is equally composed of more senior and younger faculty
members who are with invaluable experiences and who energetic
and enthusiastic, respectively. As stated in Babyboomercaretaker.com
(2007), the morale and productivity of the employees in the workplace
is greatly affected by age discrimination.
Table 2. SLSU employees’ age profile
Respondents
Age
43 – 53 yrs 53 – 64 yrs
Total
21- 31 yrs
32 – 42 yrs
Academic
Staff
16
(24.6%)
16
(24.6%)
16
(24.6 %)
17
(26.2%)
65
(100%)
Administrative
Staff
6
(10.0%)
19
(31.7%)
27
(45.0%)
8
(13.3%)
60
(100%)
Total
22
(17.6%)
35
(28.0%)
43
(34.4%)
25
(20.0%)
125
(100%)
Companies are most likely also to suffer in the long run because
they overlooked the priceless experience of a senior employee. The
contention is that a younger workforce may be perceived as energetic
and enthusiastic, but they cannot replace years of experience.
Nonetheless, a younger aspirant may sometimes be more authoritative
and commanding than a senior employer. Hence, the selection,
promotion or termination of an employee should be made on the basis
of merit (Babyboomercaretaker.com, 2007). This would further mean
314
that age does not really matter when the argument is all about the
performance and productivity in the workplace.
On the other hand, table 3 shows the SLSU employees’ profile in
terms of their length of work experience. It can be shown that the faculty
members in the university with 0-8 years work experience ranked first
with 32.3% while those with 26-34 years of work experience with 27.7%
got the second rank; those with 9-17 years of experience got the third
rank, which was closer to the second rank. On the one hand, most of
the administrative staff belonged to the work experience range of 9-17
years with 43.3%, followed by those with 0-8 years of work experience
with 21.7%, then with those belonging to the 26-34 work experience
range of 26-34 years with 18.3%.
Table 3. SLSU employees’ length of work experience profile
Respondents
Length of Work Experience
Total
Academic
Staff
21
(32.3%)
9 yrs - 17
yrs
17
(26.2%)
Administrative Staff
13
(21.7%)
26
(43.3%)
10
(16.7%)
11
(18.3%)
60
(100%)
34
(27.2%)
43
(34.4%)
19
(15.2%)
29
(23.2%)
125
(100%)
Total
0 yr – 8 yrs
18 yrs - 25
yrs
9
(13.8%)
26 yrs - 34
yrs
18
(27.7%)
65
(100%)
In totality, the data reveal that a majority of the university employees
fall under the 9-17 work experience range with 34.4% followed by
those who are in the 0-8 years work experience range with 27.2%. This
means that in terms of the employees’ work experience, most of them
are already midway in the workplace. This further implies that the
productivity of the university is on its way to the peak as it coincides
with the majority of the employees’ length of work experience.
Table 4 presents the designation profile of the university employees.
The data confirm that among the faculty respondents, 31 or 47.7%
have no designation; 29 or 44.6% has 1 or 2 designations; while 3 or
4.6% and 2 or 3.1% have 3 and 4 or more designations. Among the
administrative staffs that were considered research respondents, 75%
has no designation while those with 1 or 2 designations with 20%
315
ranked second. On the whole, majority of the university employees
have no designation with 60.8% followed by those with 1 or 2
designations with 32.8%. This affirms that although the majority of
the SLSU employees has no designation; however it is also evident
that nearly half of the university employees are being designated
with administrative functions in concurrence to their main duties and
responsibilities as academic and administrative staff.
Despite the burgeoning population in the public schools, which
include public higher education institutions, proposals to create faculty
and administrative items are not approved since the moratorium of
such is still in place; hence, the burden is given to the faculty and
administrative staff that perform and deliver exceedingly well their
respective primary functions including the assigned additional
responsibilities. This observation, which is of primary concern to
academic institutions, was experienced by the university itself and
other SUCs. This is supported by Juanta (2003) when he revealed that
department heads and principals in today’s schools are multiskilled
persons shaped by their various roles. They are seen as institutional
leaders, motivators, counselors, dreamers, innovators, “firefighters”
and crisis managers. These roles can become their worst enemies as
these inflict harm to them as these would lead to emotional distress
and physical health problems.
Table 4. SLSU employees’ designation profile
Respondents
Number of Designation
0
1-2
3
4 and more
Total
Academic Staff
31
(47.7%)
29
