ACTING STYLES OF KATHAKALI AND KABUKI

ACTING STYLES OF KATHAKALI AND KABUKI
- A COMPARATIVE STUDY.
Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the award of the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN
PERFORMING ARTS
BY
THULASEEDHARA KURUP
SCHOOL OF PERFORMING ARTS
DEPARTMENT OF DRAMA & THEATRE
PONDICHERRY UNIVERSITY
PONDICHERRY- 605014.
NOVEMBER- 2011
Prof (Dr.) K.A.Gunasekaran
Dean
School of Performing Arts
Department of Drama & Theatre
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry -605014
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the thesis entitled “Acting Styles of Kathakali and
Kabuki- a Comparative Study” submitted to Pondicherry University in
partial fulfillment of the requirements of the award of the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy is a record of the original work done by Mr. Thulaseedhara
Kurup during the period of his study 2007-20011 in the School of
Performing Arts, Department of Drama & Theatre, Pondicherry University,
under my supervision and guidance and that the thesis has not formed before
the basis of the award of any Degree, Diploma, Associate ship, Fellowship
or any other similar titles.
Signature
Signature
Head of the Department
Prof(Dr.).K.A.Gunasekaran
Pondicherry
Date: 1st November 2011
i
Thulaseedhara Kurup
Research Scholar
School of Performing Arts
Department of Drama & Theatre
Pondicherry University
Pondicherry-605014
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the thesis entitled “ Acting Styles of Kathakali and
Kabuki- a Comparative Study” submitted to Pondicherry University in
partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of the degree of Doctor
of Philosophy is a record of the original work done by me under the
supervision and guidance of Prof(Dr.) K.A.Gunasekaran, Dean, School of
Performing Arts, Department of Drama & Theatre, Pondicherry University
and that it has not formed before the basis for the award of any Degree,
Diploma,Associateship, Fellowship or any other similar titles.
Counter signed
Signature
Prof(Dr). K.A.Gunasekaran
Thulaseedhara Kurup
Pondicherry:
Date: 1st November 2011
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
There have been many individuals who lent their support and cooperation in
different way to me to reach this stage in life. From the bottom of my heart, I
express my profound thanks to my supervisor Prof (Dr). K.A.Gunasekaran, Dean,
School of Performing Arts for his generous help in providing, well experienced,
rich in academic guidance in this task of my thesis with a long experience of
teaching and research, his help with academic excellence, in all the stages of
designing the thesis are highly valuable. My gratitude to his kindness knows no
bounds.
I am also thankful to all those in the School of Performing Arts, Pondicherry
University who helped in my research work.
I am also very grateful to my wife, Bindu, for her support and help for this
research.
I am gratified to Japan foundation, New Delhi for their co operation and support
for providing research materials.
I am thankful to Central Sangeet Natak Academy, New Delhi for their support and
providing books and other research materials from the library.
My sincere thanks to the people who helped me in my research like leading
scholars in Indian classical dance and theatre Sri.G.Venu, Smt. Kapila Vatsyayan,
Sri V. Ramamurthy and others.
I am very thankful to all the students and teachers and non teaching staff of the
School of performing arts for their kind support and help.
Several others who have encouraged or supported me in one way or another, I am
extremely thankful.
iii
CONTENTS
Certificate
Declaration
Acknowledgement
List of Illustrations and Photographs
List of Annexure
I
II
III
V
VII
CHAPTERS
Chapter 1: Introduction
1- 13
Chapter 2: South Indian Drama Traditions with
14-49
Special Reference to Kerala’s Kathakali and its Acting Styles.
Chapter 3: Japanese Drama Traditions with
50-78
Special Reference to Kabuki and its Acting Styles
Chapter 4: The Aesthetic Aspects and Character Structure
79-123
In Kathakali and Kabuki Acting Styles
Chapter 5: Conclusion
124-136
Bibliography
137-145
Annexure
147-206
iv
List of Illustrations and Photographs
Figure 1 : 24 Basic Mudras………………………………………...…………...155
Figure 2: Navarasam by Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair……..…………………164
Figure 3: Pataka....................................................................................................166
Figure 4: Mudrakhya ……………….…………………………………………..167
Figure 5: Kataka ………………………………………………………………...169
Figure 6: Mushti ………………………………………………………….….….170
Figure 7: Kartarimukha. ……….………………………………………………..171
Figure 8: Sukatunda …………………………………………………………….171
Figure 9: Kapittha……………………...………………………………………..172
Figure 10: Hamshapaksha……….………………………………………………173
Figure 11: Sikhara……………….………………………………………………174
Figure 12: Hamsasya……………………………………………………………175
Figure 13: Anjali ………………………………………………………………..176
Figure 14: Ardhachandra ……………………………………………………….177
Figure 15 : Mukura ………………………………………………………..……178
Figure 16: Bhramara ……………………………………………………………178
Figure 17: Suchimukha………………………………………………………….179
Figure 18 : Pallava ………………………………………………………..…….180
Figure 19: Tripataka …………………………………………………………….181
Figure 20: Mrigasirsha ………………………………………………………….181
Figure 21: Sarpasiras …………………………………………………………..182
Figure 22: Vardhamanaka……………………………………………………….183
Figure 23 : Arala ………………………………………………………………..184
Figure 24: Urnanabha …………………………………………………………..185
Figure 25: Mukula ……………………………………………………………...186
Figure 26 : Katakamukhha ………………………………………………….…..186
Figure 27 : A Kathakali Performance ……………………………………..........187
Figure 28: PACHA (GREEN) Make-up ………………………………………..188
Figure 29:Kathakali Chutti (Make-Up)……………………………………....... 189
Figure 30: ICHIMARU Manjirô II transforming into a Woman ………….........190
Figure 31: ICHIMARU Manjirô II ………………………………………….….191
Figure 32: A mie in Just a moment……………………………………………...192
Figure 33: Wicked Magician in The Famous Tree at sendai ………………..…192
Figure 34: Edo Theatre ………………………………………………………....193
v
Figure 35: The Saga Confrontation ………………………………………….…194
Figure 36: Kabuki Character Make-up …………………………………………195
Figure 37: Kabuki Performance Photos …………………………………......….196
Figure 38: ARAGOTO make-up ……………………………………………….197
Figure 39: The Onnagata role …………………..………………………………198
Figure 40: Bandô Hikosaburô V (left) and Arashi Kichisaburô IV (right) …….199
Figure 41: Actor Bandô Hikosaburô II ……………………………..…………..199
Figure 42: Bandô Hikosaburô III ……………………………………….………200
Figure 43: Bandô Hikosaburô IV ………………………………………...……..200
Figure 44: Bandon Hikosaburô V …………………………………..…………..201
Figure 45: Bandô Hikosaburô VII ……………………………………..……….201
Figure 46:Actor Ichimura Uzaemon XVII …………………….……………….202
Figure 47: Ichikawa Ebizô V ……………………………………………….......203
Figure 48:Nakamura Shikan II …………………………….………...…………203
Figure 49:Arashi Kichisaburô III …..……………………..…………………….204
Figure 50: Kawarazaki Gonjûrô I …………………………………………........204
Figure 51: Researcher‟s Participation in A Kabuki Workshop …………..……..206
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List of Annexure
Annexure 1: Glossary …………………………………………………………..148
Annexure 2: 24 Mudras in Kathakali ……………………………………..…….153
Annexure 3: Kathakali Characters ……………………………………………...156
Annexure 4 : Navarasam ………………………………………………..………163
Annexure 5 : Gestures in Kathakali ……………………………………….……165
Annexure 6 : Kathakali Performance …………………………………...………187
Annexure 7: Make Up …………………………………………….…………….188
Annexure 8 : Kabuki Make up for a Woman character …………………….…..190
Annexure 9: A Mie……………………………...……...……………………….192
Annexure 10 : Theatre Layout ……………………………………...…………..193
Annexure 11: The Saga Confrontation …………………………………………194
Annexure 12: Kabuki Character Make-up…………………….…………….….195
Annexure 13: Kabuki Performance Photos …………………………………….196
Annexure 14: Aragoto Make-up ……………………………………………….197
Annexure 15: Make up for Onnagata role…………………….……………… 198
Annexure 16 : Kabuki Actors …………………………………………………..199
Annexure 17 : A Kabuki Workshop …………...……………………………….205
vii
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
Kathakali and Kabuki – A Linear Perspective
viii
CHAPTER- 1
INTRODUCTION
Kathakali and Kabuki – A Linear Perspective
Introduction
This thesis aims at presenting the aesthetics approaches, the evolution and the
impact of the changing socio-political dynamics of the two great classical eastern
dance-drama forms - Indian Kathakali and Japanese Kabuki. This chapter looks at
the formative years of the dance-drama forms. One needs to understand the
historical context of both the dance-drama forms to understand the way in which
the performance has evolved over the years and the threat to such cultural forms in
the modern world. The researcher has taken this as a hypothesis and has explained
in this chapter. Besides this, the methodology adopted is also explained.
Overview
Versatile and sanctified from most are the two great Classical Eastern
forms of dance–drama which include Japanese Kabuki and Indian Kathakali. They
have their own multifaceted history, their own customary audience and their own
societal role; but certain fundamental aesthetic and religious factors make
comparisons between them of the utmost interest. Stylization is the key element in
both of these art forms, which in turn sets an ingenious gap between the audience
and performers so much so that the eastern traditions have had great impact on the
western theatre during the twentieth century.
1
In both the Western theatre and the Eastern, synchronized gesture is highly
essential and shares equal importance with texts although at times, texts can be
dispensed with completely while gestures cannot. The performers take on the roles
of both a singer and an actor and at other times a dancer while at times combining
all three to form complex yet, mind-blowing combinations.
It is combined with the appearance of feelings, attitudes and an idea which takes
us to the deepest and most significant aspects of mans nature. Simplicity, humor,
sardonic and a naturalistic side is maintained in each of these theatrical genres.
Several of India‟s fine arts like dance, music and architecture spread far and wide
into the East while she was at the pinnacle of artistic glory. Japan was one of the
Asian countries that was influenced by India‟s artistic glory and has been known
to have adapted and incorporated some of these influences.
The South of India is famous for its rich theatrical tradition that has crossed over
from many centuries. Ancient Sangam literature, especially works like
Silappathikaram1, guides us to the rich culture of the theatre in Southern regions of
India. It has been proven that Sanskrit theatre reached the shores of southern India
during the 8th century. This led to Kudiyattam, the local style of Sanskrit plays
being incorporated into the temple theatres of Kerala since the 10th century. The
plays of kalidasa, Bhasa and others have survived as Kutiyattam performances and
Natya Sastra‟s Bharata has remained alive. Bharata has been known to be attached
to sophisticated temples of south India and has been used in Devadasi dances.
It can be noticed that there are two vivid dramatic traditions in Southern India.
One being the Koothambalams which is the classical tradition that is confined to
theaters and the other is folk tradition which is manifested in ritualistic and non-
1 Written by Ilango Adigal, it is one of the epic in ancient Tamil literature.
2
ritualistic forms of theatre like Kali‟s dance Teyyam and Bhuta dances.These
classical and folk rituals at many times combined to create new forms like
Bhagaveta Mela, Kuchupudi, Therukkoothu, Yakshagana and Kathakali.
These forms reached various stages of development by constantly innovating,
adopting, discarding, transforming and revolutionizing aspects of the early theatre
which they borrowed. They sometimes created new forms to adapt to the then
current situation demands and to meet the taste of the audience of that period.
A).KATHAKALI – The genesis and evolution.
Kathakali, one of the ancient theatre forms of the world bring about the
southernmost state of India, called Kerala. Katha means story and Kali stands for
play. Thus it is a combination of literature music, acting and dance propagating the
wisdom in the form of stories and legends. This form of dance were confined only
to the festival stages in temples over the years, the changing traditions and culture,
has influenced Kathakali in a big way.
The popular stories from the great Indian epic such as Ramayana and Mahabharata
are enacted in general. The Katha (story) of Kathakali is as interesting as the dance
form
itself.
The
Malayalam
compound
of
Katha
and
Kali
(play/enactment/performance) is self-explanatory. Blending dance and theatrics to
chiefly narrate stories drawn from Hindu mythology, Kathakali evolved to become
an integral part of keralite consciousness over a period of time. This spectacular
classical genre of dance which originated in ancient Kerala is one of the most
celebrated dance forms in India today.
As we course through time to trace the origins of Kathakali, the social crucible
that gave birth to it begins to unfold before us. It goes back to the ancient days
3
when what is today known as Kerala was home to the Dravidian race. To the
animist Dravidians the earth was Bhagvati or mother Goddess, a deity they
worshipped. She was the source of life and life-sustaining supplies. Dance was an
integral part of their life. They worshipped their deities through dance. History
tells us that Kathakali is a fusion of Dravidian and Aryan dance forms that
harmonized the religious consciousness and practices of the two races. The
Dravidian dances had a cylindrical percussion instrument called Chenda, held
upright and worn around the shoulder by fastening it to a strap, drummed with two
sleek, slender cane sticks for accompaniment. Kathakali borrowed the same and
made it an essential part of its musical ensemble.
It is also known that Dravidians revered and worshipped snakes. The Dravidian
snake worship gave birth to Pampin Thullal (snakes‟ dance), one of the oldest
dance forms of Kerala. Famed for snake dance festivals, a place called Mannarsala
in the state of Kerala stays a snake worship center to date. It is believed that
Kathakali originated as a result of Aryan and Dravidian cultural confluence,
borrowing heavily from the Dravidian Snakes‟ dance. Kathakali stands out for
vividly ornate costumes and the spectacular mask painted on the face of the
players, hemmed with a milky white fix running from one ear lobe to the other
making its way through the cheeks and jaw, punctuating the eyes, nose and lips
which turn extensively communicative in the act. Besides, the outfit and
paraphernalia helps to create a larger-than-life aura around the mythical characters
that Kathakali portrays.
Traditional Indian dance continues to influence the art form on its evolving
journey as Kathakali maintains its universal and timeless personality by
continually adopting new and classical styles and rituals to its fusion form. The
dramatics of Kathakali set it apart from any other art form. It contains a striking
dramatic element that cannot be compared or familiarized with. The performance
displays an array of heroes, gods, kings and queens and their appearance is
4
portrayed surreally. They generally dominate the stage with their costumes and
headgears that transport the audience to an awe-inspired state.
These surreal, true-to-the-illusion qualities of Kathakali make it difficult if not
impossible to compare or find precise differences between it and any other art
form. Bharatanatyam and Kathak have often been compared and clear distinctions
in dance styles and form can be identified. This demarcation cannot however be
done with Kathakali since it is a well-combined fusion of styles and forms from
various rituals and art forms of various South-Indian genres. It is not a solo dance
like Bharatanatyam neither is it a court dance like Kathak or a lyrical like
Manipuri.
The evolution of Kathakali‟s dramatic individuality can be traced back to the
south-western coastal regions of India. This region of India is rich in tradition and
once combined with the Kathakali style, enriched it further more. From ancient
times, Kerala has been known to be the home of the performing arts. Some of
these art forms are ritualistic by nature. The drama invokes spirits, heroes of the
past and deities. The performers are adorned with palm-leaves; costumes made
from areca nut and painted faces to enable their transformation into demons and
Gods. Sometimes, it is Kali who kills Darika in Mudiyettu and at other times it is
Goddess Bhagavati and her various forms who appears in astounding attire as in
the forms of the Teyyams.
At some other times, the floor is painted with the deity and the performers enact
the story with the accompaniment of musical instruments like drums and pipes.
While Cannanore and other adjoining districts of Kerala are home to the Attams,
the Bhagavati, the forms of Kali and the Kuttus, there are various special locations
where Aiyappan rituals, the Teyyams and other rituals are performed. The rituals
and art forms of these regions can be richly categorized for their distinctive style
of make-up that includes a heavy use of paint on the faces of the actors. The vivid
5
style of color and make-up in Kathakali can thus be traced back to the style of this
region.
B). KABUKI - The Classical Japanese Theatre.
All the way from 6th century, Japan received a great deal of cultural
determinative from other parts of Asia, especially China and Korea. The earliest
imported dance was a form of masked dance-drama called Gigaku, which came to
Japan from Korea in 612. There is a tremendous diversity in traditional Japanese
dance, from court and religious dance to the ritualistic Noh dance-drama and
theatrical kabuki dance. In modern times, Japans artistic movement Butoh2 dance
has also pulled international interest.
Japanese classical theatre contains few forms of performances – Noh, Kyogen –
lyrical drama, Bunraku - Puppet theatre and Kabuki – which is the popular
theatrical form. The word kabuki is also believed to derive from the verb kabuki,
meaning to lean or to be out of the ordinary. So Kabuki can be in the other way
interpreted to mean avant-garde or bizarre theatre.
The rise of a mercantile urban culture in 17th century Japan gave rise to the
development of popular theatre, notably Kabuki and Bunraku Puppet theatre, and
a style of dance that reflected Kabuki's love of gaudiness and spectacle. Shosagoto
dances (originally for the roles of Onnagata female impersonators) became the
most important type of kabuki dance, differentiated according to whether a lyrical
or narrative style of music was used to accompany it.
2. Butoh was a movement that began in Japan in the late fifties. It was rebellion
against Western dance and Japanese Traditional dance.
6
Kabuki dance was practiced in its own right by townspeople. The term Nihon
buyo today refers to Kabuki dances especially adapted for separate stage
performance. In the modern era, Fujikage Shizue (1880-1966) established the
Shinbuyo (New Dance) movement under the influence of Western dance, which
gave ordinary people the opportunity to perform kabuki dance as an independent
art form. This led to a proliferation of dance schools (more than 168) where pupils
are mostly women.
The oldest Japanese form of classical theatre is Noh, Kabuki and Burnaku are
younger art-forms. Kabuki performers during the earliest years of the genre were
primarily women. This theatrical form is thought to have originated in the dances
and light theatre first performed in Kyoto in 1603 by Okuni, a female attendant at
the Izumo shrine. Because an important side business of the onna (women's
Kabuki troupes) was prostitution, the Tokugawa shogunate disapproved, banning
the troupes in 1629 and making it illegal for women to appear on stage. Wakashu
(young men's Kabuki) then became popular, but in 1652 it was also banned
because of the adverse effect on public morals of the prostitution activities of the
adolescent male actors.
With both women and boys banned, Kabuki became a theatre of mature male
performers, although before yaro (men's Kabuki) was permitted to continue
performing, perchance the most famous aspect of Kabuki is its use of onnagata,
male actors in female roles. The ideal for the onnagata is not to imitate women but
to symbolically express the essence of the feminine.
In the century following the legal mandating of male performer‟s onnagata roles
became increasingly sophisticated. Attempts to introduce actresses into Kabuki in
the modern era have failed. The onnagata are such an integral part of the Kabuki
tradition that their replacement by actresses is extremely unlikely. Kabuki is not
only the theatre Kabuki, like all of Japanese classical forms of art are really
7
highly-developed and organized till the last detail. However, even though it is like
one inseparable organism, every of various element of Kabuki play, such as music,
decoration, costumes, might be a total art form, due to the fact that like Kabuki
itself, they reached high point of professionalism.
All of them follow their own, unique rules. “Models of theatrical expression are
much more varied and diverse in Kabuki than in Noh and Kyogen – because of the
long – four-hundred year history. Since the time when Izumo no Okuni created
kabuki odori in 1603, Kabuki has continued to grow and evolve freely, even
wilfully, as the entertainment of ordinary people. The same opinion shares
Masakatsu Gunji1, who writes about Kabuki theatre that its beauty “is too
complex and comprises too many different elements to be easily summarized”.
C). Hypothesis / the Research Problem
The researcher has arrived at the following hypothesis with wide
theatrical structure in mind. Culturally acclaimed and traditionally based, the
forms of Japanese Kabuki and Indian Kathakali are now struggling to cope with
the modern day innovations. The folk rituals and traditional beliefs that they are
made of are not accepted as widely as before because of the effect of the
westernization on the mind of the audience. In the new age audience, lack
appropriate or conventional knowledge of our history or the values that these art
forms thrive on. This makes them, ignorant to the aesthetic qualities that
distinguish classical art from current day innovations. Television, computers and
modernized movies have replaced the theatre that has been passed down for
generations. This leaves artists of Kabuki, Kathakali and various other cultural art
forms unemployed and unable to survive a livelihood in current eras. This made
many of the cultural artists seek other forms of employment, thereby leaving the
arts as just a hobby or personal interest.
8
Art being at the state that it is in requires the concentration of skilled, trained and
passionate cultural drama lovers to preserve the few strands of it that are left. This
is mainly due to the inexistence of appropriate cultural bodies or governmental
authorities that seek to conserve our rich history. Hence this research will give an
account of, and the most popular reasons for the decline of cultural art and why it
should not be. This research is particular tries to find out the conventional acting
training system of the Kathakali and Kabuki, causes of their decline in varied
stages of history, the present situation of the Kathakali and Kabuki artists.
It also includes reasonable suggestions that could work to bring about a change in
the position of the dance drama in the society today. It mainly focuses on the lack
of a healthy training system for the few interested artists of today. It compares our
conventional training system with the new and points out the variants that could be
improvised upon. The above mentioned suggestions and variants were centered on
Kabuki and Kathakali among other cultural forms.
This research basically raises questions that should have been raised a long time
ago. It questions the decline of the cultural ancient theatre and the lack of interest
for preservation. The few answers that were received to these unanswered
questions have been listed in this research together with their valued suggestions
of promotional measures. Various strategists, art organizations and agencies
centered on culture have also been generous with their promotional strategies.
D).Methodology
Ethnography is the technique of research adopted in this
investigation. The collection, analysis and interpretation of the data were
performed by a further adoption of social science and humanitarian
methodologies. While most of the data was collected from direct interviews with
artists and knowledgeable and resourceful people, secondary data sources were
9
newspapers, books and journals, research done in the past as well as websites and
television. Ideologies and concepts conveyed in seminars, conferences and
workshops were also studied, interpreted and included in the research.
Following methodology were adopted duing the research
(1) Comparative research method
(2) Descriptive research Method
(3) Analytical Research Method
(4) Artistic approach method
E).Objective/Relevance of the research
For our culture and traditional history to survive the almost extinct state
that they have become, drastic effort should be applied to the theatre to lift it up
from its stagnant post. With the current state of globalization, economic feasibility
of an ancient performance is not an easily explainable theory if the economical
value of these arts i.e., Kabuki and Kathakali of Japan and India has to be
maintained at their original stance, thus maintaining their aesthetic, traditional and
ritualistic grades.
F).Research Area
The researcher conducted extensive study and research during the period of 20072011.In the year 2008 the researcher got an opportunity to participate in Kabuki
workshop organized at hunter College, City University of New York under the
Fulbright Research Fellowship Programme . As a faculty and ex alumni of
Thrissur School of Drama the researcher has participated in discussions,
workshops and training in various aspects of kathakali acting. Being a Keralite the
researcher has seen many kathakali performances. As a student the researcher has
10
collected various information through formal and informal meetings with
kathakali artists.
G). Structure of the Thesis
The Research study divided in 5 Chapters including introduction footnotes
and conclusion.
 The Introduction chapter gives a brief outline of the present study. Being
the first chapter it provides the conceptual framework of the study and
outline the content. In this chapter include the background and origin of the
two great Classical Eastern forms of dance –drama which include Indian
Kathakali and Japanese Kabuki
 In the 2nd chapter SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH
SPECIAL REFERENCE TO KERALA‟s Kathakali and its Acting Styles
focuses Kerala‟s Classical theatre tradition of Kathakali and its acting
styles. The language of Kathakali reveals its rare form and it tells the back
ground, the context, the subtext the very lexicon and the detailed
vocabulary of kathakali‟s unique language. In this chapter includes
convention and styles of kathakali acting. This chapter also deals with one
of the most refined means of expression in this theatre art form is the use of
Mudras or hand gestures. In this chapter analyze kathakali as an admixture
of nritta (pure dance), Nritya (expressional dance) and Natya 9 incorporate
both Nritta and Nritya and has in addition and element of drama).This
chapter explains abhinaya (Acting) which is histrionic expression and
representation is the very soul of kathakali.
 In the 3rd chapter JAPANESE KABUKI ACTING TRADITIONS AND
STYLES deals with the origin myth and traditions Kabuki the classical
11
dance theatre form of Japan. It analyses the styles of Kabuki acting,
fundamentals and characteristics of Kabuki acting, theatrical conventions in
Kabuki acting, Types and themes of Kabuki. The exclusivity of Kabuki art
and also one of the most noteworthy points is the total exclusion of
actresses in any play which keeps up the rarity of the art form. The
principal performers of the art form were women however as it gained more
reputation, unnecessary attention from male admirers towards the female
actors led to making the authorities feel a threat of serious dejection from
the public.
 In the 4th chapter The Aesthetic Aspects and Character structure in
Kathakali and Kabuki acting styles explains the fundamental similarity
between the Indian classical dances like Kathakali and Japanese kabuki.
Usage of stage devises in actor training methods of kathakali and kabuki.
