Romanian Journal of Automotive Engineering

Transcription

ISSN ____ – ____ (Online, English)
ISSN 1842 – 4074 (Print, Online, Romanian)
Mars 2015
Volume 21
4 th Series
Number 1
RoJAE
Romanian
Journal of Automotive Engineering
The Journal of the Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania
www.siar.ro
www.ingineria-automobilului.ro
RoJAE
Romanian
Societatea Inginerilor de Automobile din România
Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania
www.siar.ro
SIAR – The Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania is the professional organization of automotive
engineers, an independent legal entity, non-profit, active member of FISITA (Fédération Internationale des Sociétés
d'Ingénieurs des Techniques de l'Automobile - International Federation of Automotive Engineering Societies) and
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University of Pitesti, Romania
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University „Politehnica” of Bucharest, Romania
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Cristian Nicolae ANDREESCU
Nicolae BURNETE
Technical University of Cluj-Napoca, Romania
Anghel CHIRU
„Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania
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University of Craiova, Romania
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General Secretary
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Military Technical Academy of Bucharest, Romania
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Renault Technologie Roumanie
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Romanian Automotive Register
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The National Union of Road Hauliers from Romania
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AVL Romania
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RoJAE
Romanian
CONTENTS
Volume 21, Issue No. 1
Mars 2015
Efficiency Calculation of an Unpublished 2 Strokes Engine, with Spherical Chamber and Over
Power Stroke
Edouard BONNEFOUS and Julien MARCINKOWSKI................................................................
5
Experimental Research on the Hybridization of a Road Vehicle
Dan Mihai DOGARIU, Anghel CHIRU, Cristian Ioan LEAHU and Marius LAZAR.....................
15
Presentation of a Wheel Loader with an Electric Driven Pump and With Electric Wheel Drives
Michael BUTSCH, Uwe KOSIEDOWSKI, Peter KUCHAR, Manfred MACK and Dimitri
ZIMANTOVSKI................................................................................................................................
21
Globalization of the Automotive Industry – Focus On German Automotive Manufacturer's
Vijay NARAYANAN, Axel MAURER and Lucian RAD....................................................................
25
Research Regarding the Influence of Biofuels on the Law of Heat Release from a Diesel Engine
Bogdan BENEA, Anghel CHIRU and Gabriel MITROI ..................................................................
29
The collections of the journals of the Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania are avaibles at the
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International
RoJAE 21(1) 1 – 34 (2015)
RoJAE
Romanian
Editor in Chief
Cornel STAN
West Saxon University of Zwickau, Germany
E-mail: [email protected]
Executive Editor
Nicolae ISPAS
„Transilvania” University of Brasov, Romania
Deputy Executive Editor
Radu CHIRIAC
Ion COPAE
Stefan TABACU
Editors
Ilie DUMITRU
Marin Stelian MARINESCU
Adrian SACHELARIE
„Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania
Marius BATAUS
Cristian COLDEA
George DRAGOMIR
University of Oradea, Romania
Advisory Editorial Board
Dennis ASSANIS
University of Michigan, USA
Rodica A. BARANESCU
Chicago College of Engineering, USA
Nicolae BURNETE
Giovanni CIPOLLA
Politecnico di Torino, Italy
Felice E. CORCIONE
Engines Institute of Naples, Italy
Georges DESCOMBES
Conservatoire National des Arts et Metiers de Paris, France
Cedomir DUBOKA
University of Belgrade, Serbia
Pedro ESTEBAN
Institute for Applied Automotive Research Tarragona, Spain
Radu GAIGINSCHI
„Gheorghe Asachi” Technical University of Iasi, Romania
Eduard GOLOVATAI-SCHMIDT
Schaeffler AG & Co. KG Herzogenaurach, Germany
Peter KUCHAR
University for Applied Sciences, Konstanz, Germany
Mircea OPREAN
Nicolae V. ORLANDEA
University of Michigan, USA
Victor OTAT
Andreas SEELINGER
Institute of Mining and Metallurgical Engineering, Aachen,
Germany
Ulrich SPICHER
Kalrsuhe University, Karlsruhe, Germany
Cornel STAN
West Saxon University of Zwickau, Germany
Dinu TARAZA
Wayne State University,USA
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RoJAE vol. 21 no. 1/ Mars 2015
EFFICIENCY CALCULATION OF AN UNPUBLISHED 2 STROKES ENGINE, WITH
SPHERICAL CHAMBER AND OVER POWER STROKE
Edouard BONNEFOUS1)*, Julien MARCINKOWSKI2)
1)
Zodiac Aero Electric , Montreuil sous Bois - 93, France
2)
Valeo Engine and Electrical Systems, France
(Received 19 January 2015; Revised 12 February 2015; Accepted 25 February 2015)
Abstract: The unpublished 2 strokes engine, described in the patent’s demand n°1301584 [1] presents by its
original kinematic configuration, a quasi-spherical combustion chamber at top dead centre and around, so dividing
by more than 2 the ratios surface and forces/volume compared with a classic engine with piston. Furthermore, its
ports distribution authorizes to set freely four moments of opening and closing of the ports of intake and exhaust, to
increase the thermodynamic efficiency by a Miller cycle.
The present article concerns the 1D modelling in 2 zones of the thermodynamic cycle of such an engine. The
resolution of the equations is numerically realized under Matlab and the various models are validated on an
equivalent classic engine. Considering a forehead of spherical flame centred on the spark plug, the model of
combustion developed for this study allows to calculate the position, the surface and the speed of propagation
according to the aero-thermodynamics parameters and the rate of residual burned gases. Besides, the walls
contact areas with the burned and not burned gases, which differ strongly between the unpublished engine and the
classic equivalent, are known so at each moment, what allows estimating finely the losses at walls by a model of
Woschni. The optimal parameters (ports diagram, spark advance, pressure of scavenging, etc.) were retained for
every point of engine’s normal operation.
Key-Words: Internal combustion engine, 2 strokes, uniflow scavenging, over power stroke, Miller cycle, compact
chamber, spherical chamber, thermodynamic efficiency, model of combustion, models of heat losses at walls,
Woschni, Matlab, internal aerodynamics, turbulence, bi-zones model of combustion.
1. INTRODUCTION
In order to evaluate the performances and efficiency of an unexpected engine, we developed a specific
model of simulation of thermodynamic two strokes cycles spark ignited, with Matlab software. First, we
used this model to simulate a classical two strokes engine, in order to determinate values of different
parameters to get the most accurate behaviour. Then we conserved the values of those parameters in
order to simulate in a predictive way this unexpected engine with equal displacement and effective
compression ratio.
2. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL
2.1 Modelling with two zones
We chose a modelling of the thermodynamic cycle with two zones: a zone of unburned gas under quoted
u (for "unburned") and a burned gas zone under quoted b (for "burned"). Such a modelling can be
considered as mono-dimensional because considering a flame front spherical centred on the spark plug
at each crankshaft angle θ , it gives the position of the flame front between the two zones. That allows
knowing the contact surface between the two zones and between the zones and the chamber walls. We
will be precisely able to evaluate the thermal losses at chamber wall to reduce them and facilitate the
best propagation of the flame front during combustion. We will act on those two key points of the
Unexpected engine, beyond the intrinsic effect of the spherical chamber at top dead centre, thanks to
adaptation of internal aerodynamic by sensibly positioning of the unique or several spark plug(s).
*
Corresponding author e-mail: [email protected]
5
2.2 Equations system
For each zone i , we must calculate for each crank angle θ its volume Vi , its mass m i and its
temperature Ti and the pressure P common at the two zones.
