Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail

Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail
Systems: Two of a Kind?
Jean-Paul Rodrigue
Dept. of Global Studies & Geography, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York, United States. E-mail: [email protected]
Theo Notteboom
Institute of Transport & Maritime Management Antwerp (ITMMA), University of Antwerp, Kipdorp 59, B-2000 Antwerp, Belgium and Antwerp
Maritime Academy. E-mail: [email protected]
Abstract
The development of inland freight distribution systems has been an active strategy to promote the
hinterland of maritime gateways around the world. While differences can be observed among NorthAmerican and European hinterlands, intermodal rail and dry ports are playing a key role in the process
of port regionalization. The setting and development of rail-based dry ports in North America and
Europe comes in many forms and shapes as a function of the regional and local governance and
regulatory settings, the types and strategies of stakeholders involved, the spatial and functional
relations with adjacent and or distant gateway ports, the dynamics in logistics network configurations,
the specific competitive setting (i.e. competition with trucking and barges in Europe) and the
imperatives in rail operations. In spite of the technical similarities brought by intermodalism European
and North American dry ports are functionally two of a kind since they play different roles within their
respective transport and supply chains.
Keywords: Hinterland, Dry Ports, Inland Terminals, Rail, Freight Distribution, North America, Europe
INTRODUCTION: THE PREVALENCE OF THE HINTERLAND
Inland distribution has become a very important part of globalization and a cornerstone in
port competitiveness (CEMT, 2001). Transport development is gradually shifting inland after
a phase that focused on the development of port terminals and maritime shipping networks.
In many places around the world bimodal and trimodal terminal facilities in the hinterland
have become an intrinsic part of the transport system, particularly in regions having a high
reliance on trade. These nodes in the hinterland networks of seaports have been referred to as
dry ports, inland terminals, inland ports, inland hubs, inland logistics centres, inland freight
villages, inland clearance depots, inland container depots, intermodal freight centers and
inland freight terminals (Jaržemskis and Vasiliauskas, 2007; Roso, 2005; Cardebring and
Warnecke, 1995; Roso et al., 2009 and Wiegmans et al., 1999). Thus, there seems to be no
consensus on the terminology used.
Academic research on dry ports has grown exponentially in recent years as exemplified by the
special issues on dry ports in Maritime Economics and Logistics (vol. 14, 2012) and Research
in Transportation Economics (vol. 33, 2011). The first mention of dry ports in academic
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
literature goes back to 1980 (Munford, 1980). A United Nations text of 1982 provides an early
definition of the dry port concept: ‘an inland terminal to which shipping companies issue their
own import bills of lading for import cargoes assuming full responsibility of costs and
conditions and from which shipping companies issue their own bills of lading for export
cargos’. In this paper we follow the definition of Roso (2005) and Roso et al. (2009): ‘a dry
port is an inland intermodal terminal directly connected to seaport(s) with high capacity
transport mean(s), where customers can leave/pick up their standardised units as if directly
to a seaport’.
There are many reasons behind the growing attention for dry port development. The
complexity of modern freight distribution, the increased focus on intermodal and co-modal
transport solutions and capacity issues appear to be the main drivers. While trucking tends to
be sufficient in the initial phase of the development of inland freight distribution systems, at
some level of activity, diminishing returns such as congestion, energy consumption and empty
movements become strong incentives to consider the setting of inland terminals as the next
step in regional freight planning. Also the massification of flows in networks, through a
concentration of cargo on a limited set of ports of call and associated trunk lines to the
hinterland, have created the right condition for nodes to appear along and at the end of these
trunk lines. The development of dry ports is in line with the port regionalization process,
which is the latest stage of port system development and characterized by the expansion of
the hinterland accessibility through market strategies and policies (Notteboom and Rodrigue,
2005).
There is also a significant distance / cost dichotomy between forelands and hinterlands since
depending if space (distance) or cost is considered the relative importance of the hinterland
significantly changes (Figure 1). For instance, when international transport chains are
considered (such as trade between Asia and Europe or North America) the foreland distance
(maritime shipping) commonly accounts for 90% of the total distance while the hinterland
distance (rail, barge and truck combination) accounts for the remaining 10%. From this
perspective, the hinterland appears to be a relatively marginal concern as the large share of
the distance is covered by maritime shipping. However, from a cost perspective the relation is
the opposite. Maritime shipping has achieved remarkable economies of scale, underlining its
ability to transport cargo over long distances and at a low unit cost. Economies of scale are
much more difficult to achieve over the hinterland and as traffic increases, transport networks
near ports are getting increasingly congested. Hinterland transportation accounts for a
dominant share (about 80%) of the transport cost while maritime shipping accounts for the
remaining 20%. The unit costs per FEU-km underline this situation. For example, the shipping
price on the Asia – North Europe trade ranges between 0.05 and 0.19 euro per FEU-km. The
price for inland haulage per truck from north European ports usually ranges from 1.5 to 4
euro per FEU-km depending on distance and weight. By barge the price ranges between 0.5
and 1.5 euro per FEU-km (excluding handling costs and pre- and endhaul by truck)
(Notteboom, 2009a). As the cost burden has shifted from the seaside to the landside. inland
freight distribution remains one of the most salient issues in long distance freight distribution.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Figure 1 : The Space / Cost Dichotomy of Forelands and Hinterlands
The evolution of inland freight distribution can be seen as a cycle in the ongoing
developments of containerization and intermodal transportation. The geographical
characteristics linked with modal availability, capacity and reliability of regional inland access
have an important role to play in shaping this development. As maritime shipping networks
and port terminal activities become better integrated, particularly through the symbiotic
relationship between maritime shipping and port operations, the focus shifted on inland
transportation and inland terminal facilities and dry ports as fundamental components of this
strategy. Thus, after a phase that relied on the development of port terminals and maritime
shipping networks, the integration of maritime and inland freight distribution systems has
favored the setting of dry ports.
