Horst Möller Saint-Gobain in Germany From 1853 to the present day

Saint-Gobain in Germany
Horst Möller
Saint-Gobain
in Germany
From 1853 to
the present day
General Delegation for
Germany, Central
and Eastern Europe
History
of a European
company
C.H. Beck
1
Saint-Gobain in Germany
Summary by Horst Möller, Saint-Gobain in Germany. From 1853 to the
present day. History of a European company, C.H. Beck Verlag, Munich
In “Saint-Gobain in Germany. From 1853 to the present day. History of a European
company” Horst Möller describes the development of the French company in Germany from
its beginnings in the mid-19th century up to its current market leadership position in diverse
product lines in Germany and internationally.
The author breaks down the company history into the following chapters; Deutscher Bund
(1853-1870); Kaiserreich (1871-1914); World War I (1914-1918); between the World Wars
(1918-1933); Apparent autonomy (1933-1938); German and France at war (1939-1945);
Reconstruction and reorganization (1945-1950) as well as tradition and innovation since
1950. The various chapters of the original book are summarized together here in the interests
of clearer understanding.
I.
Beginnings and initial obstacles 1853 – 1918
Saint-Gobain with its rich tradition, has had its roots in France ever since its foundation in
1665 by Colbert, Finance Minister of the Sun King, Louis XIV. Saint-Gobain’s decision to
expand into the German market was made on the basis of strategic market considerations.
While there were indications of market saturation on the French market, the German market
still promised considerable growth potential as the production of mirror glass in Germany in
the mid-19th century was technically obsolete and of low quality. Another important reason
for the company’s internationalization was to reduce costs by through avoiding import and
transit duties, which, since the founding of the “Zollverein”1 in 1833, had been raised at
Germany’s external borders.
The aim of the German “Zollverein”
was to form an economic unit and to
maintain control over foreign
competitors. Following the foundation
of the “Reich” (German Empire) 1871,
responsibility for customs policy was
assumed by the “Reich”.
1
Zollverein, customs union established in 19th-cent. Germany to eliminate tariff barriers and to promote the economic unity
of Germany. It had its beginnings in 1818, and by 1854 its members included virtually all of the numerous German states.
After the unification of Germany in 1871, the laws and regulations of the Zollverein were adopted by the German Empire.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Saint-Gobain’s involvement in Germany began in 1853 with the purchase of land in the
vicinity of Mannheim. Shortly thereafter, Saint-Gobain’s first mirror glass production plant in
Germany was constructed on the estate of manor Waldhof near Mannheim.
Waldhof near Mannheim is SaintGobain’s oldest glassworks in
Germany
The author describes not only the beginnings of the production process, but also highlights the
great social involvement of the company management on behalf of the employees. In addition
to an “exemplary worker’s estate”, the employees were 1857 also provided with a company
accident, health and retirement program, which preceded Bismarck’s social insurance system
in the 1880s by more than 20 years.
Residential estate of the glassworks
“Spiegelfabrik Mannheim-Waldorf”,
which consisted of gallery terraced houses.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Right from the start, the corporate strategy was aimed at expansion through the acquisition of
companies in the same or complementary product sectors. For example, Saint-Gobain
expanded its position in Germany in 1857 with the takeover of the “Aachener
Spiegelmanufaktur” (Mirror glassworks), which through modernization of the production
process and organization was transformed from an ailing firm into a flourishing business. In
addition to the development of the existing production sites, the policy of expanding its
product offering also was continued.
With this bilingual document, Friedrich
Wilhelm, King of Prussia, Grand Duke of the
Lower Rhine etc., confirmed to Saint-Gobain the
previously provisional approval for its take-over
of the “Spiegelmanufaktur” in Aachen.
The “Spiegelmanufaktur” in Stolberg in 1919/20
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Expansion up to 1905
1853
Purchase of manor Waldhof and construction of a glassworks by Saint-Quirin.
1857
Saint-Gobain leased the “Aachener Spiegelmanufaktur” plants in Münsterbüsch
and Aachen.
1858
Merger of Saint-Quirin and Saint-Gobain to form the “Société Anonyme des
Manufactures des Glaces et Produits Chimiques de Saint-Gobain, Chauney &
Cirey”.
1863
Purchase of the glassworks in Münsterbüsch and transfer of the works to the
Schorrenfeld in Stolberg.
