- Young Scientist USA

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YOUNG
USA
SCIENTIST
Vol.2
YOUNG SCIENTIST USA.
Vol.2
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Table of Contents
Natural Science
Physical Science
Hybrid Extraction-Amperometric Determination of PD(II), BI(III) and CU(II) by Solution of Tioacetamide
in Water, Mixed and Non-Water Mediums. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
Zukhra Yahshiyeva, Mekhrinigor Yahshiyeva, Sirojiddin Alimkulov, Sarvinoz Pirnazarova, Ulbozor Jumartova
Earth Science
The Human-Geographical Content of Selection Operations in Geographic Information Systems. . . . . . . 9
Nataliia Sergieieva
Life Science
Population of Herbivorous Fish Fauna in Lake Kamenik, and Its Food Potential. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Eduard Maramokhin, Vladislav Golubev
Social Science
Economics and Business
Effective Provision of Resources for the Real Economy. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
Olga Aleksandrova, Vladimir Kruglov
Application of Economic Forecasting in Management Accounting System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Aizhan Mukhamadiyeva
The Banking System of the Republic of Uzbekistan in the Age of the Modernization of the Economy. . . 33
Bobir Parpiev
Innovation Management Factor in the Development of Regional Economics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Natalia Trutneva, Vladimir Kruglov
Alternative and Mass Tourism Combination Analysis in South Europe. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Nadezhda Detelinova Zlatareva
Education
The Technology of Advanced and Innovative Experience in the Process of Constant Pedagogical
Education. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Khabibullo Abdukarimov, Sojida Gofurova
“Inspired” Technology of Learners’ Interaction with Metapoetic Text as a Metasubject Motion
from Images and Ideas to an Action. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Maria Akhmetova
Synergistic Nature of Competency-Based Training in the Higher Education System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Vladimir Artemov
Family Education. The Basic Principles of Successful Family Upbringing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Eugenia Bakhurova
Innovative Technology in Learning Foreign Languages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Lyailya Jumanova, Madina Tulegenova
Speech Development of Young Children as a Factor of Their Social Growth in the Modern Society. . . . . 70
Helena Malkova
On Certain Problems of Studying Ethnical Self-Consciousness through National Fictional Literature. . . . 75
Fariza Mezhidova
The Role of Personality Type and the Child’s Thinking When Establishing the Type of Giftedness
in a Rural School. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
Almir Miniakhmetov, Rail Akhmetov, Aliya Usmanova
Law
Legal Standards in the Transport Infrastructure of the Republic of Bulgaria. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Gena Tsvetkova Velkovska
Political Science
Computer Games as “Soft Power” in World Politics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Kudrat Ortikov, Sidora Bakhtiarova
Psychology
Conceptualization of the Term ‘Psychological Resilience’ by the Convicted and the Role
of Psychological Resilience under the Conditions of Long-Term Placement. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Tatyana Bystrova
Transform and Prediction Abilities as Components of the Psychological Structure
of the Verbal Creativity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Tatyana Shilo
Sociology
The Role of Community in the Development of Society of Citizenship. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Umid Abdalov, Rasulbek Hadjiyev
Prospects for Rural Youth in the Development of the Agricultural Sector
of the Republic of Bashkortostan. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Fania Igebaeva
Humanities
History and Archaeology
The System of Servicing on Caravan Roads in the Middle Ages. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Umid Abdalov, Quvonchbek Hamrayev
Dynamics of Azerbaijan-Israel Political Relations (1991–1998-years). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Samira Mammadova Iskandar
Khwarezmian Statuary Ossuaries. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Bunyad Saparbaev, Sakhiba Yangibaeva
Languages and Literature
Who is the Hero of the Modern Russian Literature?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Galia Akhmetova
Studying of the Uzbek Classical Literature in the Russian Literary Criticism of the XX Century. . . . . . . 137
Gulnoz Khalliyeva
Difficulties of Legal Translation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Anastasia Malakhova, Anita Korgina, N.Shishigina
Category of Assessment Within Public Political Speech (based on Stolypin’s speech). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Svetlana Pogorelova, Anna Yakovleva
John Milton and his Influence on Modern Art: Cinema. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Volha Shkrabo
Anglicisms in the Modern Youth Environment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Anna Maria Smirnova
Imagery of Texts in Scientific and Poetic Language Styles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Ann Wells
Philosophy, Ethics and Religion
The Role of the Tolerance in Society and its Philosophical Interpretation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Maksuda Khajieva, Rasulbek Khajiev, Shirin Jumaniyazova, Lochin Kurbonov
Arts
About Three Differences of Uzbek Cinema. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Eldar Yuldashev
Applied Science
Engineering
Three-Dimensional Display for Passenger Aircraft In-Flight Entertainment System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Mohammed Ahmed Bazuhair
The Kelley-Walker’s Method in Modelling of Information System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Andrey Semakhin
Medicine
The Degree of Endothelial Dysfunction in Patients with Acute Coronary Syndrome and Medicinal
Methods of Its Correction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Salima Abdijalilova, Majid Kenjaev, Ulugbek Ganiev, Gulom Kholov
Clinical Observation of Autistic Spectrum Disorder in a Patient with Noonan Syndrome. . . . . . . . . . . 193
Kateryna Galchyn
Diagnostics and Treatment with Burn Sepsis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Erkin A. Hakimov, Babur M. Shakirov, Muso Haidarov
Nebivolol Effect on Pulmonary Hypertension in Chronic Obstructive Disease of the Lungs. . . . . . . . . 201
Gulom Holov
NATURAL SCIENCE
Physical Science
Hybrid Extraction-Amperometric
Determination of PD(II),
BI(III) and CU(II) by Solution
of Tioacetamide in Water, Mixed
and Non-Water Mediums
Zukhra Yahshiyeva,
Mekhrinigor Yahshiyeva,
Sirojiddin Alimkulov,
Sarvinoz Pirnazarova,
Ulbozor Jumartova
Jizzakh State Pedagogical Institute after name A. Kadiry, Jizzakh, Uzbekistan
Abstract. Methods of hybrid extraction amperometric determination Pd(II), Bi(III) and Cu(II) by solution
of tioacetamide in water, mixed and non-water mediums were elaborated. These methods were used to carry
out analysis of binary, triple and more complex model mixtures that imitated some industrial materials and
natural objects.
Keywords: amperometrical, titration, thionalid, tioacetamid.
Introduction
organic materials which do no dissolve well in
water.
In practical relations, electroanalytical chemistry has promoted the solution of such problem as
extraction-amperometric titration of ions of different
metals directly in extracts excluding reextraction;
increasing sensitivity, selectivity and also expression
of carrying out determinations.
Titration in water, mixed and non-water mediums in principle must be a basis or ground for metal
determination in extracts obtained by extraction
division or concentration of elements and also in
Materials and Methods
In the current study, new variants of amperometrical titration of ions of different metals after
extraction as diethylditiocarbaminates or ditizonates was elaborated. This method consists of
the following stages: aliquation of a portion of
the extract in anhydrous acetic acid (propanol,
3
4 Young Scientist USA, Vol.2
DMSO, or DMFA can also be used); addition
of a small quantity of non-water solution of a
suitable strong oxidizer (Cr2O3, KMnO4, H2O2
or O3); and then heating the mixture for full destruction of complexes and extraction reagents.
After cooling, analyzed solution phone electrolyte (CH3COOK or LiClO4) was added, and then
titration by EDTA (or by another similar titrant)
was carried out.
The basic stage of analysis was destruction of
extracted complexes and surpluses of reagents by
strong oxidizers that satisfied the following demands: fast and complete destruction of the extracted complexes; neither itself nor its products
of reduction must not interact with the titrator
(TAA-tioacetamid, EDTA, TA-thionalide); and titrating ions also don’t participate in electrode
processes. It was determined that the best oxidizers meeting the above-mentioned demands were
solutions of Cr2O3, KMnO4, and H2O2 in prolytical solvents with concentrations of no more than
0.001 M because at these concentrations, titrants
undergo virtually no oxidation; also, amperometrical titration of ions of different metals was carried out smoothly in the absence of oxidizers. It
was necessary to avoid higher concentrations of
oxidizers because they produced titration curves
that were less clear and the results of titration were
overstated.
Results and Discussion
Titration of diethylditiocarbaminated complexes of Cu(II) and Bi(III) by a solution of TAA in
acetic acid was carried out. The following optimal
conditions for titration of Bi(III) ions using diethylditiocarbaminates or ditizonates were recommended:
aliquated a portion of the extract (0.5 ml from flash
on 25.0 ml), which was placed in glass for titration;
then 30.0 ml of acetic acid and the needed volume
of a 0.5 M solution of chromic anhydride in acetic acid was added. The common quantity of oxidizer must exceed the stexiometrical quantity, but
by no more than 5 times. (The necessary volume
of oxidizer can be calculated on the basis of the
concentration of DTC solution used for extraction
in chloroform or CCl4, and in the case of carbonated complexes, on the basis of approximate concentration of determinated metal in the extract.) The
solution was heated to boiling point and the colour
of the extract disappeared. (Very weak colour remained owing to a surplus of the chromic anhydride or its products of reduction). After cooling of
the analyzed solution to room temperature, 2 ml of
a 0.25 M solution of CH3COOK or LiClO4 in acetic
acid were added; then titration was carried out with
a 0.001-0.004 M solution of TAA at 0.95 V and the
point of equivalence was determined by the usual
graphic method.
