forests

4
FORESTS
T)'pes and distribution of forests
Among the sevenSAARC countries,Bhutan has the largestproportion of its land area,64 per cent, under forest
cover,with 2.57million hectares(mha) of natural forests.Sri Lanka and Nepal are next with 39 per cent and 37 per
cent, respectively,of their geographicalarea under forests.
India possesses
a distinct identity due to its vegetation.The vegetationvariesfrom tropical wet evergreenforestsin
Andaman and Nicobar lslands in the South, to dry alpine forestshigh up in the Himalaya. In betweenthe two
extremes,the country has semi-evergreen
forests,sub-tropicalpine forestsand mountain temperateforests.
The recordedforest area of India is 75.18million ha whichworks out to 22.8per cent of the total geographicalarea
of the country.However,all the areasrecordedas forest do not contain adequatetree cover.The interpretationof
the Landsatimageryfor the period 1982-84indicatedthat only 64.20mha or 19.5per cent containedactual forest
cover,and only 34.14mha or 11 per cent hasa crowndensityof 40 per cent or more.
Sixteenmajor forestty.pes,
comprisingZ?minor typeshavebeenrecognised
in the country.Tropicalmoistdeciduous
forestsoccupy37 per cent of the total forestcover.The other predominanttype N tropical dry deciduousforests
which forms 29.6 per cent of the total forest cover.The tropical wet evergreenforestsoccupy8 per cent of the total
forest cover.
In Pakistan,forestsare broadlyclassifiedasproductionforestsandprotectionforests.Out of the total forestresouroes
of Pakistan,only27.4per cent are economicallyutilisedwhile the balance(7L.4per cent) are under protectivecover.
The forest area of Pakistanis 4.58mha,which is equalto 5.2per cent of the total land area of the country.This gives
a per capita forest area of 0.05 hectare.Coniferousforests cover 1.959mha and coastalforests and mangroves
another0.37 mha. The rest are largelyscrubforestsand plantations.
Pakistandid not inherit very rich forest resources.Over the last two centuriesthere hasbeen incessantdeforestation
and becauseof the arid and semi-aridnatureo[ over 70 per cent of the country'sland area,afforestationis not an
easytask.
In Banglades[ forestsoccupyabout 2.46mha, a small percentage(I7 per cent) of the total land mass. About 1.46
mha are under the managementof the forest departmentand the rest are depletedand denudedforestsknown as
unclassedstate forest, which are under the control of the civil administration.They are subjectto various injuries,
especiallyshifting cultivation,and are also usedas homesteadforests.
The forestareasunderthe management
of the forestdepartmentare mainlyclassifiedinto hill forests,tidat forests
and inland sal forests.Hill forestscompriseof tropicalevergreenand semi-evergreen
typeswith dominantspecies
like Garjan (Dipterocaryusspp.), Chapalish(Anoca,puschaplashaRoxb),Civtt (Swintonialloibunda Gif), Gamar
(Gmelinaarborea),Jarul (Logerstroentia
speciosa),Dhaki Jam(Sy4tgiumgrande)and Champa(Micheliachampaca),
alongwith plantationsof exoticslike teak and mahogany.
Bambooand other speciesform the understories.
Mangroveforests are located in the southwesternpart of the country characterisedby dominant tree speciestike
sundri (Heitiera fomes Buslt), gews (F-xcoecaia agalloctu Liitt), kankra (Bntguiera gtnnorrhiza Lant), keora
(SonneratiaapetalaHam), Passur(Xylocarpusntellucconsis),ban(Aveceniaofficinalis) and golpata(Nipa fruitcans).
Inland sal forestsconsistof degradedsal (Shorearobusta)with other evergreenand deciduousspecies.They are
locatedmostlyin the plainsof the centralpart of the country.
Bhutanis abundantlyendowed'withnaturalforests.It is the only countryin SouthAsia whichhasbeenableto retain
asmuchas64 per cent(2.573mha)of its land underforests,constitutinga major resourcebase.Accordingto a study
basedon satellite imagerycompletedin 1.983,the forest cover comprisessignificantlyof quick growing broadleaf
varieties.
In the tropicalbelt which lies at an altitudebelow 1000m, the so-called"tropicalforests"of the easternHimalaya
are largely deciduous,forming a densejungle on steepslopesand along river banirs.The sub-tropicalforestslie at
39
an altitude between1000m and 2000m. At lower altitudes,chir pine forestsdominate although they are often sparse.
In the deeper dry vallep, there is a very long dry seasonduring which fires are conmoo, often started by people to
maintain productive grasslandsfor stock granqg, At a higber altitude within this zone which c4periencesiainfal, a
mircure of evergreenand deciduousbroad learrcdtrees exist. tn deeper ralteyq this tlpc of forest occurs far into the
interior as in the Kulong Chu valley south of Tashi Yangtsi. It is abundant throughout southern Bhutan over 1000
m. Patchesof these warm broadlcarrd forests arc often cleared to produce grasslands.
In the drier part of the temperatc zone (2000m to 30(X)m), evergreenoat forestsare fouad. Thesc forests are a vcry
characteristicfeature of Central Bhutan"especiallyaround Tongsaand on the hills aboveMongar. Cool broadtearcd
forests are more conmon in the wetter areas.These forests are more of a mixed character in which oaks are less
common. Both deciduousand evergreentrees are more abuadant together with densc shrubq climbers and many
epiphytes.
Blue pine forests also exist in this zone and occupf the innei dty valleys of the country where rainfall is rrery low
exaept during the monsoon season.They are most common in the rallep of Ha4 Paro and Thimphu in Western
Bhutan and in the Bumthang and Gyetsavallep further east.where slopesare geniler, blue pine forests have been
cleared for cultiration and grazing.
Spruce forestg together with hemlock and fir forests, occupy the cloud forest zone between the temperate
broadleavedforests and the tree line. The sub-alpine zone propcr (3000 m to a000) m is characteiznd nainly by
henlock and fir forests. Hemlock forests are comnon on the mountain ridges below the fir forests throughout the
central and northern parts of the country. Roadsideglandslipsand clearedareasare often colonisedby densebamboo
thiclcets.Fir forestg on the othcr hand" are characteristicof the higher forested ridges of the country where huge
tracts are coveredby virtually no other tree speciesother than hemlock and birch. tn parts of Bhutaq fir forests have
been cleared for cultivation and grezing. Yaks graze this zone in winter an4 in summer, much of it is utilized by
cattle and borses.Heavy graing pressureseriously affecfs forest regeneration.
The alpine zone (above a(m m) is characterizedbyjuniper and rhododendron scrub vegetation aborrcthe treeline
throughout northern and central Bhutan. Damp gassy meadonaare also commonly found. The higher altitude areas
within this zone are occupied by d"y alpine scrub which is probably widespreadin northern Bhutan and the higher
ridgesof centralBhutan.[n thc past,manyof theseshrublandshavebeenperiodicallyburnedby herden to maintain
gta ag land for livestock.
Nepal has 55 million hectares(1985) of natural forests which accountsfor about 37 Voof the totil land area.About
59 per cent of the natural forests are broad leavedstands,l7 per cent conifer and 24 per cent mixed stands.Apart
from the 55 mha of natural forests,there are 0.71mha of shrub land (5 per cent), 1.75mha of grassland(L2 per
cent) and 0.6 mha of tree covered lands adjacent to farms. The Terai has made a major contribution to wood
supplies to urban centres.
Only 11 per cent of the natural forests are in the Terai and the High Himal zones.The rest is errcnlydistributed
among the Shivalih Middle ldounteins and High Mountains The midwestern development region contains 30 per
cent of the forestg while the re,st70 per ent are fairly evenly distributed among the other four regions
There are no large forests in the Maldives. The thin topsoil can hardly support any substantialvegetation excepting
coconut, shrubs and a few speciesof trees. Hourcver,there are over a dozen narieties of trees which constitute the
forest wealth of the countr':fs inhabircd aad uninfu6bitedislaods.
Althougb it is reported that the country does not haw a suitable habitat, for the establishment and growth of
mangrovespecies'small clusters of mangrorcs are soenin protected sitcs along the beachesof a number of islands.
Five speciesare reported from these islandc of which Avicennia marina is the primary pioneering species.There is
a need to try afforestation of these specieson selectedislands.
The forests of Sri lanka oor€r an area of 2375 mha or 39 per cent of the land area. This includes both higb forest
and open forest. Forests had covered45.6 per cent of the land in 1956.The densenatural forest cover now is only
28 Wr cent and the bulk of this is in the Dry 7nne, Only 9 per c€nt of the area is forested in the Wet Zone.
In relation to thc three broad climatic zones recognizcdin Sri Lanka, namely, Dry Intermediate and Wet Zones,
eleven major plant communities have been identified. All cxcept tropical savannahggrasslandsand mangrorrcsare
true forests peorliar to each climatic zone. Mangrovesare found along the shoreg lagoong river deltas and islands.