So we get a system comprising 2 x 3 + 1 = 7 unknown with the following equations:
• 2 mass balance sheet of with a sub-model of transfer calculating the flow at ports with the
equation of “Barré de St Venant”
• 2 equations of perfect gas
• 2 first principle of thermodynamics for open systems
The sum of the volumes of the two zones equals the total volume of the chamber
2.3 Sub-model of combustion
Considering that the flame is developing itself in a spherical way from the unique of several spark plugs,
by knowing the total volume of the chamber and burnt gas at one given moment, allows us, thanks to
cartographies from Catia CAD numerical mock-up of different engines, to know the radius and surface
Sf of the flame front. The sub-model of combustion phenomenological developed for this study allows
then to calculate the speed ST (Turbulent Speed) of flame propagation according to aerothermodynamic parameters. We can finally deduct from it the flow of not burned gases being
transformed into gases so burning and changing zone by the relation:
dm b,R
dt
= ST Af ρ u = ST Af
P
ruTu
(1)
This equation is true in the field of homogeneous mixtures close to stoechiometry, the considered case.
Karlovitz [2] suggested connecting the speed of turbulent flame with its laminar value by the formula:
ST = SL + u ′
(2)
where u ′ is the speed characterizing the turbulence
This formula was taken back and completed by numerous authors such as Abdel-Gayed and Bradley [3]
or the Driving Scientific Grouping [4]. To calculate the speed of laminar flame SL , we retained the
correlations proposed by John B. Heywood [5].
Besides, we considered that the characteristic speed of the turbulence u ′ :
Was directly proportional at the average speed of the flow U in the chamber, calculated from:
• average flow rate at the ports during scavenging,
• speed of moving walls of the chamber (which is piston speed for a classical engine)
• and the chamber shape
Was quickly decreasing from the TDC to simulate the disintegration of the flow by crushing of a
macro whirlwind (movement of tumble for the classic engine)
To calibrate the values of the various constants of this model, we determined them to obtain for the
classic engine a realistic generated heat, modelled by a curve of Wiebe.
2.4 Sub-model of heat transfer
The approach developed above and allowing to determine the surface of flame also gives us the contact
area of gases of the zone i with the walls of the chamber.
We can then calculate the flow of heat lost by convection in walls by:
dQi
= hi S i (Twall − Ti )
dt
(3)
where Twall is the temperature of the walls (250°C at full load) and hi = α P 0,8Ti −0,53U 0,8 is the
coefficient of convection according to Huber's model, Woschni and Zeilinger.
6
The fitting coefficient α is determined by kind to obtain for the classic engine of heat losses in walls of
the order of the third of the energy released by the fuel during the combustion in the full load.
3
DESCRIPTION OF THE CLASSIC AND UNPUBLISHED ENGINES, SIMULATED
3.1 General characteristics
Table 1
Characteristics of engines
Classic
Unpublished
engine
engine
1
N/A
2,5
N/A
CylindroQuite
conic
spherical
Bore/stroke ratio
Rod/crank ratio
P, Vb, mb, rb, Tb
Shape of the chamber
Unitarian
displacement
Geometrical
compression ratio
Actual compression ratio
P, Vu, mu, ru, Tu
Figure 1. Twin zones model
520 cm3
16,6:1
10,2:1
A volumetric compressor synchronous with the crankshaft, the admission of which we can sieve by a
throttle allows supplying the pressure of scavenging. We considered constant and respectively equal
isentropic and mechanical efficiencies in 70 % and 90 % (debatable according to the type of
transmission and the lubrication, but identical for both models).
Injection
Allumage
P, Vb, mb, rb, Tb
P, Vu, mu, ru, Tu
P0, T0
P1, T0
P2, T2
Admission
P3
Echappement
Papillon
des gaz
Compresseur
volumétrique
Figure 2. Scheme of the classic engine and notes
3.2 Shape of the chamber of the unpublished engine
The chamber of the unpublished engine is similar all the time to a regular octahedron, the volume of
which is variable thanks to 4 "pistons" each in translation to each other. Besides, every piston has a cap
so that in the TDC the chamber is almost spherical. Contrary to the classic engine where the cylindrical
volume of the chamber evolves only by a variation of its height, thus in a single direction of the space,
the chamber of the Unpublished engine realizes a homothecy in all the directions of the space. Besides
the optimization of the surface / volume ratio compared with the classic engine, straight from total
volume and of burned gases, the flame will have fewer interactions with walls and will so have one larger
surface. To avoid a too abrupt combustion which would increase the losses in walls, we can then reduce
the speed of gases in the cylinder to preserve a suitable burning time while decreasing the losses in
walls by decrease of the coefficient of convective exchange.
7
Caps
Piston 3
Piston 2
Piston 4
Piston 1
θ = 180°
(TDC)
θ = 135°
θ = 90°
θ = 0° (BDC)
Figure 3. Evolution of the volume of the chamber of the Unpublished engine. Views from the 3D digital
model used in particular to calculate the laws of volume and surface.
3.3 Laws of surface and volume and diagrams of timing of both engines
Graphs below present the surface and the volume totals of the chamber according to the crankshaft
angle θ for the unpublished engine (moteur Inédit) and its classic equivalent. We notice besides that the
unpublished engine presents a better surface / volume ratio and is more isochoric in the TDC than its
classic equivalent. The figure below presents the timing diagrams of the 2 engines.
400
Surface chambre moteur Inédit
Surface chambre moteur classique
Surface du volume idéal sphérique
300
200
100
0
0
600
30
60
90
120
150
180
90
120
150
180
Volume chambre moteur Inédit
Volume chambre moteur classique
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
30
60
Figure 4. Surface [cm2] and volume [cm3] of the chamber according to the crank angle [°] from the TDC
(0 °) to the BDC (180 °)
8
18
16
Section des lumières [cm2]
600
Adm. Inédit
Ech. Inédit
Adm. classique
Ech. classique
Vol. Inédit
Vol. classique
14
12
540
480
420
360
10
300
8
240
6
180
4
120
2
60
0
Volume de chambre [cm3]
20
0
180
210
240
270
300
330
360
390
420
450
480
510
540
Angle vilebrequin [°]
Figure 5. Timing diagram of the 2 engines, simulated
3.4 Variation of the number and the position of spark plugs
In the case of the unpublished engine, we wanted to test various numbers and positions of spark plugs.
We then made the simplifying approximation that the chamber remained strictly spherical in the
neighbourhood of the TDC, is during all the combustion, which is very close to the reality. So, every
mapping of contact area according to the total volume and to the burned gases is replaced by a simple
curve giving the ratio of the contact area onto the total surface according to the ratio of the volume of
gases burned on the total volume. For every configuration, this curve is obtained by an approach CAD
simplified by intersection between various spheres an example of which for 2 spark plugs diametrically
opposed is presented below.
Figure 6. Evolution of the volume of burned gases (dark red) and the surface of flame for 2 diametrically
opposed spark plugs in a spherical chamber
9
4
SIMULATION RESULTS AT 2000 rpm, FULL LOAD
4.1 Classic engine
The following curves present respectively the cylinder’s pressure (the pressure without combustion is
drawn for information in dotted lines), the masses of unburned and burned gases and a zoom on the gas
flow passing from a zone to the other one (what represents the image of the release of energy)
according to the crank angle.
Figure 7. Pressure, masses and flow rates
The following figure presents the energy balance resulting from this simulation. The variables of the
model of combustion and the fitting coefficient of the heat losses in walls were chosen by kind to
realistically reproduce a shape of cylinder pressure, energy release and energy balance. The values so
obtained were kept the same for the unpublished engine.
The classic engine presents an indicated efficiency of 34 %.
4.2 Unpublished engine (case with centred timing)
The configuration of ignition includes 2 spark plugs opposed on the sphere. The timing is centred on the
BDC. The pressure of intake is 1,025 bars. The spark advance is 25°.
The following curves present respectively the cylinder pressure, the masses of fresh and burned gases
and the flow of gas passing from a zone to the other one, according to the crank angle.