The elements of music and costumes in both forms. To acquire a
representation of characters portraying moods and particular aspects of life
instead of appearing human or as an imitation of men‟s actions, the
dramatic tradition of India and their Asian counterparts developed a
complex and stylized costume and make-up system. Although we do not
see much of the stylized costuming in India as in other Asian countries,
Kathakali brings a highly stylized make-up tradition to India. This make-up
style that Kathakali embodies may remind some of the Chinese opera or the
Japanese Kabuki. However, if noticed closely, the Indian distinction is hard
to miss.
 In the 5th chapter concludes the thesis. This chapter explains further
research and suggestions for the survival of Kathakali and Kabuki.
12
Conclusion
There are some fundamental similarities between two dance-drama forms
yet there are differences too. Both these have evolved from a rich cultural
traditions and it‟s interesting to see the performances, the stage devices
used, make-up and the styles in both these dance-drama forms. The further
chapter explores these aspects. The annexure contains a detailed
bibliography, references from web, various illustrations and photographs of
kathakali and kabuki. This will definitely provide a source of information
for researchers interested in further research in these areas.
13
CHAPTER – 2
SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO KERALA’S KATHAKALI AND ITS ACTING STYLES.
14
CHAPTER -2
SOUTH INDIAN DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE
TO KERALA’S KATHAKALI AND its ACTING STYLES.
Introduction
In this chapter the scholar explores the evolution of Katahkali and the
traditions and rituals that formed the foundation of this theatre form. Kathakali is
an ancient popular classical traditional theatre of Kerala, has its own multifaceted
history. Several South Indian drama traditions and rituals has had an influence on
Kathakali and its form as we see today, yet this dance form has a clear distinction
in terms of its aesthetics, dance form, gestures and the overall style.
The emergence of Kathakali as a formal, stylized dance-drama during the 17th
century was also due to the influence of the then rulers of Travancore who were
devotees of Krishna and Rama and the plays were designed to portray lives of
them. The concepts were later revolutionized and no longer were restricted to
Krishna and Rama‟s life, rather were depictions from Bhagavata Purana and
Mahabharata. This chapter takes us through the evolution of this dance form. It
also explains in detail the acting traditions and rituals followed in Kathakali. The
details about the types of acting or Abhinaya such as Angika, Vachikam Satvika
and Aharya followed in this dance form should be understood to appreciate the
intricacies of this dance form. This chapter also explains the basic hand gestures or
mudras. Kathakali follows the concept that the language of gestures is
concentrated on the palm of the hand as detailed by Nandikeswara in his Abhinaya
darpana:15
“Where the hand goes, there the eyes follow;
Where the eyes go, the mind follows;
Where the mind goes, the mood (bhava) follows, and
Where the mood goes, there arises the sentiment (rasa)”.
A). Kathakali an ancient popular classical traditional theatre of Kerala –
evolution and a brief history.
Kathakali creates a world of illusion unmatched by any other form of
theater. With its captivating dramatics, its independently stylish grandeur and its
transformational theatrics, Kathakali dominates the theatre. Though the art has
been defined by its theatrics, Kathakali manages to encompass „theatrics‟ alone.
The presentation has been known to constitute painting and narrative artistry
therein creating a supernatural display.
While enveloping itself with modernity in demonstration and a spirit unbiased by
region, Kathakali remains true to its origin. Part of the illusion created by this
mystical art is its portrayal of mythical ancientness. This illusion has been known
to transport the audience to a mythical era where art was worship and vice versa.
However ancient in portrayal, Kathakali evolved during the reign of Shakespeare.
In 1600 a form of dance called Ramanattam1 came into being. Still in its sprouting
age, Ramanattam was adopted in the north as an infant art to be nourished and
reformed into a new art form. Production of the art was given the name “Aattam”.
The art developed over time and by the late 1700s took individual form and shape.
1- A Kerala temple art. It presents the story of Rama and it is a dance drama of
eight plays and it was formed under the support of Veera Kerala Varma (AD
1653-1694) alias Kottarakkara Thampuran.
16
The art continued in its development with the help of professional choreographers.
The 1800s saw the emergence of a stylized and transformed art form, known to us
today as Kathakali. The form therefore, unlike the illusion it creates, is barely 300
years old. The foundation of Ramanattam owes itself to various social
breakthroughs in history.
 During the 15th and 16th centuries, the Bhakti (devotion) movement took upon
itself the righteous task of tearing down any and all differences in caste and
class that were existent at that time. This social upheaval made sacred and
sanctified scripture available to all men.
 To add to the now available sacred literature, Stalwarts‟ Ezhuththachchan2,
created another literary revolution. This further cleared the path that was on its
way to attaining the democracy of knowledge.
 The Europeans, mainly the Portuguese, were constantly present during this
period. Their presence added assistance to the development of art.
 All this development led to the establishment of the Printing press.
History‟s mural paintings, Chavittunatakam- musicals on Biblical stories, and the
Krishnanattam innovations; are all exemplary examples of the artistic effects of
social deviation on society. Violence and rebellion have been known to be
effective catalysts of art. The human need to face and rebel against challenges and
obstacles are expressions of art in its own unique form. This desire for expression
brought on the need for a new theater form. This form needed to consist of all
integrally passionate elements- music, drama, strikingly colorful costumes, and
dance.
2- Renowned Malayalam poet regarded as the father of Malayalam language.
17
While speculation that Ramanattam was formed to challenge Krishanattam was
fairly true, it also had negligible influence from the Brahmins, thus earning itself
the title of being a „Soodra‟ act, essentially catering to the non-Brahmins. Apart
from the Brahmins, Ramanattam was also treated contemptuously by the literati
and conservatives. It was then that theatre decided to define Kathakali as an art
form that excluded the temple. In its true modern, yet mythical form Aattam had
its roots deeply planted in Natyasasthram bases. Though Ramanattam had its roots
in Natyasastharam and was classically Indian with its Kerala-base, Kathakali
eventually evolved into a revolutionary art form that did not enumerate
Natyasasthram as its whole rule.
Various rules of Natyasastharam were modified in Ramanattam as the situation
demanded. Some of them were the involvement of scenes of blood, delivery of
babies, and bodies covered in blood. Caricature and comedy were also avoided.
The art form took liberation in its own hands. Defying the shackles of a closedwall theatre within a temple (Koothampalam), Kathakali was performed to masses
devoid of boundaries. Performances were made on locale stages, surrounded by
walls only built by the art‟s illusion.
As it grew in popularity and artistic spirit, the art‟s form of expression took on
new shape by absorbing new genres. The folk ritual genres „Thira‟ and
„Theyyam‟3 which were famous in Northern Malabar were taken on by Kathakali.
Kathakali was now becoming theatre itself by establishing individuality where
there was already a firm theatre foundation. Its individuality boasted of innovative
infrastructure, new and conceptual designs in clothing and styles of make-up,
differential patterns in songs, and a whole personality of crafted ritual and folk art
to suit its individual style.
3: It is a ritual and folk form, a pattern of hero worship performed in Kannur dist,
Kerala
18
Serving a devotional purpose by applying Mahabharath stories in its form and
meeting a devotional purpose, soon became a thing of the past in Kathakali.
Maintaining revolution as its main focus, the art adopted an analytical approach in
its demonstration, therein prioritizing subtleties. Part of the act included paying
homage to rituals and deities at the start. This devotional act later became a ritual
to call on the spirits and powers of the theatre thus losing its religious significance.
Kathakali conceptualized freedom. Ancient characters that have gone down in
history as villains or anti-heroes were given fresh images. Ravana, Duryodhana or
Narakasura of mythology were placed under the same category. Though stories of
heroism and gallantry were portrayed, the villains won the show. The anti-heroes
were given dramatic superiority. This change put fresh light on the styles and
concepts of drama. Kings and rulers remained patrons of Katahakali while the
villainous characters of history that mythology so carefully created, took on new
shape and form. Thus, drifting away from what was conceptualized of them and
gaining new significance. Aattam was now safely embedded between common
man folk rituals and Brahmanical bhakthi art. Revolution, rebellion, aesthetic and
socio-political factors were key elements of this breakthrough.
Passion for innovation drove Kathakali to new heights. By combining styles from
various ritual performances, the art created for itself a design of „fusion‟. This
fusion style aggregated styles, forms and patterns from various genres of dance,
thus making Kathakali the best example of fusion style dance among the
performing arts of India. This desire for fusion arose from the need for Kathakali
to detach other dance rituals from their originality so as to take on a distinctive
Kathakali style while contributing to Kathakali‟s individuality. While turning
independent of any one style or tradition, this fusion act also required balance.
A balance that required detachment from originality while retaining familiarity.
This balance was crucial to Kathakali‟s relationship with its sources. The success
19
of the fusion of dance rituals led Kathakali to seek fresh combinations. Music,
musical instruments, and elements of drama were also incorporated. One of the
famous stylized rituals Kathakali absorbed is, the „Kalarippayat‟4 martial art the
heart of Kathakali‟s technique. This style gave the art form its required suppleness
and body rigor. „Kalari‟ created common ground for martial arts and Kathakali,
thus creating a balance between the two.
While Kalarippayat provided body movement a structure over which other ritual
dances were framed, both Kathakali and Kalarippayat required body movements
that were motivated by inner rhythm. Kathakali choreography was also influenced
by „Velakali‟ another branch of martial arts that emphasized on dance. „Padayani‟
a martial dance yet again also contributed a great extent to Kathakali. Make-up
color and designs, „Thaalam‟- rhythmic patterns and various syllables of dance
were some of Patayani‟s contributions.
The jewellery patterns and costume designs together with the essential units of
dance-„kalaasams‟, were contributed by Mutiyet, a Kali, a cult based ritual. Styles
and modes of music used by Kathakali could also be traced back to Mutiyet. The
significant combinations of Mutiyet, the Chenta a highly pure and resilient
Dravidiandrum and the use of it effectively, gave Kathakali a bounce in its step to
further revolution. Credit for some of the designs and patterns of jewelry and
costumes were also owed to Thira and Theyyam.
4„Kalarippayat‟-One of the oldest martial art systems survived in the state of Kerala
20
To pacify the fertility goddess, a ritual called Theeyaatt was adapted alongside its
styles of make-up colors (green), the stereotyped expanded skirt, and its need for
headgear and crowns. While Mohiniyattam was utilized to give feminine
movements their softness and grace, Gandharvan Paatt known to be a fertility
ritual was also utilized to embody its facial make-up details, and certain definitive
motifs for the characters that depicted violence.
Garudan Thookkam‟s styles were adapted for individual characters like swans or
birds that required special definition. This adaptation provided these characters
with appropriated movements and costumes.
B) Kathakali -Acting Traditions and rituals.
It is said that Kathakali‟s inner soul experienced rebirth with the
influence of Kootiyaattam. Essential elements of aesthetic profoundness, formed
structures, and attributes of extrinsic and intrinsic value, gave Kathakali renewed
height. Kootiyaattam contributed 18 essential elements to Kathakali. Some of
them included the integration of meaningful hand gestures-„Mudras‟. Added to the
list was the technique of elaborately demonstrating a staged or sung portion of the
performance. Detailed stylization of costumes and acting were also part of the
influence.
“Pakarnnaattam” the method of a single actor transitioning characters was also
applied after elaborate modification. The 1800s proved to be an ultimate
synthesizing period with the application of Kaplingaa T Nampoothiri‟s
mastermind to Kathakali. Being a famous choreographer, Kaplingaa further
revolutionized Kathakali by adding elaboration to Kathakali‟s dramatic and
mimetic elements of dance.
To focus on the element of music, Kathakali enhanced the progression of its music
and musical instruments thus making itself an independent music genius.
Maddalam and Chenta, two important instruments of music, were prioritized to
21
provide accentuation to rhythmic syllables, subtlety to the sound effects and
operate in unison with the Mudras. To add the ever-prevalent element of fusion to
the music as well, Kathakali used a blend of the native Karnatic and Sopanam
styles.
All these areas of revolution only enhanced Kathakali‟s image as a modernized
performing art. The community of Brahmins‟ denial was no longer a matter of
importance. Kathakali continued to freely incorporate elements from classical and
ethnic art. Kathakali‟s unbound; free-spirited form added sovereignty and liberty
to its style, leading it to focus on dramaturgy as its next experiment. Unlike
conventional movies and theatre, the rule of the actor „becoming‟ the character
was not enforced in Kathakali.
On the contrary, the dramatics enforced a separation between the actor and the
character he played thus enabling the audience to understand the moods of the
character and maintain an emotional distance. A segment of dance is often
included in the act to further enable the actor to shed the role of his character and
transform into a pure dancer. This involved the transformation of the actor into the
character only momentarily. This „alienation‟ concept was later adopted by
modern theatre in the 1930s with Berthold Brecht used it in his plays. His „open
stage‟ theory was another concept that Kathakali had already employed in its form
centuries before.
Brecht5 attempted to destroy the boundaries between the audience and stage so the
story surpasses the spectator‟s physical self. This concept was already a successful
element in Kathakali and was utilized in two effective ways. The characters were
given use of a live, mobile curtain that would enable them to break the barrier of
time and space and enter the spectator‟s world.
5 Brecht-German theatre director and play wright. 20th century’s one of the most influential
figure in theatre.
22
The second way was the application of the ancient folk style of an „open stage‟,
where the audience and the performers were at the same level physically. This
enabled the characters to come across as „near‟ to the spectators.
Most of Kathakali drama does not involve boundaries or a wall-surrounded stage.
The climatic scenes usually transgress into the physical world. To stay true to the
illusion created, realism is totally banished right from the start. This maintains the
illusory impression from getting away while reiterating the verity of the perceived
illusion.
C). Characteristics in Kathakali Acting
Kathakali shared evolution with another form of theatre called Kudiyattam.
This theatre form originated in Kerala during the ninth and tenth centuries and is
considered to be the vital link of the techniques used in Sanskrit plays. It was also
one of the innovators of important and new styles in the Indian theatre.
Spanning across bygone eras of Kulashekar, to famous performers like Mani
Madhava Chakyar and Ammnur Madhava Chakyar from the twentieth century,
Kathakali has been sustained as a family tradition. Vidushaka evolved as a prime
character from Kudiayattam in Sanskrit Theatre.
Unlike other characters Vidushaka used Malayalam, the local language while the
hero and heroine chanted Verses and also communicated in Sanskrit. It was
Vidushaka‟s role to make the connection between the past and present along with
arching that gap between classical Sanskrit that was spoken by the hero and the
regional dialect understood by the audience.
Like other theatrical forms, the movement of the body sometimes preceded the
lines spoken, sometimes paced and sometimes followed.
23
Like a Veda6 chant, the pronunciations of words were systemized and slow and
priority was given to intonation. Angika abhinaya was performed to the phrase,
line or word by the actor. The Vachika, the verbal, was sometimes elaborated or
interpreted. The actor was given total freedom to interpret basic poetic lines into
any number of interpretations and this led to performances being carried out for
more than a day. The actor also had the freedom to move freely between his
incarnations, thereby enabling him to switch to a past performed reference or
indicate the future.
In evolutionary terms, this meant the art had developed a revolutionized language
for itself which focused on gestures. The difference between the act and the
gesture was sometimes mistaken for the act. One of the examples of this technique
was a depiction of the famous character Chakyar who was portrayed throwing a
rock at his opponents. It has been said that the audience present at this display fled
in fright. The Kudiyattam traditions were highly effective in influencing
Kathakali‟s application of gestures.
The use of masks and face paints were incorporated from Teyyam and Tirayattam
rituals. These forms used paint and masks to depict goddesses and was most
famously found on Mudiyettu and the Kolum rituals. These adoptions only added
to the list of influential elements that Kathakali individualized from these art
forms.
Another important source was martial arts. Kerala till this day has remained
famous for its Kalaris (gymnasium) and its innumerous martial dances. They are
famous because of the excellent physical skill, acrobatics, the massaging system
and the leg projections that involved jumps and leaps displayed and many of these
elements were greatly used in Kathakali.
6-Veda – in Sanskrit means
"knowledge" is a large body of texts originating in ancient India
24
Although Kathakali had revolutionized theatre and became evolution in itself, the
main emergence of Kathakali as a formal, stylized dance-drama was only during
the 17th century and due to the influence of two kings.
The Zamorin of Calicut was famously known for the plays he wrote as devotion to
Krishna. These plays were patterned on the lyrics of Gita Govinda by Jayaveda
and were named Krishnattam. The plays were designed to be played on 8
consecutive nights and each day was known to depict a different day in Krishna‟s
life. Legend has it that the King of Kottarakara sent a request to the Zamorin of
Calicut requesting him to go down to Travancore and perform Krishnattam. This
request was refused by the Zamorin causing the King of Kottarakara to begin
writing a similar 8-day inclusive play about the in devotion to Rama. These plays
were then named Ramanattam.
These plays were performed at the court for the King during the latter half of
the17th century. This episode added seed to the growth of Ramanattam into
Kathakali. While Krishnattam made profuse use of Sanskrit, Ramanattam used
Malayalam. The Malayalam however, was highly sanskritized.
Manipravala was used and the mixture was well-credited. It has been speculated
that the actors of Ramanattam initially spoke their lines together with singing them
like their counterparts of Kudiyattam. It is also of scholarly belief that the actors
wore wooden masks, spoke their lines and the actions were in gesture form like
the performers from Krishnattam. These theories however were contradicted when
the actors were later restricted to miming (angika abhinaya) and the musicians
sang the lyrics. This technique was further refined to become the Kathakali we see
today.
A special libretto was included in the music and was further accompanied by
percussion and instrumental music. This vocal and instrumental combination later
became the defining elements of the music. Unlike the Bharatnatyam style where
25
music determined the drama and passages of dance were introduced in full
measure, the Attakathas or the dramas determined the dramatic structure of a
performance in Kathakali.
This unique concept was further revolutionized by writers like Iryaman Tampi
who wrote individual dance dramas that is now contained by Kathakali. The
themes of these dance dramas were no longer depictions of Krishna or Rama‟s
life. They were chosen from the Puranas therein the Bhagavata Purana, the Siva
Purana and from the Mahabharata. Basically, the themes did not adhere to one
devotion or scripture but took on the forms of various characters and stories that
mythology had provided in special Kerala versions.
The collection amassed by Kathakali also included writings by various other
writers and not just the King of Kottarakara or Kottayam. Some of these notable
writings were by Ashvati Tirunal of Travancore, the Unnayi warrior, Vidvan Koel
Tampuran and Kartik Tirunal. Iryaman Tampi‟s play Kichak Vadham, Sita
Swayamavaram and Daksh yagna are some famous written works that are danced
to even today. Two distinctive Kathakali schools were built with the patronization
contributed by Rama Varma, Swati Tirunal and the Maharajas of Travancore.
These schools were divided to serve the north and south. This new theatre form
had now evolved from being a dance drama performed within temple walls to
being a strong stage performance.
D). Aesthetics of Kathakali.
The Kathakali gestures form a complex system of signs with attributed meanings,
not symbols of incarnated meanings. By first folding the hand and then slowly
spreading out the fingers, it is possible to indicate an opening flower.
gesture stands for several things.
26
Each
The distinction between the opera and Kathakali is the identification of the singer
or the performer. In the opera, the performance is given more priority while the
character that is performing the act takes a back seat, whereas in Kathakali the act,
the character and the performance are all equally important. This makes Kathakali
unique in its approach and gives it a diversified and evolved outlook which sets it
apart from other styles of similar dramas.
For the opera or ballet, this aesthetic quality is not considered a defect and nothing
is said to be lacking from the performance unless the aesthetic qualities are
compared the difference is noted.
Imagery and diction are conventionalized in Kathakali. The erotic appeal of the
hero through his speech, song or dance is therefore similar to the appeal of the
villain when he makes an urgent impact. The make-up is thus what creates the
distinction in characters alongside the story and its enactment. While the dialogue
does help in the differentiation, the differences made visible are subtle in nature
and these subtleties do not aim at disclosing much in relation to the character.
Though instrumental music is used to arouse moods and feelings and this does not
necessarily require dialogue or speech, Kathakali prefers to include text. The
language used becomes an instrument of artistic communication only to the extent
that it relies less on the strong concreteness of denotation and more on the
indefinable power of connotation which Ananda Vardhana and Abhinava Gupta
from India called dhvani or resonance and Mallarme and French symbolists called
suggestion.
The study of Charles Darwin on the physiology and history of behavioral
expressions made known the fact that acts of trembling, blushing, etc, are based on
the endocrine system‟s chemistry which the nervous system triggers and this in
turn triggers discharge from the glandular system and this increases the respiratory
rate and the circulation of blood which finally amounts to the changed in
27
expression. The mere thought of these changes in another person can induce the
same on the thinker due to sympathy. Unlike the above, gestures are not linked to
the body‟s chemistry although there are some that have a good intelligent
significance.
The Kathakali gestures are not symbols of incarnated meaning and are on the
contrary a system of complex signs with credited meanings. When the actor folds
his hand and slowly releases his fingers, the meaning of the gesture is invisible to
the audience. This therefore is the reason Kathakali employs gestures that are not
mimetic in this manner and each gesture are made to signify something different.
The Pataka Mudra is therefore formed by the actor holding his hand up with the
ring finger bent inward and the rest of the fingers stretched outward. When this
gesture is shown, the meaning could be perceived in various ways. The average
number of ways has been known to be 36. This tells us that the relation between
the denotation of a word and the word itself is not inherent. The word is therefore
not a symbol but a sign. Kathakali has therefore reversed the aesthetic
transformation direction and enabled the growth of an extensive gesture language.
This process therein includes the actor‟s skill in transforming the verbal text into a
code for gesture and the audience is relied upon to decode this code.
This gesture language therefore hinders smooth and swift poetic stimulation. The
metaphor and the simile of poetic figures has the former being swifter in evocation
because of its capacity to blend images in the mind just like film when doubly
exposed blends images visually. The simile on the contrary, starts with pure
separation and goes on to a comparison which has never been known to turn into a
blended identity.
The difference between classical drama and Kathakali therefore is its aesthetic
organization. Classical drama employs an organization that is pyramidal by nature.
The dominant flavor of the play is the apex and this is one of the nine rasas of
28
classical aesthetics. This embodies a system of doctrine that is strongly based on
psychology. The rest of the feelings generated through various phases of the
episodic stream evolution is ancillary to the dominant feeling and will eventually
serve to highlight and nourish it.
To state it in simple terms, it can be concluded that Kathakali plays are dominated
by heroic sentiment (raudra rasa or vira). Classical drama‟s fine orchestration is
not in existence here. The grosser action of the play‟s overall pattern creates an
impression of focal organization. The emotional tonality that prevails in each
episode is usually autonomous. It is therefore not the Sanchari bhava of classical
drama which has been known to correspond to McDougall‟s derived emotion. This
derived emotion gains color from the sentiment and always reveals an abiding
persistence of the latter and is in fact a modification of the sentiment in a new
episodic nexus.
A romantic situation in classical drama involves a distinction in the reactions of
the libidinous type and the heroic type although the reactions will have a basic
romantic essence to suit the situation. This difference is however unavailable in
Kathakali. The literalism of the mimetic transcription of the text and a text loaded
with conceits that are conventional has the actor involved in plenty expressive
sallies which are segmented and forging no stable links with the prevalent
emotional temper of the pay as a whole, though brilliant .
For classical drama the transformation of the actor into the character is a victory
that is celebrated. For Kathakali however, the actor solves the issues of
complicated mimesis which is set before him by the liberalist and remains the
genius virtuoso. Reading through the libretto one can see that this is the perfect
solution to the problem as the liberalist is constantly creating piquant problems
which the actor embraces as a challenge. An example of this is the work of
Irayimman Tampy. In his work, homage is paid to the beautiful and moon-like
29
heroine in a conceited way. This chakaraka bird pair is supposed to come together
only during the day and separate during the night. The passage of text states
“Mistaking your face for the moon, and in anguish at the imminence of separation,
the female Chakravaka looks with one eye filled with wistful longing at her mate
and with the other flaming with anger at you” This is conceit in its purest form
because the whole performance is unreal. The actor however has to master the
mimesis which will have him controlling one eye and one half of his face to look
sorrowful and the other half will have to display anger. This is control
unbeknownst to most actors and dramas. In yet another spectacle of this concept,
Ravana is displayed portraying ten different emotions on his face simultaneously.
This originally will include serial expressions but the audience will only see them
as one because of the swift change in expressions and the radical transformation
employed.
Kathakali therefore not only includes the detailed gesture languages we have
analyzed but a whole lot of other techniques and tactics without which it would
not have reached its level of supremacy.
In Kalidasa's Shakuntala we see the heroine being bothered by a bee and
Dushyanta using it as an excuse to reveal himself and chase the bee away. In
Kathakali we see the same with Dushyanta turning into a demon at the end. This
principle of Kathakali to involve combat on stage is unlike any other form known.
Mortal combat is one of the presentations usually kept away from the stage but
Kathakali cannot do without it. Romance and beauty are given the stage as well
but the overall atmosphere kathakali creates is one of violence and disturbance.
