verslas - Kūrybiškumo ugdymo centras

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Online ISSN 2345-0932
TARPTAUTINIS
VERSLAS:
inovacijos, psichologija,
ekonomika
INTERNATIONAL
BUSINESS:
Innovations, Psychology,
Economics
2016, Vol. 7, No. 2 (12)
RESEARCH PAPERS
Vilnius 2016
TARPTAUTINIS
VERSLAS:
ekonomika
2016, t. 7, Nr. 2 (12)
MOKSLO DARBAI
Vilnius 2016
Vyriausioji redaktorė / Editor-in-Chief
Prof. habil. dr. DANGUOLĖ BERESNEVIČIENĖ, Kūrybiškumo ugdymo centras, Lietuva / Center
of Creativity Education, Lithuania (edukologija 07 S, psichologija 06 S)
Tarptautinės redaktorių kolegijos nariai / International Editorial Board
Prof. dr. CARL-MARTIN ALLWOOD, Geteborgo universitetas, Švedija /
Gothenburg University, Sweden (psichologija 06 S)
Prof. habil. dr. Lietuvos MA akad. ANTANAS BURAČAS, Lietuvos Edukologijos universitetas,
Lietuva / Lithuanian University of Education Sciences, Lithuania (vadyba ir administravimas, 03 S,
ekonomika 04 S)
Prof. habil. dr. PETER FRIEDRICH, Tartu universitetas, Estija /
Tartu University, Estonia (ekonomika 04 S)
Prof. habil. dr. LEONAS JOVAIŠA, Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva /
Vilnius University, Lithuania (edukologija 07 S, psichologija 06 S)
Prof. habil. dr. VLADIMIRS MENSHIKOV, Daugpilio universitetas, Latvija /
Daugavpils University, Latvia (sociologija 05 S)
Prof. habil. dr. ANITA PIPERE, Daugpilio universitetas, Latvija /
Daugavpils University, Latvia (edukologija 07 S, psichologija 06 S)
Prof. (HP) dr. JUOZAS RUŢEVIČIUS, Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva /
Vilnius University, Lithuania (vadyba ir administravimas 03 S, ekonomika 04 S)
Doc. dr. DALIUS SERAFINAS, Vilniaus universitetas, Lietuva /
Vilnius University, Lithuania (vadyba ir administravimas 03 S)
Prof. dr. GUNA SVENCE, Rygos Mokytojų ugdymo ir švietimo vadybos akademija, Latvija /
Riga Teacher Training and Education Management Academy, Latvia (psichologija 06 S)
Doc. dr. WIESLAW URBAN, Balstogės technologijos universitetas, Lenkija /
Białystok University of Technology, Poland (vadyba ir administravimas 03 S, ekonomika 04 S)
Prof. habil. dr. ALEKSEJ VOROBJOVS, Daugpilio universitetas, Latvija /
Daugavpils University, Latvia (edukologija 07 S, psichologija 06 S)
Prof. habil. dr. Lietuvos MA akad. POVILAS ZAKAREVIČIUS, Vytauto Didţiojo universitetas,
Lietuva / Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania (vadyba ir administravimas 03 S)
Redakcijos adresas / Address:
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T ARPTAUTINIS VERSLAS :
i n ova cij os , p sic h olog ija , eko nom ika
I nnov ati o ns , P sy c holo gy , Econom ic s
2016, Vol. 7, No. 2 (12)
2016, t. 7, Nr. 2 (12)
Turinys
✻
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS:
•
Contents
Psichologija • Psychology
Irina Plotka, Dmitry Igonin, Nina Blumenau. IMPLICIT ATTITUDES AND MEASUREMENTS:
EFFECT OF CONTEXT (Monograph) ................................................................................................ 7
Slaptieji poţiūrio matavimai: konteksto įtaka (monografija)
Introduction. Basic theoretical problems in research of implicit attitudes.
The evolution of ideas about the concept of attitude ..................................................................................... 8
A brief history of attitude research .............................................................................................................. 10
Dual - processes models of attitudes ........................................................................................................... 15
Implicit and explicit measures of attitudes .................................................................................................. 23
Context and implicit attitudes ...................................................................................................................... 28
Overview ..................................................................................................................................................... 33
Study 1. Autobiographical events as context ............................................................................................... 34
Method ........................................................................................................................................................ 34
Results. Study 1 ........................................................................................................................................... 40
Discussion and conclusions. Study 1 ........................................................................................................... 48
Study 2. Experimental events as context ..................................................................................................... 50
Method ........................................................................................................................................................ 50
Results. Study2 ............................................................................................................................................ 55
Control groups ............................................................................................................................................. 74
Experimental groups ................................................................................................................................... 83
RRR-100 ...................................................................................................................................................... 86
RRR-200 ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
RRR-300 ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
RRR-400 ...................................................................................................................................................... 87
RRR-500 ...................................................................................................................................................... 88
RRR-600 ...................................................................................................................................................... 88
Discussion and conclusions on Study 2 ....................................................................................................... 93
General conclusions .................................................................................................................................... 95
Acknowledgments ....................................................................................................................................... 97
References ................................................................................................................................................... 98
Appendix A. Tables for results in Study 1 ................................................................................................. 107
Appendix B. Tables for results in Study 1. IAT ........................................................................................ 109
Appendix C. Factors interactions on RT in subliminal evaluative priming task. Study 2. Figures ............ 116
Appendix D. Research of facilitation scores. Study 2 ............................................................................... 123
Appendix E. Research of correlations. Study 2 ......................................................................................... 129
Appendix F. Research of changes of RRR and D. Study 2 ........................................................................ 130
Appendix G. Factor analysis. Study 2 ....................................................................................................... 148
Santrauka................................................................................................................................................... 150
ABOUT THE AUTHORS .................................................................................................................... 151
INFORMATION FOR AUTHORS ...................................................................................................... 152
Psichologija ·
2016, t. 7, Nr. 2 (12), p. 7–150
✻
Psychology
2016, Vol. 7, No. 2 (12), pp. 7–150
Implicit Attitudes and Measurements:
Effect of Context
Irina Plotka
Baltic International Academy
E-mail: [email protected]
Dmitry Igonin
Nina Blumenau
A particular issue of implicit social cognition is the study of the influence of various contextual factors
both on implicit measurement procedures, and changes in implicit attitudes (basic associations with
the object of attitude). The papers on the study of mechanisms of contextual influences are relatively
few in number. The aim of the research is to study the influence of contextual factors on implicit attitudes and their measures on the example of ethnic attitudes. Implementation of this aim has been
carried out in two independent studies. In the first study we researched implicit ethnic attitudes of
the participants who reported the presence of events related to ethnic attitudes in their recent autobiographical experiences. These events were observed as contextual factors in measuring implicit
attitudes by the method of subliminal evaluative (affective) priming (SEP). In the second study the
contextual factor was the event generated by watching one of the videos showing conflict or supporting interethnic interactions or neutral events. Participants performed two sessions of implicit
measurements of attitudes by using the procedure of the Implicit Association Test (IAT) and SEP. Retest was performed with different delay times. The program of both studies also included the use of
self-assessment procedures of ethnic attitudes and a questionnaire for subjective evaluation of emotional significance of contextual events. The study involved 238 participants of both sexes aged 17 to
50 years. The first study involved Latvians and Russians, the second - only Russians. Analysis of SEP
effects was conducted in terms of an approach based on the concept of activation spread in a semantic network. As a result, both studies have found a reliable influence of contextual factors on implicit
measures of ethnic attitudes, as well as similar changes in reaction time under the influence of contextual factors in the performance of experimental tasks by participants. These changes were associated with the influence of affective valence of a contextual event and the strength of its emotional
INTERNATIONAL BUSINESS: Innovations, Psychology, Economics. 2016, Vol. 7, No. 2 (12)
8
I. Plotka, D. Igonin, N. Blumenau. I MPLICIT A TTITUDES AND MEASUREMENTS : E FFECT OF C ONTEXT
impact. In the second study, these changes have also been associated with the time interval between the contextual event and repeated implicit measurement of attitudes. Contextual events had
a significant impact on implicit measures of attitudes (facilitation variables, attitudes, single indices
of implicit preference (SIIP), D-scores). It was found that SIIP with stimulus onset asynchrony (SOA)
300, 500 and 100 ms and 200 ms is closely related to explicit measures of attitudes. The results support the hypothesis that at different times of SOA there is separate cognitive processing of context
conditioned and basic associations related to the object of attitude. Processes that define SIIP with
SOA 300, 500 and probably 100 and 600 ms are associated with implicit and explicit
(“hyperidentity”) ethnic attitude, while processes occurring with SOA 200, 400 ms are related to
associations that underlie alternative ethnic attitude (“hypoidentity”). Artificially created contextual
events affected the system of correlations between variables - indicators of basic and alternative
ethnic attitudes. Contextual impacts allegedly creating new associations with the object of attitude,
prone to more rapid inhibition if they correspond to basic attitude and slower – if they correspond
to alternative ethnic attitude. The results contribute to better understanding of mechanisms of contextual influences on implicit attitudes and their measures.
Key words: Implicit, explicit attitudes, context effect, ethnic attitude, affective priming, IAT, retest
delay effect.
Introduction. Basic theoretical problems in research
of implicit attitudes. The
evolution of ideas about
the concept of attitude
of all, it characterizes a relation of an individual to some object that is based on evaluations of the information about the object.
Since the relation to the object reflects emotions, it is not coincidentally that in general
psychological definition of attitudes their
most important component is, primarily, ref-
In the history of social psychology the con-
erences to emotions and feelings. For exam-
cept of attitude is one of the central. The re-
ple, R. Petty and J. Cacioppo define attitude
search of attitudes is a matter of great con-
as “a general and enduring positive or nega-
cern, primarily because of its relation to the
tive feeling about some person, object, or
behavior. In a broader context, the im-
issue.” (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, р.7).
portance of attitude is determined by how it
Other definitions of attitude are centered
is related to different spheres of an individu-
on emphasizing its evaluative nature, i.e., its
al‟s social life.
formation as a result of evaluation of the ob-
There are various definitions of the con-
ject. In the broad sense “evaluation refers to
cept of attitude, which depend on the theoret-
the actions on differentiation of good from
ic views of researchers, objectives, instru-
bad”, in other words – of favorable from un-
ments and context of the study. The essence
favorable (Cacioppo & Berntson, 1994; Ea-
of attitude is expressed in the fact that, first
gly & Chaiken, 1993). Evaluation is one of
T ARPTAUTINIS VERSLAS : inovacijos, psichologija, ekonomika. 2016, t. 7, Nr. 2 (12)
I. Plotka, D. Igonin, N. Blumenau. I MPLICIT A TTITUDES AND M EASUREMENTS : E FFECT OF C ONTEXT
9
the basic psychological processes by virtue of
evaluation of the object” (Fazio, 1995,
its global representation in human mental
p.247) that points directly to the associations
life, and of the role that it plays in determin-
as a mechanism of the attitudes formation,
ing the meaning of words and different as-
and to memory as the system of storage of
pects of reality. The close relations of the
mental representations. The definitions of
evaluation process with the fundamental be-
attitude, focused on the underlying types of
havioral mechanisms of preference and
information and sources of estimates are
avoidance are also noted. It is not coinci-
common. In this case, such definitions im-
dentally that the definitions of attitude are
plicitly indicate a structure of attitude. Thus,
organically related to the concept of evalua-
the attitude is defined “as generalized evalua-
tion, since references to evaluation in this
tion of the object, which is based on the cog-
case may be related to aspects of the emo-
nitive,
tional valence of the attitude to the object or
mation” (Maio & Haddock, 2015, p.18). This
be considered in the context of a broader
definition assumes three contensive compo-
class of different sources of appraisals. Atti-
nents of attitude cognitive, affective, behav-
tude is also defined as “the categorization of
ioral, and relevant information sources for
a stimulus object along an evaluative dimen-
concrete evaluations, which are then as-
sion” (Zanna & Rempel, 1988, p.319).
sumed as a basis of generalized evaluation of
affective
and
behavioral
infor-
Modern cognitive psychologists mean by
the attitude object. In brief, modern concep-
attitudes, in a broad sense, integration of cog-
tualization of attitude is reflected in the fact
nitive and emotional evaluations of an object,
that the attitude is the overall generalized
which can vary in strength (Olson &
evaluative information about the object. Atti-
Kendrick, 2008). In fact, in this interpretation
tudes can be formed to a diverse range of
the issue is that the content of the evaluation
objects (or stimuli), such as events, abstract
is an association between the object of atti-
(nationality), personal (self-esteem), social
tude and a positive or negative affective va-
and psychological (another individual, social
lence, which, in appropriate situation, will
group), such concepts as behavior (for exam-
determine positive, negative or neutral mode
ple, eating behavior, deviant behavior) and
of individual‟s responding. More narrow
others. Evaluative tendency mediates the
definitions of attitude in the context of cogni-
relation of certain stimuli (objects of attitude)
tivism contain direct references to concepts
and corresponding responses. The tendency
that reflect the theoretical representations of
to evaluate is determined by individual expe-
the processes, responsible for formation and
rience and should have different expressive
storage of attitudes. For example, R. Fazio
symbols (Bohner, 2001/2004, р.233).
defines attitude as “an association in memory
In the definition of attitude, besides the
between a given object and a given summary
object of attitude, a mental process of evalua-
I NTERNATIONAL BUSINESS : Innovations, Psychology, Economics. 2016, Vol. 7, No. 2 (12)
10
tion is distinguished. What is the object of
attitude? Basically, attitude objects can be
anything that is evaluated along a dimension
A brief history of attitude
research
of favorability.
In order to mediate evaluative responses,
Attitude research has a long and venerable
attitudes should be presented in memory and
history that began in the early 20th century
be retrieved from it, when we are faced with
(Allport, 1935; Bogardus, 1925; Thurstone,
the appropriate objects. The process of actu-
1928) and continues today as a central theme
alization of attitudes may require some ef-
in social psychology (Albarracin, Johnson, &
forts and be controlled or occurs spontane-
Zanna, 2005; Banaji & Heiphetz, 2010). Ana-
ously and automatically. When experiment
lyzing the history of the attitude research,
participants are asked to evaluate something,
scientists, usually, start with reviews relating
they can arbitrary construct judgment, using
to the issues of origin of the concept of atti-
information stored in the memory.
tude. Therefore, in the first paragraph of this
However, the mere presence of the object
monograph the authors paid attention to the
of attitude can automatically cause the evalu-
different understandings of the concept of
ative response without intentional delibera-
attitude associated with different theoretical
tion or recalling (Bargh, 1997; Bargh,
ideas of researchers. In the early 20th centu-
Chaiken, Govender, & Pratto, 1992). Auto-
ry, social psychologists have raised the ques-
matic operation of attitudes can affect judg-
tion about the possibility of measuring of
ment and behavior, that, seemingly, have no
attitudes and of measuring methods. Psy-
direct relation to them, and an individual
chologists were interested in the measure-
himself/herself may not be aware of it.
ment of subjective mental attributes, similar
(Bohner, 2001/2004, p. 234). Greenwald and
to attitudes in the modern sense of the con-
Banaji (1995) introduced the term “implicit
cept. Development of new methods contribut-
attitudes” to refer to such influence.
ed to a better understanding of attitudes and
Research of attitudes is of great im-
of their change. According to reviews pre-
portance in terms of studying of function, as
sented by different researchers (Maio & Had-
they are associated with realization of the
dock, 2015; Blair, Dasgupta, & Glaser,
psychological needs of a person (Maio &
2015), the first works, related to the measure-
Haddock, 2015, p. 13). There are such func-
ment procedures were presented by Thur-
tions of attitudes as, for example, knowledge
stone and Likert (Thurstone, 1928; Thurstone
function, utilitarian function, social identity
& Chave, 1929; Likert, 1932). For the first
function, self-esteem maintenance function,
time LaPierre (1934) indicated the relation-
and self-monitoring of behavior.
ship of attitude of a person and his/her behavior. There are also known other works related
11
to attitudes (Guttman, 1944; Osgood, Suci, &
Bohner, 2001/2004). Despite some funda-
Tannenbaum, 1957).
mental difference between the theories of
One of the important stages in the under-
cognitive consistency (Abelson, et al., 1968),
standing of attitude is the issue of its struc-
most of them share the assumption that cog-
ture. The evidence of this provision became
nitive inconsistency causes the unpleasant
the emergence of a variety of works that fo-
feeling which has powerful influence on the
cused attention on the organization and struc-
judgments,
ture
three-
(Gawronski, Strack, & Bodenhausen, 2009).
component model of attitude includes the
Research on cognitive dissonance (Festinger,
affective component (emotions (affect) and
1957), for example, has repeatedly shown
feelings), cognitive component - beliefs and
that people change their attitudes or their
knowledge, and behavioral component - ac-
behavior in order to reduce the uncomforta-
tions and behavior intentions. (Hovland &
ble feeling caused by inconsistent cognitions
Rosenberg, 1960; Brinol & Petty, 2012).
(Harmon-Jones & Mills, 1999; Gawronski et
“Although the basic idea of the tripartite
al., 2009). Many researches emphasized the
model – that attitudes can be based on differ-
existence of cognitive-affective consistency
ent kinds of information – is accepted today,
or affective-evaluative consistency, as well as
the notion that attitudes invariably include
levels of their expression. It was shown,
affective, cognitive and behavioral compo-
(Chaiken,
nents is not. Rather, attitudes are better char-
1995), that attitudes with high cognitive-
acterized as containing one more of these
affective consistency or affective-evaluative
elements
influencing
consistency equally easy reproduced and
them” (Zanna & Rempel, 1988; Brinol &
stable over time, but those which are marked
Petty, 2012, р. 287). More widespread under-
by low indices of consistency of both types,
standing of attitude is that they are object-
demonstrates difficulties in actualization and
evaluation associations, kept in memory
instability in time. The notion of attitude
(Fazio, 2007).
strength is usually associated with its high
of
attitude.
as
Tripartite
well
as
or
decisions
Pomerantz,
and
&
behavior
Giner-Sorolla,
Since the early 1950s, cognitive con-
affective-evaluative consistency. Many au-
sistency has been a topic of continuing inter-
thors draw attention to the “strength” of the
est in social psychology. The growing inter-
evaluative response itself, noting its ex-
est to the understanding of cognitive con-
tremality and accessibility (fast emergence of
sistency was due to the fact that this concept
attitude in consciousness) (Fazio, 1995; Boh-
provided a better understanding of the organ-
ner, 2001/2004). The strength of attitude,
ization and change of attitude (Brinol & Pet-
associated with its high affective-evaluative
ty, 2012). The first researches of cognitive-
consistency, is determined by the fact that
affective consistency associated with the
any encounter with the object of attitude
name of Rosenberg (Brinol & Petty, 2012;
causes definite and strong feelings, on the
12
basis of which further the judgments are
lined. (Maio & Haddock, 2015). A number
made. Further development of the concept of
of new theories emerged, such as the theory
attitude strength is related to the fact, to what
of cognitive compliance, the Ballance theory
extent attitudes are persistent over time, re-
by Heider (1946), the theory of cognitive
sistant to change, likely to influence infor-
dissonance by Festinger (1957), and others.
mation processing, and predict behavior
The Balance theory contributed to the under-
(Krosnick & Petty, 1995). Others have at-
standing of how attitudes towards different
tempted to answer the question, what is the
issues and people are linked in the mind of
role of attitude strength in their stability or
individual (Heider, 1946). The Balance theo-
instability and the degree to which attitudes
ry suggests that “individuals tend to maintain
are stable versus temporary (Wilson, Lind-
and
sey, & Schooler, 2000).
knowledge” (Bohner, 2001/2004, p. 239). At
restore
a
balance
between
their
Researches related to cognitive consisten-
this stage of the development of science it
cy prevailed, basically, with regard to explic-
was important to understand what factors
it attitude measures. However, this construct
determine human attitudes.
has acquired emphasis in connection with the
A lot of studies have been devoted to
development of implicit measurement (Fazio
persuasion of the individual. Normally, per-
& Olson, 2003; Gawronski et al., 2009). This
suasion means a change of attitude (when
application of implicit attitude measures to
new facts about the object obtained) as a
investigate consistency phenomena was ex-
result of processing of the information, often
pected to improve our understanding of both
in response to additional information about
implicit measures (Greenwald, Banaji, Rud-
the object of attitude (Chaiken, Wood, &
man, Farnham, Nosek, & Mellott, 2002) and
Eagly, 1996; Petty & Wegener, 1998). Fur-
cognitive consistency in general (Gawronski
ther, various theories have arisen, distin-
& Strack, 2004; Gawronski et al., 2009).
guishing persuasion by the degree of cogni-
Later, the new tendencies in considera-
tive effort required for processing infor-
tion of attitudes as context-dependent and
mation (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981). Those
changing over time, as opposed to the tradi-
theories that considered persuasion as requir-
tional understanding of attitude as “stable
ing minor cognitive effort, tried to explain
knowledge structure” emerged.
the mechanisms of change of attitude, using
In 40–60s of the twentieth century the
the ideas of classical or operant conditioning.
growth of a social cognition perspective,
Hence, other authors emphasized the im-
which was based on understanding of how a
portance of mood influence on value judg-
person processes the socially significant in-
ments regarding the object of attitude. The
formation and how attitude affects the infor-
feelings and subjective experiences were
mation processing and behavior, was out-
seen as special cases of heuristic processing.
13
The role of heuristics is especially great when
emerged in the 80s of the twentieth century.
the individual is not enough motivated and
Attitude researches frequently noted that atti-
able to resort to more sophisticated methods
tudes are based on cognitive, affective and
of information processing (Allport, 1954;
behavioral information. At the same time the
Bohner, Moskowitz, & Chaiken, 1995; Boh-
two-process models began to develop inten-
ner, 2001/2004).
sively: the Elaboration Likelihood Model
The important point was the emergence of
(ELM) (Petty & Cacioppo, 1981, 1986) and
another approach, emphasizing the important
the
role of active mental processes (cognitive
(Chaiken, 1980; Chaiken, Liberman, & Ea-
efforts) involved in changing attitudes. This
gly, 1989). The ELM and HSM are both dual
situation contributed to the creation of Green-
-process models in that they specify two dif-
wald‟s theory of Cognitive Response Ap-
ferent routes to persuasion. The ELM refers
proach to attitude change (Greenwald, 1968;
to a central route and a peripheral route: the
McGuire, 1981). The essence of which was
central route requires an individual to pay
that when the message of persuasive nature
close attention to the contents of persuasive
emerges, people actively relate its content
appeal, whereas the peripheral route requires
with their already existing knowledge and
less thought.
attitudes, creating new cognitive responses
Heuristic-Systematic
Model
(HSM)
The representatives of this trend considered both the basic provisions of the Cogni-
(Bohner, 2001/2004).
It should be noted that a new field of re-
tive Response Approach theory on the active
search, referred to as the socio-cognitive per-
“costly” information processing, and other
spective, considered not only issues related to
theories that allow the possibility of forming
the influence of attitudes on the process of
persuasion without special effort on the part
information processing, but upon behavior as
of the subject. ELM model suggests that the
well (Maio & Haddock, 2015).
formation of persuasion depends on the influ-
The problem of how attitudes affect be-
ence of the central or peripheral processes of
and
information processing, and the central pro-
Fishbein‟s Theory of Reasoned Action
cesses require more cognitive effort than pe-
(Ajzen & Fishbein, 1980). The theory makes
ripheral. If a person has little time, his/her
it possible to predict a reasonable and rational
resources are limited and there is no way to
behavior on the basis of attitudes. Later, it
carefully analyze the message, then the pe-
served as the basis for the motivational model
ripheral processes are launched. The proba-
as determinant of behavior - MODE by R.
bility that the person will process information
Fazio (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams,
in details is related to the motivation and ca-
1995).
pabilities of the individual. “The higher the
havior
was
developed
in
Ajzen
A new wave in the study of attitudes
motivation and capabilities of the individual,
14
the more likely it will involve the central
cessing (Pierre, Manetti, Kruglanski, &
processes
Sleeth-Keppler, 2004) denies the basic pro-
of
information
processing”
(Bohner, 2001/2004, p. 247).
visions of the previous models. The provi-
The Heuristic-Systematic Model (HSM)
sions of the universal models suggest that in
(Chaiken, 1980; Chaiken et al., 1989) has
the case of two types of context influence -
similarity to the above model in that the
both peripheral
mental effort depends on the motivation and
(systematic), signals are processed proposi-
cognitive capacities of the individual. The
tionally, i.e., the semantic level of pro-
systematic processing (similar to the central
cessing is involved. Moreover, both process-
processing) is defined as a comprehensive
es are top-down cognitive processes and
and analytical, where “an individual in order
equally influence the measurement results.
(heuristic)
and
central
to form an opinion should carefully analyze
The aforementioned two-process models
all relevant information and synthesize all
had a great impact on the development of a
the useful information” (Chaiken et al.,
new understanding of attitudes in the context
1989, p.212). Heuristic processing is deter-
of implicit social cognition. Development of
mined in broader terms and involves the use
implicit social cognition contributed to ad-
of heuristics - simple rules of conclusions.
vances in computer technology, as well as
Although it is assumed that the heuristic
the penetration of cognitive psychology in
processing is passive and does not require
the social psychology. An important deve-
any effort to run it, you need a key attribute
lopment was the emergence of the classifica-
(e.g., pleasant or credible source), which
tion of cognitive processes based on various
indicates the possibility of its use (if any
criteria. The strategy of cognitive infor-
heuristics found in subject‟s memory). With
mation processing allocates metacognitive,
an increase in motivation and processing
basic strategic processes (Chaiken, 1987); by
capacity growth a systematic analysis of the
the level of awareness of cognitive pro-
information begins to be carried out, but
cessing by the subject - conscious, uncon-
heuristics continue to work as well. Both
scious (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Dehae-
processes together influence the process of
ne, 2007); by participation of attention pro-
persuasion, just complementing each other
cesses (monitoring) - controlled, automatic
and leading to some complex effect (Bohner
(Bargh, 1994; Posner & Snayder, 1975); by
et al., 1995) According to Maio and Had-
the contribution of the subject to the learning
dock (2007, 2015), “these models have pro-
process - descending, ascending (Norman &
vided and continue to provide important
Rumelhard, 1975; Ochsner, Ray, Robertson,
insights into the processes underlying atti-
Cooper, Gross, & Gabrieli, 2009); by the
tude change” (Maio & Haddock, 2007,
degree of autonomy and isolation of cogni-
2015, p. 22).
tive
Universal model of information pro-
processing
-
controlled,
modular
(Jackendoff, 1992; Fodor, 1983). Also, a
15
new class of attitude measuring procedures
cessing (Devine, 1989; Fazio, 1990; Fazio et
called implicit measurements emerged (e.g.,
al., 1995; Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2007;
based on millisecond timing accuracy for key
Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Smith & de-
-stroke responses). Implicit measurements
Coster, 2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004;
assess attitudes without requiring individu-
Chaiken & Trope, 1999). One of them is as-
als‟ awareness of their attitude or how it is
sociative, based on associations by similarity,
being measured (Petty, Fazio, & Brinol,
contiguity and space, time, and the other – a
2009).
propositional process which operates on the
The emergence of new technologies for
basis of logical analysis and reasoning
attitude measurement over time will provide
(Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2007; Payne &
a new theoretical interpretation of the atti-
Gawronski, 2010).
tude construct; contribute to the creation of
It is a common feeling that both the ex-
various directions in implicit social cogni-
plicit and implicit attitudes can be seen as the
tion, as well as models explaining the nature,
result of the learning process. The individual,
origin and attitude changes. Interestingly, a
when confronted with the objects of the sur-
research has revealed that in many domains,
rounding world, forms an attitude towards
responses on implicit measures of attitude
them, based on the experience of subject-
are often not consistent with people's self-
object interactions on behavioral, cognitive
reported ratings of their own attitudes (Petty
and/or affective level. The results of this in-
et al., 2009). Similarly, implicit measures of
teraction are recorded in memory in the form
attitude often predict different outcomes
of estimates of object properties, which are
from self-report measurements (Perugini,
various in content and the level of generaliza-
Richetin, & Zogmaister, 2010).
tion, i.e., they are the product of explicit or
implicit learning.
Traditional theories of human learning
Dual - processes models of
attitudes
note the dual nature of its mechanisms. In the
basis of the first learning mechanism there is
automatic and unconscious formation of associative links. The basis of the second
In the literature dealing with the problem of
mechanism is the formation of conscious and
studying attitudes authors are conducting
conclusions. Both mechanisms correspond to
numerous disputes concerning the under-
two independent and competing systems –
standing of the concept of attitude and theo-
associative and propositional. The first sys-
retical models explaining its nature. Basical-
tem generates associative knowledge about
ly, the most of theoretical models present
the world, the second, in the end - the propo-
implicit and explicit attitudes as two qualita-
sitional. The propositional system has a hig-
tively different modes of psychological pro-
her order. Associations and propositions as a
16
form of existence of knowledge differ in the
al conceptualization of attitude, which had
way of mental representations, as well as the
the largest circulation in the initial period of
conditions under which they are activated
the study of implicit attitudes (Greenwald &
and direct behavior (Mitchell, De Houwer, &
Banaji, 1995; Smith & DeCoster, 2000; Wil-
Lovibond, 2009). These views have contrib-
son et al., 2000). As part of the dispositional
uted to the theoretical understanding of the
approach, there is a streamline which states
concept of implicit attitude.
that the explicit and implicit attitudes have a
One of the first assumptions for distin-
same underlying mental representation that is
guishing the theories was the extent to which
stored in the memory, and the second line
they rely on the associative and propositional
considers that there are two separate mental
approaches in interpreting the results of ex-
representations. In terms of the second
plicit and implicit measurement of attitudes,
streamline both the implicit and explicit atti-
as well as in understanding the nature of atti-
tudes are separate and do not interact with
tudes in general.
each other by mental representations of eval-
Explicit attitudes have been understood as
uations of the same object.
a product of primarily propositional, in fact
Implicit estimates are a reflection of men-
logical processes, and implicit - as a result of
tal associations, formed in the early stages of
associative.
acquisition of the social experience (De Hart,
The first processes are deliberate, con-
Pelham, & Tennen, 2006; Rudman, 2004).
scious, slow, the second - fast, automatic,
Upon completion of its formation, these asso-
unconscious. If the propositional processes
ciations are accepted as unchangeable, stable
are based on syllogistic conclusions made
over time and resistant to contextual influ-
according to the rules, then the associative
ences. From this perspective, implicit atti-
processes are related to the formation and
tudes are automatic evaluations, while, in
activation of associations resulting from the
contrast, explicit attitudes are associated with
effects of spatiotemporal contiguity of events
recent and contextual effects and are not au-
and perceptual similarity between stimuli.
tomatic. In addition to the notion that implicit
The associational approach assumes that
and explicit attitudes have different mental
the attitude is a form of mental representa-
representations, as part of dispositional ap-
tion, stored in the memory, i.e., represented
proach a different understanding has been
as a memory trace with a certain structure in
suggested: implicit and explicit attitudes have
a finished form for subsequent use. Elemen-
common representation in memory, but the
tary mental representations are, for example,
difference between them is specified by the
the stored in the memory simple associations
level of mental processes which determine
between evaluations and the object of atti-
the observed behavior, for example, when
tude. Such a view corresponds to disposition-
direct and indirect measurements of attitudes
(Fazio & Towles-Schwen, 1999; Olson &
17
& Bodenhausen, 2006).