10
Figure 8. Balance of energy
Figure 9. Pressure, masses and flow of burning
11
The next figure presents the balance of energy resulting of this relevant simulation, because it resumes
the variables of the model of combustion and the fitting coefficient of heat losses by convection at walls
identical to the model of classic engine, to which these coefficients were fixed. The efficiency reaches
40%, superior by 18% to the classical engine.
4.3 Unpublished engine (case with Miller cycle or over power stroke)
The timing diagram is not any more characterized by openings of ports centred all around BDC, but with
angles of closing and openings of exhaust and intake moved by 16,5 ° of crank angle, to allow an
effective over power stroke of 73 %, compared to the effective displacement of compression.
Figure 11. Timing diagram with Miller cycle
The intake displacement being lower on this model and being approximately worth 250 cm3, the law of
volume was decreased in a constant to preserve an actual compression ratio of 10,2:1. The law of
surface is also corrected by a constant, to correspond to a spherical chamber at the TDC. The
configuration of ignition contains here sparks situated closer to the centre of the sphere.
The following curves present respectively the cylinder pressure (the pressure without combustion is
drawn for information purposes in dotted lines), the masses of burned and unburned gases and a zoom
on the gas flow passing from a zone to the other one (what returns to the release of energy) according to
the crank angle. The peak pressure is still increased because of spark configuration. We notice the
decrease of effective intake displacement, because of intake mass diminution. The gas flow of the fresh
zone to burn is hardly upper because of the configuration of ignition which requires a geometrical
distance to be browsed by the flame front, slightly shorter. The energy balance below indicates a 46 %
efficiency that is a 12 % improvement compared with the previous configuration. The improvement of
efficiency, compared with the classic engine is of (46%-34)/34% = 35 %.
12
Figures 12. Pressure, masses and flow of burning
13
5
CONCLUSION
Within an internal combustion engine, the energy of the fresh mixture is gradually transformed at first into
heat by combustion then into mechanical work and heat losses in walls, heat and remaining pressure
characterizing the enthalpy in the exhaust. So the decrease of heat losses in walls would allow
increasing possibly the efficiency and the level of enthalpy available on the exhaust. To achieve it, it
would be advisable in particular to reduce the surface/volume ratio, and it especially as the temperature
and the turbulence are important, that is around the TDC. The concept of piston motors, connecting rod
and crank, among which the shape of chamber and the kinematics are dictated by numerous imperatives
and compromises, seem to have reached the asymptote of the reduction of these losses, while they
remain all the same very important. A more elaborate optimization thus requires a change of paradigm.
By rethinking completely the kinematics and the shape of the chamber, the unpublished engine with
quasi-spherical chamber allows to decrease strongly the surface/volume ratio and the need in
aerodynamics with for consequence an important reduction of heat losses in walls and an increase of the
efficiency and the exhaust enthalpy. Furthermore, the variability of the timing diagram contributes to
decrease the losses by pumping in the partial loads and to increase the efficiency on a wide range of
speed by one over power stroke of exhaust gases (cycle of Miller).
We so hope that this article will arouse certain interest to study this concept of architecture of chamber
very promising.
REFERENCES
[1]
Edouard Bonnefous, French patent demand n°1301584, took in 2013, unpublished.
[2]
Kenneth K. Kuo, “Principles of combustion”, 1951.
[3]
Abdel-Gayed et al. (1984), Abdel-Gayed et Bradley (1989).
[4]
Groupement Scientifique Moteur, “La combustion dans les moteurs d’automobile”, Ed. Technip,
1991.
[5]
John B. Heywood, “Internal Combustion Engine Fundamentals”, 1988.
14
EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH ON THE HYBRIDIZATION OF A ROAD VEHICLE
Dan Mihai DOGARIU*, Anghel CHIRU, Cristian Ioan LEAHU, Marius LAZAR
Transilvania University of Brașov, Str. Politehnicii Nr. 1, 500024, Brasov, Romania
(Received 9 December 2014; Revised 15 January 2015; Accepted 23 February 2015)
Abstract: The electrification of the powertrain is one of the best solutions in the quest for obtaining
emissions within the even more narrow limits imposed by legislation, with no penalty to the dynamic
performances of the vehicle. This article describes a study regarding the possibilities of hybridization of a
road vehicle. Based on real life situations, the custom driving cycles have been defined by means of GPS
tracking. These driving patterns were further used in a simulation environment to test various configurations
of classical and hybrid powertrains. The performances of the vehicle before and after hybridization were
compared pursuing the change in emissions and fuel consumption.
Keywords: driving cycle, driving simulation, engine emissions, GPS logging, hybrid vehicle
1. INTRODUCTION
The notion of hybrid vehicle is not new. At the beginnings of the automotive industry, the electric vehicle
was more popular than the conventional vehicle, equipped with an internal combustion engine, which
became common nowadays. The hybrid vehicle combines at least two different sources of power in
order to provide traction to the wheels [1]. The sources of power can be very diverse, especially with the
today’s technology. However, in vehicle dynamics, the most common and successful associations of
power sources used up to now imply at least one electric motor and a thermal engine, mainly an internal
combustion engine, but there are no limitations to use even an external combustion engine.
One of the main advantages of using electrical propulsion is that it offers an ideal traction characteristic,
high flexibility, and it simplifies the currently used driveline [1]. It is its relatively moderate range and high
maintenance costs that limits its use only to industrial applications and city vehicles.
On the other hand, the automotive industry turns back to electrification, in order to reduce the fuel
consumption and emissions, to fit within the legal limits [3].
While all hybrid vehicles, which are mass produced, use electrical machines to assist the conventional CI
(compression ignition) or PI (positive ignition) engine, a special attention to the exhaust gas after
treatment must be paid. For example, shorter engine running periods will lead to little time for the
catalytic converter to warm up, which in turn will decrease its conversion efficiency [3].
In this paper, the chosen powertrain configuration is the series hybrid, as seen in (Figure 1), in which the
internal combustion engine is not directly, by mechanical means, linked to the driving wheels.
Figure 1. The powertrain configuration of a series hybrid
*
15
Since the thermal engine is used as a prime mover, to generate electrical energy with the help of a
generator, and is not directly involved in the traction of the wheels, it may operate at a constant high
thermal efficiency regime, thus improving the fuel consumption [1].
Moreover, by means of power electronics, a fraction of the braking energy may be recovered during the
regenerative braking process. The advantages of using entirely electric traction at the wheels over the
classical propulsion are best observed while driving in the city, where the stops and goes are numerous.
It is here, where the constant or even no operation of the thermal engine contributes to a low level of
emissions. Official comparisons, regarding emissions and fuel consumption, of vehicle performances are
made after testing the vehicles according a standardized driving cycle, such as the NEDC (New
European Driving Cycle) [1].
The complexity of the study consists in defining a custom driving cycle, by direct measurements on the
road vehicle in traffic. The custom drive cycle regards a real life situation, which, at first, seems to be
appropriate for using a hybrid vehicle.
The measured results were further implemented in powertrain simulation software, where both the hybrid
version of the vehicle and the vehicle itself were tested.
The paper is comparing the two solutions considering the influence of the driving performances on the
overall fuel consumption and emissions.
2.
DRIVING CYCLE MEASUREMENTS
The driving cycle is a pattern of driving a road vehicle. This pattern is plotted in a speed vs. time graph.
The custom driving cycle was defined on a commuting route, starting from a residential area and ending
at a production plant just outside the borders of the city.
Obviously, the reverse route was also considered.
There have been recorded several driving cycles, but the one presented in this paper is the most
demanding one, being recorded during rush hour and on the reverse track, that is from the outskirts of
town towards downtown.
The main characteristics of the custom track are described in (Table 1) and the conditions during
measurements in (Table 2).
Table 1
Characteristics of the proposed driving cycle
Overall length
7.7 km
Maximum speed
65 km/h
Average speed
30 km/h
910 s
Time
For a modern vehicle equipped with a complex after treatment system a distance of less than 10 km is
insufficient to assure its required working parameters [3].