Even the dances include violence as its tempo. While the actors use no words and
only movements dominate the dance, villainous characters are always a part of it
and are seen bursting in at the scene with demonic cries. Their appearance is also
violent and extremely dramatic in nature. They have been known to tear away the
30
curtain held by the stage hands and throw it away so they can be seen. Fire is also
another common characteristic.
The demonic characters use a lamp or resin dust and whip up flames that cast an
eerie glow over the stage. These turbulent performances end with demons
mutilated and fallen with blood all over them and exposed entrails. These scenes
are given extra tending to in the make-up department so even the most
professional spectator will find the scene terrifying. Sometimes these ghastly
characters chase the good ones off the stage and through the audience.
These conventions and innovations kathakali embodies take the normal responses
of approval from the audience to a whole different level and leave them in a wideeyed, semi-religious, semi-magical state.
E). Artistic transmission- Actor preparation.
Kathakali actors begin their training at a very early stage in life. They start off
young when they leave home as children to dedicate their lives to the art. Training
for these young aspirers begins at 4 am in the mornings starting with facial and
eye exercises and followed by play learning.
The monsoons bring on a whole different set of difficulties that include exercises
for the body and a special oil massage called Urachil. This makes them agile and
physically fit to portray the characters required.
Many years of quality training and experience is required to create a Kathakali
artist. Each one is respected for the specialized skills that they bring to the stage to
present some of the most moving and unforgettable experiences of all.
31
F). Types of Acting in Kathakali
There are four types of acting also called Chaturvidha Abhinaya.
 Angika Abhinaya:
This includes an elaborate combination of mime, gestures, appropriate
movements, poses, attitudes, facial expressions and basically the whole body of
the actor. Kalasams are dance passages that have an important significance on the
performances of Kathakali. While retaining a pure dance it attempts to enhance
and utilize appropriate bhavas.
Hand gestures are another significant involvement in Angika. This is because the
interpretation of text is conveyed through the gestures. The regional text on the
Hastas (hand gestures) mainly used in Kathakali is the Hastalakshna Deepika.
 Vachika Abhinaya:
One of the many distinguishing elements of Kathakali is the lack of speech
and the text in the form of songs and verses (Vachika) is sung and recited by
vocalists. These texts are interpreted and performed by actors by the use of an
innovative method called Angikabhinaya.
Sopanasangeetham, a regional style of music has been developed by Kathakali
although most of the vocal music employed in it is based on the Carnatic system.
The main ambition of this style is the establishment of the appropriate moods and
sentiments.
 Satvika Abhinaya:
The Rasabhinava, a highly stylized technique to invoke Bhava has been
developed by Kathakali. Natya Sastra lists out another 8 moods called Satvika
32
Bhavas. These are more subtle in comparison to Angikabhinaya. The actor
maintains a strong internal discipline which helps him go deeper into the
characterization of the role and enables him to master the action technique.
 Aharya Abhinaya
Aharya is the name given to the make-up, stage props and costumes used.
These are the most important elements that facilitate the transformation of the
actor into the most beautiful characters ever seen in the world of theatre.
The Aniraya is the dressing room. It is the place where the artists prepare
themselves for the performance. It is given divine importance and to show
reverence to the divine presence, the actors prepare themselves in silence.
A brass lamp called Vilaku is lit and a prayer is said before the actors begin any
make-up procedures. The same is done before they go out to the stage and also at
the end of the performance once their make-up has been removed. These acts only
prove the divine respect Kathakali holds for the Gods. It is called an act of
devotion and an offering to the Gods and hence requires sincerity and focus before
the actor can embark in his psychological journey on stage.
G). Form in Kathakali Acting
The three stages of the Acting (Abhinaya) presentation are:
1. Word to word synchronization
2. Full-line interpretation and
3. Abhinaya of the dancer following the singer.
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Another aspect of Abhinaya in Kathakali is the dancer using the words of the line
as a starting point and improvising a full movement sequence. The elaboration of
the word relies on hand gestures in this aspect. This is called Choliyattam and is
the most imaginative degree to which an actor can extend to through his own
improvisation.
To state an example, the actor while presenting the line ' Bhima went through the
forest' can improvise on it to display a lush, scenic display of the forest, thereby
accentuating the effect of the line. Kalyana Sougandhikam is a good example of
this creative display by the actor. The act basically includes a scene where
Draupadi sends Bhima to get her flower. This scene is enacted in Abhinaya to
include a fight between a cobra and a panther, swift running of deer, peacocks
dancing, and herds of elephants moving while Bhima is still in pursuit of the
flower.
Abhinaya uses the Ekaharya principle which is one of the main characteristics of
Bharatanatyam and Kathak as only one of the many strong characteristics it
employs. The portrayal of Vyabhichari or Sancaribhava is also modified by
Kathakali to bring out a dominant mood called Sthayibhava. This again is
portrayed by the actor with his own variations.
The portions of Abhinaya in Kathakali set the hatas with the highest priority. This
is again contrary to other dance forms which do not give hastas as much
importance. The 24 basic hastas that are used are accumulated after breaking down
the Hastalakshana Dipika.
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Alphabet representing the 24 mudras of Hasthalakshanadipika.
1.Pathaka
8.Hamsapaksha
15.Suchimukha
2.Mudrakhya
9. Sikhara
16. Pallava
3.kadaka
10. Hamsasya
17.Tripathaka
4.Mushti
11.Anjali
18.Mrigasirsha
5.Kartharimukh
12. Arthachandra
19.Sarpasiras
6.Shukatun
13. Mukura
20.Vardhamanaka
7.kapitha
14.Bhramara
21.Arala .
22.Urnanabha
23.Mukula.
24.Katakamukha
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36
Hand Gestures. Alphabet representing the twenty four basic mudras
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H). Dominant Features of Kathakali and Kathakali Character Types.
Unlike other dance forms Kathakali is again unique in its style of
portraying characters. The actors are given a type and that type is used to represent
that actor in the drama so he does not only play the role of a narrator. Although
Kathakali incorporates various genres and traditions, the theme is purely Hindu.
The existence of Buddhism in Kerala at the time also influenced Kathakali to a
minor extent. While most dance dramas following the Hindu tradition portray the
heroes and the villains as results of the performed nataka, Kathakali took heroes
and villains from the puranas and the epics and enacted their characters. After
various studies were done on the existent folk rituals and similar dance dramas of
the time, Kathakali was estimated to have had 6 types of characters while the
others did not go beyond 3 or 4 characters.
The first type is the heroes or the demi-gods who were identified as sattvika
characters of the Ramayana and Mahabharata or the dhirodatta heroes of Sanskrit
drama. The Gods also fell under the category of 'good characters' and Rama and
Krishna were categorized as good heroes and Gods. These characters are usually
seen devoid of disgust or fear and only as calm, heroic, good-humored people.
Moods of anger are only portrayed when the characters are portray.ing the Raudra
rupa tradition which usually results with the death of the enemy.
The second type are the villains and anti-heroes both demon and human. They are
made to depict negativity and usually portray anger, treachery and aggressiveness.
Their methodology is adopted mostly from the Mahabharata and puranic stories
and not too much from Sanskrit drama. This type is further divided into subdivisions because the villains could be female demons, gods or kings. The evil
they portray could be simple or of the higher degree that includes treachery or
cruelty.
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Vidushaka, a character from Kudiyattam of Kerala was surprisingly removed from
Kathakali. The scenes that included Hanuman were known to be portrayed with
humor. While Vidushaka portrayed the drama Kalyana Soungandhikam which
basically depicted the meeting of Bhima and Hanuman and the capture of the royal
horse by Kusa and Lava, ironically and with satirical undertones, Kathakali
portrayed the scene with humor. The monkey deity Hanuman, the half man-half
bird in Hamsa and the half lion-half man in Narasimha (Prahlada Charitam)
characters are also included in Kathakali. Characters that live in the woods and
forests are also portrayed as tribal people and aborigines. Siva disguised as Kirata
is one such example.
 Tadi Types.
The beard (Tadi) is used for villains and anti-heroes or demons in
conventional Kathakali. The red, black and white beards are traditionally used.
Red is used to signify evil and destructive deeds. With a red base, the upper
portion of the face is painted black and the lower portion red. Instead of giving the
eyes the elongated lotus look, a black collyrium is used to give the eyes a
frightening look. The white paste or Chutti is also not applied along the jaw line
and the paper cut-outs are attached to the nose horizontally to cover either sides of
the face. The chin is elongated with a false flat beard to add to the ominous
appearance of the character. Two fangs are also used as protrusions from the lips.
These characters typically scream and utter curses or cries so the choice of
appearance if made to perfection.
To represent the aborigines or the tribal people, a black base and a black beard is
used alongside various designs in white and red colors. The Kari characters are
also known to use the black beard.
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Veluppu tadi or the white beard is the third type of half-human gods like
Hanuman. White is used as the basic make-up. These characters are usually docile
by nature although they can take ferocious forms occasionally. Yellow is used to
represent a different category of characters like Narasimha- The lion God. Yellow
is used because it represents wonder or adhbuta. These are the most significant
types of make-up used for significant characters. The other characters are not
given much decoration and simple pink make-up is used with no attempt at
masking. These are typically women, Brahmins, rishis or messengers and are
known as Minukku.
 Mudis
Headgear is what highlights the make-up. The headgear used in Kathakali
is made out of wood, papier-mache or fiber from cane and are called Mudis.
Krishna, kusa, lava and other princes and children of the Sattvika types use a
different crown-shaped headgear made out of cane. The good characters use a low
conical crown with a small disc. The common characteristic of these mudis are inset mirrors. The characters with the red beards wear head dresses similar to that
worn by noble characters, the crown is however higher and the disc is larger while
the demons and the villains use headgears of huge sizes. Narasimha, Hanuman and
hunter-disguised Siva use different types of headgear.
The costumes follow the same symbolism as the colors, the facial make-up and the
headgears. The good characters usually wear purple, yellow or blue jackets. The
white beards wear white jackets and the red beards wear red jackets. Scarves are
also used to hang on either side of the shoulders and they take the color of the
make-up combination. The lower torso is usually adorned with the same kind of
attire excluding the Minukku characters. Heavily plaited skirts are used with the
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aim to enlarge the actor‟s proportionate size. Underneath all this make-up, headgear
and costume is a slim, lithe and well-trained figure.
I). Classification of Kathakali Characters:
Set apart from all the other dance forms of India, Kathakali rules as the
classical-dance drama of Kerala. The unique styles it embodies are distinctive and
pleasing to the eye.
To mention some, the mudras or the hands signs which are eloquent and dramatic
in nature, expressive and impressive by way of gestures, lithe and graceful in
movement, perfect in choreography and highly imaginative. These are some of the
qualities that Kathakali has been described by.
For thematic glory, Kathakali acquires its themes from the ancient Puranas which is
like a box of treasures that once opened, brings to us the beautiful lives of the Gods
and goddesses, and the conflicts and disputes that good had over evil and its
mastery in the end.
Though Kathakali stands apart not only for its revolutionary demeanor but also for
its uniqueness in style which has been described by some as weird or unreal, this
uniqueness is not something Kathakali is ashamed of. It has in fact been acquired
through hard work and tireless effort.
Being completely from a mythological background, the characters of Kathakali and
the basis of their make-up cannot be logically explained. Based on their real
characters or qualities the make-up and attire and adornment are classified into five
main types. Based on the principal color applied to the face forms the classification
criteria:
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These classifications are pacha or the color green, kathi meaning a knife, thadi –
meaning a beard, kari –the color black and minukku meaning polished to shine.
 Righteous and dignified characters are in pacha or green.
 Proud belligerent and unrighteous characters belong to the kathi type.
 The bearded type known as thadi are of three varieties.
-The most violent and demoniac are known as chuvanna thadi (red beard),
-Mythical and marvelous beings like the monkey-gods are known as
vellathadi (white beard);
 The lowest types of beings like the assailant are classed as kari (black).
 The gentle and spiritually leaning character (like women, sages, Brahmins
etc) comes under the type known as minukku (polished).
The elaborately designed costuming and ornamentation are intended to intensify
the superhuman effects. Creation of enlarged figures that are well suitable to
produce tremendously impressive impersonations is achieved with the hefty
overcoats, the elegant scarves, the spherical skirts, the antique ornaments, the
outstandingly opulent head dresses with streaming hair flowing down to the waist
and covering the back.
J). The Kathakali Performance
 Thodayam
This is a dance ritual that is performed at the front of the stage, behind a satin
curtain called tereshiela that is held up by two men. Two junior actors perform a
composition of pure dance accompanied by the Suddha Madalam which is drumsolo Madalam.
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The Vandana Slokam is a prayer and follows Thodayam to bless the stage and to
evoke the Gods. Before the first actors make their way to the stage, they will visit
all their senior artists and touch their feet. This evokes their blessings. They will
also pray to the lamp-Valaka which is situated in a green room. They finally go on
to the stage-which has now been transformed into a holy place. The actors then
travel from this world into a Godly world and are embodied with dignity and
humility.
 Purappad
This means „starting point‟ and represents the beginning of the Kathakali
performance. This performance is traditionally performed by students to develop
their skills.
The actors represent the main characters of the story-Krishna or Balarama. They
perform a piece of pure dance and are sometimes accompanied by their female
partners.
 Melappadam
This is a musical masterpiece. Senior singers and drummers are given an
opportunity to perform and showcase their outstanding skills. These singers
express dedication and devotion to Jaya Deva who wrote the Geetha Govindham
poems in the 11th century.
The performance of these poems creates a beautiful harmony. People from all over
the country travel to these destinations to witness the exquisite performances of
Melappadam. It is a piece of melodious music by itself.
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 Actor on stage
The Kathakali play begins at the conclusion of the Melappadam. This is done to
accentuate the effects that Melappadam created on the minds of the audience. The
audience had by then been bathed in a surreal illusion by the spectacular
drumming, and the harmonious singing. This prepares the stage for Kathakali to
begin its depiction of great Hindu mythology.
On a normal basis, two to three plays are performed through the night. They
usually start with a love story or a family drama so the last play is the most
influential. The last play is usually a violent enactment of a battle that has good
conquering evil. This again is done so the effect of the battle still remains on the
audience‟s mind while the sun rises to signify a new beginning of a new day.
While the temples conduct annual festivities and encourage the communities to
participate so that love and concern for each other is shared, the Kathakali plays
contribute their own shares by taking the audience on journeys throughout the
universe where only goodness prevails because it has conquered evil.
 Danasi
This is a dance ritual performed usually by Lord Krishna or Lord Siva or one of
the other good characters in the story. This ritual is performed at the end of the
plays that have been performed throughout the night. The character prays for
God‟s blessings and gives thanks to the Gods for the night just passed.
For the audience it is a time to socialize. They bathe themselves in the nearby river
or tank, eat breakfast and move onto the nest temple performance.
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 The Eyes:
A small seed from the Chundapoo flower is used to make the dye for the eye. The
color red is thus attained and this makes the character look like he is from a
different world. An hour post the performance the seed is removed so the eye of
the actor returns to normal color.
K). Performance texts of Kathakali.
Textual evidence found proves the existence of various regional styles that
had departed from the Bharata tradition. The commentaries on the Silappadikaram
and Sangitaratnakara also indicate reforms in dramatic forms. Another conclusion
that was drawn from this evidence was the maintenance of a clear difference
between the pure dance forms and the natya forms. Various dance texts written in
South Indian languages during the 13th to the 17th centuries included words like
desi lasyanga, desi karana, desi nritya and Koottu. While these contribute to
evidence on Kathakali‟s origination, various texts like Balarama Bharatam by
Balarama Varma1 and the Sangita Saramritam by Tanjore‟s Maharashtrian ruler
Tulaja, contribute no evidence on Kathakali technique. The text that proved most
beneficial in this context was the Hastalakshana Dipika which shows considerable
departure from both the Sangitaratnakara and Natyasastra traditions.
To add proof to conviction, it has been proved that the positions employed in
Kathakali were taken from the Mattancheri temple, the basic temple structures of
Kerala and the Padmanabhaswami frescoes. The usual combination of cymbals
and drums, the extended lata arms and the kshipta position of the knees are styles
prevalent in Tamil Nadu and have been proven to be akin to the prevalent style in
Kerala.
1. Ruler of Travancore (1724-98)
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It was only later during the 16th century that the rectangular positions-mandala
sthana, the sari and headgears appeared especially in the Mattancheri frescoes. The
period between the 17th century and the 19th century experienced a lot of change
and dramatic evolution in Kerala. While stylized performances were performed in
temple courtyards and sophisticated theatres like Kuttamabalam, age-old tribal and
folk rituals continued to be performed in lush vegetation and forest areas.
A variety of forms ranging from the Ottanthulal martial displays to annual festival
related performances for Onam with the Christians, Portuguese and other settlers
were performed on streets and processions. The writings of the period reflect this
complex mixture of tradition in the performances.
With the dawn of the 20th century rituals of Kudiyattam, Kathakali, Ramanattam
and Krishnattam shrunk and became of lesser significance while ritual drama
traditions like the Teyyams and the Bhagavati cult dances continued.
In the 30s of this century, Poet Vallathol from Kerala once again gave Kathakali a
new identity. He created Kerala Kala Manadalam in 1932 which was established
formally in 1936. He gave Kathakali its current form by gathering the great gurus,
Kunju Kurup, Ramamuni Menon and others and renewed the existence of poetry
and literature in Kathakali. The once ancient art was given a modern outlook by
the employment of scripts of plays by Unnai warrior and Irayumman Thampi and
the use of a brand new format.
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K). Make-up and costumes:
The illusionistic outcome of Kathakali and its ability to transport the
audience to a surreal world owes itself to the make-up used. The colorfully vibrant
costumes further added to its appeal.
The make-up has been known to have a mask-like power although there is no
masks used and the paint is applied directly to the faces of the actors.
 The actors apply the make-up on themselves with the assistance of a trained
specialist known as a Chutti artist. This artist skillfully applies a wellproportioned three-dimensional figure on the actor‟s face.
 It would be completely unfair to talk about Kathakali make-up and not
mention its master of make-up Kalamandalam Govinda Variyar Ashan. He
revolutionized the application of make-up and especially the use of chutti
and the technique of attaching the structure on the face of the actor. The
methodology he used was a three-dimensional technique. He also
familiarized the importance of the paper shapes used and their accurate
proportions because after the shapes are attached and the make-up is done,
the audience should be able to see the facial expressions and the eyes of the
actor. His designs and proportions were excellent and unmatched.
 The colors used for the make-up are made by a combination of coconut oil
and ground rocks. This takes the actor about 4 hours to prepare. Once the
actor is done painting the background on its face he is made to lie down on
the ground for the Chutti to be painted on his face.
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 The Chutti painting is no easy task. It requires a skilled artist who has
patience and a keen eye for detail. The presentation of the performance and
the outcome of it are dependent on the Chutti artist because he is
responsible for the visual representation of the actor. Even one mistake
cannot be tolerated as that one mistake will have the actor displaying it
throughout the performance and its entire duration. A line of rice paste is
applied on the actor‟s face and that is carefully spread on all over the face
to acquire the right shape. Layers and layers of the paste are applied until
the accurate height is achieved. While the rice paste dries, the paper shapes
are attached to it so the paper dries alongside the paste. To ensure the paper
shapes staying on the actor‟s face throughout the performance and not
falling off, other methods are used for the affixture. This is essential
because the use facial muscles in their entirety are one of the essentials of a
Kathakali performance. Once the Chutti is applied, it is cross-checked with
other Chutti artists and the actor himself to ascertain satisfaction. This
check is a tense moment because the result is a step in the actor‟s direction
towards becoming the character.
 The artist of Chutti is a highly trained professional who undergoes years of
training and ample experience is hired to prepare the characters of the
Kathakali play. The visually unique characteristic of the Kathakali play
owes itself to the Chutti.
Conclusion
Kathakali literally means acting out a story. There are many dance forms
that act out a story. What is unique about Kathakali is that the word itself evokes
images of magic and mystery, of dark nights lit by the incandescent glow of the
flame of the oil lamp, actors that morph as gods and demons transforming into
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images of divinity and emerge out of the most wondrous human imagination. The
mudras make it possible for the actor both to narrate and to act, to embody. In the
hands of skilled actor the various expressions of various mudras merge into a
theatrical language that consists of pure poetry. Although one needs to understand
the intricate mudra-language to appreciate this dance form fully, the vigorous
movements, expressive gestures and dramatic sequences keeps the viewers spell bound. The unique language of signs is not only an inspiration of those who
research the oldest theatre forms, but also for those who dream of theaters‟
regeneration in the twenty-first century. A lot of change is taking place to the hand
gestures in Kathakali today. Instead of using symbolic and stylized gestures, today
emphasis is on realistic gestures. The Indian cosmology always pointed at the
belief that dance is not only a sacred act, a offering to the divinity within , but a
deep revelation of life and unique of transcending its limitations.
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CHAPTER-3
JAPANESE DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
KABUKI AND IT’S ACTING TRADITIONS AND STYLES.
50
CHAPTER -3
JAPANESE DRAMA TRADITIONS WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO
KABUKI AND IT’S ACTING TRADITIONS AND STYLES.
Introduction
Kabuki has been compared to Shakespeare‟s plays and its involvement in the
Opera. While some say it is similar, others say Kabuki ranks higher with more
entertainment, vigour and colour added to all its elements. All encompassing and
accumulative theatre is one other characteristic of Kabuki, it integrates all the
previous forms of theatre preceding 16th Century Japanese art form .Kyogen play
and Noh drama are among the conventional art forms form which kabuki was
drawn for stage techniques or the comic interludes similar in Noh drama. Noh
plays which were culminated into Kabuki still enjoy high regard and still form an
indispensable portion of the Kabuki collection. In this chapter the researcher
explores the acting traditions and rituals, the art of movement in a Kabuki
performance, typical layout of Kabuki stage.
A) Kabuki an ancient popular classical traditional theatre of Japan- evolution
and a brief history
The word Kabuki when broken down comprises of „ka‟-„songs‟, „bu‟dance and „ki‟-„skill‟‟. These are three characters of the Japanese culture and like
Kabuki identified itself with the lower sections of society than the higher. The
origination of Kabuki thus owes itself to the Edo period.
The evolution of theatrical arts in the eastern part of Asia mainly Japan all the way
back from the later part of the 16th century led to Kabuki .This led to excellence
51
and perfection in a more refined way to its present day form. It still doesn‟t fail to
encompass an audience not as vast as it used to be but for being an ancient art
form still holding onto a large audience.
From the Edo Era, the period to which Kabuki„s foundation could be traced, came
most of Kabuki‟s evolution. This was the period where distinction between the
commoners and the warrior classes was of common existence. The merchants of
those days belonged to the commoner classes and had to remain socially inferior
although they were strong economically. It was to these merchants that Kabuki
owed its origin. Kabuki helped these merchants to express their emotions under
the duress that they had been through .Significantly this led to conflicts between
humanity and feudalistic system being the primary theme of Kabuki. Kabuki
gained a very loyal audience among the crowd owing to its classicistic quality of
the art that holds on up until to this day.
The exclusivity of Kabuki art and also one of the most noteworthy points is the
total exclusion of actresses in any play which keeps up the rarity of the art form.
The principal performers of the art form were women however as it gained more
reputation, unnecessary attention from male admirers towards the female actors
led to making the authorities feel a threat of serious dejection from the public.
Eventually all the theatrical appearances of women were banned in 1629 .This led
to all female roles in Kabuki being performed by male impersonators popularly
known as Onnagata.
Ever since the ban, men took over Kabuki completely as the art form in itself had
gained acceptance by general public and continues till the present day. By the time
the ban on women in theatrical performances was lifted which took almost 250
years, the art of onnagata had almost reached perfection. Onnagata had reached a
level where this privileged element if removed would make Kabuki lose its charm
forever.
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Along with other genres of theatre, Kabuki has also sourced part of its rich
heritage from the puppet theatre also known as Bunraku, which more or less
evolved at the same time as the earlier versions of Kabuki. The actor in Kabuki
has always held more significance than the literary value of the play.
Monzaemon Chikamatsu also referred to as the "Shakespeare of Japan" one of the
most famous writers of early 17th century deserted Kabuki and moved onto
Puppet theatre because creativity was more focused in puppet theatre than the
actor himself. This de-prioritization of the actor's domination resulted in a period
of Kabuki actors losing their audiences to puppets.
Eventually leading to a time when most of the puppet plays were incorporated into
Kabuki. This accounted to more than half of the traditional kabuki plays with an
exception to few dance-dramas being of Bunraku origin. By the end of the 19th
century Kabuki became an all embarking art form which brought forth literary
realism.
Colourfulness, glamour, exhilaration and a new sense of magnificence of the
highest order was brought to the keen eyes of Japan through Kabuki. These extra
ordinary qualities and the added drama of Kabuki could not be mastered by any
other theatre in the world.
B). Acting Traditions and rituals.
The Kabuki we see today as a crystallized and final art form is an
accumulated sum of three hundred years of development and growth. The
successive fashions and tastes of various historical periods have affected Kabuki
for good as well as for ill. Some of Kabuki's past has vanished entirely; some has
continued exactly as it was originally conceived and initiated on the stage of
yesterday; some has been refined and improved, even modernized beyond all
53
recognition. However, the overall appearance of Kabuki today is fundamentally
and aesthetically the same as it has always been throughout its history.