Rail accessibility to gateway seaports is at the heart of the functioning and development of
most dry ports around the world. This paper analyzes the setting and development of railbased dry ports in North America and Europe. We argue that rail-induced dry port
development, or alternatively dry port induced rail development, comes in many forms and
shapes as a function of the regional and local governance and regulatory settings, the
strategies of stakeholders involved, the spatial and functional relations with adjacent and or
distant gateway ports, the dynamics in logistics network configurations, and the specific
competitive setting (i.e. competition with trucking and barges in Europe).
The paper is structured as follows: in the first three sections the driving forces for rail-based
dry port development and the role of dry ports in transport and supply chains are analyzed.
Then, we focus on rail and gateway port development in North America and Europe in search
of distinctive characteristics and differences that could have an impact on dry port
development. In the next section we provide an assessment of dry port development in both
continents. The last section contains the conclusions and explores avenues for further
research.
DRIVING FORCES FOR RAIL-BASED DRY PORT DEVELOPMENT
Each dry port remains the outcome of modal availability and efficiency, market function and
intensity as well as the regulatory framework and governance. The geographical
3
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
characteristics linked with modal availability and the capacity of regional inland access have
an important role to play in shaping the emergence and development of dry ports. Each inland
market has its own potential requiring different transport services. Thus, there is no single
strategy for a dry port in terms of modal preferences as the regional effect remains
fundamental.
The setting of global supply chains and the strategy of Pacific Asian countries around the
export-oriented paradigm have been powerful forces shaping contemporary freight
distribution. Indirectly, this has forced players in the freight transport industry (shipping
companies, terminal operators, logistics providers) to examine supply chains as a whole and
to identify legs where capacity and reliability are an issue. Once maritime shipping networks
and port terminal activities have been better integrated, particularly through the symbiotic
relationship between maritime shipping and port operations, inland transportation became
the obvious focus and the inland terminal a fundamental component of this strategy. This
mainly took place in North America and Western Europe, which tended to be at the receiving
end of many containerized supply chains where inbound logistics dominate. The focus has
also shifted to considering inland terminals for the early stages of global supply chains
(outbound logistics), namely in locations having a marked export-oriented function.
Inland terminals have evolved from simple intermodal locations to their incorporation within
logistic zones. Inland terminals (particularly rail) have always been present since they are
locations from which specific market coverage is achieved. Containerization has impacted this
coverage through the selection of terminals that were servicing a wider market area. This
spatial change also came with a functional change as intermodal terminals began to
experience a specialization of roles based on their geographical location but also based on
their ‘location’ within supply chains. Dry ports in many cases have witnessed a clustering of
logistics sites in the vicinity, leading to a process of logistics polarization and the creation of
logistic zones. They have become excellent locations for consolidating a range of ancillary
activities and logistics companies.
In addition to standard capacity and accessibility issues in the hinterland, a dry port is a
location actively integrated within supply chain management practices. This takes many
forms such as the agglomeration of freight distribution centers, custom clearance, container
depots and third party logistical services. The dry port can also become a buffer in supply
chains, acting as a temporary warehousing facility often closely connected to the warehouse
planning systems of nearby distribution centers (Rodrigue and Notteboom, 2009). Purchasers
can even be advantaged by such a strategy since they are not paying for their orders until the
container leaves the terminal, delaying settlement even if the inventory is nearby and
available.
The emergence of dry ports in some cases underlines some deficiency in conventional inland
freight distribution that needed to be mitigated (Figure 2). First, when a deep sea terminal
facility has limited land available for expansion, the intensification of activities at the main
terminal triggers a search of lower land value locations supporting less intensive freight
activities. Second, capacity problems in seaport areas appear to be one of the main drivers of
dry port development since a system of inland terminals increases the intermodal capacity of
inland freight distribution. Third, through long distance transport corridors, dry ports confer
a higher level of accessibility because of lower distribution costs and improved capacity.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
These high-capacity inland transport corridors allow ports to penetrate the local hinterland of
competing ports and thus to extend their cargo base.
Figure 2 : Modal Shift and Inland Freight Diversion before (A) and after the Insertion of an Inland Port and Satellite Terminal
THE FUNCTION OF DRY PORTS WITHIN TRANSPORT CHAINS
A functional and added value hierarchy has emerged for dry ports. In many instances, freight
transport terminals fit within a hierarchy with a functionally integrated inland transport
system of gateways and their corridors, where they service three major functions (Figure 3);
satellite terminals (A), load centers (B) and transloading centers (C). These functions are not
exclusive, implying that inland terminals can service several functions at once. For inbound or
outbound freight flows, the inland terminal is the first tier of a functional hierarchy that
defines its fundamental (activities it directly services) and extended (activities it indirectly
services) hinterlands.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Figure 3 : Functions of Inland Terminals
Satellite Terminals
Satellite terminals (A) tend to be close to a port facility, but mainly at the periphery of its
metropolitan area (often less than 100 km), since they mainly assume a service function to the
seaport facilities. They accommodate additional traffic and serve functions that either have
become too expensive at the port such as warehousing and empty container depots or are less
bound to a location near a deep sea quay. A number of satellite terminals only have a
transport function transshipping cargo from rail/barge to trucks and vice versa. Satellite
terminals can also serve as load centers for local or regional markets, particularly if economic
density is high, in which case they form a multi-terminal cluster with the main port they are
connected to through regular rail or barge shuttle services. For gateways having a strong
import component, a satellite terminal can also serve a significant transloading function
where the contents of maritime containers are transloaded into domestic containers or
truckloads.
Load Centers
Freight distribution clusters (load centers; B) are major intermodal facilities granting access
to well defined regional markets that include production and consumption functions. It
commonly corresponds to a metropolitan area where a variety of terminals serve
concomitantly intermodal, warehousing, distribution and logistics functions. These tend to
take place in logistics parks and free trade zones (or foreign trade zones). The inland terminal
is thus the point of collection or distribution of a regional market. The more extensive and
diversified the market, the more important is the load center. If the load center has a good
intermediary location, such as being along a major rail corridor, then freight distribution
activities servicing an extended market will be present.