This plant community is highly adapted to its salirc habitat.
Tropical Thorn Forest is found in the driest areasin the northwest and southeast.The forsst is a low open thorny
scrub with isolated trees and patchesof trees. Dry EvergreenForest oscurs in the Dry Zone where the mean annual
rainfall varies from about 1,250mm to 1,9(X)mm. The trees are usually lessthan 12 m in heigbt but may reach about
20 m occasionallyin favourable areas.The forest community mainly consistsof Manilkara hexandra (Palu). Moist
deciduousforest is most widespreadin the Dry 7ane. A characteristicfeature of this forest tlpe is the presenceof
emergent dominants, which rise to about 3 m aborc the general level of the canopy which is N to ?5 m in height.
The Loist deciduous forest iso thus, essentially of mixed composition and it is also a secondary forest having
developedduring the last 400 to 500 years.
The Moist Semi-EvergreenForest is characteristicof the Intermediate Zone where the annual rainfall range is 1,900
mm to |500 mrn. The Wet Semi-EvergreenForest is also characteristicof the Intermediate Zone. This forest tlpe
resemblesthe Moist Semi-Evergreentype and comprisesof the samedominant speciesexceptfor the absencpof the
speciestJtpicalof the Dry Evergreen Forests.
Tropical SavannahForests are found on the eastern slopes of the central hills benveen 300 m to 9f00m altitude
b"t-g"g to both the Intermediate and the Dry Zone. The savannahcondition is maintained by repeated burning
during drougbt periods. It is an open plant community of scatteredtrees amidst a sea of grass.
The Tropical Wet EvergreenForest representsthe climax vegetationof the Wet T,rllnen the south west sectorof
the counlry characterisedby 2,:ffi mm to 5,000mm of rainfall. The forest is best developedin the lowlands below
900 m. The forest exhibits hxuriant growth. The canopy is dense with evergreentrees about 25 m in height with
scattered emcrgentsrising upto 45 m. Climbers and epiphytesare prevalent.These speciesrich forest communities
havevety variable compositions.The Sub- montaneEvergreenForest type occurs in the hills between900 m to 1'350
m in the Wet Zone. The vegetation is essentiallytransitional being intermediate between the Wet evergreen and
Montane Evergreen Forest types. Montane EvergreenFprest is characteristic of the highlands above 1J00 mm in
the Wet Tsne.The forest is low, the trees are of poor form with dense,spreadingflat-toppedcrowns.
Use of fucsts
Forestsare usedacrossthe region to meet a varietyof humanneeds.The demandson forestsin India are complex
and diverse. The demand for forest products is in the form of ftrewood, timber, pulp wood, food (tubers, flowers,
seedsand gums), non- edible oils, medicines,libres and flosses,resins, lag tendu and other leaveg bamboos and
canes,and iodder. The servicesprovidedby forestsare soil conservatioq protection and regulation of water supplies,
amelioration of climatg shelteifrom hot and cold winds, absorption of dust and noise, maintbnanceof a pool of
genetic resources,habitat for wildlife, recreation, and uraintenanceof a visual efality ofthe environment and of the
!11'Uoodioxide balancein the atmosphere.In addition to theseservices,forests have traditionally provided spacefor
cultivation and glaang.
With less than two per cent of total forest area in the world, the country supportsmore than 15 per cent of the
world's poputation.The per capitaforest area had decreasedto 0.11.ha by 1981.Peopledependheavilyon forests
for firewood and grazing. Dead, dry and fallen wood, which is removed from forests in headloadsby villagers living
in the vicinity of forests goesunrecorded.The recorded figures do not give a correct idea of the productivity of the
forest. The Forest Surveyof India (FSI) has estimatedthat the quantity of wood removed from forests in headloads
annually is about 22 nillion cu.m. It has also estimated that about 43 million cu.m. of firewood is obtained from
woodlands outside governmEntforests. Even so, there is a staggeringgap benreen the quantity of firewood that is
consumedin the country annually and that which can be produced on a sustainablebasis.FSI has estirnatedthat in
1987about 235 million cu.m.of firewood were consumedin the country while the sustainablelevel of production from
forests was only 40 million cu.m.
The livestock population in the country increased trctm U2milli6n in 1951to 369 million in LgTl.The number of
from 35 million in 1957-58to 60 milion in lV73-74.It is estimatedthat as of now
aninals that grazedin forestsrose
'n
forests. India has less than 0.5 per cent of pastures in the world but its livestock
over 90 million animals gaze
population constitutesmore than 13 per cent of the world's domesticatedanimals.The current combined availability
of greeo fodder is estimatedat 4Y mt. The minimum requirement is 882 mt. The big gap in availability and
requirement ofgreen fodder has resulted in large scalegrazing in forest lands.Excessivegrazing has degradedforest
so\ and hampered the natural regenerationof forests.
The demandof timber is estimatedat about77 mctm.As againstthis, the current permissiblecuttingof timber from
forestsis only about 12 mcum. The gap is of the order of 15 mcum. This gap, in some instances'has forced even
official felling of trees to excecd'thesilviculturallypermissiblelimit, let alone the unauthorisedfelling by private
individualsand companies.
4l
ovgr
{00 tree speciesand h-erbaceousptants are knoum to grow in India which produce goods other than timber
and fuel' These speciesare distributedall over the country ina tl"y occur both i'"
-a ou$ide forests.sptematic
information on the availabiliry of non-wood forest prducts is not available.
The principal forest productsin Pakistanare timber, rafters,beamsand faggots.
Forestssupplyraw material for the
manufactureof furniture, drugs,indigenouspaper,match boxes,resin anjiurpentine.
In Banglxdesb,too, forestsplay a major role in the economy.In a food deficit
country like Bangtsdesh,forestsplay
a considerablerole by producing food crops under the ugroiorert.y s)Nstem,
a recent innovation.-various food crops
havebeen groum alongwith trees for a long time by jhumias and'forest-viilagers.
niJiu"-i"g
trees suchas jack
fruit, chapalis\ coconut' mango and chestnut are fiequently grown in forest-areas.
Like f-4-B;gi"l"J
i uho
deficit in fodder. There is a tremendouspressureof
6arl,"s iimals on forest areas.
Most of the fuelwoodsupplycomesfrom the village homesteadtrees. A study
carried out in 19g0-g1showedthat
the total supply of firewood was 290 million cubiJfeet of which only 13 million
cubic feet (5 per cent) came from
the governmentreserveforests.The annual ayage fuelwood supplyfro- gou"-ment
managedforests from 19g3-g4
to 1987{8 was about 9.5 million cubic feet. Forest wood is also used tJmanufacture
cha;coal though it, *" n*
declined considerablybecauseof the availability of natural gas.
The supplyof timber both from governmentforestsand villagesis much less
than the actual demand.The demand
hasbeenincreasingdue to a increasein useby industries,hous'ingboats,trawters,
and boat manufacturingindustries
The forest departmentis meetingthe annualreguirementsof sieepersof Banglade*,
naimap, t1,|ugh;;;luit*
i.
also importing sleepersfrom other countries.-Though Bangladeshis a wood aencit
country there existsaBotential
to export matured teak timber from Bangladeshto other countries.There are
also bright prospectsfor exportsof
wood-basedproductlike PulP,paper'newsprint,.hardboard,
particleboard,matches,pry*Joa, rayon,door andwindow
frames,and furniture. There are severalwood basedindusiriesin Bangladeshwhere
wood is usedas raw material.
In Bhutan, despitethe low rate of utilization,forestry.playsa significantrole in
the national economy.Aside from
beingthe main sourceof fuelwoodand timber for housing,which-areconsumedfreely
or at nominal costby the rural
population'forest productshavebeenmajor itemsfor export.In 1985,out.of
th-etot"i"*port, of Nu. +eo#liion ius
$'10 million), major forest products(suchaslogs,sawntimber and veneer)and minor forest products
(like resin and
tea chest batons) accountedfor 16 per cent of the total. Forestry also contributes
sigrrii-rcantly
,o gou"*."nt
revenues'In 1980'81,forest royaltiesand til(es accountedfor 9.3per centof the
total gon";rrnt receipts.The sector
directlvcontributedabout 9.9per centof GDP in 1986;in addition,rhe new
dependenton forest resources.
"oa "*puiJinll;;;irtil;rr.
"*i*g"ry
The presentwood-basedindustriesconsistof about 25 small sawmills,rwo veneerplants,
and a number of smaller
enterprisesthat includefurniture making tea chests,packingcrates,matches,and chaicoal
making.Moreover,aiouno
100'm0 cum per year ate converted into. sawn tim-ber by numerous.pitsaw
operators. The integrated
ply*'ood/sawnwoodmill in Gedu is now operationaland the constructionof joinery
a
to clnvert plywoodand panels
into finishedproductsis underway.A particteboard plant consumingwood waites
from Gedu ptu, tops
also been developed.