Table 2
Initial conditions during measurements
Ambient
22 – 25 ºC
temperature
Air pressure
748 mmHG
Elevation
680 m
Road pitch
< 0.1 % (neglected)
The measurements of the driving cycle have been realized directly on the vehicle, while driving in real
traffic conditions towards the destination. The performances of the used vehicle are similar to the virtual
vehicles used in simulations.
The devices used for measuring the driving cycle are presented in (Figure 2).
The GPS and the smartphone have recorded simultaneously the data concerning the track followed by
the vehicle, while the GPS Antenna allowed real time streaming of the recorded data to the netbook via
Bluetooth communication. The information sent to the netbook was saved in a typical GPS logging file, of
NMEA protocol. The NMEA logging file contains the relative distance between two points, of which
position was acquired at precise and narrow time intervals, of 0.1 seconds.
16
These values offered the possibility of plotting the evolution of the velocity of the vehicle in time, after a
simple post processing. In this way, the driving cycle was obtained, which can be observed in (Figure 3).
Figure 2. Devices used to measure the drive cycle
Figure 3. Measured drive cycle
The data acquisition diagram accordingly to the measurement process used and to the further steps
involved is presented in (Figure 4). Comparing to the NEDC (Figure 5), in this cycle, the vehicle starts
directly on the fast lane, with the engine still cold. The number of idling periods is smaller in the proposed
cycle; however the short trip may affect the functioning of the auxiliary devices of a hybrid vehicle.
Figure 4. Data acquisition diagram
Figure 5. Comparing the custom driving cycle and NEDC
With the help of special tracking software (GPS TrackMaker), the position of the vehicle may be
visualized on a virtual map. The software specialized for GPS tracking are offering the possibility to
export the saved information into several, more appropriate file extension, such that the track can be
superimposed over a digital map. However, the most important export feature of this software is the
connection file for MatLab, where the simulation was done.
The MatLab version of the file allows the graphical representation of the driving cycle, as seen in (Figure
3) and (Figure 4), but also saving the measured data into the database of the powertrain simulation
software, which is running under Matlab.
3.
SIMULATING THE PROPOSED VEHICLES ON THE CUSTOM DRIVING CYCLES
The powertrain simulation software uses the driving cycle as requirement for the designed vehicle and
tests it accordingly in order to estimate fuel consumption and emissions.
The main features of the simulation software are:
Estimation of the fuel consumption;
Estimation on the use and loss of energy for conventional, electric or hybrid vehicles;
Comparison between the emissions resulted after a number of cycles;
Optimization of the transmission ratios for reducing fuel consumption or improving the dynamic
performances.
17
The main steps for a powertrain simulation under the Advisor (ADvance VehIcle SimulatOR) software
are the following:
Step 1 – Defining the vehicle;
Step 2 – Defining the case study, initial conditions, and running the simulation;
Step 3 – Visualization of the results.
At first, a conventional vehicle was simulated, for a comparison reference. According to the steps
mentioned above, the first step of the simulation is defining the vehicle. Figure 6 shows the configuration
of the vehicle. Table 3 describes the characteristics of the chosen classical vehicle for testing.
Table 3
Characteristics of the tested classical vehicle
Pn
nn
MM
nM
mt
Rated power of the
thermal engine, PI
Rated speed
Maximum torque
Speed at maximum
torque
Estimated mass
30 kW
6000 rpm
58.5 Nm
3300 rpm
992 kg
Figure 6. The conventional vehicle
The definition of the vehicle includes the rated power, engine efficiency, engine map, and weight, along
with the running accessories, such as air conditioning, headlights, radio, heated seats, wipers, and other
custom loads, which may be easily defined. The reason for choosing a PI, positive ignition, engine are
the light weight, compact after treatment, silent running, and it matches to the vehicle used to record the
driving conditions [2]. The next step is choosing the driving regime, as shown in (Figure 7).
In order to test the vehicle for a longer period of time, the driving cycle may be composed out of several
predefined cycles from the internal database, or simply multiplied as required. In this case, a closed loop
may be repeated as many times as it would be necessary. The results of the conventional vehicle
(Figure 8) on the simulated track show the velocity of the vehicle, which is important to verify if the
vehicle could follow the driving cycle, the exhaust gas temperature, which is important for the efficiency
of the catalytic converter, emissions, and brake loss power.
Figure 7. The initial conditions and simulation running Figure 8. The results of the simulation of the conventional vehicle
18
The velocity of the tested vehicle is plotted in the first window and show that there is a small difference
between the achieved speed and the one imposed by the cycle.
The second plot shows the evolution of the exhaust gas temperature. It is very important for the
temperature of the gas exiting the catalytic converter to be high enough, at least 600 ºC, for a high
efficiency of conversion [3]. The graph shows that the necessary temperature of a good conversion is
barely obtained at half of the route, which may damage the converter, but certainly have a negative
impact on the environment.
The third graph shows the evolution of the formation of the emissions, consisting of unburned
hydrocarbons, CO, NOx, and PM. According to the graph, the emissions are reduced as the temperature
of the catalytic converter is increased. The NOx emissions are increasing as the acceleration of the
vehicle increases. The last plot shows the power lost during braking.
The model of the series hybrid vehicle (Figure 9) is defined similarly as the conventional one.
Table 4 describes the characteristics of the chosen hybrid.
Table 4
Characteristics of the proposed hybrid
Pn
PM
PMg
PMb
SO
C
mb
mt
Rated power of the
thermal engine, PI
Rated power of the
electrical machine
Power of the electrical
generator
Peak power of the
batteries
Initial state of charge of
the batteries
Estimated mass of the
batteries
Estimated mass
30 kW
60 kW
25 kW
25 kW
70 %
90 kg
1120 kg
Figure 9. The model of the series hybrid vehicle
Preliminary results have shown that since the short distance of the proposed track, the analysis of the
hybrid vehicle is not conclusive. The vehicle has reached its destination without turning on the
combustion engine. For this reason, the test cycle has been multiplied by five, as shown in (Figure 10).
In the first graph, the pattern with the driving cycle can be easily recognized, as it is repeated.
The second plot is showing the evolution of the state of charge of the battery over the driving cycle. The
battery is 70 % charged at the beginning of the ride and it depletes almost at the middle of the second
cycle. The hybrid vehicle was design to start charging the battery when they reach approximately 30%
charge.
The generator maintains the state of charge of the batteries within certain limits according to a complex
battery management, having the purpose to extend battery life [1].
The last plot gives information about the operation of the internal combustion engines, which turns on
eight times, in order to keep the battery above 40% charged.
Comparative testing (Figure 11) has shown that the hybrid vehicle reaches destination without the need
for prime mover, a good situation if one could recharge from the grid.
4.
CONCLUSION
According to the simulation of the chosen hybrid vehicle, it has been proven that a fuel converter with a
power of 30 kW is sufficient to maintain the batteries within a functional domain, during a relatively
common driving route, although the traction motors sums up a higher power.
The remaining problem is the maintaining of the catalytic converter at a high temperature, even
considering the stop-start strategy of the fuel converter.
19
Figure 10. The results of the simulation of the series Figure 11. The comparative results of the series hybrid
hybrid vehicle on five drive cycles
vehicle and conventional vehicle on five driving cycles
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
1. This paper is supported by the Sectoral Operational Programme Human Resources Development
(SOP HRD), financed from the European Social Fund and by the Romanian Government under the
project number POSDRU/159/1.5/S/134378.
2. We hereby acknowledge the structural founds project PRO-DD (POS-CCE, O.2.2.1., ID 123, SMIS
2637, ctr. No 11/2009) for providing the infrastructure used in this work.
REFERENCES
[1] R. Hodkinson, J. Fenton, Lightweight Electric/Hybrid Vehicle Design. Butterworth-Heinemann, pp.
15-64, ISBN 0 7506 5092 3, 2001.
[2] Websource: Energy density. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_density.