TABLE 1. Determination of Cu(II) and Bi(III) by solution of tioacetamide on the background of 0.25 M
CH3COOK in artificial mixtures
Content of metal ions in analyzed
mixture, %
Me found
(P=0,95; x ± ΔX)
n
S
Sr
Cu(0.135) + Co(3.01) + Zn (56.86)
0.133 ± 0.002
8
0.002
0.015
Cu(0.145) + Fe(56.87) + Al(42.98)
0.144 ± 0.001
6
0.001
0.007
Cu(0.169) + Cd(84.62) + Pb(15.04)
0.167 ± 0.003
5
0.002
0.012
Bi(0.066) + Pb(3.,54) + Mn(63.40)
0.067 ± 0.002
6
0.002
0.030
Bi(0.659) + Al(40.54) + Mg(58.80)
0.648 ± 0.012
5
0.010
0.015
Bi(0.172) + Fe(96.46) + Cu(3.37)
0.173 ± 0.007
4
0.004
0.023
Determination of Cu(II)
Determination of Bi(III)
Yahshiyeva, Yahshiyeva, Alimkulov, Pirnazarova, Jumartova 5
The quantity of analyzed material and aliquate
of water solution for carrying out extraction were
calculated; in all extracts, the ion count in titrated
material was 1 to 1000 mkg.
Some artificial mixtures containing.,1-0.2% of
Cu(II) and Bi(III) with different amounts of such ions
as Fe(III), Al(III), Zn(II), Cd(II), Ni(II) and Pb(II) were
analyzed on the content of Bi(III) and Cu(II). The results are presented in Table 1.
Titration was carried out by the following
method: a probe containing Cu(II) 5 ml of a 20%
solution of titrant previously purified of traces of
heavy metals by extraction as diethylditiocarbaminates chloroform; 15 ml of a 10% solution of EDTA
and a solution of ammoniate pH 8.5 were added.
This mixture was diluted with water to 70 ml and
5 ml of a 0.2% solution of DDTNa was added and
then extraction was performed twice with chloroform or CCl4 in portions of 10 ml. Extracts were collected in different dividing funnels containing 25
ml 0.5 of sulfuric acid and were washed with acid
acidanikan and were poured out in measured flasks
of 25 ml, which were completed to mark by chloroform. For determination of Cu(II), extracts were
placed in glasses in quantities of 5 ml.
Extraction of diethylditiocarbaminate of Bi(III)
was carried out by an analogous method; however,
after neutralization of the analyzed solution, 10
ml of concentrated ammonium and 0.2 g of KCN
were added for binding of Cu(II). For removal of Pb
traces, the extract was twice washed by a 0.2 M
solution of hydrochloric acid.
As shown in Table 1, the results of determination
of Cu(II) and Bi(III) by solutions of tioacetamide in
artificial mixtures by the elaborated method are characterized by sufficient reproduction and correctness.
Titration of the Pd(II) after extraction was carried out with a solution of TAA. Titration of Pd(II)
ions in the presence of the large quantities of ions of
other metals that usually accompany them in minerals, allowes and some other objects, the proposed
method was based on the preliminary extraction of
Pd(II) ions followed by titration of the obtained extracts by a solution of TAA.
The following method was carried out for analysis: aliquates of the analyzed solution containing
about 200 mkg of Pb(II) were placed in a funnel
and acidified with a 0.2 M solution of HCl. Then
5 ml of a 0.1 M solution of EDTA and 2 ml of a
1.0 % water solution of sodium dimethylglioxime
were added. The solutions were mixed and after 10
min, Pd(II) was extracted by two portions (5.0 ml) of
chloroform for 1 minute. The united extracts were
transferred into glass containers for titration; 5 ml of
acetic acid were added and the mixture was heated
to the boiling point and the dimethylglioxime of
Pd(II) was destroyed by the addition of 30-40 drops
of a saturated solution of KMnO4 in acetic acid a
yellow-brown colour appeared. Then 5 ml of a 2.0
M solution of LiCl in acetic acid was added and
heating was carried out for several minutes for full
reduction of colloided MnO2 to Mn(II) and Pd(IV)
to Pd(II), which has shown by discoloration of analyzed solution. A probe containing Pd(II) cooled to
room temperature was titrated with a 0.01 M solution of TAA by the above-mentioned method.
Results of Pd(II) determination are presented in
Table 2, which shows the correctness and reproduction of the proposed methods.
Titration of the Pd(II) after extraction was carried
out with a solution of TA. In this way, a new method
for extraction-amperometrical determination of Pd(II)
mixed with noble metals, based on the extraction of
Pd(II) in chloroform at pH=8-9 by mezithelen oxide,
and destruction of the extracting reagent and complexes of Pd(II) by a strong oxidizer (Cr2O3, O3, H2O2)
following titration by TA, was elaborated.
The following method was used for analysis:
aliquate of the analyzed solution containing 5-75
mg Pb(II) mezithelen oxide (0s2 g) was added.
Then, with the help of KOH or HCl, the pH was
established in a range of 4.5-5.0. Then the mixture
was diluted to a volume of 50 ml and was extracted
for 1.0 min by 10 ml of phases; the extract was destroyed by heating by chromic or hydrogen peroxide, after which it was collected in a flask (25 ml).
Aliquate of the obtained solution was placed and
optimal condition, were carried out for amperometrical titration of Pd(II) (2.0 ml of 0.5 M CH3COOH
and the necessary quantity of DMCO or n-propanol) and then Pd(II) was titrated by TA
As shown in Table 2, the elaborated methods
of amperometrical titration of Pd(II) by solutions of
RA and TA in different artificial mixtures of salts after extraction separation are characterized by high
selectivity.
TABLE 2. Results of extraction amperometrical determination of Pd(II) by solutions of tioacetamide
and thionalide in artificial mixtures
Nature and quantity of metals, %
Pd(0.102) + Pt(4.88) + Fe(10.09) + Os(0.03)
Reagent
TAA
Pd(0.102) + Ag(10.73) + Au(1.51) + Os(0.06)
Pd(0.353) + Au(0.907) + Ni(21.54) + Fe(47.63)
TA
Pd(0.306) + Ag(0.813) + Bi(0.129) + Th(0.071)
References
1. Korenman Ya. I. Praktikum po analiticheskoy ximii.
Elektroximichiskiye metodi analiza.// M. Kolos. 2005.P.
232-235.
2. Korita I., Dvorjak I., Bogachkova V. Elektroximiya.//
M.:Mir. 1977. 472 p.
3. Aleskovskiy V.B., Bardin V.V., Vasilyev V.P. Fiziko-ximicheskiye metodi analiza. Prakticheskoye rukovodstvo.
M.; Ximiya. 1964. 463p.
4. Xaritonov Yu. Ya. Analiticheskiye (instrumentalniye)
metodi analiza. M.: Visshaya shkola. 2008. 559 p.
Me Found
(Р=0.95; х ± ΔX)
n
Sr
(Pd) 0.101 ± 0.019
4
0.118
(Pd) 0.104 ± 0.022
5
0.170
(Pd) 0.350 ± 0.211
3
0.249
(Pd) 0.301 ± 0.101
5
0.269
5. Firsova I.N., Risyeva T.V., Savchukova M.G., Potilitsa
I.G. Analiz blagorodnix metallov.// M. Nauka. 1985.
199 p.
6. Fisher R.A. statisticheskiye metodi dlya issledovateley,
zanimayushixsya opredeleniyem blagorodnix elementov. M.; Mir. 1988. 287 p.
7. Bimish F. Analiticheskaya ximiya blagorodnix metallov.
2-aya kn., M.; Mir. 1969. 399 p.
8. Avilov V.M., Kosova V.V. Analiz blagorodnix metallov.
M.: AN SSSR. 1969. 156 p.
9. Lurye Yu.Yu. Spravochnik analiticheskoy ximii. –M.:
Ximiya1979. P. 230-236.
Earth Science
The Human-Geographical
Content of Selection Operations
in Geographic Information
Systems
Nataliia Sergieieva
The Ivan Franko National University of Lviv, Ukraine
Abstract. The structure of the query that was built due to the selection operation was analyzed. The queries
that could be made in Geographic Information Systems (GIS) were classified. Every type of the query is
presented with the appropriate example in GIS. Human-geographic content of the suggested queries was
described. All the results of the queries in the tabular and cartographical forms are reflected.
Keywords: selection operation, attributive query, spatial query, geographic information system, GIS package,
human-geographic content of selection operations.