"J;;;*
Forest resourcesplay a critical role in-Nepal's-economy
and contribute15 per cent to the GDp. Fodder from forest
land providesmore than 42 per centof livestocknutrition. Forestlitter and duog
usedto enrich agriculturallands.
Furthermore,75 pr centof the totat energyusedin the country is derivedfroir "r"
forestsin the form of fuelwood.Of
critical importanceis the fact that forestwatershedsare the ruln ,our." of water needed
for energl, irrigation, and
domesticuse.In the Terai and middle mountains,where85 per cent or tr,e p"ojr"
ri*, ii" r""rwood deficit is of the
order of 2.6 million tonnes,while the timber deficit is auoui o.zs mcum.
On the supplyside,there is a needto escalatethe stocftof forestproducts.By 2010the
consumerdemandfor forestry
productsis expectedto_increase
by ?5 per cent to 25o per cent ;bove that of 19g9-90.r""i;r-.rr,;;";.ilil"
from the wild during 1989-90wasabout-7ZJtonnes,pini resin about8000tonneq
and sal seedcoltectionabout 10,000
tonnes'There are no estimatesof the collectionof minor productssuchas lokta used paper
for
making.Forestswill
continueto play a pivotal role'in meetingfuel needs.of erreme importanceis
the need to maintain an ecological
balance'As 50 per cent of forest and shrub land is being used for iuelwood collection,
afforestationhas become
indispensable.The demandfor fuelwoodhas risen rapidlf from 8.58mt in 19g3-g4
to ri.€ mt in 19g6-g7.
ln Maldives,apart from their ecologicalrole, the trees found on the islandsare
used for fuelwood,as timber for
housing,constructionof fishing vessels.and other miscellaneous
uses.
In Sri Lanka, a large number of forest speciesprovide leaves,flowers,fruits, seeds
and food. l.eavesfrom several
forest treeshavebeen traditionallyfed to ruminants.In the hill country,leavesfrom treesin homesteads,particularly
in the forest garden,are used as fodder. Most hardwoodtrees provide fuelwood for charcoalmaking. Over 7Oper
cent of the energr consumptionin Sri Lanka is derivedfrom fuelwood.A large amount of timber is usedin house
building. The total production of industrial logs is in the rangeof one mcum per annum.A large number of forest
plants are used in indigenousmedicine.
Apart from thesesocioeconomicuses,the richnessof theseforestsin having24 per cent endemicspeciesin over 3(X)
'rain forest' in Sri l,anka
speciesof flowering plantsspeaksof the richnessof the genepool.The most widely known
is that of Sinharajain the south central hills declaredWorld Heritage.
C.ausesof deforestation
The major causesof deforestationin India are encroachmentof forest lands for cultivation, shifting cultivation,
unauthorisedfellings,diversionof forest land to non-forestuses,grazingand fifes.
From 1951to 1980,4.238mha of forest land was divertedfor non- forest use:for agricultute2.68 mha, river valley
projects0.502mha, industriesand townships0.13 mha, transmissionlines and roads0.061mha, and miscellaneous
ur". f.OOgmha. Attempts to encroachupon governmentlandsfor cultivationhaveaccompaniedpopulationgrowth
and political eventslike influx of refugeesfrom neighbouringcountries.Though 2.62 mha of forest lands havebeen
officially diverted for agricultural purposes,encroachmentof forest lands has gone on unabated.Most of the
prior to iyZS were regularisedbut a forest areaof over 0.7 mha is still under encroachment.Shifting
"o"rou.hrrr"nts
cultivationis prictised in 13statesof India, but more extensivelyin the northeasternhill statesand Orissa.The forest
area affectedbyshifting cultivationis estimatedto be 4.35mha, and the numberof familiespractisingit is 6.22lakh.
In recentyears,despitethe government'svigilance,the number of forest thefts has increased.The major causefor
increasein forest thefts is the gap betweendemandand supplyand consequentrise in the pricesof forest products.
Both necessityand greed haveled to forest thefts.Thefts due to greed,though comparativelysmall in number,are
organisedby big gangs.
Cattle and other animals grazgin forestsin unlimited numbersOccurrenceof frequent fires is anothermajor cause
of injury to forests.Somehres are incidental,but majority of them are deliberatelycaused.Deliberatefires in forests
are genlraly causedin order to get new shootsof grassesor leaves(suchas tendu), or,to facilitate collectionfrom
g1o;oa of forest producesuchaJmahua and sal seeds.During 1980-85,17,852major fires occurredin the country
burningan areaof 0.57mha. Many fires in fact go unreported.
The governmentof India has now takenstepsto preventthe diversionof lorest land to non-forestuse.All such
proposalshave to be approvedby the Central government.The important conditionsstipulatedare compensatory
afforestationand rehabilitation of oustees.To monitor the implementationof stipulated conditions,the Central
governmenthas set up five regionaloffices,each headedby a Chief Conservatorof Forests.The Forest Surveyof
india now monitors the changesin the countrls forest coverregularlyusing satelliteimagery.
In Pakistan,forestshavebeen clearedfor irrigation projects,farm lands,new townships,marketsand roads and for
producingtimber for industriesand fuelwoodfor the people.Nearly50 per cent of heatingand cookingrequirements
it" ."t by fuelwoodeveryyear.In fact,76 percentof the rural populationdependson wood for heatingand cooking.
As a result, there are heavyencroachmentson state forestsand pressureson trees and shrubson marginal lands.
Around 100charcoalmanufacturingunitsconsume0.5mcumof woodcollectedexclusivelyfrom marginalfarm lands.
Over 80 million livestockand uncountedwild animalsdependon the country'sdegradedrangelandsand forest areas
for grazing.Open grazingby livestockposesthe greatbstthreat to afforestationand regenerationprogrammesin all
The slowly regeneratingJuniper forestshaveno young crop to replacethem. Areas in the north
".ologi"ul-rones.
pter"it a similar picture. When grassis scarce,extremelyheavylopping of fodder trees-takesplace.Tourists also
play a minor role in degradingHimalayanforestsby disturbingrhe wildlife, startingforest fires, and destroyingyoung
growth.
both the high forestsand plantationshavedeteriorateddue to populationexplosionand increased
In Bangladesh,
demanJfor forest produce.About 54 per centof the governmenthill forestsare under forestcoverand the remaining
46 per cent are denudedor barren mostly due to shifting cultivation.The unclassedstate forestsare under
tremendouspressure.Villagewoodlotscomprisingabout2?1,140ha havebeensubjectedto deforestationby the rural
populace.Another 7?3,431ha are subjectto shiftingcultivation.Influx of refugeesand the war of liberationalso
itttii"t"d severedamageon the country'sforests.A substantialareais now encroachedupon.The areaunder different
types of forestsencroachedupon or degradedis 24,L?3ha in the caseof hill forests;297 ha in the caseof tidal
43
forests; and,8,393 ha in the caseof inland sal forests.
Bangladeshis experiencingmicro-level desertificationover an area of T17,000ha as a result of prolonged natural as
well as aftincid causeslike excessiw felling of village woodlots. Tbe great variations in levels and patterns of
precipitation, enaporationand temperature, a gradual but definite reduction of perennial water resources,increased
saline intrusion from the se4 reduction of soil moisture content, and lowering of the ground water table are some
of the factors inrrclvedin this pr@essof desertificatioq which is evident from the satellite pictures of the northwest
region of Bangladssb involving the districts of Greater Rajshahi, Pabna,Bogc Dinajpur and Rangpur.
The hill forests in Bangladeshare managed under a clear felling slNstemfollowed by artilicial regeneration with
valuablespecieswith a rotation of 60 yearsand 30 years.The bamboosire managedunder the culm selections',stem
with a felling cycleof 3 to 4 years.Tbe tidal forestsare managedunder selection-cum-improvement
systemfollowed
by natural regenerationwith a felling cycleof 2Oyears.The inland sal forestsare worked under a coppice systemwith
a rotation of 2.5years. These forests face extensiveencroachmentand illicit felling. At the moment felling in these
forests is closed.
The forest department has recently introduced a new ResourceInformation ManagementS)6tems(RIMS) to collect
and store information required for managing forests in a computer and to develop immediate management
prescriptions for field officials. The forest staff is being gradually trained in this system.
About I71C/J0ha of forest lands are today either barren or degradedin Bhutan. The Department of Forestry
estimatesthe annualdeforestationrate to be 2,000ha, with shiftingcultivationand illegal encroachmentas the main
causes.These,coupledwith overutilizationof foreststo meet the needsfor timber and fuelwood,have resultedin
forestdegradation.Soil erosionin theseareashasbecomea major problem.In WesternBhutan,extensiveconiferous
forestshave been experiencingwidespreaddeteriorationas a result of insect and fungusinfestations,overmaturity
and disease.