[3] L. Hill, Emissions Legislation Review, proceedings of the conference Personalities of the
Automotive Industry, unpublished, Brașov, 2013.
20
PRESENTATION OF A WHEEL LOADER WITH AN ELECTRIC DRIVEN PUMP AND WITH
ELECTRIC WHEEL DRIVES
Michael BUTSCH*, Uwe KOSIEDOWSKI, Peter KUCHAR, Manfred MACK, Dimitri ZIMANTOVSKI
Konstanz University of Applied Sciences, Brauneggerstraße 55, 78462 Konstanz, Germany
(Received 2 July 2014; Revised 15 September 2014; Accepted 1 October 2014)
Abstract: A new electric drive-train using the example of a small wheel loader will be presented and shows how
the diesel engine and the hydraulic wheel drives can be replaced by electric driven wheel drives. Target is the
reduction of emissions. Selective measures in order to reduce the noise of the hydraulic pump are necessary. As
well the axles with regard to the installation of the electric wheel drives and an electromechanical steering were
redesigned. The lithium ion battery is used as a counter weight in the wheel loader.
Tests could be performed with a prototype. In comparison to the series wheel loader an essential noise reduction
and a similar performance could be achieved.
Keywords: wheel loader, electric drive, low emission, NVH, electromechanical steering
1. INTRODUCTION
Legal regulations with regard to emissions have become very tough for commercial vehicles. A new
electric drivetrain using the example of a small wheel loader will be presented and shows how the diesel
engine and the hydraulic wheel drives can be replaced by electric wheel drives. The newly developed
synchronous electric motors combined with 2-stage planetary gears are battery-supplied. The lithium ion
battery is used as a counter weight in the wheel loader. A prototype was built up with the help of a
producer of commercial vehicles. The advantages of the electric drive are better acceleration, reduced
cycle times and zero emission. Zero emission is necessary when working inside. As well the noiseless
drive is an important advantage in housing zones. Because of the missing noise of the diesel engine the
noise of the pump could be heard in an inconvenient manner. Systematic investigation made it possible
to find means in order to reduce noise emissions to an agreeable level. Hydraulic drives only need small
installation space while electric drives are larger. This made a new design of the axle necessary. The
new design with optimizations of the structure and as well of the bearing positioning now even allows
higher wheel loads in comparison to the series vehicle. An electromechanical steering system which has
high efficiency will be used instead of the hydraulic system. The drive motors support the steering. For
the closed loop control rotary encoders which are directly mounted at the steering axle are essential.
2. SYSTEM
The diesel engine, the tank for the diesel fuel and the hydro motors are replaced by electric motors and a
lithium ion battery. The wheel drive at all four wheels are made of brushless synchronous disc motors in
combination with 2-stage planetary gear sets. The oil pump which provides the hydraulic pressure for
lifting the bucket and bucking off as well is driven by an electric motor of the same type. The hydraulic
steering is going to be replaced by an electromechanical steering. Figure 1 [1] shows the electric and
electronic structure of the electric wheel loader. The main microcomputer controls the AC controllers of
the wheel drives. If it is necessary the cooling of the controllers and wheel drives is activated. The driver
operates the bucket with a control stick. There are two pedals – one for accelerating and one for braking.
Acceleration and braking are operated “by wire”. Braking is realized by the electric motors and in addition
*
21
with a disc brake at two of the wheel drives. The lithium-ion battery (LiFeYPO4) has a capacity of 21.4
kWh, a voltage of 70.4 V and a mass of 211.4 kg. In the trunk of the wheel loader the diesel engine and
one pump are replaced by the battery. The battery has also the function of the counter weight.
A controlled charging of the battery is besides an adequate cooling very important. Each cell has to be
monitored with regard to voltage and temperature while being charged.
Figure 1. Electric and electronic structure [1]
3. HYDRO PUMP AND NOISE REDUCTION
Disc motor and hydro pump are placed under the seat of the driver. In a wheel loader which is driven by
a diesel engine the noise emissions of the pump are considerably less than those of the engine.
Having electric motors the noise emissions of the motors are very low and the series pump (Sauer
Danfoss SNP2) is too noisy. The calm running pump of Rexroth Company (series S) offers a sufficient
reduction of the noise level. The results of the noise measurements are shown in Figure 2.
noise level dB(A)
70
65
60
speed [min-1]
Figure 2. Noise emissions of different types of pumps [2]
22
4. REDESIGN OF THE AXLES
The complete wheel drive is mounted in the steering knuckle.
The wheel drive consists of a disc brake, a resolver, an electric motor and a planetary gear.
This device is larger than a hydro motor which results in a redesign of the axles (Figure 3 [3]).
The axles are optimized with regard to strength by using the method of finite elements (Figure 3, b [4]).
1
2
a
b
3
4
Legend
1 – axle with two
crossbeams
2 – stearing links
3 – wheel drive
4 – encoder
5 – knuckle
6 – bearing
v
5
6
d
c
Figure 3. Redesign of the axle [3][4]
A special assembly of the slide bearings with a locating bearing at the bottom and a combination of a
radial and an axial bearing at the top make sure that both crossbeams of the axles are strained by the
weight of the wheel loader (Figure 3, d).
In the upper knuckle pin a rotary encoder in integrated. The steer angle of each wheel can be measured.
5. ELECTROMECHANICAL STEERING
So far the wheel loader has a hydraulic steering. Target is the development of an efficient
electromechanical power steering for wheel loaders. Electromechanical steering is often used in
passenger cars in terms of efficiency.
Figure 4 shows the design for the wheel loader with an electric motor, a belt drive and a screw drive [3].
Torque vectoring can be realized because of the wheel drives. The traction forces of the electric motors
can be used for the support of the mechanic steering.
6. RESEARCH RESULTS
A significant reduction of noise emissions can be realized by the replacement of the Diesel engine and
by using a quiet pump. Very important in respect to the practical use of an electric wheel loader are the
capacity of the battery and the acceleration of the wheel loader. Comparative investigations of the series
wheel loader and the new electric wheel loader are performed. The so called “Y-cycle” is used for the
test drives [5]. The cycle is shown in Figure 5 at the top on the right.
23
Figure 4. Electromechanical Steering [3]
Figure 5. Electromechanical Steering [5]
The wheel loader forwards empty, takes the load (480 kg), drives backwards with lifted bucket and then
goes forwards again in order to buck off the load.
An average of 25 tests performing the Y-cycle and additional endurance tests show the following results:
- the capacity of the battery is sufficient for an eight hours workday.
- despite of the control of the prototype, which couldn´t be optimized so far, the duration of the
cycles performed with the electric wheel loader are similar to those of the series wheel loader.
Figure 5 shows details of the tests. The electric wheel loader is faster than the series wheel loader when
driving with load backwards but because of traction problems slower when driving forwards.
An improvement of the control is necessary.
7. CONCLUSION
The concept of a totally electrified wheel loader could be realized with a prototype.
The targets with regard to the reduction of the noise emissions, the capacity of the battery and the
dynamic of the wheel loader could be achieved.
REFERENCES
[1] Butsch, M.; Kosiedowski, U.; Mack, Manfred; Zimantovski, D., Developing an Electric Powertrain for
4WD Commercial Vehicles. Electric & hybrid vehicle technology conference, Novi, Michigan, 2013.
[2] Kosiedowski, U.; Butsch, M.; Kuchar, P.; Zimantovski, D.; Hydrauliksystem eines Elektroradladers.
Forum – Das Forschungsmagazin der Hochschule Konstanz. ISSN 1619-9812, Konstanz, Ausgabe
2012/ 2013.
[3] Koch, M.; Butsch, M., Unpublished project work. Konstanz, 2013.
[4] Belhadj, M; Butsch, M., Unpublished project work. Konstanz, 2013.
[5] Beck, Hermann: Emissionsreduzierung durch Antriebsstrangoptimierung. Dresden. Fachtagung
Baumaschinentechnik, p. 145, 2009.