Introduction
Materials and Methods
During the human-geographical researches, the
scientists often have to work with a large amount of
data. For the constructing geographic information
models of the investigated region the thematic relational data tables are designed on the base of these
data. Then the spatial snap of these tables to the
cartographic geographic information model of the
region is carrying out. A large amount of relational
tables can be bounded to every territorial unit of region. The amount and structure of relation tables are
determined by the aims of the research. Therefore,
the scientists very often are run with the necessity
of the choice of the information that is necessary
for the concrete research. The choice of the necessary information from one or a few geographic
databases is made with the help of the operation of
selection.
The operation of selection is one of the most
widespread operation in relational algebra. Selection is the choice of the relation R records of the
subset r = Selection( R, Condition ) , in which records can satisfy the Condition .
It is possible to build the query due to the selection operation. Queries are one of the main instruments of any geographic information system (GIS
package). The user with the help of queries states
the requirements (requests) to the information,
which he/she wants to get from the general massive
of the data and present them in a certain form [Svitlychnyj & Plotnytskyj, 2006].
The query is built by dint of the query language
SQL. SQL-query is a certain set of SQL operators,
with the help of which the selection of information
9
from the database is formed (in this case—from the
attributive GIS tables) [Kiriltseva & Ignatov, 2012].
The selection operation is carried out by dint of
operator SELECT, which has the following syntax:
SELECT<list of attributes of the relation
database>
FROM<tables list>
WHERE<condition of selection>
In addition, the operator can contain other elements, such as: ORDERBY<list of attributes>,
GROUPBY< list of attributes>, HAVING<condition>, UNION<expression with operator SELECT>.
The element WHERE allows to strain the data
of the table and set the rules of the joining of the
data in the tables, if a few tables are used for the
construction of the query.
Results and Discussions
A few types of queries can be made in the environment of the modern GIS-packages:
Attributive queries are queries that are attached
to the attributive table of relation database.
The selection of the records from the table allows working with the given subset of data. If the
table bounds to the layer of the spatial objects, then
during the selection of the records from the table the
objects in the layer will be defined. If the input data
consist of simple table, then only attributive queries
can be carried out. The result of their carrying out
will be attributive sample—in the countenance of
the table. Attributive query is a certain logic order,
which is formed with the help of operators of mathematical logic, they are ‘and,’ ‘not,’ ‘or.’ Attributive
queries can be simple (they have only one condition) and complex (they form expressions with the
help of several logic operators). According to the
geometry of the objects, the attributive queries can
be classified as queries to the point, linear and areal
objects. The examples of the attributive queries are
represented in the Table 1. The graphical representation of the queries is carried out on the base of the
table of the cities of the Lviv region (Ukraine). They
are made by the dint of the GIS package environment “ArcGIS” and represented at the fig. 1, 2, 5, 7,
and in the GIS package environment “MapInfoProfessional” at the fig. 3, 4, and 6.
Spatial queries are queries which are attached
to the spatial data.
Due to the spatial queries, the user of the GIS
can use both the selection of the records of the table and the objects on the geographic-information
model of the territory. In addition, the user can
FIG. 1. The result of the simple attributive query, which is made by dint of “ArcGIS” (query № 1 from the Table 1)
The selection of the cities,
which are situated at the
distance not further than 50 km
from the city Brody.
3. Metric
(query in
the circle)
REGION—names of regional units (attribute of the
table of the relation database), ADMIN_DIVISION—
the name of the table of the demographic attributes,
which is bounded to the map of the administrativeterritorial division of Lviv region, UNEMPLOYMENT_
RATE—the rate of the registered unemployment.
SELECT REGION, UNEMPLOYMENT_RATE
FROM ADMIN_DIVISION
WHERE UNEMPLOYMENT_RATE<1
FROM ADMIN_DIVISION
WHERE UNEMPLOYMENT_RATE>=1 AND
UNEMPLOYMENT_RATE<2
FROM ADMIN_DIVISION
WHEREUNEMPLOYMENT_RATE>=2
The classification of the
units of the region by the
unemployment rate, which
are divided into three classes:
regional units with low index
(up to 1 %), middle (1-2 %) and
high (2 % and more)
6.
Combined
(the query
for the
classification by one
indicator)
SETTLEMENT—names of the cities of the region,
URBAN_SETTLEMENTS—name of the table of the
cities in Lviv region, PRESENT_PO—the size of the
present population, thousands of people.
SELECT SETTLEMENT, PRESENT_PO
FROM URBAN_SETTLEMENTS
WHERE DISTANCE (LATITUDE,
LONGITUDE, 49.84, 23.89, “KM”) <10
ORDER BY PRESENT_PO DESC
The selection of the cities of the
region, which are situated in the
10 km zone from Lviv and sorted
in the descending order of the
size of the present population
5. Combined
(metric-attributive)
SETTLEMENTS_ON_ROADS—name of the table of
the cities of Lviv region, through which the main
automobile tracks run, ROADS—the name of the
table of the main automobile tracks of Lviv region,
CODE—the numeration of automobile tracks.
SELECT SETTLEMENT
FROM SETTLEMENTS_ROADS
WHERE OVERLAP (SETTLEMENTS_ON_
ROADS, BUFFER (ROADS, 5)) = 1 ANDCODE
= “T1401”
URBAN_SETTLEMENTS—name of the table of the
cities in Lviv region.
REGION—names of the units of the administrativeterritorial division (attribute of the table of the relation
database), DEMOGRAPHIC_ DATA –– the name of
the table of the demographic index, UNDWORK_
TO_LOAD—load of underworking population to
work population, RETIRED_TO_LOAD—load of
retired population to work population.
REGION—names of the units of the administrativeterritorial division (attribute of the table of the relation
database), DEMOGRAPHIC_ DATA—the name of the
table of the demographic index, TOTAL_POP_BASIC—
the total size of population in the base period.
Denotations which are used in the query
4. Topological The selection of the cities,
(query in
which are situated in the 5-km
the buffer) zone around the automobile
track T1401
SELECT SETTLEMENT, LATITUDE,
LONGITUDE
FROM URBAN_SETTLEMENTS
WHERE DISTANCE (LATITUDE,
LONGITUDE, 50.08, 25.15, “KM”) <= 50
SELECT REGION, UNDWORK_TO_LOAD,
RETIRED_TO_LOAD
FROM DEMOGRAPHIC_DATA
WHERE UNDWORK_TO_LOAD >0,240
AND RETIRED_TO_LOAD >0,240
The selection of the regions,
where the load of underworking
population to work population
and the load of retired
population to work population is
between 240 and 1,000 people
of the capable working age.
SQL query
2. Attributive
(complicated)
Human-geographical content
of the query
The selection of the regions,
SELECT REGION, TOTAL_POP_BASIC
where the total size of
FROM DEMOGRAPIC_DATA
population in the base period is WHERE TOTAL_POP_BASIC>100000
more than 100,000 people.
Type of the
query
1. Attributive
(simple)
№
TABLE 1. The examples of the selection operation built by the dint of the SQL language and their human-geographical content
Sergieieva 11
FIG. 2. The result of the complex attributive query, which is made by dint of “ArcGIS”
(query № 2 from the Table 1)
FIG. 3. The structure of the metric query (query № 3 from the Table 1), which is made by dint of
“MapInfo Professional” and its representation in tabular form
investigate the collocation between different objects [Shekhan & Chawla, 2003].
Metric queries are queries, with the help of
which the users can carry out the measurement of
the distance between the objects. Metric queries
can look like queries in the circle (for example, to
find the cities that are situated in the certain radius
from the certain city), in the rectangle (for example, to find the city in the bounds of the rectangle,
the bounds are defined by geographic coordinates),
Sergieieva 13
FIG. 4. The cartographic representation of the result of the metric query (query № 3 from the Table 1),
which is made by dint of “MapInfo Professional”
FIG. 5. The result of the topological query, which is made by dint of “ArcGIS” (the query № 4 from the Table 1)
in the polygon (for example, to find the cities in
the bounds of certain administrative region), in the
buffer (for example, to find the cities, which are situated at the certain distance from the certain automobile track) (fig.3, 4).
Topological queries are queries to the topological layers of GIS. These queries contain such topological relations as “to touch” (for example, to
find the neighboring regions to the certain regional
units), “to be in the boundaries” (for example, to
find the cities, which are situated in the boundaries of the certain region of oblast), “to overlap” (for
example, to find the automobile track, that goes
through the boundaries of the certain administrative units of the region) [Shekhan & Chawla, 2003].
The queries in buffer can be referred to the topological queries, as well (for example, to find the cities,
FIG. 6. The structure of the combined (metric-attributive) query (the query № 5 from the Table 1),
which is made by dint of “MapInfoProfessional” and its representation in tabular form
FIG. 7. The result of the combined query (classification by the one index), which is made by dint of “ArcGIS”
(query № 6 from the Table 1)
which are situated at the certain distance of the certain automobile track) (fig. 5).
Combined queries are queries that link in themselves features of main types of queries, for example,
metric-attributive (fig. 6), topological-attributive.
The queries of the classification of the units of
the administrative-territorial division are referred to
the combined queries by one or a few indicators, as
well (fig.7).