All forest lands in Bhutan are ownedby the governmentand the Department of Forestry is responsiblefor their
management.The Bhutan ForestAct of 19i9 authorisesthe departmentto createforest reserveswithin which it sets
annual allowablecuts (AACs)..The AAC for timber is currentlyabout 3 mcum.A managementdivisionwithin the
Department of Forestry was establishedin 1976to prepare forest managementplans. SJventerritorial divisions of
the departmentare entrustedwith the implementatiopof theseplans.Timber harvestsfrom the forest management
units are supplied for construction activities and excesstimber is exported.The current forest managements)lstem
is based on the selection-cum-improvement
strates/ with a 30 year cycle.The selection-cum-improvement
felling
slstem has been fairly successfulin fir and spruce stands.However, it has failed to activate natural regeneration in
broadleavedforests. Ttris is aftributed to livestock Eraring.
The main salrsesof deforestation in Maldives have been the increasing requirer.ent of fuel and timber for boat
building and shifting cultivation. The Ministry of Fisheriesand Agriculture also looks after the countr/s forest wealth
and cutting of trees needs the written permissionof the government.The Ministry helps the Ministry of Atolls
Administration to monitor the regulatorymeasures.Grazing fires or encroachments
do not generallycontributeto
deforestation in Maldives.
The fact that the forests have been lost in two ways:First, due to conversionof tree coveredland to crop land,
resettlementareasand infrastructuredevelopment.Second,degradationof forest growing stock due to overcutting
of biomassto meetgrowingener5t and timber demands,overgrazingand forestfires.The pressureon Nepal'sforests
is e:rpectedto grow with the projectedincreasein humanand livestockpopulations.Under the current situation,even
large scaleafforestation,optimal managementof existingforestsand spreadof fuel efficient stovesmay prove to be
inadequate.
In the Terai and the Middle Mountains which support the bulk of the populatio4 the current fuelwood deficit is
estimatedat 2.6mt and is elpectedto rise to 3.5mt by 2000.It is anticipatedthat thereafterthis deficit would decline
temporarily to 2.5 mt by ?fiL0,when tree farms and managedforestswill attain full production.Tte timber deficit
in thesezones,estimatedcurrently at 0.25mcum is expectedto escalateto 1.2mcum by 2000.All anticipatedbenefrts
from current afforestation programmeswill be absorbedin the next 20 years. With respect to the fodder demand,
there is a surplusat the national leral, owing to surplusesgeneratedin the Shivalikhills, High Mountains and High
Himal. However,in most subregionsof the Terai and Middle Mountainswhich hold more than 80 per cent of the
livestock,conspicuousdeficitsare likely. It is projectedthat fodder surpluseswould turn into deficitsUyZO1O.
Current
trendsindicatethat in the ne[ 25 years,0.6mha of natural forestswill be lost to this increasingdemandfor fuelwood
and fodder. Estimatesplace the consumptionof fuelwoodin the hill region at 640 kg per personper annum.
Nepal's forestswere nationalizedin 1.957,and in 1.961the Forest Act was promulgatedto bring all forests under
central control.In 1978,the PanchayatForest RuleC the I-easeholdForest ltgislation, and the PanchayatProtected
Forest Rules were crcated as conp,onentsof the 1961Act. Accordingly, the governnrentcould grant limited amounts
of forest lands to vilagc communities for managenent and utilizatio. Thc managenent of forcsts is under the
Ministry of Forcsts and Soil Conscwation PhFical implementationof programmesand administration of foreststake
place at the divisimal and district levpls in each of the 75 districts.
Documented evidencesuggpststhat depletion in the Middle Hills occurred at least 100pars ago.Apart from minor
encroachmentgthe amount of agriorltural and forest land has remained relatirrelystatic since about the end of the
18th century.Most of the potential arableland in the Middle Hills was convertedfrom forestsa long time ago.The
non-agriculturalland is essentiallythat which is not capableof sustainingpermanentagriculture.
In recent yearg nationalizationand cadastralsurvep haveencouragedfarmersto clear forests.The former created
the well known tragedyof the commons,and the latter's refusalto recogrrisethat land with treeson it can be private
land encouragedtree felling. But given the lack of data regardingthe causesof deforestation,it is not possibleto
expressin numericalterms either the preciseextentof deforestationin Nepal,or the proportion claimedby different
causes.
In Sri l,anka annually 42,000ha have been deforestedover the last three decadesmainly due to agriculture,
developmentschemes,village expansionand shiftingcultivation.Illicit felling also takesplaceboth in natural forests
and in plantations.I-egislationalonecannotcurb this menace.Extensiveafforestationis neededto produceenough
wood for the market.
Newlyestablishedforestplantationsare easilydamagedby wild boar and cattle.New plantationshaveto be protected
from cattle,especiallyin the up countryareawheretraditional grazinggroundshavebeentaken up for afforestation.
Other animalsthat causedamageto plantationsare porcupines,sambhurand elephants.Fire is a serioushazardin
the dry zone and in the plantationsraised on montanegrasslands.Forest fires are estimatedto damagebetween
1000-1500ha per year of forest plantations.
In Sri Lanka, preparationof scientificforest managementplansstartedonly after the Forest Inventory Project was
completedin 1986.The presentforest managementpolicy includesmanagementof productivenatural forestsand
and, conservationof
enrichedforests;managementof forest plantations;conservationof natural forest ecosystems;
forestsidentified for soil and water conservation.
Measure to onbat deforestatio and pnomotealforestation
Bangladeshhas adopted a national forest policy in 1979which statesthat all forest land in the country shall be
c"tef.tlly preservedand scientificallymanagedfor qualitativeimprovement.Governmentforestsshall be designated
as National Forestsand shall not be usedfor any purposeother than forestry.The horizontal expansionof forests
shall be in new land formationsin the coastalbelt and offshore areas,in the depletedhills of the UnclassedState
Forests,and in suitablegovernmentlands.The policy also stresseslarge scaleplanting through massparticipation.
Since Bangladeshis deficit in forest area, and the population and demand of forest produce is increasing,the
governmenthasdecidedto raisesix yearshort rotation tree cropsto meet the immediatedemandof fuelwood,12'18
yearsrotation crops for pulpwood,transmissionpoles and houseposts,and 40-60yearsrotation crops for timber.
Under the first, secondand third five year plans,an areaof 3,60,759ha wasartificially planted.There is one ongoing
projectwhich actuallystartedfunctbning from 1989-90known as Upazila Banayanand nurseryProkalpa.There are
also plans to afforestanother052 mha between1990-91and 2000.
The governmentis alsopromotingstepsto substitutewbod,impfovEenergyefficiencythroughthe spreadof improved
chulf,as,spreadthe usJ of alternativesourcesof energlt,and settle shifting cultivators.The ChittagongHill Tract
The Forest Act L977was amended
Board had made a schemeto resettlejhumiasbut it wasonly partially successful.
in September1989with provisionsfor increasedpunishmentfor all offencesthat damageforests,in addition to
compensationfor the damagedone.In Bangladeshthere are now 16NationalParks,Game reserves,wildlife and bird
The total investmerrtso far madeon the countrys only nationalpark at Bhawal is about 4.6 crorestaka.
sanctuaries.
Fire is a gleat menacein the Sal forestsof Bangladesh,where people intentionallyburn the forest during the dry
seasonto get ashfor the adjoiningpaddyland (knownas Baid). In other areasalso,tire causedamageto plantations.
The existingmeasuresare inadequateto protect the country'sforest resources.A strong political will and mass
awarenessare urgentlyneeded.
at an early stagethat the countrt's forestsrepresenta valuableresource.All
The governmentof Bhutan recogrr.ized
45
forest activities other than social forestry and forest fire control are under central adminis1131ien.
A comprehensive
Pre-investmentSurveyof Forest Resourceswas undertakenbetween 1974and 1979with the assistanceof India; and
as a follow-up, a project on Remotc Sensingof l-and Use and Vegetationwasconductcdfrom 1980to 1983with FAO
assistance.
The Bhutan Forest Ac! enaded in 1969,consolidatednumerousforest laws relating to forest tighg forest royaltieg
and the transit of forest products. The Government retained the right to absolute ownership of forest resouroes.
Clearing of forests for 'tsheri" cultivation and setting of forest fires were banned and felling of trces asnrell asgrazing
rights on forest lands were brought under the control of the Department of Forestry. In 1914,the National Forest
Policy Act which coveredrrariousaspectsof forest maintenance,utilization, and developmentrvaspassed.The act laid
down the spccific provision that 60 per cent of the count4y'sland area should alwap rem?in under forest cover.
In 1979,.majorchangeswere introduced in the forest policy. Responsibilityfor commercialfelling of timber wastaken
over by the Department of Forestry who would then auction the logs off to private sawmills.E:rport of logs and saum
timber was restrictedto encouragegreatervalue addedon forest export productsand to enablethe departmentto
formulate plans for future forest industry development.Timber production increasedto 58,700cubic metres by
transferredto the BhutanLoggingCorporationwhich
1983-84.Responsibilityfor forest e:rtractionwassubsequently
raised the logging capacityto 100,000cubic metres by 1985-85.