Fazio, 2009). The first process is automatic,
As an alternative to the associative ap-
the second is deliberative. Which of the pro-
proach to the understanding of implicit atti-
cesses will be dominant is determined by
tudes a functional approach was proposed,
motivation and the ability to carry out delib-
which is the basis of the model of attitudes
erate and full evaluation of the object.
called The relational elaboration and coher-
In turn, the proponents of the proposition-
ence (REC) model (Barnes-Holmes, D.,
al approach have been developing their ideas
Barnes-Holmes, Y., Stewart, & Boles, 2010)
within the frameworks of structuralistic con-
and implicit procedure for their measurement
cepts. The main difference between the prop-
of IRAP (Implicit Relational Assessment
ositional and dispositional (strictly associa-
Procedure) (Barnes-Holmes, D., Barnes-
tional) approach is the refusal of the under-
Holmes, Y., Power, Hayden, Milne, & Stew-
standing of attitudes as unchangeable and
art, 2006). The IRAP procedure is used in a
static structures, stored in memory and di-
growing number of research and its results
rectly determining the responses observed in
correspond with the results of alternative
the measurements of attitudes. An alternative
methods of implicit measurement. The func-
idea has been reduced to the notion of atti-
tional approach in some respects is similar to
tudes as a result of instant associations
the propositional, though they are two differ-
formed under the influence of cognitive, mo-
ent levels of analysis. However, in future we
tivational and contextual factors. In this
can expect their convergence.
sense, the formation of attitude is the result
Scheme 1 (Fig.1) presents the classifica-
of high-level processing, where the reasoning
tion of approaches and the most influential
plays an important role. The dominant role of
contemporary models of attitudes, developed
these associations formed does not change
in the framework of these approaches. Loca-
the recognition of the existence and stored in
tion of model designations from left to right
memory relevant object-associative evalua-
on the Scheme represents the degree of re-
tions and their participation in the formation
moteness of their assumptions from exclu-
of attitude.
sively associational to propositional.
Thus, the proponents of the propositional
approach recognize that although the implicit
The above Scheme shows that the major
dual process models include:
and explicit attitudes have separate and dis-
The Single attitude model – Motivation
tinct mental representations, associated with
and Opportunity as Determinants (MODE)
different processes and manifest themselves
model (Fazio, Jackson, Dunton, & Williams
in different situations, the associative and
1995; Fazio, 2007; Olson & Fazio, 2009); the
propositional processes interact and must be
model of double attitudes (Wilson et al.,
considered in models of attitudes (Gawronski
2000), the meta-cognitive model (MCM)
18
FIG.1. The theoretical framework of authoritative contemporary models of attitudes and
their classification
(Petty & Brinol, 2006; Petty, Brinol, & De-
& Fazio, 2009). “To the degree that this asso-
Marree, 2007), the associative-propositional
ciation is sufficiently strong, the evaluation
evaluation (APE) model (Gawronski & Bo-
associated with the object may be activated
denhausen's, 2006a, 2006b, 2007), the con-
automatically when encountering that object
structivist
2007;
(i.e., without intention to evaluate the ob-
Schwarz & Bohner, 2001). Subsequently, we
ject)” (Gawronski & Sritharan, 2010 p. 217).
will focus in more detail on the characteris-
This model is mainly focused on the study of
tics of each model.
association between attitude and behavior. It
approach
(Schwarz,
was one of the first models to integrate the
experiences of implicit attitudes measuring,
Single Attitude Model
based on the reaction time and the measurement of explicit attitudes, based on paper-and
The MODE model. The theoretical foun-
-pencil measures (Rydell & McConell,
dation of the MODE model is in the defini-
2010). According to this approach, explicit
tion of attitude as the mental association be-
and implicit attitudes have a same underlying
tween an object and one‟s summary evalua-
mental representation that is stored in the
tion of that object (Fazio, 2007; Petty, Brinol,
memory, but their differences are determined
19
by the level of mental processes that deter-
automatically, and explicit attitude, which
mine behavior. In that case, if the motivation
requires cognitive efforts to retrieve it from
and the opportunity to participate in the labor
memory (Gawronksi & Sritharan, 2010).
-intensive processes is low, then the subse-
Similarity to the MODE model is that the
quent behavior is under the influence of auto-
results of compliance of the direct and indi-
matically activated attitude, and if they are
rect measurements depend on the level of
high, the behavior is caused by “thoughtful
cognitive effort and of participants‟ interest
attitudes” (Fazio & Towles-Schwen, 1999;
in the results of measurements. The differ-
Petty & Brinol, 2010). Direct and indirect
ence of the double attitudes model is a differ-
measurements can reflect the same results if
ent understanding of the origin of explicit
in both types of measurements the intellectu-
and implicit attitudes.
ally intensive processes are involved identi-
The Dual Attitude Model assumes the
cally. Indirect measurements, such as the
presence of two mental representations,
procedure of evaluative priming (Fazio et al.,
which are separate and do not interact with
1995) help to reduce the level of cognitive
each other. Within the framework of this
effort in solving the task, and thus provide an
model, the implicit attitude is associated with
alternative to the automatic activation of atti-
persistent memory structures, while the ex-
tudes.
plicit attitude – with a new human experi-
Many researchers have suggested that the
ence that has not yet entered into the deeper
influence of contextual factors on the implicit
memory structures, but already relevant and
measurement of attitudes is unlikely. Despite
used. The discrepancy in the results of meas-
this, the others admit the possibility of chang-
urements is due to the influence of the deep
es in implicit measurements under the influ-
(stable) memory structures. Results of the
ence of context (Barden, Maddux, Petty, &
consistency between direct and indirect
Brewer, 2004; Blair, Ma, & Lenton, 2001;
measurements depend on the level of cogni-
Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001; Wittenbrink,
tive efforts and participant‟s interest in meas-
Judd, & Park, 2001).
urement results (Wilson et al, 2000). The
dual attitude model admits that when attitudes are changing, the old implicit attitude
Dual Attitude Model
still stays in memory, influencing people's
judgment and behavior when they are not
Dual Attitude Model. According to the Dual
able or not motivated to participate in the
Attitude Model (Wilson, Lindsay, & Shool-
labor-intensive process of extracting their
ers, 2000) people often have two attitudes
new explicit attitude from the memory.
towards the same object stored in the
The main achievements of this approach
memory: implicit attitude, which is activated
are related to the way the attitude is formed
20
and varies. Same as in the MODE model, the
order to extract this label from memory.
dual-attitude model states that the associa-
The Meta - Cognitive Model primarily
tions reflected in implicit measures are high-
focuses on the differences between direct
ly overlearned and stable (Payne & Gawron-
and indirect measurements of attitudes
ski, 2010; Gawronksi & Sritharan, 2010).
(Petty & Brinol, 2006; Petty et al., 2007).
The Dual Attitude Model implies that
Both types of attitude can be activated auto-
simple context effects are more likely for
matically in the event of their equal value,
explicit measures.
which can lead to a neutral evaluation of
indirect measurement results, since simulta-
Metacognitive Model (MCM). The MCM
neous activation of antagonistic attitudes
is a relatively new model, offered by Petty
contributes to the formation of implicit am-
and Brinol in 2006. Similar to the MODE
bivalence (De Liver, Vander Pligt, & Wig-
model, it assumes that attitudes constitute
boldus, 2007). The effect of conformity be-
objects evaluations, kept in memory. But,
tween the measurements can be expected in
MCM postulates that objects of the attitudes
the case where both the old and the new in-
can, sometimes, be simultaneously connect-
formation regarding the object of attitude
ed to the positive and negative valence
have roughly the same evaluative meaning,
(Rydell & McConnell, 2010; Petty et al.,
or if the information is contradictory, but
2009). The difference of the Meta-Cognitive
subjectively accurate. According to state-
Model from the previous models is in the
ments of this model, influence of contextual
understanding of how the old and newly
factors on the implicit measurement is un-
formed attitudes function. In the foundation
likely.
of interaction there are the tags such as “false
While agreeing in general with the as-
attitude,” in that case, if the old attitude is
sumptions of the MODE model with regard
rejected by a newly acquired attitude. In
to relatively low impact of the context on the
case, if the validity of previously formed (so-
results of indirect measurements, the meta -
called “old”) attitude is contested by the
cognitive model considers the possibility of
newly formed (or “new”) attitude, the “old”
such an effect. In the case of implicit ambiv-
one will be labeled as “improper” or
alence, in conditions of enhanced processing
“wrong” (Petty & Brinol, 2010). But, due to
of information about the object, the signals
the fact that the old attitude has more devel-
of the situation context activate various sub-
oped associative network, and a new label,
sets of associations stored in memory, and
indicating its unsuitability, is still weak, the
some of them may have an impact on the
effect of the label on the judgment depends
implicit measurement indicators (Barden et
on the level of motivation and the cognitive
al., 2004; Dasgupta & Greenwald, 2001;
effort that the person is ready to apply in
Wittenbrink et al., 2001).
21
The model of Associative–Propositional
Evaluation (APE). The model of Associa-
attitude model (MODE model) and from the
tive–Propositional Evaluation (APE) was
dual attitude model in the way that it does not
developed by Gawronski and Bodenhausen
imply the existence of stable evaluations
on the basis of the Reflective – Impulsive
stored in the memory (Olson & Fazio, 2009).
The APE model differs from the single
Model by Strack and Deutsch (2004), espe-
The development of this model in the
cially in order to integrate different theoreti-
framework of the constructivist approach
cal achievements into a single structure
argues that attitudes appear as needed, based
(Gawronski & Bodenhausen, 2006, 2007).
on feelings and opinions (Schwarz & Bohner,
The APE model recognizes the existence of
2001; Wilson & Hodges, 1992; Olson &
associative and propositional evaluation pro-
Fazio, 2009). In this regard, various contexts
cesses, which are reflected in the implicit and
provide access to a variety of emotions and
explicit measurements of attitudes. The APE
knowledge, which are reflected in the chang-
model states the existence of previously
es of human evaluations. Any conformity in
formed (preexisting) associations in the
the results of implicit and explicit measure-
memory and an instant set of input stimuli
ment of attitudes, according to this view, is
(Gawronski et al., 2009).
because at every moment the same set of
Associative and propositional processes
building blocks is being recreated, which are
interact with each other. Activated associa-
reflected in the current evaluation. The re-
tions usually serve as the basis for an explicit
sults of indirect measurements can be consid-
decision, if the information resulting from
ered as a result of activation of information
these associations was rejected because of its
that has not yet tagged as true or false. Re-
inconformity with other information instantly
sults of direct measurement reflect the results
considered. This presumes the impact of as-
of activities of propositional processes –
sociative processes on propositional process-
when all information is verified and defined
es. Furthermore, the propositional process of
as subjectively true.
checking sometimes may activate new asso-
In addition, the APE model has a number
ciations in the memory, for example, by
of implications for the contextual effects. The
means of intentional search process (Blair et
structure of the association which is activated
al., 2001) that determines the effect of the
in response to a stimulus depends on the
associative processes on propositional pro-
overall set of input stimuli that includes con-
cesses. These two processes may be per-
textual signals and other contextual infor-
formed simultaneously or separately, which
mation (Barden et al., 2004; Dasgupta &
leads to different results in each of the possi-
Greenwald, 2001; Wittenbrink et al., 2001).
ble combinations (Gawronski & Bodenhasen,
Hence, the newly formed associations are
2006a).
connected with the signals of context in
22
which they were formed. Contextual stimuli
and explicit attitudes differ in what they ac-
are associated with a subset of the associa-
cess from memory or demand different re-
tions connected with the object of attitude. If
sponses based on framing (Schwarz, 1999).
the new association does not compete with
According to a constructivist perspective, a
the existing, the context value is not reflected
significant factor in the discrepancy between
in the implicit measurements. In the opposite
implicit and explicit attitudes is the time fac-
case, if new information is rejected, its evalu-
tor. Since the explicit methods require more
ation becomes dependent on the influence of
time, this significantly affects the design
context, as it continues to be associated with
process, as it provides easy access to more
the subset of associations and effects the
concepts than in the case of fast implicit
results of the implicit measurements (Rydell
measurements (Rydell, McConnell, 2010). It
& Gawronski, 2009; Gawronski & Sritharan,
is obvious that the constructivist approach to
2010).
the greater extent supports the importance of
contextual stimuli in the process of construc-
The Constructivist Perspective Modeling.
Under this approach, all attitudes are consid-
tion of attitude, prioritizing the impact of
ered as immediately constructed evaluations
tude activation.
contextual stimuli on the processes of atti-
of the object reconstituted under the influ-
When conducting the explicit measure-
ence of a particular situation (Schwarz, 2007;
ments of attitudes people may draw addition-
Schwarz & Bohner, 2001). In this case, the
al information stored in the memory, as op-
term attitude does not refer to stable evalua-
posed to the implicit measurements of atti-
tive information stored in memory but rather
tude when it cannot be done.
to the process of constructing evaluations
based on the information that is available at
the time and the demands of the attitude
The Systems of Evaluation Model (SEM).
The Systems of Evaluation Model (SEM)
measure. “In this conceptualization, attitudes
(McConnell, Rydell, Strain, & Mackie, 2008;
are epiphenomena and are a by-product of
Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Rydell, McCo-
the
&
nell, Mackie, & Strain, 2006) suggests that
McConnell, 2012 p.299). Therefore, the no-
implicit and explicit constructs correspond to
tion that people possess attitudes is conceptu-
the fundamentally different cognitive sys-
ally rejected.
tems. Implicit constructs are related to the
construction
process
(Rydell
Implicit and explicit attitude measures
associative system, and explicit ones are re-
converge when the same information is
lated to the system, based on rules. This divi-
culled from memory to construct an attitude.
sion is related to developments in the field of
Implicit and explicit attitude measures will
memory research, defining two independent
differ if the methods used to assess implicit
memory systems – systems of fast and slow
23
learning (Sloman, 1996; Smith & DeCoster,
cessed, using different cognitive mecha-
2000; Strack & Deutsch, 2004). Accordingly,
nisms, may lead to inconsistent results
implicit attitudes are reconstructed according
(Rydell & McConnell, 2010).
to the principles of association and similarity
in the framework of rapid learning system,
and explicit attitudes need to add the cognitive processing based on logical principles of
information connection, and require addition-
Implicit and explicit
measures of attitudes
al cognitive resources. The model also assumes that implicit attitudes are more de-
Applying the instrumentation of cognitive
pendent on associative forms of information,
psychology to solve the social and psycho-
such as, for example, subliminal primes
logical problems gave an opportunity to use
(Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Rydell et al.,
the whole battery of new measurement pro-
2006) or associative cues, including race,
cedures, known as implicit measures, which
weight, physical attractiveness, etc. The mod-
belong to the class of unobtrusive measures.
el predicts the coincidence of implicit and
The number of researches related to the study
explicit indicators, if the valence of associa-
of various psychometric characteristics of
tive information and verbal stimuli related to
implicit measurement is increasing every
this information coincide (McConnell et al.,
year (Bar-Anan & Nosek, 2013). Popularity
2008; Rydell & McConnell, 2006; Rydell et
of implicit measures is also explained by the
al., 2006). The main contribution of this
fact that implicit measures do not require
model is the claim that the implicit and ex-
verbal report of participant about a phenome-
plicit attitudes are the “product” of various
non under study, for example, self-esteem,
types of cognitive processing (style of infor-
and attitude towards violence. Indirect
mation processing), hence, there are different
measures help to obtain information, un-
requirements to input information (inputs)
distorted by attitudes, influencing the content
and different results of its processing
of common self-reports. As the main research
(outputs). In this case, unlike other models
methods different variations of Implicit As-
(Fazio, 2007; Petty et al., 2007; Gawronski &
sociation Test (IAT) (Greenwald et al.,
Bodenhausen, 2006; Rydell & McConnell,
1998), or varieties of procedures, based on
2010) that consider the activation of implicit
the priming method are used (Fazio et al.,
and explicit attitudes as stages of the same
1995; Payne, Cheng, Govorun, & Stewart,
cognitive process, the mechanisms of activa-
2005; Wittenbrink, Judd, & Park, 1997;
tion of attitudes are seen as distinct cognitive
Payne & Gawronski, 2010). The predictive
processes. In this connection, it is assumed
validity of the measurements is high enough
that even similar types of information pro-
(Ferguson, 2007), but modern science, at this
24
stage, has no unambiguous answer relatively
larly, implicit measures of attitude often pre-
to the nature of implicit evaluation reactions
dict different outcomes from self-report
and their relation to the explicit mental mani-
measures (Perugini et al., 2010).
festations. It is known that attitudes could be
Implicit measurements imply are those
measured not only by implicit, but also by
measurements that are aimed at assessment
explicit measurements. It has been estab-
of attitude that respondents either do not real-
lished that explicit measurements often re-
ize or avoid to report (Wittenbrink &
veal not true, but socially desirable answers
Schwarz, 2007). The terms “implicit” and
that participants give only in order not to get
“explicit” refers to cognitive constructs and
the status of “hostile” (Dovidio & Gaertner,
processes, measured by various procedures.
1986). In order to reduce the effect of social
The methods, used for these measurements,
desirability, the researchers ensured the par-
are usually defined as the implicit and explic-
ticipants complete anonymity, and special
it, however, some authors appeal to use the
“lie scales” were introduced in the design of
terms “direct” and “indirect” to refer to these
self-assessment procedures. The tendency to
measurements (De Houwer, Teige-Moci-
select socially approved answers by partici-
gemba, Spruyt & Moors, 2009). Direct and
pant usually does not mean a conscious de-
indirect measurements may reflect different
ception or desire to report false judgment.
experience or its different aspects in relation
Often it is associated with the difficulty of
to the object of attitude, and indirect meas-
participant‟s self-reflection (analysis) of his/
urements do not replace, but complement the
her own attitudes, desires and beliefs.
results obtained by direct self-reported proce-
Usually the factor of social desirability
dures (Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Wilson et
effect is stronger if it concerns social assess-
al., 2000; Rudman, 2011). Explicit measure-
ments of attitude object. In addition to these
ments are direct, controlled, and conscious.
two main drawbacks – factor of social desira-
They are based on explicit knowledge of
bility and insufficiency of introspection - self
oneself. Often explicit measurements reveal
-assessment procedures have other negative
not true but socially desirable answers of
sides - inattention, replication errors, the ten-
participants. Implicit measurements are indi-
dency to anticipate the expectations of re-
rect, automatic, and unconscious. Implicit
searcher, which in turn, leads to a certain
measurements assess automatic (uncons-
distortion of judgments (Losel, 1995).
cious) evaluative reactions that come to mind
Interestingly, the research has revealed
spontaneously, with mere presentation of the
that in many domains the responses on im-
object in relation to which an attitude was
plicit measures of attitude are often not con-
formed (Petty et al., 2009).
sistent with people‟s self-reported ratings of
Current implicit measurements are based
their own attitudes (Petty et al., 2009). Simi-
on measuring the participants‟ reaction time,
25
while they perform different tasks and their
spreading activation and tendency of activa-
attention is focused on the performance of
tion of mental constructs, interconnected in
these tasks, rather than on the object of atti-
long-term memory (Anderson, 1983, Rud-
tude (Rudman, 2011). Methodological break-
man, 2011).
throughs in social psychology are linked with
The sequential priming tasks, sometimes
priming paradigm and response interference
called affective priming tasks, have been
tasks as indirect measures of automatic asso-
applied by Fazio et al. (1986). Fazio was one
ciations. There are various classifications of
of the first who applied the affective priming
priming paradigms in scientific literature.
in research of attitude to the object using a
Basically used are: sequential priming, con-
latent period of reaction time (Fazio, Chen,
ceptual
priming.
McDonel, & Sherman, 1982; Dovidio &
(Klauer, Voss, & Stahl, 2011). Implicit asso-
Fazio, 1992). As a result of numerous experi-
ciation tests and their derivatives (response
ments several important features have been
interference tasks as indirect measures of
revealed. First, while using the experimental
automatic associations) are also often used. It
priming procedure, time interval of stimulus
is important to distinguish priming as mne-
onset asynchrony (SOA) should be in the
monic subsystem of implicit memory, prim-
range of 300-500 ms, as at longer interval of
ing effects, as function implementation of this
asynchrony, prime does not effect on the atti-
subsystem, as well as the priming procedure,
tude of participants of the experiment (Fazio
as a form of impact or methodological proce-
et al, 1982, Fazio, Powell, & Herr, 1983;
dure entailing a more precise or fast solution
Powell & Fazio, 1984; Rudman, 2011).
priming,
and
mindset
of a task in relation to identical or similar
Second, while calculating the results it is
impact. A large number of implicit tests are
necessary to take into account the speed of
based on the priming effect, which refers to
the basic response of participants (base line),
the effect of the primary stimulus exposure
i.e. speed of psychomotor response of the
on the processing of the subsequent stimulus.
participant to the empty window without
Priming effect assumes activation of category
stimulus sample (prime). Semantic priming
and representation in memory that subse-
measurement, based on the priming effect, is
quent influence on person‟s perception of the
that the combination of the prime stimuli and
situation (often ambiguous), without aware-
target attributes has a higher strength of asso-
ness of activating context (Bargh, 1996; Hig-
ciation compared to semantically unassociat-
gins, Bargh, & Lombardi, 1985; Fiedler &
ed material, and activates “the facilitation
Bless, 2004).
effect”, expressed in reduction of response
According to L. Rudman, the precise
time for these combinations. In the semantic
priming mechanism is unknown although it
priming task paradigm described by Witten-
is proved that evaluative priming provokes
brink et al. (1997), participants are shown a
26
word prime at intervals, which are too brief
There are several types of commonly
for reported awareness (Klauer, Voss &
used types of evaluative priming tasks. They
Stahl, 2011). The semantic priming proce-
include: the lexical decision tasks (LTD)
dure allows us to activate the mental repre-
(Belinchon, Riviere, & Igoa, 1992), name
sentation, of an experimenter‟s interest. The
tasks (NT), and the semantic categorization
situation in this case arranges in such a way
tasks (SCT) (Balota & Chumbley, 1984).
that participants do not realize that activated
These types of tasks are quite powerful tools
mental construct influences their response
for research and understanding of the seman-
time.
tic memory organization. Thus, in the lexical
Besides the conceptual priming technique
decision tasks the participant is required to
the mindset priming is also described. Mind-
define, as soon as possible, whether the pre-
set priming and sequential priming are as-
senting string stimulus is a word or nonword.
sumed to have more enduring effects. Mind-
In the name task, the participant should name
set priming is assumed to have more endur-
stimulus, usually aloud as soon as possible.
ing effects than sequential priming” (Klauer
In turn, the semantic categorization tasks
et al., 2011). Their common feature is that
require from the participant to make a deci-
they assess the impact of external events on
sion to which semantic category the stimulus
the thoughts, feelings and behavior.
belongs.
Another significant distinction constitute
Limitations of the evaluative priming (of
concepts of short-term and long-term or repe-
all evaluative priming types) include its high
tition priming. The main difference is in the
sensitivity to interference in the course of
duration of their effect. Short-term priming
research; it is reduces internal consistency
occurs in response to a single stimulus
and reliability of the research compared to
presentation, and long-term, repetition prim-
explicit measures, and complicates the possi-
ing effect is formed as a result of prolonged
bility of replication of effects obtained (Fazio
exposure of the same stimulus in similar con-
& Olson, 2003; Olson & Fazio, 2006; Rud-
ditions. The duration of short-term priming is
man, 2011). Till now, there are discussions
short, but repetition priming effect retaines
about which method of research of reaction
for months (Sloman, Hayman, Ohta, Law, &
time is more appropriate, either record of
Tulving, 1988).
base response or control of response to a
Researches in which priming method was
number of different primes. There is also a
applied, revealed that priming effect depends
question of choosing the most sensitive
on the type of task used in the experiment.
mathematical procedure in relation to the
For example, Lukas (2000) reported that se-
obtained measurements (Ulrich & Miller,
mantic priming effect in name task is lower
1994; Whelan, 2008).
than in the lexical decision task.
The literature analysis shows that the
27
nature of priming is ambiguous. Some re-
to overcome the existing “positive” automa-
searchers consider the priming as a conse-
tism.
quence of the activation of existing units (or
The IAT is a flexible tool that can be ap-
nodes) of memory, thus, explaining further
plied to assess any representation of a person
accelerating of cognitive processing of acti-
about himself/herself (Greenwald et al.,
vated unit (Anderson, 1983).
1998); it is able to measure the processes in
Another point of view at the problem of
social cognition, which are not covered by
priming assumes that priming is a type of
common (self-assessment) tests, showing a
unconscious or implicit memory, which re-
very high predictive (and increment, in rela-
fers to the effect of previous impact and is
tion to explicit test) validity (De Houwer,
expressed in an accelerated identification of
2006; Greenwald, Banaji, Eudman, Farnham,
subsequent words or objects in conditions of
Nosek, & Mellott, 2002).
lower
perceptual
signals
(Tulving
&
Schacter, 1990).
Some versions of the classic Implicit Association Test (IAT) by Greenwald are: Sin-
Priming is based on a recent mental repre-
gle-Category IAT by Karpinski and Steinman
sentations stored in the episodic memory. It
(Karpinski, & Steinman, 2006), Single-
is believed, that explicit memory is controlled
Attribute IAT (Penke, Eichstaedt, & Asen-
by the descending processes of cognitive
dorpf, 2006), Brief IAT (Sriram & Green-
processing, but implicit memory processes to
wald, 2009), GO/NO-GO Association Task
a large extent depend on the ascending pro-
(Nosek & Banaji, 2001), The Extrinsic Effec-
cesses of cognitive processing, controlled by
tive Simon Task (DeHower, 2003), Approach
parameters of the incoming data (Tulving &
Avoidance Paradigm (Chen & Bargh, 1999),
Schacter, 1990).
and Implicit Relational Assessment Proce-
Besides priming measurements, implicit
association tests gained popularity.
dure (IRAP) (Barnes-Holmes et al., 2006).
The most comprehensive review of the im-
The basis for the development of IAT
plicit measurements and problems of their
(Greenwald, McGhee, & Schwartz, 1998)
application to various mental constructs is
became a principle, according to which the
represented in numerous reviews (Bar-Anan
often used cognitive associations contribute
& Nosek, 2013; Teige-Mocigemba, Klauer &
to more relevant and faster cognitive pro-
Sherman, 2010).
cessing of information, which is linked with
While studying the psychometric indices
them. The competition of stimuli manifests
of most commonly used implicit measure-
itself in conflict of automatisms – if for a
ments it has been demonstrated that the most
person is more common to associate a specif-
reliable and correlating with each other re-
ic category with positive adjectives, in order
sults were obtained using the procedures of
to link it with the negative one, it is necessary
Implicit Association Test (IAT). Priming
28
measurement showed relatively low correla-
last 15 years have been paid increasing atten-
tion with the results of other implicit meas-
tion to the study of impact of various contex-
urements, however, it is quite a reliable tool
tual factors as to implicit measurement pro-
to measure the activation of the concepts in
cedure, and to change of implicit attitudes.
the semantic network (Bar-Anan & Nosek,
As distinct from earlier concepts, which were
2013).
characterized by an understanding of implicit
attitudes both stable over time and resistant
to the context (Fazio et al., 1995; Fazio,
2007; Olson, & Fazio, 2009; Payne &
Context and implicit
attitudes
Gawronski, 2010), a new understanding was
caused by increasing amount of empirical
evidence of the opposite sense (Blair, 2002;
In a large sense, the context (from the Latin
Fazio & Olson, 2003; Fazio, 2007).
contextus – “connection”, “coherence”) usu-
The speculation to the problem was
ally refers to a set of facts and the circum-
fueled by the fact that the distinction be-
stances in which an event occurs, any object
tween implicit and explicit attitudes was
or phenomenon exist.
based, in particular, on the recognition of
In psychology, it was suggested to distin-
their different sensitivity to the influence of
guish two main types of contexts, designated
the context. It was important for theorists to
as context alpha and context beta. As context
understand whether the manipulation of con-
alpha, Wickens understood the environment
text factors does affect explicit attitudes and
that is completely indifferent to the central
does not affect the implicit ones, i. e. the
task, preserving its characteristics and de-
matter concerns dissociation. If the former
mands the same regardless of the environ-
does not raise serious doubts, so the growing
ment (Wickens, 1987). Context beta can be
amount of experimental evidence convinced
defined as things and circumstances, in any
of the falsity of the latter assumption.
respect, closely associated with the ambigu-
Generalization of disproving evidences
ous stimulus (and/or task) and directly affect-
has led to the realization of the need to focus
ing the identification of its actual meaning or
not only on the automatic nature of implicit
function. Baddeley (1982) has termed these
attitudes, but also on consideration for the
two
and
impact on them of the recent and past experi-
“interactive” context, respectively, the latter
ences, affective experiences and of other
was later referred to as integrated context
factors (Rudman, 2013). These factors can be
(Eich, 1985), or semantic context (Gorfein,
attributed to the alpha context, in which the
1987).
activation of implicit attitudes and their
concepts
of
“independent”
Theorists of implicit attitudes during the
measurement occur. For example, recent
29
events have affected the implicit attitudes,
tives) as attributes in implicit procedures,
changing them (Kuhnen et al., 2001; Rud-
such as the IAT, it is possible to obtain shifts
man, Ashmore & Gary, 2001; Dasgupta &
of implicit measures, caused by the influence
Asgari, 2004; Plant, Peruche & Butz, 2005;
of irrelevant factors. Another example of a
Brinol, Horcajo, Becerra, Falces & Sierra,
long-term priming effect was obtained in the
2002; Tormala, Brinol & Petty, 2004; Liv-
work, in which the influence of preventive
ingston, 2002). At the same time, the remote-
impact on the prevention of aggressive be-
ness of contextual events factor was not suf-
havior (Gollwitzer, Banse, Eisenbach & Nau-
ficient for explanation of the observed ef-
mann, 2007). If after the impact, there were
fects, suggesting that not remoteness, but
no changes in implicit indices of aggression
emotional significance of the events deter-
neither in the experimental nor in the control
mines changes in the implicit attitudes
groups, then, after four months, among the
(Greenwald & Banaji, 1995; Rudman, 2004;
participants of the control group (who was
Livingston,
&
not exposed by the impact), in contrast to the
Fairchild, 2007; Amodio, Harmon-Jones, &
2002;
Rudman,
Dohn,
experimental group, the growth of implicit
Devine, 2003; Cunningham, et al., 2004;
indices of aggression was recorded. This fact
Ranganath, Smith, & Nosek, 2008; Baccus,
indicates to the long-term effects of preven-
Baldwin, & Packer, 2004; Olson & Fazio,
tive measures, which suppressed possible
2006; Gawronski & LeBel, 2008).
natural growth of aggression of participants
One of the mechanisms of context-event
of the experimental group.
influences can be long-term priming, both
Contextual impacts on implicit attitudes
emotional and semantic. Thus, the context
are associated with various sources of infor-
influences on corresponding elements of the
mation, for example, with such as the autobi-
knowledge stored in the memory, are re-
ographical
tained for a long time, at least measured in
involvement (Marini, Rubichi, & Sartori,
months. So, Coane and Balota revealed a
2012), and passive observation of events or
long-term priming effect with respect to the
stories, for example, when viewing videos
concepts associated with the seasonal holi-
with relevant to implicit attitudes episode, as
days, for example, with Christmas. Access to
well as reading and imagination of events and
the concepts is turned out to be facilitated
stories (Foroni & Mayr, 2005; Correll, Park,
during the season of festive events (a few
Judd, & Wittenbrink, 2007; Marini, Rubichi,
months), but in other seasons such facilita-
& Sartori, 2011), and participation in persua-
tion were not revealed in the cognitive pro-
sive campaigns against prejudice.
real
events,
assuming
self-
cessing of the same concepts (Coane & Balo-
The impact of passive viewing of video
ta, 2009). Thus, using such primed concepts
plots with different content or reading of sto-
(for example, affectively significant adjec-
ries, relevant to the situation, on the results of
30
measurements of implicit attitudes, were
implicit measurement will be available upon
demonstrated in several researches. In this
activation of attitude in the current context.
case, the experimental design of such re-
In assessing the impact of contextual
searches often assumes the manipulation of
event on implicit measures of attitudes, an
variable - degree of identification with the
important factor is the correspondence of the
shown character or self-involvement of par-
valence of information, contained in the
ticipants when viewing of plots.
event, to the valence of previously formed
Thus, viewing of video clips featuring the
attitude. It is assumed, that attitude congruent
character, smoking a cigarette, increased the
information is associated with a larger num-
mental association of smoking and smoking
ber of different past (pre-experimental) con-
intention, and this effect was growing de-
texts than incongruent one. Therefore, incon-
pending on the degree of identification with
gruent information is better stick in memory
the main character (Dal Cin, Gibson, Zanna,
as units, which occur in fewer contexts, are
Shumate, & Fong, 2007).
better memorized than those, which were
Manipulation
of
degree
of
self-
included in a larger number of different con-
involvement while instructing participants to
texts. Another important factor is corre-
imagine themselves as characters in episodes
spondence of the memory testing context and
associated with negative interracial interac-
the context of information coding, since the
tions led to a shift of implicit racial attitudes,
discrepancy of these contexts, incongruent
but only in the episodes with counter-
information is forgettable to the higher extent
stereotypical content (Marini et al., 2012).