Sergieieva 15
Conclusion
Thus, the usage of the selection operations
simplifies the conduction of human-geographical researches. By dint of the selection operation,
the users can easily find the necessary information
among the large amount of statistics (statistic data),
group this information, rank the territorial units of
the region that is researched and even build the
completed maps according to the certain indicator.
The results of the queries to the relational tables of
the GIS package can be represented in tabular or
cartographical form: it depends on the needs of a
researcher.
References
1. Svitlychnyj, O.O., Plotnytskyj S.V. Osnovy geoinformatyky.—Sumy, 2006.—295 p.
2. Kiriltseva N.A., Ignatov Y.M. Atributivnyie dannyie GIS
i SQL zaprosy.—Kemerovo, 2012.
3. Shekhan Shashi, ChawlaSanjay. Spatial Databases: A
Tour. Pearson Education. Prentice Hall, 2003.
Life Science
Population of Herbivorous Fish
Fauna in Lake Kamenik, and Its
Food Potential
Eduard Maramokhin,
Vladislav Golubev
Kostroma State University named after N.A. Nekrasov, Kostroma, Russia
Abstract. Water resources are of paramount importance in the development of the sociological-and
economical industry of Kostroma Region. At the present time the number of lakes with undisturbed ecological
system becomes progressively smaller, for human economic activity has covered not only the drainage basins,
but also the lakes proper. Anthropogenic impact introduces significant changes in the biotic and abiotic
elements of the lake ecosystem (species diversity and biomass of hydrobionts, morphometric parameters,
hydrological and hydrochemical regimes of the lake). As a result we have got deterioration of ecological state
of shallow lakes, decrease of biodiversity, rundown of fish quantity and reduction of fisheries.
Keywords: Shallow waters, fish fauna, Prussian carp, phytoplankton associations, trophic chains,
biocommunity, species diversity, morphometric parameters of fish, ecological state of a water reservoir, trophic
status of a water reservoir, herbivorous fish, fish body measurements, phytoplankton biomass, prey items for
fish.
H
istory of the Kostroma Lowland water reservoirs. The construction of the Nizhny
Novgorod hydroelectric plant and the emergence
of the Gorky reservoir caused the flooding of the
Kostroma Lowland and formation in 1955-1957
the Kostroma reservoir, its area being 176 km2.
Its maximum depth is 8 meters, the average depth
is 3-4 meters. The Kostroma Lowland has a huge
number of small rivers, lakes, ponds, quarries and
reservoirs, which depending on their geographical
and external conditions are home to various species
of fish. Their successful development and livestock
depend on the reservoir they live in, whether its
waters are flowing or standing, fresh or salt, dirty
or clean, poor or rich in forage organisms. [7, 8]
Lake Kamenik is located in the district of Kostroma
bay of the Gorky reservoir and is separated from it
with a flood dam. The reservoir is connected with
the Kostroma River through the Usoksa River. The
lake has an adjacent network of quarries that were
sluiced during the construction of the dam. The soils
are silt and peat. The flowage is low, there is virtually no current near the dam. Fluctuation of water
level is up to two meters. This lake is heavily used
for fishing and recreation. Hydrochemical regime
of the reservoir is favorable for fish only in those
places where significant peat lands were flooded in
the floodplain. Sometimes winter kills of fish occur,
but they are not wide-spread. Wind drift current
and wave action are also significant for fish. [7]
19
The phytoplankton of Lake Kamenik. Generic
diversity of the lake phytoplankton is great. [1]
During the autumn exploration period (October
2014) we took 15 qualitative and 7 quantitative
samples. The results of the qualitative samples processing are presented in Table 1.
TABLE 1. Generic diversity of phytoplankton in water reservoirs of the Kostroma Lowland
№
Algal Groups
Algal genera
Abundance*
Melosira
+++
2
Navicula
++
3
Asterionella
+
4
Achnanthes
++
5
Aneumastus
+
6
Caloneis
+
7
Cymatopleura
8
Cymbella
+
9
Gyrosigma
++
10
Neidium
+
11
Pinnularia
++
12
Placoneis
++
13
Sellaphora
+
14
Sinedra
+
15
Tryblionella
16
Tabellaria
++
17
Diatoma
+
18
Bacillaria
+
19
Brachysira
++
Closterium
+
21
Cosmarium
+
22
Cosmoastrum
+
23
Mougeotia
+
24
Micrasterias
++
25
Palmodiction
+
26
Pediastrum
27
Scenedesmus
++
28
Tetmemorus
+
29
Volvox
1
20
30
Diatomic Algae
Green Algae
Blue-green Algae
Oscillatoria
++
+++
+++
++
+
*Note: the Abundance Index is determined by the number of received cells of the same genius of algae per low
power field (not more than 160-fold magnification) + less than 1 individual in field of view, presumably met by
chance, ++ at least one individual in the field of view, +++ more than 1 individual in field of view.
Maramokhin, Golubev 21
TABLE 2. The results of net fishing in the Lake Kamenik (set of stationary nets with mesh 16-75 mm)
Occurrence, %
Catch-of-theday, pcs
Average
length, cm
Average
weight, g
Catch of the
day, kg
Catch
%
Prussian
Carp
60
213.3
10.3
36
7.74
28.2
Crucian
Carp
60
12.2
13.7
86
1.05
6.1
Bream
60
10.0
14.9
73
0.73
5.2
Tench
60
12.2
16.6
144
1.76
7.4
Ide
20
3.3
16.0
73
0.24
3.6
Roach
60
675.6
10.0
19
13.15
45.9
25.02
100
Fish species
Total
917.6
The following indexes for the quantitative samples analysis are presented below. The number of
cells in 1 liter of the investigated sample amounts
56786. This criterion allows the water reservoir to
be classified as mesotrophic. [3]
To estimate the contamination of the reservoir
it is also important to know the Phytoplankton species diversity index which is calculated by the Menhinick formula:
J = S / √n,
where J—species diversity index,
S—number of species,
n—number of individuals.
In uncontaminated waters the index has a value
of 12 and above, and in contaminated—8 and below. This formula allows calculating the degree of
contamination for the studied lake, which makes
5.7. According to this value the reservoir may be
classified as moderately polluted. This is indicative
of a large amount of biomass. [2, 5]
The saprobity index for the studied reservoirs
was calculated using the formula:
S = ∑s h / ∑h
where S—saprobity index,
s—indicator value,
h—relative number of individuals of the specie.
For the reservoirs of the Kostroma Lowland in
autumn the index is 2.6. Thus by this value, the
reservoirs of the Kostroma Lowland belong to the
β-mesosaprobic type. [4].
The saprobity index varies depending on the
state of natural waters:
in polysaprobic area from 4.0 to 3.5;
in β-mesosaprobic area from 3.5 to 2.5;
in α-mesosaprobic area from 2.5 to 1.5;
in oligosaprobic area from 1.5 to 1.0
Herbivorous fish fauna of Lake Kamenik.
To collect the ichthyologic material we used
net catches with different mesh size and test fishing with drag seines throughout the area of interest.
Fish in each net was separated by species, and then
the age of fish was determined by the fish scale [9].
Determination of sexual maturity and growth rate
was carried out by standard methods [8].
The results of stake net catching are presented
in Table 2.
To estimate the ecological status of the lake we
performed the morphometric description of Prussian Carp, the results are presented in Table 3.
In our experiments we have found out that body
length and weight of Prussian Carp in Lake Kamenik hold up to the average size of the species in
a shallow lake. The coefficient of condition in autumn amounts 3.90, which indicates that the Carp
has favorably developed, stored a sufficient quantity of reserve substances, and therefore is well prepared to winter starvation and further growth in the
next summer.
Conclusion. During our autumn expedition in
the district of the Kostroma Lowland we obtained
TABLE 3. Morphometric parameters of Prussian Carp in autumn
Autumn (n=34)
Absolute length (L), cm
20-28
23.8±0.1
2.2
Body height (cm)
7.5-11
9.2±0.03
5.2
Weight (g)
210-610
348±2.4
4.9
First ray of the dorsal fin, length (cm)
2.5-4.5
3.3±0.1
2.1
the following results. In the composition of the phytoplankton we have identified 30 genera belonging
to 3 phyla: diatoms, green and blue-green algae.
We have studied important quantitative characteristics used to estimating the ecological well-being
and ecosystem stability of the lake under interest.
When describing the composition of the fish fauna
we have identified 6 species of Cyprinids. Thus,
the research proved that the species composition
of the fish fauna of Lake Kamenik has significantly
decreased. Transitional fish cannot be met any longer—Lamprey, Sturgeons, Herring, Burbot, Pikeperch. The most numerous are the Cyprinids, Roach
and Prussian Carp.
To save the species diversity it is necessary to
provide constant monitoring of the water level, the
state of the lake ecosystem, changes in hydrochemical water status, evaluation of species composition
and ecological and morphological features of the
fish fauna.
References
1. Anisimova O. V.—Kratkiy opredelitel rodov vodorosley
(Quick keys to genera of algae) / O. V Anisimova, M. A.
Gololobova): Moskva: Znak pocheta 2006, 158.