1866
Germany’s first cast glass hall in Stolberg.
1866
Foundation of the sales branch in Cologne.
1894
Foundation of the“Verein Deutscher Spiegelglasfabriken” sales syndicate.
1900
50% holding in glassworks “Altwasser” in Silesia.
1904
Founding of the international sales syndicate “Convention Internationale des
Glaceries”, Brussels.
1905
50% holding in glassworks Herzogenrath.
Berlin
GERMANY
Aachen
1857
The melting furnace in Waldorf at the end of the 19th century
Frankfurt
1853
Mannheim
Munich
Casting table at the end of the 19th century. The process for
manufacturing flat glass at that time consisted of pouring
and rolling the hot liquid onto a table, subsequently it was
cooled, ground and polished.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
The outbreak of the German-French War in 1870 and the resulting scarcity of raw materials
and labour as well as the cancellation of orders, caused a short slump. The long-term success
of the Saint-Gobain companies in Germany could not be threatened, however, largely thanks
to the continuous implementation of technical innovations such as the regenerative glass
firing system invented by the Siemens brothers, the tank furnace and the Bicheroux process.
Illustration of the Bicheroux process, which
was introduced in Herzogenrath between
1910 and 1914.
Clearly visible in the picture is the molten
glass flowing from the oval pot, between the
rollers and onto the gradient. As a result of
the rolling (instead of pouring), thinner,
more uniformly thick sheets with a smooth
surface could be produced, and the grinding
process was considerably reduced.
Max Bicheroux, Dr. Ing. e.h.,
Herzogenrath
The World War I, in contrast, placed Saint-Gobain in a dangerous situation as the company’s
production facilities in Germany were regarded as “enemy assets”. The glassworks Waldorf
was compulsorily auctioned off in July 1917, Stolberg was sequestered and the Saint-Gobain
holdings in the glassworks in Herzogenrath and Sindorf had to be sold. Although the
Altwasser plant continued to be operated by loyal Saint-Gobain employees for a period of
time, in the end it was also unable to avoid compulsory auctioning.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
II.
Between the World Wars: restitution, expansion, modernization and renewed
endangerment 1918 – 1939
After the end of the war, Saint-Gobain succeeded in repossessing the confiscated production
facilities in return for reimbursement of the purchase prices. In addition, the acquisition of
additional works such as the “Deutsche Spiegelglas AG Freden” (1922) and the “Torgauer
Glashütte” (1925) confirmed the commercial success, which Saint-Gobain was once again
able to achieve despite the difficult economic conditions.
It proved to be to the advantage of the Saint-Gobain companies in Germany, however, that
they did not suffer from the general lack of capital caused by the post-war depression as the
Paris headquarters was able to provide adequate financial funds. These were used to introduce
technological innovations of the 1920s, such as the Fourcault process and the Libbey-Owens
process at Saint-Gobain works. Thus nine Fourcault furnaces went into operation at Porz on
the Rhine in 1928.
In 1919/20, Saint-Gobain opened a central office in Germany, which was originally located in
Stolberg. In 1924, however, it was moved to Aachen, where it has remained to this day on the
Viktoriaallee. From then on, the interests of Saint-Gobain in Germany were coordinated and
controlled from there. The head of the central office was the General Director and General
Delegate Dr. Peter Schrader and Adam Lambertz was responsible for finances.
Saint-Gobain central office on the
Viktoriaallee
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
The long-time General Delegate and General
Director, Dr. Peter (Pierre) Schrader
Adam Lambertz was responsible for
finance and commercial management.
The office was not originally intended to form an additional administrative arm in the
Saint-Gobain hierarchy. But, based on the experiences of the World War I, when accounting
for German business transactions was managed from Paris and, due to the control of foreign
currency during the war, processing was hindered. Accordingly this time an effective facility
was established, which coordinated the German branches as well as the Saint-Gobain
holdings in glassworks in Czechoslovakia, Romania, Poland and Hungary.
