Cyrus Cylinder

THE CYRUS CYLINDER
Copy herein which is © the Asian Art Museum of San Francisco is used by permission.
Photography herein which is © The British Museum is used by permission.
Copy and photography herein which are © IHF America are used by permission.
The Cuneus and Sefarad fonts are © Juan-José Marcos and are used by permission.
Some photographs were taken by Kern Trembath (who is not a professional photographer)
at the Cyrus Cylinder exhibition in San Francisco, California in the summer of 2013.
THE PERSIAN WORLD AND
WEST ASIA
Iran has a rich history stretching back to about 8000 BCE, when settlements appeared in western
Iran and around the Caspian Sea. The first great pre-Islamic power was founded by Cyrus the
Great (approx 550 BCE) The name of his homeland, Parsua (modern-day Fars in southern Iran)
was rendered by the Greeks as Persis. The name Persia -- which is the word Alexander the Great
used for the region when he conquered it around 330 BCE -- is derived from this. The country
was known as Persia internationally until 1935, when its government asked other nations to use
its Persian name, Iran.
Arab invasions from the West and the arrival of Islam after 640 brought Persia into contact with
the larger Islamic world. Persian administrative practices were adopted by the first Arab Islamic
states, and persian teachers were brought to cities such as Baghdad to tutor Arab princes. Both
the later Ottoman empire (1300-1922) -- which controlled what is today Turkey and surrounding
regions -- and the Mughal empire (1526-1858) -- which controlled present-day Pakistan,
Afghanistan, and much of India -- adopted Persian as their official court and administrative
language. Arab and Persian merchants traded goods throughout much of Asia, spreading Persian
literature, architecture and decorative arts.
The objects presented here come not only from the area that is now Iran, but also from Iraq,
Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and other lands that were in contact with Persia or
under its influence.
THE CYRUS CYLINDER AND
ANCIENT PERSIA:
A NEW BEGINNING
Thus says Yahweh, our Redeemer ... who says to Cyrus: "You shall be my shepherd to carry out
all my purpose, so that Jerusalem may be rebuilt and the foundations of the temple may be laid.
Isaiah 44.28
“This is what Yahweh says to his anointed, to Cyrus, whose right hand I take hold of to subdue
nations before him and to strip kings of their armor, to open doors before him so that gates will
not be shut: I will go before you and will level the mountains; I will break down gates of bronze
and cut through bars of iron. I will give you hidden treasures, riches stored in secret places, so
that you may know that I am Yahweh, the God of Israel, who summons you by name."
Isaiah 45. 1-3
Cyrus is here called messiah (= anointed), the first person ever designated as such and the
only Gentile.
But come to those who, by their own ability and not through fortune, have risen to be princes, I
say that Moses, Cyrus, Romulus, Theseus, and such like are the most excellent examples.
Niccolo Machiavelli
Italian historian, politician, humanist
The Prince, 1532
I would advise you to undertake a regular course of History and Poetry in both languages. In
Greek, go first thro' the Cyropaedia [The Education of Cyrus], and then read Herodotus,
Thucydides, Xenophon's Hellenus and Anabasis....
Thomas Jefferson
President of the United States, 1801-1809
in a letter written to his grandson Francis Wayles Eppes, October 6, 1820
FEW OBJECTS SURVIVING FROM THE
ANCIENT WORLD HAVE CAPTURED
THE IMAGINATION LIKE
THE CYRUS CYLINDER
Modest in size and appearance, and made more than 2,500 years ago, the Cylinder has become
an international symbol of tolerance and justice. These values underlying ethical governance
have resonated over the centuries in many cultures and remain relevant for our world today.
The Cylinder records the victory of the Persian king Cyrus the Great (reigned 550-530 BCE)
over Babylon in 539 BCE. More significantly, it mentions Cyrus' return of captive people in
Babylon to their homelands -- along with religious objects that had been seized from their places
of worship. Incidents mentioned in the text of the Cylinder have been thought to refer to the
Jewish people, although they are not mentioned by name. While the passage of centuries has
obscured many details about actual historical practices, as a document stating a ruler's intention
to allow freedom from bondage and freedom of religious practice, the Cyrus Cylinder has been
an enduring symbolic object.