(44.6%)
3
(4.6%)
2
(3.1%)
65
(100.0%)
45
(75.0%)
12
(20.0%)
1
(1.7%)
2
(3.3%)
60
(100.0)
Total
76
(60.8%)
41
(32.8%)
4
(3.2%)
4
(3.2%)
125
(100.0%)
The Stress Profile of the SLSU Employees
Stress is a natural part of life as what Juanta (2003) said. He
stressed further that stress is a condition of the individual rather than
316
a condition of the external situation. Stress is an upshot from how we
act in response to what transpires in our lives at work, at home, and
at play. Miller and Smith (1993) further opined that people are quite
different from one another in their susceptibility to stress. According
to them, some are like horses, and some are like butterflies in terms
of responding to stress. The horses tolerate great amounts of stress
without faltering or breaking stride; the butterflies fall apart under the
slightest demand or pressure. Whether one is a like a horse, or like
a butterfly, that individual still depends on several ingredients: one’s
physical condition, the manner of taking care of oneself, and one’s
resources for coping with stress. Further, the author stressed that the
tougher an individual is against stress, the more he or she can take it.
A person who has a stress-prone constitution; is lazy about exercise,
eats poorly, abuses stimulants, does not get enough sleep, or does not
use any coping resources; does not stand much chance against stress.
Table 5 presents the SLSU employees’ stress profile. It can be gleaned
that the academic staff has a moderate susceptibility to stress with the
highest frequency of 20 (30.8%). Eighteen or 27.7% of the Academic staff
manifested susceptibility to stress which ranked second. On the one
hand, the administrative staff has a high susceptibility to stress with
the highest frequency of 23 (38.3%) followed by those with a moderate
susceptibility to stress with a frequency of 19 (31.7%). However, as
for the employees’ view about stress sources, both the academic and
administrative staff revealed serious range with frequencies of 47
(72.3%) and 40 (66.7%), respectively. Similar results were obtained on
the academic and administrative staff’s view on stress symptoms with
frequencies of 41 (63.1%) and 34 (56.7%),respectively.
Table 5. SLSU employees’ stress profile
Variables
Stress
Susceptibility
SLSU
Staff
Stress Profile
MI
MO
HI
SER
Acad
12
(18.5%)
20
(30.8%)
15
(23.1%)
18
(27.7%)
Admin
4
(6.7%)
19
(31.7%)
23
(38.3%)
14
(23.3%)
317
Stress
Sources
Stress
Symptoms
Acad
2
(3.1%)
5
(7.7%)
11
(16.9%)
47
(72.3%)
Admin
2
(3.3%)
10
(16.7%)
8
(13.3%)
40
(66.7%)
Acad
4
(6.7%)
14
(21.5%)
6
(9.2%)
41
(63.1%)
Admin
11
(18.3%)
9
(15.0%)
6
(10.0%)
34
(56.7%)
5.8
(9.3%)
12.8 (20.5%)
11.5 (18.4%)
32.3 (51.7%)
TOTALITY
N = 65 (Acad) Legend:
MI
-
mild
60 (Admin)
MO -
moderate
HI
-high
SER
-serious
Acad -
academic staff
Admin-
administrative staff
In totality, the data confirm that the stress profile of the SLSU
employees is within the serious range with 51.7%. This clearly shows
that the SLSU employees can be greatly affected by stress which means
that they do not stand much chance against stress as stated by Miller
and Smith (1993).
Moreover, table 6 presents the significant difference in the stress
profile between the SLSU academic and administrative staff. As can be
gleaned from the results, the difference between stress susceptibility
and the perspective on stress symptoms between the academic and
administrative staff obtained p-values greater than 0.05 at 0.05 level
of significance, which fails to reject the null hypothesis which suggest
accepting the null hypothesis. This implies that employees, whether
teaching or not do not differ much in terms of their susceptibility to
stress and their perspective about stress symptoms. This further means
that regardless of the employees’ nature of job in the workplace, their
responses to stress which include the health implications of stress do
not significantly differ.
318
Table 6. The stress profile difference between the slsu
academic and administrative staff
Variables
t-value
Stress Susceptibility
Stress Sources
Stress Symptoms
Legend: p-value
Decision
0.295
0.771
Fail to reject Ho
0.692
0.0121
Reject Ho
0.077
0.941
Fail to reject Ho
if p-value < 0.05, the test is significant
if p-value > 0.05, the test is not significant
As for the employees’ view on the stress sources, it came out that
the difference between the academic and administrative staff obtained
p-value lesser than 0.05 at 0.05 level of significance, which suggest
accepting the null hypothesis. This articulates the big disparity in the
nature of the job between teaching and the nonteaching personnel of
the university. With the kind of mental work the teaching staff have,
the way they respond and viewed stress sources is greatly different