By the time the Fifth five year plan was initiated in L980,the governmentintroduceda programmeof syatematic
afforestationto regenerateoverexploitedforestsin areascloseto roads and population centres.These new policy
directionshavebeen incorporatedin the new Draft National Forest Policy of 1985which explicitly accordspriority
to forest conservationrather than forestexploitation.This policyshift reflectsthe government'scommitmenttowards
regulatingthe commercialexploitationof forest resourcesto ensureits conservationand continued regeneration.
Nevertheless,it should be noted that both the Draft ForestAct and ForestPolicy of 1985still require ratification.
To checkfurther illegal encroachment,the governmentis currentlytakingstepsto expeditedemarcationactivitiesin
the country.Initiated in 19?4,forest demarcationnow coversabout 1.65million ha"or about60 per cent of the entire
forest area.By 191, about 1.2 mha will be surveyed,demarcatedand notified as reservedforests.
A systematicapproachto afforestationwasinitiatedin Bhutanduringthe Fifth five yearplan period.The government
has launched two major programmes- plantation in degradedforests, and plantation to supplementnatural
regenerationin loggedareas.By the end of the Fifth plan, an area of 17,2ffiha hasbeen afforested.
The seriouspest outbreakin the coniferousforestsof westernBhutan led the governmentto requestfor additional
assistatcefrom the World Bank. Launchedin 1987,the new project aimsto checkthe spreadof the bark beetlepest,
salvagethe deadtrees,and recovertheir valuebeforethey deteriorateirretrievably.To date,the project hascovered
most of the insectinfestedareas.
Along with afforestationprogrammesin degradedand loggedares,the governmenthastaken up a nationwidesocial
forestryprogrammein rural settlementsto encouragetree plantingand to train larmers in scientificforest practices.
The main thrust of the programmeis to meet local reguirements.The Departmentof Forestrycannotlevy royalties
on registeredtrees planted under the programme.Roadsideplanting is a new componentof the social forestry
programmewhich has been introducedin the current Sixth Plan.
Fuelwoodis by far the largestforest productwith current consumptionestimatedat about 3.8mcum.Incal scarcities
are becomingapparent.There is a tendencyto degradeforestsin the more populatedand heavilycultivatedareas.
Given the high fuelwoodconsumption,efforts havebeen taken to developcharcoalsuppliesand set up plantations
for a calciumcarbideplant in Phuntsholing.Energl-efficientstovesha,vebeen developedfor rural dwellersand for
heatingoffrcesand houses.Nearly 4,(X)0suchstoveshavebeen sprEad.The overall target is to supplyabout 70,000
such stovesfor use by village households.
Even thoughendowedwith a huge forestwealth,deforestationhasbeen threateningto degradevast areasof India's
forests.The first policy was formulated in India as early as 1884.This policy sufferedfrom four major drawbacks.
First, in terms of land use, it subordinatedforestry to agriculture.Secondly,it did not lay adequateemphasison
protective and regulative servicesproduced by forests.Thirdly, while it advocatedthe meeting of people's needsin
full measure,it did not suggestprotection of forests from harmful practicesof shifting cultivation and excessive
grazj'ng.
The forest policy enunciatedin 1952tried to make good the inadequaciesof the old policy. It recognisedthe
protectivefunctionsof forestsand stipulatedthat the countryas a wholeshouldaim at maintainingan averageof one
third of its total land areaunder forests:20 Wr cent in the plainsand 60 per cent in mountainousregions.The policy
advocatedsustainedyield in the managementof all classesof forests. It alsostatedthat continuousand cheapgrazing
should not be allowedin forests.
The governmentof India enunciateda new forest policy in 1988.The new policy stressesenvironmentalstability;
conservationof geneticresources;soil andwater conservation;increasingof the forestcoverby afforestation;meeting
the requirementof fuelwood,fodder, minor forest produceand small timber of the rural people,especiallythe tribal
population; increasingthe productivity of foreststo meet essentialneeds;and, efficient utilisation and ma:cirnum
substitutionof wood.
Plantation and afforestation has been a major activity in the forestry sector. The area afforested till the end of the
sixth five year plan (1985)was82.06lakh ha, more than half of this beingundertakenbetween1980and 1985. Since
the efforts made in the six five year planswere not adequate,the National WastelandsDevelopmentBoard was set
up in May 1985with the objectof bringingfive million hectaresannuallyunder fuelwoodand fodder plantations.The
immediate task before the National WastelandDevelopmentBoard was to identify wastelandsin the country
encouragesettingup of nurseriesfor the supplyof plantingstock,and to involvepeoplein the work of afforestation.
Though it has not been possibleto reachthe annualtarget of afforestationof 5 million ha per year, the Board has
The Board wasconverted
in afforestingaboutnine million hectaresin the fiveyearssinceits establishment.
succeeded
in 1989into a National Mission for WastelandsDevelopmentinvolvingcoordinationwith all other agenciesof the
governmentand provisionof requisitescientificmanagementinputs.
and illegal fellings.The
The Indian ForestAct of 1927enablesthe stateforestdepartmentsto control encroachments
subjectof forest hasbeen includedin the Constitutionas a concurrentsubjectand,hence,any Central legislationon
forests is binding to all the States.The Wildlife ProtectionAct of 19?2enablesstrict conservationof the areas
The Forest(Conservation)Act; 1980wasenactedto checkthe diversion
as nationalparksand sanctuaries.
desigrrated
of forestland for non-forestuse.As a resultof this act, the averagediversionper yearhascomedown to lessthan
16,000ha comparedto 1,50,000ha prior to it.
The higher echelonsof the stateforest departmentsare filled by officersof the Indian ForestService.Other oflicers
and personnelare recruited and trained in the states.Theseare supportedin some Statesby specialpolice forces
attachedto the forest departments.The forest departmentsalso look after the scientificmanagementof the forests
through the preparation and implementationof working plans. Several states t ave taken steps to control the
functioning of saw mills. In order to control the damagedue to fires, a modern forest fire control project was
which has been successfullycomplettd. A
launchedon a demonstrationbasisin two stateswith UNDP assistance
specialcentral schemelaunchedin 1987aims at curbingshifting cultivation.
The Forest Surveyof India is a countrywideorganisationwith the primary task of preparationof state of the forest
reports.A nationalForestData ManagementCentrehasbeensetup to facilitateinterpretationof data from satellites
but is continuing
and aircraft surveys.Field level forest surveyand settlementhas been completedin several,statqs
in the northeasternstates.
Severalmeasureshavebeentakento substitutethe useofwood. The useofwood for railwayshasbeenbroughtdown
by 50 per centby promotingconcretesleepers.Corrugatedfibre board cartonsare beingpromotedto replacewooden
boxesas packagingmaterials.Alternative and renewablesourcesof energyare also being encouraged.A national
programmeon improvedstoveswith btter efficiencyin wood consumptionhasbeenlaunched.Industrialuseof wood
on a subsidisedbasishasbeen an important factor contributingto deforestation.The Central governmenthastaken
with its marketvalueand is alsoencouragingthe industry
stepsto increasethe price of industrialwoodcommensurate
to dependon non-forestlandsfor futuresupply.Import of timberand wood pulp hasbeenliberalisedwith verylow
customsduties.
of minor forestproduce
The CentralGovernmenthas initiatedspecialschemes'forafforestationfor enhancement
to benefitthe tribal populationsand for improvementof livingconditionsin and aroundforests.
Wildlife managementhasbeen an integral part of Indian forestry.Over 13 mha of forestsare exclusivelydevotedto
the preservationof wildlife. There are 60 nationalparks and 257 wildlife sanctuarieswhich extendto roughly 4 per
cent of the geographicalarea of"the country.To exercisecontrol on trade in endangeredspecies,trade in certain
listed specieshasbeen completelybannedand tradersgiven a time limit to disposeof their existingstocks.
The most spectacularsuccessstory in wildlife preservationis that of ProjectTiger. Between1973and 1983,t5 tiger
reserveshave been establishedin 12 States,coveringan area of about 25 mha. The population of tigers in these
includeeffectiveprotection of the Asiatic
reserveshas increasedfrom 2f8in7972 to 1121in 1984.Other successes
lion in the Gir Park in Gujarat,captivebreedingof crocodiles,protectionof Hangul Himalayandeer,the Manipur
of rhinosin Assam.A specialmentionneedsto be madeof the Indianelephant.
brow-antlereddeer,andconservation
47
A study undertakenby the Asian ElephantsSpecialistGroup in 1980indicatesthe total populationof elephantsin
India as 15,5m. Protectionof wildlife has led to the protectionof forests.It is proposedto erend the network of
protected areas further to serve the nvin objects of forest protection and of biological diversity.
