Stamped Aluminum Eyelets

Material Snapshot
Stamped Aluminum
Eyelets
Material Scenario
Generic process for producing primary aluminum sheet for manufacturing of stamped eyelets.
Major unit processes include bauxite mining, alumina digestion/refining, aluminum smelting, ingot
alloying/casting, sheet rolling, and eyelet stamping. Data are from varied sources. The scenario
is geographically non-specific, but environmental impact related to the smelting process varies
geographically and is specified to one of six global regions: North America, Latin America, Europe,
Africa, Asia and Australia.
Common Uses In Apparel And Footwear
Primary aluminum makes up 67% of total global aluminum demand (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p.
1572). It is often alloyed with other metals and secondary scrap aluminum for products in which quality
and composition is less significant, such as the case for stamped eyelets (Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 109).
The exact ratio of recycled to primary aluminum content is undocumented for stamped aluminum
eyelets, so the material is assumed to be 100% primary aluminum.
Stamped aluminum eyelets are used as a cheap and functional alternative to brass and rubber eyelets
for textile and leather products, such as shoes, belts, purses, and jackets. Eyelets are used for lacing
closures, often replacing zippers.
Alternative Textiles That May Be Substituted For Material
• Secondary (recycled) aluminum scrap • Brass • Nickel • Copper • Rubber • Plastic (PET)
Life Cycle Description
Functional Unit
1 kilogram stamped primary aluminum eyelets
System Boundary
Cradle to untreated, stamped eyelet. The data presented within include all steps required to turn
the raw material or initial stock into stamped eyelets, including transportation and energy inputs.
Capital equipment, space conditioning, support personnel requirements, and miscellaneous materials
comprising <1% by weight of net process inputs are excluded.
Allocation
Joint processes where a mass allocation approach is applied (IAI, 2014, p. 6).
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Unit Process Descriptions
Material Sourcing
The primary feedstock used to produce aluminum is bauxite ore, which is mined from open pits,
crushed and washed before being sent to refineries (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1572). Bauxite ore
is comprised of 50% aluminum oxide, 10-20% water, and 30-40% other substances (Tan & Khoo, 2005,
p. 608). Recycled aluminum is also often mixed with primary aluminum and other alloys, but it is not
included in this snapshot due to a lack of data.
Processing
Bauxite ore to aluminum ingot plate:
Mined bauxite ore is crushed to desired size and rinsed with water to remove mining residues
(McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1572). Crushed bauxite ore is either exported to alumina refining plants
in other regions or received as raw material at a nearby alumina refining plant (McMillan & Keoleian,
2009, p. 1575; Tan & Khoo, 2005, p. 608). At the refining plant, crushed bauxite ore goes through the
Bayer process to produce aluminum oxide (alumina). Crushed bauxite is first digested and dissolved in
a heated sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) and quicklime solution, after which it is clarified with water
to remove impurities, precipitated as alumina hydrate, and calcinated to produce refined alumina (Liu
& Müller, 2012, p. 608).
Alumina is then fed into steel pots, where it is dissolved in a molten sodium aluminum fluoride
(cryolite) bath, which lowers the melting point of alumina (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1572). As a
separate process, coal pitch, petroleum coke, and spent carbon anodes are crushed, mixed, vibrationformed, and baked to produce cast carbon anodes, which are mixed with the dissolved alumina (Tan &
Khoo, 2005, p. 608). An electric current is then passed through the alumina-anode mixture, producing
molten aluminum at the bottom of the pots in a reaction known as the Hall-Héroult process (Liu &
Müller, 2012, p. 608).
Alternatively, Söderberg anode technology can be used in place of the Hall-Héroult process. Rather
than continuously replacing pre-baked carbon anodes that are consumed during electrolysis,
anodes are permanently adhered to the pot, and carbon paste is routinely added to the anode as
it is absorbed by the alumina reduction process (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1572). As the first
technology available for aluminum production, Söderberg anode technology is somewhat outdated,
and pre-baked anodes are generally favored because it requires fewer raw materials and uses less
energy during the electrolysis process. On average, pre-baked anode technology consumes 23.5%
less petroleum coke, 59.2% less coal pitch, and 23.8% less cryolite during the smelting process, and
requires 12.6% less electricity (IAI, 2014, p. 24). In 2010, Söderberg technology was used by only 11%
of global facilities, while pre-baked anode technology was used by 89% to produce molten aluminum
(IAI, 2014, p. 11). Both technologies have major environmental burdens, as perfluorocarbon (PFC)
emissions are released during the cryolite bath stage of smelting, and electrolysis requires significant
energy inputs regardless of anode technology (McMillan & Keoleian, p. 1572).