(Marsh, Meeks, Hicks, Cook, & Clark-Foos,
Moreover, this shift has not been revealed in
2006).
a week after experimental exposure, what, in
Thus, we can assume that contextual
the opinion of the authors, indicated to its
events with information, incongruent to atti-
temporary transitional nature.
tude, will be better memorized than events
In the research conducted by Lincoln and
with congruent information, but only in the
colleagues, the influence of different types of
case of coincidence of contexts of coding
measures on fight against prejudices toward
and activation of attitude. As a result, when
schizophrenia (Lincoln, Arens, Berger, &
measuring implicit attitudes, while there is a
Rief, 2008). It turned out that the implicit
correspondence of the contexts of coding and
negative stereotypes concerning schizophre-
activation of attitude, more accessible would
nia can be significantly reduced due to cam-
be incongruent information. This greater
paigns that emphasize either biogenetic or
accessibility of incongruent information
psychologic causes of schizophrenia.
should also affect the obtained implicit
Memory processes have an essential role
measures. The magnitude of the obtained
in what kind of information in the process of
effect of better memorization of incongruent
31
information, as it can be assumed, should be
new information is integrated with the previ-
associated with the remoteness of the appro-
ously received and how the implicit measures
priate contextual event. But in most of the
reflect it.
conducted researches the constancy in time
In one of experiments the impression
of any contextual effects at repeated implicit
formation paradigm with verbal statements as
measurements has not been studied. Usually,
evaluative information that was exposed on
these effects are understood as stable, un-
the discriminate colored background as con-
changing over time. As relatively few excep-
textual signals was used.
tions we can mention the works (Gollwitzer
If the provided information about the
et al., 2007; Kawakami, Dovidio, Moll,
object of attitude was homogeneous and con-
Hermsen, & Russin, 2000; Olson & Fazio,
sistent, the newly formed implicit evaluations
2006; Marini et al., 2012). In addition, con-
generalized regardless of context differences
textual effects, presumably, causing instanta-
(Rydell & Gawronski, 2009, Gawronski &
neous shift of implicit measures under the
Sritharam, 2010). But if previously received
influence of changes in the specific context,
information about the object of attitude later
leading to the activation of specific associa-
came into conflict with the newly obtained,
tions, were studied.
the implicit evaluations became context-
Thus, depending on the priming interpret-
dependent, reflecting context contingency, in
ing categories (restaurant or health food),
which contradictory information was present-
acting as a contextual key feature to access
ed, with a valence of preliminary information
information, differing instantaneous associa-
about the object of attitude.
tions of fatty food and appetizing or un-
The recent research by Rydell & Gawron-
healthy eating were activated respectively
ski (2009) also gave evidences of contextual
(Roefs et al., 2006).
independence of initially formed associations
But in general, the research of constancy
in the case of homogeneity of available infor-
of contextual effects over time remains rela-
mation about the object of attitude. When the
tively little-studied area and can give evi-
information, contradictory to the content of
dence of their differences in strength, de-
these associations appears, erasure of initial
pending on the consistency or inconsistency
information was not occurred. But changes in
of valence of episodic context information
implicit measures of attitude became a con-
and information of previously formed of atti-
text-dependent and could be observed only in
tude.
the framework of relevant contextual condi-
Since the objects of attitude exist in dif-
tions in which contradictory information was
ferent contextual environments, including
received. According to these results, the con-
those containing new information about the
textualized activation in new associations in
object, it is necessary to research how this
opposition to previously formed occurs, but
32
in what exactly, is determined by contingen-
them, for example, applying faking instruc-
cy of key context features and by features of
tions, it is possible to cause a change in im-
information while formation of new and old
plicit measures (Czellar, 2006; De Houwer,
associations (Gawronski & Sritharam, 2010).
Beckers, & Moors, 2007; Fiedler & Blümke,
But if the implicit attitudes are responsive
2005; Lowery, Hardin, & Sinclair, 2001;
to the impacts of the context, the question
Steffens, 2004; Verschuere, Prati, & De
arises whether these impacts cause changes
Houwer, 2009; Degner, 2009; Klauer &
in the implicit attitudes (basic associations)
Teige-Mocigemba, 2007; Teige-Mocigemba
or their effects impact only implicit measure-
& Klauer, 2008).
ment procedures and are not associated with
The second factor is the specifics of the
the modification of the corresponding atti-
measurement procedure. Since different im-
tudes. Search for an answer to this question
plicit measurement procedure are designed to
turned out to be a difficult problem. The
evaluate the same, but may be based on dif-
problem lies in the fact that indirect measures
ferent mechanisms, the experimental manip-
of attitudes themselves do not reflect directly
ulations by contextual factors while perform-
the changes in the associations, which were
ing tasks in alternative ways, theoretically
caused by the experimental impacts. Any
allow to determine at what level, procedural
experimental
or basic, a change of associations occurs.
measurement
procedure
is
based on the specific mechanisms, involving,
Thus, the use of different procedures of
when executed, various cognitive processes.
implicit measurements of the same attitude
These processes determine the effectiveness
in conditions of identical context (experi-
of performance of the experimental tasks,
mental exposure), may result in coincident or
through which it is possible only indirectly
different results. In case of absence of differ-
judge on the content and type of associations,
ences in the results of implicit measure-
connecting the object and its attitude. There-
ments, it can be assumed that the observed
fore, at least the part of the changes, induced
context effects are, likely, associated with a
by the context in implicit measures, can be
change of the basic associations, otherwise
caused by changes in the processes involved,
they are observed at the procedural level.
i.e. mechanisms of performance of the exper-
In this work we conducted a study of the
imental tasks, but not by the changes of the
impact of contextual event on the implicit
basic associations (Gawronski, Deutsch,
measures of ethnic attitudes.
LeBel, & Peters, 2008).
The work has been conducted under the
One of the factors contributing to the
assumption of the varied effect of contextual
emergence of contextual effects at implicit
impact in the case of consistency or incon-
measurements, are strategies of performance
sistency of information contained in it with
of the experimental task. By manipulating
the information of previously formed ethnic
33
attitude. For this purpose, the research design
implicit attitudes by subliminal affective
assumed repeated exposure to control the
priming. The nature of the contextual factors
duration of impact effects.
is in the events of real participant‟s life that
In addition, to assess the level of changes
have occurred in the recent past and involved
induced by the context, two different proce-
a high degree of personal involvement. Par-
dures of implicit measurement of attitudes,
ticipants were questioned about the presence
the IAT and procedure of subliminal evalua-
of relevant contextual events, using a special-
tive priming (affective priming procedure)
ly designed questionnaire and performed a
were applied. The former procedure assumes
self-assessment procedure to determine the
the formation and evaluation of the direct
explicit ethnic attitude.
associations between the object of attitude
In the second study the nature of the con-
and affectively significant words. The latter
textual factor has been changed. The contex-
one assumes the assessment of latent associa-
tual factor was the event formed by the con-
tions of this type. Experimental (contextual)
tent of a video shown to participants of ex-
impact was produced by specially developed
perimental groups, related to inter-ethnic
videos, each of which contained one type of
cooperation and neutral events. The event
information: relevant, irrelevant to existing
reflected the different situations of positive or
attitude, as well as neutral, irrespective to it.
negative interethnic interactions. Participants
Research aim: is to investigate the influ-
in each experimental group viewed the video
ence of contextual factors on implicit atti-
of positive, or negative, or neutral content.
tudes and their measurements.
Videos were produced as part of the promotion work by Marija Bambulak (2014). Participants performed two sessions of implicit
Overview
measurement of attitudes with the procedure
of the IAT and subliminal affective priming.
Experimental exposure - watching the video -
The research aim is implemented in two dif-
was held immediately after the first measure-
ferent studies.
ment session. The repeated measurement
The first study aimed to identify differ-
session in some groups was carried out im-
ences in implicit measurements of ethnic
mediately after the first session, in the other -
attitudes in participants who reported the
in one day, in the third - in a week. Explicit
presence of events in their recent autobio-
attitudes were measured, using the same self-
graphical experiences, which are relevant to
assessment procedure as in Study 1. The ef-
ethnic attitude and their reaction to these
fect of videos on the participants was as-
events. The recent autobiographical event
sessed with the help of specially designed
was seen as a contextual factor in measuring
questionnaires.
34
Study 1. Autobiographical
events as context
Research questions
1. Is there a relationship between the autobiographical contextual events related to the
attitude and the response time (RT) in the
task of subliminal evaluative priming?
118 (male – 45, female – 73), age from
17 to 50 years, Mdn = 26. Two groups
“Latvian” – 57, “Russian” – 61. The groups
were recruited according to the following
criteria: language, culture, origin. The residence in Latvia for at least 5 years. There
were no restrictions on the sex and education.
Implicit measures
2. Whether the autobiographical context
events associated with facilitation effects
Modified procedure of unconscious semantic
(positive priming) or inhibition (negative
priming in a task of affective categorization
priming)?
(Plotka, Blumenau, Igonin, Simane, & Bam-
3. Under what experimental conditions the
bulak, 2013).
priming effect is observed?
Priming procedure. Procedure of subliminal
events of various emotional valence are asso-
evaluative priming in the task of affective
ciated with the measure of implicit attitudes?
categorization. Prime stimuli: “Russian”,
“Latvian” and empty screen (baseline). Tar-
events associated with the index of implicit
gets: affective pleasant words (love, joy, hap-
preferences?
piness, kindness) and unpleasant words (evil,
6. How the affective significance of the autobiographical context events is related to the
conformity of the results of implicit and explicit measurements of attitudes?
anger, disgust, contempt). Randomly presented intervals of stimulus onset asynchrony
(SOA): 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600 ms.
Participants‟ task was to “Push “Y” key as
soon as possible if the positive word appears,
and “N” key if the negative appears”.
The fixation point (black cross in the
Method
middle of a white screen) – 1000 ms, Primes
Participants
17 ms, Mask (black lattice in the middle of a
white screen) coincides with the SOA, Target
(not restricted),
interval
between trials
118 (male – 45, female – 73), age from 17 to
(empty screen) 1000 ms. Total 384 trials in
50 years, Mdn = 26. Two groups “Latvian” –
each session for each participant.
57, “Russian” – 61.
35
Proceeding of data. The two most prominent
involves how quickly subjects respond to the
implicit measures such as, evaluative priming
adjectives in the absence of a prime – the
and the IAT were used in the Study 1 and in
baseline response. Baseline responses are
the Study 2. Each employs reaction time
used to compute facilitation scores. The term
tasks that measure people's attitudes indirect-
“facilitation score” is used to encompass both
ly.
response facilitation and inhibition.
Latency (RT) in IAT and subliminal prim-
On each SOA for each participant in each
ing tasks. The histogram of RT usually
group, and for each Target the average values
shows the great skewness: the data are
of response times were calculated.
skewed in a positive direction. Because slow
For prime time Baseline basic responses
responses are rare, the distribution is not nor-
were calculated – average RT0+ for each
mal. Most statistical procedures assume that
group of positive words (the maximum num-
the data are normally distributed. We trans-
ber is 16), and RT0- for each group of nega-
formed the RT to normalize the distribution.
tive words (their number is also from 1 to
We used a logarithmic transformation to base
16).
e. The distribution of obtained data is more
For each prime: Latvian, Russian the av-
close to normal distribution. We used logged
erage value of RT+ was calculated for each
latency (ln(RT)) for all statistical tests. For
group of positive words (the maximum num-
ease of interpretability, descriptive statistics
ber is 8), and average value of RT– was cal-
and figures were presented in millisecond
culated for each group of negative words (the
form.
maximum number is 8).
Facilitation scores. The extent of implicit
connection of certain concepts with positive
or negative attitudes can be assessed by using
the shifts of reaction time taking into account
a baseline. Affective cohesiveness of stimuli
From RT0  of basic responses the relevant RT on primes were subtracted
R+ = RTo+ – RT+ , R– = RTo– – RT– . (1)
Variables
R+
and
R–
are
termed
assumes the existence of already formed rela-
“Facilitation scores” – reactions to positive
tion to an ethnic group (ethnic attitude). Fast
and negative target words relatively to the
response to positive stimuli suggests a posi-
rate of response.
tive attitude, and the fast reaction to negative
Fast reaction to positive words relatively
stimuli suggests a negative attitude, and vice
to the basic rate R+ > 0 indicates positive
versa (Plotka, Igonin, & Blumenau, 2009).
attitude. Slow response to the positive words
The terms “facilitation” and “inhibition”
refer to a speeding up or slowing down of
relatively to the basic rate R+ < 0 indicates
non-positive attitude.
responses relative to some standard. For
Fast reaction to negative words relatively
Fazio‟s evaluative priming task, that standard
to the basic rate indicates negative attitude
36
R– > 0 – negative attitude. Slow response to
lyzed using a within-subjects ANOVA: 2
the negative words relatively to the basic rate
(prime: Latvian, Russian) x 2 (target word
indicates non-negative attitude R– < 0.
valence: good, bad). Evidence of automatic
Facilitation scores are applied for reveal-
ethnical bias is seen if a prime*target valence
ing of priming effect under certain experi-
interaction emerges (Rudman, 2011). For
mental conditions. For these purposes, the
example, in Study 2, at SOA=300 ms in the
mean of the variable “facilitation scores”
first session both primes facilitate faster
with the help of One Sample t-test are com-
recognition of positive words, compared with
pared with zero. The null hypothesis about
negative words. In the second session,
the assumption that mean of the variable
primes “Russian” do not facilitate faster
“facilitation scores” is random non zero is
recognition of positive and negative words.
tested. In case of deviation of this hypothesis,
Primes “Latvian” facilitate faster recognition
the presence of priming effect would be re-
of negative words and lowest speed of recog-
vealed.
nition of positive words (Fig.2).
Mean facilitation scores can then be ana-
FIG.2. Facilitation scores for SOA=300 ms, sessions 1-2. Factors’ Prime and Target
interaction
37
Assessment of valence and strength of
attitude is positive.
implicit attitude. Modified method of shifts.
(b) The case of facilitation of cognitive
To assess the strength and the valence of
processing of positive target words and inhi-
implicit attitudes, we introduce a modified
bition of negative target words. The resulting
variable of shift RR (Plotka & Blumenau,
attitude is positive.
(c) The case of inhibition of cognitive
2015) which is defined as the difference of
processing of both positive and negative tar-
facilitation scores:
RR = R+ – R– = (RT– –RT+) – (RT0– – RT0+). (2)
From (2) it follows that the attitude is
positive, if RR > 0, and the attitude is negative, if RR < 0, the attitude is non-positive
get words at the lower inhibition of the reaction to the positive words. The resulting attitude is positive.
2. RR = R+ – R– < 0, then R+ < R–. This
could be in three cases:
and non-negative (middle) if RR = 0.
(d) The case of facilitation of cognitive
The rationale of the modified method of
shifts can be obtained by principle of com-
get words at the predominance of facilitating
plete induction (Fig.3).
effect of the negative words. The resulting
1. RR = R+ – R– > 0, then R+ > R–. This
attitude is negative.
could be in three cases:
(e) The case of inhibition of cognitive
(a) The case of facilitation of cognitive
processing of positive at the facilitation of
processing of negative target words. The re-
get words at the predominance of facilitating
sulting attitude is negative.
effect of the positive words. The resulting
RR
R
d
facilitation
inhibition
(f) The case of inhibition of cognitive
e
R+
Rg
f
0 a
b
RR>0
h
c
RR<0
RR=0
FIG.3. Facilitation, inhibition of responses (R+, R-) and valence of attitudes (sign of RR) –
all cases
38
are calculated.
processing of both positive and negative target words at the lower inhibiting effect of the
The attitude is positive, if
negative words. The resulting attitude is neg-
.
ative.
(3)
The attitude is negative, if
3. (g-h). If R+ = R–, then RR = R+ – R– = 0.
.
The attitude is either ambivalent or ambiguous. The effects of facilitation and inhibition
(4)
The attitude is non-positive and non-
of both positive and negative words are iden-
negative - (“neutral”), if
tical: R+ = R–, RR = 0.
.
Unlike the conventional method of shifts
(RR = RT+ - RT-), the modified method of
(5)
The comparison of the mean values of RR
shifts takes into account the “baseline”.
to zero allows us to research and to assess the
The variable of shifts RR represents a
magnitude of attitude under different experi-
continuous variable, which has the time di-
mental conditions (SOA primes, the impact
mension. The absolute values of this variable
of contextual events).
characterize the strength of attitude in milli-
Single index of implicit preference. The
seconds. The sign RR indicates a valence of
variable conditionally called as the variable
implicit attitude. The attitude is positive if
of “shifts of implicit preferences” RRR is the
the RR>0, the attitude is negative if RR<0,
single index of implicit preference is con-
the attitude is non-positive, and non-negative
structed using a third contrast (Rudman,
(middle), if RR = 0.
2011, p.14, Tab.2.2). For the considered task
For practical revealing of strength and
the analogous table of contrasts will be the
valence of attitudes the quartiles Q1 and Q3
Table 1.
TABLE 1. Coding of contrasts for evaluative priming “Latvian”-”Russian”
Prime “Latvian”
Prime “Latvian”
Prime “Russian”
Prime “Russian”
Negative
Positive
Negative
Positive
Contrast 1
-1
1
0
0
Contrast 2
0
0
-1
1
Contrast 3
1
-1
-1
1
Target word
Note: numbers 1, 0, -1 are weighting coefficients for the variable of facilitation, which represents the
intragroup structure 2х2: Prime (“Latvian”, “Russian”) х Target (Negative, Positive).
39
The variable conditionally called as the
hilism (EN), Ethnic indifference (EI), Posi-
variable of “shifts of implicit preferences”
tive ethnic identity (PEI), Ethnoegoism (EE),
RRR is the single index of implicit preference
Ethnoisolation (EI), Ethnofanaticism (EF).
(SIIP) is constructed using a third contrast
Ethnonihilism – one of the forms of hy-
(Rudman, 2011, p.14, Tab.2.2). For the con-
poidentity. Departure from own ethnic group
sidered task the analogous table of contrasts
and quests for stable socially psychological
will be the Table 1:
niches, that are not related to ethnic criteria.
Contrast 1 is the difference of facilitation
Ethnic indifference – blurry ethnic identity
scores:
that is characterized by indeterminate ethni-
RLatvian  RLatvian  ( RT0Latvian
 RTLatvian ) 

cal affiliation, ethnic aspect is not relevant.
 ( RT0Latvian
 RTLatvian )  RR Latvian.

(6)
Contrast 2 is the difference:
Positive ethnic identity – positive attitude
regarding own nation is correlated with positive attitudes regarding other nations. It creates optimal equilibrium of toleration be-
RRussian  RRussian  ( RT0Russian
 RTRussian) 

 ( RT0Russian
 RTRussian)  RR Russian.

(7)
Contrast 3 is the difference between contrasts 2 and 1:
tween own ethnic group and other ethnic
groups, it is conditions of independence and
stable existence of ethnic group, as well as it
determines peaceful interaction among cul-
RRR  RRRussian  RRLatvian.
(8)
tures in polyethnic world. Ethnoegoism –
tension and irritation in interaction with dif-
Thus, RRR is the difference of biases RR
ferent ethnic groups, recognizing the rights of
for different primes. It serves as a single in-
own nation only to solve problems on the
dex
preference
account of “others”. Ethnoisolation – convic-
(Rudman, 2011, p.14). If RRR>0, the ethnic
tion about the superiority of own nation, ap-
preference towards Russians is revealed. If
peal to “purify” national culture, negative
RRR<0 on the contrary, the ethnic preference
attitude regarding interethnic marriages, xen-
towards Latvians is revealed.
ophobia. Ethnofanaticism – alacrity to per-
of
(implicit)
automatic
The comparison of the mean values of
form any actions in the name of ethnic inter-
RRR to zero allows us to research the condi-
ests that are comprehended somehow or oth-
tions of maturity of preferences.
er, justification of any sacrifices in the struggle about prosperity of own nation. Accord-
Explicit measures
ing to Soldatova‟s methodology it is possible
“Types of ethnic identity” by Soldatova, G. (1998). This survey contains 30-item,
-confidence. The types of identities are dis-
6-point scale (pp. 189-193). Scales: Ethnoni-
trism: from the “denial” of ethnic identity to
to determine the transformation of ethnic self
tributed pursuant to the scale of ethnocen-
40
the national fanaticism. Scales: ethnoegoism,
500, 600 (ms)), “Target” (positive, negative).
ethnoisolation, ethnofanaticism – characterize transformation of the ethnic self-
Dependent variables
confidence pursuant to the type of hyperi-
Implicit measured variables. Reaction time
dentity (HYPER), whereas scales – ethnoni-
RT, facilitation scores, R+ = RTo+ – RT+ , R–
hilism and ethnic indifference – are pursuant
= RTo– – RT– , the variable of shifts RR = R+
to the type of hypoidentity (HYPO). Ethnical
– R– , single index of implicit preference,
toleration can be assessed pursuant to the
“shifts of implicit preferences” RRR = RRRus-
scale of positive ethnic identity, but the level
sian
of intoleration can be assessed pursuant to all
other scales.
– RRLatvian.
In most cases, the reduction of RT means
the average value of RT.
Survey “The effect of episodes of dif-
Explicit measured variables. “Hypo-
ferent emotional valence of on ethnic attitudes”. This is a specially designed ques-
identity”
tionnaire, which includes a description of
scales EN, EI and EE, EIZ, EF, accordingly;
recent (relative to the time of the experiment)
“Valence of Episodes” (positive, negative),
events in Latvia relating to interethnic rela-
“Impact of Episodes” (low, medium, high).
ty”
(HYPO)
and
“hyperidenti-
(HYPER), obtained by summing the
tions. Answers to the questionnaire take into
account the force of impact, the valence and
remoteness of events. The questionnaire has
two versions, different in content - for Latvi-
Results. Study 1
ans in Latvian and for Russians, in Russian
(Tikhomirova, 2013).
After the completion of the experiment, all
the data that correspond to the wrong task
Apparatus
performance by the participants (classi-
Certified licensed software E-Prime 2.0 Pro-
fication of emotionally positive and negative
fessional ®.
words) were removed from the obtained N =
Proceeding of data
45696 data on reaction time (RT): 2528 or
5.5% of observations. From these obtained
Descriptive statistics, tests of normality of
43168 data 5% of the data have been re-
distribution, boxplots, ANOVA, Repeated
moved from the top: i.e. all the data that ex-
Measures ANOVA, Factor Analysis, t-tests,
ceeded the 95th percentile P95 = 924 ms and
correlation analysis were used.
the data that is less than 130 ms. Total 4689
data, or 10.3% of observations were re-
Independent variables
moved. Mean values of RT reaction time for
“Group” (RUS, LV); “Prime” (Russian, Lat-
each participant with fixed values of the vari-
vian, Baseline); “SOA” (100, 200, 300, 400,
ables “Group”, “Prime”, “Target”, “SOA”
41
were calculated for the remaining data. 4248
unconscious emotional priming, when pre-
observations were formed, M = 580 ms, SD =
sented target verbal stimuli are affectively
70 ms.
ambivalent and primed with affectively con-
First research question. With the help of
nected with them other verbal stimuli previ-
ANOVA(2x3x6x2x2x3) the research of fac-
ously presented on subliminal level. This
tors‟ impact “Group”, “Prime”, “SOA”,
phenomenon must be considered in the stud-
“Target”, “Valence of Episodes”, “Impact of
ies with the use of the above procedure and is
Episodes” and their interaction on RT was
worth of a special research (Plotka, Igonin,
conducted. The main assumptions for ANO-
Blumenau, Bambulaka, Ozola, & Simane,
VA (normality of distribution and homogeni-
2011; Plotka, et al., 2013).
ty of variances) were analysed (Nasledov,
4) “Impact of Episodes” (F(2, 4245) =
2004; Buhl, 2002; Howell, 1999, p. 303).
47.93, p < .001). Multiple comparisons, LSD
Post Hoc Test LSD was used. The following
for “Impact of Episodes” revealed that RT at
factors‟ impacts were revealed.
episodes‟ influence of medium strength sig-
1) “Group” (F(1, 4246) = 187.54,
p < .001). RT in the group “LV” exceeds the
RT in “RUS” statistically significant.
2) “SOA” (F(5, 4242) = 4.24, p = .001).
Multiple comparisons (Post Hoc Test LSD)
nificant exceeds RT at episodes‟ influence of
low and high strength (p < .001) (Fig.4).
5) “Valence of Episodes” (F(1, 3888) =
4.50, p < .05). RT at positive episodes exceeds RT at negative episodes (Fig.5).
revealed that RT at SOA=100 ms statistically
6) Factors‟ “Valence of Episodes” and
significant exceeds RT at any other SOA (at
“Impact of Episodes” interaction‟s impact:
200-300 ms – p < .01, at 400-600 ms –
F(1, 3888) = 120.79, p < .001. If impact of
p < .001).
episodes is low, RT for negative episodes
3). “Target” (F(1, 4246)=23.33, p < .001).
exceeds the RT for positive episodes: t(476)
The mean of RT at negative target words
= -7.53, p < .001. If impact of episodes is
exceeds the mean of RT at positive words.
medium, RT for positive episodes exceeds
This fact resembles the effects observed dur-
the RT for negative episodes: t(139) = 8.38,
ing some types of explicit tests based on se-
p < .001. For negative episodes: RT for medi-
mantic information. For example, verification
um impact of episodes exceeds the RT for
of parity of numbers is faster in the case of
low impact episodes (t(1780) = -13.41,
presentation of even numbers, rather than odd
p < .001), RT for high impact of episodes
numbers (see odd effect Bock & Warren,
exceeds the RT for low impact episodes
1985); verification of the fact, whether the
(t(1928) = -5.13, p < .001), RT for medium
presented noun denotes animate or inanimate
impact of episodes exceeds the RT for high
object is faster if the noun denotes animate
impact episodes (t(2530) = 7.66, p < .001).
object (Hines, 1990). The findings show that
For positive episodes: RT for low impact of
such effects are observed also in the task of
episodes exceeds the RT for medium impact
42
FIG.4. The means of RT, ms. Factor’s “Impact of Episodes” influence
episodes: (t(321) = 6.47, p < .001) (Fig.6).
of
low
intensity
episodes:
t(1006)
=
7) Factors‟ “Impact of Episodes” and
-3.53, p < .001. RT for medium intensity epi-
“Group” interaction‟s impact: F(2, 3888) =
sodes exceeds the RT of high intensity epi-
14.27; p < .001. In LV group RT for medium
sodes: t(555) = 2.51, p < .01. In RUS group
intensity episodes exceeds the RT of low
RT for medium intensity episodes exceeds
intensity episodes: t(1263) = -8.11, p < .001.
the
RT for high intensity episodes exceeds the RT
t(1231) = -5.02, p < .001. RT for high intensi-
RT
of
low
intensity
FIG.5. The means of RT, ms. Factor’s “Valence of Episodes” influence
episodes:
43
FIG.6. The means of RT, ms. Factors’ “Valence of Episodes*Impact of Episodes”
interaction’s impact
ty episodes exceeds the RT of low intensity
p < .01 (Fig.7). At fixed intensity of episodes
episodes: t(1254) = -2.38, p < .05. RT for
RT in group LV exceeds RT in group RUS: at
medium intensity episodes exceeds the RT of
low intensity of episodes: t(1150) = 5.64,
high intensity episodes: t(1690) = 2.66,
p < .001, at medium intensity of episodes:
FIG.7. The means of RT, ms. Factors’ “Impact of Episodes*Group” interaction’s impact
44
t(1729) = 10.32, p < .001, at high intensity of
p < .01. At positive target words RT for me-
episodes: t(635) = 6.48, p < .001.
dium impact of episodes exceeds the RT of
8) Factors‟ “Impact of Episodes” and
low impact of episodes: t(1283) = -8.14, p
“Target” interaction‟s impact: F(2, 4032) =
< .001. RT for medium impact of episodes
4.17, p < .05. At low and high intensity of
exceeds the RT of high impact of episodes: t
episodes‟ impact size RT of negative target
(1203) = 6.79, p < .001 (Fig.8).
words exceeds RT of positive target words.