The „onnagata‟ is one such significant part of Kabuki‟s theatrics. It is significant
for its improvisation of female roles played by men. This was because of the ban
on actresses that was enforced in 1629. Although women were the pioneers of
Kabuki, it was later believed that they disheartened the public of its morals. Men
were then given the priority and since Kabuki was already famous at the time, the
loss of women was not deeply felt.
C) Characteristics in Kabuki Acting.
Variations in acting, occurs based on the type of play. Acting in Kabuki is
exceptionally stylized in case of historical plays and comparatively down to earth
in cases of contemporary drama. The „rough‟ style of aragoto and „soft‟ wagoto
styles are very important. In a historical play, it is only after the narrator has
informed the audience that a certain character in the play is about to weep that the
actor in the role will actually do so with the appropriate gestures and sounds.
Contemporary plays require a more realistic approach than a historical play, but
there are still certain conventions and patterns of acting that must be adhered to.
Examples of such would be a murder or fight scene, perhaps they would look quite
gruesome if presented realistically, and hence they are customarily highly stylized.
„Roppo‟ is another feature of the Kabuki actor‟s art of movement, according to
which an exit is performed along the hanamichi in a series of leaps and bounds.
The literal meaning of roppo is six directions, but there are various opinions as to
the real significance of this curious term.
Theories that are mentioned about roppo:
 The actor‟s hands and feet actually move‟s in six directions.
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 Roppo derives from the unusual posture and gait of the roppo-gumi (roppo
gangs) bands of ruffians who were common in Edo at the end of the 17th
century.
 Another theory traces the term roppo to roppo-shu(roppo associations) a class
of low ranking priests who practiced an arrogant strut.
The roppo now exists in various forms: - he kitsume (fox) roppo, the oyogi
(swimming) roppo, the katate (one-armed) roppo, etc.The tanzen can also be
thought of as a type of roppo, however strictly speaking the latter is performed
along the hanamichi as an exit, whereas the former is likely to occur during an
actor‟s entrance on the hanamichi. Example would be in Sukeroku Yukari no Edo
Zakura (Sukeroku, Flower of Edo).
The term mie refers to the pose that is one of the most remarkable features of
Kabuki and which is most likely to occur at a climatic movement in a play or
dance. The action comes to a temporary halt as the actor assumes a fixed pose,
making, as he does so, a rotating, nodding movement of the head and crossing one
eye. The mie pose is customarily performed to the bearing of two wooden blocks
on a board at the side of the stage.
During a historical play, at points of heightened emotion a speech is delivered in a
distinctly rhythmic fashion timed to the accompaniment of the shamisen. This is
called nori literally meaning of which is riding (the shamisen strings), this
particular style of delivery in customarily adopted by messengers who arrive on
the scene to report on the advancement or at times outcome of the battle.
A single speech may be shared by a number of actors, which is peculiar only to
Kabuki. In this case each of the actors speaks a part of the whole. In case where
only two or three actors are involved in such, it‟s called divided speech (warizerifu). In cases ,where more than three actors are involved and each one speaking
in turn as if it was a part of a chain –it‟s referred to as Passed-Along speech
55
(watari-zerifu).
D) Performance Styles and Forms in Kabuki acting
Danmari, Aragoto, Wagato, Maruhon and Shosagoto form the five general
performance styles in Kabuki .They arose in succession in different historical
periods so usually are described as historical styles by and large.
 Danmari
It is one of the oldest historical styles although not proven by records; its simple
nature suggests great age. Danmari means wordless. It is typically an
inconspicuous five to ten minute pantomime in which members if the kabuki
troupes successively enter the stage and showcase themselves along with their
costumes and their special acting idiosyncrasies.
This particular scene is always set in outdoors and in particular at night hence its
also known as kurayami meaning darkness. Once the complete cast is on the stage
is usually concluded on a mass tableau, in most cases expressing violent
opposition among the characters. Characters engage in a slow motion pantomime
struggle for possession of some object after the initial entrance in some of the
developed danmari scenes.
The term danmari was first noticed to have been used in 1780 but sixty years
before this, Night time pantomime scenes were established as a standard form. It
seems probable that the simple parading of individual actors in danmari is a relic
of the earliest kabuki . During those days performances were more or less a way to
advertise the physical attractiveness of the prostitute performers.
Depending on various factors a danmari pantomime could be an independent piece
or a scene in a longer play. The introduction to the audience was carried forward
with a danmari piece at each location up until this century. Danmari was a way to
showcase the debut of young actors or at certain times promotions to new names
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which signified higher rank
It was customary to perform an introductory (kao mise) danmari within an
historical play to introduce to the audience the new acting company for the coming
theatre season. Danmari was also performed in domestic plays too along with new
theatrical twists to ensure that the audience is not tired of seeing the same danmari
piece year after year.
Because of the more sophisticated tastes of the contemporary play goers, danmari
is not often performed. Because it shows us kabuki acting in its plainest and
probably oldest style is the very reason Danmari has been of a very important
interest to us.
 Aragoto
Literal meaning of aragoto is rough style .Aragoto has a bravura style and it
projects power and masculine vigour. Elocution, movement, costuming, make-up
everything is exaggerated in aragato to produce a dazzling theatrical effect. The
martial and raw spirit of 17th century Edo is reflected in this form. Aragato is Edo
style in its wildness, vitality and lack of refinement.
Ichikawa Danjuro I (1660-1704) is the creator of aragato acting. He was the
leading Edo actor of the Genroku period. He founded the Ichikawa family acting
tradition which has continued through eleven generations and Ichikawa Danjuro
XI died in 1965. In 1673 Danjuro XI made his first stage appearance, he played
the role of Kimpira, a superhero from the most famous puppet performances with
the hero‟s name. He had a pompous style of moving. The play‟s title from the
puppet theatre was Children of the Guardians of Buddha (shiten-no Osanadachi).
The Four guardians of Buddha are customarily depicted in Japanese culture as
ferocious deities with bulging musculature, glaring eyes, bared teeth and defiant
men.
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Danjuro‟s acting approach seems to have evolved and owes its style to both
kimpira puppet plays and the Buddhist concept of frightening guardian deities.
Danjuro XI aragoto style has been refined by his son Danjuro II (1688 -1758) even
then it still remains a rough dynamic style. Kumadori or following the shadow is a
striking form of makeup used for many aragoto roles. It consists of red, blue ,
black or grey lines in bold. Kumadori does not mask the expression unlike ching
painted face make up in Chinese opera as the lines follow the natural musculature
of the face. This form of make-up projects the expression with great clarity and
force.
To act aragato style it is said that the actor must imagine the virility and self
confidence of a sixteen year old. The actor who performs with the required degree
of physical force the play demands in examples such as The House of Sugawara
(Sugawara Denju Tenari Kagami) in the role of matsuomaru is generally warned
that he may suffer stomach cramps during the run. Skill in elocution is cherished
in aragoto. It‟s a necessity in aragato that the voice of the hero is high pitched and
reverberates strongly.
All the physical resources of the actor must be channelled toward powerful
expression of heroic action in aragoto. Danjuro IX was known for his powerful
pitch that could be heard from couple of blocks away during his performances.
Abstract sound and not sentences is used during the hero‟s highest emotional
peaks. “yattoko tottcha na! “ which is the final line from the play “Wait a
Moment” is a fine example of this scenario. This line or phrase doesn‟t have a
particular meaning literally but allows the actor to demonstrate through sound his
heroic presence as the curtain closes.
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 Wagoto
Unlike Aragoto which is rough style Wagoto is a soft style performance. KyotoOsaka actors brought forth the style of wagoto and it reflects especially the gentle
refinement of imperial Kyoto. Wagoto hero is delicate to the point of weakness
through over refinement or an absence of vigorous qualities similar to that
traditionally associated with women or girls. He is spineless, penniless,
irresponsible, yet immensely attractive as a lover.
Sakata Tojuro (1674-1709) a great Kyoto actor is credited for creating wagoto
acting in his portrayal of the beautiful young man who visits a prostitute. He came
to fame in 1678 when he played the role of a disinherited merchant Izaemon who
loved the prostitute Yugiri. He played this role a total of eighteen times in his
entire career. Izaemon and Yugiri constitutes most of the Kabuki plays written for
Tojuro by Chikamatsu Monzaemon(1653-1724) He was Japan‟s greatest
playwright.
Realism forms the essence of wagoto acting and is most suited to dialogue drama.
Rooted in the youthful beauty of the leading actor it is surprisingly also a comic
style, the term hando or half comic was used to illustrate wagoto acting. The
contrast between the actor‟s physical attractiveness and momentary pitiful
condition gives rise to humour in such acting. The Hero‟s imprudence is laughed
upon by the audience because it seems like he need not seriously pursue the
woman he is meeting .The wagoto leading man in kabuki served as model for
townsman lover of the many love suicide plays written by Chikamatsu for the
puppet theatre. The woman pursues this merchant in spite of his lack of money
and status and his pouting bad manners only because of his beauty.
The feminine quality can be seen today in the way wagoto actor stands with his
feet close together and toes pointing very much like a Japanese woman rather than
a broad masculine stance with feet at a ninety degree angle. The conventional style
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of conversation is least affected by aragoto but again taken as a whole the manner
of portraying the wagoto hero became more feminine.
Laid-back and pleasing to the eye love scenes known as nuregoto came to be the
specialty of wagoto acting unlike the violent fighting scenes of aragoto. Between
1800 and 1840 wagoto love scenes were infamous for their lewdness. The true
wagoto fusion of comic and erotic is largely lost .Much of the outer form of
wagoto acting style still remains in the elegant mannerisms of movement and in
the special wagoto vocal style not thin and high but soft and sounding like the
second string of the shamisen.
 Maruhon
Maruhon or puppet style originated outside of kabuki unlike Danmari, aragoto and
wagoto which were all pure kabuki acting styles that were created within kabuki
by kabuki performers. During the middle decades of the 18th century is when this
style developed.
This development occurred when a large number of new and immensely
successful Joruri or puppet plays were incorporated into Kabuki by the actors.
Before Maruhon actors in Kabuki always thought of themselves as collaborators in
creating a play text. They were not self conscious in changing lines of dialogue
that the troupe‟s resident play wrights had written for them. However this was not
the case in Joruri as the text was held sacred to even deviate a little bit from. The
text was set to music and the performance began with the fully composed text.
The puppets were manipulated to exemplify and act out the meaning of the text.
The complete meshing of the movements of the puppets with the rhythm of the
chanted text and the accompaniment of the shamisen forms the essence of the art
of the puppet theatre. During the performance a chanter could not improvise new
words to the text because that could throw off the prearranged puppet movements
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and vice versa the puppeteers could not add any new actions because that could
throw off the chanter.
Similarly when Kabuki actors started performing to these Joruri texts, they
realized that not only did they have to conform to already established patterns of
physical actions that were taken from the puppets, but also they had to time their
acting to match the music and chanting of a newly imported team of Joruri chanter
and Shamisen play. This team was called “chobo” and soon this became a part of
the Kabuki troupe. This led to a new Kabuki acting style.
The term Maruhon refers to the “full script” of a puppet play that was used as the
basis of for a kabuki adaptation. Narrative comment enjoys the most emphasis in a
maruhon performance style. The chobo chanter provides extensive exposition of
past events, descriptions of time and place to set the scene along with delineation
of character traits and sometimes even omniscient commentary on the probable
consequences of a character‟s actions.
These functions were absent in Danmari, Aragoto and Wagoto style performance
because there was no narrator. Maruhon style added a completely new dimension
to Kabuki. This style of performance was denser, more reflective and also slower
in tempo. In case of usual Kabuki, the action begins when the curtain is run open ,
a few bars of offstage (geza ) music sets the scene and the actors enter and start
performing. However in case of a maruhon act, when the curtain is run open a
lengthy passage of chobo narration describes the situation and the scene in
weighty drawn out phrases with musical elaboration. The play only begins after
several minutes. Descriptive passages require more time than the tempo of the
actor‟s movements hence it is greatly slowed down.
Furi is a generic term in Kabuki meaning „pantomimic movement‟, In case of
maruhon acting Furi movement plays an important part. More emphasis is placed
on everyday gestures of eating, drinking tea, opening doors, combing hair,
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dressing and many others. It is based on the gestures of the puppets.
Furi movements are generally accompanied by narration which describes either
action directly or the emotion underlying it. It is performed by male characters and
by actors playing female roles, the onnagata.
The puppet like quality of movements may be deliberately emphasized by the
onnagata in a technique called ningyomi meaning body of the puppet.
A movement easily recognized as ningyomi is when a woman turns her back on
the audience, and then lowers her body slightly and looks over her shoulder. This
is ushiroburi or back movement and is intricate and stunning movement for a
puppet to make. It may be very easy for an actor; however they are enamoured by
the human actor moving like a puppet. In ningyoburi or puppet movement the
actor is manoeuvred on stage by an acting aide just as if the actor were a puppet.
Ningyomi is fundamental and is quite often seen in plays done in maruhon style,
ningyoburi however is used only in definite dance plays and then for the most part
as a device to demonstrate an actor‟s mastery of skill. In Joruri every line is taken
by the chanter, but in maruhon performance the actors themselves speak many and
sometimes all of the dialogue lines.
 Shosagoto
Dance style in Kabuki is referred to as Shosagoto. The most complex of the
performance styles is Shosagoto because it takes in three distinct types of dance
namely Odori, Mai and Furi. Odori is the main dance strain. Kabuki gets its name
from Kabuki odori which Okuni created out of great array of dance forms which
existed as popular, street and folk dances towards the end of 16th Century. These
were referred to as furyu odori meaning dances of fashion. They were the most
happening dances of that period.
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Basic distinctiveness of odori is its liveliness and that it involves leaping in the
air. Within shosagoto dance form, individual dances which express each dancer‟s
personality and group dances (soodori) are important segments. Namba, in which
the arm and leg on the same side of the body move in unison, is a characteristic
odori dance step. Mai is dance derived from noh and to a lesser extent from other
related dance forms. Buddhist ennen no mai or the longevity dance; rustic ta mai
or field dance; popular shirabyoshi mai performed by troupes of professional girls
and others are some of the types.
By the time of Kabuki, mai indicated a wide variety of folk or religious and classic
dance in which deliberate movement and turning or pivoting, rather than lively
leaping as in odori, were central to dance technique (Gunji suggests mai is related
to the verb mawaru meaning turn) . The mai at rest posture places the weight
equally on both feet which contrasts with the typical kabuki posture in which one
foot is thrust strongly forward of the other and the weight.
Apart from these five major performance styles, there are other forms and acting
techniques that form the Kabuki performance as mentioned below:
 Kata
Actors in Kabuki created a rich vocabulary of acting techniques that gradually
crystallized over the years into codified customs of performance .The literal form,
pattern or traditional model in performing are called Kata. The central element of
kata involves the actor‟s vocal and movement techniques.
Production elements such as costuming, make -up and scenic effects are
considered as extensions of the Kabuki actor‟s technique and they are usually
discussed as part of kata or acting.
Kata of „patterned acting‟ has been polished and perfected over generations and
has formed the foundation of kabuki performing art. Traditional kata performed by
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the best actors strongly reminds us of ukiyoe woodblock prints with respect to
economy of means, strong visual design and vividness of execution. Popular
cultures of Tokugawa Japan are manifested in both Kabuki and ukiyoe as they
both are bravura arts.
Kata exist in such vast numbers and vivid variety that it is no easy task to
segregate them into rational and understandable system. On a general level,
Japanese writers discuss kata on two levels:
 Broad overall styles of performance
 Specific performance technique
 In addition to this most actors have created individual kata that are personal
variations of specific performance techniques.
 Furi
The aspects in Kabuki that are pantomimic are identified as furi. The pantomimic
sequences in dance plays have a fan, small towel, hat, cane, drum or other small
musical instrument used a property. The actor performs a number of dance
variations of the movements associated with the property. Furi in dance plays is
more abstract, less realistic unlike furi in puppet derived plays where in it tends to
be a literal step by step pantomime of realistic actions. Maruhon furi is narrative or
story telling in aim, shusagoto furi tends to be lyric and aesthetic in aim.
Ateburi is an extreme form in which each syllable is accompanied by miming an
object of the same sound. Fuseiburi or elegant furi complements a verbal image
with a visual image which is related to it without duplicating that image. Fuseiburi
demands a subtlety of expression that is not required in ateburi.
Onnagata actors like Ukon Genzaemon as early as adult kabuki were staking out
dance style performances as the exclusive province of the performer of female
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roles and establishing reputations in kabuki by their dancing . Hengemono or
change piece in particular provided exceptional opportunity for the onnagata actor
to display his personal attractiveness and his technical skill the most and hence
became extraordinarily popular. In hengemono , the leading onngata actor changes
costume during performance, the number of times determined by the theme of the
play (the three beauties, the four seasons, the five colours , the six mountains , on
up to the twelve months). Actor Mizuki Tatsunosuke danced the first multiple
change play in Kyoto in 1697, this was a seven change performance.
The development of true dance-dramas or buyogeki had to wait almost another
century. Nakamura Nakazo from 1780‟s and excellent dancer was the one to
create a number of male roles in dance plays. He played the role of the onnagata‟s
antagonist. Tokiwazu and kiyomoto, new styles of dance music were being
developed at the same time. In the year 1840 the famous shosagoto play The
Subscription List was first performed. Benkei, the leading role was a male role
created by Danjuro VII and in the total cast of eleven there was no female role at
all.
The Subscription List was closely modelled on the Noh play Ataka. Noh style
enunciation, mai dance movements, Noh style costumes and Noh dramatic
structure are all apparent in it. During the meiji period a score of dance dramas
were created following the lead of The Subscription List for the actors Danjuro IX
(1838-1903) and Onoe Kikugoro V (1844-1904) and Onoe Kikugoro VI (18851945). This includes Benkei in the Boat (Funa Benkei) , The Thorn Tree (Ibaraki)
, The Monstrous Spider(Tsuchigumo) and The Angel‟s Robe(Hagoromo).
The Plays that deliberatively exhibit their Noh or Noh-Kyogen origins are called
matsubame or the Pine and board pieces because their settings copy the wooden
planking painted with a pine tree which forms the back wall of the Noh Stage. It is
characteristic of a matsubame dance play that it exists in just one adaptation for it
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is based on a predetermined model in Noh while other shosagoto pieces may exist
in several versions.
Okina a laudatory piece in Noh has been thespian in Kabuki from early times. The
spiritual nature of the play in Noh is apparent in the fact that the central dance is
one celebrating long life. It is performed by the character Okina, the old man. In
Genroku period, the role of Okina was performed by the old master of the kabuki
troupe, the most respected performer,Senzai by the nimaime, the juvenile lead and
Sanbaso by the tachiyaku the leading man. Today the troupe‟s leading man dances
Okina, which is now a small role , the chief comic plays Senzai and whoever the
troupe‟s most accomplished dancer is performs Sanbaso, now the major dancing
role
Broad Categories of Kabuki Plays
Kabuki plays are divided into two major categories - Historical plays and
Domestic plays.
Historical Plays
 Historical plays as the name conveys is the depiction of catastrophic events and
particulars of history. These plays were written to be used as puppet plays
during ancient times.
 At some point back in the early 18th century, Bunraku (puppet theatre) almost
became much more famous than kabuki itself. This in turn had an after effect
on the stylized acting skills of the Kabuki performers.
 Vocal and Instrumental, both types of music were part of dance dramas. At
instances, they might just be bits and pieces of dance scenes, but at times they
can be an entire story.
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Domestic Plays
 Most often as the name indicates, they are based on the day to day life of a
common man.
 Pragmatism is the basis of domestic drama.
 There are certain cases when the acting and also the other factors on the stage
becomes more than something that‟s realistic, this places importance on the
enunciation of the words and also the usage of magnificent colors.
E). Aesthetics of Kabuki acting
Kabuki in its „fusion‟ form dominates the theatre of Japan. It is a true
combination of various elements of art. Graphics, drama, dance, and music have
been fused into a perfect masterpiece of art. While one play is different from the
other in its prioritization of elements, it will still contain all the elements of the
fusion. This enables the feelings and moods created by the fusion to be of
consistent existence in all Kabuki plays.
Kabuki with its masterful interpretation of all the elements of theatre, has managed
to outgrow the old Japanese quote, “Art is the palm of the hand and the arts are the
fingers”. It combined arts so that the resultant form was effective as a whole and
yet maintained each art‟s elementary purpose. Gracefulness belongs to dance and
rhythm, pace and dynamic movements belong to music. Among other things the
actors are the most dominating factors of Kabuki. They use the plays as means to
show forth their plentiful skills, talents and to earn the recognition they deserve.
They are divided into various „acting families‟ with each acting family being
identified by its own individual style.
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The actors playing women were not made to imitate women so much as give
meaning to their expressions. This was welcomed well by the audience and went
on to maintain itself even after women were allowed to act. Dance influences
acting in Kabuki. Every act or gesture is made with a dance-like movement. The
technique of the actor setting himself in posture, assuming a stare and crossing his
eyes is a wise technique adopted by Kabuki to sufficiently influence the audience
during a climactic scene.
Music dominates speech just like dance dominates acting in Kabuki. The texts and
words used are always accompanied by music or song and there isn‟t a dialogue
that is plainly textual.
In Kabuki there are plays based on profound tragedies where the hero usually ends
up making the most severe sacrifices, sourcing these texts from puppet plays.
Performance is the unification of all the essentials in general theatre. The audience
gets to be in front of the stage and view the hand written words turn into action.
They also have the luxury of being presented with the complexities of other vital
stuff like costuming, sound and make-up.
One of the essential parts of Kabuki theatre is its Make-up. The character of the
actor that plays a role in the play is suggested by the embellished make-up that he
wears. The appearance of hero in a mystical role is stunning and pompous while
the onnagata the female performer‟s appearance is quite delicate and sophisticated
to a great extent. There is an enormous variety in the styles of make up with more
accentuation of the eyebrows and lips.
The make-up is generally prepared with rice powder; the vital color is always
white. Illustration of good is with the color red and bad by the color blue. Red
signifies supremacy and good quality and blue signifies distrust and terror.
Costuming also plays a significant role like make-up with representation of
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predominant traits and characteristics with the experimentation using different
types of fabrics and colors. The greatest statures of a character are usually
portrayed by the exaggerated use of designs, vibrancy in colors and models.
Unlike in the cases of regular day to day clothes from the Edo era used in domestic
plays. Outstanding robes and large wigs were part of historical plays. Onnagatas‟
costumes were known for their magnificence in most dance dramas.
Shamisen which is a three stringed instrument which is similar to a balalaika, is
played with a plectrum and it plays the most crucial role in Kabuki theatre, this is
used along with percussion and a flute. Hyshigi, which is a wooden clapper, is
used to derive that special effect in the music of kabuki. In most cases the
audience cannot see the musicians except in dance dramas where music is more
central to the play. The actors get their cue to perform and deliver the monologues
and conversations in the play when music begins as the curtain is drawn.
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Kabuki Stage
EVOLUTION OF THE KABUKI STAGE (1)
O.‟Hurry‟-door(Okubyo-guchi)
A.Curtained Entrance(Agemaku)
D.Daijinbashira
RS. Rear stage (Atoza)
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F.Forestage(Tsukebutai)
S.Stage proper (honbutai)
H.‟Bridge‟ (Hashigakari)
W.Waki-Za
M. Metsukebashira
EVOLUTION OF THE KABUKI STAGE(2)
A.Curtained Entrance (Agemaku)
M.Metsukebashira
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B.Boxes (Sajiki)
O.‟Hurry‟-door (Okubyo-guchi
DC.Draw Curtain (Hikimaku)
P.Pre-Forestage (Harigashi)
F.Forestage (Tsukebutai)
R.revolving stage (Mawari-butai)
H.‟Bridge‟ (Hashigakari)
S.Stage proper (honbutai)
HA.Hanamichi
T. Trap lifts
I.Inner revolving stage (Janaomemawashi)
TH.Teporary Hanamichi
X.Rakandai
F). Acting Techniques
Even today when the strictures are less binding than in the past, no other
Japanese theatrical art displays the role-specialization that is found in Kabuki.
Kabuki roles can be broadly divided into male and female, both of which are
played by men. Actors of male roles are known as tachiyaku and female roles are
called oyama.
The word tachiyaku literally means „one whose role is to stand (and dance) and
was intended to distinguish the actors from the musicians who performed while
seated. With the advent of the female impersonator, tachiyaku came to designate
either male-role actors as a whole of the actors of the leading male roles.
The word oyama is now designated to a female impersonator; originally it was
referred to a courtesan in the Osaka-Kyoto region. The portrayal of these
courtesans marked the highest point in an actor's career, the word became a
synonym for the actor's of such roles and eventually for female impersonators in
general. The more neutral term onnagata is usually preferred over oyama since it‟s
more pejorative. There is also another term available for the female impersonators'
use – mezzanine or chunikai.