The molten aluminum is filtered through the steel pot and cast into aluminum ingot slabs for use in the
semi-manufacturing of aluminum sheet or foil (Liu & Müller, p. 109).
Roughly 5.57 kg of bauxite ore is required to produce 1 kg of primary aluminum, which corresponds
to 6.91 kg of bauxite ore per kg of aluminum sheet produced (IAI, 2014, p. 6). 35% of the bauxite ore
is refined into alumina (IAI, 2014, p. 6) (i.e., the process produces 65% solid waste and wastewater).
During the aluminum smelting process, the material efficiency is slightly higher at 52% (IAI, 2014, p. 7).
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Secondary aluminum (not a unit process in this Material Snapshot):
During the ingot casting process, primary aluminum is often mixed with other alloys and recycled
aluminum, specifically when quality and composition is not of critical importance in the material. Preand post-consumer aluminum scrap is collected, sorted, re-melted and refined for mixing with primary
aluminum (Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 109). Recycled secondary aluminum requires approximately 5% of the
energy inputs of primary aluminum production, (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1573).
Although secondary aluminum constitutes approximately 33% of global aluminum consumption,
its production is limited by the availability of recoverable aluminum scrap, as well as composition
uncertainties that often make it unsuitable as a replacement for primary aluminum (McMillan &
Keoleian, p. 1573). The exact ratio of primary to secondary aluminum is not precisely documented for
stamped eyelets.
Stamped Eyelet Production
During semi-manufacturing, ingot slabs can either be hot or cold rolled to produce aluminum sheet
with a thickness of 0.20-6.3mm (Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 109; Aluminum Association, 2009, p. 12). Hot
rolling is ideal for producing a denser and stronger material that is more uniformly alloyed. Cold
rolling utilizes less energy and has a work hardening effect on the material (Aluminum Association,
2009, p. 45). Cold rolling is desirable for thin aluminum sheets that require a specific strength and
temper (Aluminum Association, 2009, p. 56). Stamped aluminum eyelets are generally cold-rolled.
Approximately 1.24 kg of aluminum plate is required to produce 1 kg of cold-rolled aluminum sheet
(Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 89)
Rolled aluminum sheets are typically transported to eyelet manufacturers via ship or truck. Aluminum
sheets are then lathed and punched to produce stamped eyelets.
Process Inputs
Energy
Approximately 122.94 MJ to 160 MJ of energy are required to produce 1 kg of primary
aluminum from bauxite ore (Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 50; IAI, 2014, Metrics Report,
p. 15). Mining practices are universal, but in North America specifically, mining bauxite
requires approximately 1.04 MJ of energy for every 1 kg of primary aluminum produced
(Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 50). The energy required to process bauxite into alumina
ranges from 8.85 MJ per kg of alumina produced in Latin America, to 16.64 MJ per kg of
alumina produced in Africa, with a global average of 13.22 MJ per kg of alumina produced
(IAI, n.d.a, “Metallurgical Alumina Refining Energy Intensity”; IAI, 2014, p. 17).
The smelting process is the most energy-intensive stage of primary aluminum production,
and because both the energy intensity and electricity fuel mix varies depending on the
origin of ingot, it contributes to the large variability in processing energy requirements
(McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1571). Between 1990 and 2005, smelter technology
in Asia and Europe reflected the highest energy intensity, while smelters in Australia
consumed the lowest amount of electricity. In 2013, global non-renewable smelting energy
intensity ranged from 51.9 MJ per kg of aluminum produced in Asia, to 55.9 MJ per kg
of aluminum produced in Africa (IAI, n.d.b, “Primary Aluminum Smelting Energy Intensity
2013”). Internationally, however, “an intensity target of [39.6 MJ] per kg aluminum has
been established for the year 2020, which is expected to be reached through continued
improvements in cell design, process controls, and other incremental improvements
in technology” (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1574). An additional 49 MJ of renewable
energy is required for the electrolysis process, totaling 104.24 MJ of energy demand
for the aluminum smelting process (Aluminum Association 2013, p. 50). The majority of
aluminum smelter energy is sourced from a mix of coal-fired electricity and hydroelectricity.