2. Zelenevskaya N. A. Ocenka ehkologicheskogo sostoyaniya Saratovskogo vodohranilishha po fitoplanktonu
(Evaluation of the environmental status of the Saratov reservoir on phytoplankton) / N. A. Zelenevskaya
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
// Aktualnye problemy ehkologii i ohrany okruzhayushhey sredy: materialy mezhdunarodnoy nauchnoy
konferencii (Actual problems of ecology and environmental protection: proceedings of the international scientific conference). Togliatti, 2004—144-149
Sadchikov A. P. Metody izucheniya presnovodnogo
fitoplanktona. (Methods of study of freshwater phytoplankton) / A. P. Sadchikov—Moskva: Universitet i
shkola, 2003—157
Trifonova I. S. Ekologiya i sukcessiya ozernogo fitoplanktona (Ecology and succession of lacustrine phytoplankton). / I. C. Trifonov St. Peterburg: 1990.—184
Gorbunova N. P. Algologiya (Algology). / N. P. Gorbunova—Moskva: Vysshaya shkola, 1991.—256
Postnov D. I. Dinamika rybnyh zapasov i vozmozhnosti ih osvoeniya na Gorkovskom i Cheboksarskom
vodohranilishhah (Dynamics of fish stocks and opportunities for their development in Gorky and Cheboksary
reservoir) / D. I. Postnov, A. E. Minin, A. A. Klevakin //
Rybnoe hozyaystvo, 2012, No. 1.—60-63
Brushin V. L. Metody izucheniya rosta ryb po cheshue,
kostyam i otolitam (Methods of studying growth of fish
by scales, bones and otoliths.)—Kiev: Naukova Dumka,
1969
Kotlyar O. A. Metody rybohozyaystvennyh issledovaniy
(ihtiologiya) (Methods of fishery research (ichthyology)).
Rybnoye. 2004—180
Pechnikov A.S. Tereshenkov I. I. Metodicheskie ukazaniya po sboru i obrabotke ihtiologicheskogo materiala
v malyh ozerah (Guidelines for collection and processing of ichthyologic material in small lakes)—St. Peterburg.: “GosNIORH”. 1986—65
SOCIAL SCIENCE
Economics and Business
Effective Provision of Resources for
the Real Economy
Olga Aleksandrova1,
Vladimir Kruglov2
1
Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation (Kaluga branch)
2
Institute of management, business and technology, Kaluga, Russia
Abstract. Relevance of the article’s topic is grounded in new tendencies in development of small and
medium-sized businesses in Russia. The authors maintain that bank credit investment is the key determinant
for en effective business. The article proves that banks are constantly improving their ways of landing clients
through expanding their customer base. As a result, customers may expect to get the banking product which
meets their requirements as precisely as possible. The authors conclude that successful operation of business
structures based on principles of public-private partnership is possible.
Keywords: local budget, small and medium-sized businesses, bank credits, capital, investments, business
stimulations.
K
aluga region pays much attention to development of small businesses. In 2013 alone the
region saw emergence of 13 new industrial enterprises as well as signing of 24 cooperation agreements. Half of them represent small businesses.
Gross volume of fixed investments has
amounted to 90 billion rubles. The regional budget
revenue was 43,5 billion rubles, which is 1 billion
rubles more than in 2012.
The industrial output growth was estimated at
7,5% as compared with 2012. Shipping volume
amounted to 470 billion rubles. About 60% of this
volume falls to the share of so-called “new economics” enterprises among small businesses. [1, p.375].
Pharmaceutical, tourist and IT clusters are actively developing in Kaluga region as well as the
motor-car industry. [5, p.29]. Agricultural sphere’s
positions are also strengthening. Last year the Center for Agribusiness Development was established,
which is now supervising 14 major projects. Eight
agricultural enterprises are developing with the
Center’s support. More than 10 industrial parks
have been set up in the region with 86 investment
projects running within their territories; 64 of them
are fully-fledged operating enterprises.
Actual imperatives of the time prescribe that
forecast balances on key resources be introduced
into sectoral strategy.
With the current state of affairs this is obviously
a challenging task. Even large enterprises have to
wait for granting of lands for years. Grid connection
often costs no less or sometimes even more than the
project itself. [7, p.52]
It appears that such a background requires every industry to have a set of regulations regarding
innovative projects, which must determine authorities’ actions and responsibility at every stage of a
project. Instead of co-financing projects authorities
25
must create efficacious instruments. That is why the
federal policy on supporting sectoral projects at the
expense of the Investment Fund should be reviewed.
The majority of experts think that Russia lacks
resources needed for sectoral innovative development. Therefore, building material, financial and intellectual capacity for the purpose combined with
proper law-making support ranks high on the list of
Russia’s needs.
Last year nearly 300 million rubles in total were
appropriated from the local and federal budget for
supporting small businesses. It is planned to assign
647,9 million rubles for entrepreneurship support in
2014. However, not a single sphere of activity allows
business to thrive without credit support from the
banking system [2, p.328]. It is the advanced experience in this sphere of a stock credit company—Bank
of Moscow—that we want to study in this work.
In 2012 Bank of Moscow launched a program
for small businesses lending and already last year
the company made it to the list of top-ten largest
small businesses lending portfolio holders [6, p.37].
According to Expert RA rating agency in 2013 the
company was a portfolio growth leader (+63,3%).
Such a result is attributed to proactive loan policy
concerning small businesses.
Competition in banking sector is so intense today that banks are ready to work with any client
regardless of the business’s size. A nascent small
firm has more difficulties with getting funding than
a large one, but it will definitely be offered cash
and settlement services as well as other products in
order to start a record of relations.
One in three clients in Bank of Moscow’s customer base in the small businesses section is represented by a private entrepreneur. Moreover, the
bank has no special obstacles to lending money to
this class of customers. The organization is actually
cooperating with any business that has been in the
market for more that nine months and has a revenue of no more than 300 million rubles per year.
The exception to this rule applies only if a company
operates in high credit risk sectors, such as show
business, construction of multistory houses, agricultural animal breeding and crop production.
The bank’s customer base in general is about
80% corresponding to the market’s overall sectoral
makeup: it comprises trade and manufacturing
companies, service industries, rental business [3,
p.362]. The approach is customized for every single
client. For instance, the bank considers applications
from seasonal businesses, devises individual payment
schedules for them and may grant delays of payment.
Through all the above-mentioned measures the
bank has managed to increase the turnover in small
businesses section from 10 billion rubles in 2012
(when the scheme for working with small businesses
was introduced) to 46 billion by early 2014. At the
moment the database comprises 112 000 clients.
Such a result was achieved through various promotional campaigns and product development to meet
the needs of the clients. In the first place, the structure
of lending portfolio was subject to revision; some clients were offered new means of financing. [4, p.21].
The clients who have drawn upon a credit to replenish their current assets, got an opportunity to develop their businesses due to new types of loans. The
bank has actively started to attract new clients by introducing various special inducements as well as by
other means. For example, the clients’ partner companies were offered premium service and free account
opening as part of “Beneficial Partnership” special
offer. Under the campaign called “Take a Loan and
Get a Free Account” the bank opened corporate accounts for small businesses which drew on loans. The
enterprises which opted for “Prospects for Business”
lending product were charged zero commission.
As a result, the line of lending products was
overhauled with introduction of five pricing plans
on cash and settlement services and six deposit
products. The broad client service network is a significant factor: clients can make use of cash and
settlement services at 164 points of sale and get financing in 80 of them.
In addition to these measures aimed at shaping
of supply for small businesses, the system of employees encouragement has undergone a complete
overhaul. The new model motivates tellers as well
as customer managers and small businesses sector
employees to improve sales and retain clients.
At the same time, compliance with performance
quality standards is monitored quite thoroughly;
service level is regularly evaluated. This system has
already proved effective. In 2013 the bank’s clients
used on average four products each. This figure appears to be one of the best within the market.
Aleksandrova, Kruglov 27
The market abounds in effective solutions in this
sphere. For example, in December a new product
“Business-Success” was introduced; its operation is
based on scoring cards. The five-year loan provides
that the sum under 3 million rubles may be granted
without any collateral. What is more, such a loan
may be obtained in just one day from the moment
a borrower submits a complete package of documents to the bank.
A loan from 3 to 5 million rubles must be secured by a floating charge. However, it is recommended not to use real property for the purpose
as long as it may complicate the process: it takes
time to asses real estates and therefore may extend
the time of considering the loan application. It is as
early as the first stage of communication with the
customer that an employee can estimate whether
the loan will be granted. The clients who do not
meet the requirements get a straightaway refusal.
Small businesses are willing to participate in
state procurement, but they still have little expertise for that. The government’s and non-governmental organizations’ key objective is to provide
informational background and expertise for small
businesses. To this end special Centers for Contract
Follow-up are being established under the auspices
of Russian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and
Unified Electronic Trading Facility (UETF) supported
by Bank of Moscow. They are currently under construction in Greater Moscow Area, Saint-Petersburg, Perm, and Krasnodar. About ten such centers
are to have opened before the year is out. Their first
priority will be to serve as a part of “single-window
system” for those who want to participate in state
procurement. As for financing, there has been an
initiative to introduce in cooperation with UETF a
specialized lending product, a credit line for providing applications to participate in open e-auctions held by UETF. The price terms are rather attractive and no collateral is required.