compared with that of the nonteaching staff whose work is more or less
routinary in nature. This supports the contention of Miller and Smith
(1993) when they emphasized that some people are like horses, and
some are like butterflies in viewing and responding to stress sources.
The complexities in their teaching job apparently have affected their
notions about stress sources.
The Correlation between the SLSU Employees’ Stress and
Demographic Profile
Age does not matter when it comes to stress; thus, there is no age
at which we are exempted from stress. According to Schultz and
Schultz (n.d.), most of the people are well aware that as a person
chronologically ages, there are more responsibilities and situational
stressors that become part of his/her life which will subsequently
result to consequences affecting his/her well-being. For adults, stress
is a daily event, but children are not exempted from its impact and
subsequent consequences. Likewise, symptoms of stress are especially
apparent in teenagers (Bittman quoted in Schultz and Schultz, n.d.).
319
Schultz and Schultz (n.d.) define stress as the result of any demand
on the mind or body. A critical point is reached when the demand
surpasses the person’s belief that it can be personally managed. The
level of stress spawned by any given stressor will vary from person to
person. The authors further emphasized that stress does not always
have a negative consequence; low levels of stress can be motivational
and very beneficial experiences contributing to the growth and
development of the person. Acute and/or chronic stress can weaken
every system within the body and lead a person to be more vulnerable
to injury and disease.
Table 7 shows the impact of age to the stress profile of SLSU
employees. The data confirmed that as to the employees’ view on
stress sources (job, family, financial, environmental, social, and
personal stress sources) and stress symptoms (muscular, nervous
system, emotional, cognitive, endocrine, and immune system stress
symptoms), both the academic and the administrative staff obtained
Chi-square values greater than 0.05 at 0.05 level of significance, hence,
the tests are interpreted as not significant. However, as regard the
stress susceptibility levels in relation to the age of the employees, the
academic staff obtained Chi-square value lesser than 0.05 at 0.05 level
of significance, which contradicted with the result in the administrative
staff. Thus, the relationship between the academic staff’s age and stress
susceptibility is significant while that of the administrative staff is not.
This means that age has no bearing with the SLSU employee’s views
about stress sources and symptoms. This is supported by Schultz and
Schultz’s (n.d) research result, which states that there would be no
significant relationship between stress levels and chronological age.
Although studies have shown that as individuals advance in age, the
level of stress one experience during an evaluation is not impacted.
Nevertheless, age has something to do with stress susceptibility
in case of the teaching staff while nil in case of the nonteaching staff.
This implies that regardless of the sources and symptoms felt and
experienced by the SLSU employees, age has an effect to the teaching
staff’s levels of susceptibility to stress. This is probably because of the
nature of work teaching staff have, which entails more mental and
reflective activities. Although opposed by Schultz and Schultz (n.d.),
Miller and Smith (1993) opined that people are quite different from one
320
another in their susceptibility to stress wherein some are like horses,
and some are like butterflies in terms of responding to stress.
Table 7. Correlation between SLSU employees’ stress
profile and age range
Variables
and Age
Stress Sources
and Age
Stress Symptoms
and Age
SLSU Staff
Interpretation
Academic Staff
Chi-square
Value
0.020
0.362
Not Significant
Academic Staff
0.965
Not Significant
0.134
Not Significant
Academic Staff
0.672
Not Significant
0.500
Not Significant
Significant
Legend: if Chi-square value < 0.05, the test is significant
if Chi-square value > 0.05, the test is not significant
Another variable considered in this research study was the
employees’ length of work experience. Table 8 presents the relationship
between the SLSU employees’ stress profile and length of work
experience.
As can be seen in Table 8, the results corroborate that the relationship
between the academic and administrative staff’s stress profile (such
as stress susceptibility, stress sources and stress symptoms) and work
experience obtained values of Pearson Correlation Coefficient (r) lesser