Transloading Centers
Transloading facilities (C) link large systems of freight circulation either through the same
mode (e.g. rail-to-rail) or through intermodalism (rail-to-truck, or even rail-to-barge). In the
latter case, the inland terminal assumes the role of a load center. The origin or the destination
of the freight handled is outside the terminal's market area, a function similar to that of
transshipment hubs in maritime shipping networks. Such transshipment terminals are often
found near country borders in view of combining administrative processes linked to cross
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
border traffic to value-added logistics activities. Although this function remains marginal in
most parts of the world, ongoing developments in inland freight distribution, where the scale
and scope of intermodal services are increasing, are indicative that transshipment services
are bound to become more prominent.
THE FUNCTION OF DRY PORTS WITHIN SUPPLY CHAINS
Considering the potential mix of the functions of dry ports, five major criteria insure that they
fulfill efficiently their role as an interface between global and regional freight distribution
systems.
Site and situation
Like any transport facility of significance, an inland port requires an appropriate site with
good access to the rail or the barge terminal as well as available land for development. Access
to a large population base is of importance since it will be linked to the level of import and
export activities handled by the inland port. Transportation remains the most significant
logistics cost, underlining the importance of an accessible location. Under such circumstances,
distributors are willing to pay higher rents to take advantage of a logistics site that offers colocation with an intermodal terminal since this strategy enables them to reduce
transportation costs, such as drayage, as well as improve their time responsiveness (lead
time). Several dry ports also have an airport in proximity which can help support a variety of
freight activities.
Repositioning
Since most long distance trade (and some domestic) is supported by containerization, there
are numerous instances where a regional market imports more than it exports (or vice-versa).
Under such circumstances, an inland port must provide the physical and logistical capabilities
to insure that empty containers are repositioned efficiently to other markets if local cargo
cannot be found. This can take the form of empty container depots and arrangements with
freight forwarders to have slots available for repositioning.
Cargo rotation
Whether there are imbalances in container flows or not, an inland port must insure that the
inbound and outbound flows are reconciled as quickly as possible. A common way involves a
cargo rotation from import activities where containers are emptied to export activities where
containers are filled with goods. For container owners, let them be maritime shipping or
leasing companies, a rapid turnover of their assets is fundamental and will secure a
continuous usage of the inland port. Effective repositioning and cargo rotations strategies will
insure higher revenue levels for both the container owners and the dry port operators.
Trade facilitation
An inland port can also be a fundamental structure promoting both the import and export
sectors of a region, particularly for smaller businesses unable to achieve economies of scale on
their own. The hinterland massification opportunities offered by inland ports are associated
with lower transport costs and a better accessibility. Through these, new market
opportunities become possible as both imports and exports are cheaper.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Governance
The way a dry port is owned and operated is indicative of its potential to identify new market
opportunities and invest accordingly. In many cases, the commitment of a large private
investor such as a port operator or a real estate developer can be perceived as a risk
mitigation strategy in addition to provide expertise in the development of facilities and
related activities. Sections of a dry port can be shared facilities (e.g. distribution centers) so
that smaller players can get involved by renting space and equipment. This also applies to the
appropriate strategies related to each stage in the life cycle of an inland terminal from its
construction to its maturity where its potential has essentially been taped off. The setting of a
Foreign Trade Zone (FTZ) is also an option to be considered. Dry ports and their associated
logistic zones have a wide range of options in terms of their governance model. The
ownership and the management of a dry port can be public, private or a combination of both.
Since dry ports are long term projects that are unlikely to be profitable in their initial phase,
they represent a high risk for private investors. Since among the benefits of inland ports are
job creation and a better usage of regional transport infrastructures, they tend to be perceived
as projects of public benefit.
Table 1: Main Governance Models for Inland Ports1
Model
Single ownership
Public – Private
Partnership
Landlord model
Characteristics
A public or a private actor entirely responsible
for development and operations.
Single vision and conformity to a specific role.
Help combine public planning of
infrastructures with private operational
expertise.
Public (local) interests represented
Public ownership and private operations (a
form of PPP).
Long term concession agreements.
Implications
Potential lack of flexibility in view to changes
(single mandate).
Potential conflicts with surrounding communities.
Tendency to prioritize public interests over
private interests.
Managerial flexibility between the owner, the site
manager and the operators.
Most of the risk assumed by private operators.
RAIL TRANSPORT IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA
A rail-based dry port combines a railway terminal facility with surrounding logistics and
distribution activities and is well connected to one or more gateway ports. In order to
understand the setting and market environment for dry port development in Europe and
North America, it is essential to understand how the rail markets in both continents are
organized, which logistics and distribution concepts are being applied and how the container
port/gateway system is configured. In this section we elaborate on the rail freight markets
while the next section brings the essentials on distribution systems and seaport systems in
containerized freight in both continents.
1
Source : adapted from Slack and Comtois (2010).
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
The European Rail Freight System
The development of container transport by rail in Europe has been strongly effected by EU
policies focused on European integration and a rail deregulation process. Before the early
1990s a geographically, politically and economically fragmented Europe prevented the
realization of a greater European-wide integrated intermodal rail network (Charlier and
Ridolfi, 1994). Since the mid-1990s the European intermodal sector has undergone major
changes as a result of liberalization and with it the entry of new market players (see e.g.
Gouvernal and Daydou, 2005 and Debrie and Gouvernal, 2006). The emergence of a new
generation of rail operators not only made incumbent firms (i.e. mostly former national
railway companies) act more commercially, but also led to the improvement in the
endogenous capabilities of the railway sector. This in time could make rail a more widespread
alternative in serving the European hinterlands, although technical and operational issues
facing cross-border services continue to hamper the efficiency of international container
trains (e.g. the standardization of rail traffic management systems under the ERTMS scheme European Rail Traffic Management System). At present, a wide array of rail operators make up
the supply of rail products out of European container ports. The largest players include DB
Schenker Rail and SNCF but many smaller players are also offering services2.