9) Factors‟ “Valence of Episodes” and
Low intensity of episodes: t(1150) = 3.55,
“Group” interaction‟s impact: F(1, 3888) =
p < .001, high intensity of episodes: t(1192)
7.78, p < .01. In both groups the differences
= 4.61, p < .001. At negative target words RT
between the means of RT at negative and
for medium impact of episodes exceeds the
positive episodes‟ are nonsignificant. For
RT of low impact of episodes: t(1510) =
both negative and positive episodes‟ valences
-4.97, p < .001. RT for high impact of epi-
RT in LV group exceeds RT in RUS group: t
sodes exceeds the RT of low impact of epi-
(3778) = 13.46, p < .001 and t(201) = 3.44, p
sodes: t(1186) = -2.01, p < .001. RT for me-
= 0.001 for negative and positive respective-
dium impact of episodes exceeds the RT of
ly (Fig.9).
high impact of episodes: t(1546) = 2.82,
FIG.8. The means of RT, ms. Factors’ “Impact of Episodes*Target” interaction’s impact
45
FIG.9. The means of RT, ms. Factors’ “Valence of Episodes*Group” interaction’s impact
Thus, the relationship between the autobiographical contextual events related to the
The third research question. Priming
effect. In the Table A1 (see Appendix A) the
attitude and the response time in the task of
experimental conditions
subliminal priming assessment exists.
priming effect is observed are shown.
under which the
The second research question. With the
The fourth research question. With
help of ANOVA (6x2x2x3x2x2) each of fac-
ANOVA (2 x 2 x 6 x 2 x 3) the research of
tors (SOA, Prime, Target, Impact of Epi-
factors‟ “Group”, “Prime”, “SOA”, “Valence
sodes, Valence of Episodes, Group) impact
of Episodes”, “Impact of Episodes” on the
on the variable
variable RR was conducted. Statistically sig-
R ,
R 
 R
nificant impacts:
for positive words,
for negative words.
(9)
was verified. Statistically significant was
factors‟
“Prime*Target*Impact
of
“Group” (F(1, 1402) = 7.03, p < .01). In
the group “RUS” the mean of RR is positive,
in the group “LV” - negative.
Epi-
“Prime*Valence of episodes*Impact of
sodes*Valence of Episodes” interactions‟
Episodes” (F(1, 1296) = 10.00, p<.01)
impact: F(1, 2592) = 9.94, p < .01. The mean
(Fig.11).
M=15.9 (SD=47.02, prime “Russian”, R(-),
Thus, the autobiographical context events
positive, low, t(53) = 2.36, p < .05) statisti-
of various emotional valence associated with
cally significant differs from zero (Fig.10).
the measure of implicit attitudes.
The fifth research question. ANOVA
associated with relief effects (positive prim-
(2х6х2x3) (Group x SOA x Valence of Epi-
ing) or inhibition (negative priming).
sodes x Impact of Episodes) revealed statisti-
46
FIG.10. Means of R. Factors’ “Prime*Target*Impact of Episodes*Valence of Episodes”
interaction
cally significant factors‟ interaction “Valence
The sixth research question. Conformity
of episodes*Impact of Episodes”: F(1, 648) =
of results of implicit and explicit measure-
14.59, p < .001 (Fig.12). One sample t-test
ments has been verified using Pearson's cor-
found that at negative valence and low im-
relation coefficients for RRR, HYPER and
pact the mean M = 18.5 (SD = 73.0) differs
HYPO variables at fixed times of SOA and
from zero t(131) = 2.91, p < .01. At positive
other experimental conditions. Conformity of
valence and medium impact the mean M =
measurements was observed with negative
49.0 (SD = 84.6) differs from zero t(17) =
correlation coefficients. The results are
2.46, p < .05. It shows the preference of Rus-
shown in Table A2 (see Appendix A).
sians under these conditions.
associated with the index of implicit preferences.
In group “RUS” the correspondence is if
r(RRR-HYPO)<0 or r(RRR-HYPER)>0.
In group “LV” the correspondence is if
r(RRR-HYPO)>0 or r(RRR-HYPER)<0.
FIG.11. The means of RR. Factors’ “Prime*Valence of episodes*Impact of Epsodes”
interaction
FIG.12. The means of RRR. Factors’ “Valence of episodes*Impact of Episodes”
interaction
47
48
Discussion and conclusions. Study 1
of Russians the RT is shorter. The fastest
responses are with the contextual events of
small force. The slowest are with contextual
The relationship between the autobiograph-
events of medium affective intensity. When
ical contextual events related to the attitude
compared the RT on each level of intensity
and the response time in the task of sublimi-
of affective contextual events the RT in the
nal priming assessment exists.
group of Russians is shorter.
With contextual events of negative va-
While in all cases the response to nega-
lence and the average intensity of the emo-
tive target words was slower than to posi-
tional impact the RT is the longest. The short-
tive target words, with the contextual events
er RT is observed in contextual events of low
of medium intensity it was not observed.
intensity. The RT with contextual events of
Autobiographical contextual events are
negative valence of high intensity is shorter
associated with relief effects facilitation
than with the events of negative valence of
(positive priming) or inhibition (negative
medium intensity. With negative contextual
priming). The facilitation variable is associ-
events of high affective intensity the RT in-
ated with contextual events. With positive
creases compared to the RT with contextual
contextual events of medium affective in-
events of negative valence of low intensity
tensity the facilitation of cognitive pro-
and reduces it in comparison with the expo-
cessing of positive target words occurs. In
sure of medium affective intensity.
other cases, facilitation and inhibition are
With contextual events of positive valence of low affective intensity the RT is
longer in comparison with the events of medium intensity.
manifested identically: the average values
do not significantly differ from zero.
The most expressed attitudes are observed with the medium affective intensity
With contextual events of low affective
of positive contextual events.
intensity the context events of positive va-
The group of Russian gave preference
lence slow down the response, and the nega-
with low negative episodes and positive
tive – accelerate it. With contextual events of
medium.
medium intensity, on the contrary - positive
The autobiographical context events
contextual events slow down the response
associated with relief effects (positive prim-
and the negative events accelerate it. With
ing) or inhibition (negative priming). Facili-
positive contextual events the strong effects
tation variable is associated with the con-
were not observed.
textual events. At positive contextual events
The ratios of the RT with contextual
of medium affective intensity facilitation of
events of low, medium and high intensity are
cognitive processing of positive target
identical in both groups, whereas in the group
words occurs. In other cases, facilitation
49
and inhibition manifest themselves equally:
with respect to RT of negative events. Events
the mean values were not significantly differ-
of average affective strength exerted an in-
ent from zero.
hibitory effect on RT, while the events with
Effect of priming we see in total with
subjectively low and high affective strength
SОА 200-400 ms Table A1 (see Appendix
accelerated the reaction. Variables of priming
A). At SOA 100 ms only in group RUS at
effect (R), of attitudes (RR) and of indices of
prime Russian, negative valence of episodes,
implicit preferences (RRR) are also associat-
low impact of episodes. At SOA 500 ms only
ed with valence and strength of recent emo-
in group LV at prime Russian, negative va-
tional autobiographical contextual events.
lence of episodes, medium impact of epi-
This shows that implicit attitudes and their
sodes. At SOA 600 ms only in group LV at
measures cannot be regarded as independent
prime Latvian.
of context.
The autobiographical context events of
In this study, priming effects, both nega-
various emotional valence associated with
tive and positive, were mainly observed with
the measure of implicit attitudes. The most
SOA 200-400 ms and in some cases with
expressed attitudes are observed with the
SOA 500 ms. In general, this result is con-
average affective intensity of positive con-
sistent with Fazio and others (Fazio et al.,
textual events.
1982), Powell and Fazio (1984), but with the
The autobiographical context events associated with the index of implicit preferences.
difference that the effects of priming were
found with SOA 200 ms and with some other
Results of implicit and explicit measure-
times of delay in presentation of the target
ments partly overlap. Most of all matches
stimulus. This result indicates a more com-
were with SOA 500 ms in both groups. The
plex picture of priming effect manifestation
absolute values of obtained statistically sig-
with different SOAs, which is possible due to
nificant Pearson‟s correlation coefficients are
the effect of contextual autobiographical
from .27 to .72. At SOA 300 ms obtained
events.
two statistically significant correlation coef-
The greatest correspondence between the
ficients in group of Russians with absolute
results of explicit measurements and meas-
values .70 and .81. At SOA 100 ms and posi-
urements with the priming procedure occurs
tive valence of episodes in group LV correla-
with SOA 500 ms. This indicates that the
tion coefficient is .53.
associations activated with SOA 500 ms,
The study of reaction time in the task of
affective
subliminal
evaluative
probably underlie both implicit and explicit
priming
measures of attitudes. At the same time, these
showed the relationship of RT with affective
associations are insignificantly affected by
relevant contextual autobiographical events.
contextual impacts.
Positive events inhibited the reaction time
Relationships of implicit and explicit
50
measures with SOA 500 ms have an interesting feature. Depending on the ethnic group of
study participants we found the associations
Study 2. Experimental
events as context
of opposite direction between the variable of
Research questions
the index of implicit preference and hy-
1. Is there a relationship of the reaction time
poidentity. “Pro-Russian” preferences in the
and the measure D of implicit attitude in the
group of Russian participants are negatively
task of Implicit Association Test with the
associated with hypoidentity (i.e. reduction in
effect of contextual exposure?
“pro-Russian” preference), while such prefer-
2. Is there a relationship of the reaction time,
ences in the group of Latvian participants
priming effect and measures of implicit atti-
were positively associated with hypoidentity.
tudes in the task of subliminal affective prim-
Associations activated with SOA 500 ms and
ing with the effect of contextual exposure?
underlying the implicit preference have bidirectional association with the preference of
the alternative ethnic group. Perhaps the processes causing implicit measures of attitudes
with SOA 500 ms are the integrators of ambivalent information with regard to ethnic
preferences. By contrast, the processes that
determine “pro-Russian” implicit preference
with SOA 300 ms are “unidirectional” and
characteristic only for the participants of
Russian groups. Higher “pro-Russian” preference with SOA 300 ms corresponds to lower “pro-Latvian” explicit preference. And
3. What is the structure of correlations between explicit and implicit measures of attitudes with different SOAs before and after
contextual exposure?
4. What are the changes between measures of
implicit attitudes with different times of retest delay and values of SOA in the task of
subliminal affective priming after contextual
exposure?
Method
vice versa. This result can be interpreted as
Participants
the fact that with the value of SOA 300 ms
120 (male – 56, female – 64), age 18 – 30,
the basic “pro-Russian” attitude is activated
Mdn = 19 years. Ethnic group: Russians.
as such, without opposing the alternative
Criteria for selection: native language, cul-
ethnic group. These hypothetical assumptions
ture and origin.
have been developed in the Study 2.
Implicit measures
Modified procedure of subliminal evaluative
priming in the task of affective categorization
(Plotka et al., 2013) see in Study 1.
51
The Implicit Association Test (Greenwald
participants were provided with necessary
et al., 1998), modified for experimental re-
instructions and training procedures. Partici-
search of ethnic attitudes (Tikhomirova,
pants were reported that the main purpose of
2013).
the research was the study of the influence of
emotional states on the perception of words.
Explicit measures
All participants took part in the first session.
Survey “Types of Ethnic Identity” (Soldatova
They carried out priming and IAT procedures
& Ryzhova, 1998);
and filled in the questionnaire “Types of Eth-
Survey
“Intensity of Emotional
Im-
pact” (Bambulaka, 2014b).
nic Identity.” Duration of the first research
session was about 90 minutes. After the first
session, the participants were divided into 12
Contextual factors
To create emotionally charged episodes in
relation to the Latvians and the Russians three
videos were created (Bambulaka, 2014a). The
first two videos were with actors who demonstrated the inter-ethnic relations. Preview of
the first video was to cause negative emotions
towards the Latvians. The second video was
to cause positive emotions towards the Latvians. The third video was without participation
of actors. It contained beautiful relaxing landscapes and aimed to create neutral emotions
not related to the Russians and Latvians.
Apparatus
Certified licensed software E-Prime 2.0 Professional ®.
groups: 3 control groups and 9 experimental
ones.
Nine experimental groups were divided
into three parts according to three conditions
of the experiment. Groups 1, 2 and 3 watched
the video with negative emotional content
towards the Latvians. Groups 4, 5, 6 watched
the video with positive emotional content
towards the Latvians, groups 7, 8, 9 - with
neutral emotional content towards the Russians and Latvians. Groups 1, 4, 7 have
passed the second research session immediately after viewing the video, groups 2, 5, 8 –
in one day, groups 3, 6, 9 – in one week. The
second session consisted of performing the
priming and IAT procedures and filling in the
questionnaire “Intensity of Emotional Impact” – a subjective evaluation of the intensi-
Procedure
All the participants took part in the research
voluntarily. The participant signed the agreement to participate in two sessions of the experiment. In a specially equipped room 15
computers were installed. Before the beginning of research in each of the sessions, the
ty of the emotional impact created as a result
of viewing videos. It lasted about 40 minutes.
For the first control group the second
session began in 15 minutes after the first
session. The second control group participated in the second session after one day, the
third control group – after one week. During
52
the second session the participants of control
appropriate key responses. Instructions were
groups performed the experimental priming
written in black letters on a white back-
and IAT procedures. All the participants took
ground and located in the center of the moni-
part in the research voluntarily.
tor screen. Each sentence began with a new
line. Each target word appeared centered on
Implicit methods
the screen. All target and category words
Implicit Association Test. A modified ver-
were presented in lowercase letters. Before
sion of Two-Category Implicit Association
the start of the experiment, on a computer
Test (IAT), developed on the basis of IAT
monitor a participant was given general in-
(Rudman, 2011). The categories of IAT were
structions and specific instructions before
“Russian”, “Latvian”. The attributes - the
each of the blocks (tasks). The task of the
words of Schlosberg Scale (Woodworth,
participants was the differentiation of pre-
Schlosberg, 1955; Schlosberg, 1952) with a
sented stimuli. Stimulus word displayed on
strong affective meaning (positive or negative)
the screen without auditory accompaniment
were used. “Unpleasant” attributes: anger,
and remained on the screen until the pressing
disgust, contempt, evil, hatred. “Pleasant”
a key of the participant (Table 2). The RT for
attributes: kindness, respect, love, joy, happi-
each trail was recorded as the time interval
ness.
between the onset of stimulus presentation
The authors applied the experimental procedure IAT, using seven trial blocks. Performance of the implicit method took an average
of 10 to 20 minutes. Participants‟ reaction
and pressing the correct key. Words were
selected randomly without replacement.
The target word remained on the screen
until the participants responded.
time (RT) was registered. Each stage was pre-
To ensure the internal validity of the ex-
ceded by a set of instructions concerning the
periment the main parameters were un-
dimensions of the categorization task and the
changed (the time of stimulus presentation,
TABLE 2. Study 2: Procedure of Russian-Latvian preference IAT
Block
Trials
Function
Left-key response “Q”
Right-key response “P”
1
24
Practice
Russian
Latvian
2
26
Practice
Unpleasant words
Pleasant words
3
40
Test
Unpleasant words + Russian
Pleasant words + Latvian
4
40
Test
Unpleasant words + Russian
Pleasant words + Latvian
5
24
Practice
Latvian
Russian
6
40
Test
Unpleasant words + Latvian
Pleasant words + Russian
7
40
Test
Unpleasant words + Latvian
Pleasant words + Russian
53
the intervals between stimuli, number of stim-
five scales we can immediately identify two
uli – the words, the font, chromatic back-
groups of variables: ethnic hypo-identity
ground settings).
(α = .637) (EN and EI – HYPO) and ethnic
As a result of IAT the D-scores (effect
size)
for
implicitly
measured
hyper-identity (EE, EIZ and EF – HYPER)
variable
(α = .747) (Bambulaka, 2014b). The factor
“Latvian – Russian implicit associations”
analysis was also used to define these varia-
were calculated (Rudman, 2011):
bles. “Factor analysis, as an alternative to a
simple summation of the values of the origi-
1  M  M3 M7  M4 

D   6

2  SD36
SD47  ,
(10)
nal variables, allows us to take into account
the real structure of the data and to avoid
where Mi is the mean of RT in block “i”, SDik
unnecessary loss of information” (Nasledov,
– is combined standard deviation for blocks
2004 p.273). We held Factor Analysis with
“i” and “k”.
two factors (Kaiser criterion), method Maxi-
All trials with RT < 300 ms and
RT > 4000 ms were deleted.
mum likelihood, rotation's method Varimax
with Kaiser Normalization. Kaiser-Meyer-
The D-statistic is an effect size, based on
Olkin (KMO) measure of sampling adequacy
each person‟s variance in response latencies.
equals to .62 (satisfactory adequacy of the
If |D|≤0.15 – no effect, if 0.15<|D| ≤0.35 – p,
sample), Bartlett's test of Sphericity χ2(10) =
if 0.35<|D|<0.60 – medium effect size, if
191.80, p < .001 (data are suitable for factor
|D|≥0.60 – large effect size. The positive val-
analysis), cumulative percent of total vari-
ues of D show the preference of Latvian, the
ance explained 64.22%, goodness of fit test
negative values – preference of Russian.
χ2(4) = 4.16, p = .384, ns (factor model ade-
Priming procedure. Procedure of sublim-
quately describes the relationships among
inal evaluative priming in a task of affective
the variables). As a result, it was found that
categorization see in Study 1.
Factor 1 is described by variables (EIZ, EE,
EF) and the second factor is described by
Explicit methods
variables (EN, EI) (Fig.13). These factors
“Types of ethnic identity” by Soldatova, G.
can be called the “Hyper-identity” and
(1998).
“Hypo-identity”.
About
this
survey
see
in
The variables HYPO and HYPER also
Study 1.
Cronbah‟s alfa was not sufficiently high:
were under consideration (see study 1).
α = .666. As a result of the reliability analysis
Survey “Intensity of emotional im-
the scale PEI was removed and Cronbah‟s
alfa became equal to α = .766 – acceptable
pact” by Bambulaka, Plotka, Igonins
(Bambulaka, 2014b). To determine the in-
internal consistency (coefficient alpha = .70)
tensity of the emotional impact of video the
(George & Mallery, 2003). For the remaining
authors have designed three questionnaires
54
FIG.13. Factor Plot in Rotated Factor Space
to assess the intensity of positive, negative
Independent variables
and neutral impact. Different formats of
“Group” (RUS, LV); “Prime” (Russian, Lat-
questions were used - open, closed, hypothet-
vian, Baseline); “SOA” (100, 200, 300, 400,
ical and alternative questions. The question-
500, 600 (ms)), “Target” (positive, negative),
naires include the scales designed to investi-
“Valence of event (episode)” (negative, neu-
gate the intensity and emotional valence of
tral, positive, no impact), “Retest” (at once,
experimental exposure. Cronbach‟ Alpha for
in one day, in one week).
Dependent variables
Implicit measured variables. RT, R+, R,
neutral survey is .915 (6 items, 41 cases), for
positive survey is .916 (10 items, 30 cases),
for negative survey .811 (5 items, 30 cases).
RR, RRR (see study 1). RRR-100, RRR-200,
RRR-300, RRR-400, RRR-500, RRR-600 –
Proceeding of data
the variable RRR - index of implicit prefer-
Descriptive statistics, tests of normality of
ences at SOA 100, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600
distribution, boxplots, ANOVA, Repeated
ms.
Measures ANOVA, Factor Analysis, t-tests,
Explicit measured variables. “Ethnic
frequency analysis, chi-square test, Fisher‟s
hypo-identity” and “ethnic hyper-identity”
angular transformation, correlation analysis.
obtained from factor analysis, HYPO and
HYPER (see study 1); “Intensity of emotional impact” (IEI).
55
Results. Study2
sions: no impact: t(9192)=8.38, p < .001;
The first research question. The
results of IAT
neutral: t(11177) = 11.91, p < .001; positive:
It was found, that RT in the first session ex-
= 10.45, p < .001.
ceeds
RT
in
the
second
session:
F(1, 38263) = 526.65, p < .001.
t(7322) = 10.14, p < .001; negative: t(8327)
2) “Retest”: session 1 – F(2, 19004) =
38.01, p < .001, session 2 – F(2, 19203) =
Research of RT. With the help of ANO-
48.00, p < .001 (Fig.15). As shows Post Hoc
VA (4x3x4x2) in each session it was found
LSD, in Session 1for differences between at
the following factors‟ and factors‟ interac-
once – after one day: p = .001; after one day
tions impact on RT.
– after one week: p < .001. As shows Post
1) “Valence of episodes” in session 1 –
Hoc LSD, in Session 2 for differences be-
F(2, 19004) = 28.10, p < .001, in session 2 –
tween at once – after one day: p = .001; after
F(2, 19203) = 11.39, p < .001 (Fig.14). In
one day – after one week: p < .001; at once –
session 2: as shows Post Hoc LSD for differ-
after one week: p = .001. Differences be-
ences between negative - neutral: p < .001,
tween sessions: at once: t(13770) = 8.09,
neutral - positive: ns, no impact – positive, no
p < .001; after one day: t(11517) = 14.65,
impact and no impact – neutral: ns, positive-
p < .001; after one week: t(10578) = 13.00,
negative: p < .05. Differences between ses-
p < .001.
FIG.14. Factor’s “Valence of episodes” impact on RT
56
FIG.15. Factor’s “Retest” impact on RT
In the second session RT after one day is
minimal. RT after one week is maximal.
al impact is maximal. RT if no impact exceeds
RT at low impact.
3) “Intensity of emotional impact”: ses-
4) “Valence” and “Retest” interaction:
sion 1- F(2, 19004) = 71.51, p < .001, session
session 1 – F(4, 19004) = 11.36, p < .001,
2: F(3, 19203) = 61.02, p < .001 (Fig.16). As
session 2: F(4, 19203) = 17.46, p < .001
shows Post Hoc LSD, in session 1 for differ-
(Fig.17). At negative and at neutral episodes
ences between middle – low: ns, middle -
the RT at once and RT after one day differ
high: p < .001, middle – no impact: ns, high –
insignifically. RT after one week exceeds both
no impact: p < .001, low – no impact: p < .05.
of them (p < .001). At positive emotional va-
As shows Post Hoc LSD, in session 2 for
lence of episodes all RT in the second session
differences between middle – low: ns, low-
differ statistically non-significantly. Without
high: p < .001, middle - high: p < .001, mid-
impact all differences between RT are statisti-
dle – no impact: p < .001, high – no impact: p
cally significant (p < .001). The largest RT is
< .001, low – no impact: p = .001. Differ-
at once, then after one day and the smallest
ences between sessions – low: t(9662) = 9.12,
time after one week. Comparisons of control
p < .001; middle: t(7880) = 11.20, p < .001;
groups‟ and experimental groups‟ means in
high: t(9192) = 8.38, p < .001. In the second
sessions 1, 2 see in Table B1 (see Appendix
session RT at middle intensity emotional im-
B).
pact is minimal. RT high intensity of emotion-
5) Factors‟ “Valence” and “Intensity of
FIG.16. Factor’s “Intensity of emotional impact” impact on RT
FIG.17. Means of RT. Factors’ “Valence” and “Retest” interaction
57
58
emotional
impact”
interaction
(Fig.18):
largest RT is at high impact episodes. Com-
session 1 – F(4, 19004) = 13.30, p < .001,
parisons of control groups‟ and experimental
session 2 – F(4, 19203) = 3.25, p = .011. The
groups‟ means in sessions 1, 2 see in Table
FIG.18. Factors’ “Valence” and “Intensity of emotional impact” interaction
FIG.19. Factors’ “Retest” and “Intensity of emotional impact” interaction
B2 (see Appendix B).
59
7) Factors‟ “Retest”, “Valence” and
6) Factors‟ “Retest” and “Intensity of
“Intensity of emotional impact” interaction
emotional impact” interaction. Session 1:
(Fig.20). Session 1: F(7, 19004) = 32.18,
F(4, 19004) = 32.07, p < .001, session 2:
p < .001, Session 2: F(7, 19203) = 15.90,
F(4, 19203) = 28.41, p < .001 (Fig.19). Com-
p < .001. Comparisons of means for experi-
parisons of control groups‟ and experimental
mental and control groups see in Tables B4-
groups‟ means in sessions 1, 2 see in Table
B5 (Appendix B). At medium intensity of
B3 (see Appendix B).
emotional impact there is minimal RT after
FIG.20. Means of RT. Factors’ “Retest”, “Valence” and “Intensity of emotional impact”
interaction
60
one day and maximal after one week, the
sion exceeds the absolute value of D in the
same effects negative low impact. At high
second session.
intensity of negative and neutral emotional
2) “Session”, “Valence” and “Retest”
impact there is minimal RT at once and maxi-
interaction: session 1 – F(4, 90) = 1.80, p
mal after one week. At high intensity of posi-
< .05, (Fig.22). At negative valence of the
tive emotional impact there is minimal RT
emotional impact the minimal D is observed
after one week and maximal at once, also the
immediately after the first session, the maxi-
same if no impact.
mal – after one week. At positive valence of
Thus, there is a relationship between the
the emotional impact the minimal D is ob-
newly created associations with the object of
served at once after the first session and after
attitude and reaction time in the task of the
one day after the first session, the maximal –
Implicit Association Test.
after one week. At neutral valence of the
D-scores. Repeated ANOVA within-
emotional impact the minimal D is observed
subjects factor session (1, 2) and between-
after one day and after one week after the
subjects
episodes
first session, the maximal – at once. Without
(negative, neutral, positive, no impact), retest
impact the minimal D is observed immediate-
(at once, after one day, after one week), in-
ly after the first session, the maximal – after
tensity of emotional impact (low, middle,
one day and after one week. The statistical
high, no impact) was conducting. The follow-
significances of the differences see in Table
ing factors‟ and factors‟ interactions impact
B8 (Appendix B).
factors:
valence
of
on D was found.
Relationship between D-scores in the
1) “Session”: F(1, 90) = 11.52, p = .001
(Fig.21). Both D in sessions 1 and 2 are nega-
first session and in the second session.
Pearson correlation coefficient between D in
tive and absolute value of D in the first ses-
the first and the second sessions is r(118) =
.49, p < .001.
The statistically significant relationship
between D-scores in the first session and in
the second session was revealed.
Coincidence IAT measurement results
with the results of explicit methods. Correlation analysis was applied. Percentage
matching were calculated.
The explicit variables “Hyper-identity”
and “Hypo-identity” and implicit variable D
were used. The positive values of D mean
FIG.21. Means of D. Factor’s “Session”
preference of Latvians, negative – preference
impact
of Russians. The negative correlation rela-
61
FIG.22. Means of D. Factors’ “Valence” and “Retest” interaction
tionship between “Hyper-identity” and D
Percentage coincidences calculated in the
means the coincidence of results. The posi-
same way (Tables B6-B7, Appendix B). The
tive correlation relationship between “Hypо-
maximum match percentage is equal to 40%.
identity” and D means the coincidence of
The differences between percentages were
measurments results. Spearman correlation
tested using Fisher‟s Angle Transformation
coefficients were calculated. Compliance
φ*-test. In sessions 1 and 2 the statistically
was investigated according to the scheme:
significant differences were not found.
(1) for all the participants in the first session;
Statistically significant correlation coeffi-
(2) for all the participants in the second ses-
cients were not found. Percentage coinci-
sion; (3) for all members of the control group
dences of results were calculated. The maxi-
in the first session; (4) for all members of the
mum match percentage is equal to 40%.
control group in the second session; (5) for
Answer to the 1st research question. The
all participants in the experimental group in
reaction time and the measure D of implicit
the first session; (6) for all experimental
attitude in the task of the Implicit Association
groups of participants in the second session.
Test associate with the effect of contextual
Statistically significant Spearman correlation
exposure.
coefficients were not found.
62
Discussion and conclusions on
the first research question of
Study 2
intensity of the emotional event and retest
The following consistent patterns for the
delay (Fig. 19), it was found that at the me-
mean values of the reaction time (in the text
dium intensity of emotional impact the short-
simply RT) were obtained.
est RT is one day after the retest delay and
When taking into account the factors of
Taking into account only the factor of
the longest - after the one week delay. At
impact valence we can state that at the neu-
low intensity of the emotional impact the
tral impact the mean reaction time was the
retest time does not effect on the mean reac-
shortest (Fig. 14).
tion time. At high intensity of the emotional
If taking into account the one day retest
impact the mean reaction time increases with
delay, the mean RT is minimal. If taking into
an increase in retest delay time. In the con-
account the one week retest delay, the mean
trol groups, the mean reaction time decreases
value of RT is maximal (Fig. 15).
with an increase in retest delay time.
When taking into account the valence of
Thus, there is a relationship between the
episodes and retest delay (Fig. 17) we can
newly created associations and the object of
ascertain the absence of a statistically signifi-
attitude and reaction time in the task of the
cant difference between the RT in the groups
Implicit Association Test.
with negative impact and retest without delay
Mean values of the indicators of implicit
and with the retest delay of one day. In
preference D in both sessions are negative,
groups with the negative impact and retest
indicating a preference to the Russians (Fig.
delay of one week the RT is longer than in
21). In the second session this preference is
the same groups, but with the retest delay of
weakening, but is still being kept.
one day and without delay. A similar pattern
At negative valence of the affective con-
is observed in the group with the neutral im-
textual events and retest without delay the
pact. In groups with the positive impact with
mean preference is zero. With increasing
all retest delays the RT differs statistically
retest delay time the preference to the Rus-
non-significantly. In the control group with
sians increases (Fig. 22). These data may
the retest at once the RT is the longest and in
indicate a short but quickly transient effect
the control group with the one week retest -
of negative impact which has increased “pro-
the shortest.
Latvian” preference. Perhaps this was due to
The participants evaluated the intensity of
reaction to negative information of mostly
the emotional event as average, had the
those participants who were initially more
shortest RT at retest (Fig. 16). The longest RT
“pro-Latvian”.
was observed in participants who reported on
At positive valence of the affective emo-
high emotional intensity of the contextual
tional event we observed mean D which did
event.
not significantly differ from zero at the retest
63
without delay and in one day. A week later,
negative impact has increased as well as in the
preferences to the Russians increase. Unlike
control group. In the other groups the average
the case of the negative impact, in this case,
preference did not differ from zero. At the
a more lasting effect of “pro-Latvian” prefer-
week retest delay the preference to the Rus-
ence was observed.
sians increased only in the groups with nega-
At neutral valence of the affective emo-
tive and positive impacts. The last fact evi-
tional event the mean value of D with retest
dences of attenuation of associations activa-
without delay has the absolute maximum
tion due to these contextual impacts.
value. Ay one day retest delays the preference decreases and at the one week delay the
mean values of D were not significantly different from zero. It is possible that the imple-
The second research question.
Results of priming in Study 2
mentation of the explicit test by Solodatova
Initial number of cases was 96000. 5% cases
led to the activation of “pro-Russian” associ-
(from both ends of reaction time (RT)) were
ations, which quickly attenuated thereafter.
removed. After that we removed the cases,
In the control groups, the mean value of
where was 355≤RT≤ 1033 ms. The number of
D without retest delay was not statistically
cases was N=89778, grand M=541 ms and
significantly different from zero. At retest
SD=117 ms.
delays of one day the preference to the Rus-
Research of RT. The mean of RT in the
sians increases. At the one week delay the
first session in total exceeds the mean of RT in
mean values of D were not significantly dif-
the second session F(1, 89424) = 344.74,
ferent from zero. In this case, we see a short-
p < .001. In the experimental groups mean of
term effect of growth in “pro-Latvian” pref-
RT in the first session exceeds the mean of RT
erences due to the implementation of the
in the second session: F(1;65958) = 213.12,
explicit test by Soldatova. However, the
p < .001. In control groups mean of RT in the
emerged “pro-Latvian” associations that did
first session exceeds the mean of RT in the
not match the basic attitude, preserved for a
second
longer time, although they had a lower level
p < .001. In both sessions the means of RT in
of activation.
experimental group exceed the means of RT in
session:
F(1;23464)
=
151.25,
Before the experimental exposure the
control groups: session 1 – F(1;44304) =
measure D of the IAT pointed to “pro-
102.72, p < .001, session 2 – F(1;45118) =
Russian” preference. In the second measure-
185.12, p < .001. This indicates the effect of
ment in all groups except for groups with the
learning through the acquisition of experience
neutral impact, there was a shift towards “pro
obtained in the first session of the experiment,
-Latvian” preference observed in the retest
but requires a more detailed analysis of the
without delay. At the one day delay the “pro-
impact effects in the second session.