24
GLOBALIZATION OF THE AUTOMOTIVE INDUSTRY – FOCUS ON GERMAN
AUTOMOTIVE MANUFACTURER'S
Vijay NARAYANAN1)*, Axel MAURER2, Lucian RAD3
1)
Hella India Lighting Ltd. 6th Floor, Platinum Tower, 184 Udyog Vihar Phase-1Gurgaon 122016 (Haryana) India
2)
Webasto Roof & Components SE, Kraillinger Straße 5 82131 Stockdorf Germany
3)
Transilvania University Brasov, Str. Politehnicii nr. 1 500024 Brasov Romania
(Received 9 January 2015; Revised 2 February 2015; Accepted 28 February 2015)
Abstract: The reduction in international barriers is accelerating the rate of Globalization in the automotive industry.
Internationalization in the form having production facilities on a global foot print is on an increasing trend, especially
among the German automotive manufacturers. This development is important to understand at the international
stage as along with the OEMs, their suppliers (primarily German Tier 1) are also increasing their global presence.
This implies that the production standards, requirements and specifications have to be standardized worldwide not
only for OEMs but also system and sub-system manufacturers. Parts also have to meet legal requirements of
individual production locations thus creating a fascinating spread of knowledge and technological advancements
worldwide.
Key-Words: Globalization, German Automotive, Passenger Car.
1. WHAT IS GLOBALIZATION?
The term Globalization represents expansion into the world markets with economic dependence,
becoming more of international phenomena than restricted to a particular country or region. Globalization
can be attributed to developing countries, still being underdeveloped, provides a cost benefit to the
manufacturing firms and a systematic breakdown of the labor unions.
Globalization comes with its advantages and threats for both the industry and the developing countries in
the world. Technological advancements have increased; have broken barriers and increased fast modes
of communications across the world. The internet, email, telephone and fax allow faster mode of
communication channels that provide instant communication.
Through logistical advancements, exchange of goods and services are possible between most countries
in the world. This advancement is not only limited to the manufacturing segment. With tourism becoming
global phenomena, interactions between the different cultures are happening at a faster rate. The
cultural barriers are broken and increases intercultural competence.
The globalization in its current form can be best summarized in this from as depicted in figure 2 [1].
In the automotive industry, globalization is relevant for almost a century with examples like the
manufacturing of Chevrolet passenger cars in India in the early part of the nineteenth century. Mass
production as a volume game and manufacturing through suppliers are more of recent developments in
the global automotive manufacturing. Until the 1970s, the focus of automotive manufacturing was
centered on the Triad regions namely North America, Europe and Japan. The beginning of the 1980s
saw a shift in this trend with manufacturing moving towards emerging markets in Asia. The decade
starting from 1981 saw automotive manufacturing emerge in Thailand, Malaysia, Philippines and South
Korea. This period was considered the first wave of automotive globalization.
This period saw more manufacturing investment in Asia rather than China, South America and Eastern
Europe. The second wave of automotive globalization was the period from 1990 to 2000.
During the second wave much larger investments were made in China, South America and Europe. The
third wave beginning from 2000 saw much more investments made in China and Eastern Europe with
drop in investments in Asia, South America and Western Europe [2].
*
25
A recent trend seen as an effect of globalization is the formation of strategic alliance formation among
auto majors such that they could harness each other’s synergies. One such example is the alliance
between Nissan and Renault. The alliance is moving towards a Common Module Family (CMF) which
apart of other benefits will provide a common pool of parts for small vehicles and a common platform for
a range of product portfolio [5]. The globalization phenomena are equally important for the automotive
supplier pool. A recent study by Oliver Wyman showed that globalization is the fourth important criteria
for success behind customer orientation, entrepreneurial action and cost position [6].
„Globalization does not begin with the export
numbers, it begins in the minds of managers“
Roland Berger,
German Industry Consultant
Figure 1. German Automotive Manufacturers
Worldwide
interchange of
goods, services
and capital
Worldwide
environmental
pollution
Worldwide
intercultural
exchange
Worldwide
communication
Worldwide
tourism
Figure 2. Links between the factors of globalisation [4]
The globalization of the automotive industry is predominantly driven be technological advancements.
This has led to formation of commercial blocks that changing the formation of global markets. These
commercial blocks also have a political relevance. For example, the case of the European Union shows
such formations by reduction of internal commercial restrictions, protects its internal market, dictates new
market rules and controls the global economic power.
The other players in the market follow the same concepts and build power blocks of their own like the
NAFTA (formed by the United States of America, Canada and Mexico), MERCOSUR (formed by the
South American countries), ASIAN (formed by Asian countries including Japan). These power blocks of
economic and commercial importance can be represented as follows [3].
2. WORLD WIDE PASSENGER CAR PRODUCTION 2012-2013
Figure 3 best describes the bifercation of the passenger car production world wide. Asia dominates the
world market with close to half of the produced numbers wih Europe, NAFTA and MERCOSUR being
distant followers. The rest of the world contributes a meger 3% to the production volumes. It is evident
from the data that production volumes grew marginally in Europe by 0.2% compared to NAFTA,
MERCOSUR and Asia which grew by 4.5%, 7.5% and 9.3%. The growth in production volumes in lesser
developed economics indicates the effect of Global players penetrating local markets.
26
Asia and MERCOSUR together contribute 52% of the global production volumes indicating a strong
growth in the developing economies of Brazil, India and China where global OEMs benefit from highly
skilled but low cost work force.
Table 1
Production Locations of OEMs based on Maurer [3]
EU
EASTERN
EU – 15
MERCOSUR
NAFTA
ASIA
New Members
EUROPE
China
Austria
Czech
Belarus
Argentina
Canada
Brasil
Mexiko
India
Belgium
Republic
Rusia
Hungary
Serbia &
USA
Indonesia
Finland
Poland
Montenegro
Japan
France
Malaysia
Germany
Romania
Turkey
South Korea
Great Britain
Slovenia
Ukraine
Taiwan
Italy
Slowakia
Netherlands
Thailand
Portugal
Spain
Sweden
Table 2
World passenger car production2012-2013 [7]
Region
%
Change
2012
2013
Europe
17,246,660
17,289,262
0.2
NAFTA
15,380,715
16,074,821
4.5
3,976,388
4,274,164
7.5
31,658,791
34,612,331
9.3
2,250,000
2,250,000
0.0
70,512,554
74,500,578
5.7
MERCOSUR
Asia
Rest of the
World
Total
Figure 3. World Wide Car Production
3. PRODUCTION VOLUMES OF GERMAN PASSENGER CAR MANUFACTURERS
It is evident from the production volumes of 2012 and 2013 that the German branded car volumes are on
an increasing trend. German passenger car worldwide production volume dominates the domestic
market production as explained by table 3.
The overall growth is about 3% with overseas production showing signs of strong growth. It is interesting
to note that the car production in the domestic market grew by 1% compared to the increase in
production volumes abroad by 5%. The penetration of the German carmakers in the global market
confirms the effect of Globalization benefits derived from production locations in developing economies.
A study by KPMG in 2008-2009 classified countries based on automotive suppliers globalization which
put both German and American automotive suppliers with the same globalization index based on
location at about 78.5% each. Western Europe excluding Germany was at 90.2% and Asia with 76.1%
was less represented in the global footprint among automotive suppliers [10].