Hamburg’s rail connections outperform all other ports in numbers (more than 160
international and national shuttle and block train services per week) and in traffic volumes by
rail (1.89 million TEU in 2008). Rotterdam (rail volume of 1 million TEU in 2008) and
Antwerp (837,000 TEU) each have between 150 and 200 intermodal rail departures per week.
Other European seaports with substantial rail volumes include Bremerhaven (867,000 TEU),
Zeebrugge (675,000 TEU), Gothenburg (342,000 TEU) and La Spezia (300,000 TEU). Still, rail
transport typically represents a small share in the land-based container flows of many
European containers ports with German seaports and Zeebrugge as the notable exceptions
(Table 2). Smaller container ports tend to seek connection to the extensive hinterland
networks of the large seaports by installing shuttle services either to rail platforms in the big
container ports or to rail hubs in the hinterland.
Table 2 : Modal split in land-based container flows of some major European container ports3
Seaport
Antwerp (Belgium)
Bremerhaven (Germany)4
Total container throughput
(including sea-sea
transshipment)
Million TEU
8.66
5.50
Road
Rail
Inland barge
%
56.6
34.0
%
11.0
62.9
%
32.4
3.1
For example, the Netherlands counts 14 licensed railway undertakings: DB Schenker Rail NL (the former
national railway company NS, now part of DB Schenker), ACTS, ERS, Rail4Chem, Rotterdam Rail Feeding, VeoliaCargo, B-Cargo, Fret SNCF, ITL, CTL, HGK, Crossrail, etc.. Belgium counts 10 licensed operators: B-Cargo (former
national railway company), Crossrail Benelux, Trainsport AG, ACTS, RRF, SNCF Fret, Veolia Cargo, ERS, CFLCargo and DB Schenker Rail NL.
3 Source: own compilation based on data from respective port authorities and Schiffahrt Hafen Bahn und
Technik, No. 1 (2010), p. 68.
2
9
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Constanza (Romania)
Hamburg (Germany)
Le Havre (France)
Marseille (France)
Rotterdam (the Netherlands)
Zeebrugge (Belgium)
1.38
9.70
2.45
0.85
10.83
2.21
69.6
63.1
86.2
81.0
57.0
62.0
27.8
34.7
6.6
13.0
13.0
36.6
2.6
2.2
7.2
6.0
30.0
1.4
From a network perspective, intermodal rail transport in Europe has undergone a transition
from a meshed network to a star or hub-and-spoke network based on intermediate rail hubs
and then finally the replacement of the network by a system of direct lines. For example, the
backbone of rail services out of the main European container ports is formed by direct pointto-point shuttle trains with a unit capacity ranging from 40 to 95 TEU per shuttle (Notteboom,
2008). However, the profitability of a lot of individual direct shuttle trains even to the
immediate hinterland of European load centre ports remains uncertain. In the past some
carriers and rail operators have resolved the problems related to the fluctuating volumes and
the numerous final destinations by bundling container flows in rail hubs in the immediate
hinterland. Numerous hub-and-spoke railway networks emerged in the 1990s. An example
was the Qualitynet of Intercontainer-Interfrigo (ICF) with Metz-Sablon in north-eastern
France as intermediate rail hub linking up the Rhine-Scheldt Delta ports with the rest of
Western Europe. Such hub-and-spoke networks were revealed to be vulnerable, as the
volumes on the spokes could be affected by (a) newcomers entering the market in the
aftermath of European rail liberalization and (b) increasing intermodal volumes in seaports
(Kreuzberger, 2005; Notteboom, 2009).
New railway operators often “cherry-pick” by introducing competing direct shuttle trains on a
spoke of a competitor’s established hub-and-spoke network. This has a negative effect on
cargo volumes on the spoke and can lead to a collapse of the whole hub-and-spoke system.
That is what happened to ICF’s Qualitynet in 2004. ICF launched its new strategy in December
2004. The intermodal traffic of the former Qualitynet hub in Metz is now handled by a set of
direct shuttle trains going to fewer destinations. For eastern and south-eastern Europe,
services are centered around the hub in Sopron (Hungary). Rail hubs are progressively being
abandoned. Nevertheless, some of the new systems being set up by operators still include
massification centres. For instance, German intermodal operator BoxXpress uses Gmunden in
Germany to connect trains leaving from Bremerhaven and Hamburg. However, these types of
terminals are only massifying gateways on direct routes and do not act as intermediate hubs
for a large number of spokes.
The North American Rail Freight System
The container rail market in North America has been heavily affected by a significant
deregulation that unfolded since the 1970s. The Staggers Act (1980) proved to be a key piece
of legislation in the competitiveness of transport by rail. The act liberated rate setting, relaxed
common carrier obligations and simplified merger applications (Dennis, 2000). The
deregulation process resulted in productivity and volume increases, lower rates and a strong
4
Modal split figures for terminal operator Eurogate only.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
market consolidation through mergers and acquisitions. The North American rail transport
system is very extensive, but at the same time shows a high level of geographical
specialization with eight large rail carriers servicing vast regional markets (Rodrigue, 2008)
(Figure 4). It is also characterized by a pronounced transnational ownership as both Canadian
major rail companies, CN and CP, own and operated networks in the United States while the
American company KCS own and operated networks in Mexico under the name of KCS de
Mexico.