Russian” preference in the group with the
Using ANOVA (6x3x2x4x3x4) the study
64
of influence of the factors SOA, Prime, Tar-
10.57, p < .001. Mean of RT for baseline
get, Valence of episode, Retest, Intensity of
exceeds the means for Latvian and Russian
emotional impact and interactions of them in
(p < .001). The difference of means between
both sessions was carried out. The statistical
primes Latvian and Russian is not statistically
significance of differences between the mean
significant. In session 2: F(1;45117) = 4.96,
values for different factors is established
p < .01. For every prime the mean of RT in
using the LSD's multiple comparison proce-
the first session exceeds the mean of RT in
dure.
the second session (p < .001).
1) “Taget”. The average response time to
3) Factor‟s “SOA” impacts on RT. In the
positive target stimuli is less than to negative
session 1: F(5;44300) = 11.86, p < .001. In
target
250.63,
session 2: F(5;45114) = 13.74, p < .001. The
p < .001. This effect was obtained in both
slowest responses in both sessions are at 100
control and experimental groups and in the
ms (p < .01 in comparison with 200 ms in the
both sessions. Also, it is observed both be-
first session and p < .001 all other cases). For
fore and after the impact. This trend could be
every SOA the mean of RT in the first session
observed in all the series of authors‟ experi-
exceeds the mean of RT in the second session
ments, using the priming procedure (Plotka
(p < .001) (Fig.23).
stimuli:
F(1;89424)
=
Factors “Valence” and “Retest” in the
et al., 2013).
2) “Prime”. In session 1: F(2;44303) =
first session point to the participants‟ behav-
FIG.23. Means of RT in two sessions for factor “SOA”
65
ior, which in the second session will or will
factor‟s “Retest” level the mean of RT in the
not undergo the experiment of corresponding
first session exceeds the mean of RT in the
valence and time of conducting of the second
second session (p < .001) (Fig.25). In the
session.
second session the RT of the week delay is
4) Factor‟s „Valence” impact in the first
session: F(3;44302) = 42.98, p < .001, in the
second
session:
F(3;45116)
=
maximal, RT after one day is minimal.
6) Factor‟s “Intensity of emotional im-
122.01,
pact” influence in the second session:
p < .001. In every session all means differ
F(3;45116) = 88.04, p < .001. At low and
statistically significant (p < .01, p < .001).
middle levels the means of RT differs non
For every factor‟s “Valence” level the mean
significantly. Middle and high levels –
of RT in the first session exceeds the mean of
p < .001. High impact and no impact –
RT in the second session (p ≤ .001) (Fig.24).
In the second session RT of negative episodes
statistically significant (p < .001). For every
is maximal, then for positive episodes. The
factor‟s “Intensity of emotional impact” level
minimal RT is observed without impact.
the mean of RT in the first session exceeds
5) Factor‟s “Retest” impact in the first
each of the means of RT in the second session
session: F(2;44303) = 259.57, p < .001, in the
(p < .001) (Fig.26). At high intensity of emo-
second
tional impact the longest RT is observed.
session:
F(2;45117)
=
513.77,
statistically significant (p < .001). For every
Also the following factors‟ interactions
were found (see Appendix C):
FIG.24. Means of RT in two sessions for factor “Valence”
66
FIG.25. Means of RT in two sessions for factor “Retest”
FIG.26. Means of RT in two sessions for factor “Valence”
67
7) “SOA” and “Target”. Session 1:
week), intensity of emotional impact (low,
F(5;43874) = 0.50, ns. Session 2: F(5;44076)
middle, high, no impact). ANOVA was con-
= 3.27, p < .01 (Fig.C1);
ducting for each SOA and session (results see
8) “Valence” and “Target”. Session 1:
F(3;44298) = 4.68, p < .01. Session 2:
F(3;45112) = 7.21, p < .001 (Fig.C2);
in Table D1, Appendix D).
Research of priming-effect. With the
help of One-Sample t-test the means of R in
9) “Retest” and “Target”. Session 1:
different conditions were compared with ze-
F(2;44300) = 7.71, p < .001. Session 2:
ro. Statistically significant results shows the
F(2;45114) = 4.86, p < .01 (Fig.C3);
priming effect. The priming effect is illustrat-
10) “Intensity of emotional impact” and
ed in Tables D2-D6 (Appendix D). (Fig.27).
“Target”. Session 2: F(3;45112) = 9.36,
The priming effect was observed with all the
p < .001 (Fig.C4);
considered SOAs 100-600 ms under various
11) “Valence” and “Retest”. Session 1:
F(6;44294) = 110.44, p < .001. Session 2:
F(6;45108) = 161.29, p < .001 (Fig.C5);
12) “Valence” and “Intensity of emotional impact”. Session 2: F(4;45110) = 84.52,
p < .001 (Fig.C6);
experimental conditions.
Research of RR. With the help of ANOVA the impact of following variables and
their interactions was found.
1) Factor SOA. Session 1: F(5, 1296) =
2.29, p < .05, session 2: F(5, 1092) = 2.50,
13) “Retest” and “Intensity of emotional
p < .05 (Fig.28). At SOA 300 ms the mean of
impact”. Session 2: F(6;45108) = 110.69,
RR statistically significant differs from zero
p < .001 (Fig.C7);
(t(239) = 3.65, p < .001).
14) “Target”, “Retest” and “Valence”.
2) Factor SOA in two sessions in experi-
Session 1: F(6;44282) = 3.76, p = .001. Ses-
mental and control groups. In session 2:
sion 2: F(6;45096) = 2.21, p < .05 (Fig.C8);
SOA*Group F(5, 1428) = 2.62, p < .05. At
15) “Target”, “Retest” and “Intensity of
emotional impact”. Session 2: F(6;45096) =
3.67, p = .001 (Fig.C9);
16) “Valence”, “Retest” and “Intensity of
emotional impact”. Session 2: F(7;45091) =
103.80, p < .001 (Fig.C10);
Research of facilitation scores. Repeated ANOVA within-subjects factors: prime
(Latvian, Russian), target (good words, bad
words). Between-subjects factors: valence of
episodes (negative, neutral, positive, no impact), retest (at once, after one day, after one
SOA 500 ms the mean of RR statistically
significant differs from zero (Fig.29).
3)
“Valence*SOA”.
Session
1
F(10, 1296) = 1.97, p < .05. Session 2
F(10, 1296) = 2.03, p < .05 (Fig.30).
4)
“Valence*Retest”
in
session
2:
F(4, 1296) = 3.32, p = .010 (Fig.31).
5) SOA*retest*valency*IEI in session 2:
F(35, 1092) = 1.55, p < .05 (Fig.32).
6) SOA*retest*valency in session 2:
F(20, 1296) = 2.12, p < .01(Fig.33).
Research of RRR. One sample t-test
68
FIG.27. The means of R for each SOA, Valence, Retest
showed, that at SOA 100 ms the mean of
In the first session the mean of RRR is
RRR statistically significant differs from zero
near to zero and exceeds the negative mean
(t(239) = -2.9, p<.01). In session 1 also at
of RT in the second session: F(1, 1194) =
SOA=100 ms the mean of RRR statistically
4.31, p < .05 (Fig.34).
significant differs from zero (t(119) = -.57,
p < .05).
At SOA=600 ms RRR in the first session
exceeds RRR in the second session (F(1,
FIG.28. Means of RR. Factor SOA in two sessions
FIG.29. Means of RR. Factor SOA in two sessions in experimental and control groups
69
70
FIG.30. Means of RR. Factors’ SOA*valence interaction in two sessions
FIG.31. Means of RR. Factors’ retest*valence interaction in the second session
71
FIG.32. Means of RR. Factors’ IEI*retest*valence interaction in the second session
238) = 5.03, p < .05).
(Fig.35).
Repeated ANOVA within-subjects fac-
The reaction time, priming effect of
tors: SOA, Session. Between-subjects fac-
measures of implicit attitudes in the task of
tors: valence of episodes, retest, intensity of
subliminal affective priming are associated
emotional impact founded the factor‟s Ses-
with the effect of contextual impact.
sion impact (F(1,106) = 4.21, p < .05)
72
Fig.33. Means of RR. Factors’ SOA*retest*valence interaction in the second session
the second research question
of Study 2
Factor of the retest delay. The main
pattern which is most often manifested in the
different experimental conditions is that the
SOA factor. The maximum reaction time is
maximum reaction time at the presence of the
observed without the contextual event with
contextual event is exposed at the one week
SOA 100 ms.
retest delay. It is possible that without the
73
Fig.34. Means of RRR. Factor “Session”
Fig.35. Means of RRR. Factor “SOA”
contextual event the maximum reaction time
associations lose the activation faster than the
is observed at the retest without delay – there
newly created ones which maintain it for
is the priming effect of repetition of identical
longer.
tasks in a small time interval. Contextual
The factor of subjective evaluation of
events create new associations with the object of attitude and remain their strength
intensity of the affective contextual event.
The maximal reaction time is observed at
longer. The experimental conditions can dis-
high subjective evaluation of the intensity of
tort this pattern. For example, in the groups
the event. With the one week delay and the
with positive valence of the contextual event
presence of contextual events of negative or
with negative target stimuli the maximum
neutral valence the maximal reaction time is
reaction time has become apparent in the
observed with the events of medium affective
group with the retest without delay. In the
intensity.
groups with positive valence of the contextual event with high subjective evaluation of
The factor of valence of the affective
contextual event. Taking into account only
the strength of its impact the maximum reac-
the factor of valence of the impact we can
tion time is also observed in the retest with-
state that at the neutral impact the reaction
out delay.
time is the shortest, but it exceeds the reac-
The minimal reaction time is observed in
tion time in the control groups (in the absence
many cases for retest in one day, both in the
of contextual events). The maximal reaction
case of the contextual event, and without it. It
time is observed in the experimental groups
is possible that at the one day retest the old
with positive or negative impacts.
74
With the one week retest delay the maxi-
ber of corresponding trends (Fig.36, 37).
mal RT is observed in the group with the
Analysis of the effects of affective prim-
negative impact. With the retest without de-
ing was carried out in terms of an approach
lay and with the delay of one day the maxi-
based on the concept of activation spread in
mal RT was observed in the groups with the
the semantic network (Collins & Loftus,
positive impact.
1975; Collins & Quillian, 1969).
The priming effect was observed for all
values of SOA in various experimental conditions.
Control groups
The third research question.
Study 2
The Pearson‟s correlation coefficients between implicit variables RRR at different
SOA and D in the first and the second sessions and explicit variables HYPO, HYPER,
“Hypo-identity” and “Hyper-identity” see
Table E1 in Appendix E.
Initial data were subjected to the factor
analysis by the method of principal component analysis. For the control group we received 5 factors explaining 66.1% of the total
variance. For the experimental groups we
received 5 factors explaining 47.1% of the
total variance. See the rotated component
matrix (obtained by VARIMAX rotation) in
Tables G1-G2, Appendix G.
The role of the explicit method by Soldatova in the retest. The participants in the control and experimental groups after performing the explicit tests of attitudes performed
the explicit test according to the method by
Soldatova. Performance of this test in itself
was an episodic event, relevant to attitudes.
In the procedure of subliminal priming the
task did not imply access to conscious associations related to the ethnic attitude. The
task in the procedure of the IAT also did not
require direct evaluation of ethnic preferences, although it implied the association of
semantically positive and negative words
with the name of an ethnic group. The explicit procedure, as opposed to implicit, required from participants the direct arbitrary
evaluation of their attitude towards their own
Discussion and conclusion on
the third research question of
Study 2
and alternative ethnic groups. Answers to the
Correlation analysis of the relationship
object of ethnic attitude and propositional
among magnitudes of index of implicit pref-
processing of the information that has been
erences (RRR) for different values of SOA
extracted from the memory as needed. As a
both in the first session, and in the repeated
result of this processing the new conclusions
(after experimental exposure) showed a num-
and associations stored in memory could
items of the test by Soldatova required the
activation of existing associations with the
75
FIG.36. System of correlations among explicit measures of ethnic attitudes and RRR variables for different values of SOA in control groups.
Thick lines - statistically significant correlations at the level of p < .05, thin lines - at the level of
p < .10. Pro-L1 (HYPO) Pro-L2 (“hypo-identity”) scales, Pro-R1 (HYPER) Pro-R2 (“hyperidentity”) scales according to Soldatova’s technique. RRR-100 – RRR-600 - implicit measures of
ethnic attitudes for the corresponding values of SOA and D (IAT) in the first measurement. RRR
are indexes of implicit preferences.
emerge. Therefore, the participants in the
Therefore, we hypothesized that the se-
control group were also not devoid of rele-
cond measurement in the control groups
vant contextual influences caused by work
should also have reflected the significant
with the explicit test of ethnic attitudes.
contextual influences associated with per-
The difference between the control and
forming the explicit test (the questionnaire of
experimental groups thus was only in the fact
ethnic preferences) by participants.
that the participants of the latter were shown
the movies which created new associations
Analysis of correlations for control
groups. The first trend obtained in the first
relevant to ethnic attitude and activated pre-
session is defined by the presence of statisti-
viously formed associations in addition to
cally significant correlations of similar con-
those that have emerged when performing
tent at SOA 100, 300 and 500 ms with 200
the explicit test.
ms lag. So the authors found a negative cor-
76
FIG.37. System of correlations among explicit measures of ethnic attitudes and RRR variables for different values of SOA in experimental groups.
Thick lines - statistically significant correlations at the level of p < .05, thin lines - at the level of
p < .10. Pro-L1 (HYPO) Pro-L2 (“hypo-identity”) scales, Pro-R1 (HYPER) Pro-R2 (“hyperidentity”) scales according to Soldatova’s technique. RRR-100 – RRR-600 - implicit measures of
ethnic attitudes for the corresponding values of SOA and D2 (IAT) in the second measurement.
RRR are indexes of implicit preferences.
relation between the RRR value at SOA =
strength of the effect of RRR-100 is associat-
100 ms (RRR-100) and measure of attitude D
ed with a degree of implicit preference to-
IAT. Negative values of D correspond to the
wards the participant‟s ethnic group identity
pro-Russian attitude, so the higher RRR-100,
and reflects activation of the latent uncon-
the stronger the strength of pro-Russian atti-
scious automatic associations which deter-
tude. With this in mind, we can assume that
mine the implicit “automatic” ethnic attitude.
RRR-100 reflects the effect of the pro-
When SOA = 300 ms there were statisti-
Russian implicit preference (attitude). The
cally significant positive correlations of RRR
absence of other significant correlations of
-300 (the first measurement) with the scores
this measure with others suggests that the
on scales HYPER and “Hyper-identity” of
77
the explicit test of ethnic preferences by
200 ms, starting from SOA 100 ms, as we
Soldatova, also corresponding to “pro-
can assume, reflect the effect of strength of
Russian” attitude. Higher values of RRR-300
the pro-Russian automatic implicit attitude
correspond to higher scores of the Scales of
(RRR-100) and the ethnic implicit attitude of
Ethnic Identity. Therefore, we can assume
hyper-identity (RRR-300). While the magni-
that the value of RRR-300 reflects the ethnic
tude of RRR-500 may be related to the de-
implicit attitude of hyper-identity, which is in
gree of activation of negative associations
line with the explicit attitudes.
towards the alternative ethnic group.
In addition, we found a statistically sig-
Considering the results of this experiment
nificant positive correlation of values of RRR
in the context of ideas about the mechanisms
-300 and RRR-500 (the first measurement).
of spreading the activation in associative
This points to the similarities in content of
networks related to the effect of priming, we
the processes, determining the ethnic prefer-
can assume the existence of a kind of a
ence at this value of SOA.
“wave” to spread the activation, which af-
RRR-500 (the first measurement) nega-
fects the relevant basic associations of the
tively correlates with the value of ethnic pref-
existing ethnic attitude. SOA times define
erence RRR and the scales HYPO, “Hypo-
the time period during which the activation
identity” in Soldatova‟s technique, which
of different groups of associations connected
corresponds to the “pro-Latvian” explicit
to the object of attitude may occur. The
attitude. Thus, the greater the effect of im-
smaller the value of SOA, the stronger the
plicit preferences at SOA-500, the less the
strength of associations with the object of
“pro-Latvian” explicit attitude. It can be as-
attitude and they have more automatic na-
sumed that high values of RRR-500 are relat-
ture. The higher the value of SOA, the less
ed to the activation of negative associations,
automatic the associations are and they could
adjoining the alternative ethnic group. Anoth-
be related to the previously occurred proposi-
er explanation could be the inhibition of posi-
tional processes such as, for example, the
tive information on alternative ethnic group.
Meta-Cognitive Model involves. Processes
With high values of RRR-500 the strength of
determining RRR-300, as shown by its asso-
“pro-Latvian” associations decreases and
ciation with explicit measures of ethnic atti-
vice versa. In general, processes which define
tude may be based on associations of this
the value of RRR-500 may be associated with
type.
activation of negative associations towards
The “wave” begins with early SOA val-
the alternative ethnic groups or inhibition of
ues and initially affects the associations of
the positive.
the automatic implicit attitude and then, with
All three groups of distinguished statisti-
a lag of 200 ms, activates the strongest “pro-
cal relationships of RRR at SOA with a lag of
Russian” associations of ethnic identity un-
78
derlying the explicit attitude (RRR-300), and,
sumed wave of activation spread. The exist-
finally negative, not “pro-Latvian” associa-
ence of the second wave of associations‟ acti-
tions (RRR-500).
vation spread is supported by a number of
The second trend is less pronounced for
emerged correlations RRR-200 and RRR-400
the conditions of first test session, but be-
(200 ms lag). In contrast to the first measure-
comes more pronounced in the second. In the
ment session, in which the preference of RRR
first session, with SOA 200 ms we marked
-400 did not have statistically significant
negative correlation of RRR with evaluation
correlations with other variables, in the se-
on the scales HYPER and “Hyper-identity” in
cond session with this value of SOA we
Soldatova‟s technique. This means that the
found a positive correlation of RRR-400 with
higher RRR-200, the lower the “pro-Russian”
the scale HYPO in Soldatova‟s technique.
implicit preference and vice versa. The ab-
This relationship reflects the activation of
sence of other correlations of RRR-200 with
“pro-Latvian” relations which are associated
other variables (except RRR-600, as will be
with the positive explicit “pro-Latvian” atti-
discussed below) can be attributed to the ex-
tude. The positive correlation between RRR-
isting status of “pro-Latvian” associations
200 and RRR-400 is close to significant too,
among carriers of mostly “pro-Russian” of
which also speaks in favor of affiliation of
attitude prior to the experimental exposure.
the observed effects of implicit preferences to
Arguments in favor of existence of the se-
one process. An important corresponding
cond wave of associations‟ activation will be
evidence was the fact that in the second ses-
given in the light of discussion of the effects
sion the variable RRR-200 had statistically
of the second session.
significant relationship with the scale “Hypo-
The data of the second session in this case
identity” (“pro-Latvian” explicit attitude).
combine data of participants in all experi-
All these data indicate the relationship be-
mental groups, regardless of the time inter-
tween RRR with SOA = 200 ms and 400 ms
vals between the repeated measurement and
with the strength of “pro-Latvian” explicit
the first measurement, and affective valence
attitude.
of showed videos.
The indirect evidence of the legitimacy of
The second session of measurements was
classifying RRR-400 to the effects of the se-
made after experimental exposure and acti-
cond wave of activation is the presence of the
vated the association of both the pre-existing
positive correlation between RRR-400 in the
ethnic “pro-Russian” attitude and contrary to
first and second sessions. An interesting
it “pro-Latvian” associations, newly formed
point is the lack of statistically significant
by the video with positive presentation of the
correlations between the preference RRR for
alternative ethnic group. This impact should
these values of SOA and implicit measures D
in theory be reflected in the correlation rela-
of the IAT.
tionships both the first and the second as-
Thus, the associations which are activated
within the asynchronyzation band of the se-
79
measured by the IAT.
cond “wave” to be associated with the ex-
Thus, the experimental exposure and
plicit “pro-Latvian” attitude, but not with
formation of new “pro-Latvian” associations
implicit automatic associations that were
related to it have changed the nature of acti-
measured by IAT procedures and subliminal
vation of automatic “pro-Russian” associa-
emotional priming with SOA 100 ms in the
tion with SOA = 100.
first session.
Simultaneously, the values of RRR-300
An analysis of the waves‟ nature changes
and RRR-500 negatively correlated with
after experimental intervention has revealed
each other, i.e. the higher value of RRR with
the following.
SOA 500 ms corresponded to lower values
We suppose that the experimental inter-
of RRR with SOA 300 ms and vice versa.
vention created new associations, including
Thus, with increasing values of RRR-300
contrary to the basic attitude.
associated with the processes of the first
This should have an impact on the results
“wave” of activation spread of pro-Russian”
of implicit measurements in the second ses-
associations there is a decrease in the value
sion. Below we consider some general ef-
of RRR-500 that in the first session was asso-
fects of this influence.
ciated with the activation of not “pro-
The common results provided intriguing
Latvian” associations. On this basis, we can
testifies to the changes of correlations be-
assume that in the second session the
tween variables associated with each of the
strengthening of “pro-Russian” association
“waves”, as well as logically consistent links
with SOA 300 ms could be accompanied by
between the “waves”.
a simultaneous increase in the activation of
First, during the second measurement we
“pro-Latvian” associations with SOA = 500
found a negative statistically significant cor-
ms due to the processes decreasing RRR-
relation between RRR-100 and scales of ex-
500. This increased activation of “pro-
plicit attitude HYPER and “Hyper-identity”
Latvian” associations may be due to separate
in Soldatova‟s technique (“pro-Russian”
influence of experimental exposure to differ-
attitude). The higher value of RRR-100 cor-
ent components of ethnic attitude. The video
responded to a decrease in the “pro-Russian”
with “pro-Russian” content could strengthen
attitude and vice versa. In contrast, in the
the “pro-Russian” associations of the basic
first measurement session, there was a nega-
implicit attitude (RRR-300), but contrary to
tive relationship between the value of RRR-
them, the newly formed by the “pro-
100 and measure D of implicit attitude (it
Latvian” video fresh and not coinciding with
corresponds to the negative values of D),
the basic attitude associations increased the
obtained by the IAT. Therefore, the higher
positive attitude to the Latvians that would
value of RRR-100 corresponded to the
have resulted in the decrease of RRR-500.
stronger
“pro-Russian”
implicit
attitude
The correlations of RRR-300 variables in
80
the first and the second session was negative,
tions with SOA 200 ms, 400 ms underlying
which could also indicate the decrease in the
the explicit “pro-Latvian” attitude is also
level of activation of “pro-Russian” associa-
apparent. This suggests that the video of
tions in the second session compared to the
“pro-Latvian” content strengthened the earli-
first session under the influence of new con-
er positive associations towards the alterna-
tradictory associations.
tive ethnical group.
The system of correlations between RRR
A separate question relates to the identi-
variables, associated with the first wave of
fication of functions of the processes related
activation spread of associations in the se-
to the effect of activation of associations
cond session is characterized by loss of all,
with SOA 600 ms.
with the exception of RRR-100, statistically
Correlations of RRR-600 with other vari-
significant correlations of these variables
ables could be logically considered in rela-
with the scales of explicit attitudes. This fact
tion to the phenomena and processes, reflect-
may indicate that the experimental exposure
ed by the second “wave” (SOA 200 ms, 400
has made a change in the structure of associ-
ms, 600 ms). However, this assumption
ations connected to the “pro-Russian” atti-
turned out to be wrong. The variable RRR-
tude, which have been activated with the
600 in the first session correlated positively
help of implicit measurement procedures.
with the variables of the first “wave,” and
Thus, the implicit measures became context-
negatively
dependent.
“wave” of the spread of activation), which
with
RRR-200
(the
second
This assumption corresponds to the
clearly defines the RRR-600 belonging to the
changes in correlations between variables
processes related to the activation of “pro-
that reflect the processes of the second wave
Russian” associations and the prohibition
of activation spread of associations related to
(inhibition) of not “pro-Russian.” The ab-
the “pro-Latvian” attitude. For example, the
sence of other links between RRR-600 and
value of RRR-200 (the indicator of activation
variables reflecting the processes of the se-
of “pro-Latvian” associations) was negative-
cond wave in the two measurement sessions
ly correlated with the value of RRR-500,
means that this variable was not directly
which also supports the idea that viewing the
related to the inhibition or relief of “pro-
“pro-Latvian” video could have increased
Latvian” associations and affected only the
the strength of “pro-Latvian” associations
strength of “pro-Russian.” Indirectly, it
with SOA 200 ms (the second wave), and
could be related to the inhibition of “pro-
decreased the strength of “pro-Latvian” as-
Latvian” associations, but only in the first
sociations with SOA 500 ms (see the data of
session and only in connection with the
the first “wave” of activation).
events of the first wave of activation spread.
According to the data of the second ses-
Most intriguing was the result of a new
sion, the activation of “pro-Latvian” associa-
relationship between RRR-600 and RRR-100
81
in the second session, which was not ob-
lead to a decrease in strength of the explicit
served in the first session of the measure-
“pro-Russian” of attitude. The latter is simi-
ments, and the disappearance of other corre-
lar to what happened with the processes that
lation links, previously characteristic for
determine RRR-100.
RRR-600 in the first session.
Identified patterns were confirmed in the
The chain of correlation links in this case
formed a system in which higher values of
results of the factor analysis in the control
group.
RRR-100 corresponded to lower values of the
“pro-Russian” explicit attitude and higher
values of RRR-600. The reverse is true. Thus,
high values of RRR-600 (through the pro-
Factor analysis for control
groups
cesses that reflect the increase in RRR-100)
Initial data were subjected to the factor ana-
were indirectly associated in the first case
lysis by the method of principal component
with lower values of the “pro-Russian” im-
analysis. We obtained 5 factors explaining
plicit attitude (the “pro-Russian” wave of
66.1% of the total variance. See the rotated
activation spread of associations, the second
component matrix (obtained by VARIMAX
session), in the second - with slower values
rotation) in Table G1, Appendix G.
attitude
The first factor includes variables RRR-
(through processes, reflected in the increase
300, RRR-500 obtained in both measure-
of RRR-500) and the higher values of “pro-
ments, as well as the variable RRR-600
Russian” attitude (through processes, reflect-
(measured in the first session) and, with a
ed in the increase of RRR-300) in the first
relatively low load factor, the explicit varia-
session (the “pro-Russian” wave of activa-
ble of Hyper-identity. Previously, all the
tion spread of associations). Finally, in the
variables of preference RRR have been at-
first session the high values of RRR-600
tributed to the first wave of spread of “pro-
could also indirectly (through processes,
Russian” associations connected with the
reflected in the decrease of RRR-200) corre-
object of ethnic attitude. This factor can be
spond to higher values of the “pro-Russian”
labeled as a “pro-Russian” component of
explicit attitude. In all cases, the opposite is
ethnic attitude” (Ethnocentrism, ethnic fanat-
true.
icism). All factor loadings, except for one,
of
the
“pro-Latvian”
explicit
The experimental exposure has disrupted
the observed in the first session logic of cor-
have a positive sign. An exception is the
variable RRR (2) -300.
relation links of RRR-600 with other varia-
Associations activated with SOA 300
bles as an indicator of the processes associat-
characterize “pro-Russian” preference. In
ed with activation of “pro-Russian” associa-
this case, in the second measurement (mea-
tions. Instead, an RRR-600 turned out to be
surement in the second session), this prefer-
indirectly related to the processes that can
ence is negatively related to the factor. In
82
general, this can be explained by the effect of
This factor is in good agreement with the
the contextual impact. High “pro-Russian”
idea of the second wave of activation prolif-
preference RRR (2) -300 corresponds to low-
eration of “pro-Latvian” associations
er “pro-Russian” preference with other values
This factor can be designated as “loyal
of variables RRR related to the factor both in
hypoidentity” and may reflect the effects of
the first and in the second measurement. The
the contextual impact on the process of acti-
explicit “pro-Russian” preference was lower
vation of basic associations underlying the
as well. And vice versa. One explanation for
preference to the alternative ethnic group.
this interesting fact may be due to the emer-
The third factor includes variables RRR-
gence of new associations as a result of the
100, RRR (2)-600, RRR (1)-200 of the first
contextual event, related to the object of “pro
and second measurements with positive fac-
-Russian” attitude. Their activation when
tor loads and the explicit variable of hyperi-
repeated implicit measurement could be a
dentity with the negative factor load. Mean-
separate process, not yet integrated with
ingfully, these variables reflect the effect of
those processes that are related to the activa-
the contextual impact, which is associated
tion of associations of the basic “pro-
with the emergence of new associations that
Russian” attitude. The absence of such inte-
are contrary to the basic “pro-Russian” atti-
gration could lead to a negative load in varia-
tude. The emergence of these associations
ble RRR (2) -300, as the activation of new
could inhibit the activation of basic “pro-
associations with SOA 300 did not lead to the
Russian” associations and activate the basic
activation of the old associations which de-
“pro-Latvian” associations.
termined the values of relevant variables in
This factor can be labeled as “disloyal
the first measurement and were mostly iden-
hypoidentity” and corresponds to the ethnic
tical both at implicit, and explicit measure-
attitude with which the emergence of nega-
ments of ethnic attitude.
tive ethnic associations decreases “pro-
The second factor includes variables,
presumably belonging to the second wave of
Russian” preference and increases “proLatvian.”
spread of activation of associations. It is as-
The fourth factor includes variables RRR
sociated with hypoidentity i.e. “pro-Latvian”
(1)-100 (with the negative factor load) and
attitude. “Pro-Russian” preference RRR (2)-
variables D of the first and second measure-
200 and RRR (2)-400 corresponds to hy-
ments of the IAT procedure and the variable
poidentity and low implicit preference RRR
of hypoidentity. The value of the factor is
(1)-500 which is associated with “pro-
determined by the variables of the implicit
Russian” attitude (first factor). The factor
attitude D, high values of which correspond
describes the loyal attitude towards the alter-
to “pro-Latvian” attitude. This also corre-
native ethnicity, while maintaining “pro-
sponds to the positive factor load of the ex-
Russian” implicit attitude.
plicit variable of hypoidentity. Thus, the fac-
83
tor relates to “pro-Latvian” associations
severe effects of contextual impacts will be
which define implicit and explicit measures
reflected in the results obtained.
of ethnic attitude and are associated with a
Preliminary analysis showed that the
decrease in “pro-Russian” preference with
number of significant correlation coefficients
SOA 100 ms. The factor can be defined as
decreased compared to the ones observed in
“implicit hypoidentity.”
the control group (Fig.37).