The Cyrus Cylinder was made in the early years of the Achaemenid (pronounced ah-KEE-muhnid) dynasty, 550-330 BCE) of ancient Persia (modern Iran). Its empire, which was the largest
the world had seen, stretched at its greatest extent from present-day Pakistan to Egypt and from
Arabia to Kazakhstan. To effectively manage this large and diverse territory, the Achaemenids
creatively adapted and innovated upon many systems of administration, resulting in the
introduction of new forms of writing, coinage, seals, luxury objects, and religious practices. This
exhibition, focused on the Cyrus Cylinder and a selection of related works, offers a glimpse into
the rich legacy of ancient Persia.
RULERS OF THE ACHAEMENID
PERSIAN DYNASTy
550 - 330 BCE
Cyrus (the Great)
Cambyses II
Darius I
Xerxes I
Artaxerxes I
Xerxes II
Darius II
Artaxerxes II
Artaxerxes III
Arses
Darius III
(defeated by Alexander the
Macedonian, "the Great")
550-530 BCE
530-522 BCE
522-486 BCE
486-465 BCE
465-425 BCE
425-424 BCE
424-405 BCE
405-359 BCE
358-358 BCE
338-336 BCE
336-330 BCE
A NEW FORM OF WRITING
The early writing that developed in about 3000 BCE in Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq) employed a
wedge-shaped script (cuneiform). This script was used for writing many ancient languages,
including Sumerian and Akkadian (in Mesopotamia), Hittite (in Turkey), Urartian (in Armenia),
and Elamite (in southwest Iran).
Old Persian, an Indo-European language and an indirect ancestor of modern Persian (or Farsi,
which is still spoken in Iran and parts of Afghanistan), was used during the Achaemenid period.
It had not previously been written down, but under the rule of Darius I (reigned 522-486 BCE),
a new system of signs and values was invented for writing Old Persian in cuneiform script.
Surviving inscriptions in Old Persian are mainly monumental, located on large-scale public
sculpture, rock faces, stone reliefs, and column bases. Inscriptions also appear on small objects
such as cylinder seals and bowls, as seen on display here. Old Persian inscriptions often
appeared alongside inscriptions in the Elamite, Babylonian, and ancient Egyptian languages -all containing the same text. These multilingual texts not only indicated linguistic diversity in
the ancient world, but also aided modern scholars in the translation process.
While Old Persian was the official language used during the Achaemenid period, Aramaic was
also widely employed. A Semitic language related to Hebrew, Aramaic was written in an
alphabetic script with twenty-two characters. It was the language that Jesus most likely spoke,
and in which parts of the Talmud and the Bible were written. Because the alphabetic script was
so much easier to read and write than cumbersome cuneiform, it began to serve alongside
cuneiform for administration and communication even before the Achaemenid period. Aramaic
became more widely used in the time of the Persian empire.
Aramaic was often written on perishable materials such as parchment and leather
(paper had not yet been invented), as well as on stone vessels, utensils, and pottery
fragments. In many respects Aramaic became the common language of interaction in
the Persian empire.
This limestone fragment was curved around the base of a column in ancient Persepolis, the
capital of the Persian empire. The same text was inscribed in three scripts, of which two can be
seen here: older (left) and newer (main) forms of cuneiform. The latter simplified the former,
reducing hundreds of characters to dozens.
Aramaic on pottery fragment. Aramaic further simplified written language with its
twenty-two characters (all consonants -- no vowels).
A NEW FORM OF CURRENCY
Gold, silver, tin, copper, and even barley were traditionally used in ancient West Asia for
economic exchange. These commodities were typically valued by weight rather than being
portioned in standard units. The Achaemenids became familiar with coinage when, in 546 BCE,
Cyrus captured the capital of the ancient kingdom of Lydia (in modern Turkey), where coins had
long been used locally. Lydian coins circulated in the Persian empire until the time of Darius I,
who came to power in 522 BCE. During his reign, new designs were introduced, and coins with
standardized weights began to be used more widely throughout the empire. Darius' new coinage
had the image of the so-called royal archer on the front, and a rectangular depression on the
back. Over time the coins continued to show the figure wearing a crown and holding a bow, but
details of the design evolved.
NEW TYPES OF SEALS
In ancient West Asia, seals with engraved designs fulfilled the same function as signatures in
today's world: they were a way to indicate ownership and certify transactions. A seal, usually
made of hard stone in the form of a stamp or cylinder with distinctive designs and sometimes
inscriptions, would be rolled or impressed on clay tablets as endorsements of a transaction.
Seals in the form of stamps had a long history of use, but after the introduction of writing
around 3000 BCE, the preferred seal type changed to a cylinder with an elaborate figural design.