Forestry researchand educationis guidedby the Indian Council of Forestry Ressarchand Education. Formal forestry
education is inparted througb graduatc and post-graduatecoursesconducted in 14 agricultural universities in the
country. The Forestry Re.searchInstitute has been the centre of forestry researchfor a long time. Five new forestry
researchinstitutes have been set up to ded with arid zone forestry; wood scienceand tech"olog; geneticsand tree
breeding;northern peninsulardeciduousforests;and"northeasternmoist and wet evergroenforests.There are seraral
institutions in the country to train forest offrcersand other personnel. The Indira Gandhi National Forest Academy
trains officersof the Indian ForestService.In addition,there are three StateForesrServiceCollegesand six Forest
Ranger'sColleges.The Indian Institute of Forest Managementprovideshigher managementtraining facilitiesand
the Wildlife Institute of India trains ofricers in wildlife management.
The forest outlay in five year planshad been around05 per cent of the total public sectoroutlay upto 1980.During
the Sixth and Sewnth Plans,it increasedto 0.71per cent and one per cent,respectively.In the earlier plans,forests
were treated as revenue earners.The situation has improved since 1980 with the realisation of the ecological
importance of forests.
The afforestationprogrammeof the Maldiviangovernmentmainlyconsistsof afforestationof coastalareaswith fast
growingcasuarinatreesto meet the increasingrequirementof fuel and timber and alsoact as an effectivewindbreak
on selectedislands.Promotion of bamboo cultivation is another programmethat has been taken up on selected
islands.The fishing industryneedsbamboopolesfor tuna fishing.Its successwill relievedependenceon imports of
bamboo poles.Another programmeof the governmenton integrateddevelopmentof agriculturein selectedislands
aimsat encouragingproductiveagriculturealongwith afforestationto augmentfuelwoodand timber. The government
is alsoencouraginguseof keroseneandgasin placeof fuelwoodto relievethe pressureof hrewood.Plantingoftrees
in general,and fruit trees,timber trees and coconuttrees in particular,is being encouragedby the government.
The principaleffectsof deforestationin Nepalare envisagedin terms of the fuelwood-fodderscarcitycrisis.The need
to increasethe amount and quality of forest land was recogrrizedin the 1950sHowever,it was not until the 1970s
that a concertedeffort was made by the governmentto addressthis critical issue.Efforts were instituted to bring
deforestationunder control with the nationalizationof forestsin 1957.In effect,however,the act permitted private
ownershipof L.25ha of forestsin the hills, and 3.5 ha in the Terai, and hasled to the conversionof someforestsinto
farms to prevent their takeoverby the government.In the absenceof financial resources,forestswere neglected.
Furthermore, the migration of farmers from the hills to the Terai has escalatedresulting in deforestationfor
cultivationand settlement.
The National ForestryPlan of 1976recogrizedthe critical forestrysituation.Unfortunately,the plan wasonly partly
implemented,thoughits formulationdid indicatea growingawareness
of the extentof the problem.A third significant
stephas been the notion of communityforestry.Begunin one villagepanchayatof Sindhupalchowkdistrict with the
establishmentof a comnittee by the District Forest Officer, the user group w:ls authorized to determine the use of
plantationsprotectedor plantedby them.The replicationof the model in other areashasunfortunatelynot matched
e)rpectations.Centrally sponsoredcommunity forestry has attractedparticipation only for wages.This has highlighted
the needfor appropriateinstitutionbuilding the devolutionof authorityin forest management,and the minimization
of subsidies.
Nepal's efforts in community forestry have increasedfrom 456 ha in 1980-81to 5,813ha in L983-88.Community
forestryprogrammeshavebeen undertakenin 29 hill districtsand will be extended:o 68 districts.In total, 3L,229ha
havebeen brought under the scheme.In effect, however,the progresshas not been satisfactorylargely becauseof
a tendencyto promotethe achievementof phpical targetsthroughthb irseof an administrativeunit suchas the ward
or the village panchayatrather than a rssourcebasedunit. Furthermore, the effort to encouragecommunity forestry
hasunwininglyvestedauthorityin the handsof the elite,which hassharpenedsocioeconomiccleavages.
Nonethelesg
the communityforestry programmehas servedimmeasurablyto promote popular awareness.One of the spin-offs
hasbeen privatetree plantingaround homesteads.
The shareof supplyof fuelwoodfrom homesteadplantationshas
increasedfrom 14 per c€nt ofthetotal householdenerry needsto 25-30per cent.
Afforestationin Nepalis being approachedmultisectorally.At present,there are 25 afforestationprogrammesbeing
carried out by different departments.Deforestationhasacquiredaddedsignificancebecauseof the extremelylimited
avenuesfor diversilicationin the energysectorin Nepal,which has no known fossil fuel reserves.Solar energr, an
alternativeto fossil fuels is currentlyirsed for dtytng agroproductsand water heating.Experimentshavebeen made
with photovoltaicpower,wind turbines,and multipurposepowerunitswhich improveupon the traditionalwatermills.
The resultshave,however,not matchedthe initial euphoria.There is increasingevidencethat especiallyin the Terai,
the useof animal dung for fuel is escalatingdue to the spirallingcostsof fuelwoodand kerosene.In view of the need
to utilize dung efficiently,a biogasprqgrammehasbeen launchedin Nepal.There are about 3800bio- gas plantsin
the country (19S&89). Ttere is a potential for installing about 40,000 family sized biogas plants. However, the
programmehas not made a visible impact due largely to ineffrcient dissemination.There is also increasinguseof crop
residues like husk and straw for burning. Unfortunately, facilities for converting agricultural residues into energ/
efficientbriquettesare inadequate.It is estimatedthat more than 95,000householdsin the Terai could be supplied
with rice husk briquettesfor cooking. This would call for substantialdisseminationand demonstrationexercisesto
alter the current pattern of energl demand.
While wildlife protection has been acceptedin principle for over three decades,National Parks managementand
wildlife conservationhave been in practicefor barely two decades.In 1!)69,sevenRoyal Hunting Reserveswere
gazsttedunderthe Wildlife ProtectionAct, followedin 1973with the promulgationof the NationalParksandWildlife
ConservatiooAct. The Department of National Park and Wildlife Conservation(DNPWC) was entrustedwith
implementingthe act.In most parksand reserveqDNPWC sharesresponsibilityfor protectionwith the Royal Nepal
Army: The establishmentof parks has had somedeleteriouseffects.Resource'useconflictswith locd communities
havebeen frequent.
In Nepal, almost 14 per cent of forests,shrub and grasslandareashavebeenbrought under central control. This has
required resettlementof vast numbersof people. While park haveattractedtourists and generatedRs.1.1billion
in 198687alone,they haveled to escalatingdemandsfor fuelwood,inflatedprices,spreadof litter, and undermining
of traditional lifestyles.
Developmentof productionareasoutsideprotectedenclavesis a possiblesolution.Educationand extensionsanserve
to bridge the hiatusbetweenthe communitiesand park authorities.There is a need to reducepolicing of protected
areassimply in order to reducethe demandsof the policing agencyon the reservesfor fuelwood.Estimatesplace
the absorption of 70 per cent of the fun& allocated to parks and reservesby policing agencies.A lack of definition
of the prerogativesof the DNPWC and the policingagencieshasintroducedsomeof the worst problemsassociated
with systemof sharedresponsibilities.While the DNPWC hasestablisheda network of protectedareas,it lack the
requisitemanagerialskills, and a perceptionof the need to integratewith other agenciesand institutions.
The forestry questionhas causedseriousconcernin Nepal especialtyin the last decade.It is noted with alarm that
only 15 pei"ent of the forestedland carriesdenseforestsof more than 70 per cent crown coverage,and only one
per cent carriespredominantlyyoung regenerationor pole sizedtrees.The averagegrowing stock is now lessthan
i00 cubicmetresper hectare. Between1!)64and 1985,570,000ha of naturalforestswere decimated,but afforestation
efforts were negligiblein comparison:47,m ha of governmentplantationsand 21,9n ha of community forestry
plantations.In view of theseseriousdevelopmentsand their implicationsfor the future, it was decidedto reviewthe
nationalforestryplan everyfive years.A'Master Plan for the ForestrySector"was completedin 1988.The Master
'Tropical ForestryAction Plan'.
Plan complementsthe 'National ConservationStrates/ and nratchesthe
Measuresto combatdeforestationin Pakistanis all the more vital becausethe country has the lowestproportion of
its land area under forest coverwith respectto other SAARC countries.The populationis rising at the rate of 3.1
per cent per annum, forestsare shrinking at the rate of one per cent per annum, and the demandfor wood will
doubleby 2000.Pakistancurrentlyproducesone mcumof wood while the demandis twice this amount. By 2000the
demandis estimatedat four mcum. Fuelwoodconsumptionin also expectedto double from 17 mcum to 30 mcum
by 2000.As the gap increases,the price of indigenouswood risesand import of wood productscost Rs.2,390million
annually.