27
Table 3
Production volumes of German passenger
car manufacturers [7 adapted]
German Car
Manufacturers
Domestic
Passenger Car
Production
Abroad
Passenger Car
Production
Total
2013
%
Change
5,388,459
5,439,904
1%
8,235,816
8,641,880
5%
13,624,275
14,081,784
3%
2012
Figure 4. VW Group Sales volume 2012-2013 [9]
4. CONCLUSIONS
The production volumes worldwide show that developing economies are taking the lead in passenger car
production. The increase in German brand production outside Germany also indicates that German Car
OEMS are maximizing the effect of globalization. This trend will have some interesting side effects. The
quality requirements in the emerging markets would increase by leaps and bounds and would benefit
local Tier 2 and Tier 3 who normally would not have access to such high end product and process
knowledge. Also the availability of highly skilled low cost labour will help in reducing the overall process
cost of the product.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was partially supported by the strategic grant POSDRU/159/1.5/S/137070 (2014) of the
Ministry of National Education, Romania, co-financed by the European Social Fund – Investing in
People, within the Sectorial Operational Programme Human Resources Development 2007-2013.
REFERENCES
[1] Hund, J., „Globalisierung“, IWB Radolfzell e.V.
[2] Maurer, A., „The new focus of globalisation in the Automotive Industry“, Scientific Bulletin Automotive
Series, year XIII, No. 1.
[3] Maurer, A., “Effects of the financial crisis on the global automotive industry”, Ingineria Automobilului,
Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania (SIAR) 4/2009.
[4] Maurer, A., “Forschungen zur Optimierung der Produktion von Komponenten für die
Automobilindustrie unter den Voraussetzungen der Globalisierung”, Dissertation, Universitatea
Transilvania Brasov, 2015.
[5] Oagana, A., „Renault-Nissan Alliance to Switch to Just Three Modular Platforms”,
http://www.carscoops.com/2014/07/renault-nissan-alliance-to-switch-to.html.
[6] Wymann, O., „Herausforderung Globalisierung“, Oliver Wymann GmbH, München 2015.
[7] Verband der Deutschen Automobilindustrie (VDA).
[8] Volkswagen AG, http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/info_center/en/publications/2014/03
/navigator_2014.bin.html/binarystorageitem/file/NAVIGATOR_ENGL_WEB_01_08_14.pdf.
[9]
Volkswagen
AG,
http://www.volkswagenag.com/content/vwcorp/content/en/the_group/
key_figures.html#field1=maincategory_0,field2=subcategory_1.
28
RESEARCH REGARDING THE INFLUENCE OF BIOFUELS ON THE LAW OF HEAT
RELEASE FROM A DIESEL ENGINE
Bogdan BENEA *, Anghel CHIRU, Gabriel MITROI
Transilvania University Brasov, Str. Politehnicii nr. 1 500024 Brasov Romania
(Received 17 December 2014; Revised 12 February 2015; Accepted 27 February 2015)
Abstract: This paper aims to research the influence of physic-chemical properties of biofuels on the law of heat
release on Diesel engine. The research has been conducted on a Renault K9K-P732 series engine fueled with
biodiesel from sunflower, peanut, grape seed, palm, corn, olive oil and waste oil, in concentrations of 6% and 10%.
Key-Words: bio-fuels, renewable energy, Diesel engine.
1. INTRODUCTION
Internal combustion engines will continue to dominate transport technology using liquid fuels produced
from fossil and renewable sources. Biofuels are the best option for replacing the fossil fuels [5]. Directive
2009/28 / EC require the use of 10% biofuels in fossil fuels for transport by 2020. Is expected to use
about 18% of European agricultural land to produce biofuel crops needed to replace fossil fuels in
accordance with Directive 2009/28 / EC [5].
The provisions of Directive impose requirements in terms of quality and chemical composition of these.
High oil price make biofuels and synthetic fuels an economically viable alternative. Alternative energy
sources must be found to cope with increased demand for energy in all areas.
In this context, the additions of fuels with biofuels or second generation synthetic fuels constitute a
course of action for the future. Another way may be to develop new sources of energy, clean.
2. TESTS AND RESULTS
The tests were made on an engine K9K Renault P 732 series having the characteristics presented in
Table 1.
Table 1
Characteristics engine Renault K9KP732
Engine displacement
1451 cm3
Bore x stroke
76 x 80,5 mm
No. of cylinders
4/line/supercharged
Order of injection
1-3-4-2
Injection type
Direct injection, common-rail
Compression ratio
15,3:1
Number of valves/cylinder
2
Maximum power
78 kW/4000 rot/min
Maximum torque
240 Nm/2000 rot/min
Emission class
Euro4
Tests were conducted on engine test bench Horiba Titan 250, which is fitted as Transilvania University of
Brasov, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Vehicles and Transport Department, presented in Figure 1.
The stand is equipped with an electric brake that is designed to oppose of the crankshaft rotation.
During operation appears an electromagnetic field that links the stator and rotor brake.
*
29
Figure 1. Horiba engine test bench Titan 250
The advantage of electric brake is the possibility of instantaneous changing of the electromagnetic
coupling. For measuring the cylinder pressure was used a Kistler 6005 piezoelectric sensor (figure 2);
the sensor characteristics is presented in table 2
Table 2
Characteristics of Kistler sensor [1]
Range
Sensitivity
Linearity
Natural frequency
Operating temperature
0 – 1000 bar
-10 pC
≤ ±0,8 FSO
140 kHz
-196 – 200oC
Figure 2 Pressure sensor
The operating principle of this sensor is based on the fact that by the compression of the quartz crystal it
is charged with electrical load. Electrical load, measured in pC, is directly proportional with the pressure
applied. By assessment of the electrical load can determine the value of pressure (instantly).
The tests have been made for 15 fuels (biodiesel with diesel fuel, gas oil mixed with 6% and 10% methyl
ester of olive oil, grape seed oil, palm oil, peanut oil, corn oil, sunflower oil, cooking oil used).
Methyl esters were synthesized according to the conventional equation for the transesterification of
vegetable oils in the presence of methanol using KOH as a catalyst. The transesterification took place in
the following standard conditions: reaction temperature 60 ° C, pressure 1 bar, the ratio methanol /
vegetable oil 6: 1, 1% of potassium hydroxide, mixing speed 550 rev / min, 120 min of reaction time. In
table 3 are presented the characteristics of fuels used in the tests. Tests were performed at maximum
engine power speed (3700 r / min) and a load of 100%. The modern fuel injection injected volumetric the
fuel into the cylinder. Because the density of biodiesel blends is higher than the density of diesel fuel, the
mass of fuel injected into the cylinder is higher, which offset the lower calorific value of biodiesel blend.
30
All biodiesel blends have higher cetane number than diesel, which leads to lower delays of self-ignition
and smaller opportunities to form areas with rich mixture.
Table 3.
Physico-chemicals properties of fuels
Properties
Diesel fuel
Sunflower
oil
Olive
oil
Corn
oil
Peanut oil
Palm
oil
Grape
seed oil
Used
oil
Density Viscozity
Cetanice
(20oC)
(20oC)
number
[kg/m3] [mm2/s]
Flash
point
[oC]
PolyHeating
Aromatics
aromatics
value
[% vol]
[% vol]
[MJ/kg]
Pour
point
[oC]
840,2
5,34
51,1
67
17,6
1,5
43,16
-17
B6
841,9
5,27
54,5
67,2
11,9
1,2
42,58
-14
B10
843,1
5,10
57,6
67,8
5
0
42,19
-13
B6
841,3
5,12
59,2
69,5
12,3
0,1
42,60
-14
B10
842
5,21
63,8
71,8
11,3
0
42,22
-13
B6
841,7
5,04
57,6
71,4
11,2
0
42,63
-16
B10
842,7
4,99
62,1
67,3
7,9
0
42,27
-15
B6
842,1
5,12
57,8
70,6
13,2
0,3
42,59
-11
B10
843,4
5,94
60,9
70,2
9
0
42,20
-8
B6
842,1
5,25
58,3
76,6
12,9
0
42,58
-10
B10
843,4
5,32
62,7
73,4
9,2
0
42,19
-8
B6
841,6
4,93
57,7
71,2
14,8
0,2
42,51
-14
B10
843,4
5,10
62,5
73,4
8,1
0
42,07
-13
B6
842,7
5,27
54,2
70,8
9,1
0,8
42,56
-14
B10
844,4
6,15
58,9
71,2
10,5
0,9
42,19
-13
Figure 3, a. Heat release variation (6%)
31
Figure 3, b. Heat release variation (10%)
Looking at Figure 3 it appears that B6 olive and B10 corn mixture have a high heat release in the first
phase of combustion, and in the second phase the amount of heat released is lower, helping to reduce
NOx emissions
3. CONCLUSIONS
Since fuel reserves are limited, fuel price is high, the environment must be protected from emissions of
internal combustion engines, they did research to find alternative resources. Biodiesel may be mixed
with the diesel fuel in a proportion of up to 20% without any change of the supply system of the engine.