Another important organizational step was taken in 1936, when the glassworks “Glaswerke
Stolberg”, the “Spiegelmanufaktur Waldhof AG”, the “Herzogenrather Glaswerke Bicheroux
& Co. GmbH” and the “Glaswerke Weber & Fortemps GmbH Sindorf” were merged into a
single firm. The companies, which up to then had operated as legally independent firms, were
now transferred to the German branch of Saint-Gobain under the name “Vereinigte Glaswerke
Aachen. Zweigniederlassung der Aktiengesellschaft der Spiegelmanufakturen und
chemischen Fabriken von St. Gobain, Chauny & Cirey”.2
2
In order to prevent misunderstandings, it should be noted that under the name “Vereinigte Glaswerke Aachen”
or its abbreviation VEGLA, in 1971 a 100-percent subsidiary of Saint-Gobain was founded. This company with
limited liability was founded within the scope of the reorganization of the Group according to divisions and
today handles Saint-Gobain’s building glass activities in Germany.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
With the start of the world economic crisis in 1929, collective wage bargaining in Germany
became tougher. In this connection, the author highlights the special position of Saint-Gobain
in Germany: the company introduced programs above and beyond the legally defined social
security, for example, in 1923, it had inflation money printed for employees, and, in 1926, it
founded the German staff pension funds of Saint-Gobain called “Pensionskassen-AktienGesellschaft der Deutschen Saint-Gobain-Gruppe”.
The patriarchal management style was supplemented by the social welfare provided for
employees, leading to exceptionally long periods of service by the employees. Often, family
links with the company over several generations can be observed. The author sees this as a
reflection of the German-French corporate culture.
The combination of company social policy, which gained the satisfaction of the employees,
coupled with a desire for innovation and a far-sighted corporate strategy, laid the foundations
of the so-called “policy mix” for the future success of Saint-Gobain.
In the mid-1930s, company management made a strategically important decision with its
entry into the glass-fibre sector. While in the 30s and 40s, glass-fibre had been used mainly
for the insulation of submarines, today it has a firm place in practically all sectors of industry
from electrical, mechanical and automotive engineering to aerospace, construction and
furniture design. Production was started in Herzogenrath, in the newly established “F-Glas”
department which was erected on what is now the site of Vetrotex.
Before further processing, glass silk threads
are wound on large reels and subsequently
stored.
Glass wool factory, Bergisch Gladbach:
women pluck the glass wool apart and quilt it.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
The 50% holding in the glass wool factory Bergisch Gladbach also proved to be a commercial
success. In the following years, glass wool replaced conventional insulating materials such as
cork, asbestos and diatomaceous earth on an increasing scale.
With the “Herzogenrather Sekurit-Glaswerke GmbH” (producing automotive glass), founded
in 1936, the expansive development of Saint-Gobain continued. After the automobile boom
which had swept across the United States reached Europe, automobile windows made of
safety glass went from success to success.
VW Beetle prototype convertible 1938
III.
Germany and France at War 1939 – 1945
The outbreak of the World War II and, in particular, the occupation of Northern France, posed
major problems for Saint-Gobain’s management. Communications between plants in the
various occupation zones in France, of course, was hardly possible with the German branch.
In Germany, the employees found themselves torn between NS ideology and loyalty to their
long-time employer.
As in the World War I, Saint-Gobain property once again was sequestered in Germany. In the
initial period from 1940 to 1941, the General Director of Saint-Gobain in Germany, Dr.
Werner Kehl, as forced administrator, succeeded in representing the interests of Saint-Gobain
in dealings with the Reich’s Ministry of Economics. This was no easy task given the
increasing political tensions and changing power relationships and required a great deal of
tact. Kehl had this talent, coupled with having the goal of preserving the independence of
Saint-Gobain from the NS authorities as his top priority. Until his death in 1943, Kehl
devoted himself to this task.
After two years of apparent independence, Alexander Pohlmann from the Reich’s Ministry of
Economics was appointed as forced administrator. At the same time, Adam Lambertz held the
position of General Director with a limited sphere of responsibility.
In contrast to World War I, however, no companies in the Saint-Gobain Group in Germany
were confiscated during World War II.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Like all companies, Saint-Gobain also suffered from the lack of labour in Germany resulting
from the war. There are few references to the employment of forced labour in Germany,
however. Although a large part of the archive material of the branch office in Aachen was
destroyed by an allied air raid in 1943, from the remaining documents the author concludes
that at Saint-Gobain forced labour was only employed on a very limited scale.