Each carrier has its own facilities and railway tracks and thus its own markets along the
segments it controls. The rail system is the outcome of substantial capital investments
occurring over several decades with the accumulation of impressive infrastructure and
equipment assets. The system was developed to support commodity flows, particularly coal
and grain. Competition has a strong regional connotation where over vast tracks of territory
only two rail operators have intermodal terminals. However, the growth of intermodalism
created issues about continuity within the North American rail network, particularly in the
United States. Mergers have improved this continuity but a limit has been reached in the
network size of most rail operators. Attempts have been made to synchronize the interactions
between rail operators for long distance trade with the setting of intermodal unit trains. Often
bilateral, trilateral or even quadrilateral arrangements are made between rail carriers and
shipping companies to improve the intermodal interface at the major gateways or at points of
interlining between major networks.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Figure 4 : The North American Rail System and Major Intermodal Terminals (United States and Canada) 5
In container transport, the double stack train is arguably the most visible characteristic of the
North American intermodal system. Double stack trains gave significant economies of scale
and gained a significant cost advantage over the trailer on flat car system (TOFC). The double
stack rail network benefited from the introduction of post-Panamax vessels on the TransPacific trade route in the late 1990s. The limitation of the Panama Canal locks made the
combination of a call of a post-Panamax container vessel at a West Coast container port plus
onward transport by double stack train a valuable option, compared to the all-water route
(with panamax vessels of up to 5,000 TEU) from Asia to the US East Coast via the Panama
Canal. The expansion of the Panama Canal with a new set of larger locks scheduled to open in
2014 is likely to change the intermodal balance within the North America market, mostly by
making the all-water route most cost effective and thus expanding the hinterland of East Coast
ports.
5
Source: rail ownership data from Oak Ridge National Laboratory.
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Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Systemic Differences
There are a number of noticeable systemic differences between the North American and
European rail networks (Table 3). Next to factors already discussed, it is worth mentioning
that the European railway network is very much focused on passenger transport, not only
through a dense network of commuter trains but also via a growing high speed network. With
a few exceptions (such as the Betuweroute, a dedicated freight track between the port of
Rotterdam and the Dutch/German border), freight and passenger trains use the same
infrastructure, with the latter having the highest priority. The lack of dedicated tracks for
freight transportation complicates the allocation of train slots to container shuttle trains,
particularly in the main seaport regions of Europe. In contrast, the influence of passenger
transport on North American double stack trains is very small. Another key difference relates
to the governance system in place. Railway companies in North America act as both
infrastructure owner and rail service operator.
The rail liberalization process in Europe has led to a separation between infrastructure
management and railway operations. Railway undertakings now have to deal with the
relevant rail infrastructure managers for acquiring the necessary train paths to run national
or cross-border shuttle trains. The railway undertakings pay an infrastructure charge per tonkm to the infrastructure managers. Rail Net Europe (RNE) groups 37 railway infrastructure
managers in Europe. The Path Coordination System of RNE aims to provide one-stop-shop
solutions for pre-constructed paths on a set of European railway corridors, while the Charging
Information System (CIS) gives information on the charges linked to cross-border train paths.
Thus, the European rail network, unlike their North American counterparts, faces a lot of
coordination issues among infrastructure managers and between infrastructure managers
and users. Additionally, rail coordination issues in North America are more advanced and
involve interlining agreements as well as railcar equipment pools such as TTX.
Table 3: Systemic Differences between North American and European Rail Systems
Market dynamics
Primary focus of the
rail network
Governance
Market players
6
North America
Fully liberalized since the 1980s. Introduction of double
stack technology as key development.
Freight (dry bulk, containers, TOFC)
Private ownership and operations of infrastructure and
rail services
Consolidation to a handful of operators.
Service area
Each operator has a specific service area (East, West or
Canada).
Distances
Double stack trains cover distances of up to 3000km.
Train capacity
300-500 TEU per double stack train6
Western Europe
Liberalization process since early 1990s. Cross-border
operations facilitated by corridor concept and Rail Net
Europe.
Passengers
Separation of infrastructure management (public) and rail
operations (public or private)
End of monopoly of national railway companies.
Consolidation (cf. DB Schenker Rail), but also entry of new
smaller players.
Creation of trans-European railway operations by largest
players (DB, SNCF); more niche markets for smaller
players.
Typically between 300 and 1500km, while shorter shuttle
trains mainly exist in inter-port traffic.
40-95 TEU using flat cars
The longest double stack train ever was a Union Pacific train (2009) counting 287 wagons or some 1,150 TEU.
13
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Network structure
Direct shuttle trains bundled around major interlining
hubs (Chicago, Kansas City, St. Louis and Memphis)
Direct shuttle trains where possible. Hub-and-spoke
network where needed (e.g. in connection to East/Central
Europe)
DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS AND GATEWAYS IN EUROPE AND NORTH AMERICA
Rodrigue and Notteboom (2010) and Notteboom (2010) provide an extensive analysis of
distribution systems and related multi-port gateway port regions in Europe and North
America. The main points are summarized on Table 4. When it comes to the distribution of
overseas goods (inbound logistics), a general distribution structure does not exist. Both in
Europe and North America the conventional distribution networks shifted from a system of
regional or even local distribution centers to central Gateway Distribution Center (GDC): in
Europe typically a European Distribution Center (EDC) covering all European Union countries
and, in North America, a large distribution center servicing a part of the continent, often
divided by coast. In some market segments, local market demand has led companies to opt for
Regional Distribution Centers or RDCs. Companies often opt for a hybrid distribution
structure of centralized and local distribution facilities. For instance, they use a GDC for
medium- and slow-moving products and RDCs for fast-moving products. These RDCs typically
function as rapid fulfillment centers rather than holding inventories. The choice between the
various distribution formulas depends on among other things the type of product, the
variability in demand for the product and the frequency of deliveries. At present, the majority
of EDCs in Europe is still opting for a location in the Benelux region or northern France, but
more and more regions are vying for a position as attractive location for RDCs and potentially
EDCs. In Europe, inland distances are more limited, so maritime containers tend to move
directly to their bound distribution centers through inland ports. In North America, gateway
distribution centers are dominantly around the Los Angeles / Long Beach, New York / New
Jersey and Savannah clusters.
Table 4 : Comparison of gateway logistics in North America and Europe7
Distribution
systems for
import cargo
Gateways –
location and
function
Gateway system
7
North America
GDCs often divided per coast
Near major markets
Concentrated
Concentration level increasing
Limited number of gateways
Western Europe
EDC (mainly in Benelux) and
EDC/RDC configurations are
dominant
Coastal gateways linked to
logistical platforms.