Calorific value of biodiesel is lower than of diesel fuel, but has better qualities of auto-ignition (higher
cetane number). By increasing the cetane number is reduced the auto-ignition delay and obtain a lower
growth rate of pressure, which leads to higher cooling time of combustion. Due to lack of polyaromatic
and aromatic hydrocarbons in biodiesel the flame temperature is lower. Biodiesel with high saturation
level and higher cetane number have lower NOx emissions.
REFERENCES
[1] AVL – Engine instrumentation, Cooling system ZP91: Austria, September, 2002
[2] AVL – ICE Physics & Chemistry Manual, 2010
[3] AVL – Microifem Multipurpose module 4FM2: Austria, January 2006
[4] Benea, B.C, Researches on the usage of biofuels for car engines – PhD Thesis
[5] BIOFRAC, B.R.A. Council, „Biofuels in the European Union: A Vision for 2030 and Beyond”,
European Communities, Report 13, 2006
[6] EEA, Air quality în Europe – 2012 report, European Environment Agency, 2012
[7] Ekrem, B., Effects of biodiesel on a DI diesel engine performance, emission and combustion
characteristics, Fuel, vol. 89(10), pag. 3099-3105, 2010
32
RoJAE
Romanian
AIMS AND SCOPE
The Romanian Journal of Automotive Engineering has as its main objective the publication and dissemination of original
research in all fields of „Automotive Technology, Science and Engineering”. It fosters thus the exchange of ideas among
researchers in different parts of the world and also among researchers who emphasize different aspects regarding the basis and
applications of the field.
Standing as it does at the cross-roads of Physics, Chemistry, Mechanics, Engineering Design and Materials Sciences,
automotive engineering is experiencing considerable growth as a result of recent technological advances. The Romanian
Journal of Automotive Engineering, by providing an international medium of communication, is encouraging this growth and is
encompassing all aspects of the field from thermal engineering, flow analysis, structural analysis, modal analysis, control,
vehicular electronics, mechatronics, electro-mechanical engineering, optimum design methods, ITS, and recycling. Interest
extends from the basic science to technology applications with analytical, experimental and numerical studies.
The emphasis is placed on contribution that appears to be of permanent interest to research workers and engineers in the field.
If furthering knowledge in the area of principal concern of the Journal, papers of primary interest to the innovative disciplines of
„Automotive Technology, Science and Engineering” may be published.
No length limitations for contributions are set, but only concisely written papers are published. Brief articles are considered on
the basis of technical merit. Discussions of previously published papers are welcome.
Notes for contributors
Authors should submit an electronic file of their contribution to the Production office: www. siar.ro. All the papers will be
reviewed and assessed by a series of independent referees.
Copyright
A copyright transfer form will be send to the author. All authors must sign the ”Transfer of Copyright” agreement before the
article can be published.
Upon acceptance of an article by the journal, the author(s) will be asked to transfer copyright of the article to the publisher. The transfer will ensure
the widest possible dissemination of information. This Journal and the individual contributions contained in it are protected by the copyright of the
SIAR, and the following terms and conditions apply to their use:
Photocopying
Single Photocopies of single articles may be made for personal use as allowed by international copyright laws. Permission of the publisher and
payment of a fee is required for all other photocopying including multiple or systematic copying, copying for institutions that wish to make
photocopies for non-profit educational classroom use.
Derivative Works
Subscribers may reproduce table of contents or prepare lists of article including abstracts for internal circulation within their institutions. Permission
of the publisher is required for resale or distribution outside the institution.
Permission of publisher is required for all other derivative works, including compilations and translations.
Electronic Storage
Permission of the publisher is required to store electronically and material contained in this journal, including any article or part of article. Contact
the publisher at the address indicated.
Except as outlined above, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without prior written permission of the publisher.
Notice
No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability; negligence or
otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein. Although all advertising
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www.ro-jae.ro
www.siar.ro
RoJAE
Romanian
The Scientific Journal of SIAR
A Short History
The engineering of vehicles represents the engine of the global development of the economy.
SIAR tracks the progress of the automotive engineering in Romania by: the development of automotive
engineering, the development of technologies, and road transport services; supporting the work of the haulers,
supporting the technical inspection and of the garage; encouraging young people to have a career in the
automotive engineering and road haulage; stimulation and coordination of activities that promote an environment
that is suitable for continuous education and improving of knowledge of the engineers; active exchange of ideas
and experience, in particular for students, master students, PhD students, and young engineers, and dissemination
of knowledge in the field of automotive engineering; cooperation with other technical and scientific organizations,
employers’ and socio-professional associations through organization of joint actions, of mutual interest.
By the accession to FISITA (International Federation of Automotive Engineering Societies) since its
establishment, SIAR has been involved in achieving an overall professional community that is homogeneous in
competence and performance, interactive, dynamic, and competitive at the same time, oriented towards a
balanced and friendly relationship between people and the environment; this action will be constituted as a
challenge worthy of effort and recognition.
The insurance of a favorable framework for the initiation and the development of cooperation of the specialists in
this field of activity allows for an efficient and easy exchange of information, specific knowledge and experience;
it supports the cooperation between universities and between research centers and industry; it speeds up the
process of implementing the new technologies, it simplifies the identification of training and specialization needs
of the personnel involved in the engineering of motor vehicles, transport, and road safety.
In order to succeed, ever since its founding, SIAR has considered that the stress should be put on the
production and distribution, at national and international level, of a publication of scientific quality.
Under these circumstances, the development of the scientific magazine of SIAR had the following evolution:
1. RIA – Revista inginerilor de automobile (in English: Journal of Automotive Engineers)
ISSN 1222 – 5142
Period of publication: 1990 – 2000
Format: print, Romanian
Frequency: Quarterly
Electronic publication on: www.ro-jae.ro
Total number of issues: 30
Type: Open Access
The above constitutes series nr. 1 of SIAR scientific magazine.
2. Ingineria automobilului (in English: Automotive Engineering)
ISSN 1842 – 4074
Period of publication: as of 2006
Format: print and online, Romanian
Electronic publication on: www.ingineria-automobilului.ro
Type: Open Access
(including the December 2014 issue)
The above constitutes series nr. 2 of SIAR (Romanian version).
3. Ingineria automobilului (in English: Automotive Engineering)
ISSN 2284 – 5690
Period of publication: 2011 – 2014
Format: online, English
Electronic publication on: www.ingineria-automobilului.ro
Type: Open Access
(including the December 2014 issue)
The above constitutes series nr. 3 of SIAR (English version).
4. Romanian Journal of Automotive Engineering
ISSN 2284 – 5690
Period of publication: from 2015
Format: online, English
Electronic publication on: www.ro-jae.ro
Total number of issues: 1 (March 2015)
Type: Open Access
The above constitutes series nr. 4 of SIAR (English version).
Summary – on March 31st. 2015
Total of series:
4
Total years of publication:
21 (11=1990 – 2000; 10=2006-2015)
Publication frequency:
Quarterly
Total issues published:
64 (Romanian), out of which, the last 17 were also published in English
Societatea Inginerilor de Automobile din România
Society of Automotive Engineers of Romania
www.siar.ro
www.ro-jae.ro

Romanian Journal of Automotive Engineering

Transcription

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