The governmentapproachto afforestationfocuseson farm forestry and socialforestry which are practisedon a large
scaleprogrammesin Punjab.Rangemanagementis an integral part of governmentpolicy in Sindh and Baluchistaq
as is sericulturein Sindh.Afforestationprogrammesinc{udethe us9of eucalyptusas well as other exotics,althougb
a number of indigenoustrees are also utilised.
The Aga Khan Rural SupportProgramme,a leadingNGO hasundertakensocialforestryProgrammeson a massive
scalein the north. Large forestsand fruit trees havebeen planted with the help of village organizations. Over a
million trees havebeen planted under the social forestry programme.A number of other NGOs in the north use
socialforestry as an integfal part of their communitydevelopmentactivities.
In Sri l,anka, the first authoritativeenunciationof ForestPolicywas made in 1929.ln 1951,the Ceylongovernment
redefinedits forest policy.The last arnendmentto the Forest Policywas made in 1980in which preservationof the
environment,the need for people'sparticipation,and socialforestrywere stressed.
The total area of non-forestwood and biomassresourcesis about 45 per cent of the total area of Sri Lanka. This
area has a potential to produce annually about two mcum of sawlogs,55 mcum of fuelwood and 6.1 mt of biomass
fuel. It presentlyproduces about fl) per eent of the countr/s industrial logs and 80 per cent of the fuelwood usedin
the country. Thc prescnt demandfor domesticand industrial fuelwood is estimatedto be about 10.9million tons/year.
Fuelwood is still the most inportant source of energr for most houscholdsin Sri l-anka and severalindgstriei use
it ercensiraly.Fuelwood accountsfor 71 per cent of the total energl used.Introduction of fuel savingstoveson a large
scaleis not rcry easybecausepeople who have sufficient fueluCIodto not want to change their cooking habits.
The forest department has launched an e*ensive forestry extensionprogramme. Several agroforestry models have
been developed in order t9- in{uce people to following conservation practices in agriculture. Despite the rapid
population growt\ it is creditable that the countr/s forest cover. is still over the one-third world aveiage. At least
this percentagehas been maintained in Sri Lanka to ensure a balancein environmental conditions. Hinrver, this
will not be an easy task becauseth9 nonulation is expectedto rise further. Agroforestry, social forestry and tree
planting practices outside forests will have to be ortended to savethe remaining forests.
Under the Man and Biosphere(lt{AB) programme,large areasof natural forest ecosystemsin different climatic zones
harc been protected. Furthermore, Sinharaja, the only primeval tropical, humid evergreenforest of Sri l-anka has
been recognisedas the bast example of such a forest in South Asia by UNESCO and included in its list of World
Heritage Sites.It was declareda National HeritageSite in 1988under ttre National Heritage and WildernessAreas
Act.
Peregios
of stre,ngthsand *catnesses
In Bangladesll the staff of the forest departmentremains understaffedand overworkedbecauseof the growing
activitiesrelating to forest Protectionand afforestation.A reorganisationproposalis under consideration.-Su*5
inventory and monitoring of forests is nor{ being organisedby RIMS. The BangladeshForest ResearchInstitute in
Chittagongis now an independentdepartmentunder the Ministry of Environmentand Forest undertakingforestry
research.Apart from departmental supervisionof projects, monitoring and evaluation is also undertakJn by the
Monitoring and Evaluation Division of the Ministry of Planning.
The country also has a-well developedsystemfor forestry training. There is an Institute of Forestry under Chittagong
University, a Forest College at Chittagong run by the Forest Department which may be upgraded into a Forest
Academy,a technical-cum-developmenttraining institute calledthe ForestryDeralopment Training Centre at Kaptai,
and two Foresters'TrainingInstitutes.There is, however,an acutedearthof modernequipmentspeciattyfor teaciring
and laboratory studieg and also for road and river transport.
Bhutan has conductedtwo major studies to assessthe country's forest resources.These studies give a rough
assessment
of the nature and extentof the countr/s forest resource.The scaleof the studybasedon sat"ttite-b*ed
remote sensingwas too small to identi$ specific areas where degradationis most manifest. Recognizingthe
lirnitationsof the abovestudies,the DOF is currentlydrawingup plansto prepareforest inventoriesin pti-oritya'reas.
Under the current Integated ForestManagementand ConservationProject,inventoryworkhasalreadiUeenstarted.
With the establishmentof continuousforest inventoryplots, a detaileddata basewilt be generated.Details of plans
to conducta more extensil€forest inventoryare being currently preparedto establisha sound forest managernent
basefor forestry operations.
Very limited forest researchhasso far been done in Bhutan.The Forest ResearchCell was establishedin 1985but
its activities have been constrainedby a limited budget, staff, equipment and transport facilities. The ongoing
Integrated Forest Managementand ConservationProject has a substantialresearchcomponentwhich is
to
"*pect-ed
strengthenthe ForestryDepartment'scapabilityin forest managefientand nature conservation
Despitethe high priority placedon the preparationof forestmanagementplans,the shortageof specializede:rpertise,
inadequacies
in the database,and the lack ofsupportingtopographicmapsand aerial photographyhaveslowei down
progress.Since 19d plans covering only about 19 per cent of the totd forest area have been drawn up. Not only do
most of f1g6 166nin unimplementeddue to lack of infrastructuresupport, they also require impiovement and
reformulationbasedon adequateforest inrrentoriesand a soundunderstandingof the silviculiureof the major forest
speciesand types.A step towardsthis direction is currently being taken under the IntegratedForest Management
and ConservationProject.
The implementationof the afforestirtionprqgrammq which has been confinedto smal[ scatteredplantings,is also
constrainedby the paucityof adequatelytrainedpersonneland operatingfunds.The ForestryI Developmentproject
which is being implemented,has built a satisfactorylevel of local expertisein plantation activities
Many other programmesof the departmentrequire improved implementationcapability and the monitoring and
evaluationcapacityof the departmentneedsstrengthening.There is an absenceof information on the resultsof past
forest managementactivitiesor on plant survivalratesunderthe government'safforestationprogramme.Evenunder
the World Bank-assistedForest Development (Afforestation) Project, no evaluation of the growth and quality of the
plantationshasbeen made.There is a lack of skillsand knowledgein monitoringand evaluationtechniques.Effective
systemsof monitoring and evaluationremain to be developed.
Bhutan also facesproblems in terms of a lack of a soundtechnologicalbasefor surveysand monitoring identification
of appropriate species,nurserieg planting and logging; shortageof trained and qualified personnel; lack of training
facilities within the country; and, suitable equipment.
The main strengths of the Indian forest managementare its orgenis6lional structure, scientific manpower, and
facilities for research,education and training. But there are severalproblemsthat need to the tackled. The increasing
population creates an increaseddeqand for tree products. as againsta current timber demand of about 30 mcum,
only 19 mcum is produced.The deficit is met through unaccountedfsllings. The prime challengeis to increaseurood
production by makiag more use of non-forest lands and by raising the productivity of forests. The second major
problemsis the fodder requirementof cattle.The growing cattle populationhas led to deforestationand the only
solution is to dirart non-forest lands for gznng purposesand to lessenthe number of cattle. The programmesof
a large number of government departments will have to be coordinated for this strategf to succeed.Fuelwood
requirements of people are also increasing.This fuelwood ought to be supplied from non-forest lands througb the
efforts of the National Mission on WastelandsDevelopment.The distribution of the fuelwood at subsidisedprices
to rural peopleposesanother challenge.The successof the nationalwastelandsdevelopmentprogrammesis a key
to the protection of forests.
and illegal fellings evenwhile protectingthe traditional rights
The strict protectionof forestsfrom encroachments
of tribals and others living around forestsis anothermajor challenge.All thesemeasuresrequire much higher level
of investmentsthan what is being madeat present.The problemof scarcefinancialresourcesis, therefore,the most
pressingonce.
The biggestproblem in Maldivesis the distantlocationof islandsand limitationsin transport facilities.The problem
is further multiplied by a shortageof trained personnel.There is a need for well testedvarietiessuitablefor coral
islands and training in select aspectsof forestry.
of the conservationdimensionof forestryin Nepal.A framework
Since1950,there hasbeen an increasingawareness
of institutionsand laws hassincecomeinto existence,which is still evolving.Most of the plantationprogrammesare
in their secondaryphasesand are expectedto bear results by the end of the century. Nevertheless,the early
realizationof the need to provide a focusto local communitiesis a positiveaspectof Nepal'sconservationstrategy.
It remainsto be seen,however,whetherthe statedobjectiveswill be translatedinto action in a sensitivemanner.
Legislationtowardsstandardizingcommunityforestry,panchayatforests,and panchayatprotectedforests,suggesta
tendencytowardssoliciting fuller participationof the community,and reflects innovativebehaviouron the part of
legislators.If it is applied with dynamismand flexibility, spectacularresults can be anticipated. Furthermore, NGO
participation in forestry programmesis laudable, and under conditions of poor communicationsand diffrcult
topography,representan extremelypracticalapproachto the forestryproblem.However,considerableeffort should
be made to strengthenNGO participationthrough statutorychanges.