The fifth factor is of unclear nature and
At the same time there is a decrease in
associated with variables RRR-400 (the first
the number of statistically significant associ-
and second measurement), as well as RRR
ations between the variables included in the
(1)-600. The last variable is included with
previously described hypothetical “waves”
the positive load into the first factor which
of activation of associations. We attribute
corresponds to hyperidentity (“pro-Russian”
this to the imposition of effects of different
attitude).
activation processes of associations which
The variable RRR (2)-400 was part of the
have emerged under the influence of the
second factor which reflects the loyal attitude
demonstration of positive, neutral and nega-
to the alternative ethnic group, while main-
tive videos, as well as different patterns of
taining a positive attitude towards their own.
activation fading in newly formed and previ-
The variable RRR (1)-400 was not included in any of the other factors with the factor
ously existed associations with the object of
attitude at different times of the retest delay.
load in excess of the set threshold. It can be
The first notable result is the lack of sta-
assumed that this factor is associated with
tistically significant associations between the
the activation of “pro-Russian” associations,
variables RRR in the first measurement (First
but within the framework of the second wave
session). These variables, while being not
of spread of associations. It is related to
significantly correlated with each other, had
those associations which involve the loyal
significant correlations with variables in the
“pro-Russian” attitude and affect the loyal
second measurement (Second session). The
attitude towards the alternative ethnic group.
latter in a few cases statistically significantly
correlated with each other as well.
The second result was the emergence of
Experimental groups
statistically significant correlations between
RRR-500 in the first and the second measurement with the variable “strength of the
Correlation analysis for experimental
groups. The analysis of correlations, given
emotional impact” of the contextual event.
the data of all experimental groups was per-
the questionnaire by which the participants
formed. This is due to a number of sampling
reported about the strength of the emotional
limitations and the assumption that the most
feelings, which they have experienced while
This variable was measured on the basis of
84
watching the video shown. This fact clarifies
tem of correlations reflects primarily the type
the role of the processes that determine RRR
of ethnic preferences, in which the higher
with SOA 500 ms. The lower RRR-500
implicit “pro-Russian” preference corre-
(lower
sponds
“pro-Russian”
preference)
corre-
to
the
higher
explicit
“pro-
sponded to a higher strength value of the
Latvian” (RRR-100 and RRR-200 in the first
emotional impact of the video, and vice ver-
measurement). At the same time, the higher
sa. Given that the statistically significant cor-
is the “pro-Russian” preference RRR-300
relation was also observed between RRR-500
(the second measurement) which positively
in the first measurement, i.e., before the ex-
correlates to RRR-200. However, the higher
perimental exposure, and evaluation of its
“pro-Russian” preference with SOA 300 ms
emotional strength, conducted after the expo-
corresponds to the lower “pro-Russian” im-
sure, the processes that determine the RRR-
plicit preference RRR-600 and D (second
500 are probably closely associated connect-
measurement) and, accordingly, the larger
ed with the affective component of attitude.
strength of the emotional impact of the even-
In other words, these processes involve pro-
tual context. Results of the first session of
cessing of emotionally significant infor-
measurements reflected in the mean for the
mation relating to attitude. Thus, in the “pro-
sample of experimental groups the existing
Russian” participants any exposure, emotion-
attitude that reflected both “pro-Russian” and
al in valence, caused lower affective reaction
“pro-Latvian” preference (the case of reten-
than in “pro-Latvian”. The variable of the
tion of ethnic identity with positive attitude
strength of emotional impact has become
to the alternative ethnicity).
statistically significantly correlated with RRR
The experimental contextual impact with
-600 in the second measurement too. This
its larger subjective strength could cause the
shows that process with this value of SOA
processes associated with a decrease in “pro-
are also related to the processing of affective
Russian” attitude RRR-600 and an increase in
information associated with attitude. And in
“pro-Russian” attitude (with SOA 300 ms),
this case, the higher” pro-Russian” prefer-
previously referred to the basic “pro-
ence corresponded to lower values of affec-
Russian” ethnic attitude. These relationships
tive significance of the contextual event. The
indicate that the contextual impact manifest-
variable RRR-600 was also negatively associ-
ed itself with SOA 600. A high value of the
ated in the second measurement with the
strength of emotional impact of the event
measure of the implicit attitude D of the IAT
was directly related to the decrease in “pro-
in the second measurement (the lower value
Russian” attitude, though indirectly it was
of D corresponds to the “pro-Russian atti-
associated with its increase with SOA 300
tude”).
ms. RRR-400 (the second measurement) may
Evaluating the resulting correlation pat-
correspond to “pro-Latvian” attitude, as indi-
tern as a whole, it may be noted that the sys-
cated by the positive association of this vari-
85
able with RRR-100 in the first measurement
measures of implicit attitude in the IAT pro-
and the data of the control group. In this case,
cedure. High value of the factor corresponds
the positive relationship of RRR-600 (the
to “pro-Latvian” attitude. The factor can be
second measurement) with RRR-400 (the first
designated as a factor of Latvian identity.
measurement) testifies to an increase in “pro-
The third factor includes variables of
Latvian” preference with the high value of
“pro-Russian” preference RRR(1)-400 and
the strength of emotional impact of the con-
RRR(2)-600 with positive factor loads and
textual event.
two variables with negative ones (RRR(2)-
In the second measurement RRR 400 was
200 and RRR(2)-300). High values of the
positively associated with RRR-200 (the first
factor were in those participants who had
measurement). Since all the relationships of
pronounced “pro-Russian” preference with
RRR-400 with other variables indicated the
SOA 400 ms before the experimental expo-
mediated association with explicit “pro-
sure, and with 600 ms – after the experi-
Latvian” attitude, RRR-200 and RRR-400 can
mental exposure. At the same time in the
be, as in the case of the control group, at-
second measurement they had low “pro-
tributed to the second wave of activation of
Russian” implicit preference with SOA 200
associations related to the object of attitude.
and 300 ms. Such a data pattern can be ex-
Factor analysis for experimental
groups. As a result of factor analysis five
plained by the influence of the context,
factors were revealed.
Russian” preference with SOA 200-300 ms.
which had a negative impact on “pro-
The first factor includes variables
Perhaps this fact reflects the effect of emer-
RRR-100 of both measurements. Its high val-
gence, under the influence of the experi-
ues correspond to “pro-Russian” preference
mental exposure, of newly created associa-
with the given value of SOA and lower “pro-
tions, contrary to the basic attitude or supple-
Russian” preference of RRR(2)-400, as well
menting it.
as the lower subjective evaluation of the in-
The fourth factor includes the variables
tensity of emotional impact of the contextual
related to “pro-Russian” implicit preference
event. The factor reflects the effects of the
and explicit attitude, as well as the variable
contextual event. It characterizes the stability
RRR(2)-400. Signs of factor loads between
of the existing expressed “automatic” “pro-
variables that in the control group were re-
Russian” attitude to affective influences of
ferred to the wave of activation of “pro-
contextual events in those participants who
Russian” associations, in this case, do not
were not emotionally affected by the plots of
coincide. Therefore, the lower value of the
the videos shown and had lower “pro-
factor corresponds to higher “pro-Russian”
Russian” preference with SOA 400 ms in the
hyperidentity and higher implicit preference
second measurement.
at RRR-500 in the second measurement, but
The second factor includes variables D -
lower “pro-Russian” preference at RRR(1)-
86
300 and RRR(2)-400. And vice versa. The
sociations, contradictory to the basic “pro-
factor describes ethnic preferences of those
Russian” attitude and corresponding to previ-
participants in the experimental groups, who
ously formed “pro-Latvian” associations.
prior to the experiment had either low implic-
The most labile and sensitive to the im-
it “pro-Russian” preference at RRR(1)-300,
pact of the newly created association, contra-
but high scores on the scale of hyperidentity,
dictory to the basic attitude, are processes
or vice-versa. As a result of the experimental
observed with SOA 100 ms and 600 ms, and
exposure they had a decrease in “pro-
also the processes observed with SOA 300
Russian” preference, found with SOA 500
ms and 500 ms.
ms in the second measurement.
These processes generally reflect the
The fifth factor includes two variables -
change of implicit measures in the direction
RRR(1)-200 and the explicit variable of HY-
of the growing influence of loyal associa-
POIDENTITY, both with a positive sign.
tions to the alternative ethnic group while
This factor can be designated as “loyal hy-
retaining the existing basic attitude to the
poidentity.” The factor describes the loyal
own ethnic group.
attitude as to their own, as to the alternative
To define the functions and role of the
ethnic group. Associations activated with
processes determining the RRR preference
SOA 200 ms, define both explicit “pro-
with SOA 600 ms the further research is
Latvian” preference (attitude) and implicit
needed.
“pro-Russian.” The factor describes this atti-
The obtained results provide the neces-
tude in the period before the experimental
sary preconditions for data analysis with
exposure.
application of structural modeling proce-
Summary. The existence of two separate,
dures.
but interrelated waves of spread of relevant
association activation defining ethnic attitudes is possible.
The fourth research question.
The changes of RRR and D
One wave relates to the activation of as-
The means and boxplots of implicit variables
sociations of the (positive) attitude object to
RRR at different SOA and D in the first and
the own ethnic group; its effect is manifested
the second sessions and the statistical signifi-
with SOA values of 100, 300, 500, and par-
cance of differences see in Appendix F
tially on 600 ms.
(Figures F1-F9 and Tables F1-F15).
The second wave is linked with activation
of associations that characterizes the attitude
towards alternative ethnic group, and its effects are revealed with SOA values of 200 ms
RRR-100
and 400 ms. The second wave effects are
Groups with the negative impact. Preference
more expressed after the creation of new as-
in the Russian group (the group with the neg-
87
ative impact) without delay is statistically
Groups with the positive impact. Statisti-
more significant (p < .10) than in the similar
cally significant differences between groups
control group.
with different delays of retests were not
found, but these differences (p < .05) were
cally significant differences between groups
between the group with the positive impact
with different delays in the retest were not
(delay of one day of the retest) and the group
found.
with the negative impact (delay of one week
of the retest). Positive attitude towards the
Russians in the first of these two groups is
RRR-200
higher than in the second.
Groups with the negative impact. There were
RRR-300
no differences between the results of repeated measurements without delays and with
Groups with the negative impact. Statistical-
one day delay. Preference to the Russians
ly significant differences between the groups
without delays and with one day delay is
with different delays of retest were not
significantly higher (p < .05 and p < .01,
found.
respectively) than in the similar group with
Groups with the positive impact. In the
one week delay of the retest. This means a
group with the retest without delays and with
shift of preference towards the alternative
one day delay the preference RRR is statisti-
ethnic group. Preference to the Russians in
cally significantly higher (p < .10 in both
the experimental group who watched the
cases) than in the control group without de-
negative video and passed retest in a week
lay.
was significantly lower than in any of the
No other statistically significant differ-
control groups (p < .01). Thus, the experi-
ences between the groups with different de-
mental exposure has statistically significant-
lays of the retest were found.
ly increased the preference to the Russians
during the retest without delay and with one
day delay and reduced this preference with
the week delay of the retest.
Comparing the results of the two sessions
revealed a statistically significant difference
between the average preference RRR when
retest with the delay of one week (U = 16.0,
p < .10). In the second session, the average
preference of the Russians reduced from
10.5 to 6.5 ms.
RRR-400
Groups with the negative impact. Statistically significant differences between the groups
with different delays of the retest were not
found. However, in the group with the retest
delay of one day the preference to the Russians was significantly higher than in the
similar control group (p < .01) and in the
88
control group with the immediate retest
is significantly higher than in the control
(p < .05). Preference to the Russians in the
group with the retest delay of one day
group with the negative impact and retest
(p < .10) and lower than in the control group
delay of one day is higher than in the groups
with the retest delay of one week (p < .10).
with the positive impact and retest delays of
Preference to the Russians in the group
one week (p < .05) and without delay
with the retest delay of one week is signifi-
(p < .01). Preference to the Russians in the
cantly lower than in the group with the posi-
group with the negative impact and immedi-
tive impact and similar delay of the retest
ate retest is higher than in the similar group
(p < .10).
with the positive impact (p < .01).
Comparing the results of the two sessions
Comparison of the results of the two ses-
revealed a statistically significant difference
sions of measurements revealed a statistical-
between the average preference RRR when
ly significant difference between the average
retest with the delay of one day (U = 25,0,
preference RRR when immediate retest (U =
p < .10). In the second session, the average
18,0, p < .05). In the second session, the av-
preference to the Russians increased from 7
erage “pro-Russian” preference increased
to 13 ms.
from 7 to 12 (check the last number) ms.
cally significant differences of average RRR-
cally significant differences between the
600 ms between the groups with different
groups with different delays of the retest
delay of retest were not revealed, but this
were not found.
difference (p < .05) was found between the
group with the positive impact and retest in
one week and the control group with retest
RRR-500
delay of one day: preference to the Russians
Statistically significant differences between
any groups with different delays of the retest
were not found.
is higher in the experimental group.
the fourth research question
Single index of implicit preference RRR
RRR-600
changes at different SOA and times of test
delay. The aim of this analysis was to deter-
Groups with the negative impact. Statistical-
mine the changes in implicit measures of
ly significant differences between the groups
attitudes depending on the time interval of
with different delays of the retest were not
the experimental exposure event (viewing
found. However, in the group with the im-
video by participants of each experimental
midiate retest the preference to the Russians
group) before the repeated implicit measure-
89
ment with the delays of at once, one day, one
In comparison with the control group, at
week. Content of videos varied, activating
SOA 100 ms in the experimental group the
the old and creating new associations with
higher preference to the Russians was found.
the object of attitude. The first of them was
The processes that occur at this value of
the “pro-Russian” (negative), accentuating
SOA have been previously assigned to the
problems of the Russians in the system of
first “wave” of activation of “pro-Russian”
inter-ethnic relations, the second of them was
associations. At other retest delays the trend
neutral,
“pro-
to reduce the RRR (preference of the Rus-
Latvian” (positive). For participants with the
sians) was observed, although it was not
preference of the Russians the content of the
statistically significant. Given the fact that at
“pro-Russian” video theoretically had not to
other times of delay no statistically signifi-
create a large number of new associations
cant differences RRR between the partici-
and the effect of their activation should fade
pants of the experimental and control groups
more quickly than for participants viewing
were found, it can be assumed that the high-
the “pro-Latvian” video. The events of this
er values of RRR in the experimental group
video could create new associations among
without delay of the retest (immediate test)
the latter. Presumably, these associations
is associated with the activation of the “pro-
should be maintained for a longer time under
Russian” associations under the influence of
the condition of coincidence (similarity) of
the negative video. Besides, after viewing
contextual cues of information coding with
the negative video by participants the prefer-
the access cues to these associations when
ence RRR-100 at a statistically significant
accessing memory. Thus, it was assumed that
level negatively correlated with explicit
the effect of the experimental exposure
measures of the “pro-Russian” basic ethnic
would be manifested in the shifts of deferred
attitude. Simultaneously, the statistically
implicit measures primarily for participants
significant relationship with the measure D
who viewed the positive video. However, the
IAT of the “pro-Russian” implicit attitude,
video with negative content can also create
observed in the first measurement session
new associations among participants with the
was lost. It may also indicate the activation
preference to the Russians, first of all, among
of new associations with the object of atti-
those who were not familiar with the facts
tude, formed under the influence of the con-
presented in the video. Some of them could
textual event, which are contrary to the ex-
have more positive attitude towards the rep-
isting basic ethnic attitude or reflect its new
resentatives of the alternative ethnic group.
aspects. However, the activation of these
Therefore, it was also important to trace the
associations proved to be short-lived and
shifts of implicit measures at various delays
was not observed at other times of retest
of retest among the participants who viewed
delay.
and
the
third
the video with negative content.
–
With SOA 200 ms statistically signifi-
90
cant differences RRR between the groups of
basic attitude must be kept longer if the situ-
participants who watched the video with
ation of the memory test contains the same
negative content without delay of retest and
context cues as when encoding information
with the delay of one day, were not found.
(Gawronski & Sritharan, 2010).
But such differences are observed between
Group participants who have viewed the
these groups and the group with the retest
positive video, when retested in one day
delay of one week. A marked decrease of
showed a statistically insignificant trend
RRR was noted in the latter group, and this
towards an increase in the “pro-Russian”
decrease is also not accidental when com-
preferences, but in a week it decreased
pared with all control groups. This result
again, although not statistically significant.
supports the hypothesis that with this value
With SOA 300 ms the “pro-Russian”
of SOA the new “pro-Latvian” associations
preference of participants of the three experi-
can be activated, which are stored for a long-
mental groups, who have viewed the video
er time, whereas the activated “pro-Russian”
with negative content, was not significantly
associations which were acquired earlier,
different. A similar pattern was observed in
quickly lose their power.
all groups of participants who have viewed
Comparing measurements of two consec-
the video with positive content. Noteworthy
utive sessions is also consistent with this
is the fact that in all these groups the prefer-
result. With the week delay of the retest a
ence of participants was “pro-Russian”.
statistically significant decrease in the pref-
This can be attributed to the fact that
erence to the Russians and, respectively, the
participants‟ “pro-Russian” basic implicit
“pro-Latvian” preference is observed. This
preference that is determined by the process-
fact can be attributed to the influence of new
es of association activation with this SOA
ambivalent associations, established by the
has not been changed both with the negative
negative video. Its content could cause the
and positive contextual event related to the
protest and formation of not “pro-Russian”
object of attitude. This result does not con-
association among those participants of the
tradict the assumption that “pro-Russian”
experimental group, who do not want to
activation of associations which are basic for
have confrontational relations with the alter-
the attitude was context-independent.
native ethnic group and focused on coopera-
With SOA 400 ms the pattern has
tion and integration with it, without losing
changed somewhat. The “pro-Russian” im-
their own ethnic identity. The newly created
plicit preference was statistically significant-
association in this case turned out to be the
ly higher in the group watched the negative
most accessible at SOA 200 ms and re-
video and performed retest in one day com-
mained for a long time.
pared to the similar group who completed
This confirms the assumption that the
retest without delay. In the group with de-
newly created associations contrary to the
layed retest of one day the “pro-Russian”
91
preference was also higher compare to the
of the experimental exposure at 400 ms SOA
control groups with retest without delay and
has a transitional nature and is stored in the
with the delay of one day.
delay interval for at least a day, but less than
There were also no shifts in preference
a week.
RRR in all groups of participants who viewed
With SOA 500 ms experimental expo-
the video with positive content. However, on
sure was not associated with any statistically
average, in contrast to the situation with SOA
significant changes in ethnic preferences in
300 ms, their “pro-Russian” preference de-
all experimental groups. Perhaps this is due
creased, i.e. the associations contrary to the
to the complex role of processes which with
basic attitude were activated.
SOA 500 ms are associated with activation
These data are consistent with the previ-
of “pro-Russian” and a tendency to inhibi-
ously stated suggestion on the “pro-Latvian”
tion of “pro-Latvian” associations (see Fig-
“wave” of activation spread of associations
ure 36). The results of correlation analysis
related to attitude. However, with SOA 400
show that with the value of SOA in the first
ms the authors have marked an increase in
measurement the value of RRR-500 signifi-
the “pro-Russian” preference among the par-
cantly negatively correlates with measures of
ticipants who watched the negative video and
explicit “pro-Latvian” attitudes. Therefore,
passed the retest in one day after context ex-
we can assume that with SOA 500 ms there
posure. Thus, the processes that define pref-
is an activation of associations, closely relat-
erence with SOA 400 ms are associated with
ed to the object of basic attitude. However,
“pro-Latvian” preference, but are not limited
after experimental contextual exposure, di-
to it. The new “pro-Russian” associations
rect statistically significant negative associa-
activated through viewing the negative video
tions RRR-500 with implicit measures of
by participants, retain a certain power in a
“pro-Latvian” attitude are no longer ob-
day after exposure as well.
served. Indirectly, on the trend level, they
These data are supported by the results of
have arisen in connection with the processes
comparison of preference measurements in
of activation of “pro-Latvian” associations
the first and second session. In the second
with SOA 200 ms.
session the “pro-Russian” preference statisti-
With SOA 600 ms the level of “pro-
cally significantly increased at the retest
Russian” preferences in the groups of partic-
without delay and is close to statistically sig-
ipants who watched the negative video, are
nificant with the delay of one day. A week
relatively low and with one week delay they
later, the effect of the superiority of the se-
become even lower, although in all cases
cond session of measurements in these
they are statistically insignificant. In the
groups almost disappeared. Thus, the activa-
group that passed the retest in one day, there
tion of the new “pro-Russian” associations
was a statistically significant difference of
with the object of attitude, created as a result
the average “pro-Russian” preference from
92
the control groups (retest in one day and one
ble explanation. The context cues of access
week). In the three groups that have viewed
to newly formed associations after a week
the positive video, the preference was “pro-
period of retest delay were not sufficiently
Russian” and it statistically significantly ex-
complete to access the new information. The
ceeded the preference observed in the corre-
conditions of retest with one day and one
sponding control groups. This shows that the
week delays coincide, i.e. contained identical
processes of activation of relevant associa-
access cues: the exterior of the experimenter,
tions at a given value of SOA have been as-
equipment and facilities for testing and view-
sociated with the activation of the basic “pro-
ing the video. With the retest delay of one
Russian” attitude.
day the memory of the participants could
In general, these results support the as-
well preserve the content of the video and
sumption of attribution of activation process-
this information could be activated during
es with SOA 500 ms to the first “wave” of
the retest period under the influence of the
spread of (“pro-Russian”) associations.
overall context for the situations of retest and
Comparison of preferences in the first
showing the video to participants. However,
and second sessions also shows a trend to an
within a week the content of video, which
increase in “pro-Russian” preferences in all
created new associations with the object of
experimental groups in which the partici-
attitude, could be subject to greater forget-
pants watched the negative video. This pref-
ting than in one day. Therefore, contextual
erence is statistically significant only for the
cues of access to the stored new associations
group with the retest delay of one day. This
might be less complete and the new associa-
phenomenon can be attributed to the process
tions could not be activated to the same de-
of forming new associations in the group of
gree as with the retest delay of one day.
participants who watched the negative video
Summary. In general, the data show a
and these associations have strengthened the
complex and ambiguous pattern of changes
existing “pro-Russian” preference which is
in explicit measures with different SOAs,
most pronounced in one day. Since the dif-
part of which can be attributed to experi-
ference in the mean between the first and
mental exposure.
second measurement decreased in the group
The processes activated with SOA 100,
with retest in one week, it can be assumed
300, 500 and 600 ms, may be associated with
that the newly emerged “pro-Russian” asso-
the wave of activation of associations with
ciations briefly increased the “pro-Russian”
the object of the basic ethnic attitude. These
preference. But their level of activation to the
early associations with the object of attitude
end of the week decreased and approached
can be activated with the measurement of
the values obtained in the first measurement.
both implicit and explicit attitudes and are
This indicates a transient nature of these as-
presumably context independent. The pro-
sociations. However, there is another possi-
cesses observed in the measurement of atti-
93
tudes with SOA 200 ms may also be associ-
SOAs need to be further explored. This re-
ated with activation of associations with the
search opens up a number of prospects for
object of basic attitude, but towards the alter-
the upcoming study of implicit measures and
native ethnic group. Relevant contextual
attitudes. In particular, it is necessary to dif-
exposure causes activation of processes that
ferentiate the processes that define both the
affect access to associations, especially with
basic and alternative preference. These pro-
SOA 400 ms. The obtained data as a whole
cesses affect the implicit measures of atti-
give rise to the assumption that the processes
tudes, obtained by means of procedures of
activated with SOA 200 ms and 400 ms, re-
evaluative priming.
fer to the activation of associations newly
It is necessary to research the conformity
created under the influence of contextual
of alternative implicit measures of attitudes
factors. They affect both “pro-Russian” and
with those measures which can be obtained
“pro-Latvian” attitude. Implicit measures
with different values of SOA in the process
obtained with these SOAs, are context-
of subliminal affective priming in the condi-
dependent.
tions of relevant contextual influences.
Implicit measures with SOA 100 ms and
This work will help in prospect to better
600 ms related to activation of “pro-Russian”
understand the mechanisms of formation of
associations are likely to
be context-
contextual associations relevant to attitude
dependent too. Though, these measures are
and to assess the sensitivity of various im-
associated with the “pro-Russian” attitude,
plicit measures of attitudes towards contex-
reflecting the contextual events and new in-
tual influences.
formation contained in them which confirms
the basic attitude.
Overall, the data support the assumption
that the newly created contextual associa-
The work makes it possible to propose a
number of ideas for further study of the
problem of mental representation of attitudes
and contexted cognition.
tions contrary to the basic attitude, persist
longer.
However, this result is more typical with
retest delay of one week from the event of
the relevant contextual impact with SOA 200
ms, while the new associations correspond-
Discussion and
conclusions on Study 2
ing to the basic attitude exert their effect with
SOA 400 ms and relatively quickly lose their
The experimental exposure reflected on the
strength.
process of association activation that occurs
Nevertheless, the mechanisms of pro-
with SOA 600 ms and depending on the as-
cessing the newly created contextual associa-
sessment of the strength of emotional im-
tions with the object of attitude with various
pact.
94
The large subjective strength of the emo-
ethnic group. The relevant contextual expo-
tional impact of the contextual event de-
sure causes activation of the processes that
creased “pro-Russian” preference with SOA
affect the access to associations, especially
600 and SOA 400, but was associated with
with SOA 400 ms. The obtained data gener-
increased “pro-Russian” preference with
ally give rise to the assumption that the pro-
SOA 300 ms. This indicates context-
cesses activated with SOA 200 ms and 400
dependent processes in this range of SOAs.
ms, refer to the activation of the associations
Pertaining of processes with SOA 200 ms
newly created under the influence of the con-
and 400 ms to the second wave of spread of
textual factor. They affect both the “pro-
activation has got additional confirmation.
Russian” and “pro-Latvian” attitude. Implicit
RRR-100 may reflect both the associations with “pro-Russian” and “pro-Latvian”
preference, which is due to valence of existing automatic implicit associations.
measures obtained with these SOAs, are subject to contextual influences.
The implicit measures with SOA 100 ms
and 600 ms associated with the activation of
Attention is drawn to the relationship
“pro-Russian” associations are likely to be
between RRR-100 (the first measurement)
the context-sensitive as well. However, these
and RRR- 400 and RRR-600 (the second
measures are associated with the “pro-
measurement). RRR-100 and RRR-600 were
Russian” attitude, reflecting the effects of
sensitive to contextual impacts (see the re-
contextual events and new information con-
sults of the control group).
tained in them, which confirms the basic
In general, the data show the complex
attitude.
and mixed pattern of changes of implicit
Overall, the data support the hypothesis
measures with various SOAs, part of which
that the newly created contextual associa-
can be attributed to the influence of the ex-
tions, contrary to the basic attitude persist
perimental exposure.
longer than its corresponding attitudes.
The processes activated with SOA 100,
This result was more pronounced at the
300, 500 and 600 ms are possibly related to
retest delay of one week from the event of
the “wave” of activation of associations with
the relevant contextual impact with SOA 200
the object of the basic ethnic attitude. These
ms, while the new associations correspond-
early associations with the object of attitude
ing to the basic attitude exert their effect with
can be activated in the measurement of both
SOA 400 ms and relatively quickly lose
implicit and explicit attitudes and are pre-
strength.
sumably context independent. The processes
However, the mechanisms of processing
observed in the measurement of attitudes
of newly created contextual associations with
with SOA 200 ms may also be associated
the object of attitude with various SOAs
with the activation of associations with the
need to be further explored. This study opens
object of basic attitude, but to the alternative
up a number of prospects for the upcoming
95
study of implicit measures and attitudes. In
despite the fact that the subject is not aware
particular, it is necessary to differentiate the
of this. Whereas the actualization of implicit
processes that define both the basic and alter-
attitudes is automatic and unconscious in
native preference. These processes affect the
nature, it is influenced by contextual factors,
implicit measures of attitudes, obtained by
which is contrary to the existing notion of
means of procedures of evaluative priming.
sustainability and stability of attitudes. The
It is necessary to study the conformity of
recent experience, contrary to previously
alternative implicit measures of attitudes with
formed attitude can have an impact on im-
those measures, which can be obtained at
plicit measures of attitudes obtained using
different values of SOA in the process of
procedures such as the IAT, subliminal af-
subliminal affective priming in the conditions
fective priming and others. In this study we
of relevant contextual influences.
examined the effects of the recent autobio-
This work will help in the perspective to
graphical events, as well as artificially gen-
better understand the mechanisms of for-
erated events on implicit attitudes and their
mation of contextual associations relevant to
measures. The results were discussed in the
attitude and to evaluate the sensitivity of the
framework of modern theories of implicit
various implicit measures of attitudes to-
attitudes. For this purpose, the authors have
wards contextual influences.
systematized the existing approaches to the
This research makes it possible to put a
development of modern theories of attitudes.
number of ideas for further study of the prob-
The main attention was focused both on the
lem of mental representation of attitudes and
study of the duration of the effects of con-
contexted cognition.
text, and on the study of correspondence of
existing associations with the object of attitude to the newly formed associations that
General conclusions
have arisen under the influence of contextual
events. Following Gawronsky and Striharam
(2009), we hypothesized that congruent as-
In the tideway of modern concepts the
sociation remain unchanged, but their activa-
attitude is understood as generalized evalua-
tion attenuates faster than the activation of
tion data on the object. The process of atti-
incongruent associations, making the latter
tude actualization may require conations and
more sustainable over time, that is, better
being conscious, controlled or, on the contra-
stored in the memory. We have tested this
ry, spontaneous, unconscious, automatic. In
idea with the help of procedures of sublimi-
the first case the matter involves explicit atti-
nal priming and the IAT. Besides that we
tudes, in the second – implicit ones. Thus,
evaluated the overall context influence on
implicit attitudes are evaluating tendencies
implicit attitudes and their measures.
that may affect the judgment and behavior,
Analysis of the effects of affective prim-
96
ing was carried out in terms of an approach
these associations as underlying the basic
based on the concept of the spread of activa-
attitude and manifested both in implicit and
tion in the semantic network (Collins &
explicit measurements. Another important
Loftus, 1975; Collins & Quillian, 1969).
finding is separate cognitive processing of
The first study was carried out in an at-
contextually conditioned and basic associa-
tempt to explore the contextual influences
tions with the object of attitude at different
that affected the research participants in the
times of SOA. The research found that the
environmental conditions of real life. In the
processes that determine the index of implicit
second study the contextual influence was
preferences with SOA 300, 500 and probably
created artificially. In both cases, the authors
100 ms and 600 ms are associated with the
found the reliable influence of contextual
explicit and implicit ethnic attitude of
factors on implicit measures of ethnic atti-
“hyperidentity” and the processes occurring
tudes. As the first and the second study re-
with SOA 200 ms, 400 ms are related to the
vealed similar patterns: changes in reaction
associations, underlying the alternative ethnic
time under the influence of contextual factors
attitude (“hypoidentity”).
in the performance of experimental tasks by
Artificially created contextual events had
the participants. These changes were associ-
an impact on the system of relationships be-
ated with the influence of factors such as
tween variables - indicators of basic and al-
affective valence of the contextual event, the
ternative ethnic attitudes. Contextual effects
strength of the emotional impact of the event.
creating new associations with the object of
In the second study these changes were asso-
attitude, prone to more rapid attenuation in
ciated with a time interval between the con-
the case of their compliance with the basic
textual event and repeated measurement.
attitude and slower attenuation in the case of
Contextual events had a significant impact on
correspondence to the alternative ethnic atti-
all used implicit measures of attitudes
tude. This generally corresponds to the as-
(facilitation variable R, variable of attitudes
sumptions of Gawronsky and Striharam
RR, variable of indices of implicit preference
(2009). The revealed patterns require further
RRR, D-scores). For the first time it was
study, but there is already visible perspective
found that the index of implicit preferences,
of working on the creation of a new model of
as opposed to other measures, is closely re-
mental representation of attitude, as well as
lated to the explicit measures of attitudes.
prospects for the development of new ap-
This allowed us to identify the type of associ-
proaches to measuring implicit attitudes.
ations with the object of attitude and qualify
97
Acknowledgments
The authors express their gratitude for the collection of empirical data to Marija Bambulaka, Natalia Tikhomirova, Larisa Pushkareva, Ieva Melnupe and Ilva Terauda.