Of the six aluminum production regions, North America, Latin American and Europe
typically rely on hydro power at smelters. The most recent data shows that North America
uses 81.1% hydroelectric power for smelting, Latin America uses 77.9% hydro power, and
Europe uses 83.7% hydroelectricity for aluminum smelting operations (IAI, n.d.c, “Current
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IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Smelting Power Consumption 2013”). Coal is the dominant
source of smelter electricity in Africa, Asia and Australia (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p.
1573). In 2013, Africa reported the use of 58.2% coal-based power, Asia reported the use
of 90.2% coal- based power, and Australia reported the use of 66.4% coal-based power
at aluminum smelter plants (IAI, n.d.c, “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Smelting
Power Consumption 2013”). When coal is used as the electricity source for smelting, 212
MJ are required for total aluminum production, but when natural gas and hydroelectricity
are used for smelting, the total energy demand is approximately 160 MJ and 125 MJ
per kg of aluminum produced, respectively (Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 113). Transportation
requirements between the mining and refining processes, as well as the ingot and eyelet
manufacturing stages, are included in energy inputs.
An additional 2.04 MJ per kg of aluminum is required during the ingot casting process
(Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 50). The mining to ingot casting processes utilize 36%
renewable energy and 64% non-renewable energy (Aluminum Association, 2013, p.
51). The cold-rolling process consumes 15.37 MJ per kg of aluminum sheet produced
(Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 89).
Water
Water is used primarily for cooling purposes during the aluminum production process,
although a small portion is utilized for washing of crushed ore and clarification of alumina.
Approximately 15.8 L of fresh water and 11.02 L of sea water is required for the production
of 1 kg primary aluminum (IAI, 2014, p. 26). Of the total 26.82 L water utilized, 24.1% is
used during bauxite mining for rinsing of ore, 22.6% is used during alumina refinement
for clarification and cooling, 40.3% is utilized in the smelting process for cooling and wet
scrubbing of smelters, and 13% is required for cooling during the ingot casting process
(IAI, 2014, p. 26). Nearly all of the water use is for cooling; reported water consumption
is limited to 0.5 L/kg primary aluminum (IAI, 2013, p. 15).1 An additional 0.49 L of water is
used during the cold rolling process (Aluminum Association, 2013, p. 89)
Chemical
The chemicals required for the alumina refining and aluminum smelting processes include
caustic soda, quicklime and cryolite. In the production of 1 kg of aluminum, approximately
0.152 kg caustic soda and 0.078 kg quicklime are required for alumina refining (IAI, 2014, p.
24). For the 89% of facilities that utilize the pre-baked anode technology during aluminum
smelting, an average 0.016 kg cryolite is required per 1 kg of aluminum produced, while
the facilities that utilize Söderberg technology require an average 0.021 kg cryolite for
aluminum smelting (IAI, 2014, p. 24).
The cold rolling aluminum sheet process requires additional chemicals, including hydraulic
oil, surface coating paint, sulfuric acid, and other lubricants (Aluminum Association 2013,
p. 89). The chemicals used during the cold rolling process all represent <1% of total
environmental impact.
Physical
The primary physical input to the process is mined bauxite ore. The production of the prebaked carbon anodes also requires spent carbon anodes, petroleum coke and coal pitch.
Pre-baked anode technology uses 0.29 kg petroleum coke, 0.06 kg coal pitch, and 0.08 kg
spent anodes to produce 0.43 kg carbon anodes in the production of 1 kg of aluminum (IAI,
2014, p. 24). Söderberg technology requires 0.37 kg petroleum coke and 0.16 kg coal pitch
to produce 0.53 kg anodes in the production of 1 kg aluminum (IAI, 2014, p. 24). Depending
on the energy source, additional coal is required.