Combination of gateway and
transshipment function.
Some ‘pure’ transshipment hubs
(particularly in Med)
Fairly concentrated (particularly in
the Hamburg- Le Havre range)
Concentration level slightly
decreasing: more gateways and
entry of new gateway regions (cf.
Baltic + Med)
Source: adapted from Rodrigue and Notteboom (2010)
14
Trend
Triple/double EDC for Europe.
In general status quo
Convergence at level of logistical
platforms: increased development of
inland logistical platforms in North
America
Divergence in concentration level
Future EU concentration level partly
subject to policy debate on
infrastructure/corridor development.
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Corridors
Long distance rail
Hinterlands
Economies of scale at terminals
Large hinterlands both for
gateways and inland ports.
Governance
Private ownership and
operations
Low impact of administrative
borders
Short and medium distance barge
and truck.
Medium-distance rail
Economies of scale at gateways.
Inland ports more constrained
(thus more of them).
Public ownership
Private operations
Higher impact of administrative
borders in gateway logistics
development
Some convergence, but no ‘double stack’
and real landbridges in EU
Convergence (more contested
hinterlands, inland ports)
Convergence hindered by ownership
regulations (cf. EU: split between
infrastructure/operations)
Convergence towards PPPs
Reassessment of facilitating role of
governments in gateway logistics
In North America, there is a high level of concentration of economic activities along coastal
areas (East and West coasts) with significant resource and manufacturing hinterlands.
Gateways tend to be the dominant markets and this for all the two major maritime facades,
with the Gulf Coast playing a more marginal role, particularly for containers. North America
relies on a relatively small number of gateways and less developed port ranges have few
chances to fully take part in international shipping networks. Long Beach/Los Angeles are the
major gateways along the Pacific Coast, mainly catering to Asian import cargo. Longitudinal
long distance rail corridors, often taking the form of a landbridge, are servicing a continental
hinterland articulated by major transportation and industrial hubs such as Chicago and
Kansas City. The major changes in North America’s hinterlands, namely the decline of the
industrial belt (which has been monitored for decades) and the industrialization of the “sun
belt” are long term shifts that are reflected in the gradual reorientation of the traffic. NAFTA
also favors the setting of natural gateways and corridors, namely through Canada (in
particular Vancouver and Montreal) and Mexico (Lazero Cardenas) and a reorientation of
traffic flows (Brooks, 2008).
In Western Europe, the hinterland is not only intense along the coastline but also in the
interior, notably along the Rhine river system and its tributary rivers (Main and Neckar),
Bavaria in the South of Germany, the economics centers around Milan in Northern Italy and
Madrid in central Spain and major markets in Paris, the Liverpool-Manchester-Leeds belt in
the UK and the belt reaching from Austria to the growing production clusters in Hungary, the
Czech Republic and Southern Poland. Moreover, large parts of the European economic centers
are somewhat remote from the main shipping lanes as is the case for the countries around the
Baltic. European gateways therefore act as intermediary locations to reach inland markets,
even if many are important industrial centers (e.g. petrochemical industry). The hinterland is
accessed from coastal gateways such as Rotterdam, Antwerp, Hamburg, Bremerhaven, Le
Havre, Barcelona, Marseille and Felixstowe by medium distance corridors involving a variety
of combinations of road, barge (where available) and rail services. Almost all the major
European capitals are interior cities located along rivers. Cargo concentration levels in the
European port system are slowly declining, whereby nearly all port ranges fully participate in
international shipping networks and whereby each port range consists of a unique blend of
load center ports and smaller facilities with a more local focus.
15
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Although gateways are the fundamental structure of the maritime – land interface, terminals
are the physical infrastructures through which functional regionalism is shaped. In the next
section we discuss the emergence of new relations between port terminals and their
hinterland with the setting of dry ports and distribution services in North America and
Western Europe.
DRY PORTS AND THEIR REGIONS
Regional issues, namely how dry ports interact with their regional markets, remain
fundamental as they define their modal characteristics, their regulatory framework and their
commercial opportunities. Depending on the geographical setting and the structure,
governance and ownership of inland transport systems, dry ports have different levels of
development and integration with port terminals.
Western Europe
It is in Western Europe that the setting of inland terminals is the most advanced with a close
integration of port terminals with rail shuttles and barge services. European integration
processes have permitted the setting of more natural (commercially based) hinterlands that
did not exist before. Since a good share of the European market is inland, a growth in
international trade required the setting of intermediary locations inland to help accommodate
larger flows between ports and their hinterland. Local hinterland logistics are taking the form
of emerging logistics poles consisting of a set of gateway ports and logistics zones in the
immediate hinterland. A large concentration of dry ports can be found around the
Rhine/Scheldt delta, which is Europe's most important gateway region with a total container
throughput of 23.2 million TEU in 2011, and where the function of satellite terminals is
prominent (Figure 5). Almost every European port has an inland terminal strategy as a way to
secure hinterland traffic.
A major concern in many European ports is the strong reliance of more local container
volumes on trucks. While road haulage has always played a major role in shaping competition
among load centres of the same multi-port gateway region for the immediate hinterland,
intermodal transport is slowly but surely acquiring a strategic role as well. Regional trunk
lines enhance the location of logistics sites in seaports and dry ports and along the axes
between seaports and dry ports. Seaports are the central nodes driving the dynamics in such a
large logistics pole. The rise of dry ports and associated logistics corridors enhanced port
regionalization processes (Notteboom and Rodrigue, 2005). Logistics sites in the immediate
hinterland typically greatly value the flexibility a multi-port gateway region offers in terms of
available routing options for import and export cargo (Notteboom, 2010). In a logistics world
confronted with mounting reliability and capacity issues, routing flexibility is a keystone for
the logistics attractiveness of a region. For example, the logistics attractiveness of large parts
of Belgium and the Netherlands for the location of European distribution centers (EDCs) is
partly due to the existence of and high connectivity in several efficient gateways in the RhineScheldt Delta.