Cooperation with small businesses acting as
contractors for state and municipal procurement will
be promoted and developed. A specialized product
for financing execution of gained public contracts is
about to be introduced as well as a loan for execution of contracts falling under Federal Law № 223.
Prompt granting of bank guarantees is also furthered. Tender loans for participants of e-auctions
held by other electronic marketplaces as well as
UETF are to be introduced in the near future. Today
the bank is working with more than 6 000 small
firms operating at UETF and having a record of executing government contracts. This class of clients
naturally has higher credit ratings and usually has
no difficulties getting financing. Their share in portfolio is eventually expected to increase up to 30%.
Government contracts undoubtedly present an excellent opportunity for development of diversified
businesses with long stable records.
Bank of Moscow has included 45-percent
growth of lending portfolio into its plan for the
current year against the background of projected
10-percent market growth. And the plan is beginning to materialize: over the four months of 2014
there has been a 55-percent increase in lending and
a 61-percent upsurge in the number of landed clients compared with the same period a year earlier.
Therefore, such a pattern of actions appears to
be quite efficient for local small businesses segment.
It is consistent progressive advance in this direction
that can provide the highest return and economic
growth in the nearest future.
References
1. 1. Kruglov V.N., Leontieva L.S. Problems of innovative
development of small business in the Russian Federation. /V.N. Kruglov, L.S. Leontieva// Audit and financial
analysis. - 2013. № 3. – p. 374-379.
2. 2. Kruglov V.N., Leontieva L.S. Path resource provision
of innovative development of economy. /V.N. Kruglov,
L.S. Leontieva// Audit and financial analysis. - 2013. №
4. – p. 326-333.
3. 3. Kruglov V.N., Leontieva L.S. Scenario conditions of
formation of the forecasted development of the region.
/V.N. Kruglov, L.S. Leontieva// Audit and financial analysis. - 2013. № 5. – p. 358-367.
4. 4. Kruglov V.N. Innovative development of the region:
the cluster approach. /V.N. Kruglov//Regional Economics: theory and practice. - 2014. № 12. - p. 18-22.
5. 5. Ravens A.S., V. Kruglov. Prospects of cluster development of innovative economy of the regions. /A.S. Voronov V.N. Kruglov// Regional Economics: theory and
practice. - 2014. № 25. – p. 26-32.
6. 6. Otkin I. New ways for small businesses. /I. Otkin//
Kaluga business journal. 2014. № 6. - p. 36-37.
7. 7. Fedotov V. Forum in investor protection. /V. Fedotov//
Regions: national priorities. – 2008. – №5-6. – p. 52.
Application of Economic
Forecasting in Management
Accounting System
Aizhan Mukhamadiyeva
Shakarim State University, Semey, Kazakhstan
Abstract. Finding a solution for a problem of forecasting economic development and its effects is only
possible on the basis of scientific analysis and aggregation of previous experience. Studying of an economic
phenomenon’s development dynamics allows to explain and predict its further developments.
Keywords: economic forecasting, correlative and regression model, mathematical economic model.
E
conomic forecasting is defined as a system of
scientific research of quantitative and qualitative character aimed at identifying tendencies of
economic relations development and searching for
optimal solutions in order to attain the goals of such
development.
Economic forecasting allows to evaluate current state of affairs and conduct a search for possible managerial decisions; define the field frames
and likelihood of changing the future developments; discover low-profile problems which may
arise in the future; conduct a search for options of
proactive impact on objective factors of the future;
simulate development scenarios with regard to key
factors.
Extrapolation, normative analysis including interpolation, expert evaluations, analogy and mathematic models are among the most widespread forecasting methods.
Economic forecasting should be applied by processing plants in order to improve their efficiency.
For example, they can turn to applying correlative
and regression model in practice. Complex nature
of social and economic processes requires that the
most significant factors influencing variation of
studied characteristics be selected. Since economic
dynamics become more complex and ambiguous,
there is quite a lot of such factors.
Multifactor models or multiple regression equations are applied in regression analysis conducted
in space with a sufficient number of observations
in accordance with preconditions. They give an
opportunity to study in detail interrelation of attributes, their hierarchy and interaction correlation
force. Multivariable correlation studies statistical
dependence of a dependent attribute from several
factors. A general regression equation has the following form:
y t = f (x1 t, x2 t,..., x р t) +ε t,
where t = 1,2,...n—a number of observations;
р—a number of parameters;
ε t—a disturbing variable.
Choice of multiple regression equation includes
the following stages: selection of argument factors;
choice of a constraint equation; defining the number
of observations needed to get unbiased evaluations.
28
Mukhamadiyeva 29
Consistent input of all competing factors into the
regression equation should be carried out in terms
of minimization of residual dispersion.
A correlative and regression model can be used
to predict the impact of processing plants’ operating
factors on their performance.
The following data has been chosen in order
to establish connections between economic indicators: operating profitability, % (y); labor productivity, thousands of tenge (x1); capital productivity,
tenge (x2); material consumption, tenge (x3); share
of blue-collar workers in a plant’s personnel, persons (x4); average annual number of a plant’s personnel, persons. (x5). The inputs on LLP “AAA” are
presented in table 1.
Based on the inputs a multivariate regression
model can be built by means of Microsoft Excel
software package. The first stage is building a correlation matrix and identifying interrelation between the initial indicators. The data from the correlation matrix shows that x3, x4, x5 are interrelated
the closest. The correlation coefficient between x3
and у is more that 0,8 in modulus, therefore, there
is a moderate linear negative (with a “-” sign) dependence. The correlation coefficient between x4
and у is more that 0,5 in modulus, therefore, there
is a linear positive dependence. Based on known
correlation coefficients a multivariate regression
model can be built for variable y and factors x3, x4,
x5. The data is represented in table 2.
The analysis results show that coefficient of determination R2 = 0,8, i. e. it indicates a moderate
relation between the model’s variables.
The following multiple regression equation results from obtained coefficients: У(x) = 621,42—
762,03 x3—1,72 x4 + 0,55 x5. Statistical analysis of
the equation’s coefficients (t-a test) demonstrates
that the coefficient is significant only for x3. The
equation in general is significant according to F-test:
Fр = 8,26, which is more than Fcrit = 4,76.
As long as we deal with statistical series, it is
necessary to check autocorrelation between them.
The hypothesis about existing autocorrelation has
not been verified (the Durbin-Watson actual test
equals 2,356, which is bigger than table values dl=
0,88; d2=1,32). Since the correlation coefficient between y and x4 is less compared with x3, x5, it is
excluded from the model. The data is represented
in table 3.
The next stage is building a regression model for
y, x3, x5. The following multiple regression equation
is obtained: Y (x) = 303,80—711,91 x3 + 0,03 x5.
Statistical analysis of the equation’s coefficients
(t- a test) demonstrates that the coefficient is significant for x3. F-test demonstrates that the statistic
model is significant, R2 = 0,74, therefore, there exists a moderate relation. The following step is excluding x5 from the model while leaving x3 as a
more significant variable. The next stage is building
a linear model. The data is represented in table 4.
TABLE 1. The inputs on Limited Liability Partnership “AAA”
i
y
x1
x2
x3
x4
x5
The 1st half of 2010
-114,8
453,576
15.402
0.631
302
478
The 2nd half of 2010
-115.9
459.688
15.599
0.664
302
478
-207.01
591.121
15.101
0.699
298
415
-208.21
596.641
15.471
0.728
296
415
-188.9
651.431
9.705
0.71
300
477
-189
657.565
9.984
0.731
301
478
-159.01
726.997
5.989
0.613
335
560
-159.44
727.512
6.047
0.678
341
568
-101.01
795.07
6.928
0.601
341
568
-89.88
877.254
5.482
0.595
341
568
TABLE 2. Dependence of profitability from material consumption, share of blue-collar workers in a
plant’s personnel and average annual number of a plant’s personnel.
i
y
x3
x4
x5
-114.8
0.631
302
478
-115.9
0.664
302
478
-207.01
0.699
298
415
-208.21
0.728
296
415
-188.9
0.71
300
477
-189
0.731
301
478
-159.01
0.613
335
560
-159.44
0.678
341
568
-101.01
0.601
341
568
-89.88
0.595
341
568
After conducting analysis a new profitability-material consumption dependence equation may
be developed: Y = 338,926314—740,214006 x3.
In order to conduct further analysis a linear pair
standard model must be built. The analysis demonstrates that the model is significant (ty =—8,6tx3; R2
= 0,74). The studies resulted in obtaining indicators that describe dependence between y and x3
and prove existing interrelation between them. Net
regression coefficients in regression equations are
named quantities and are expressed in units of measurement respective to the interrelated variables
they characterize.