1 The LCA considers all water that is input and then discharged to be nonconsumptive use; seawater use in any form
is not counted as consumption, although it is unclear how to characterize seawater that is desalinized and used as
freshwater and then consumed in a product.
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Land-use Intensity
The land-use required for aluminum production is significant due to both the mining and
waste disposal processes. To mine 1,000 tons of bauxite, on average about 162 m2 of land
are required. This translates to approximately 0.8 m² of land per metric ton of primary
aluminum produced, which corresponds to 1.02 m2 of land per metric ton of aluminum
sheet produced (Aluminum Association, 2011, p. 22).
Process Outputs
Solid Waste
In the production of 1 kg primary aluminum, a total of 2.73 kg solid waste is produced (IAI,
2014 p. 26). Approximately 96% of the solid waste is red mud produced as a by-product
during the alumina refining process, while the remaining 4% includes bauxite mining
waste, spent anodes and residue from the smelter process, metal scrap and dross from the
casting process, as well as metal scrap from the stamping process (IAI, 2014, p. 26; Tan &
Khoo, 2005, p. 611).
Hazardous Waste/Toxicity
Red mud is a hazardous by-product that is caustic and may contain naturally occurring
radioactive materials (uranium, thorium, radium) and their decay products, a variety of
other toxic metals (cadmium, chromium, lead), and other elements (aluminum, calcium,
iron, sodium). Red mud is sometimes processed to produce aluminum oxides, but it is
usually left in tailings impoundments (USEPA, n.d.). By implementing a decrease of 2.3%
bauxite composition, “best practice” refineries have been able to reduce the red mud
production from 2 kg per 1 kg of alumina to just 1 kg of red mud by-product (Tan & Khoo,
2005, p. 609).
Wastewater
Bauxite ore is typically composed of 20% water, so roughly 1 kg of wastewater is emitted
during the mining process for each 1 kg of primary aluminum product (IAI, 2014, p. 6).
A total of 21.03 L of wastewater is produced during the production of 1 kg of primary
aluminum (IAI, 2014, p. 26).
Emissions
In 2004, 0.93% of global greenhouse gas emissions were attributed to the production
of primary aluminum (McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1571). Primary emissions of concern
during aluminum production are due to fossil fuel combustion and electricity use, the
electrolysis process of smelting, and transportation requirements. Each stage contributes
to a wide range of toxic emissions: during bauxite mining, carbon monoxide, nitrogen
oxides (NOx) and sulfur dioxides (SO2) are emitted; the alumina refining process is
responsible for carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (N2O), NOx and sulfur oxide (SOx)
emissions; the smelter process produces CO2, N2O, NOx, SOx, hydrogen fluoride and other
PFCs; ship transportation can emit CO, NOx, SO2 and VOCs; and truck transportation can
emit CO, NOx, particulates, and VOCs (Tan & Khoo, 2005, p. 611).
Between 2000 and 2009, total greenhouse gas emissions typically ranged from 9.7 kg
to 18.3 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of primary aluminum produced, with outliers reporting
as low as 5.92 kg and as high as 41.10 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of aluminum produced
(Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 111). In 2010, the total global average emissions were reported as
16.5 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of primary aluminum produced, with 72% produced during
electrolysis, 23% emitted during alumina refining, and 3.6%, 1.2%, and 0.2% produced
during anode production, ingot casting, and bauxite mining, respectively (IAI, 2014, p. 15).
Producing primary aluminum results in 16-61 times more impact than producing secondary
aluminum from scrap.
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Due to annual shifts in primary global bauxite producers, the wide range of regional
electricity sources, and continuous industry improvements in both electricity consumption
and PFC emissions during the smelting process, the greenhouse gas emissions associated
with the production of primary aluminum are highly variable both spatially and temporally
(McMillan & Keoleian, 2009, p. 1571). Regions that use coal as the primary electricity
source, such as Australia and Asia, typically display higher emissions during the smelter
process than regions that utilize hydroelectricity. The pre-baked anode technology and
Söderberg technology also emit different PFC intensities. In 2013, pre-baked smelter
technology produced PFC emissions with an average of 0.41 kg of CO2 equivalent per
kg of aluminum produced, while Söderberg technology produced PFC emissions with
an average of 1.84 kg CO2 equivalent per kg of aluminum produced (IAI, n.d.d, “Current
IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Smelting Power Consumption 2013”). Rolling primary
aluminum to produce aluminum sheet produces an additional 0.6 kg-0.9 kg CO2 equivalent
per kg of aluminum rolled (Liu & Müller, 2012, p. 111).