In order to counter the lack of labour, under General Director Dr. Werner Kehl, an active
search was conducted to find former Saint-Gobain employees who had found themselves in
German prisoner-of-war camps to help to continue production. On the initiative of Adam
Lambertz, the French priest Maurice Rondeau was officially employed, while in reality, he
supplied the French prisoners-of-war in the surrounding camps.
The priest Maurice Rondeau. In 1944, he was
exposed and he was arrested, and died tragically
only a few days before the end of the War from
the effects of his imprisonment.
Letter from Saint-Gobain’s
headquarters in Paris to Aachen
referring to the priority of tasks
at the end of the war. The
German Manager Mr. Lamesch
smuggled it in his shoe during
one of his dangerous journeys.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
IV.
Tradition and innovation since 1945: The road to the present
Following the end of the war, the reconstruction of the destroyed production plants was the
focal point of the company’s activities. They were successful, because Saint-Gobain was one
of the first companies to start producing glass again after the World War II.
In the 1950s and 1960s, two phenomena, in particular, influenced the further development of
Saint-Gobain: the rapid development of the automobile industry prompted an enormous boost
in demand for car windows and glass was being used increasingly frequently in modern
architecture. In order to satisfy the requirements of the market, the company’s activity was
focused on the technological and market-oriented development of Saint-Gobain flat glass
activities in Germany.
A direct consequence of the consistent implementation of this corporate strategy was the
development of the TEL process by Saint-Gobain researchers in France, which led to an
enormous improvement in quality and productivity in the manufacture of glass wool. In 1960,
the TEL process was used for the first time in Bergisch Gladbach. A further innovation for the
flat glass activity was the start-up operations of the first German float glass line in Porz in
1966. Thanks to the new production process, the manufacturing processes, in particular, mass
production could be optimized.
The Float process:
Melting and refining
Float bath
Cool down section
Cutting
Inauguration of the float line in
Herzogenrath in 1971.
(l. to r. Jean-Marc Parrot, Franz Claßen,
General Delegate and Director Petrus
Neeteson, daughter Arine, Aaltje Neeteson
and Mario Roth)
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
An important event was the merger of Saint-Gobain and Pont-à-Mousson in 1970, which led
to far-reaching restructuring measures in the German branch. For one thing, the product
portfolio was extended to include cast pipes, and, secondly, the merger increasingly
accelerated the internationalization of the company and its branches. In addition, because of
the size of the combined companies, a reorganization by division, which Saint-Gobain
successfully implemented, was necessary.
In the 1970s and 1980s, external factors dominated the most important corporate strategy
decisions. The oil crisis in 1973 and the resulting increase in the prices of fuels and heating
materials accelerated the progress of technological innovations in the areas of thermal
insulation and energy conservation.
Companies do not operate in a vacuum. Political events or decisions can have far-reaching
consequences. Thus, the election of François Mitterand as President of France in 1981 was a
decisive event in the history of Saint-Gobain. Under the left-wing Socialist government, large
companies like Saint-Gobain were nationalized.
It was only after the success of the neo-Gaullists in the elections to the National Assembly in
1986, that the process of denationalization was initiated. According to Jean-Louis Beffa,
President of the Saint-Gobain Group, the year 1986 marked a “new start”. The new corporate
strategy announced by Beffa convinced over 1,5 million Europeans to invest in Saint-Gobain
shares.
Beffa counted on four key points for the further development of the Group:
• Expansion of the existing activities particularly through technological innovations.
• Expansion into new sectors.
• Opening of Europe as “regional market for Saint-Gobain”.
• Growth in markets outside Europe.
At the end of the 1980s, Saint-Gobain had an expanded product portfolio, but nevertheless
still focused on its core areas of business. The involvement of Saint-Gobain in the area of
glass wool, which had commenced in the 1930s with the takeover of the glass wool factory
“Glasswatte GmbH Bergisch Gladbach”, was reinforced in 1972 through the acquisition of
“Grünzweig + Hartmann”, a company with tradition, which had earned a name for itself in the
area of insulation since the end of the 19th century.
Modern building in Berlin
“Potsdamer Platz”, which was
completely insulated by
Grünzweig + Hartmann.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
In 1990, with the acquisition of the Norton Company, there followed the successful entry into
the production of abrasives and the expansion of industrial ceramics. In the same year, SaintGobain acquired a holding in Oberland Glas AG in Bad Wurzach, which was mainly
established in the area of containers glass.