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The story behind this term's origination is very simple. In Edo, buildings of more
than three storeys were prohibited by law because of the danger from earthquakes
and fire. However kabuki theatres were three storey structures, but they besieged
the prohibition by referring to the second storey as the mezzanine. It was here that
the dressing rooms of the female impersonators were found; hence they started
being identified as such owing to its locus and role.
The creation of the female impersonator in Kabuki is without collateral in any
other developed theatrical tradition. Peking opera is where female impersonator
once found but they have been replaced by actresses over the passing of time. This
leaves kabuki as the sole theatrical form in the world in which the female
impersonator is prerequisite.
The phenomenon of actors playing female roles in kabuki dates back to 1629
when women were officially banned from the stage. It is still debated in certain
parts that the female impersonator is a remnant of the feudal past and that the
institution should be scrapped and actresses introduced instead. This is a naïve and
unacceptable argument. The presence of actresses on the kabuki stage would
constitute a denial of the entire artistic history of Kabuki from the time of the first
female impersonator to the present day.
The removal of the art and aura of the oyama would mean a radical transformation
of aesthetic and artistic values fostered over three hundred years. Without Rolespecialization, Kabuki is devoid of meaning. Kabuki is a drama of stylization and
it is indispensable, that its acting styles and conventions be transmitted from one
generation to the next is a bare minimum necessity.
Great emphasis has always been placed on the type of roles that a particular family
of actors has made its speciality. The actor's art has been passed on to him through
this family lineage mostly a direct blood descendant, or an adopted child or in
some cases a chosen pupil (who assumes the family name). When an actor
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succeeds to a new name, he also inherits the acting traditions connected with it as
well as the responsibility of maintaining them. Examples of such cases would be
in: - Ichikawa Danjuro line which specializes in the style known as 'rough
business'.In Sawamura Sojuro line and its 'soft business'(wagoto) style.In Onoe
family with its tradition of performing ghost plays.
In addition to these, complete plays may be associated with one particular line or
family. The Kabuki juhachiban (Kabuki Eighteen) is an example which is a group
of eighteen plays long connected with the Ichikawa Danjuro line. They illustrate
the rough style of acting as a collection, which was a speciality of the Danjuro
line. Specific performances techniques concern the second level of Kata.
Kata on the second level can be divided into
 Acting techniques which includes both voice and movement
 Techniques of Costume make up and wigs used by the actor
 Staging techniques which support the actor.
Mie
The most significant and also the most striking of the standard movement kata in
kabuki is mie. An actor „winds up‟ with arms and legs ,moves his head in a
circular motion then with a snap of the head, freezes into a dynamic pose to
perform mie.
Mie for a moment halts the action of the play and intensifies its emotion. Mie is
held for several seconds then is progressively relaxed and the play continues.
This basic pattern of progress will be varied considerably to suit different types of
scenes. Like for example head movements may be vertical or circular or feet may
be spread or together. The actor may speak while performing a mie; however it is
a common principle of kabuki acting to move and to speak in succession rather
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than at the same time. Hence it is more customary for the actor to speak before and
after mie rather than throughout its movement. The strongest mie are accompanied
by the sound of wooden clappers; softer mie are performed in silence without
dialogue, music or sound effects.
Mie almost without doubt originated in aragoto acting. The mie posture of arms
akimbo, fists clenched and feet extensively planted apart can be seen in prints as
early as 1688-1699. In most influential types of mie, the actor crosses one eye over
the other (nirami) to make his expression vicious.
There are many types of mie. The most common is Genroku mie, named after the
Genroku period (1688-ca. 1723) in which it was created. One arm is raised behind
the body with fist clenched and the opposite leg is thrust forward.
An example of this would be Saba Goro‟s pose at the conclusion of The Maid of
Dojo Temple .In soku or sheaf mie the actor stands straight, heels together, head
up. This indicates a self contained proud attitude and shows to good advantage an
actor with an attractive physique.
In fudo mie, the actor clasps a Buddhist rosary in the upturned fist of his left hand
and holds a sword upright in his right hand at chest level, reproducing the well
known statue pose of the fierce god Fudo.
A stone throwing mie captures the moment after the action of throwing.
Yoko or profile mie, Yurei of Ghost mie and hashiramakai or wrapped around a
post mie take their names from their distinctive poses.
These were mie for the single actor, there are other types which are performed by
two or three or sometimes more actors together.Tenchijin or heaven earth man mie
describes a group mie for three people and takes its name from the fact that the
main actor centre is visually the highest and the actors to the right and left of him
are progressively lower.
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A two actor mie in which one is high and the other low is called tenchi or heavenearth mie. The actor in the heaven position often mounts a small platform to
increase the grandeur of the pose.
Hippari or pulling mie illustrates conflicting emotions of a number of characters
on stage at the same time. An act or scene is often finished with hippari mie.
Roppo
Roppo or the conceited walk is a second movement kata, the literal meaning of
which is „six directions‟ movement. Roppo exhibits to good advantage an actor‟s
handsome appearance and masculine carriage. It originated in pre-genroku kabuki
and is based on the swashbuckling walk (tanzen roppo) affected by young men
parading themselves through the licensed quarters and before the bathhouses
where unofficial prostitutes worked. A number of vigorous roppo have been
created which conclude a play with the hero‟s exit down the hanamichi.
Tobi roppo or flying roppo is the best known of these. The actor moves down the
hanamichi in great leaps and bounds, his arms and legs literally flying in six
directions. The onnagata actor playing in the role of the one armed demon in the
Thorn tree exits down the hanamichi in katate or one armed roppo.Tadanobu, the
fox in The Thousand Cherry Trees of Yoshitsune performs kitsune or fox‟s roppo.
Tachimawari
Tachimawari, literal meaning „standing and turning about‟ is a stylized combat
and is the third type of movement kata. These combats are the most active scenes
in kabuki and are highly spectacular. Tachimawari consists of linked sequences of
movements not found elsewhere in performance. Sections with Tachimawari
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culminate in mie. The actions are performed to geza music (especially the drums)
and they are reinforced by cadenced patterns, beaten out by wooden clappers.
There are two types of Tachimawari movements. Slow motion, extremely stylized
slashing or stabbing actions of a character who is attempting to murder an
opponent. Each attack culminates in a mie. The movements form a grotesquely
beautiful dance of death. This kind of Tachimawari has not attracted much
attention from Japanese scholars and remains to be analyzed in detail.
The Second type of Tachimawari pits a single hero against a group of constables,
monks or gallants dressed alike who move in unison as in a dance chorus (called
yoten). They may number as many as twenty or thirty and they attack the hero, and
sometimes en masse, sometimes in groups of eight or six or four, and sometimes
singly in quick succession carrying identical weapons(swords, poles , buckets , or
in cases of shosagoto flowering branches).
The purpose of the attack is to capture the hero and not to kill him. The Hero
demonstrates his prowess by easily defeating them without actual weapon or body
contact. Movement Kata in these group battles is generically termed tate.
Sequences conclude in beautiful formal poses. The essence of tate movement is
effortlessness, a deft movement, a sharp lunge, a quick dodging, a stylized flick of
the hand to send an adversary flying.
The movements are impassive but beautiful. In other fight scenes the hero, the
heroine, fights one or two opponents of equal rank using as a rule a sword or
sometimes poles. Such a scene is illustrated using the same tate movements as a
group battle Acrobatic flips (tombo-gaeri) are a striking part of tate.A somersault
symbolizes the death of the attacker. He may jump from a platform or into the
river or lake. The nature of some of these acrobatic techniques is apparent in their
names. Body cutting (kirimi), monkey flip, slow flip, somersault of a corpse and
linked flips.
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Conclusion
While witnessing a Kabuki dance-drama, the spectator must be ready to forget
realities for the time being and also be prepared for a complete and “willing
suspension of disbelief” as Kabuki contains much fantasy, myth and symbolism
which cannot stand rational analysis or criticism. . What is interesting to note is
the links of Kabuki with Indian dance. In one of the performance that involved a
big mimetic dance in which the Ferryman told of how the boy abandoned at the
village by a slaver, fell ill and died, calling out his mother‟s name. This theme
provided a great scope for the dramatic talents of the Ferryman who reacted to
every detail of the story in a similar way as Kathakali dancer would have done.
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CHAPTER -4
THE AESTHETIC ASPECTS AND CHARACTER STRUCTURE IN
KATHAKALI AND KABUKI.
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CHAPTER -4
THE AESTHETIC ASPECTS AND CHARACTER STRUCTURE IN
KATHAKALI AND KABUKI.
Introduction
Japan was one of the Asian countries that were influenced by the Indian art,
music and dance. Nearly 1300 years ago, one of the oldest form of dance called
Bugaku, roots its origination from India, through Tibet and China along with the
spread of Buddhism. The melodies that accompany Bugaku still refer to the old
Sanskrit names. The dramatic expression through gestures, facial expression and
movements for the sung words provides more evidence on the Indian influence.
There are many similarities between Indian and Japanese dances and these can be
seen even in Kabuki. It is also believed that the tradition of employing female
dances in the religious shrines in Japan must be an influence of India art and
culture.
While there are many similarities between Kathakali and Kabuki, the dance-lovers
can point out marked difference between them too. Some of the differences arise
due to the basic approach to aesthetics of the two cultures and also in the origin. In
this chapter the scholar explains the common factors of Kathakali and Kabuki.
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A). Kathakali and Kabuki Fundamental Elements and Common Factors in
Acting
The concept of rasa or the aesthetic mood is the unique feature of dance in
India. The moods can be depicted in various ways either through gestures,
movements or the way the phrase is sung. The approach that culminates into a
mood or rasa is what makes the Indian dance so rich. While the Japanese dancing,
miming is highly symbolic and the principle is to find the ultimate gesture, phase,
pose that highlights the essence.
While Kathakali focuses on stories of Hindu epics and mythology, one who wants
to enjoy Kabuki should be ready to be in a world of fantasy, myth and symbolism
keeping aside the rational analysis or criticism. Kabuki is a spectacular
combination of song, dance and acting, so is Kathakali with a combination of
natya, nritta and abhinaya with a background of classical music. One can also
trace the origin of Kabuki to the tradition that is similar to Kathakali. During the
17th century, the Kathakali flourished in the temples and resulted in a fusion of
religious beliefs and artistic tradition. It is said that the creator of Kabuki known as
Okuni was a shrine maiden in the shrine of Izumo and performed in Buddhist
temples and Shinto shrines.
Both of these dance-drama forms are performed by male artists. Although in the
initial years, Kabuki was performed by female dancers attached to religious
shrines, later government banned female dancers. The best looking boy is selected
for female roles. They are provided intensive training and encouraged to look,
behave like females even in real life. As Kabuki tends to give larger-than-life sort
of image, the female gestures needs exaggeration as well as project strong
personality of female characters. This is made possible only through rigorous
training and vigorous dance style which could possibly be done by maleimpersonators rather than small, petite Japanese actresses.
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One of the reasons that can be attributed to male dominance is also the rigor in the
training process. The Kathakali as a dance-drama is one of the highest forms of
yoga, demanding long and arduous years of training with utmost dedication. The
dance life of Kathakali student is similar to one of Yoga. The female roles, played
by young boys or men have to specialize and excel in these roles that projects
grace and beauty.
The Kabuki actor training is also very stringent and the students need to abide by
the laws of complete obedience to his teacher, has a thorough understanding of
classical forms as well as immense concentration. This „religious dedication‟
inculcates „spiritual concentration‟ that helps them withstand long process of
make-up and throw themselves into the stage in full spirit and live up the
characters they enact. The male impersonator undergoes special trainings to bring
in exaggerated female gestures on to the stage.
Kathakali centers on the endless stories of great Hindu epics such as Mahabharata
and Ramayana. The characters are therefore Gods, demons, saintly mortals and
various other mythological and supernatural beings. Each of these characters can
be recognized by the facial make up as well as the costumes. The noble and heroic
characters enacted for the mythological heroes such as Ram, Krishna, Arjuna are
represented by green facial make-up or otherwise called Pachcha. Black or Kari
indicates sinful characters. Fierce or angry personalities have red beards to
highlight the demoniacal nature. White relates to pure and benign roles such
Bhishma grandfather of Arjuna in Mahabharata. Female characters have a softlyshaded make up also called Minukku.
Kabuki characters, on the other hand, revolves around characters such as lovely
princess, brave Samurai, loyal servants, demons in disguise as charming prince or
princess, courtesans etc. The facial make-up even in Kabuki depends on the nature
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of characters. While red denotes bravery and chivalry, blue relates to evil
characters.
Kathakali performance involves numerous hand mudras and facial movements
expressing the characters that are enacted. The accompanying song also helps in
the story telling. To appreciate the dance fully, one may need to understand the
meanings of the various hand mudras. The dancers follow the ancient rules of
mudras as well body movements as a norm, however the gifted or experienced
dancers have the scope of improvising to enhance creativity. On the contrary,
Kabuki actor can improvise a particular role only after he has decades of acting
experience and established his excellence for that role.
While the numerous mudras convey the story in Kathakali, symbolic
representation is the soul of Kabuki. The two main accessories used to express are
the folding fan or Sensu and the, Japanese towel or Tenugui.
The subtle gestures just by holding the sensu or moving it in different positions
can signify the whole universe or represent variety of things such as a sword,
arrow, butterfly, wind, wave or even an umbrella. Tenugui can represent a loveletter, stick, mirror etc. The dance movements include movement of the upper part
of the body, quick jumps; other movements of the lower part of the body with a
mix of gesture and mime, movement of legs are rarely shown.
There is however a fundamental similarity between Indian classical dance such as
Kathakali as well as dances of the East and that is the relationship between the
dance movements and the song or the sung words as they merge together to form
the wonderful expressions. Both Kathakali and Kabuki dance is supported by
orchestra that play an important role in bringing life to the characters the actors
enact. In Kathakali, the orchestra members are the vocalist and his assistant, the
drummers and the cymbalists. The drum reflects many moods ranging from loud
thunder or anger to tender whisper to reinforcing confidence. The sung words of
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musicians, the silent dance by the actors and the language spoken through mudras
and facial movements along with drumbeats converge to a fantastic display of
rhythm and melody. As one of the noted researcher mentioned, “The drumbeats
sometimes echo thunderously while sometimes they fall as lightly and as fast as
flowers scattered”.
The orchestra in Kathakali is present in the stage for the audience to view, but
their attire marks extreme simplicity. On the contrary, the costumes of Kabuki
orchestra are colorful, also called Kamishimo or feudal costumes. The orchestra is
seated at the back centre of the stage facing the audience in a two-tiered dais.
Instruments such as samisen – a long 3 stringed finger-board plucked with a
plectrum, the koto a long 12 stringed harp and a number of drums like the taiko,
otsuzumi, and tsumzumi are used to produce the necessary atmosphere for various
emotional situations.
The other interesting aspects of both the dance styles are the way both the dances
and the performances are staged. The announcement about the Kathakali
performance to be staged is done by tumultuous drumming, while a series of
reverberating thuds on the giant-drum called taiko catches the attention of
audience in a Kabuki play. The Kabuki theatre also extends the stage through the
audience that brings the actor closer to the audience and helps to pause in certain
„dramatic-poses‟ admits the audience. The Kathakali actors perform in the prebuilt stage, however certain characters such as demons making weird noises crash
through the spectators.
The Kabuki plays also utilize many stage devices or properties such as
backgrounds of mountains, boats, lovely gardens, palaces, bamboo-grooves.
Perfect blending of the background scenes, gorgeous costumes, fancy stories and
the melody manages to magnify even the unreal and the unnatural beauty and
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make it look real. As one of the great Kabuki actor, Kichiemon once said “The
stage becomes reality and the rest of the world, a dream”.
Kathakali, the stage accessories are minimal with the hand-held terissheela
(curtain), oil lamp and an ordinary wooden stool. The entire mythological scenes
and the supernatural atmosphere are to be created by the actors and the orchestra.
The spectators of both the dance-drama experience an essence of primal passions
in an unreal, unearthly atmosphere. At the end of the play they walk away,
cleansed and uplifted having witnessed the Gods or the supernatural.
B). Dramatic structure and style of Acting in Kathakali and Kabuki.
 In Kathakali
The stage of Kerala is dominated by Kathakali. This domination is not only over
the Indian stages but also its distinguishing qualities give it an English stage. Some
of its distinguishing qualities are:
 The use of terms like „natya‟ and „nataka‟ which are not common to other
stages of India. This approach of Kathakali to maintain its true and
idealistic loyalty to the Hindu traditions of ancient times is its much
acclaimed quality.
 The portrayal of the role of Bharata in Natya sastra is one of the prominent
feathers off Kathakali‟s hat because of the perfection it attained in
conveying the principalities and elements of dance and drama in a wellbalanced excellent manner.
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Ever since Kathakali rose in popularity, art-lovers have been known to publish
their own versions of the Kathakali story alongside their views that the art form is
„hoary‟, „original‟ and the „only genuine art of India‟. Some of them have been
quoted claiming the traditions of Kathakali are more ancient than that of Bharata
Natya and that its real origination can be traced back to a civilization that existed
before the age of Aryan.
Despite the above claims, the scholars of Kerala confirm the original theory of
Kathakali‟s origin during the latter part of the 17th century. The pages of Kairali
have recorded a controversy between Mr. Krishnan Nair from the Malayalam
section of the Madras University Oriental Research Department and Mr. Ullur
Parameswara Iyer in relation to Kathakali‟s date of origin.
Kathakali originated 400 years back and not during the 17th century, this view is
still much better than Kathakali being called older than Bharata.This story
however does not lack cause or grounds. It has been written that Kathakali or
Attakkatha, basically its first form (Ramanattam) was devised by a chief of
Kottarakkara Swarupam and arose out of a purely Sanskrit drama called
Krishnattam. At that time Sanskrit drama was what ruled the stage.
Similarly, Sanskrit dramas were also staged in parts in Kerala by the Chakyars
(Krishnattam, Koodiyattam, and Prabandham) and these were based out of
Bharata‟s Natya Sastra. Besides all these findings, it was also found that the
greatest of all influences on Kathakali was from Koodiyattam and Chakyar Koottu
which were two older dramatic representations at the time.
It was also made sufficiently clear that Bharata Natya was widely known during
this period and like a banyan tree and its pan-Hindu branching sprouted provincial
shoots which then grew into the provincial varieties of Bharata‟s art.
It is true that Kathakali is the perfect replication of Bharata. India‟s classical
language is Sanskrit just as Sudraka, Bhavabhuti, and Kalidasa are the classical
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poets of India. It is also true that Bharata Muni of Natya Sastra consisted of 36
chapters that have been the basis of Sanskrit dramas and were widely performed
during the ancient times of India. Bharata Muni was therefore concluded to be the
classical dance art of ancient India.
Kathakali is an „uparupika‟ just as Natya has the „rupaka‟ and „uparupaka‟
divisions. Kathakali‟s „uparupika‟ is „bhavabhinaya‟ which means the „vachika‟ or
speech is missing making it a speechless show. These forms of Bharata Natya and
its characteristics combined forms „abhinaya‟, the gesture language. Varieties of
dance and unfinished drama contain an abundance of natyadharmi which is
idealized action and this necessitates a lot of abhinaya. Kathakali‟s absence of
speech thus contributes to its required abhinaya abundance.
There are vast amounts of dramas that were popular and are still enacted even in
the Tamil land which are faithfully based on Bharata art. To state facts, Kathakali
of Malabar is the mute brother of Terukkoottu in Tamil lands. If it wishes to
disclaim the relationship it can only exceed to the extent of Malayalam
disclaiming its Tamil origin. Though Terukkoottu that is now performed on the
streets of Tamil villages took its birth from Bharata‟s art, it was till recent times
packed with „abhinaya‟. It can be said without doubt that Terukkoottu is to Tamil
just as Yakshagana is to Karnataka, Kathakali is to Malabar and Veethinataka is to
Andhra. They are all similar in nature except for unavoidable differences due to
the differences of location.
Kathakali being a speechless art it is termed „nritya‟ instead of „natya‟. Various
other discoveries were made on points that were not noticed before in Kathakali.
Like the fact that „Sringara‟ or love is overdone in Kathakali and vulgarity
(gramyatva) is not non-existent.
„Tandava‟ or „tandava mode‟ is the existence of masculinity and vigor in dance
performed by men. This is prevalent in Kathakali making it a „tandava‟. Kathakali
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has also managed to deviate from „abhinaya‟ as mentioned in Bharata‟s text.
When the „mudras‟ chart is used in comparison it can be clearly noted that
kathakali stands apart .The „Mudras‟ of Kathakali displays influence from various
artists of lower standings.
 In Kabuki
 Formalized acting
Formalization is most effectively demonstrated in the acting in Kabuki, it is one of
the aesthetic principles and the very foundation of the art form. It is a custom for
an actor to study his predecessor‟s model and perfect the style before he prepares
himself for a role in a classical play. Over the period in the development of kabuki
such a model style of formalization has become symbolic which was originally
intended to produce a realistic representation. In the case of most kabuki plays the
most simplest of gestures turn out to be more of dancing than to acting .Every
single part of gesticulation is accompanied by music. Abstraction has taken over
the formalization action of the character to such an extent that it‟s no longer
relevant or has any kind of rational interpretation with the direct contact of the
role.
Mie being a unique technique in Kabuki still retains the principle of formalized
beauty. This technique is used by the actor in at the close of a classical play or at
times in climatic moments by momentarily in a pictorial posture and assumes a
stare and crosses his eyes. Kabuki tends to place the most emphasis on statuesque
beauty in this unique style of acting.
Idealized elocution is the essence of realistic domestic play more than that of
naturalism. Long monologues have more prioritization between singing and
ordinary conversation. Often case is when even dialogues and monologues are
recited to accompaniment of music. Movement assumes the form of a modified
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form of dancing and hence is more rhythmic along with the action on the stage.
 Colour Scheme
Another fundamental characteristic in Kabuki drama is the inculcation of
spectacular beauty. Extravagance with respect to costumes and make-up in Kabuki
Drama is commonly recognized by theatre people around the world. Kabuki owes
its popularity to a very large extent to its pictorial beauty. The dazzling effect it
has on the audience's eyes with its wonderful spectacle of the superb colours
ensures full enjoyment even if the plot of the story is not convincing enough.
 Acoustic elements
Music is the soul of the art of kabuki drama. Instruments take both independence
and accompaniment in various forms. Primary instrument is a three stringed one
that similar to balalaika which is played along with plectrum also known as
shamisen. Shamisen music is associated with the entire body of kabuki music.
The inanimate atmosphere of the stage is brought to life with the music as soon as
the curtain opens in almost every case of a historical or domestic play. Being
placed in the left corner of the stage the musicians are well hidden from the
audience's view. The actor conducts his dialogue and performance and is cued on
with the music starting of which also serves as a leadoff. Music forms a more
dominant part in cases of dance-dramas as the musicians are in full view of the
audience.
Based on various schools, Kabuki can be classified into about a dozen
categories.nagauta, tokiwazu, kiyomoto and gidayu -which is most often used in
drama adapted from the puppet theatre are some of the most frequently used today.
Audio effects also play an important part in kabuki performance along with music.
The sounding of wooden clappers at the opening and closing of a kabuki play
forms one of the most unique among others , this is also repeated in rhythmical
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staccato measures .Throughout the course of the play these wooden clappers are
also used as a musical percussion.
C). Innovations and experiments in Kathakali and Kabuki and Its Acting
Techniques.
Drama is the soul of Kathakali. The dance drama follows the
technique of Nritya, Abhinaya and other classical styles. Kathakali takes the
anatomic structure of the human body seriously by making use of the muscular
and skeleton parts of the human body in its structure. Unlike other forms of dance,
Kathakali focuses on the use of the muscles and priority is given to facial muscles,
making the movement of these parts one of the most essential elements in the
training routine it employs for new dancers. The positioning of the body has the
dancer standing feet apart, soles touching the ground and the knees turned out,
taking the shape of a rectangle or a square. This position was coined Mandala
sthana by Bharata. This shape gives the dancer the ability to cover space in the
same shape as he is. The left foot is met by the right covering one part of the
square. The dancer comes back to the first corner after touching the second corner
and the third corner of the rectangle by only touching four points of the rectangle
in whole. The dancer with the use of his arms and hands moves in shapes of
squares or rectangles or clearly-drawn diagonals of these squares and rectangles.
While the hands execute figures of eight and the eyes follow these movements
occasionally, the movement is restricted to the imaginary geometric pattern
initially constructed. Unlike Bharatanatyam, the knees are kept turned out with a
distance between the feet is maintained at two to three feet. The body is used as
one unit or occasionally two when the torso is divided into upper and lower parts.
The technique includes characteristics like jumps, leaps, spirals, and sweeps. The
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extension of the leg is part of the routine and the shifting of weight from one leg to
the other is done with ease. An essential part of the dancer‟s training is the use of
the facial muscles separately. The movement of the eyeballs, eyebrows, and lower
eyelids are used precisely as described in Natyasastra unlike any other dance form
in India. The training is not considered complete without the mastery of these
movements.