For production of primary aluminum ingot in North America, the acidification potential is
56.4 kg SO2 eq./ton aluminum, the eutrophication potential is 0.970 kg N-eq/ton product,
and the smog formation potential is 446 kg O3 eq/ton aluminum produced (Aluminum
Association, 2012, p. 53).
Table 1. Inputs And Outputs For 1 Kg
Bauxite ore
to ingot
Ingot to
stamped
eyelet
Bauxite ore
to stamped
eyelet
Recycled
aluminum
to cast ingot
Energy (MJ)
123 - 160 i, ii
15.4 vi
138.4 - 175.4 19.76 v
Water (L)
0.5 iii
0.5 vi
1.0
0.71 v
Waste (kg)
2.73 vii
0.4 vi
3.1
0.35 v
GHG emissions (kg CO2 eq)
9.7 - 18.3 iv
0.6 - 0.9 iv
10.3 - 19.2
1.13 v
References
i
ii
iii
iv
v
vi
vii
IAI, 2013, p. 50
IAI, 2014, p. 15
IAI, 2013, p. 15
Liu & Müller, p. 111
Aluminum Association 2013, pp. 73-74
Aluminum Association 2013, pp. 89 & 97
IAI, 2013, p. 26
Performance And Processing
Functional Attributes And Performance
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Lightweight
Corrosion-resistant and durable
High formability; More ductile than steel and titanium at low temperatures
High strength-to-weight ratio
Easily welded and alloyed for metalworking
Heat and electrical conducting
Non-toxic and non-combustible
Highly recyclable
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Table 2. Material Properties
Properties
Primary Aluminium
Density (g/cm³)
2.66 - 2.84
Melting temp ( C)
475 - 655
o
Thermal conductivity at 25 C (W/mK)
113 - 234
o
Electrical conductivity at 20 C (MS/m)
16 - 36
o
Coefficient of thermal expansion (per C)
22.3 - 23.9
Modulus of elasticity (MPa x 10³)
69 - 73
Hardness (HB)
19 - 150
Yield strength, minimum (MPa)
15 - 490
Ultimate tensile strength, minimum (MPa)
60 - 560
Breaking elongation, 50mm & 4D
> 4%
Chemical composition
Varying by alloy, Al 87.17 - 99.6% mass
o
Sources: Aluminum Association 2014, p. 3; MatWeb, n.d., “Aluminum”; Aluminum Association, 2011, p. 19.
Mechanical Attributes
The mechanical and long-term degradation properties of primary aluminum are much higher than in
secondary aluminum materials. The primary advantage of primary aluminum is that the quality and
alloy contents are known, so mechanical properties are consistent. Aluminum is incredibly lightweight
compared to other metals, weighing approximately one-third of the equivalent volume of iron, steel,
or copper (Aluminum Association, 2009, p. 9). It is also much stronger, up to three times as strong
as steel and is much more ductile than other metals at both high and low temperatures (Aluminum
Association, 2009, p. 9). This makes it ideal for a wide range of applications, including processes
which require bending, corrugating, drawing, or stamping. Rolled aluminum sheet is typically
rectangular in shape and ranges between 0.20 mm and 6.33 mm thickness (Aluminum Association,
2009, p. 12). Stamped eyelets typically require thin aluminum sheets for manufacturing; typical eyelets
for apparel applications are 0.2 to 0.4 mm thick (Stimpson, 2007).
Processing Characteristics
Aluminum is often alloyed with other products during ingot casting processes to increase yield
strength of materials. However, increased alloying can decrease toughness, stress corrosion, tensile
strength, and fatigue of the resulting material (AFCMA, 1994, p. 3). The use of 100% primary aluminum
ensures impurities are minimized during the production process.