98
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Appendix A
Tables for results in Study 1
TABLE A1. Experimental conditions and priming-effect. Study 1
SOA
Group
100
100
RUS
100
100
RUS
RUS
Prime
R
Russian
R(+)
R(-)
Russian
Russian
R(-)
R(-)
200
200
200
LV
200
Valence of
Episodes
Impact
of Episodes
M
SD
One Sample t-test
8.8
-9.6
47.2
49.1
t(119)=2.03, p<.05
t(116)=-2.12, p<.05
-11.1
-40
47.1
65.2
t(60)=-1.85, p<.1
t(10)=-2.04, p<.1
R
R(+)
3.4
4.5
43.8
42
t(471)=1.68, p<.1
t(233)=1.65, p<.1
negative
low
R(-)
9.3
43.4
t(113)=2.28, p<.05
Russian
R(+)
7
37.1
t(116)=2.06, p<.05
200
LV
Latvian
R(-)
7.9
34.8
t(56)=1.72, p<.1
200
RUS
Latvian
R(-)
-9.3
41.4
t(60)=-1.75, p<.1
200
RUS
Russian
R(+)
8.9
34.2
t(60)=2.04, p<.05
200
200
LV
RUS
Latvian
Russian
R(-)
R(+)
12.5
14.5
36.3
29.9
t(25)=1.75, p<.1
t(23)=2.39, p<.05
R
R(+)
5.3
6.1
43.1
40.4
t(471)=2.66, p<.01
t(233)=2.32, p<.05
300
300
negative
negative
medium
high
300
LV
R(-)
11.9
46.7
t(113)=2.73, p<.01
300
LV
R(+)
7
41.3
t(113)=1.82, p<.1
Latvian
R(+)
6.7
42.3
t(116)=1.72, p<.1
13.6
39.1
t(56)=2.64, p<.05
300
300
LV
Latvian
R(-)
300
LV
Latvian
R(-)
negative
low
20.4
33.9
t(10)=1.99, p<.1
300
300
LV
LV
Latvian
Russian
R(-)
R(+)
negative
negative
medium
high
20
15.2
43.9
25.2
t(25)=2.32, p<.05
t(9)=1.90, p<.1
400
400
LV
R(-)
R(-)
5.1
9.5
43
47.3
t(233)=1.82, p<.1
t(113)=2.15, p<.05
400
Latvian
R(-)
9.3
39.2
t(116)=2.56, p<.05
400
LV
Latvian
R(-)
14.4
43.4
t(56)=2.51, p<.05
400
LV
Latvian
R(-)
negative
medium
19.8
49.9
t(25)=2.02, p<.1
400
400
LV
RUS
Latvian
Latvian
R(-)
R(-)
positive
negative
low
low
27.3
13.3
34.1
23.2
t(6)=2.12, p<.1
t(10)=1.90, p<.1
500
LV
Russian
R(+)
negative
medium
-18
44
t(25)=-2.08, p<.05
600
LV
Latvian
R(+)
-9.8
36
t(56)=-2.06, p<.05
108
Table A2. Correlations between results of implicit and explicit methods. Study 1
SOA,
ms
Valence
Impact
Valence*Impact
r
p
N
Variables
RUS
300
-.205
.113
61
HYPO
RRR
RUS
500
-.295
<.05
61
HYPO
RRR
RUS
500
-.274
<.05
58
HYPO
RRR
RUS
300
low
-.701
<.01
14
HYPO
RRR
RUS
500
medium
-.379
<.1
23
HYPO
RRR
RUS
300
negative*low
-.811**
<.01
11
HYPO
RRR
LV
500
negative*medium
.362
<.1
26
HYPO
RRR
LV
600
negative*medium
-.326
.104
26
HYPER
RRR
LV
500
positive*low
.718
<.1
7
HYPO
RRR
LV
100
.526
.118
10
HYPO
RRR
LV
500
.344
<.1
29
HYPO
RRR
negative
positive
medium
109
Appendix B
Tables for results in Study 1. IAT
Table B1 Comparisons of control groups’ and experimental groups’ means in Sessions 1,
2
Experimental
group
Control group
Valence
(experimental
group)
Session 1
Retest
1
11
negative
at once
795
485
1842
691
335
1394
p<.001
6
11
positive
at once
795
485
1842
763
411
1197
p=.241
7
11
neutral
at once
795
485
1842
696
325
2328
p<.001
735
411
1688
778
442
1535
p<.001
735
411
1688
718
421
1393
p=.053
735
411
1688
720
376
1827
p=.459
686
387
1232
809
363
1399
p<.001
686
387
1232
815
458
1219
p<.001
686
387
1232
807
541
1979
p<.001
M
SD
N
M
SD
N
p-value
of
means'
differences
Control group
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
Experimental group
Session 2
3
12
negative
5
12
positive
2
12
neutral
4
11
negative
8
11
positive
10
11
neutral
1
11
negative
at once
744
458
1827
638
278
1401
p<.001
6
11
positive
at once
744
458
1827
667
320
1205
p<.001
7
11
neutral
at once
744
458
1827
635
249
2332
p<.001
651
300
1710
648
290
1546
p=.976
651
300
1710
682
418
1390
p=.413
651
300
1710
647
308
1797
p=.509
613
240
1236
758
366
1383
p<.001
613
240
1236
665
295
1236
p<.001
613
240
1236
700
356
2013
p<.001
3
12
negative
5
12
positive
2
12
neutral
4
11
negative
8
11
positive
10
11
neutral
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
Note. The multiple comparisons LSD tests were used.
110
Table B2. Comparisons of control groups’ and experimental groups’ means in Sessions
1, 2
Experimental group
Control group
M
SD
N
M
low
negative
718
364
1852
745
438
4762
low
neutral
666
294
1710
745
438
4762
low
positive
756
389
1361
745
438
4762
middle
negative
747
384
1244
745
438
4762
middle
neutral
705
349
2008
745
438
4762
middle
positive
722
378
932
745
438
4762
high
negative
837
415
1232
745
438
4762
high
neutral
818
529
2416
745
438
4762
high
positive
794
493
1516
745
438
4762
low
negative
663
319
1862
677
361
4773
low
neutral
628
251
1708
677
361
4773
low
positive
659
346
1350
677
361
4773
middle
negative
657
313
1236
677
361
4773
middle
neutral
629
240
2005
677
361
4773
middle
positive
647
329
936
677
361
4773
high
negative
729
314
1232
677
361
4773
high
neutral
707
376
2429
677
361
4773
high
positive
697
369
1545
677
361
4773
no impact
Session 2
Valence
no impact
Session 1
IEI
SD
t-test
N
t(4028)=-2.64,
p<.01
t(4502)=-8.37,
p<.001
t(2433)=0.85, ns
t(2167)=0.08, ns
t(4687)=-3.98,
p<.001
t(1465)=-1.69,
ns
t(2001)=6.8064,
p<.001
t(4130)=5.81,
p<.001
t(2325)=3.45,
p<.001
t(3821)=-1.52,
ns
t(4331)=-6.02,
p<.001
t(6121)=-1.62,
ns
t(2170)=-1.93,
ns
t(5529)=-6.38,
p<.001
t(1415)=-2.50,
p<.05
t(2149)=5.08,
p<.001
t(4715)=3.28,
p<.01
t(6315)=1.94, ns
Note. The t-tests were used.
111
Table B3. Comparisons of control groups’ and experimental groups’ means in Sessions
1, 2
Retest
Intensity
of emotional impact
Experimental group
Control group
M
SD
N
M
SD
N
p-value
of
means'
differences
Session 1
Session 2
at once
low
no impact
689
317
2172
795
485
1842
p<.001
at once
middle
no impact
698
352
2016
795
485
1842
p<.001
at once
high
no impact
732
441
927
795
485
1842
p<.001
after one day
low
no impact
753
395
1673
735
411
1688
p=.012
after one day
middle
no impact
658
321
774
735
411
1688
p<.001
after one day
high
no impact
783
443
2112
735
411
1688
p<.001
after one week
low
no impact
686
335
1078
686
387
1232
p=.435
after one week
middle
no impact
790
400
1394
686
387
1232
p<.001
after one week
high
no impact
885
551
2125
686
387
1232
p<.001
at once
low
no impact
646
292
2171
744
458
1827
p<.001
at once
middle
no impact
638
287
2024
744
458
1827
p<.001
at once
high
no impact
676
398
928
744
458
1827
p<.001
after one day
low
no impact
653
323
1671
651
300
1710
p=.848
after one day
middle
no impact
562
194
760
651
300
1710
p<.001
after one day
high
no impact
685
317
2117
651
300
1710
p<.001
after one week
low
no impact
652
305
1078
613
240
1236
p<.001
after one week
middle
no impact
688
311
1393
613
240
1236
p<.001
after one week
high
no impact
748
379
2161
613
240
1236
p<.001
Note. The multiple comparisons LSD tests were used.
112
Table B4. Comparisons of control groups’ and experimental groups’ means in Session 1
Valence
Retest
negative
negative
negative
at once
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
Intensity of
emotional
impact
low
middle
high
M
SD
N
M
SD
N
t
df
p
689
678
759
316
309
477
461
777
156
795
795
795
485
485
485
1842
1842
1842
-5.72
-7.36
-0.90
1072
2221
183
0.001
0.001
ns
low
756
426
924
735
411
1688
1.22
1842
ns
middle
592
274
156
735
411
1688
-5.96
225
0.001
high
886
491
455
735
411
1688
5.99
636
0.001
low
669
247
467
686
387
1232
-1.04
1308
ns
middle
995
478
311
686
387
1232
10.57
418
0.001
high
820
323
621
686
387
1232
7.89
1461
0.001
Experimental group
Control group
t-test
neutral
at once
low
684
300
1401
795
485
1842
-8.01
3120
0.001
neutral
neutral
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
at once
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
middle
high
730
685
378
313
617
310
795
795
485
485
1842
1842
-3.40
-5.20
1347
594
0.001
0.001
735
411
1688
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
low
middle
650
304
463
735
411
1688
-4.92
975
0.001
high
743
395
1364
735
411
1688
0.54
2963
ns
low
585
246
309
686
387
1232
-5.65
740
0.001
middle
717
347
928
686
387
1232
1.94
2094
ns
high
1012
729
742
686
387
1232
11.27
997
0.001
low
middle
high
713
693
754
384
372
497
310
622
461
795
795
795
485
485
485
1842
1842
1842
-3.31
-5.45
-1.57
491
1385
696
0.001
0.001
ns
low
749
353
749
735
411
1688
0.86
1656
ns
middle
749
387
155
735
411
1688
0.43
187
ns
high
806
541
293
735
411
1688
2.13
353
0.05
low
816
466
302
686
387
1232
4.50
409
0.001
middle
813
377
155
686
387
1232
3.94
197
0.001
high
814
470
762
686
387
1232
6.32
1384
0.001
113
Table B5. Comparisons of control groups’ and experimental groups’ means in Session 2
Valence
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
negative
Retest
at once
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
Intensity of
emotional
impact
low
middle
high
Experimental group
Control group
t-test
M
SD
N
M
SD
N
t
df
p
656
629
625
307
264
256
466
779
156
744
744
744
458
458
458
1827
1827
1827
-4.92
-8.02
-5.12
1058
2381
250
0.001
0.001
0.001
low
647
305
933
651
300
1710
-0.25
2641
ns
middle
513
192
156
651
300
1710
-8.08
231
0.001
high
697
271
457
651
300
1710
3.15
780
0.01
low
700
353
463
613
240
1236
4.89
629
0.001
middle
802
410
301
613
240
1236
7.69
352
0.001
high
780
346
619
613
240
1236
10.73
925
0.001
neutral
at once
low
639
256
1400
744
458
1827
-8.28
2975
0.001
neutral
neutral
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
at once
at once
at once
after one
day
after one
day
after one
day
after one
week
after one
week
after one
week
middle
high
642
605
259
190
621
311
744
744
458
458
1827
1827
-6.84
-9.17
1910
1053
0.001
0.001
651
300
1710
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
neutral
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
positive
low
middle
572
202
448
651
300
1710
-6.58
1021
0.001
high
672
332
1349
651
300
1710
1.84
2744
ns
low
582
217
308
613
240
1236
-2.20
511
0.05
middle
647
240
936
613
240
1236
3.31
2170
0.001
high
810
471
769
613
240
1236
10.76
1021
0.001
low
middle
high
664
646
742
399
336
515
305
624
461
744
744
744
458
458
458
1827
1827
1827
-3.15
-5.68
-0.08
449
1463
656
0.01
0.001
ns
low
660
344
738
651
300
1710
0.67
1243
ns
middle
584
163
156
651
300
1710
-4.46
264
high
723
309
311
651
300
1710
3.84
2019
ns
low
651
289
307
613
240
1236
2.14
417
ns
middle
712
404
156
613
240
1236
2.98
169
ns
high
660
270
773
613
240
1236
3.99
1497
ns
0.05
114
Table B6. Implicit-Explicit correspondence: D(IAT) and Hyper-identity (Percentage)
Hyper-I
D(IAT)
All groups, session 1,
N=123
Сount
N=123
Сount
Experimental groups,
session 1, N=93
Сount
session 2, N=93
Сount
Control groups, session 1, N=30
Сount
Сount
%
%
%
%
%
%
low
Latvian pleasant
than Russian
middle
no preference
high
Russian pleasant
than Latvian
Total
1
15
23
39
0.81
12.20
18.70
31.71
5
15
23
43
4.07
12.20
18.70
34.96
21
3
1
25
22.58
3.23
1.08
26.88
20
12
3
35
12.51
12.90
3.23
37.63
3
4
0
7
10.00
13.33
0.00
23.33
3
3
2
8
10.00
10.00
6.67
26.67
Table B7. Implicit-Explicit correspondence: D(IAT) and Hypo-identity (Percentage)
Hyper-I
Variables
D(IAT)
N=123
Сount
N=123
Сount
session 1, N=93
Сount
session 2, N=93
Сount
Сount
Сount
%
%
%
%
%
%
low
Russian pleasant
than Latvian
middle
no preference
high
Latvian pleasant
than Russian
Total
25
12
1
38
20.33
9.76
0.81
30.89
22
14
5
41
17.89
11.38
4.07
33.33
19
7
0
26
20.43
7.53
0.00
27.96
19
10
4
33
20.43
10.75
4.30
35.48
6
5
1
12
20.00
16.67
3.33
40.00
3
4
1
8
10.00
13.33
3.33
26.67
Table B8. Comparisons of D-scores under different conditions, p-values
D, Conditions 1
D, Conditions 2
negative
at once
negative
after one day
negative
at once
negative
after one week
negative
after one day
negative
after one week
positive
at once
positive
after one day
positive
at once
positive
after one week
positive
after one day
positive
after one week
neutral
at once
neutral
after one day
neutral
at once
neutral
after one week
neutral
after one day
neutral
after one week
no impact
at once
no impact
after one day
no impact
at once
no impact
after one week
no impact
after one day
no impact
after one week
negative
at once
no impact
at once
negative
after one day
no impact
after one day
negative
after one week
no impact
after one week
positive
at once
no impact
at once
positive
after one day
no impact
after one day
positive
after one week
no impact
after one week
neutral
at once
no impact
at once
neutral
after one day
no impact
after one day
neutral
after one week
no impact
after one week
p-value
.021
.044
.860
.734
.064
.195
.109
.171
.797
.156
.287
.856
.753
.439
.509
.617
.749
.206
.004
.862
.801
115
116
Appendix C
Factors interactions on RT in subliminal evaluative priming task.
Study 2. Figures
FIGURE C1. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “SOA” and “Target” interaction
FIGURE C2. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Valence” and “Target” interaction
117
FIGURE C3. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Retest” and “Target” interaction
FIGURE C4. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “SOA” and “Target” interaction
118
FIGURE C5. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Valence” and “Retest” interaction
FIGURE C6. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Valence” and “Intensity of emotional impact” interaction
119
FIGURE C3. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Retest” and “Target” interaction
120
FIGURE C8. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Target”, “Retest” and “Valence”
interaction
121
FIGURE C9. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Target”, “Retest” and “Intensity of
emotional impact” interaction
122
FIGURE C10. Means of RT in two sessions for factors’ “Valence”, “Retest” and
“Intensity of emotional impact” interaction
123
Appendix D
Research of facilitation scores. Study 2
TABLE D1. Results of repeated measurements ANOVA for R in study 2
SOA
Session
100
1
100
100
Factors
F
df1
df2
p
prime*target
6.4
1
108
<.05
2
IEI
4.97
2
91
<.01
2
valence*retest*IEI
3.33
7
91
<.01
200
2
prime*retest
3.56
2
91
<.05
200
2
target*valence*retest
2.39
4
91
.057
200
2
prime*target*valence*retest
2.42
4
91
0.54
200
2
valence
3.48
2
91
<.05
200
2
retest
3.73
2
91
<.05
200
2
IEI
7.65
2
91
.001
200
2
valence*retest*IEI
2.85
7
91
.01
300
1
target
8.37
1
108
<.001
300
2
prime*target
3.88
1
91
.052
300
2
prime*target*valence*retest*IEI
2.18
7
91
<.05
300
2
target*retest
2.91
2
91
.059
300
2
valence
3.02
2
91
.054
300
2
IEI
4.87
2
91
.010
400
1
prime*target*valence*retest
2.28
6
108
<.05
400
2
prime*target*IEI
3.07
2
91
.051
400
2
prime*retest
6.7
2
91
<.01
400
2
valence*retest
2.44
4
91
.052
500
2
prime
4.62
1
91
<.05
500
2
prime*IEI
3.5
2
91
<.05
500
2
target
5.58
1
91
<.05
500
2
prime*target*valence*retest*IEI
2.05
7
91
.057
500
2
valence
5.95
2
91
<.01
500
2
IEI
5.95
2
91
.056
600
2
prime*valence*retest
2.59
4
91
<.05
600
2
IEI
3.26
2
91
<.05
Note. IEI – intensity of emotional impact.
124
TABLE D2. Conditions for priming effect at SOA 100 ms and 200 ms in study 2
df
Session 2
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
t
Sig. (2-tailed)
Intensity of emotional impact:
l-low, m-middle, h-high, no-no
impact
Valence: neg-negative, neuneutral, pos-positive, no-no
impact
Retest: 0-at once, 1-after one
day, 7-after one week
Target: neg-negative, neuneutral, pos-positive
Group: e-experimental,
c-control
SOA
Session 1 (no impact)
100
l
1.91
123
.058
100
m
-3.04
111
.003
100
no
100
no
100
c
100
c
100
neg
neg
-0.42
479
.678
-2.18
127
.031
-0.36
127
.716
-2.18
127
.031
-1.71
63
.092
-2.33
63
.023
-0.36
127
.716
-2.18
127
.031
-1.21
239
.229
-1.83
239
.069
100
0
neg
-0.20
35
.841
-2.16
35
.038
100
1
pos
-2.23
19
.038
-0.55
19
.587
100
0
no
-0.55
51
.585
-2.48
51
.017
3.51
111
.001
2.15
127
.033
200
m
200
no
2.66
479
.008
200
neu
0.85
159
.395
3.38
159
.001
200
pos
3.24
83
.002
-0.21
83
.834
200
no
-0.05
127
.961
2.15
127
.033
200
0
2.52
179
.013
1.55
179
.123
200
7
0.46
147
.644
3.03
147
.003
200
e
neg
1.36
175
.175
2.12
175
.036
200
e
pos
3.18
175
.002
1.64
175
.104
200
c
neg
-0.39
63
.696
3.29
63
.002
200
e
3.14
351
.002
2.65
351
.008
200
c
-0.05
127
.961
2.15
127
.033
200
neg
1.02
239
.309
3.31
239
.001
200
pos
2.78
239
.006
1.43
239
.154
2.66
479
.008
3.33
479
.001
200
4.22
959
.000
200
1
neg
2.40
39
.021
-0.45
39
.653
200
0
pos
2.62
31
.013
-0.58
31
.563
200
7
neu
0.27
51
.788
2.80
51
.007
200
Notes. Group: e-experimental, c-control. Target: neg-negative, neu-neutral, pos-positive.
Retest: 0-at once, 1-after one day, 7-after one week. Valence: neg-negative, neu-neutral, pos-positive,
no-no impact. Intensity of emotional impact: l-low, m-middle, h-high, no-no impact.
125
TABLE D3. Conditions for priming effect at SOA 300 ms in study 2
df
l
Session 2
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
t
Sig. (2-tailed)
300
impact
impact
c-control
SOA
2.78
123
.006
5.03
479
.000
-0.68
127
.501
300
neg
2.01
107
.047
-0.26
107
.794
300
neu
4.59
159
.000
2.03
159
.044
pos
300
no
2.21
83
.030
1.96
83
.053
300
0
3.34
179
.001
0.49
179
.627
300
1
3.56
151
.000
-0.91
151
.362
7
300
2.05
147
.042
2.80
147
.006
300
e
neg
1.37
175
.173
2.25
175
.026
300
e
pos
6.31
175
.000
1.02
175
.311
300
c
pos
1.81
63
.075
-0.25
63
.804
300
e
5.32
351
.000
0.89
127
.377
300
c
2.27
351
.024
-0.68
127
.501
6.38
239
.000
0.79
239
.428
300
5.03
479
.000
1.62
479
.105
300
4.66
959
.000
300
300
pos
300
1
neu
4.86
47
.000
-0.40
47
.691
300
1
neg
1.83
39
.075
-0.62
39
.538
300
0
neu
2.88
59
.006
0.05
59
.961
300
7
neu
1.23
51
.224
3.49
51
.001
300
1
no
-0.32
43
.747
-1.99
43
.053
Notes.
Group: e-experimental, c-control.
Target: neg-negative, neu-neutral, pos-positive.
Retest: 0-at once, 1-after one day, 7-after one week.
Valence: neg-negative, neu-neutral, pos-positive, no-no impact.
Intensity of emotional impact: l-low, m-middle, h-high, no-no impact.
126
df
Session 2
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
t
Sig. (2-tailed)
impact
impact
c-control
SOA
400
l
-1.74
123
.084
400
h
4.13
115
.000
400
no
3.57
479
.000
0.87
127
.388
400
neg
1.69
107
.093
-0.46
107
.646
400
no
3.27
127
.001
0.87
127
.388
3.28
179
.001
-1.41
179
.160
2.23
147
.027
3.48
147
.001
400
0
400
7
400
e
neg
1.86
175
.064
1.30
175
.194
400
c
neg
2.08
63
.042
1.92
63
.059
400
c
pos
2.53
63
.014
175
.495
400
e
2.39
351
.018
1.39
351
.165
400
c
3.27
127
.001
0.87
127
.388
400
neg
2.64
239
.009
2.06
239
.040
400
pos
2.45
239
.015
0.33
239
.741
400
3.57
479
.000
1.64
479
.102
400
3.67
959
.000
400
0
neg
1.04
35
.307
-2.71
35
.010
400
1
neu
0.33
47
.740
2.41
47
.020
400
7
neg
2.82
31
.008
2.39
31
.023
400
0
pos
2.40
31
.023
0.92
31
.363
400
7
no
1.01
31
.320
1.83
31
.077
400
7
neu
1.28
51
.207
1.79
51
.079
400
0
no
2.91
51
.005
-0.39
51
.700
Notes.
127
df
l
Session 2
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
t
Sig. (2-tailed)
500
impact
impact
c-control
SOA
1.85
123
.066
3.31
479
.001
-0.83
127
.406
500
neg
-0.96
107
.340
-1.47
107
.145
500
neu
3.32
159
.001
0.73
159
.464
500
pos
1.69
83
.095
2.68
83
.009
500
no
2.20
127
.030
-0.83
127
.406
0
2.19
179
.030
0.79
179
.429
1
500
no
500
2.68
151
.008
0.61
151
.541
500
e
neg
2.55
175
.012
2.28
175
.024
500
c
neg
3.19
63
.002
-1.91
63
.061
500
e
2.51
351
.012
0.90
351
.369
500
c
2.20
127
.030
-0.83
127
.406
3.80
239
.000
0.92
239
.359
3.31
479
.001
0.36
479
.716
500
500
neg
500
2.57
959
.010
500
0
neg
-0.81
35
.424
-1.97
35
.057
500
1
neu
3.29
47
.002
1.45
47
.153
500
7
neg
-2.05
31
.049
-0.79
31
.437
500
0
pos
1.50
31
.143
2.69
31
.011
500
7
neu
1.91
51
.062
-0.07
51
.941
500
0
no
2.24
51
.030
1.19
51
.238
500
Notes.
128
m
600
no
df
1.56
479
.121
Session 2
t
df
Sig. (2-tailed)
600
t
Sig. (2-tailed)
impact
impact
c-control
SOA
3.02
111
.003
1.92
127
.057
600
neu
1.10
159
.271
1.95
159
.053
600
no
-0.28
127
.781
1.92
127
.057
600
0
0.17
179
.866
1.83
179
.069
600
7
1.16
147
.247
2.13
147
.035
175
.171
1.77
175
.078
600
e
pos
1.38
600
c
neg
0.11
63
.910
2.32
63
.024
600
e
1.93
351
.055
1.77
351
.078
600
c
-0.28
127
.781
1.92
127
.057
600
neg
0.94
239
.349
1.67
239
.095
600
pos
1.25
239
.211
1.82
239
.070
1.56
479
.121
2.47
479
.014
600
2.85
959
.004
600
1
neg
2.27
39
.029
-1.02
39
.314
600
0
pos
2.87
31
.007
1.66
31
.106
600
7
neu
0.57
51
.573
3.06
51
.004
600
1
no
-0.13
43
.894
1.83
43
.074
600
Notes.
129
Appendix E
Research of correlations. Study 2
TABLE E1. Results of correlations in study 2
Variables
Control groups, N=30
-.386*
Experimental groups N=88
RRR(1)-100
D(1)
RRR(1)-100
RRR(2)-100
.260*
.015
RRR(1)-100
RRR(2)-400
-.231*
.030
RRR(1)-100
RRR(2)-600
.173
.107
RRR(1)-100
HYPO
.252*
.018
RRR(1)-100
Hypo-identity
.200
.061
RRR(1)-200
RRR(1)-600
-.355
.054
RRR(1)-200
RRR(2)-300
.309
.096
.180
.094
RRR(1)-200
RRR(2)-400
.183
.087
RRR(1)-200
RRR(2)-600
RRR(1)-200
HYPO
.197
.066
RRR(1)-200
Hypo-identity
.200
.062
RRR(1)-200
HYPER
-.345
.062
RRR(1)-200
Hyper-identity
-.288
.123
-.193
.072
.317
.035
.088
RRR(1)-200
D(2)
RRR(1)-300
RRR(1)-500
.325
.080
RRR(1)-300
RRR(1)-600
.428*
.018
RRR(1)-300
RRR(2)-300
-.349
.059
RRR(1)-300
RRR(2)-500
.451*
.012
*
RRR(1)-300
HYPER
.401
.028
RRR(1)-300
Hyper-identity
.418*
.021
RRR(1)-400
RRR(2)-400
.342
.064
RRR(1)-400
RRR(2)-600
.221*
.039
RRR(1)-500
IEI
-.213*
.046
*
.032
RRR(1)-500
RRR(1)-600
.392
RRR(1)-500
RRR(2)-500
.402*
.028
*
RRR(1)-500
HYPO
-.439
.015
RRR(1)-500
Hypo-identity
-.339
.067
RRR(1)-600
RRR(1)-200
-.355
.054
RRR(1)-300
*
.018
RRR(1)-600
.428
130
TABLE E1. Results of correlations in study 2 (continue)
Variables
Control groups, N=30
RRR(2)-100
RRR(2)-600
.446*
.013
RRR(2)-100
HYPER
-.437*
.016
*
RRR(2)-100
Hyper-identity
-.361
.050
RRR(2)-200
RRR(2)-400
.337
.069
RRR(2)-200
RRR(2)-500
-.318
.087
RRR(2)-200
RRR(2)-600
RRR(2)-200
Hypo-identity
.409*
.025
RRR(2)-300
RRR(2)-500
-.401*
.028
RRR(2)-300
RRR(2)-600
*
Experimental groups N=88
-.174
.106
-.190
.076
RRR(2)-400
HYPO
.378
.039
RRR(2)-400
Hypo-identity
.285
.127
RRR(2)-500
IEI
-.207
.052
RRR(2)-600
IEI
-.176
.101
RRR(2)-600
D(2)
-.178
.097
.185
.085
.486**
.000
HYPO
D(1)
HYPO
HYPER
*
.387
*
.035
Hypo-identity
D(1)
.460
.011
D(1)
D(2)
.444*
.014
Appendix F
Research of changes of RRR and D. Study 2
TABLE F1. Changes RRR for negative context events between the levels of retest
N2
Mann-Whitney
U
Sig.
after one day
9
10
10.8
9.3
38.0
.568
at once
after one day
9
10
11.2
8.9
34.0
.369
1
at once
after one day
9
10
9.3
10.7
38.5
.595
2
at once
after one day
9
10
9.0
10.9
36.0
.462
Session
N1
Mean rank 2
For variable 2
Mean rank 1
For variable 1
Retest
Retest
1
at once
100
2
200
200
SOA
100
131
TABLE F1. Changes RRR for negative context events between the levels of retest
(continue)
Retest
Retest
MannWhitney U
For variable 2
Session
For variable 1
Sig.