than 0.03 at 0.05 level of significance hence results are interpreted as
having a weak correlation. This implies that the length of service an
employee has would have a slight impact to his/her susceptibility to
stress and to the views on stress sources and stress symptoms. This
further upholds that although the level of the employees’ susceptibility
to stress is serious, it does not necessarily imply that it is greatly affected
by one’s length of service, which only means that the length of service
has a little impact to stress. Based on the researchers’ observation in the
workplace, most of the aging employees are those with longer length
of service. As emphasized in previous researches disclosed by Schultz
and Schultz (n.d.), age has no impact to stress susceptibility among
321
employees. Thus, it can be deduced that the relationship between
stress and length of work experience is from nil to weak.
Table 8. Correlation between SLSU employees stress profile
and work experience
Variables
SLSU Staff
Pearson-r
Interpretation
Stress Susceptibility and
Work Experience
Academic Staff
0.080
Weak Correlation
Administrative
Staff
0.096
Weak Correlation
Stress Sources
and Work Experience
Stress Symptoms
and Work Experience
Academic Staff
0.077
Weak Correlation
Administrative
Staff
Academic Staff
0.159
Weak Correlation
0.158
Weak Correlation
Administrative
Staff
0.076
Weak Correlation
Legend: if 0.00 < absolute value of r < 0.3 = the correlation is weak
Moreover, the assignment of additional functions named as
designation and its relationship with stress was also taken into
consideration, hence table 9 shows the correlation between the SLSU
employees’ stress profile and designation.
As can be gleaned from the research findings, the relationship
between stress susceptibility and designation of both the academic
and administrative staff obtained chi-square values greater than 0.05
at 0.05 level of significance, thus the relationship of said variables is not
significant. This illustrates that designation does not have a bearing
with the stress susceptibility of both the teaching and the nonteaching
staff, which further means that whether one has designation or
otherwise, his or her tolerance to stress susceptibility is ostensibly high.
However, the relationship between stress sources and the academic
and administrative staff’s designation obtained chi-square values
lesser than 0.05 at 0.05 level of significance, hence the test is significant.
This would mean that the employees’ overload has something to
do with how they view stress sources and its effects to their health.
According to Juanta (2003), people can become their own personal
322
stressor. Hard driving and competitiveness, a strong urge to excel in
all endeavors, working to accomplish more and more in less and less
time can take them to a breaking point. This further implies that those
with designations having the aforesaid characteristics will likely view
stress sources as threats to his or her personal and professional life.
Table 9. Correlation between SLSU employees' stress
profile and designation
Variables
SLSU Staff
Chi-square
Value
Interpretation
and Designation
Academic Staff
0.865
Not Significant
0.623
Not Significant
Academic Staff
0.019
Significant
0.002
Significant
Academic Staff
0.001
Significant
0.974
Not Significant
Stress Sources
and Designation
Stress Symptoms
and Designation
Legend: if p-value < 0.05, the test is significant
if p-value > 0.05, the test is not significant
As for the relationship between the employees’ designation
and their views on stress symptoms, the academic staff posed a
different test result compared with administrative staff in which the
academic staff obtained chi-square values less than 0.05 at 0.05 level
of significance while greater than 0.05 for the administrative staff.
This means that for the academic staff, the test is significant, while
otherwise for administrative staff. This implies further that since the
academic staff is presumed to be mentally overloaded, they become
more apprehensive regarding stress symptoms and apparently affect
them.
CONCLUSION
The employees of the Southern Leyte State University (SLSU)
manifested a serious susceptibility to source and symptoms of stress
which is significantly affected by the age profile of the academic
staff, and slightly affected by the length of service of both academic
323
and administrative staff. The academic personnel’s number of office
designations had affected both their perspective on stress sources and
symptoms.
It can be figured out that the SLSU administrative and academic
personnel’s notions concerning stress sources and symptoms vary due
to the nature and gravity of the tasks they perform.
RECOMMENDATIONS