Saint-Gobain created a further pillar of its business in the 1990s, as a result of its further
expansion in building materials and its entry into building distribution. Here, Saint-Gobain
pursued the tried and tested corporate strategy of acquiring leading companies in the sector.
The numerous acquisitions, in particular, in the areas of industrial ceramics and abrasives,
were firmly embedded in the Group’s international strategy. The entry into the building
distribution began in 1996 with the purchase of Poliet (Weber & Broutin, Point P, Lapeyre)
and continued in the year 2000 with the takeover of the German company Raab Karcher. For
Saint-Gobain in Germany, Raab Karcher was the largest and most important acquisition since
the war, making Saint-Gobain the largest building distributor in Germany.
As a result of the collapse of the Iron Curtain in 1989/91, Saint-Gobain also increased its
involvement in Central and Eastern Europe. The establishment of the General Delegation for
Germany, Central and Eastern Europe in the year 2000 represented for the time being the
organizational conclusion of the expansion.
As one of the constant factors in the complex history of Saint-Gobain in Germany, in the
various phases of the company history, the author identifies the loyalty of the employees
towards their company. As reasons for the special loyalty of the Saint-Gobain employees to
their company, the author refers to the extensive social measures as well as the numerous
opportunities for training.
In the course of history, the German-French co-existence was repeatedly confronted with
numerous problems, for example, during the German-French War 1870/71 as well as during
the World Wars I and II. An internal corporate policy focusing on the understanding of the
employees successfully walked the tightrope, however, and thus the French branches of SaintGobain in Germany gradually became a “German company of French origins”.
The Bridge of Pont-à-Mousson with its characteristic arches today serves
as the model for the logo which Saint-Gobain uses all over the world and
with which all its employees can identify.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Interview with the author Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Horst Möller
Prof. Dr. Dr. h.c. Horst Möller
Born in Wroclaw in 1943, studied history, philosophy and
German language and literature studies. He is professor for
Modern and Contemporary History at the University of Munich
and, since 1992, has been Director of the Institute for
Contemporary History. Möller is an honorary doctor of the
University of Bordeaux and holder of the Federal Order of
Merit, 1st Class. In 1996, he was awarded the Prix FranceAllemagne and the Prix Lémonon by the Académie des Sciences
morales et politiques in Paris. He has published around 200 papers and 10 books which
concern themselves with German, French and European history from the 17th century to the
end of the 20th century.
Prof. Möller, what was it that made you want to write the history of Saint-Gobain in
Germany?
What particularly fascinated me about the history of Saint-Gobain was that it is a GermanFrench story, spanning very different epochs from the middle of the 19th century to the end of
the 20th century and forming a social microcosm in which the central political, social,
economic and technological problems appear as if under a microscope. Furthermore, the
“cultural history” of glass, which features particularly prominently in the first century of the
company’s history, is also exciting from an architectural and art history point of view. Such a
diversity of sectors appeals to my preference for interdisciplinary topics.
When did you start work on the project?
Initial preparations began in 1997 and I have been working on it intensively since 1998.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
Which sources were available to you?
Saint-Gobain maintains a superbly organized archive, put together by Maurice Hamon, in
Blois on the Loire. There, you will not only find all central documents, but an abundance of
material (correspondence, balance sheets, work reports, strategy papers, documents on
technologies etc.) also concerning Saint-Gobain’s companies in Germany. The archive is
professionally managed and is very well equipped. Our work there was supported in a very
helpful manner. Also very useful were the individual German companies who voluntarily
provided us with lots of unpublished sources and printed matter, starting with VEGLA in
Aachen.
What concept did you adopt?
Initially, I adopted a chronological concept and related all the general political times with the
company’s history. In this connection, my focus was not only on long-term developments, but
also on important turning points for the company, for example, major changes due to the
political developments in the German-French relationship, major acquisitions which extended
the product portfolio, the commercial development of the company and the financial
performances, technological innovations, the socio-political involvement and the social
welfare facilities, starting with the residential estate of the glassworks in the 19th century.
You wrote the book in cooperation with your wife. What tasks was she responsible for?