Potential Social And Ethical Concerns
The mining and processing of primary aluminum presents many social and ethical concerns, primarily
via toxic emissions and the degradation of land. The excavation of bauxite ore and disposal of red mud
makes land virtually uninhabitable, unusable for agriculture, and a source of toxic waste (Liu & Müller,
2012, p. 114).
Availability Of Material
Primary aluminum is available globally, although alumina production and final aluminum production
is concentrated in different geographic regions. Historically, Australia has been the leading producer
of bauxite ore, and therefore alumina production, but was surpassed by Asia in 2006. China alone
produced 47.3% of the 108,455 metric tons of the alumina produced worldwide in 2014, while 19.2%,
12.6%, 9.2%, 6.1%, 5.7% was produced by Australia, Latin America, Europe, North America, and Africa
and the remainder of Asia, respectively (IAI, n.d.e, “Current IAI Statistics: Alumina Production 2013”).
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Due to global sourcing, aluminum finished product is manufactured in regions other than where
bauxite ore is refined. In 2014, Asia produced 65.6% of the global primary aluminum, with China alone
responsible for 51.9% of total global production. The remaining aluminum production derived from
13.7%, 8.6%, 3.8%, 3.3%, and 2.9%
Europe, North America, Australia, Africa, and Latin America, respectively, with 2.1% of estimated
production unreported (IAI, n.d.f, “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Production”).
Cost Of Material
Prices for aluminum ingot (commodity grade P1020) from January 2014 to October 2015 have varied
between $0.76 to $1.12 per lb in the U.S . Prices for aluminum eyelets vary between $0.001 and
$0.005 depending (Alibaba, 2015).
Questions To Ask When Sourcing This Material
Q: Where is the bauxite ore mined?
Q: Where is the aluminum processed?
Q: What is the smelter plant electricity efficiency?
Q: What is the regional and/or smelter electricity fuel mix for the processing location?
Q: What are the PFC emission standards for the processing region?
Q: What is the red mud disposal procedure at the alumina refinery?
Q: What percentage of recycled content is in the product?
Q: Is the aluminum scrap origin pre- or post-consumer waste?
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Figure 1. System Diagram For Stamped Aluminum Eyelets
Energy
Bauxite Ore
Water
Energy
Transportation
Energy
Caustic Soda
Quicklime
Water
Energy
Water
Spent Anodes
Petroleum Coke
Coal Pitch
Energy
Bauxite Mining
Ore Crushing/ Washing
Carbon
Anode
Production
Secondary
Aluminum Transportation
Energy
Melting
Fuel-related Emissions
Wastewater
Digestion/ Dissolving
Clarification
Alumina Hydrate
Precipitation
Alumina Calcination
Transportation
Energy
Cryolite
Fuel-related Emissions
Solid Waste (mine residue)
Aluminum Smelting
Fuel-related Emissions
Process-related Emissions
By-products (e.g bauxite
residue)
Solid Waste (e.g. red mud)
Wastewater
Fuel-related Emissions
Process-related Emissions
(e.g. PFCs)
Solid Waste (e.g. sludge,
spent anode)
Wastewater
Ingot Slab Casting
Fuel-related Emissions
Solid Waste (metal scrap)
Cold Rolling
Process-related Emissions
Water
Lubricants
Transportation
Energy
Metal Scrap
Transportation
Energy
Lathing
Fuel-related Emissions
Eyelet Punching
1 kg Stamped
Aluminum Eyelets
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References
Alibaba (2015). High Quality Aluminum Eyelets Manufacturer with Law Price. Accessed on 11-6-15. Retrieved from: http://www.
alibaba.com/product-detail/high-quality-aluminum-eyelets-manufacturer-with_60037671755.html
Aluminum Foil Container Manufacturers Association (1994). http://www.afcma.org/uploads/downloads/aluminum_rolling.pdf.
Aluminum Association (2011). “Aluminum, The Element of Sustainability.” http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/Aluminum_
The_Element_of_Sustainability.pdf.