Stamp seals with beautifully engraved designs again became widely used just before the
Achaemenid period.
In Achaemenid times, both forms -- cylinder and stamp -- became popular for seals. This
popularity may have resulted from a deliberate effort by the Persians to connect with ancient
Mesopotamian forms and motifs. For example, the seal of Darius I used motifs from the period
of the famous Assyrian king Ashurbanipal (reigned 668-627 BCE), showing a king hunting lions
from a chariot, in effect linking the Persian Achaemenids to the history of Mesopotamian
kingship. Another cylinder seal used the traditional imagery of two heroic figures I Persian dress
battling a lion and a bull. Such imagery on seals often also appears on monumental art. For
example, the "royal hero" figure in a Persian robe and crown (perhaps the king himself) appears
in combat with a mythological creature not only on stamp and cylinder seals but also stone
reliefs in doorways at the royal complex in Persepolis.
Seal of Darius I
Chalcedony cylinder seal, 6th – 5th century BCE,
Neo-Elamite or Achaemenid
Chalcedony stamp seals, 5th4th century BCE, Achaemenid
NEW LUXURY JEWELRY
The rich tradition of wearing jewelry during the Achaemenid period is known from magnificent
surviving examples as well as representations on sculpture from royal complexes in Persepolis,
the capital of the Persian empire, and the ancient city Susa. Excavated evidence shows that the
tradition of fine jewelry extended all over the empire and was not restricted to the royal centers.
The inlaid multicolor decoration (cloisonné) on many pieces is a hallmark of the Achaemenid
period. Though not a new invention, this technique was refined by Achaemenid goldsmiths.
Pieces of semiprecious stones, such as turquoise, lapis lazuli, and carnelian, as well as colored
glass and glazed earthenware (faience), were fitted into cavities in the surface of the gold. These
inlays were adhered by either red cinnabar or black bitumen.
Bracelets were popular as diplomatic gifts during the Achaemenid period. Large animal-headed
bracelets being given as gifts to the Persians by foreign delegations can be seen on the relief
sculpture at the royal complex in Persepolis. The Greek historian Xenophon recorded that gifts,
seen as tokens of honor at the Persian court, included horses with gold bridles, and gold
necklaces, bracelets, and daggers, as well as luxurious robes.
NEW LUXURY TABLEWARE
Gold and silver bowls seem to have been popular during the Achaemenid period, especially in
elite circles. The Greek historian Herodotus (approx. 484-425 BCE) mentions "golden bowls
and cups and other drinking vessels" found in a treasure at the battle camp of a Persian general
defeated in Greece. Elsewhere, Herodotus mentions the many drinking cups of gold and silver
that washed ashore after the Persian fleet was wrecked off Magnesia (in Greece).
Achaemenid bowls of gold, silver, bronze, and glass are distinguished by shape. They
sometimes have a lotus-flower design on the base and sides. Their carefully crafted undersides
suggest that the bowls were intended to be seen from below, when they held liquid and were
raised high. The shapes of these bowls, like the forms of seals and cuneiform scripts, were
derived from earlier Mesopotamian prototypes, but with modifications that result in distinctive,
easily recognizable forms.
A NEW RELIGION
Achaemenid kings from Darius I (reigned 522-486 BCE) onward worshipped Ahura Mazda, an
ancient Iranian god. This deity is also associated with the Zoroastrian religion, founded by the
prophet Zarathushtra, who reformed an ancient Iranian religion (Zarathushtra was called
Zoroaster in ancient Greek. He was traditionally thought to have lived approx. 660-583 BCE but
today many historians place his life around 1400-1200 BCE.) Although the Achaemenid kings
worshipped Ahura Mazda, it is uncertain whether they knew the teachings of Zarathushtra. Still,
it was during the Achaemenid period that the Zoroastrian religion took root in Iran.
Today, there are about a quarter million Zoroastrians (also called Parsis) world-wide, with their
largest community in Mumbai, India.
This plaque is
probably a religious
offering that would
have been presented
to a temple. It shows
a male figure
wearing the socalled Median
costume, consisting
of a belted kneelength tunic over
trousers, a hooded
headdress, and a
neck guard. His chin
and perhaps also his
mouth are covered
by a separate piece
of material. Above, a
mustache is visible.
On his thigh he
wears a Persian
short sword in a
sheath, and in his
right hand he carries
a bundle of sticks
(called a barsom).