The Nritta parts of Kathakali has the dancer executing jumps and leg-extensions
while still covering space in the rectangular and square shapes within a Tala or
time cycle. The Kalasams are the units of nritta positions and can be compared to
the toras and tukras of the Kathak technique or the Tirmanams of the
Bharatanatyam technique. As in Bhratanatyam and Kathak, the dance patterns
conclude in multiples of three called Araddis.
Adakkams and Tomakarams are other types of nritta sequences and are based on
different types of system manipulation. Pure nritta technique appears as a prologue
to the dance dramas. The todayam and the purappadu are two typical nritta
numbers. In both the numbers, the dancer starts the movement with the slow pace
of the metrical cycle and follows it with the mnemonics of the chenda and
mandalam, thus executing the nritta patterns. The arm or hand gestures are not too
much and are usually only variations between the hamsasya and the alapadma.
The fundamental unit of rhythm is the Kalasams. Just as in Bharatanatyam,
multiple Kalasams are sometimes used and these conclude in multiples of three or
as mentioned above making them longer than the smaller units. Baliya Kalasams
are the bigger Kalasams. The Vattam Vachchu Kalasam represents the movement
in space in circular shapes. The longest and largest Kalasam is the Asthakalasam.
This includes the combination of 8 units that are different in each nature and
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constituting a Champa Tala or a 10-beat metrical cycle. The point to be noted is
the fact the passages of nritta are a part of the whole dramatic spectacle.
The Kalasams work in moods (Bhava) that are usually emotional. While the
passages are sometimes delivered in a compassionate mood, at other times they
are delivered in an abrupt manner. The delivery always depends on the mood of
the play and the dramatic situation. They are introduced in a number of ways like
for example: the big Baliya or large Kalasams are delivered in scenes of heroism
or battle whereas the Araddis Kalasams are delivered in scenes of romance or
heroism and the Astha kalasams are delivered only at particular occasions. These
are interrupted only by the padas being sung and usually precede or follow the
abhinaya which is sung by the principal and the supporter.
As in Choliyattam, the abhinaya allows the actor free reign over the performance,
allowing him the freedom to act out his character or role as he deems right at the
moment and does not hinder him from having to follow the pattern of the songs or
dance. The mime aspect of the performance also allows the actor to improvise on
his acting to his heart‟s content. All that is required is that the actors portray the
character rightfully.
Hastas or the hands and eyes are also used by Kathakali as communication tools
alongside the movements of the face, torso and lower limbs. This tradition is
however unique in comparison with Abhinaya darpana and Natyasastra. While the
names of the movements are mostly common, the gestures are named differently.
The hand extension is called tripataka in Kathakali while it is called pataka in the
Natyasastra and Abhinaya darpana traditions. The Hasta Lakshana is the texts used
in Kathakali. These texts describe 24 hastas of single hands and combined hands
equally.
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Each hasta can be used with another hasta with its own permutation or
combination. It can be applied with the movement of the eyes and the arms,
delicately, with energy or without and at various other levels. All this put together
adds up to a vocabulary of over one thousand words which can be used to
communicate verbs, moods, sentences, inner states of being, names, status, or
situations. Kathakali perfected the Kudiyattam tradition and all that it entailed and
also stretched beyond its realm to elaborate the language gesture to reach a
dignified stature that no other form had yet attained.
Kabuki as a theatrical art, places the actor on an utmost significant level when you
compare it to other drama forms. The plays for almost all of classical kabuki were
written by writers who were part of the theatres. Based on the actor‟s weaknesses
and strengths in performance the writers modified the roles to enhance their acting
skills. Since these plays helped them to shine a lot in the audience‟s view these
actors made changes to the plot to suit their needs.
Investigation of most performances shows us that Kabuki in its current form is
indebted to the actor. Based on the way it is performed we can deduce that Kabuki
is very demanding for the actor himself. For people interested to become actors in
Kabuki theatre, it is very essential to start their training all the way from their
childhood as it involves a lot in the foundation stage itself.
Kabuki consists of dancing and music and this forms a major part of the training.
The acting skills and techniques practiced in kabuki is more often a family
inheritance in cases of the actors, it‟s been passed down from many generations.
This often dates back up to 17 generations. This forms the base of its rich culture
and has helped this art sustain for so long with its very huge training requirements.
The passing down of the skills through the family lineage has helped Kabuki
maintain and preserve itself over the years.
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Back in those days it was very customary for an actor to play only the roles that
suited him better; this led to demarcation is the character study. This trend is no
longer followed and has helped the actors to become more flexible and well
adapted.
Onnagata, the female impersonator is feminine beauty created in the eyes of the
audience using the right technique, it‟s more artificial and it‟s more of a way of
looking at the psychology of the women and imitating their behavior.
Kabuki actor in the present generation is so acclaimed that they have even been
elected to the Academy of art. In Japan this is considered the utmost honor for an
artist from any background. Unlike back in the olden days when the actors were
much lower in social status compared to others despite their popularity among
general crowd. Every single Kabuki actor also has a special identification based on
his house. This formed his last name. Examples of such would be Nakamuraya
and Otawaya. Actors were cheered upon using their house name when they
excelled on the stage. This was one of the basic functions of having a house name.
Apart from actors who perform on the stage, there are several others who are
generally found doing various things on the stage. These stage hands (or
assistants) are completely in black and they wear hoods so cover their identity.
They appear in kabuki theatre from the time the curtain is drawn open. They are
called Kurogo or the man in black. They are supposed to be ignored by the
audience. Kurogo is usually always hiding behind the actor.
The staging in current day Kabuki is very similar to the modern day style and is
more westernized except for the few qualities like the flower ramp called
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hanamichi or mawar-butai. Even accessories and the complete construction of the
Kabuki theatre follow this trend unlike ancient days.
Hanamichi
Hanamichi is a long corridor all the way from the backside of the hall leading to
the left side of the stage which is used for the performance as well as a pathway
for the actors while getting onto the stage or when leaving it. This is on higher
level compared to the audience seating. This is referred to as the hanamichi or
sometimes even called the flower walk ramp.
The stage in kabuki is not stationary, it moves in a circle, more or less revolves
and consists of multiple parts, and this feature was first introduced in Japan more
than 300 years back. This helps in making changes transitions in the scene really
fast without having a lot of breaks in the scene or the plot. This revolving stage is
referred to as mawari-butai.
Unlike American and European theatres, In Kabuki the proscenium or the part of
the theatre stage that‟s in the front of the curtain is much lower and much wider in
comparison. And also the stage is not square and is more of a long rectangle
compared to anywhere else in the world.
D). Kathakali and Kabuki Elements in Costumes and Make-up.
To acquire a representation of characters portraying moods and
particular aspects of life instead of appearing human or as an imitation of men‟s
actions, the dramatic tradition of India and their Asian counterparts developed a
complex and stylized costume and make-up system. Although we do not see much
of the stylized costuming in India as in other Asian countries, Kathakali brings a
highly stylized make-up tradition to India. This make-up style that Kathakali
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embodies may remind some of the Chinese opera or the Japanese Kabuki.
However, if noticed closely, the Indian distinction is hard to miss.
The basic principle of each color‟s significance to moods and characteristics is
maintained while the notable similarities between face contours in Kathakali and
the Chinese opera or the Kabuki theatre is distinctively inexistent.
Considerable reference on facial make-up and color symbolism (Aharyabhinaya)
is made by Natyasastra. The symbolism of colors in relation to moods is
associated with just in the ragas and raginis. Light green is said to represent
sringara, red-raudra and yellow-adhbu
While Kathakali follows all these associations and applies them, they are still
maintained as basic principles while deciding on facial make-up and the portrayal
of the color complexities. The ambition here is to transform the actor into the god
or demon he is portraying. Once the facial make-up is done the actor is no longer
recognized as himself. He is from then on to be identified with as the character and
addressed likewise. The make-up artist is essential not only at the training stage
but also in the performing stage. He is called Chouttikaran and he is supposed to
have great experience with the training of art and a mastery of colors. He usually
gains mastery on color by having drawn on coconut shells, acquiring desired
consistencies of colors by experimenting with them if grinding, soaking, or mixing
them up is what it took.
The color green (Pachcha) is used for the make-up if the character in question is
Sattvika. A light green paste is applied from the jaw-bone to the cheeks and the
eyes are given a lotus-eyed look. Different designs can be made on the fore-head
depending on the character. Krishna and Arjuna would thus require two different
designs on the forehead. Paper pr papier-mache cut-outs are attached to the jawbone to give it an elongated appearance and enlarge the dimensions of the face.
The costume and make-up thus transforms the actor from human stature to
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superhuman stature. The Chutti (make-up) is a white paste that is made out of
ground rice and lime and the fine line at the jaw where the white coloring ends is
used as the point from which the false jaw and chin are drawn.
When raudra or ferocity is the mood to be portrayed, a big black moustache is
drawn on the upper lip reaching to the upper cheek bone. This is how Bhima is
transferred to the raudra Bhima character from the pachcha character that he
initially portrays. Kings and heroes, who could not be generalized as basic villains
or anti-heroes, are given their distinction by the appliance of red patches on their
green make-up. An oval red and white design is made on the upper cheek and on
the nose with the green make-up still used as base. Upturned moustaches are used
for both the raudra and kathi types and a blob of white pith is also applied to the
nose to increase the character‟s fantastic stature.
The costume in Kathakali:
 The costumes used in Kathakali are unique, scared and vibrantly
colorful. They work in harmony with the make-up used on the actor.
 The weight and bulk of the costumes require experienced actors as they
cannot be carried in the style required by just any actor.
 The designs of the costumes are taken from Krishnattam and
Koodiattam.
 The costumes are made by people akin to special crafts and styles.
 It is considered a great privilege to wear the costumes because it
immediately transforms the actor into a divine character. Once adorned
with the beautiful costumes, the actor embarks on a psychological
journey of bliss.
 The costume of the male character consists of an enormous skirt that is
draped over starched cloth. A large woolen jacket, wooden ornaments
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and an intricately carved wooden headdress covered in gold foil called
Kirikidam is used.
 Before the Kirikidam is placed on the head of the actor, he covers his
head with black cotton head scarves and sprinkles the headdress and his
feet with water. This signifies the purification of the attire and himself
and a prayer for his good performance.
 The other characters of the performance have costumes designed to
specifically suit the characters they portray.
The Costumes in Kabuki
The Kabuki costume is a rather complicated matter, sometimes
weighing as much as fifty or sixty pounds, consisting of several layers of kimono
which must be cautiously arranged when the actor takes a sitting position on the
floor or when he moves to a new position or at times when he performs a mie .
At no instance during the performance is an ungraceful costume line permitted.
The stage assistant is unvarying in his attention to the actor‟s costume, arranging
its folds or adjusting its line. The actor frequently removes his right arm from his
kimono, preparatory to fighting or other strenuous activity and at the conclusion of
such scenes the actor replaces it. In such cases the stage assistant helps the actor.
A fairly common occurrence is what may be described as a partial change of
costume (hada wo nugu); the kimono is held in place by a wide band, the obi
around the waist, the upper part of the kimono is removed to reveal another
kimono of different pattern, design and colour. In such cases the stage assistant
helps the actor out of the upper part of the kimono and arranges it around the
actor‟s waist. Most of the times, the outer kimono is completely removed with the
help of the stage assistant to show an entirely different costume beneath it.
Hikinuki (pulling out) is a more rapid costume change which is used for the most
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part in dance pieces.
The outer layers of the costume or the kimono are mostly sewn together very
loosely so it can be removed easily to help in transition of costume changes
according to the scene. This is generally done with the help of a stage hand who at
the right time in the scene pulls out the kimono from part of the actor‟s costume to
expose a new costume underneath.Considerable dexterity is required on the part of
the stage assistant for this almost instantaneous costume change because it is done
to ensure that there is no pause in the dance movement.
All costumes removed during the course of the play are unremarkably removed
from the stage unless they are to be reworded. The chief character in the play
„Just a Moment” adorns the most striking costume in entire Kabuki. This
particular costume which traditionally requires nine times as much material as the
ordinary costume .Also in this play unlike others two stage assistants are required
just to manipulate the costume, which is renowned by its enormous square sleeves
kept in shape by steel ribbing.
At the end of the play, the stage assistants remove the steel ribs so that the actor is
able to move freely in a scene of fighting. Having conquered his enemies, the
character performs a mie, and at this point the stage assistants hold up the
exaggerated sleeves, restoring them to their original sureness so that the mie is
made more prominent.
The stage assistant diligently sees to the comfort of the actor. He brings the actor
water or tea during a long scene, he supplies him with the Japanese equivalent of a
handkerchief, and he wipes the perspiration from the actor‟s face after an arduous
scene. These acts are usually performed with the actor facing upstage. The actor is
often required to sit in a kneeling position, his legs under him, for an extensive
time.
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Colours of Kabuki
Strong basic colours such as red, black and green were used to express kabuki
unlike the sober and restrained hues of classical Japanese art. Kabuki positively
delights in violent clashes of brilliant, even vulgar colours.
Kabuki's conception of beauty was the creation of the tow of the Edo period and
this phenomenon is quite often ignored by many who dilate on Japanese
aesthetics. The evolution of kabuki was along with the woodblock print and also
with the modern fashions of those days. In all these colour played a very
conspicuous role.
In an age which was extremely backward in methods of artificial lighting, kabuki
was more advanced in its use of rich and vivid colour schemes. Colour was
exploited to the maximum as Kabuki was restricted to daylight hours as modern
lighting was not available at that time. This was achieved using methods which
were far more sophisticated. Examples of such cases are in bukkaeri and hikinuki
techniques where by means of changes in costume colours could be achieved
instantaneously.
Make-up formed another method in examples such as kumadori, in which bold
and brilliant colours are used not only for their visual appeal but also as a clue to
the nature of the character portrayed. Richest and most sumptuous colours are
most evident in cases of historical plays, this was evident not just in make-up and
costumes but also in the scenery and settings.
Most impressive are the gold and vermilion temples and palaces that rise into
view on a trap lift, or a great gate surrounded by a landscape of cherry blossoms
upon which an arch-villain or thief is likely to be set up, smoking a pipe and
loving the view. In contrast to the visual magnificence‟s of historical plays, the
colours seen in present-day (sewamono) dramatizations are relatively subdued.
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Properties used in Kabuki
The Japanese are usually trained to this position from childhood but again when
excessively prolonged this results in impaired circulation and the actor finds it
difficult to rise. A low wooden seat is placed under the actor in long scenes so that
his circulation will not be cut off. The only other kind of seat seen on the kabuki
stage, other than the cushions on which the Japanese ordinarily sit and occasional
folding chair for dignitaries is a stool approximately two and a half feet high
which is used by important characters in long scenes. This is placed behind the
actor by a stage assistant and the actor sits on it, without having first to ascertain
its presence. Typically, the actor sitting on this stool is conceived to be standing
and it is provided merely for his comfort.
The stage assistant helps in the management of large or cumbersome properties
when they would hinder the actor‟s free movement. The stage assistant is the
manipulator of a variety of stage effect properties whose use is also closely
synchronized with the movement of the actor. These properties consist basically of
a bamboo pole, painted black, around six feet long known as sashidashi at the end
of which is attached a theatrical object.
The stage assistants also prompt, in former times, during the first three days of a
new play; the authors dressed in the black costume of the kurombo and took
positions directly behind the actors, script in hand. Today, the author no longer
performs this function, but since the Kabuki program is changed monthly and
there are seldom more than three days of rehearsal of the eight or ten plays that
constitute the program, during the first several days of the month prompting is one
of the stage assistant‟s most important activities. The stage assistant crouches
upstage of the actor, from this position prompting can be done more efficiently
than in the Western theatre where it‟s performed from the wings or from a
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prompter‟s box at the front of the stage.
Most important aspect of all these is that the stage assistant makes himself
unobtrusive as possible. He usually enters the stage quietly and swiftly sometimes
at a run; he takes a position behind the actor or behind a screen or a tree or even a
platform. When the stage setting offers no place of concealment, he kneels facing
upstage in a position which in the case of Kabuki aesthetics makes him
nonexistent.
He is meant not to be seen and so efficiently is his work done that even a foreigner
after seeing a few kabuki performances becomes unaware of his presence.The
stage assistant in the Kabuki does not obliterate himself because he is a nonrealistic intrusion into the stage picture. He does so in order that he will not detract
from the total design- a design which by his arrangement of the actor‟s costume
and his skilful manipulation of properties he has assisted in creating.
A stage assistant is crucial to the Kabuki on both functional and aesthetic grounds.
Without him the actor would be gratified to arrange or change his own costume, to
procure his own properties at the appropriate moment, and would thus lose to a
major or even damaging extent his expressiveness. The stage assistant in liberating
the actor of these obligations enables the actor to perform his true function- that of
acting.
A man dressed in black work clothes, known as the kyogenkata, appears as he is
needed during the course of the performance in the extreme down left corner of
the stage. The stage is equipped with a flat board, which are about eighteen inches
wide and two feet long. Along with two clappers made of oak, about nine inches
and three inches thick called ki or hyoshigi. He places the board on the stage floor
and kneels before it with a clapper in either hand; he performs complicated
rhythmical patterns as accompaniment to certain parts of the play. This
performance of the kyogenkata is known as tsuke-uchi.
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The striking together of resonant pieces of wood has been used as an attention
getting device in Japan since ancient times and is used outside the theatre
throughout the country even today.
 A Buddhist priest chanting sutras accompanies himself rhythmically by beating
wooden clappers together.
 The night watchman in every city and town goes his rounds beating wooden
clappers and the sound has multiple messages: - It advises others that he is on
the job, it reminds them to be careful of fire, and it is a warning to any burglar
in the vicinity to be off.
In Kabuki the tsuke-uchi is similarly used as a device for attracting attention, but it
is also used as a prosaic means of underlining the actor‟s movement. When a
running entrance is made onto the stage, it is almost habitually accompanied by a
brisk beating of wooden clappers, beginning fortissimo and ending pianissimo.
When a running exit is made from the stage, the dynamic pattern is the opposite.
At these entrances and exits, which are of relatively short duration, the tsuke-uchi
swiftly and sharply draws attention to them and adding up the excitement of the
actor‟s movement. The tsuke-uchi is sometimes accompanied by the movement of
the actor on the hanamichi as he approaches or leaves the shichi-san,
predominantly when that movement shows a collective increase or decrease in
tempo.
In the scenes known as tachimawari, ballet like scenes of fighting, the tsuke-uchi
is requisite; here it creates no simple rhythms, but a luxuriantly syncopated pattern
of sound which is frequently contrapuntal to the actor‟s movement. The mie is
always accompanied by the tsuke-uchi, the method of usage varying with the
nature of the mie; in some cases the clappers are beaten rapidly in a general
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crescendo as the mie reaches its climax, in others a few rather widely separated
beats mark the introduction to the climax. But the climax of the mie is customarily
announced by a single sharp beat of the clappers.
tsuke-uchi„s emotional effect is difficult to describe. The sound is sharp, crisp,
clear and immediate. It is relatively high pitched and thin, yet resonant. There isn‟t
the thickness of the sound of the drum, although it has the same pulse-quickening
quality. The tsuke-uchi, like the sound of the shamisen, is rather sharp edged and
biting and it draws immediate attention. The sound does not impose itself on or
even over power the movement of the actor.
With tsuke-uchi a structure of purely theatrical sound, nonrepresentational and non
musical is erected about the actor, taking its form from his faction, frequently
contrapuntally, and drawing a precise aural outline about his movement.Kikkake
has been a way to create sound effects with the use of wooden clappers. Most
often used before the opening act of the curtain to signal the curtain time for the
actors and stage hands who help in the preparations behind the curtain. The
fashion in which these clappers are used is also unique considering that they are
beaten against each other and not against a board like usual.
The drawing of the Kabuki curtain is always accompanied by the beating of the
wooden clappers, but they are never used with the dropping of the curtain. With
the opening and closing of the curtain, the pattern of sound is the same: The beating begins slowly and is gradually accelerated. The sound not
only attracts attention to the opening or closing of the curtain but also
creates a certain excitement and anticipation in the audience.
 The sound invests the movement of the curtain with the same dramatic
emphasis as the tsuke-uchi creates about the actor.
 This pattern – a gradual acceleration of the tempo to a climax, rather
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like the building up of the waves as it moves towards the shore- is a
basic pattern of the kabuki.
 It is utilized in musical accompaniments and appears in the actor‟s
movement.
E). Music
Kathakali Music
In temples of Kerala, music has always been a way to stir up devotional feeling
and symbolizing the feeling of well being and is also a form of celebration for
many years. Kathakali took into this part of the temple music and used it for its
own development. This helped in its dance dramatization and also traditional story
telling techniques.
A brass gong also known as changila is beaten with a wooden stick to maintain a
rhythm or tala. This is done by the singer while standing back stage
simultaneously another singer uses a set of cymbals also known as elatalam.
There are three types of drums in use in Kathakali:1. Madalam, which is a kind of drum played with one hand of the drummer‟s
hand covered in rice paste and cloth wrap and bare hand on the other.
2. Chenda, which is performed with a set of sticks which are slightly turned
upwards at the side where it‟s close to the drummer‟s hand.
3. Eddeka, is performed in a totally different fashion since it‟s not beaten, the
stick is moved on the inner section of the drum to produce a much softer
version of the sound.
Ponani and Sinkidi are the two main vocalists that are part of Kathakali, Ponani is
the main vocalist and sinkidi forms the minor one. The poetic and distinctive
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pronunciation of the Kathakali songs is something to always treasure as a part of
Malayalam literature. The hand gestures or the mudras are also equally close as
part of the treasure, they are used as a replacement for spoken language.
The musicians sing the words from backstage along with the performing of the
drums and the musical instruments while the actor translates the meaning of it into
silent facial expressions and different compositions of poses and mudras. With the
progression of the songs, the actors perform without words and life encompassing
expressions and help to recreate the visions of epic and bring them to life in a
fantasy world. The acting and dancing is in synchronization of the rhythm. Nrithya
or dance and abhinaya or acting is inseparable parts of the mudras.
Kabuki Music
Kabuki performance as a whole can be described as a musical of sorts with added
special effects. Kabuki music is not factual and it‟s based more on its strong
cadence quality. What began as a dance form back in the ages still remains to be
the same even after all these years. Even though kabuki is filled with music and
sound on every side, it still doesn‟t precede the actor but more often compliments
him in his acting. The dancer or the kabuki actor still is the supreme reigning in all
forms in this art. And music forms a halo around him, thus creating that theatrical
articulacy and magnificence.
Sounds of Kabuki
Aural colours are what sounds of kabuki are referred to as – meaning those that
appeal to the ears and not to the eyes. Kabuki music is known as hayashi and can
be broadly categorized into two main categories.
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1. Debayashi
Which is music performed on stage in full view of the audience.
2. Kagebayashi
The on stage musicians are situated either at the back of the stage on a dais of red
felt or at one or other of the stage's two sides (occasionally both). Their
instruments generally speaking, consist of shamisens, drums and a flute (in the
lyrical or nagauta style) or shamisens alone (in the narrative or joruri style) with
the addition in both cases of singers.
The off stage variety of music is performed behind the black latticed screen called
kuromisu of a small room situated at the left of the stage as seen from the
audience.
For this reason, this type of music is called kuromisu (or geza) music and, together
with singers, consists of musicians who play not only the shamisen but also a
whole range of percussion and other instruments including drums, bells, gongs and
flutes. These are used to re-create hundreds of accompanying melodies and themes
that have become more or less fixed by custom and tradition. Everything from
ceremonial court music to lively festival tunes are executed by them. Its
tremendous variety is perhaps the most remarkable feature of kuromisu music.
Instead of just relying on sheer visual effects like in most cases of theatre, sound is
used in its place in Kabuki to bring about the sense of rain or wind. A large drum
is used to create sounds that indicate a fast flowing river or the waves in an ocean.
Even the soundless sound of falling snow can be effectively conveyed. This and
other sound effects have an unreal quality that excites the audience's interest. A
sound fundamental to kabuki is that of the hyoshigi. Essentially two wooden
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blocks that are struck together at increasing speed as the curtain is run open or shut
at the beginning or conclusion of a scene.
This is an art itself, the striking of the hyoshigi is an crucial staging convention,
one of the best examples of which occurs at the start of the play Kanadehon
Chusingura (The Treasury of Loyal Retainers).In this case the hyoshigi is struck
forty seven times as the curtain slowly opens at the beginning of act 1 because the
number of retainers is forty seven.
Another type of hyoshigi is the one where it‟s not struck together but downward
against a board placed on the floor of the stage at the far right of the stage as seen
from the audience. This is achieved in a variety of rhythmic patterns to accompany
fight scenes, a very rapid entry or exit along the hanamichi, or most important of
all to emphasize the mie poses of the leading actors.
The most distinctive and indeed critical sound in Kabuki is that of the
Phenomenon-al shamisen, a three-stringed instrument plucked with a large ivory
plectrum. Introduced into Japan via China and Okinawa, the shamisen provides
the utmost basic accompaniment to Kabuki, sometimes a romantic, even aesthetic
atmosphere. Kabuki has involuntarily become a conveyance of communication of
Japanese cultural values and perspectives.