Aluminum Association (2013). “The Environmental Footprint of Semi-Finished Aluminum Products in North America.” Retrieved
from: http://www.aluminum.org/sites/default/files/LCA_Report_Aluminum_Association_12_13.pdf.
Aluminum Association (2014). “Extruded Aluminum Semi-Fabrication Environmental Product Declaration.”
Ciacci, L., et al. (2014). “Historical evolution of greenhouse gas emissions from aluminum production at a country level”. Journal
of Cleaner Production, 84: 540-549.
ILSCO Extrusions (2015). “Aluminum Ingot Base P1020, Midwest U.S. Transaction Price, Average $USD/lb. per Month.” Retrieved
from: http://www.ilscoextrusions.com/data/uploads/pdfs/view-aluminum-values-month.pdf
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.a). “Current IAI Statistics: Metallurgical Alumina Refining Energy Intensity 2013.” Retrieved
from: http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/metallurgical-alumina-refining-energy-intensity.
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.b). “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Smelting Energy Intensity 2013.” Retrieved
from: http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/primary-aluminium-smelting-energy-intensity.
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.c). “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Smelting Power Consumption 2013.”
Retrieved from: http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/primary-aluminium-smelting-power-consumption.
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.d). “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Perfluorocarbon (PFC) Emissions 2013.” Retrieved from:
http://www.world-aluminium.org/statistics/perfluorocarbon-pfc-emissions.
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.e). “Current IAI Statistics: Alumina Production 2013.” Retrieved from: http://www.worldaluminium.org/statistics/alumina-production.
International Aluminum Institute (n.d.f). “Current IAI Statistics: Primary Aluminum Production.” Retrieved from: http://www.
world-aluminium.org/statistics/primary-aluminium-production
International Aluminum Institute (2013). “Global Life Cycle Inventory Data for the Primary Aluminum Industry, 2010 Data.”
Retrieved from: http://www.world-aluminium.org/media/filer_public/2013/10/17/2010_life_cycle_inventory_report.pdf.
International Aluminum Institute (2014). “Environmental Metrics Report.” Retrieved from: http://www.world-aluminium.org/
media/filer_public/2015/02/13/environmental_metrics_report_v1_1.pdf.
Liu, Gang, and Daniel Müller (2012). “Addressing Sustainability in the Aluminum Industry: A Critical Review of Life Cycle
Assessments.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 35: 108-117.
MatWeb (n.d.). “Aluminum.” Retrieved from: http://www.matweb.com/search/MaterialGroupSearch.aspx?GroupID=180.
McMillan, Collin, and Gregory Keoleian (2009). “Not All Primary Aluminum Is Created Equal: Life Cycle Greenhouse Gas
Emissions from 1990 to 2005.” Environmental Science & Technology, 43(5): 1571-1577.
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Stimpson Co., Inc. (2007). “Stimpson Eyelets, Catalog 110-S.” Retrieved from: http://www.stimpson.com/pdf/eyeletcatalog_
stimpson.pdf.
Tan, Reginald and H. Khoo.(2005) “An LCA Study of a Primary Aluminum Supply Chain.” Journal of Cleaner Production, 13(6):
607-18.
United States Environmental Protection Agency (n.d.). “Radiation Protection: Aluminum Production Wastes.” Retrieved from:
http://www.epa.gov/radiation/tenorm/aluminum.html.
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VF Corporation
Prepared in collaboration with:
Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC
This guide is one of 29 Material Snapshots produced by Textile Exchange
in 2015 with financial support from VF Corporation and in collaboration
with Brown and Wilmanns Environmental, LLC. They are an extension of
the original series released by TE in 2014.
The content of this snapshot is designed to provide general information
only. While every effort has been made to ensure that the information
provided is accurate, it does not constitute legal or other professional
advice. Textile Exchange cannot be held responsible for the contents
of this snapshot or any subsequent loss resulting from the use of the
information contained herein.
As a continual work in progress, this snapshot will be reviewed on a
regular basis. We invite readers to provide feedback and suggestions for
improvement, particularly with regards to data where new and improved
sources are likely to emerge over time.
For more information please email [email protected] or
visit: http://textileexchange.org/publications/#material-snapshots
Version 1 - January 2016
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