1
at once
after one day
9
10
9.6
10.4
41.5
.775
2
at once
after one day
9
10
10.9
9.2
37.0
.513
400
1
at once
after one day
9
10
7.1
12.6
19.0
.034
400
2
at once
after one day
9
10
8.9
11.0
35.5
.438
500
1
at once
after one day
9
10
10.4
9.7
41.5
.775
500
2
at once
after one day
9
10
9.1
10.8
37.0
.514
600
1
at once
after one day
9
10
9.7
10.3
42.0
.806
600
2
at once
after one day
9
10
8.6
11.3
32.5
.307
100
1
at once
after one week
9
8
9.2
8.8
34.0
.847
100
2
at once
after one week
9
8
10.0
7.9
27.0
.386
200
1
at once
after one week
9
8
8.4
9.6
31.0
.630
200
2
at once
after one week
9
8
10.8
7.0
20.0
.123
300
1
at once
after one week
9
8
9.9
8.0
28.0
.441
300
2
at once
after one week
9
8
9.2
8.8
34.0
.847
400
1
at once
after one week
9
8
6.8
11.5
16.0
.054
400
2
at once
after one week
9
8
9.7
8.3
30.0
.564
500
1
at once
after one week
9
8
10.2
7.6
25.0
.290
500
2
at once
after one week
9
8
9.2
8.8
34.0
.847
600
1
at once
after one week
9
8
9.7
8.3
30.0
.563
600
2
at once
after one week
9
8
9.7
8.2
29.5
.531
100
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
9.0
10.1
35.0
.657
100
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
9.2
9.9
37.0
.790
200
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
9.6
9.4
39.5
.965
200
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
11.9
6.5
16.0
.033
300
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
10.6
8.1
29.0
.328
300
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
9.0
10.1
36.0
.657
400
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
9.7
9.3
38.5
.894
400
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
11.1
7.5
24.0
.155
500
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
11.0
7.7
25.5
.197
500
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
10.4
8.4
31.0
.424
600
1
after one day
after one week
10
8
10.3
8.5
32.0
.477
600
2
after one day
after one week
10
8
10.9
7.8
26.0
.213
SOA
300
300
N1
N2
Mean
rank 1
Mean
rank 2
132
TABLE F2. Changes RRR for positive context events between the levels of retest
For variable 1
For variable 2
Session
Retest
Retest
1
after one day
at once
5
8
6.4
7.4
17.0
.661
2
after one day
at once
5
8
7.4
6.8
18.0
.770
200
1
after one day
at once
5
8
6.7
7.2
18.5
.826
200
2
after one day
at once
5
8
8.2
6.3
14.0
.379
300
1
after one day
at once
5
8
6.2
7.5
16.0
.558
300
2
after one day
at once
5
8
7.4
6.8
18.0
.770
400
1
after one day
at once
5
8
8.2
6.3
14.0
.380
400
2
after one day
at once
5
8
6.6
7.3
18.0
.770
500
1
after one day
at once
5
8
6.8
7.1
19.0
.884
500
2
after one day
at once
5
8
8.4
6.1
13.0
.306
600
1
after one day
at once
5
8
7.7
6.6
16.5
.608
600
2
after one day
at once
5
8
6.6
7.3
18.0
.770
100
1
at once
after one week
8
8
6.9
10.1
19.0
.172
100
2
at once
after one week
8
8
8.0
9.0
28.0
.674
200
1
at once
after one week
8
8
8.5
8.5
32.0
1.000
200
2
at once
after one week
8
8
7.8
9.3
26.0
.529
300
1
at once
after one week
8
8
8.4
8.6
31.0
.916
300
2
at once
after one week
8
8
8.9
8.1
29.0
.753
400
1
at once
after one week
8
8
8.6
8.4
31.0
.916
400
2
at once
after one week
8
8
7.8
9.3
26.0
.528
500
1
at once
after one week
8
8
8.3
8.8
30.0
.834
500
2
at once
after one week
8
8
7.3
9.8
22.0
.294
600
1
at once
after one week
8
8
9.5
7.5
24.0
.401
600
2
at once
after one week
8
8
6.9
10.1
19.0
.172
100
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
5.0
8.3
10.0
.143
100
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
6.8
7.1
19.0
.884
200
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
6.6
7.3
18.0
.770
200
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
7.6
6.6
17.0
.660
300
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
6.9
7.1
19.5
.941
300
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
7.7
6.6
16.5
9.80
400
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
7.8
6.5
16.0
.558
400
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
6.8
7.1
19.0
.883
500
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
7.0
7.0
20.0
1.000
500
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
8.0
6.4
15.0
.464
600
1
after one day
after one week
5
8
8.4
6.1
13.0
.306
600
2
after one day
after one week
5
8
5.7
7.8
13.5
.341
SOA
100
100
N1
N2
Mean
rank 1
Mean
rank 2
MannWhitney U
Sig.
133
TABLE F3. Changes RRR for positive and negative context events between two sessions
N1=
N2
Mean rank in
sesion 1
Mean rank in
session 2
MannWhitney U
Sig.
at once
9
8.8
10.2
34.0
.566
after one day
10
9.7
11.3
42.0
.545
after one week
8
8.8
8.3
30.0
.834
at once
9
9.2
9.8
38.0
.825
negative
after one day
10
10.0
11.0
45.0
.705
200
negative
after one week
8
10.5
6.5
16.0
.093
300
negative
at once
9
8.7
10.3
33.0
.508
300
negative
after one day
10
10.6
10.4
49.0
.940
300
negative
after one week
8
7.1
9.9
20.5
.227
400
negative
at once
9
7.0
12.0
18.0
.047
400
negative
after one day
10
8.7
12.4
31.5
.162
400
negative
after one week
8
9.1
7.9
27.5
.636
500
negative
at once
9
10.3
8.7
33.0
.508
500
negative
after one day
10
10.0
11.0
45.0
.705
500
negative
after one week
8
8.0
9.0
28.0
.674
600
negative
at once
9
8.6
10.4
32.5
.480
600
negative
after one day
10
8.0
13.0
25.0
.059
600
negative
after one week
8
7.9
9.1
27.0
.599
100
positive
after one day
5
5.0
6.0
10.0
.602
100
positive
at once
8
8.4
8.6
31.0
.916
100
positive
after one week
8
9.0
8.0
28.0
.674
200
positive
after one day
5
5.1
5.9
10.5
.674
200
positive
at once
8
9.3
7.7
25.5
.495
200
positive
after one week
8
8.9
8.1
29.0
.753
300
positive
after one day
5
4.2
6.8
6.0
.173
300
positive
at once
8
7.5
9.5
24.0
.401
300
positive
after one week
8
7.0
10.0
20.0
.208
400
positive
after one day
5
6.6
4.4
7.0
.251
400
positive
at once
8
10.1
6.9
19.0
.172
400
positive
after one week
8
9.3
7.8
26.0
.528
500
positive
after one day
5
5.2
5.8
11.0
.754
500
positive
at once
8
9.8
7.3
22.0
.294
500
positive
after one week
8
9.3
7.7
25.5
.495
600
positive
after one day
5
5.4
5.6
12.0
.917
600
positive
at once
8
7.4
9.6
23.0
.345
600
positive
after one week
8
5.5
11.5
8.0
.012
SOA
Valence
100
negative
100
negative
100
negative
200
negative
200
Retest
134
TABLE F4. Changes D for negative and positive context events between the levels of
retest
D(2)
Retest
Retest
1
at once
2
negative
1
Valence
D(1)
Ses
sion
N1
N2
Mean
rank 1
Mean
rank 2
MannWhitney U
Sig.
after one day
9
10
10.1
9.9
44.0
.935
at once
after one day
9
10
12.1
8.1
26.0
.121
at once
after one week
9
8
11.4
7.6
23.5
.133
after one week
9
8
11.9
7.1
18.5
.052
after one day
after one week
10
9
11.9
7.9
26.5
.131
2
after one day
after one week
10
9
10.2
9.8
43.0
.870
1
after one day
after one week
9
8
10.7
7.1
21
.149
2
after one day
after one week
9
8
11.5
6.2
13.5
.030
after one day
at once
9
8
10.3
7.6
24.5
.267
after one day
at once
9
8
9.2
8.8
34
.847
1
at once
after one week
8
8
9.1
7.9
27
.599
2
at once
after one week
8
8
10.5
6.5
16
.092
1
2
positive
at once
1
2
TABLE F5. Changes D for positive and negative context events between two sessions
Valence
Retest
N1=
N2
Mean
rank 1
Mean
rank 2
MannWhitney U
Sig.
negative
at once
9
7.9
11.1
26.0
.200
negative
after one day
10
11.0
10.0
45.0
.705
negative
after one week
9
8.7
10.3
33.0
.508
positive
after one day
9
8.4
10.6
30.5
.377
positive
at once
8
7.1
9.9
21.0
.248
positive
after one week
8
8.8
8.3
30.0
.833
135
TABLE F6. Changes in the means of RRR and D for positive context events between
retest at once and after one day
df2
f 0.05
100
8
16.0
70.0
5
-7.4
43.9
2.54
7
4
6.09
0.66
11
200
8
7.8
82.9
5
1.6
76.9
1.16
7
4
6.09
0.13
11
300
8
18.1
94.8
5
-8.0
3.89
7
4
6.09
0.57
11
400
8
15.1
73.0
5
36.0
2.58
4
7
4.12
-0.40
11
500
8
-5.9
76.5
5
-6.8
48.0
117.
3
52.2
2.15
7
4
6.09
0.02
11
600
8
2.4
81.4
5
4.6
65.0
1.57
7
4
6.09
-0.05
11
8
22.3
79.6
5
35.8
99.2
1.55
4
7
4.12
-0.27
11
200
8
-16.8
100.0
5
15.8
60.7
2.71
7
4
6.09
-0.65
11
300
8
46.1
72.0
5
50.4
70.5
1.04
7
4
6.09
-0.10
11
400
8
-29.6
65.7
5
-33.8
2.06
4
7
4.12
0.09
11
500
8
-26.4
75.7
5
-15.0
2.86
4
7
4.12
-0.20
11
600
8
33.8
63.7
5
21.2
94.3
128.
1
98.2
2.37
4
7
4.12
0.28
11
8
-0.31
0.35
5
-0.39
0.13
6.83
7
4
6.09
0.46
11
8
-0.13
0.36
5
-0.19
0.18
3.70
7
4
6.09
0.39
11
RRR
Mea
n2
df1
F
N2
Std.
Deviation
2
Mean
1
100
2
Std.
Deviation
1
N1
Variable
Session
1
SO
A
1
D
2
t
df
Note. The critical values for t-distribution are: t0.05=2.20, t0.01=3.11, t0.001=4.44.
TABLE F7. Changes in the means of RRR and D for positive context events between
retest at once and after one week
df1
df2
83.0
8.4
-2.6
15.1
13.3
-44.1
110.4
74.4
43.1
85.6
108.2
84.2
2.49
1.24
4.84
1.38
2.00
1.07
7
7
7
7
7
7
8
8
8
8
8
8
31.1
-3.1
8.3
-10.5
-21.1
62.9
137.6
62.2
110.9
72.9
60.9
37.8
2.99
2.58
2.37
1.23
1.54
2.85
8
8
-0.46
-0.45
0.18
0.21
3.97
2.78
16.0
7.8
18.1
15.1
-5.9
2.4
70.0
82.9
94.8
73.0
76.5
81.4
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
8
22.3
-16.8
46.1
-29.6
-26.4
33.8
79.6
100.0
72.0
65.7
75.7
63.7
8
8
-0.31
-0.13
0.35
0.36
8
8
8
8
8
8
t
df
7
7
7
7
7
7
-1.45
-0.02
0.56
0.00
-0.41
1.12
14
14
14
14
14
14
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
-0.16
-0.33
0.81
-0.55
-0.15
-1.11
14
14
14
14
14
14
7
7
7
7
1.06
2.21
14
14
3.79
N2
f 0.05
Mean 2
D
F
Mean 1
1
2
RRR
SOA
2
100
200
300
400
500
600
Variable
Session
1
100
200
300
400
500
600
Std.
Deviation
2
Std.
Deviation 1
N1
136
TABLE F8. Changes in the means of RRR and D for positive context events between retest after one day and after one week
Mean 2
Std. Deviation 2
df1
df2
110.4
74.4
43.1
6.33
1.07
1.24
4
7
4
7
4
7
4.12
6.09
4.12
15.1
85.6
1.88
4
7
4.12
0.37
11
13.3
-44.1
31.1
-3.1
8.3
108.2
84.2
137.6
62.2
110.9
4.30
1.68
1.92
1.05
2.48
7
7
7
7
7
4
4
4
4
4
6.09
6.09
6.09
6.09
6.09
-0.38
1.10
0.07
0.54
0.75
11
11
11
11
11
8
-10.5
72.9
1.67
4
7
4.12
-0.50
11
128.1
8
-21.1
60.9
4.42
4
7
4.12
0.12
11
21.2
98.2
8
62.9
37.8
6.75
4
7
4.12
-1.10
11
-0.39
0.13
8
-0.46
0.18
1.72
7
4
6.09
0.76
11
0.18
8
-0.45
0.21
1.33
7
4
6.09
2.21
11
N2
Std. Deviation 1
83.0
8.4
-2.6
Mean 1
N1
F
100
200
300
5
5
5
-7.4
1.6
-8.0
43.9
76.9
48.0
8
8
8
400
5
36.0
117.3
8
500
600
100
200
300
5
5
5
5
5
-6.8
4.6
35.8
15.8
50.4
52.2
65.0
99.2
60.7
70.5
8
8
8
8
8
400
5
-33.8
94.3
500
5
-15.0
600
5
5
5
-0.19
1
RRR
2
Variable
Session
1
SOA
D
2
f 0.05
t
df
-1.72
-0.16
-0.21
11
11
11
TABLE F9. Changes in the means of RRR and D for negative context events between retest at once and after one day
N2
Mean 2
df1
df2
10
10
10
-1.4
21.2
20.7
61.1
61.6
67.0
1.23
1.63
0.49
8
8
9
9
9
8
3.23
3.23
3.39
0.83
-0.89
-0.65
17
17
17
400
9
-52.4
65.0
10
19.6
70.7
2.58
8
9
3.23
-2.30
17
500
600
100
200
300
400
9
9
9
9
9
9
19.7
-15.4
38.7
1.3
27.9
14.1
64.6
82.9
85.4
79.4
81.7
65.2
10
10
10
10
10
10
22.5
-15.1
2.8
32.1
4.9
58.4
80.5
52.6
51.0
70.5
63.0
85.5
0.64
2.49
1.55
1.27
1.68
2.06
9
8
8
8
8
8
8
9
9
9
9
9
3.39
3.23
3.23
3.23
3.23
3.23
-0.08
-0.01
1.13
-0.90
0.69
-1.26
17
17
17
17
17
17
500
9
-3.9
70.1
10
18.7
93.2
2.86
8
9
3.23
-0.59
17
600
9
10.8
44.7
10
40.0
62.5
2.37
8
9
3.23
-1.16
17
9
9
-0.25
0.00
0.37
0.40
10
10
-0.29
-0.37
0.31
0.45
1.42
0.78
8
8
9
9
3.23
3.23
0.26
1.90
17
17
D
Std. Deviation 2
Std. Deviation 1
67.7
78.7
46.9
Mean 1
23.2
-7.4
3.2
N1
1
2
9
9
9
RRR
2
100
200
300
Variable
Session
1
f 0.05
SOA
F
t
df
137
TABLE F10. Changes in the means of RRR and D for negative context events between
retest at once and after one week
df1
df2
7
8
8
3.73
3.50
3.50
0.74
-0.71
0.54
15
15
15
8
19.1
73.2
1.38
8
7
3.73
-2.14
15
8
8
8
8
8
-14.5
-33.8
6.4
-67.8
19.3
69.4
79.5
65.1
95.9
55.0
2.00
1.07
2.99
0.68
2.37
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
3.73
3.73
3.73
3.73
3.73
1.05
0.46
0.87
1.62
0.25
15
15
15
15
15
65.2
8
8.5
87.3
1.23
8
7
3.73
0.15
15
-3.9
70.1
8
0.5
97.3
0.52
7
8
3.50
-0.11
15
9
10.8
44.7
8
-0.9
103.7
0.19
7
8
3.50
0.31
15
9
-0.25
0.37
8
-0.50
0.43
0.72
7
8
3.50
1.27
15
9
0.00
0.40
8
-0.34
0.31
1.62
8
7
3.73
1.97
15
23.2
-7.4
3.2
67.7
78.7
46.9
8
8
8
400
9
-52.4
65.0
500
600
100
200
300
9
9
9
9
9
19.7
-15.4
38.7
1.3
27.9
64.6
82.9
85.4
79.4
81.7
400
9
14.1
500
9
600
D
2
Std. Deviation 2
8
7
7
N2
2.49
0.88
0.44
9
9
9
1
Mean 2
Std. Deviation 1
Mean 1
48.1
83.9
70.9
100
200
300
RRR
2
2.0
20.4
-12.3
N1
1
Variable
Session
SOA
F
f 0.05
t
df
TABLE F11. Changes in the means of RRR and D for negative context events between
retest after one day and after one week
Std. Deviation 1
N2
df1
df2
61.1
61.6
67.0
8
8
8
2.0
20.4
-12.3
48.1
83.9
70.9
6.33
0.54
0.89
9
7
7
7
9
9
4.12
6.09
4.12
-0.13
0.02
1.01
16
16
16
400
10
19.6
70.7
8
19.1
73.2
0.93
7
9
4.12
0.01
16
500
600
100
200
300
400
10
10
10
10
10
10
22.5
-15.1
2.8
32.1
4.9
58.4
80.5
52.6
51.0
70.5
63.0
85.5
8
8
8
8
8
8
-14.5
-33.8
6.4
-67.8
19.3
8.5
69.4
79.5
65.1
95.9
55.0
87.3
4.30
1.68
1.92
1.05
2.48
0.96
9
9
9
9
9
7
7
7
7
7
7
9
6.09
6.09
6.09
6.09
6.09
4.12
1.03
0.60
-0.13
2.55
-0.51
1.22
16
16
16
16
16
16
500
10
18.7
93.2
8
0.5
97.3
0.92
7
9
4.12
0.40
16
600
10
40.0
62.5
8
-0.9
103.7
0.36
7
9
4.12
1.04
16
10
10
-0.29
-0.37
0.31
0.45
8
8
-0.50
-0.34
0.43
0.31
1.72
1.33
9
9
7
7
6.09
6.09
1.18
-0.16
16
16
D
Std. Deviation 2
Mean 1
-1.4
21.2
20.7
Mean 2
N1
1
2
10
10
10
RRR
2
100
200
300
Variable
Session
1
f 0.05
SOA
F
Note. TThe critical values for t-distribution are: t0.05=2.12, t0.01=2.92, t0.001=4.01.
t
df
138
TABLE F12. Changes in the means of RRR and D for negative valences of context events
and for different retests between the first and the second sessions. Paired t-test
negative, at once
negative, after one day
negative, after one week
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Group
N
Correlation
Sig.
.722
9
-0.34
.366
8
.807
9
0.13
.734
-0.68
8
.516
9
-0.39
.303
-1.64
8
.139
9
-0.75
.020
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.70
8
.503
9
-0.12
.765
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-0.95
8
.370
9
0.27
.480
D1 - D2
-2.40
8
.043
9
0.66
.053
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.17
9
.865
10
0.09
.809
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-0.44
9
.668
10
0.31
.377
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
0.69
9
.510
10
0.37
.287
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
-0.95
9
.367
10
-0.36
.308
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.10
9
.925
10
-0.01
.984
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-3.05
9
.014
10
0.52
.124
D1 - D2
0.61
9
.559
10
0.46
.185
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.12
7
.906
8
-0.60
.116
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
1.67
7
.139
8
-0.38
.357
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-0.76
7
.475
8
-0.75
.032
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
0.31
7
.767
8
0.27
.512
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-0.30
7
.775
8
-0.46
.257
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-1.26
7
.247
8
0.71
.050
D1 - D2
-1.41
7
.202
8
0.69
.058
Variables
t
df
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.37
8
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-0.25
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
139
TABLE F13. Changes in the means of RRR and D for neutral valences of context events
negative, at once
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Group
N
Correlation
Sig.
.169
15
0.37
.175
14
.821
15
0.41
.128
14
.018
15
0.28
.318
-0.19
14
.852
15
0.02
.955
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.01
14
.996
15
-0.35
.203
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
0.19
14
.849
15
0.08
.765
D1 - D2
-1.04
14
.315
15
0.62
.013
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.83
11
.422
12
0.50
.100
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
1.14
11
.280
12
0.47
.122
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-1.09
11
.300
12
0.00
.993
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
0.31
11
.762
12
0.00
.989
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-1.15
11
.274
12
0.34
.276
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-0.90
11
.390
12
0.04
.909
D1 - D2
-3.14
11
.009
12
0.42
.168
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
0.49
12
.630
13
-0.07
.808
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
1.01
12
.331
13
0.31
.307
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-1.40
12
.187
13
0.11
.726
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
0.57
12
.582
13
0.18
.557
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-1.22
12
.246
13
0.05
.868
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
0.68
12
.508
13
0.46
.117
D1 - D2
-1.41
12
.185
13
0.56
.048
Variables
t
df
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
1.45
14
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
0.23
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
2.68
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
140
TABLE F14. Changes in the means of RRR and D for positive valences of context events
negative, at once
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Group
N
Correlation
Sig.
.850
8
0.28
.496
7
.628
8
-0.11
.787
-0.67
7
.526
8
0.01
.987
1.64
7
.145
8
0.38
.348
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.50
7
.631
8
-0.15
.725
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-0.73
7
.491
8
-0.41
.314
D1 - D2
-1.14
7
.291
8
0.12
.777
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-1.10
4
.333
5
0.47
.428
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-0.27
4
.804
5
-0.50
.391
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-1.37
4
.241
5
-0.26
.676
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
0.86
4
.440
5
-0.48
.418
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.13
4
.903
5
-0.05
.936
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-0.23
4
.829
5
-0.95
.011
D1 - D2
-2.08
4
.106
5
0.14
.822
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
1.70
7
.133
8
0.78
.023
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
0.42
7
.685
8
0.38
.357
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-0.26
7
.805
8
-0.02
.964
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
1.46
7
.188
8
0.82
.014
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
0.76
7
.470
8
-0.06
.882
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-2.91
7
.023
8
-0.37
.373
D1 - D2
-0.11
7
.912
8
-0.02
.962
Variables
t
df
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.20
7
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
0.51
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
141
TABLE F15. Changes in the means of RRR and D for absence of context events and for
different retests between the first and the second sessions. Paired t-test
negative, at once
Sig.
(2-tailed)
Group
N
Correlation
Sig.
.213
12
-0.15
.646
11
.009
12
0.11
.729
11
.530
12
-0.44
.155
2.49
11
.030
12
0.50
.095
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-0.95
11
.362
12
0.37
.234
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
0.62
11
.546
12
-0.27
.391
D1 - D2
-2.25
11
.046
12
0.27
.390
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
-0.39
10
.708
11
0.46
.159
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-0.51
10
.620
11
0.46
.156
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
-2.23
10
.050
11
0.08
.817
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
0.90
10
.391
11
-0.28
.408
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-0.53
10
.605
11
0.25
.463
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-1.00
10
.342
11
-0.09
.799
D1 - D2
-1.78
10
.105
11
0.63
.039
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
0.18
6
.864
7
-0.71
.076
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-1.50
6
.184
7
0.28
.548
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
0.05
6
.965
7
-0.44
.326
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
-2.21
6
.070
7
0.77
.041
RRR(1)-500 - RRR(2)-500
-2.09
6
.081
7
0.72
.066
RRR(1)-600 - RRR(2)-600
-1.10
6
.313
7
-0.09
.847
D1 - D2
-0.25
6
.811
7
0.17
.716
Variables
t
df
RRR(1)-100 - RRR(2)-100
1.32
11
RRR(1)-200 - RRR(2)-200
-3.14
RRR(1)-300 - RRR(2)-300
0.65
RRR(1)-400 - RRR(2)-400
142
FIGURE F1. Boxplots for D (IAT) in the second session. Faktor “Retest”
FIGURE F2. Boxplots for RRR at SOA 100 ms in the second session. Faktor “Retest”
143
144
145
146
FIGURE F8. The means of RRR at the different SOA in the second session. Negative emotional valence of context event. Faktor “Retest”
147
FIGURE F9. The means of RRR at the different SOA in the second session. Positive emotional valence of context event. Faktor “Retest”
148
Appendix G
Factor analysis. Study 2
TABLE G1. Rotated Component Matrixa. Control groups
Component
1
RRR(1)-300
.780
RRR(2)-500
.724
RRR(2)-300
-.706
RRR(1)-500
.535
2
3
.848
RRR(2)-400
.562
.542
RRR(2)-600
.738
RRR(2)-100
.720
RRR(1)-200
.604
.432
-.513
RRR(1)-100
-.498
-.489
D1
.846
D2
.703
Hypo-identity
.597
.607
RRR(1)-400
RRR(1)-600
5
-.479
RRR(2)-200
Hyper-identity
4
.861
.501
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.
.558
a
TABLE G2. Rotated Component Matrix . Experimental groups
Component
1
RRR(1)-100
.698
RRR(2)-100
.662
RRR(2)-400
-.457
Intensity of emotional impact
-.441
2
3
4
5
.412
RRR(1)-600
D2
.805
D1
.659
RRR(1)-500
RRR(2)-600
.629
RRR(2)-200
-.605
RRR(1)-400
.551
RRR(2)-300
-.472
RRR(2)-500
-.614
RRR(1)-300
.581
Hyper-identity
-.551
RRR(1)-200
.755
Hypo-identity
.676
Extraction Method: Principal Component Analysis.
Rotation Method: Varimax with Kaiser Normalization.
a. Rotation converged in 7 iterations.
149
150
Slaptieji požiūrio matavimai: konteksto įtaka
Irina Plotka, Dmitry Igonin, Nina Blumenau
Santrauka
Slaptųjų (netiesioginių) socialinio pažinimo tyrime analizuojama, kaip įvairūs konteksto veiksniai daro įtaką slaptųjų matavimų procedūroms
ir kaip kinta slaptieji (pasąmoniniai) požiūriai
(bazinės asociacijos su požiūrio objektu). Tyrimų, kuriuose būtų aptariami konteksto veiksnių
įtakos mechanizmai, yra labai mažai.
Šios tyrimo tikslas – ištirti konteksto veiksnių
įtaką slaptiesiems (pasąmoniniams) požiūriams
bei jų matavimui, remiantis etninių požiūrių
kaitos pavyzdžiu. Šio tikslo buvo siekiama atliekant dvi nepriklausomas studijas. Pirmojoje
tyrėme slaptuosius (pasąmoninius) etninius
požiūrius tų tiriamųjų, kurie skundėsi, kad jų
gyvenime dėl nesenų autobiografinių įvykių
atsirado tam tikras požiūris į etnines žmonių
grupes. Šie įvykiai buvo stebimi kaip kontekstiniai veiksniai, matuojant slaptuosius požiūrius
SEP (nesuvokiamo, pasąmoninio pagrindinio
(emocinio) motyvo vertinimo) metodu.
Antrojoje studijoje tiriamiesiems pateikėme
kontekstinius veiksnius, t. y. įvykius, rodydami
vieną iš video, kuriuose buvo rodomi etniniai
konfliktai, kituose video buvo rodoma palaikanti, konstruktyvią sąveiką tarp etninių grupių,
trečiuose pateikiami neutralūs įvykiai tarp etninių grupių. Tiriamieji dalyvavo dviejose sesijose, kuriose buvo matuojami jų slaptieji
(pasąmoniniai) požiūriai, panaudojant slaptųjų
asociacijų testą (IAT) ir SEP metodą. Vėliau, su
skirtingu atidėliojimo intervalu buvo atliktas
retestas. Abiejų studijų programa taip pat apėmė savęs vertinimo procedūras, matuojančias
jų etninius požiūrius. Taip pat abiejose studijose
tiriamiesiems buvo pateikiamas klausimynas,
tiriantis subjektyvų emociškai reikšmingų konteksto įvykių vertinimą. Studijoje dalyvavo 238
abiejų lyčių 17–50 metų amžiaus tiriamieji. Pirmoje studijoje dalyvavo latviai ir rusai, antrojoje
– tik rusai.
SEP tyrimai buvo atliekami, remiantis semantinio tinklo aktyvinimo išplitimo koncepcija. Tyri-
mas abiejose studijose parodė, kad konteksto
veiksniai turėjo statistiškai reikšmingą įtaką
slaptųjų (pasąmoninių ) požiūrių į etnines grupes formavimuisi. Tą parodė taip pat ir reakcijos
laiko pokyčių matavimai, pateikiant įvairius konteksto veiksnius, tiriamiesiems atliekant įvairias
eksperimentines užduotis. Šie pokyčiai buvo
asocijuoti su emociškai svarbiais konteksto įvykiais bei emocinio smūgio jėga. Antrojoje studijoje šie pokyčiai taip pat buvo asocijuoti su laiko
tarpu tarp konteksto įvykio ir pakartotinio slaptojo požiūrio matavimo. Konteksto įvykiai turėjo
statistiškai reikšmingos įtakos pasąmoninių požiūrių matavimui. Tą parodė pasirinkimo testas
(SIIP), D-skalės. Buvo nustatyta, kad SIIP su atakos stimulu asinchroniškai veikia (SOA) kas 300,
500, 100 ir 200 milisekundžių ir yra artimai susijęs su slaptųjų požiūrių matavimais. Rezultatai
patvirtino hipotezę, kad egzistuoja sąveika tarp
atskirų konteksto įvykių kognityvinių procesų ir
laiko intervalų, kuriais yra pateikiami SOA stimulai. Procesai, kuriuos nustato SIIP su SOA kas
300, 500 ir gal būt kas 100 ir 600 milisekundžių
yra asocijuojami su slaptaisiais ir atviraisiais
(“hiperidentitetas”) etniniais požiūriais, tuo
tarpu procesai, atsirandantys su SOA kas 200,
400 milisekundžių yra asocijuojami su alternatyviuoju etniniu požiūriu (“hipoidentitetas”). Dirbtinai sukurti konteksto įvykiai paveikia tiek bazinio tiek ir alternatyvaus etninio požiūrio tiriamųjų reakcijas.
Kontekstinės įtakos tariamai kuria naujas asociacijas su požiūrio objektu, linkusiu į greitesnį
susilaikymą, jei jos derinasi su bazine nuomone
arba lėtesnį, jei jie derinasi su alternatyviu etniniu požiūriu. Rezultatai prisideda prie geresnio
kontekstinių įtakų mechanizmų, susijusio su
slaptųjų požiūrių ir jų matavimo supratimo.
Raktiniai žodžiai: slaptieji, atvirieji požiūriai, konĮteikta / Submitted: 2016-05-26
Priimta / Accepted: 2016-06-03
About the authors
✻
ISSN 2029-5774
About the authors
NINA BLUMENAU – Doctor of Science
in Engineering, As.Professor. Research
interests: statistical methods for the behavioural sciences, methodology of research
in psychology, econometrics, mathematical
methods of physics. One of the most
important research trends is the problem of
social attitudes measurement with implicit
methods – experimental procedure of unconscious emotional priming and implicit
association test.
Baltic International Academy, Department of
Psychology. Lomonosova Str.4, Riga,
Latvia, LV-1003.
DMITRY
IGONIN
–
Doctor of
Psychology, Head of scientific agency
Latenta Ltd., Board member of Latvian
Professional
Psychologists
Association
(EFPA member). The main fields of scientific activity: cognitive psychology, experi-
mental psychology, social psychology
(implicit social cognition), applied psychology (organizational psychology and cognitive
ergonomics).
Psychology. Lomonosova Str.4, Riga, Latvia,
LV-1003.
E-mail: [email protected].
IRINA PLOTKA – Doctor Psychology,
Professor, Director of Professional Master
Study Programme „Psychology“, Head of the
Department Psychology. The main trends of
sientific activity are: experimental psychology, social psychology (implicit social
cognition) and its applied branches – ethnic
psychology and occupational psychology
Psychology.
Lomonosova Str.4, Riga, Latvia, LV-1003.
Information for authors
✻
ISSN 2029-5774
Information for authors
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