16
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
Figure 5 : Logistics polarisation in the Rhine-Scheldt Delta: logistics zones, trimodal dry ports, rail-based dry ports and barge-based dry
ports8
Rail-based dry ports are found throughout Europe, often linked to the development of
logistics zones. The rail liberalization process in Europe is supporting the development of real
pan-European rail services on a one-stop shop basis. All over Europe, new entrants are
emerging while some large former national railway companies have joined forces. Rail
terminals in Europe are mostly built and operated by large railway ventures. The largest rail
facilities have bundles of up to 10 rail tracks with lengths of maximum 800m per track. Rail
hubs are typically equipped to allow simultaneous batch exchanges (direct transshipment)
through the use of rail-mounted gantry cranes that stretch over the rail bundles.
In northwest Europe, rail networks and rail-based dry ports are being challenged by barge
transport and bimodal barge/truck terminals which are taking up a very prominent role in
dealing with gateway traffic, particularly in the Benelux, northern France and parts of
Western Germany (see also modal split figures in table 2 and barge/truck terminals in figure
2). Barge container transport has its origins in transport between Antwerp, Rotterdam and
the Rhine basin, and in the last decade it has also developed greatly along the north-south axis
between the Benelux and northern France (Notteboom and Konings, 2004). Antwerp and
Rotterdam together handled nearly 5 million TEU of inland barge traffic in 2010 or about 95%
of total European container transport by barge. Promising barging developments are also
8
Source: updated and adapted from Notteboom (2000).
17
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
found on the Seine between Le Havre and the Paris region, in the Rhône/Seine basin between
Marseille, Lyon and Dijon, on the Elbe and the Weser in Northern Germany and on the Danube
River out of the port of Constanta. Fluviomar recently started barge services on the Po River
connecting the Port of Venice with Mantua and Cremona near Milan.
The increased focus on the hinterland gave impetus to specific coordination mechanisms
among stakeholders (Van Der Horst and De Langen, 2008) and hinterland access regimes (De
Langen and Chouly, 2004) in ports around Europe. Port authorities such as Rotterdam,
Barcelona, Le Havre, Marseille, Antwerp and Lisbon all are actively enhancing processes of
port regionalization (see Notteboom, 2009 for a more detailed analysis). Market players have
developed specific concepts to reflect the growing function of inland terminals. For example,
some terminal operators in Europe are increasing their influence throughout supply chains by
incorporating inland terminals as ‘extended gates’ to seaport terminals (Rodrigue and
Notteboom, 2009). Container terminal operator ECT in Rotterdam (part of Hutchison Port
Holdings) follows an active strategy of acquiring key inland terminals acting as extended gates
to its deepsea terminals (Veenstra et al., 2012). Through ‘European Gateway Services’, ECT
offers shipping lines, forwarders, transport companies and shippers a variety of services to
facilitate the optimal flow of containers between the deep-sea terminals in Rotterdam and the
direct European hinterland. ECT bundles cargo, which allows for highly frequent inland barge
and rail connections to various logistics hotspots in the European hinterland. Container
carrier Maersk Line wants to push containers into the hinterland supported by its terminal
operating sister APM Terminals and its rail branch European Rail Shuttle (ERS). Terminal
operator DP World uses the concept of ‘terminal operator haulage’ to streamline intermodal
operations on the Seine and Rhône axes, while the large terminals of Antwerp Gateway (open
since 2005) and London Gateway (open in 2012) are both linked to inland centres.
The advantages of the above solutions are substantial: customers can have their containers
available in close proximity to their customer base, while the deepsea terminal operator faces
less pressure on the deep-sea terminals due to shorter dwell times and can guarantee a better
planning and utilization of the rail and barge shuttles. A close coordination with shipping
lines, forwarders and shippers is needed to maximize the possibilities for the development of
integrated bundling concepts to the hinterland. We argue that ‘extended gate’ and ‘terminal
operator haulage’ strategies will increasingly evolve from point-to-point services (i.e. from a
seaport to an inland port and vice versa) to network services which rely on routing flexibility
offered via multiple inter-linked corridors.
North America
There have been large inland terminals in North America since the development of the
continental railway system in the late 19th century. Their setting was a natural process where
inland terminals corresponded to large inland market areas, commonly around metropolitan
areas commanding a regional manufacturing base and distribution system. Although exports
were significant, particularly for agricultural goods, this system of inland terminals was
mostly for domestic freight distribution, connecting manufacturing and resource regions. This
has led to a noted hierarchy of distribution hubs within the North American economy (Figure
6). With globalization and intermodalism two main categories of inland terminals have
emerged in North America.
18
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
The first is related to ocean trade where inland terminals are an extension of a maritime
terminal located in one of the three major ranges (Atlantic, Gulf and Pacific) either as satellite
terminals and more commonly as inland load centers (e.g. Chicago). The second category
concerns inland terminals mainly connected to NAFTA trade that can act as custom preclearance centers. Kansas City can be considered the most advanced inland port initiative in
North America as it combines intermodal rail facilities from four different rail operators,
foreign trade zones and logistics parks at various locations through the metropolitan area.
Like Chicago, the city can essentially be perceived as a terminal.
Figure 6 : Main Container Ports, Trade Corridors and Distribution Hubs in North America9
Compared to Europe, North American dry ports tend to be larger, but covering a much more
substantial market area. Most of the North American dry ports initially developed were
intermodal facilities acting as nodes of convergence for regional freight distribution enabling
Source: Container port data from Containerization International. Distribution hubs data from Cushman &
Wakefield (2009) New Age of Trade: The Americas, Industrial white paper for NAIOP Research Foundation,
January 2009.