The consecutive fashions and tastes of various historical periods have affected
Kabuki for good as well as for ill. Some of Kabuki's past has disappeared entirely;
some has remained exactly as it was originally formed and initiated on the stage of
yesterday; some has been refined and reinforced, even modernized beyond all
recognition. Despite all this the overall appearance of Kabuki today is essentially
and aesthetically the same as it has always been throughout its history. The trend
that was brought forth after the World War II of rejecting all styles and past
thoughts
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By Japanese was followed in case of Kabuki art form too. This created a downside
for the theatre and was draining out the art slowly. Really popular productions of
kabuki which helped the rebirth of Kabuki post the world war era owes itself to
Director Mesuji Takechi. Many stars performed alongside Takechi, one of the
chief actors of this period is Nakamura Ganjiro III from 1931. He came to be
known or referred to as Nakamura Senjaku; he was so popular that an entire phase
or period was named after him „Age of Senjaku‟.
„To come out and to declaim „is what the word degatari means in literal terms. It
is written in Chinese with two characters. Musicians and singers who perform on
the stage are called degatari in Kabuki. The difference between them and the other
sound effects team like the geza who are placed on the right of the stage is that
they are in plain view of the audience.
The word degatari suggests the fine quality of the kabuki music platform because
it is mostly explanatory and also description. Music created with the help of
shamisen accompanied by the narration of the text is one of the key elements of
the kabuki production.In addition to the word chobo, the words joruri and gidayu
are also used to describe the musical-narrative element of the doll theatre play in a
way that is rather confusing to the foreigner.
Although a variety of musical instruments are used in the Kabuki theatre, the
Shamisen is basic and indispensable. The Shamisen was introduced into Japan
between 1558 and 1569. It was brought from the Ryuku islands to the port of
Sakai. This three stringed instrument was called Jamisen (snake skin string)
because the sounding box was covered with snake skin was played with a bow. It
came into hands of a certain Nakashoji, a player of the biwa, a four stringed
plucked instrument of ancient origin. Nakashoji used the plectrum in playing the
jamisen, changed the snake skin to cat skin and the instrument became the
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Shamisen(three string) in much the same form in which it exists today. The
popularity of the shamisen was immediate; it was first used in the Kabuki about
1624 and it remains today the chief musical instrument of Japan, indispensable
accompaniment of native singing and dancing.
Despite the importance of musical narration to the Kabuki performance, this
element of the production is not permitted to detract from the central position of
the actor. This is clearly demonstrated in the difference between the relation of
chobo and actor in the Kabuki performance of doll theatre plays and the relation of
joruri and the dolls in the doll theatre. In the kabuki, the actor is the point of
departure in the performance, and the narrative and descriptive element.
It is not relegated to an obscure position, and is nevertheless subordinate to the
field of dramatic influence affected by the actor.
In the doll theatre the genesis of the performance is the joruri. Both in kabuki and
doll theatre the narrator symbolizes his respect for the script by the traditional
gesture of raising it up in both hands to his forehead before he opens it at the
beginning of a performance and of repeating this gesture at its conclusion. This
gesture states a literal attitude in the doll theatre; in Kabuki however it is empty
convention. In the doll theatre everything derives from the script. The narrator
does not attract attention to himself, even though his delivery of the lines and the
descriptive passages is much more impassioned than that of the narrator in the
Kabuki.
The dolls are the visual centre of interest but their movement is derived directly
from the script. In kabuki the actor takes over the lines from the chobo when it is
convenient to his purposes to do so and allows the narrator to speak them when he
wishes to engage in more expressive activity. In Kabuki the role of the narrator is
considerably reduced and also the dynamics of the performance is shifted from the
script to the actor. Hence the plays of the doll theatre have somewhat greater
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literary value than those of pure kabuki origin.
The performers of the chobo are not actors or dancers in the performance but are
separated from it aesthetically and spatially. They occupy their customary
positions at the left of the stage and wear conventional costumes. They only
participate in the events musically and vocally on the stage.
Although chobo is intimately related to the actor on the stage, it occurs on a
different aesthetic plane, being a purely formal theatrical element existing midway
between actor and audience and is also aesthetically differentiated from both the
actor and the audience. In the performance of plays derived from the doll theatre,
the actor's voice, the voice of the narrator, and the music of the shamisen whose
range is of the human voice, forms an aural continuum.
The actor's line reading is highly formalized and particularly at climaxes begins to
move by the prolongation of vowels in the direction of recitative. The narrator
employs a similar manner of line reading as the actor, but in the narrative passages
and in those which reveal the character's thoughts he moves into what can only be
described as a song or chant. The music of shamisen is closely related to the
characteristic qualities of Japanese speech; however it plays short melodic
passages both in accompaniment to the narrator's voice and the interludes and
introductions. Japanese speech is distinguished by strong consonants, frequent
glottal stops, sharp and almost equal stress on every syllable.
There are consequently almost no syllables which are unstressed. The great
majority of Japanese syllables begin with a consonant, and this characteristic
together with the sharp stress of the syllable produces a generally staccato quality
which is frequently greatly exaggerated in the theatre. The shamisen being plucked
produces the same sharp attack to every note and the consequent lack of legato
quality. It is also capable of producing the intermediate tones of the human voice.
The sound moves with no break or division, from the stylized line reading of the
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actor to the more musical style of the narrator to the music of the shamisen. The
Shamisen frequently performs as in the case of 'weeping' the function of an
abstract human voice. The fluid movement between speech, vocal music and
instrumental music has no parallel in the Western theatre.
Although the word chobo is used generally to describe only the accompaniment of
plays of doll theatre origin, narrators and shamisen players are also used in plays
written for the Kabuki and are employed in exactly the same manner. If the
musical narrative element is not predominant and the stage left entrance is not to
be used, the narrator and the shamisen player do not occupy the platform on the
stage left but actually take up positions behind a bamboo curtain within the room
on the stage level.
Incidental music corresponding in use to that of the Western theatre is performed
by the musicians in the geza. The principal instruments are the voice, the
shamisen, the shakuhachi (a bamboo traverse flute), the fue (a small flute played
laterally), gongs, bells and drums of various sizes. Less frequently used
instruments are the koto,a thirteen-stringed instrument of harp-like quality plucked
with fingers and the kokyu, a three stringed instrument played with a bow.
The music from geza is generally used to create a mood, to state in introductory
fashion the nature of the scene to follow, and to accompany scenes performed in
pantomime. geza music closely resembles that of the soundtrack music of film or
that of the early melodrama.
In characteristic Kabuki fashion, the geza music has been acquired from a variety
of sources- from Noh, dance music, folk tunes and popular songs of kabuki
history. New music is never written for an old play, to ensure its traditional form is
maintained. This makes the total value of the music strong enough that a mere
phrase or statement of music clearly establishes the characteristic quality of the
scene for the general audience. Even when geza music is used throughout a scene
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accompanied by the pantomime it remains thin and with weak links and never
takes on and a role of independence. Thus it remains a subordinate to the dramatic
intent of the scene. A point that's noteworthy is that the shamisen in the chobo is
different from the shamisen used in the geza.
While the later merely performs passages of incidental music in the performance
of doll theatre plays, it is quite often heard with the chobo. Geza's musical
accompaniment is almost constant throughout Kabuki plays; only when a dance
piece or a piece which is predominantly dance is being performed and the
musicians appear on the stage is when geza music is removed.
The men in geza are also used in the production of sound effects. They might not
be literal reproductions of sounds exception being in those cases when a musician
in the geza doubles for the actor who is supposedly playing a flute, a shamisen or
some other type of instrument on the stage. Menacing passages, such as the
appearance of a supernatural being either on the stage of through the trap-lift in the
hanamichi, the movement of a would-be suicide to a river, or a murderer
approaching his victim are generally accompanied by the swift beating of a drum.
This drum is more resonant than the Western Bass drum.
Battle scenes are indicated by drumming and by the single clanging of metal
excluding the shouting or hubbub of voices. The single note of a large temple bell
is not used to represent literally the sound from a nearby temple; instead it‟s used
to denote the feeling of the coming of the night and its attendant loneliness, a
mood much prized in Japanese artistic expression.
Sound from geza does not have the purpose either of literal reproduction or an
extension of the psychological field of the performance beyond the observable
limits of the stage or hanamichi.
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Debayashi
Debayashi is the musicians who appear on the stage as a kind of orchestra and
chorus are called debayashi, a coming out orchestra. They are distinguished from
the orchestra of the geza. When they appear for the accompaniment of dance
pieces which are of Noh origin and use in Kabuki adaptation of Noh settings, they
sit on a two-tiered platform, covered with red cloth at the rear of the stage. The
dancers perform in front of the orchestra as in the Noh theatre and in early kabuki
theatre. This ensemble usually consists of ten shamisen players, ten singers, six
drummers (who use finger drum, hip drum and a large drum of the Noh theatre)
and the player of the fue, the flute of the no theatre, which in range and quality of
sound is rather like the piccolo.
The musicians always sit on a raised platform which may be placed on the right or
left stage facing the audience or the musicians maybe divided into two groups, one
placed on the stage right against the geza and the other in the corresponding
position on the opposite side of the stage.
The musicians, like the chobo performers wear kamishimo, but the colour of their
costume is often related to the colour of the setting. The level of the performance
of the musicians is artistically different from the level of the actor or dancer. The
differentiation with respect to the artistic performance is developed through great
level of accomplishment. Visual continuity between platform, kamishimo, and
setting is not established when the piece is performed in a Noh setting. Just as in
chobo, the kamishimo and the musician's platform have a purely formal quality.
The position of the musicians, the colour and the design of their costumes, the
decoration of their platforms, all of these are determined as are many other
elements of the Kabuki, by tradition. The kabuki theatre draws the production
elements onto the stage as they become important to the flow of the performance.
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 The kyogenkata appears at his corner of the stage to perform the tsuke.
 The chobo performers are seen or are hidden behind a bamboo blinds
according to the importance of the chobo to a given scene.
 The stage assistant appears when he is needed and disappears when he is not
required.
 The stage hand brings on pieces of scenery as they are needed, and removes
them when they are no longer needed.
 The performers of incidental music are hidden from the audience's view in
geza. However when the music is not incidental but an intrinsic part of the
performance, the musicians appear on the stage.
 The sound effects of the kabuki are directed, aesthetically, toward the stage
rather than away from it.
As the western theatre moved toward representation, the fundamentals of
presentation were gradually concealed from the eyes of the audience. The anti
thesis of these characteristics of the representational theatre is found in Kabuki.
F). Repertoire
The Kathakali Repertoire
The light of a single oil-lamp and the sounding of drums is what
call the audience to attention on a Kathakali evening. Melappadam or the playing
of drums is followed by Todayam which is a devotional song where a couple of
characters call upon god‟s blessings. This song is performed behind a curtain that
is held up by two stage hands. Following the Todayam is an Nritta piece called the
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Purappadu where two Pachcha characters appear or the Pandava brothers or the
hero and his companion. The purappadu is just another introductory dance and has
no miming included. The dancer in this performance presents a number of dance
sequences (kalasams) through which the entire Kathakali style is exhibited. After
the purappadu, the play chosen for the evening begins.
A slow revelation of the character is employed which has the actor standing
behind a curtain which is gradually lowered. When strong characters are revealed,
the curtain is held in front of him and he is portrayed as having a battle with the
curtain. Partially hidden from the audience‟s view, the actor performs a couple of
dance sequences behind the curtain to the accompaniment of drums and cymbals.
This is done to heighten the curiosity of the audience and amplify the effect of the
character when he appears fully in sight. This play with the use of the curtain is
called Tiranokku.
After this, the story is carried out via nritta, abhinaya, and natya. The performance
is carried out in specific terms with the Malayalam texts. This helps us conclude
that the Malayalam plays like Kalyana Sougandhikam, Ravanasuravadham, Sita
Swayamvaram, Bali Vijayam and Nala Charitam were specifically written for a
Kathakali dance-drama. The content includes detailed descriptions sometimes to
enable the actor to perform abhinaya and sometimes they contain soliloquies of
characters. The texts also contain keywords that allow the actor to improvise
(sancharibhava) and sometimes dramatic excitement is built up with the available
passages of dialogue and court drama.
The singing of the passages is combined with percussive musical accompaniment.
This makes the singer stop to enable the actor to interpret the literature through
gestures after the padam is sung and the abhinaya has been performed.
Manodharma or this interpretation is what gives the actor the freedom to use
improvisation. If the Manodharma is executed well, the audience could be kept
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captured for hours through just one sequence. This could be followed by the nritta
passages or the kalasams. Kathakali uses these highly stylized techniques in dance,
drama, make-up, costumes and characters with the aim to induce Sthayibhava (a
state) or a rasa. The skill of evoking a rasa is no longer contained by any other
theatric tradition except Kathakali.
Kathakali is a good example of the fact that no matter the diversity in culture and
influence of foreign nations, the Indian roots will still stay firmly grounded in all
its art forms. Although the Portuguese, the Dutch and the Arabs have had
sufficient influence on Kathakali, the Indian traditions overpower them enough to
display a strong Indian personality in all the performances together with
maintaining and still striving to evoke a state of being that has been passed down
from ancient times.
The Kabuki Repertoire
A variety of new plays are being added to the already existing list
of 300 plays which are from the traditional kabuki background. These are the
works of a few authors of excellent calibre. These authors, unlike earlier days, are
not from the kabuki area of expertise. Few of the plays identified as shosa-goto or
dance-drama are exclusively dance-centric. These performances included actors
dancing to vocals accompanied by instrumental music.
Exceptionally some plays are complete stories by themselves while others are bits
of dance pieces put together .Couple of these plays owe their origin to noh drama
and the kyogen plays. Few examples of these dance-dramas would be Kanjincho
(The Temple Offering List), Musume Dojoji (Maiden of the Dojoji Temple),
Migawari Zazen (The Substitute), and Takatsuki (The clog Dance). From the stand
point of theme and dramatis personae the remaining kabuki plays can be classified
into two categories:
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 Historical drama heavy tragedies with occasional flashes of comedy
depicting historical facts.
 Current dramatized accounts of warriors or nobles.
Originating mostly from puppet plays, they often represent the hero being called
upon to make the greatest sacrifices. Chusingura being one of the adaptations of a
bunraku play that is about the story of forty-seven lord less knights is one of the
most enjoyed plays. Chusingura is a story of those men who were compelled to
commit suicide because they avenged the forced self-immolation of their master
after years of patient waiting and plotting. Predominantly being a realistic story ,in
domestic drama it‟s not so uncommon that plays become unrealistic .Because
emphasis is placed on acting and staging and aspects like elocution and
extravagant colossi the plot than the significant elements such as logical
consistency.
Kabuki is classified into the following three groups with respect to origin.
1. Adaptation from Noh and Kyogen dramas
kyogen forms the base for most number of comic dance-plays while anything else
that covers a more serious approach were from noh plays .Migawari Zazen is a
form of a comic dance play while plays such as Kanjincho and Musume Dojoji are
examples of the ones taken from noh plays. These in general are full of grace and
dignity symbolizing the noble atmosphere tracing to their origins. Most of these
plays had stage settings straight out of Noh theatre which consisted of only a panel
background showing an aged pine tree and two side wings with pictures of
bamboo groves.
2. Adaptation from the puppet theatre
Till date performed in a similar style to the puppet theatre these plays most of the
texts are verbatim from the originals in puppet theatre. The singer and his
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companion on the dais sit at the right of the stage with the audience enjoying a
complete view as in the case of puppet theatre. Unlike the puppet theatre wherein
the lines are recited and sung by the singer , in these plays the lines are spoken by
the actors while the singer delivers the narratives and descriptive passages.
Chusingura and Tsubosaku-Dera are plays from this category.
3. Adaptation from actual Kabuki.
Exclusive plays written for the sole purpose of being used in the production of
Kabuki theatre forms this category. Kagotsurube forms one of the best known
examples for this kind enriched with excellence in drama.
Fundamentals of Kabuki presentation
The essential quality of the Kabuki performance grows principally out of two
concepts
1. The principal means of expression is the Actor.
2. The stage and the hanamichi are platforms for acting rather than
representational areas.
The stage is essentially the province of the actor rather than that of the scene
designer. Stage settings in kabuki are elaborate, large and spectacular; however the
stage machinery and stage settings do not dominate the actor. The most
spectacular stage effects are those which are created to show case the actor to best
advantage.
Kabuki is not apprehensive with creating a world of illusion; hence the
presentation derives from the actor. Persons who are not actors, essentially not any
character in the play can appear on the stage during the performance to facilitate
the expressiveness of the actor.
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At the end of a scene when the setting is being changed, The Stagehands, dressed
in black work clothes are usually seen on the stage, as it usually is before the eyes
of the audience. On the revolving stage the stagehands bring on and set up flats or
gather up the floor cloth and deposit it on the revolving portion of the stage. They
also appear during the course of the play.
Stagehands push the platforms bearing one or more actors up and downstage most
frequently on stage during the performance in order to remove some piece of
scenery which is no longer required and which probably will impede the
movement of the actor. Gates, indicating the entrance to the house or garden are
often brought on or removed during the course as and when depending on the
necessity.
When the stagehand appears during the course of the play he does his work
quietly, quickly and self effacingly as possible. When a stagehand is working
backstage setting up the next scene while another scene is being played, a good
deal of the beginning of an act is accompanied by thumping and pounding behind
the scenes as a new setting is being put up on the unseen part of the revolving
stage. The stage screw is a refinement unknown to the Japanese stage; a Japanese
stage brace ends in a metal point which must be pounded into the stage floor.
Kurombo or the koken is generally the personal servant of the actor on stage. The
two are distinguished by their costumes, not their functions for they are in
actuality the same persons. The Kurombo also known as the black fellow
sometimes even referred to as kurogo is dressed entirely in black, a black hood
covering his head and face.
The koken or The Assistant) is dressed in kamishimo, the Edo period formal dress
and his face is not covered. Koken or the Kurombo appear on the stage in a
particular piece depending on the costuming of the actors. Generally when the
actor appears in the kamishimo the Kurombo is used for in such circumstances the
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visual differentiation between the actor and Koken would be destroyed. But again
Koken cannot be even remotely confused with an actor in elaborately costumed
pieces like „The Subscription List‟, „Lion Dance‟, and the „The Arrow Maker‟.
Hence usage of Koken is determined by his visual fittingness to the stage picture.
The same goes for the case of Kurombo„s usage , for although he is usually
dressed in black (which in oriental artistic convention makes him invisible), when
the stage is covered with a white floor cloth indicating snow in winter scenes the
Kurombo appears dressed in complete white.
There is no suitable name in English for these men because a function
corresponding to theirs does not exist in similar form in the Western theatre. They
have been called both property men and prompters, but again these words just
describe only a small part of what they do. Stage assistant is probably a more
fitting term in view of the variety of their activities. The number of these men on
the stage at any given time varies: there could be a stage assistant for every actor
in the scene or sometimes there maybe none at all. Their occurrence on the stage is
purely functional. They come and go as and when needed.
Only when it‟s required in the play that the actor enters the stage carrying a certain
property does he do so. Rest of the cases the property is given to the actor at the
appropriate moment by the stage assistant and removed when it‟s no longer
needed. In common, no property is allowed to remain before the eyes of the
audience or from another point of view to detract from the presence of the actor.
Once the actor is finished with a particular property which maybe a letter, a pipe, a
Buddhist rosary he places it behind him and the stage assistant who usually takes a
position behind him removes it immediately. Properties can be invested with as
great dramatic power in the kabuki as they are in the western theatre, perhaps at
times their dramatic power is even greater for they appear only when required and
are removed immediately when they are not required. Familiarity does not dull
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their force.
In the world of kabuki, Rank is emphasised to an almost unreasonable degree.
This is quite evident in the troupe which is a more or less fixed assemblage of
actors from different families for the performance of plays. The following
discussion is chiefly relevant to the troupe in its traditional form, and only
marginally to present-day conditions, which have undergone appreciable change.
The position of leader of the troupe or “troupe head” is monopolized by the
principal actor of leading male roles. He controls everything from administration,
personnel and backstage arrangements to the allocation of roles and direction of
plays. The principal actor of female roles, the tate-oyama, is allied with the troupe
head at the top of the organization and is liable for the overall supervision and
instruction of the female impersonators.
Actors of sufficient rank to warrant the display of their names outside the theatre
are called nadai (billboard). Those who do not are known as nadai shita (below the
rank of nadai). Subordinate to this group are the shita tachiyaku (lowest rank of
male-role actor) at which level those who enter kabuki with no family connection
must begin their careers. The duties of shita tachiyaku include the performance of
walk-on and similar parts and if necessary, animal roles. As well as signalling
rank, the theatre billboard also imparted to the naming of certain roles.
Examples of such would be actors of romantic male roles that were listed in the
second row on the billboard (nimai-me). This led to them being referred to as
'second row' which in common parlance has come to mean any handsome young
man. In the same way, the names of actors who play comic roles were always
listed in the third row (sanmai-me) and that term is now synonymous with clown.
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Conclusion
If one arranged all the ancient surviving classical forms of dance drama on a scale
running from expressionism to austere simplicity and restraint, Kathakali would
lie at the expressionist end, Noh at the austere end with Kabuki somewhere in
between – being at times very close in spirit to Kathakali, and at other times close
to Noh. All three are highly stylized, setting an aesthetic distance between
performers and audience by various means. The stylized gesture is crucial or at
least given equal importance to the word. The performer is both actor and dancer
and sometimes also a singer. While the dance-drama lasts, the spectators are
transported into a different world as they experience the essence of the primal
passions in an unreal, unearthly atmosphere. As the great Kabuki actor, Kichiemon
rightly mentioned– “the stage becomes a reality and the rest of the world a dream”
and this is true to both the dance-drama forms.
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CHAPTER -5
CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER- 5
CONCLUSION
Introduction
In this concluding chapter, the researcher has tried to explore the present state
of Kathakali and Kabuki, the challenges it faces in the changing modern scenario.
Based on observations and also by referring to the articles written by various
critics and experts who have discussed and debated in order to keep these alive,
some suggestions are provided. There has been spate of arguments and counterarguments to the topic of innovation or reform. It would be worthwhile for the
organizations promoting Kathakali or Kabuki to gather ideas of reform from
authoritative sources and expert and implement them that are practical. These
measures can help retain the glory and adapt to the changing needs of society.
A) Present State of Kathakali
Kathakali has been evolving over time. The general opinion has been that
innovation is necessary; it has to be altered to suit the traditions of the art form
making sure no damage was done to its originality. Taking the example of an old
house that needed renovation. The tradition and structure of the house is kept
intact while the other factors that could afford change and would not alter the
frame-work of the house were modified. This gave the house a new look but still
retained its pure feeling.
However, Kathakali slowly gained two types of audiences. One set of people who
were new to the art and absorbed its qualities as new experience. The other was
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the ever-existent critics who were privy to Kathakali‟s history and could do no
better than comment critically about the art form.
Following the 80‟s focus on talent and skill changed and it became more of a
centralized requirement. People were seeking to find individual talent and group
capabilities were not considered sufficient. Team-work being one of Kathakali‟s
principles, this new trend only reaped disintegration.
The rich culture of traditions and rituals of Kerala were lost to the people unless
they sought to learn more about them by delving into history. This was poet
Vallathol Narayana Menon‟s opinion. He was a famous Malayalam poet who gave
momentum to Kathakali and other art forms that he felt were worth attention. This
ideology had him create Kalamandalam. He sought to bring the forgotten
traditional arts to the forefront and give some of the unrecognized yet talented
artists a foundation to showcase their plentiful skills. He left to them to learn by
their experience and did not feel it necessary to interfere with their training and
learning as experience was the best teacher according to him. Gurus and experts in
the traditions were welcome to come forth with ideas and techniques and to
provide support to the learners.
Swathi Tirunal was another such example. She opened the doors for artists to
intermingle with the already famous artists of the time, enabling them to grow
freely and be influenced by organic unity simultaneously.
In spite of such initiatives, Kathakali was undergoing a speedy disintegration. One
such instance is that traditionally the performance did not have the mike. The lack
of a mike helped amplify the balance between the maddalam, chenda and the
singers. The use of a mike however drowned out the singer‟s voices and only
amplified the sounds of the chenda and maddalam, leading to disappointment for
the singers and the audience who preferred to hear the songs being performed in
its originality.
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This removed whatever organization there was between the singers, instruments
and the dancers. It was only during the 20th century that some form of
collaboration came into being when Raman Kutty Nair and Kumaran Nair along
with their guru Pattikanthoti Ravunni Menon decided to bring some of Kathakali‟s
harmony back.
They used a method of integration to combine the various elements which were by
then divided into individual elements and were being under-utilized. They also
believed in the individualization concept and it was of their opinion that when
used in the right way, individual focus can be more benefiting than a combined
totality.