Figures carrying
barsoms are
traditionally
identified as
Zoroastrian priests,
as these sticks were
used in ancient
religious
ceremonies.
THE CYRUS CYLINDER
539-538 BCE
Iraq; excavated in ancient Babylon in 1879
Baked clay
British Museum, London, 90920
The Cyrus Cylinder is inscribed in the Babylonian language in cuneiform script. It was written
after Cyrus captured Babylon in 539 BCE and buried as a foundation deposit beneath the inner
city wall during the rebuilding program undertaken by Cyrus. The Cylinder, which was broken
at the time of its discovery or soon thereafter,* is made of several pieces that have been adhered
together. Approximately one third of the Cylinder is still missing.
The Cylinder's text records that Cyrus,
king of Anshan (in Persia), had been
chosen by Babylon's principal God,
Marduk, to liberate the city because the
last king of Babylon, Nabonidus (reigned
5550539 BCE), had not adequately
supported the followers of the Babylonian
gods and had imposed forced labor on the
city's population. With Marduk's help,
Cyrus entered the city without a battle,
Nabonidus was delivered into his hands,
and the people of Babylon joyfully
accepted Cyrus' kingship, according to the
Cylinder's text. From there on, the
document is written as if Cyrus is speaking: "I am Cyrus, king of the universe...." He presents
himself as a worshipper of Marduk and as the leader who abolished the population's forced
labor. The people of neighboring countries brought tribute to Cyrus in Babylon. He restored
their temples and religious cults, and returned previously banished gods and peoples. The text
ends with a note about food offerings in the temples and an account of the city wall's
reconstruction, during the course of which an earlier building inscription of Ashurbanipal, king
of Assyria (reigned 668-627 BCE), was found.
(obverse of the picture on the preceding page)
* The docent for our tour noted that scholars are now persuaded that the various fragments of
the Cylinder were more likely to have broken apart in antiquity. The current Cylinder comprises
two major fragments that were joined in 1972. The smaller of these, on the right side of the
photo immediately above, appears to have broken off of the larger fragment during their
excavation by an archaeologist from the British Museum in 1879. Retrieved by an antiquities
dealer, it was acquired by Yale University. This smaller fragment was not identified as part of
the Cyrus Cylinder until 1970, and soon after was permanently lent by Yale to the British
Museum.
Fragment of Tablet with Babylonian Cuneiform Inscription
Clay. Excavated at Babylon, Dilbat, or Borsippa, Iraq, 1880–81.
Achaemenid, 539–538 B.C. (?)
British Museum, London, 47134, 47176
These two fragments were once parts of a single large tablet. In 2010 it was determined that
they include the same text as the Cyrus Cylinder. The fragments show that the text was not
unique to the Cylinder and that copies of its inscription existed in other forms. The discoveries
also indicate that the text's proclamations were considered important enough to be transcribed
and made more publicly known. The recent identification of the inscriptions reminds us of the
ongoing research on excavated finds that helps fill in missing links in our knowledge of the
past.
The fragment on the left is one-sided, and not only duplicates lines 34-37 of the Cyrus Cylinder
inscription but adds important new information. The other fragment comes from the top edge of
the tablet and includes text from the beginning (lines 1-2) and the end (lines 44-45) of the
Cylinder inscription, which are the main areas of loss in the Cylinder. This piece includes the
name of the scribe who wrote out or copied the tablet.
Brick with Inscription of Cyrus, 539-530 BCE
Iraq, excavated in Ur, 1922-1923
Baked clay
British Museum, London, 118362
This brick is stamped with a six-line inscription in Babylonian that can be translated as:
Cyrus, king of the world, king of Anshan, son of Cambyses, king of Anshan.
The great gods delivered all the lands into my hand, and I made this land to
dwell in peace.
The brick was found in the ancient city of Ur, in a gateway to the city's sacred enclosure that
included the ziggurat (stepped temple). The ziggurat, originally built in approx. 2100 BCE, had
been reconstructed by the Babylonian king Nabonidus. Cyrus, in his role as "successor" to the
Babylonian kingdom after his defeat of Nabonidus, had undertaken repairs to the ziggurat in
Ur, as he did for the city walls of Babylon. In this way, he symbolically asserted his own history
within the long history of kingship in Mesopotamia (ancient Iraq).