Different units of measurement make regression
coefficients incommensurable in terms of comparing the impacts of each factor on dependent attributes. What is more, even if the units of measurement are the same for two or more factors direct
TABLE 3. Dependence of profitability from material consumption and average annual number
of a plant’s personnel
i
y
x3
x5
-114.8
0.631
478
-115.9
0.664
478
-207.01
0.699
415
-208.21
0.728
415
-188.9
0.71
477
-189
0.731
478
-159.01
0.613
560
-159.44
0.678
568
-101.01
0.601
568
-89.88
0.595
568
Mukhamadiyeva 31
TABLE 4. Dependence of profitability from material consumption
Linear model
i
Standard model
y
x3
ty
tx3
-114.8
0.631
0.904
-0.686
-115.9
0.664
0.878
-0.020
-207.01
0.699
-1.260
0.686
-208.21
0.728
-1.289
1.272
-188.9
0.71
-0.835
0.909
-189
0.731
-0.838
1.333
-159.01
0.613
-0.134
-1.050
-159.44
0.678
-0.144
0.262
-101.01
0.601
1.228
-1.292
-89.88
0.595
1.489
-1.413
Sum
-1533.16
6.65
Average
-153.316
0.665
comparison of net regression coefficients may give
a faulty idea of their impact on the dependent attribute. Regression coefficient’s value depends on
the factor’s variation. In order to compare net regression coefficients they are usually expressed
in standard form of beta coefficients or elasticity
coefficients.
Net regression coefficients help to measure average value of a dependent attribute per factor attribute’s unit of measure, thus allowing to define to
some extent their effectiveness. By the same token
beta coefficients and elasticity coefficients extend
the analysis by characterizing relative impact of
factors on the dependent attribute. Elasticity coefficients reflect information in percentage points. The
calculated elasticity coefficient has the following
value Э = 3,211%. Thus, Э = 3,211% indicates that
if material consumption decreases by 1%, profitability will increase by 3,211%.
Analysis of the multivariate regression standard
model shows that the beta coefficient reaches its
maximum value for x3, which confirms the hypothesis about the existent interrelation between y and
x3. Delta coefficient and elasticity coefficient indicate the same.
N o t e —compiled in Microsoft
Excel based on calculated data for
LLP “AAA”.
Finding a solution for a problem of forecasting
economic development and its effects is only possible on the basis of scientific analysis and aggregation
of previous experience. Studying of an economic
phenomenon’s development dynamics allows to
explain and predict its further developments.
Summing up, this mathematical economic
model has made it possible to detect the most significant factors to be taken into account while planning production and administrative activities. It has
also demonstrated the impact of these factors on
eventual productivity of a processing plant. Therefore, application of the recommended model in
practical activity of processing plants may contribute to devising an effective strategy of economic development. It is also worth noting that calculations
are made in Microsoft Excel system, which makes
forecasting a great deal easier. Such forecasts help
to take reliable managerial decisions in a management account system.
References
1. Colin D. Lewis Industrial and Business Forecasting
Methods/ translation from English and foreword by
Evgeniy Demidenko Moscow: Finance and Statistics,
1986—116 pp.
2. Vladilen Fedoseev Mathematical Economic Methods
and Applied Models Moscow: UNITY, 1999. 411 pp.
3. Tatiana Morozova, Alexandre Pikulkin Forecasting and
Planning in Market Economy Moscow: UNITY, 1999.
318 pp.
4. Svetlana Vovk Models of Deterministic Factor Analysis
in Economics: textbook. Taganrog: TRTY, 2004 75 pp.
The Banking System of the Republic
of Uzbekistan in the Age of the
Modernization of the Economy
Bobir Parpiev
Tashkent State University of Economics, Uzbekistan
I
n the conditions of a competitive market, support
for the banking system, modernization, technical
renewal and diversification of production, widespread adoption of innovative technologies is a reliable way of overcoming the global financial crisis
and emergence of Uzbekistan on the new frontiers
of the global market. During the years of independence in the republic of Uzbekistan a well-aimed
improvement of the structure of the economy is
being carried out, manufacturing of finished competitive goods is actively created, and export volume is being increased through the overcoming of
its former unilateral raw material orientation.
The dynamic development of economic indicators in the country for the period 2000–2010 provided for the highest rates of growth of real income
of the population, which constituted on average
21,4 % a year. Almost half of the income is derived
from entrepreneurial activities (47 %). The share of
savings and savings in the structure of total revenues was 20 % by 2010, an increase of 10 times
compared with the year 2000. The amount of savings in banks during 2000–2010 period increased
97.9 times and reached 4.45 trillion soums (7,2 %
of GDP) [1].
At the beginning of 2011 in Uzbekistan there
were operating: 31 commercial banks, 9.3 thousand institutions and points of service of banks,
including 810 branches and 3967 mini-banks and
savings banks. Number of banking institutions per
100 thousand of the adult population was 49 [1].
Bank capital at the start of the 2011 reached 4.1
trillion soums; assets—20.8 trillion soums, the remains of credit investments in real sector—11.5 trillion soums (including to the subjects of small business—2.7 trillion soums) and a deposit base—13.2
trillion soums [2].
In 2010, investment in fixed assets reached 15.4
trillion soums. The main sources of investment are
own funds of enterprises and households (47.3 %)
and foreign investments and loans (28.8 %). The
share of loans of domestic commercial banks
amounted to 9 % [3]. It is obvious that based on
the availability of concessional loans interest rate
policy affects investment differently in various sectors. Extraction industries have no shortages of investment, as state and foreign direct investment, as
well as soft loans serve as funding sources. However, high interest rates in manufacturing inflate
production costs and reduce the competitiveness
of the price.
Development and reforming of the bank system led to the widening and strengthening of the
resouce base of the banks, resulting in improved
service quality.
In 2013 the total volume of loans to the real
sector of the economy, increased by 30 percent.
Over the past year the total capital of commercial
banks increased by 25 percent, and as compared
with the year 2000—by more than 46 times. Capital
adequacy ratio of banks is 24.3 percent, which is
3 times higher than the requirements of the Basel
33
Committee on Banking Supervision, which are fixed at the 8 percent level.
Liquidity of the banking system exceeds 65 percent, which is 2.2 times higher than the internationally accepted evaluation grade “high”. Domestic
sources account for about 80 percent of the total
loan portfolio.
Objective assessment of the bank’s liquidity level and its effective management are the most important aspects of a commercial bank. In order to
timely meet its obligations, the bank must pay great
attention to maintaining liquidity at the appropriate
level. This problem takes one of the main places in
the bank management.
Depending on the bank’s strategy a whole system of measures to maintain optimal level of liquidity is being developed and applied in practice,
which would ensure meeting of the demand for
funds by the bank customers and at the same time
would not reduce the return on assets and income
of the bank. Depending on the specialization, characteristics of the customer base, operations undertaken and many other factors liquidity management
varies considerably in various banks.
The following should be noted as the main aspects of liquidity management:
–– Optimization of combinations or maturities
of assets and liabilities so that they match the settings of risk;
–– Reduction of the maturities of assets to meet
liabilities which are falling due;
–– The quality of assets, reducing the availability of distressed assets;
–– Participation in the interbank credit market;
–– The existence of several alternative schemes
in deciding to maintain the necessary level of
liquidity;
–– Reducing credit growth to the level of available resources;
–– An increase in the maturity of obligations;
–– Reduction of non-permanent sources of
funding;
–– Carrying out a statistical analysis of non-permanent obligations during the past period of the
activity;
–– Forecasting of the state of non-permanent
liabilities in subsequent periods;
–– Constantly working to attract customers to
the service of the bank to increase the proportion of
the libilities not requiring expenditure;
–– Diversification of sources of supply;
–– Analysis of the concentration of resources
according to the largest sources of financial risks for
customers, industry and geographical location;
–– Constant monitoring of the deposit portfolio.
To maintain short-term liquidity, the bank draws
primarily interbank deposits for a short term in order to meet the current needs of clients. Bank is
liquid when it possesses over the source of additional funds, i.e. presence of customers from which
a bank can raise money in the form of deposit
within 7 days.
In the long term, and in accordance with Presidential Decree № 1438 “On priorities for further
reform and improvement of the stability of the financial and banking system in 2011–2015 and
achieving of high international rankings” dated on
26.11.2010, effective method of liquidity management and strengthenning of the resource base are
the following:
–– Issue of certificates of deposit and bank
bonds;
–– Attracting fixed-term deposits in the long
term;
–– Providing of loans from international
organizations.
In the analysis of bank performance the impact
of the specific features of each country on banking activities should be taken into account. In addition, the ownership structure, major changes in
the operational activities, the share of banks in the
deposit market, the level of capitalization of banks
impacts the efficiency of banks. It is important to
note that in the evaluation of the performance of
banking activities it is purposeful to calculate and
analyze indices of profitability, which include: net
profit margin, return on equity, return on assets and
overall profitability.