In view of the findings and conclusions of this research study, the
following are proposed:
1.A comprehensive “Welfare Administration Program” for the
SLSU employees must be proposed for implementation in order
to reduce the health risks caused by stress thereby improving the
employee’s work motivation;
2.The PRAISE Committee of the University must be activated and
be functional for the granting of awards and/or incentives to
deserving employees to lessen stress among the employees and
improve work motivation among them thereby increasing work
performance;
3.A training and sports-related activities (those that avoid age
discrimination) must be initiated by concerned offices of the
university to promote welfare and well-being of all SLSU
employees; and
4.To help the SLSU administration formulate an improved stress
and health management mechanism for its employees, the
following research studies must be pursued:
a.“The Management Styles and Teacher Stress of SLSU: A
Correlational Study”;
b.“Work Motivational Factors and Performance of the SLSU
Administrative Staff”;
c.“The Work Performance Indicators of the Academic and
324
Administrative Staff of SLSU.”; and
d. “Stress Coping Mechanisms of SLSU Administrative and
Academic Staff”
LITERATURE CITED
2007. Omnibus Rules Implementing Book V of Executive Order No.
292 and Other Pertinent Civil Service Laws
2009
Use scarce resources for education.Abs- cbnNEWS.com/
NEWSbreak. Retrieved May 3, 2010 from http://www.
abs-cbnnews.com/nation/01/08/09/use-scarce-resourceseducation-2009.
Cox, T.
1993 Stress Research and Stress Management: Putting Theory to
Work. Sudbury: HSE Books.
Dessler, G.
2001 Leading People and Organizations in 21st Century. International
Edition. Pearson Education Asia Pte Ltd. Singapore.
Friedman, I.A.
1993 Coping Patterns in Adolescent-Decision Making: An IsraeliAustralian Comparison. Journal of Adolescence. Vol. 16, pp.
187-199.
Holmes-Rake
2007 Life Stress Inventory.
Janis, I.
1997 Decision Making: New York. The Free Press.
Juanta, R.D.G.
2003 Managing Role Demands and Stress. Views/Comments/
Features. Manila Bulletin. November 9, 2003 Issue, pp. 11 and
22.
325
Lee, D. (n.d).
2010 Employee Stress and Performance. Retrieved May 15, 2010
from
http://www.humannatureatwork.com/WorkplaceStress-2.htm.
McLeod, P.
1997 A Dual Task Modality Effect: Support for Multiprocessor
Models of Attention. Quarterly Journal of Experimental
Psychology.
Medina, R.G.
2006 Personnel and Human Resources Management. Rex Book
Store Inc., Philippines,
Miller, L.H. and A.D. Smith
1993 The Stress Solution: An Action Plan to Manage the Stress in
Your Life. Pocket Books of Simon and Schuster Inc.
Papalia, D. et al.
2004 Human Development. 9th Edition. McGraw-Hill Education
(Asia) New York.
Robbins, S. et al.
2005 Management. 8th International Edition. Pearson Prentice Hall,
New Jersey.
Schultz, M.C. and J.T. Schultz (n.d.)
2010 The Effects of Age and Stress Levels And Its Affect on Overall
Performance. Retrieved May 8, 2010 from http://aabss.org/
journal2003/Schultz.htm.
Institute,. Georgetown University, Washington, D.C. Retrieved
May 26, 2010 from http://www.pmranet.org/conference/
georgetownpapers/Wright/pdf.
Yerkes R.
1996 The Relationship of Strength of Stimulus to Rapidity of Habit
Foundation. Journal of Comparative Neurology, OC: American
Journal of Psychiatric Press. pp. 283-313.
326
Multidisciplinary Research
The JPAIR Multidisciplinary Research is published four time a year
by JPAIR Press.
Send inquiries to:
[email protected]
Articles may be research manuscripts and notes on original and
applied research, research reviews and notes on issues, problems and
discoveries of interest to researchers and stakeholders.
All papers undergo double-blind review. The Editorial Board
makes the final decision on the acceptability of a manuscript after
reviewing the compliance of the researcher to the instructions of the
peer reviewers.
The editorial policy is published in this issue and can be accessed
through the journal websites: www.eisrjc.com, www.philair.ph and
www.ejournals.ph. Inquiries can be sent via email at genarojapos@
gmail.com
Online Selection: As of Vol. 1 to Vol. 9 JPAIR Multidisciplinary
Research is available online.

the full article here - E-International Scientific Research

Transcription

Similar documents

Sonia Kovalevsky Math Day Poster

here

Mathew Hall, Peter Hegedüs, Josip Maras, Marco Mori, Zoltán

Drawing Math Stories: Linking Language, Art, and

Anna Marie Periquet Profile JL

Mathematical Modeling as a Means to Demonstrate the

NCCTM Central Region Conference - NC Mathematics

New Hampshire Jobs for America`s Graduates New - NH-JAG

The perspectograph - For the Learning of Mathematics

here. - JD Irving, Limited