CYRUS THE GREAT
THE MAKING OF A LEGEND IN THE
WEST
For more than 2,000 years Cyrus has
been seen by many people -- including
influential intellectuals as well as those
familiar with biblical and Jewish
religious history -- as a model ruler.
Until the discovery of the Cyrus
Cylinder in 1879, the West's main
sources of information about Cyrus
were the Bible and the works of
ancient Greek historians. Those
narratives cast Cyrus in a positive
light, giving rise to his lasting fame.
Not only was he a great conqueror and
the founder of a vast empire but he
was also thought to have been wise,
tolerant, and humane.
This work has been released into the public domain by its author, Light of
Persia, which grants anyone the right to use this work for any purpose,
without any conditions.
The Bible recounts that the Babylonian
king Nebuchadnezzar II (reigned
approx. 605-562) conquered Jerusalem
and destroyed the great Jewish temple
there. He looted its gold and silver
vessels and forced many Jews into
exile in Babylon. When the Persian
king Cyrus overpowered Babylon
several decades later he allowed the Jews to return to Jerusalem, ending their so-called
Babylonian captivity. He permitted the rebuilding of the temple in Jerusalem and returned its
stolen treasures.
The Greek historian Herodotus (approx. 484-425 BCE) relates the life of Cyrus and his
conquest of Babylon. Xenophon, a Greek historian of the generation after Herodotus, wrote a
work of novel called The Education of Cyrus (Cyropadeia) based loosely on the life of Cyrus. It
focuses on political and philosophical questions of how human societies should be governed
and a ruler should behave. The Education of Cyrus was widely read in the fifteenth and
sixteenth centuries through the eighteenth century, when American founders such as Thomas
Jefferson studied it.
Among the Western intellectuals who have referred to Cyrus the Great in their works are the
Italian statesman Niccolo Machiavelli of Florence (1469-1527), the English poet Edmund
Spenser (1552-1599), and the German philosopher Georg W. F. Hegel (1770-1831). A number
of Western artists, including Rubens (1577-1640) and Rembrandt (1606-1669), created works
based on stories of Cyrus' life. Cyrus also appears as the hero of the 1744 musical drama
Belshazzar by the German-born composer Handel (1685-1759).
The excavation of the Cyrus Cylinder in the ruins of Babylon in 1879, and its display at the
British Museum and translation soon thereafter, caused a new surge of interest in Cyrus. Instead
of a myth or a fragment of dubious history, here was an object that Cyrus himself ordered
made, in which he speaks directly:
When I went as harbinger of peace into Babylon I founded my sovereign
residence within the palace amid celebration and rejoicing....
The Standard of Cyrus the Great
(Note its presence on the protective earpiece of Cyrus' helmet above.)
This file is licensed under the Creative Commons
Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported license.
PERSEPOLIS
Photo by Asana Mashouf
Pourhassan, Alireza at the German language Wikipedia
CYRUS' TOMB
Cyrus the Great's remains were interred in his
capital city of Pasargadae, where today a
limestone tomb (built around 540–530 BC)
still exists which many believe to be his. Both
Strabo and Arrian give nearly equal
descriptions of the tomb, based on the
eyewitness report of Aristobulus of
Cassandreia, who at the request of Alexander
the Great visited the tomb two times. Though
the city itself is now in ruins, the burial place
of Cyrus the Great has remained largely intact; and the tomb has been partially
restored to counter its natural deterioration over the years. According to Plutarch, his
epitaph said,
O man, whoever you are and wherever you come from, for I know
you will come, I am Cyrus who won the Persians their empire. Do
not therefore begrudge me this bit of earth that covers my bones.
Wikipedia
THE TEXT OF THE CYRUS CYLINDER
Just in case your Babylonian cuneiform skills are a
bit rusty, here is a summary of the 45 lines of text:
Lines 1-10:
Lines 20-22:
Lines 22-34:
Lines 34-35:
Lines 36-37:
Lines 38-45:
Introduction reviling Nabonidus, the previous king of Babylon, and
associating Cyrus with the god Marduk
detailing Cyrus' royal titles and genealogy, and his peaceful entry to Babylon
commendation of Cyrus' policy of restoring Babylon
prayer to Marduk on behalf of Cyrus and his son Cambyses
declaration that Cyrus has enabled the people to live in peace and has
increased the offerings made to the gods
details of the building activities ordered by Cyrus in Babylon
THE FULL TEXT MAY BE READ AT:
http://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/articles/c/cyrus_cylinder_-_translation.aspx