9
19
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
a modal shift away from road and freight diversion away from congested areas. These two key
paradigms have been expanded with a more comprehensive approach leaning on the principle
of co-location. As dry port projects become increasingly capital intensive and prone to risk
because of their size, required equipment and infrastructure, the need for a higher value
proposition is now set on the principle of co-location, many of which are public private
partnerships. Several recent logistic zones projects in North America are capitalizing on the
planning and setting of a new intermodal rail terminal done concomitantly with a logistics
zone project. This co-location partnership fundamentally acts as a filter for the commercial
potential of the project as both actors must make the decision to go ahead with their
respective capital investment in terminal facilities and commercial real estate. The most
common actors in a typical co-located dry port project involve a railway operator and a
commercial real estate developer, or a local public development office.
The success of the co-location model in North America is linked to the market opportunities of
the intermodal terminal through a set of value propositions:






Real estate: Logistic zone projects tend to occupy a large amount of space to
accommodate existing and anticipated freight distribution activities. Most co-located
projects occupy at least 250 acres and several projects are well above 1,000 acres.
Larger projects tend to have lower land acquisition costs. Also, since co-located
projects involve at least two large players, a commercial real estate developer and a
railway company, they are able to tap into capital pools with better conditions than a
smaller actor (e.g. interest rates). For instance, CenterPoint Properties is owned by the
pension fund CalPERS (California public employees’ retirement fund), enabling access
to long term capital pools. Another important aspect is that a co-located logistic project
enables the joint planning of facilities.
Specialization: A co-location project enables both actors involved to focus on their
core competencies, creating multiplying factors. For instance, the rail company can
focus on terminal development and operations while the real estate promoter can
develop and manage the freight distribution facilities.
Interdependency: both the terminal operator and freight distribution activities at the
logistic zone are their respective customers, implying that both partners have vested
interests in the efficiency of their operations. The possibility of joint marketing where
the logistic zone is promoted as a single intermodal package is also common since the
terminal is sold as a value proposition to potential customers.
Drayage: a co-location project offers notable operational advantages for drayage, not
just because of close proximity, but because trucks can have a priority access through
the terminal's gates (e.g. pre-registration, advance notification, RFID). Drivers are able
to perform more deliveries per day and the reliability of these deliveries improves.
Asset utilization: Intermodal transportation assets are capital intensive and there are
pressures to increase their utilization level to achieve better returns on investments.
Containers and chassis tend to be the assets that are the most prone to such strategies,
namely through the setting of chassis pools and empty container depots.
Information technologies: A co-location project offers the possibility to jointly plan
information systems for terminal operations and the related supply chains, creating a
community system where users can have access to real time information about the
20
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
status of their shipments. Both terminal operations and their related supply chains
benefit.
While co-location dry port projects have been particularly prevalent in North America, one
drawback is that co-located logistics activities are dependent on the performance of the rail
terminal as well as the level of service offered by the rail operator. If for any reason the rail
operator has other priorities within its network, then the efficiency of the co-located logistic
zone is compromised.
CONCLUSION
The setting of dry ports have been a dominant paradigm in the development of hinterland
transportation as the growth of maritime transportation and its economies of scale have
placed pressures on the inland segment of freight distribution. The prospects for dry ports
remain positive with large continental markets like North America and Europe relying on a
network of satellite terminals and load centers as a fundamental structure to support
hinterland freight movements, particularly their massification. This entailed the emergence of
extended gates and extended forms of supply chain management in which inland terminals
play an active role. As the pressure on port regions increases in terms of freight flows passing
through them and associated environmental effects, dry ports will be even more important in
maintaining efficient and sustainable commodity chains. It can also be expected that resources
will play a greater role within containerized trade with inland terminals, again underlining
unique regional characteristics. This implies a set of repositioning strategies where inland
terminals play a fundamental role either to improve the efficiency of this repositioning, by
providing better cargo rotation opportunities, or by acting as an agent that can help promote
containerized exports.
Like several stages in intermodal transport development, such as in port infrastructure, there
is a potential of overinvestment, duplication and redundancy as many inland locations would
like to claim a stake in global value chains. This appears to be the case in Western Europe
where an abundance of inland terminals, particularly within the Rhine / Scheldt delta, is
indicative of an over competitive environment and the ambitions of local and regional
authorities to establish logistics hubs for Europe. Also, the vulnerability of hub-and-spoke
networks in rail transport makes the position of intermediate rail hubs uncertain: a shift to a
system of direct shuttle trains might make the rail hub redundant and faces the logistics
companies around the hub with a declining connectivity to gateway ports. A fundamental
aspect that distinguishes European dry ports from North American dry ports remains the
barge option. In addition of permitting the setting of trimodal inland ports (where the term
“dry” loses its meaning), it supports a massification of inland distribution in the absence of
double-stacking capabilities for rail as well as additional transport and routing options.
In North America, because of a different ownership and governance structure, the setting of a
dry port, at least the intermodal terminal component, is mostly in the hands of rail operators.
Each decision thus takes place with much more consideration being placed on market
potential as well as the overall impact on their network structure. The decision of a rail
company to build a new terminal or to expand existing facilities commonly marks the moment
where regional stakeholders, from real estate developers to logistics service providers,
readjust their strategies. In some instances, state/provincial or local governments will come
21
Dry Ports in European and North American Intermodal Rail Systems: Two of a Kind?
with dry port strategies adjusting to existing commercial decisions in the hope to create
multiplying effects.
The development of dry ports around the world has clearly underlined an emerging functional
relation of port terminals and their hinterland. Based upon their regional setting, dry ports
assume a variety of functions with co-location with logistical zones a dominant development
paradigm. They are likely to be more important elements within supply chains, particularly
through their role of buffer where containerized consignments can be cheaply stored, waiting
to be forwarded to their final destinations. While the interest in dry ports has increased we
have to be aware that no two dry ports are the same. Each dry port is confronted with a
local/regional economic, geographical and regulatory setting which not only define the
functions taken up by the dry port, but its relations vis-à-vis seaports. Best practices can only
be applied successfully if one takes into account the relative uniqueness of each dry port
setting. In spite of the technical similarities brought by intermodalism European and North
American dry ports are functionally two of a kind since they play different roles within
transport and supply chains.
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