The governmentof Sri Lanka sharesthe concernon the conservationof natural forestsand has changedthe trend
of utilizjng forest resources.The formulation of a Forestry Sector DevelopmentProject as part of the National
ConservationStrates/ is a product of this change.An EnvironmentalManagementDivision has been set up in the
Forest Department to ensureconservationissuesare represented-inall forest related planning and management
activities.Severalconservationprojectsare now beingimplementedor planned.There are two conservationprojectg
namely,Sinharajaand KnucklesConservationProjects,which ensurethe conservationof unique natural ecosystems.
will be carriedout for major forestryprojectsby the EnvironmentalManagement
Environmentalimpact assessments
Division. The presentpolicy is to ensurethat care for the environmentwill play a key role in the developmentof
forestry projects.
Severalforestryprojectsare being implementedby the Forest Departmentfor the developmentof forest resources.
The ReforestationandWatershedManagementProjectaimsto conserveand stabilizewatershedareasin the highland
regionsand to provide natural renewableenergyand commercialresourcesfor Sri Lanka. Under this project, about
9300 ha of fuelwood plantationswere establishedwithin and in the vicinity of Mahaweli DevelopmentAreas to
compensatethe forestlost duringconstructionandin order to balancethe Mahawelisettlersfuelwooddeficit. Forests
havealsobeenestablishedto coversteepslopesin the Upper MahaweliCatchment.The CommunityForestryProject
51
is designedto plant fuelwood specieson estate land on a self help basis.The Bamboo and Rattan project aims to
increase the supply of banboo and rattan to local industries. The project on Forest Inrrcntory for lianagement
llanning was implemented to conplete forest inventory *ork of natural forests of Wet Zane. Under the-Foresr
ResourceDevelopment
lrgject, a Forestry Mas1e1Plan has been prepared and plantations establishedaccordingly.
-the
The IRDP programme is implemented by the Ministry of Plan Implementation and these projects recognise
importance of forestry. Almost all IRDP implementation districts harretheir o*n forestry aomponent.
The Forest Sector Development Project, which includes componentsfor forest management,plantation" education,
tlaining and institutional support, was based on a firrc laar inrrcstmentprogramme developeaio fg86. ihe project
has been presentedto bilateral and multilateral lending and donor agencies-andthe projeci is scheduledto U"gio io
June 190. In addition" the proposed participatory forestry project funded by thi Asian Development g;rk is
scheduledto be implemented from lc)gl to L996.
Table 4.1
Total faest area and forest area ab a proportftm of geogrrphical arca in countrlx of tbc SAARC r%|6ra
Country
Total forest area
(Million hectare)
Forest area as Vo of.
total geographicalarea
Bangladesh
2.6
L7.L
Bhutan
2.57
&.0
72.r8
22.8
India
Forest area per capita
(ha/person)
0.023
(1e81)
NA
0.11
(1e81)
Maldives
0.0
0.0
NA
Nepal
5.5
37.0
NA
Pakistan
4.58
5.2
NA
Sri Lanka
2.53
39.0
89.6
52
0.15
Table 42
Ftr€st ttpes in South Asia
Area
[n Eillim h€daresl
Crmtry
Fffest ty"e
Bangladesh
(1e85-87)
(a) Evergreen
(b) Moist deciduous
(c) Mangroove
India
Tropical moist deciduousforests
Tropical dry deciduousforests
Tropical wet evergreenforests
Sub-tropicaland alpine forests
Mangrove forests
Maldives
NA
Nepal
NA
Pakistan
NA
Sri Lanka
NA
NA
Bhutan
'NA
NA
NA : Not available
Neg' : Negligible
Table 43
Deforestatim rates in South Asia
Deforestationrates
[hectares/year]
25n
Bangladesh
NA
Bhutan
47,sffi
(1e8s-87)
India
NA
Maldives
Nepal
Pakistan
2.lVo
$ee/6s-te78/7e)
NA
Sri Lanka :
- During rapid Mahaweli Dev.
- Current rates
NA : Not Available
2i.8
18.66
5.t2
L6.74
0.40
NA
Low country wet zone
Montane zone
lntermediatezone
Dry zone
Country
r.52
0.27
0.67
30000
15-20,000
1.45Va
t.54 Vo
Neg.'
2I.97 Vo
Table 4.4
Afrorrcstationin Sd;1h Asia
Total area afforestedannuallv
[in hectares]
Bangladesh
15,000
Bhutan
NA
India
1.8 m. hac.
Maldives
NA
Nepal
NA
Pakistan
NA
Sri I-anka
5,000
NA : Not Available
Table 45
Fireurood consunption in South Asia
Country
Firewoodconsumed
Bangladesh
0.8 million tonnesper year
Bhutan
NA
India
235 million cubic metres/year
(1e87)
Maldives
79.LVo
Nepal
83.7Voof annualper capitaconsumption
of energr (1981)
Pakistan
NA
Sri l-anka
0.51cubic metres/capita
NA : Not Available
Tablc 4.6
Prote{ted arcas in South Asia
Country
Bangladesh
Bhutan
India
Numberof
protected
areas
Area covered by
protected areas
[in million hectares]
15
NA
3r7
(1eeo)
Voof total
landarea
0.r2
0.84
NA
NA
IJ
0.4
(1ee0)
Maldives
0
0
0
Nepal
13
13542Sq Km
9.2
Pakistan
NA
NA
NA
Sri Lanka
113
909788
13.8
NA : Not Available
Table 4.7
Perceptionsof strengths and weakncsscs
Couotry
Strengths
Wcaknesscs
Bangladesh
1. A numberof forestrytraininginstitutes
2. Forestryresearchbeingundertaken
3. Survey, inventory and monitoring of
forestsbeingorganised
1. An acutedearth of modernequipment
for teachingand laboratorystudies
2. Shortageof equipment for road and
river transport.
3. Inadequateforeststaff
4. Reorganisationof forest department
needed
Bhutan
1. An inventoryof forest resourcesbeins
undertaken.o generatea detaileddatl
base
2. A satisfactory
levelof localexpertisein
plantationactivities
l.
2.
55
Limitcoforestresearch
Limited budget, staff, equipmentand
transportfacilitiesfor research
3. Shortageof specialisedexpertiseand
trainedpersonnel
4. Paucityof adequatefunds
5. S m a l l , s c a t t e r e d a f f o r e s t a t i o n
programme
Slowpreparationof forestmanagement
plans
Lack of infrastructuresupport
8. Lack of trainingfacilities
9. Systemsof monitoring and evaluation
yet to be developed
10. Lack of sound technologicalbase for
surveys,
monitoringandidentificationof
speciesetc.
11. Lack of data on forest resources.and
past forest management and
. aflorestationactivities
India
1 . Strongorganisationalstructure
)
Availability of scientihcpersonnel
J.
Availability of facilities for research,
educationand training
l.
2.
3.
4.
5
6.
Maldives
1. Surveyof Mangroves.
L
)
J.
Inadequatepolicing of forest resources
No policy regarding cartle grazing in
forest lands
Need for appropriate policy regarding
tribal usufruct rights in forests
Scarcefinancialresources
Inadequate coordination between
governmentdepartments
Insufficientfacilitiesfor the distribution
of fuelwood at subsidisedprices
Limited transport facilities between
islands
Shortageof trained personnel
Lack of identification of varieties
suitablefor coral islands
Nepal
1 . Increasingawareness
2. Elaborateframeworkof institutionsand
laws
3. Focus on participation of local
communities
4. Existenceof stateand communitvlevel
organisations
5. Homogenousandintegratedcommunity
structure
6. Encouragement and adoption of
technicaland institutionalinnovations
7. SomeNGO participation
l.
)
Pakistan
1. Stronginstitutionalset-up
2. Adequatetrainingfacilities
3. Availabilityof researchfacilities
Inadeguate availability of fuel
substitutes
Absence of a coordinated policy of
grazing
3. Increasingpopulationpressure
4. Absenceof a National Plan
Sri Lanka
1.
Weak enforcementof the law
Limited budgetingfor improvementof
institutional framework
Poor coordination between agencies
dealingwith forest resources
Inadequatedevelopmentof woodenergy
conservationprogrammes
5. Timber utilization researchinadequate
6. Inadequateforest policy and legislation
7. Slackpublicawareness.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
Planning and implementation of a
number of conservationprojects
Developmentof forest resources
Developmentof a ForestryMaster Plan
ELAs to be carried out for major
forestryprojects
Environmentalmanagementset up
Establishmentof fuelwood plantations
and communitywood lots
Tree planting and educational
programmes
Preparedforest inventory
Active NGO's participationin the forest
conservationmeasures
NA : Not Available
56
Weak institutions
Intermediary organisational structures
weak
Need for governmentprogrammesand
statutorychangesto encourageNGO
participation
l.
l.
)