We handled specific tasks separately, others we tackled together. For example, the collection,
examination and evaluation of the sources was effected jointly. The writing, of course, was
my responsibility. The technical implementation and preparation of the copy for printing, the
selection of illustrations and the greater part of the captions was mainly handled by my wife.
Then there were other joint tasks, for example, repeated proofreading. In a scientific book,
there are many stages of work, which the reader does not see. Of course, it’s good when you
have a regular partner, who is equally familiar with the theme, to discuss it with.
Could you summarize the history of Saint-Gobain in a few words?
That is difficult in just a few words and, in any case, those interested should have their
curiosity aroused and read the book. But I can give you a couple of keywords: at a very early
stage, Saint-Gobain made a market-oriented response to the lack of glass production on the
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
German market and the formation of the market itself through the German Zollverein
(customs union). It optimally developed its company technologically, regularly made use of
innovations in its market and corporate strategy, made a major contribution to sales and
distribution networks, the company crossed borders and was multinational at a very early
stage. The extension of the product portfolio was well planned, initially in the direct product
sector, then in respective adjacent market segments. The company was a pioneer not only in
providing social welfare for its employees, but also in globalization. It invested in Germany at
times when there were doubts about the “industrial location of Germany”. Since 1990, it has
purposefully invested in the new federal states and then expanded into the whole of CentralEastern Europe. It is simultaneously aware of its tradition, which fascinates historians, and is
future-orientation, which impresses leaders of industry.
What were the outstanding events in the almost 150-year history of Saint-Gobain in
Germany?
That depends on the sector: if you consider the political history, then its extremely impressive
how the company mastered all externally-produced crises and wars in the German-French
relationship. In terms of the company history in the strictest sense, the foundation or the
acquisition of firms deserve a special mention, most recently, the enormous expansion into
the building materials trade with Point P, Meyer International and, above all, Raab Karcher.
Technologically, the installation of repeatedly improved production processes for glass and/or
glass wool, for example, the development and regular improvement of the Sekurit safety glass
panes for automobiles are important.
What effect did the two world wars have on the company?
The world wars had incredibly negative effects, for example, as a result of sequestration and
the sale of companies by the sequestration agencies, slowing down or stopping of production.
Paradoxically, these penal measures were more extensive in World War I than in
World War II. Although the National Socialist regime, for ideological reasons alone, forced
compulsory sales to German owners, company management in Paris, in collaboration with the
German managerial staff, repeatedly succeeded in blocking the Reich’s Ministry of
Economics and thus preserving the integrity of the German branch. Of course, after initially
profitable years, towards the end of the war there were massive losses, extreme reductions in
personnel due to the lack of labour, losses in production, declining profits and war damage.
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Saint-Gobain in Germany
But just as was the case after World War I, the second was followed by a rapid revival. The
company was “indestructible” and, following the disasters, expanded much more strongly
than before.
Which persons have particularly left their mark on the history of Saint-Gobain in
Germany?
Saint-Gobain apparently always found very good employees, who were loyal even when
times were really hard. This was evident particularly with regard to the company’s
management: Examples include: “Papa” Julius Meyer; Hector Biver and Carl Arbenz in the
19th century; Peter Schrader in the period between the wars; Werner Kehl and Adam
Lambertz during World War II and shortly after it; and, finally Jean-Louis Schrader and
Petrus A. Neeteson, who directed the rapid development of Saint-Gobain in the Federal
Republic of Germany. The even greater modernization in the last decade was largely
influenced by Jean Barbey, Hans Gehle and, above all, Marc Van Ossel.
Glass plays an important role in the book. How would you summarize the history of
glass in the 100 years?
Glass has developed from a luxury article for the few into a consumer good for all. Today it is
indispensable in applications from car windows to high-rise buildings. It is not only a building
material; it provides its own aesthetics from mirrors to glass architecture, from cars to
furniture and from the jars to the wine bottles. It symbolizes the transparency of our modern
world.
Which books have you written up to now?
Up to now, in addition to 200 papers and articles, I have written ten books on German, French
and European history from the 17th to the end of the 20th century. In addition to overall
presentations of the 18th century, the Weimar Republic and Europe in the period between the
wars, I have also conducted special
investigations. The themes covered include politics, constitution and party histories, social
and industrial history and the history of ideas and culture. Today, my work focuses on the 20th
century, in other words, contemporary history, especially German and French history since
World War I.
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