An individual once given attention takes it upon himself to do his best and bring
out his plentiful talents and skill. This was the case in Kathakali. It became more
of an individualized performance. This individualization influenced every aspect
of the act and not only the actors. The drumming deftness was also altered so that
the drum was given more focus than the vertical beating of the stick at the centre
of the drum.
Unlike the 80s and a little prior to that, Kathakali was no longer a sought after
performance on shows and stage acts in India and abroad. This was mainly due to
the demand for better presentations that had lither and use of gymnastics. Another
predominant cause was the cost of a show put up by Kathakali. One performance
would include two Maddalam players, one Ilathalam, two Chenda artists, two
vocal artists and one gong player not to mention the other plentiful characters that
Kathakali believed were necessary.
A total of characters usually came up to about 15 to 16 per performance and the
cost of affording this whole multitude was too huge for most theatres to afford just
for the sake of traditional entertainment. The use of Bharatanatyam, Odissi or
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Kuchipudi or Kathak were known to be cheaper and were more sought after
making Kathakali a rare occurrence in theatres abroad or during foreign festivals.
The trend of individual actors putting up individual shows and short presentations
for smaller groups of people like in work-shops and lecture demonstrations came
into existence. This again caused further disintegration to Kathakali and post 1995,
Kathakali was stereotyped as a collective act unlike what was preferred at the
time. Kalamandalam bore the loss of many of its teachers and gurus and old age
got the best of them. They retired from teaching and did not find the motivation to
train a very few mediocre students.
The adoption of the highly renowned Unnayi warrior technique, the ideas of
Kalladikode Nambudiri, Vettath Thampuran, Kapligad Nambudiri, the thematic
choices from the Mahabharata by Kottayathu Thampuran, etc, are all the changes
that were welcomed over the past three centuries and that have brough Kathakali
to its current stature.
B) Suggestions for Innovation in Kathakali
There has been spate of arguments and counter-arguments to the topic of
innovation or reform. Some of the critics with orthodox mind set have asserted
that the thought of innovation is blasphemy. For some who are most ignorant of
the traditions and conventions of Kathakali and are incapable of experiencing the
indescribable artistic enjoyment, this is a dead art and should be given a burial. For
some, the innovation in Kathakali is sacrilegious and does not stand the test of
scrutiny.
To visualize a future for Kathakali one must set its past aside and focus only
ahead. For mixing the past of the art form and trying to visualize a future will only
lead to a confused state of mind which will conclude to nothing. To fit kathakali in
to the present and to give it a future size, the following innovations can be made:
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 One of the few modern-day adaptations that can be made to Kathakali is to the
duration of its performance. The traditional style has performances lasting
from dusk to dawn. These were times when people afforded the luxury of time.
Now however with time being everything, the duration of a performance can
be altered to last up to three hours. Thus fitting in all the elements of the
performance and allowing the audience a time limit. This alteration should
therefore be given high priority.
 Theme selection. Kathakali is famous for its surreal enactments of puranic
stories. While these are its main focus, it has also been known for its minor
experimentations. While experiment is crucial to growth, themes of kathakali
are what define it. Adapting to modern day styles and techniques is far more
appreciable than taking on themes from today. The themes of Kathakali are
unearthly and surreal while the modern day themes are strikingly real and
lacking imagination. The power of bringing goddesses and supernatural beings
from rich Hindu mythology to the stage through its unending magical illusions
is what drives crowds to the theatre. Shunning this achievement would lead to
Kathakali being shunned.
 Sticking to the thematic art of Hindu mythology is not without its benefits. It
has to be realized that while Kathakali has mastered and utilized the various
famous stories of the past, there are still plenty left for exhausting. In the
Mahabharata and Ramayana alone new writers can find vast amounts of
material to devour and for kathakali to capitalize on.
 Proper use of the swaras of the ragas and the sruti has been avoided in
Kathakali to the extent of the music being called jarring and lacking purity.
This makes for another area kathakali can improvise on. If the music can be
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made pure and lifted to heights reached by other elements of the dance-drama,
it would add flavor to the art form's almost perfect rendition. The use of
trained singers and the maintenance of the originality of the songs performed
would be a welcome improvisation.

Authors of Kathakali require knowledge of music and sufficient training in the
field because the padas used are set in talas and ragas that are not similar to
the patterns used in current day musical languages of Kerala. This in fact is
also a fundamental difference between Malayalam poetry and Kathakali
music. Therefore it would be required that future authors of Kathakali possess
sufficient knowledge and training in music alongside their other literary
accomplishments.
 Vocal music in kathakali includes ragas viz. Khandram, poranira, kanakkurinji,
indisa, indilam, etc and in part some popular ragas from carnatik concerts like
todi, sankarabharanam, kalyani, bhairavi, kamboji, mukhari and others. These
on a broader spectrum account to a limited number and are of a
conventionalized pattern. This tells us that effort has not been made to
compose songs with the use of other ragas that have already been favored by
audiences of classical music concerts. It can be noticed that reetigaulam,
kharaharapriya, hindolam and harikamboji have never been used in Kathakali
compositions. Modern day kathakali has been known to use some different
ragas and have also gained popular approval. This makes variety and an
element of freshness welcome elements to kathakali and assures of further
musical enrichment. The uses of differential talas too need to be considered.
Chempada, panchari, champa and adantha have counterparts in carnatik music
and are the main talas employed in kathakali though named differently. Thus
innovation in the utilization of talas too would be appreciated.
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 Padams used in Kathakali are of great lengths. Minimization of their lengths
could suit modern-day kathakali better. Traditional padams have been used
alongside charanams with great attention to minute detail. 'Nalacharitham' by
Unnai warriar is one such example. The masters of these works had
exemplified justifications for these lengths and it not with criticism that
alteration is suggested. It is more due to the modern-day audience's benefit that
shorter padams should be used as the continued use of the longer versions
could lead to boredom. Concentration of words, elimination of padding and
limitation of the padams to about 8 lines each should work wonders for
modern-day kathakali. This limitation will also add to the artistic enjoyment of
the characters portrayed. Moods and emotions will be better felt and
transformations will earn greater appraisal because shorter lines will render
more conspiracy to the dialogue.
 Another aspect that could be economized is the number of characters. The
kathi, pacha, thadi, minukku characters, etc are more than sufficient for the
enactment of the story. The involvement of characters that are not vital to the
performance can be eliminated to create more space for the main characters
and for the unfolding of the drama in a wider angle. These characters were
essentially used for a variety of justifiable reasons. The refreshment of makeup and costumes, and the full-night performances were some of the main
reasons. However, the removal of these unnecessary characters can be adjusted
into performances so that their pres presence is not missed.
However, there have been instances now and then to adapt to the current needs as
one mentioned below.
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C) Adaptation to the Western Theatre
One of the tours, the Kalamandalam faced while preparing for a programme called
Mahabharata for a Western audience. The length of the play originally was nine
to ten hours and had to be condensed to 3-4 hours. This could have been done by
cutting out irrelevant scenes and shortening the relevant ones, but the challenge
was that the some of the finest scenes of Kathakali were found in plays belonging
to a cycle and any one play would tell only a small part of the story.
This problem was tackled by putting together scenes from several plays to tell the
whole of the central story of the Mahabharata, providing a perfect introduction to
Kathakali, its splendid structure while portraying the climax of violence and terror
in the killing of Dussassana. The production house managed to see the problem
from outside taking into account the needs of Western audiences new to Kathakali
and at the same time to preserve essential Kathakali traditions in all their
authenticity. Every possible effort was also made to help audiences to follow
Kathakali plays including the supplementing of the synopses, translations of the
texts of the plays.
There are other areas that innovations could be brought in, especially in the
selection of the themes. As a rule Kathakali portrays Puranic stories. There is an
attempt to move away from this, “Martandavarmavijayam”, the hero being
Martanda Varma, founder of modern Travancore or the adaptation by K.M.
Panikkar‟s of the Biblical story of David and Goliath called “Davidvijayam” are a
few examples. However these are seen as experiments than successes. Critics to
these new thoughts claim that the glory of this art is its tremendous power to bring
to us a world of gods, goddesses and supernatural beings. But one needs to note
that only a small fraction of Hindu mythology i.e. Ramayana and Mahabharata is
explored, while there many stories in Puranas that remains to be exploited.
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Although there were some deviations from the norm are the works of famous
writer,OMC Nambudiripad, who wrote a Christian Kathakali story, SNAPAKA
YOHANAN‟ which won Kerala Literary Academy Award. He translated 7000
page Rig-Veda into Malayalam.
Another such exception was Kalamandalam
Hyder Ali, first Muslim Kathakali artist who overcame the restrictions, objections
of both religious groups, but he stuck to the original Kathakali art form rendering
Ramayana and Mahabharata on stage.
Without bringing in more creativity, this art will undoubtedly stagnate and may
even perish.
D) Present state of Kabuki
In the 1860s, the Kabuki actors belonged officially to the lowest social classthat of the outcasts and were contemptuously referred to as 'riverbed beggars'
(kawara kojiki) and hut people (koyamono). The law even required them to live
and work within the confines of the theatre district.Venturing outside the theatre
district only under large sedge hats that concealed their features.
Meiji Restoration of 1868 changed all of this, the discrimination was abolished
and actors were able to take their first steps both as legitimate stage artists and as
the guardians of the traditions of Kabuki. By this period, Kabuki was no longer the
representative theatre of the people but it had emerged as a classical dramatic art
rooted in the past.
The audience finds the Kabuki collection, of history plays-endlessly fascinating
even though are not completely relevant with the present day world. With the deep
changes that have altered the modern Japanese society, and the private lives the
new generation actors lead, the sensual elements of the performances have paled
and faintly touch the new generation audience.
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Kabuki actors are still widely popular even among the television audience as they
play certain roles in movies and television shows. The level of fame in Kabuki
theatre is not as much as it used to be but still retains a certain aspect of charm like
the old days. Prominent actors such as onngata Bando Tamasaburo V also
appeared in movies and a few plays that were not based on Kabuki especially in
the role of a female.
Onnagata roles are these days performed by female actors in a few lesser known
troupes. Kabuki seems to have influenced the West too. Shakespeare, a widely
known Western play also has been adopted into Kabuki and has been performed
by Kabuki troupes travelling on tours across America and Europe.
Use of Kabuki in modern settings has been pioneered and popularized by Writer
Yukio Mishima, and revived other traditional arts, such as Noh, adapting them to
modern contexts. Since 1976, the Za Kabuki troupe at the Australian National
University has been performing a Kabuki drama each; this has become one of the
single longest regular Kabuki performances outside of Japan.
Every possible effort has been taken by the Japanese government to preserve this
dance form. The National Theatre in Tokyo is a tribute to the art form in itself.
The National Theatre in Tokyo has the world‟s largest revolving stage, sixty five
feet in diameter, containing sixteen trap-lifts. They are dedicated to preserving,
promoting and developing Japanese traditional theatre arts.
The foremost Kabuki troupes are engaged in presenting the plays in its totality
rather than just performing few selected scenes from them. The theatre also
encourages contemporary playwrights to write plays based on the Kabuki form in
the mean while preserving the past. Unlike the customary, slow and tedious,
teacher-disciple system, the new institute uses formal classroom training for an
actor. This ensures a systemized and a faster system of teaching.
134
UNESCO's Third Proclamation of Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible
Heritage of Humanity enlisted Kabuki as a dramatized theatrical form.
The Kabuki-za theatre and the National theatre have been known to include
Kabuki in their list of performances. Places like Kyoto and Osaka have achieved
their own Kabuki standing with the establishment of Kabuki-specific theatres.
Growth and innovation has changed Kabuki and the audience it caters to. Unlike
the past where it served the ordinary, working-class sections of society, it has
uncovered the traditions of theatrical tradition which traces back almost 300 years
into the core of Japanese history. Unlike Japanese sumo wrestling that could
maintain its appeal throughout the ages and did not require evolution, Kabuki
needed to adapt to new society trends as it grew in the public‟s eye.
E) Suggestions for innovations in Kabuki
With the innovation in technology and the resultant application of new lighting
methods, mechanisms on stage and computer-based effects that are used in
musicals and movies with very high budgets, music used in Kabuki has turned
foreign to the ears of the public. Pop music of the western culture has replaced any
form of traditional music.
Contrary to the olden days where Kabuki was the flair of the theatre, it has lost its
appeal and does not attract much audience. The younger generation of people do
not find Kabuki interesting enough and the art form does not cater to their
entertainment needs. While the Kabuki theatre still earns enough to finance itself,
the theatre does not earn the same adulation and appraisal like it did in historic
times. The western ideas and techniques and Kabuki no longer fit into the same
theatre.
135
Conclusion and Suggestions.
This thesis aimed at comparing the artistic elements of both Kathakali and Kabuki.
This area is vast and there is further scope of detailed research considering the
complexity and nature of both dance-drama forms. The researcher also feels that
both these traditional art forms should be given due importance and the federal
bodies responsible for promoting art and culture should explore new techniques to
generate more interest to attract more student and art-lovers towards the art forms.
Also, the current actors and the supporting team of both these forms should be
given due recognition in the world theatre.
If a few innovations could be introduced to meet the demands of modern society
and at the same time take every care to preserve the grandeur of the dance drama.
Unlike the days of the Edo era when Kabuki had competition through puppet
theatre and oppression through the government, in present day the level of
competition is very different, examples like television and movies with a very high
caliber of entertainment and special effects. Factors that made Kabuki so popular
back in the day has changed and the current generation doesn‟t look at it the way it
was adored and admired back then. This is causing it to die out at a very slow
pace.
The art form in Kabuki has been kept at the same level as it used to be in the old
days and has continued to do so over the years; this factor alone can help with the
sustenance of the rich heritage of Japanese theatre for years to come.
136
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137
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146
Annexures
147
Annexure 1:
Glossary
Short Glossary of Indian Theatre Forms
Abhinaya
: Histrionic representation, literally, „abhi‟ means toward
and „ni‟ means to lead. Abhinata which leads or carries
toward
Abhinaya darpan
: A treatise on gestures and emotional expressions.
Achamanam
: It is purifying the body in a ceremonious or ritualistic
way.
Amrit
: Nectar of immortality
Angika Abhinaya
: Dramatic expression by way of gestures and
movements of the body
Arangettam
: The first public performance of an artiste, the debut
Asura
: demon
Ayodhya
: Sree Rama‟s Kingdom
Balabhadra
: Brother of Sree Krishna
Bharatha
: Author of the famous Natyasatra, treatise on dramaturgy
Bhava
: Inner states of being as represented in a work of art of
evocation of rasa-s.
Bhima
: The second Pandava prince
Bhumidevi
: Goddess of the earth
Bhuta
: ghost
Brahma
: First god of the Hindu triad, associated with the creation
of the universe
Chakra
: a weapon of Vishnu
Chayilyam
: Vermillion, a red colored stone, an ore of mercury sulfate
Chenda
: A cylindrical drum most widely used in Kerala
148
Chilappatikaram
: a classical Tamil poem by Elango Adigal dealing with
the story of Kovalan and kannaki
Daksha
: Son of Brahma
Devaki
: Mother of Sree Krishna
Dharma
: Justice, duty
Dharma putra
: The eldest Pandava-s
Ganesa
: The elephant son of Siva and Parvathi. He is believed to
be the God of wisdom and remover of obstacles
Guru
: Teacher or spiritual guide
Hanuman
: The famous monkey chief, devotee of Sree Rama
Indra
: Lord of heaven, also the god of atmosphere and weaether
Jayantha
: Son of Indra
Kailas
: silver mountain, a Himalaya peak and abode of Siva.
Kalapakavriksha
: a heavenly tree which yields every wish
Kamadeva
: The cupid of Indian mythology
Kamadhenu
: a miraculous heavenly cow that grants the fulfillment of all
wishes
Karna
: Son of Surya, the sun god, by Kunti
Lakshmy
: Consort of Vishnu, the Goddess of wealth
Linga
: A Phallic emblem of God Siva
Maddalam
: A barrel shaped drum with the middle slightly bigger than
the ends
Mahameru
: the golden mountain
Manyola
: A yellow mineral (Arsenic sulphide ore)
Mashi
: a black eye paste.
Nakula
: The forth pandava prince
Natya
: Drama in general; also mimetic dance
149
Natyasastra
: The great treatise on dramaturgy in Sanskrit by sage
Bharata, written at some time between 2nd Century B.C
and 2nd century A.D
Nilavilaku
: A traditional oil lamp of bell-metal, placed on the
ground
Nritta
: Pure dance
Nritya
: dance with emotional expression and mood
Rasa
: Aesthetic experience
Saraswati
: wife of Brahma, goddess of Knowledge
Tandava
: a style of dance derived from Tandu, denoting vigorous
and masculine movements
Tevaram
: Offering to deity
Urvasi
: The celestial danseuse in the court of Indra
Vasudeva
: father of Sree Krishna
Yadava
: people belong to Sree Krishna‟s dynasty
Yoga
: a Hindu ritual sacrifice
Short Glossary of Japanese Theatre forms
Agemaku
: „rising curtain‟, in the Kabuki the curtain, hung by
rings from a road, at the rear of the hanamichi, opened
by being slid to one side.
Aibiki
: A stool, about 18 inches high, on which important
characters may sit during a long scene. Characters so
seated are conventionally assumed to be standing.
Butai
: the stage to be distinguished from the passage ways in
both the Noh and kabuki theatres on which the actor
moves to the stage
150
Chu-nori
: A devise used principally for spectacular appearances of
ghosts and other supernatural beings.
Dammari
: Dumb show accompanied by music
Degatari
: the general name for musicians and singers who appear
on stage during the Kabuki performance.
Gakuya
: Dressing room and, by extension, the entire back stage
area of the Kabuki theatre.
Gandogaeshi
: Method of Scene change, first used in the doll theatre in
1971.
Gekidan
: The hereditary Kabuki troupe
Hanamichi
: The passageway through the kabuki auditorium on which
important entrances and exits are made.
Hayagawari
: „Quick change‟ a very rapid offstage change of costume
and make-up in the Kabuki.
Hiki maki
: „Draw curtain‟, the traditional front curtain used in the
Kabuki theatre.
Hikinuki
: A rapid on stage change of costume
Kabuki juhachiban
: Eighteen short Kabuki plays, the traditional pieces of
the Ichikawa troupe. Only seven of these are now
performed.
Kagami-no-ma
: The mirror room in both the Noh and kabuki theatres, in
which the actor studies his reflection before an
entrance.
Kamite
: Stage left
Kasumimaku
: A curtain painted with stylized clouds
Kodogu
: Properties.
Kumadoti
: Stylized, nonrealistic kabuki make-up
Nuregoto
: „Moist business‟: a love scene
Odaimono
: Play dealing with ancient or legendary events
151
Odogu
: Settings
Shichi-san
: The area of greatest acting strength on the Hanamichi
Shimote
: right side of stage
Tachimawari
: Ballet-like scenes of kabuki conflict
Tsurieda
: Hanging floral decorations in the first border position.
Waki-za
: A stage left area of the Noh stage on which the chorus is
seated.
152
Annexure 2: 24 Mudras in Kathakali
24 Basic Mudras in Kathakali
1. Pathaaka
2. Mudraakhyam 3. Katakam
(Flag)
4. Mushti
(Golden Bangle)
5. Kartharee
6. Sukathundam
7. Kapidhakam
Mukham
(Parrot's peek)
(The fruit of a (Swan's wing)
(Scissor's sharp
tree)
point)
153
8. HamsaPaksham
9. Sikharam
10. Hamsaasyam 11. Anjaly
(Peak)
(Swan's peek)
12. Ardhachandram
(Folded hands in (Half moon)
Salutation)
13. Mukuram
(Mirror)
14. Bhramaram
(Beetle)
16. Pallavam
15. Soochimukham
(Needle's
(Sprout
sharp
point)
17. Thripathaaka
18. Mrigaseersham 19. Sarpasirassu
(Flag with three (Deer's head)
(Serpant's head)
colors)
154
20. Vardhamanaka
m (Seedling)
21. Araalam
22. Oornanabham 23. Mukulam
(Curved)
(Spider)
24. Katakaamukham
(Bud)
Figure 1 : 24 Basic Mudras
24 Basic Mudras .The symbols have been shown in different positions. It is to
indicate that the actor must hold his palm in different positions according to the
context. (Acknowledged to Cyber Kerala).
155
Annexure 3: Kathakali Characters
KATTI
KARI (ANKARI – representing Male character)
156
KARI (PENKARI – representing female characters)
KARIMTADI (Character-KALI)
157
CHUVANNATADI
CHUVANNATADI (Character-Bali)
158
MINUKU (Female Character)
VEERABHADRA - A Tadi Character
159
VELLATADI (Charcter- HANUMAN).
RUDRA BHEEMA
160
NARASIMHA
MINUKU (Character-SUKRA)
161
KARKODAKAN
BHEERU
162
Annexure 4 : Navarasam
Navarasam by Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair
1.Sringaram
2.Hasyam
3.Karunam
(Amour)
(Ridicule)
(Pathos)
7.Beebhalsam
8.Athbhutham
9.Santham
(Disgust)
(Wonder)
(Tranquility)
163
7.Beebhalsam
8.Athbhutham
9.Santham
(Disgust)
(Wonder)
(Tranquility)
Figure 2: Navarasam by Kalamandalam Krishnan Nair
Photo- C.V.Sukumaran, Courtsey. Cyber Kerala
164
Annexure 5 : Gestures in Kathakali
Some extracts from Alphabets of Gestures in Kathakali (The Language of
Kathakali by G. Venu)
165
Figure 3: Pataka
166
Figure 4: Mudrakhya
167
168
Figure 5: Kataka
169
Figure 6: Mushti
170
Figure 7: Kartarimukha
Figure 8: Sukatunda
171
Figure 9: Kapittha
172
Figure 10: Hamshapaksha
173
Figure 11: Sikhara
174
Figure 12: Hamsasya
175
Figure 13: Anjali
176
Figure 14: Ardhachandra
177
Figure 15 : Mukura
Figure 16: Bhramara
178
Figure 17: Suchimukha
179
Figure 18 : Pallava
180
Figure 19: Tripataka
Figure 20: Mrigasirsha
181
Figure 21: Sarpasiras
182
Figure 22: Vardhamanaka
183
Figure 23 : Arala
184
Figure 24: Urnanabha
185
Figure 25: Mukula
Figure 26 : Katakamukhha
186
Annexure 6 : Kathakali Performance
Figure 27 : A Kathakali Performance
187
Annexure 7: Make Up
Figure 28: PACHA (GREEN) Make-up
188
Kathakali Chutti (Make-Up)
Figure 29:Kathakali Chutti (Make-Up)
189
Annexure 8 : Kabuki Make up for a Woman character
ICHIMARU Manjirô II transforming into a Woman (1)
Figure 30: ICHIMARU Manjirô II transforming into a Woman
190
ICHIMARU Manjirô II transformed as a Woman character in a Kabuki
Performance
Figure 31: ICHIMARU Manjirô II
191
Annexure 9: A Mie
Figure 32: A mie in Just a moment
Others in the picture - Benkai‟s stone-throwing Mie in The Subcription List and
around a pillar Mie of the depraved priest in Thunder God.
Figure 33: Wicked Magician in The Famous Tree at sendai
192
Annexure 10 : Theatre Layout
Edo Theatre
Figure 34: Edo Theatre
An Edo Theatre about 1802. The play being performed is the „Congratulatory‟
piece.The Saga Confrontation; the actors playing the Soga brothers are on the
Hanamichi at the Shichi-san.
193
Annexure 11: The Saga Confrontation
Figure 35: The Saga Confrontation
The position of narrators and musicians on the stage of the doll theatre
194
Annexure 12: Kabuki Character Make-up
Figure 36: Kabuki Character Make-up
195
Annexure 13: Kabuki Performance Photos
Figure 37:
Kabuki Performance Photos
196
Annexure 14: Aragoto Make-up
Actor Onoe Shoroku in various stages of applying ARAGOTO make-up
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Figure 38: ARAGOTO make-up
1-5 The actor Onoe Shoroku in various stages of applying ARAGOTO make-up
for The arrow maker. 6. Aragato make-up of Mastsuomaru in Pulling the
carriage Apart .
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Annexure 15: Make up for Onnagata role
Figure 39: The Onnagata role
1-6 The actor Nakamura Utaemon preparing to play an Onnagata role.
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Annexure 16 : Kabuki Actors
Figure 40: Bandô Hikosaburô V (left) and Arashi Kichisaburô IV (right)
Figure 41: Actor Bandô Hikosaburô II
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Figure 42: Bandô Hikosaburô III
Figure 43: Bandô Hikosaburô IV
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Figure 44: Bandon Hikosaburô V
Figure 45: Bandô Hikosaburô VII
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Figure 46: Actor Ichimura Uzaemon XVII
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Figure 47: Ichikawa Ebizô V
Figure 48: Nakamura Shikan II
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Figure 49: Arashi Kichisaburô III
Figure 50: Kawarazaki Gonjûrô I
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Annexure 17 : A Kabuki Workshop
A Kabuki Workshop in Hunter College, City University Of New York, USA.
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Figure 51: Researcher‟s Participation in A Kabuki Workshop
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