In the latest annual conference at the end of
February 2014 conducted by the Central Bank of
the Republic of Uzbekistan jointly with the international rating agency “Moody’s”, devoted to issues
of obtaining international rankings by commercial
banks, the introduction of international standards
of analysis and evaluation of bank activities the
Parpiev 35
experts of “Moody’s” agency provided detailed explanations on their own methodology of assigning
a credit rating. They shared their opinion on the
effectiveness of reforms in the banking sector of
Uzbekistan. Agency “Moody’s” noted that they are
currently cooperating with six CIS countries: Uzbekistan, Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Azerbaijan and
Kazakhstan, of which only two countries, including
Uzbekistan, are forecast for the development of the
banking system at the “stable” level [4].
Factors determining this forecast for Uzbekistan
are stable world prices for major export commodities of Uzbekistan, significant capital investment
by both the public and private sectors, asset quality
and capitalization, maintaining of stable liquidity,
capital growth from internal resources, good profitability indices, the government’s ability to support
systemically important banks.
In our opinion, the most appropriate strategy for
Uzbekistan is to strengthen the banking system, the
formation of the necessary foundations for its backbone, which includes: the development of mortgage lending, increased capitalization of banks, the
institutional changes. Furthermore, it is necessary
to consider the banking system as an important factor of global competition laid down in the financial
sector, which should serve the long-term geostrategic interests of the country. The successful solution
of this task depends on the coordinated actions of
the state and banking system.
References
1.
2.
3.
4.
www.stat.uz
http://www.inme.ru
Data of the Central Bank of Uzbekistan for 2010.
Statement of the information agency of the Central
Bank of the Republic of Uzbekistan.
Innovation Management Factor
in the Development of Regional
Economics
Natalia Trutneva1,
Vladimir Kruglov2
1
Financial University under the Government of the Russian Federation, Kaluga, Russia
2
Institute of Management, Business and Technologies, Kaluga, Russia
Abstract. The article deals with the economical development of Kaluga Oblast, efficient instruments for
its development are specified in it. Creation of Agency of Innovative Development—Center of Cluster
Development of Kaluga Oblast OJSC (AIRCO) is one these instruments. Emphasis is laid on innovative
management in the development of regional economy. Examples of large innovative companies cooperating
with Kaluga Oblast are presented.
Keywords: innovative management, economics, region, economic growth, investments, business, Kaluga
Oblast, clusters.
N
owadays a priority of innovative technologies
is declared in our country. Appeals for finding
points of economic growth sound. On the other
hand, in practice, the existing scheme of economy
in which the most important component of this process—business class—is in a position that is rather
dependent and extremely uncomfortable. What
does this mean?
For example, the government has far more controlling blocks of shares in various sectors of Russian
economy. The share of various government-owned
corporations in gross domestic product (GDP) varies from 55% to 58% according to the data of different independent experts [1, p.1]. Majority positions also define the essence of decisions taken
by majority vote. Here is craving for megaprojects,
devaluation of the ruble, encouragement of the unprofitable mechanism instead of searching for real
points of economic growth and creation of a favorable investment climate.
What entrepreneurs are, first of all, leaders in
business sphere under such conditions? First of all,
those ones who have a way with administrative resources, can win government orders and get access
to public funds. Business turns to be unprofitable
for most entrepreneurs having no administrative resources. In 2013 the number of individual entrepreneurs in our country decreased by more than
five hundred [2, p.1]. Businessmen withdraw from
business, go abroad, and the country loses a natural potential for development represented by them.
Therefore, the most relevant thing for the national
economy today is searching for and creation of conditions that would be favorable for the development
of small and medium-size businesses. Because only
in this case one cannot just search for but also find
36
Trutneva, Kruglov 37
real points of economic growth. Especially since
some examples of creation of a favorable investment climate in the Russian Federation exist. And
Kaluga region can be referred to them with good
reason.
The overall investment volume in capital assets
in 2013 amounted to 90 billion rubles. 43.5 billion
rubles was contributed to the budget of the region.
This amount exceeds the amount contributed in
2012 by 1 billion rubles.
Industrial production of Kaluga Oblast increased by 7.5% in the preceding year as compared
to 2012. The volume of shipped manufactured
products amounts to 470 billion rubles. About 60%
of this amount is products manufactured by enterprises of so-called “new economy” [10, p.29].
Automotive, pharmaceutical, tourism and IT
clusters have been actively developed in Kaluga
region. The agro-industrial sphere has fortified its
position. The Center for Development of Agro-Industrial Complex was established in 2013; it supervises implementation of 14 large projects. With its
support 8 agricultural enterprises related to small
and medium-size business has been developed.
The total amount allocated for the support of
small and medium-size enterprises in 2013 from
the regional and federal budgets equals to almost
300 million rubles. It is planned to allocate 647.9
million rubles for the support of entrepreneurship in
2014 [11, p. Y].
Today 10 industrial parks exist in Kaluga region;
86 investment projects are implemented on their
territory, 64 of them are operating enterprises.
One of the most effective tools for the development that is worth paying attention to is here Agency
of Innovative Development—Center of Cluster Development of Kaluga Oblast OJSC (AIRCO). Its activity is based on the concept of “the innovation
elevator” for the interaction with development institutes in cluster development of Kaluga economy.
This paradigm is intended to solve two basic
problems. The first problem is searching for ideas
and projects of those representatives of the youth
who are engaged in innovative activities. Initial
funding is effected by means of grants at this stage.
The second problem is support of starting stages
(start-ups) through the Foundation for Assistance
to Small Innovative Enterprises in Science and
Technology (FASIE). Promising start-ups may claim
funding in the form of a grant equal to 1 million
rubles during their first year, 2 million rubles during
the second year and 3 million rubles during the
third year.
Both tasks focused on project commercialization: its reaching the designed capacity and exploration of the gap in the market. Seed funds, venture
funds, private equity funds facilitate this process.
Such an infrastructure as a whole is called “the innovation elevator”. In order to become successful
a start-up needs support of various infrastructure
elements. For example, it is a business incubator.
4 business incubators already exist in Kaluga region: one business incubator is located in Kaluga
and 3 business incubators—in Obninsk. One may
also include innovation funds and support centers.
The objective of AIRCO is to coordinate work of
the infrastructure, supply new residents that will be
located in future at the territories of industrial and
technology parks [9. p.21].
AIRCO is a co-founder of a number of development institutes. For example, a modern co-working
center providing workplaces on lease was established by a subsidiary (Academic Training and Research Center of Information and Communication
Technologies in Obninsk) for the purposes of development of the ICT cluster. It provides an opportunity to work on broadband Internet on special terms
and meet like-minded fellows and partners, discuss
projects.
At the same time AIRCO tightly interacts with
many federal development institutes, their representative offices in other regions. This allows verifying the correctness of the marked out course, using
best practices of neighbors. Thus, Russian Venture
Company (RVC OJSC) in Rostov Oblast in 2013
started its pilot project “Business Catalyst” aimed
at increasing the number of projects prepared to
be considered by investment committees of venture capital funds. Therewith it has been found that
small companies first of all need business planning, marketing and legal assistance, services for
products exploitation. As a result, RVC attracted
consulting firms and established a limited liability
company (LLC) in which everyone will get a share
of 20%. The LLC provides “must-have” services to
small companies for free but gets a share up to 50%
in 20-30 enterprises. These small enterprises grow,
come into the market and start making profit in 4
years [8, p.361].
AIRCO has been engaged in a similar project
for three years already—partly at the expense of its
own resources, as well as funds from the federal
and regional budgets. When companies reach the
design capacity, it becomes possible to sell available shares and get additional investments for the
development of innovative activity in the region. It
is the key idea of the business catalyst model [3,
p.324].
Interaction with RVC is also expressed in a fruitful cooperation with “Kaluga Cluster of biopharmaceutics, biotechnologies and biomedicine” that
became a pilot innovation cluster in Russia. Within
the framework of this cooperation a cluster portal
was created; it already includes more than 15 pharmaceutical companies.
Today AIRCO actively cooperates with RVC
within the framework of seed and venture investment. Several Kaluga projects have already been
sent for funding. For example, mobile applications
“Rattle” and “Blah blah blah” (a developing program for children 1+) are among them.
State corporation “Rusnano” also cooperates
with Kaluga Oblast within the framework of the
pharmaceutical cluster. The state corporation places
world-class projects in the region. Thus, an enterprise of American company NovaMedica started
supplying Russian market with five innovative medicinal preparations; construction of a plant of Nearmedic-Plus known for the production of medicine
called “Kagocel” is at the final stage [4, p.295].
Cooperation with FASIE fund is the most active.
“START” and “BEST BRAINS” provide unique opportunities for students and young scientists. More
and more interesting ideas and projects emerge
in Kaluga Oblast every year. All abovementioned
mechanisms represent a kind of a hierarchy of ideas
where 150-200 projects are at the input, 20-25 of
them become start-ups, and 3-5—unique commercial developments.
Euro Info Consultation Center (EICC) got a second wind in 2014. The project is aimed at connection of ideas and requests available in Russia with
the European market, and, potentially, with the
entire world. The AIRCO subsidiary won a federal
competition with the amount of funding equal to
3 million rubles for the placement of information
about products and projects of Kaluga pharmaceutical companies through the EICC.
The first success story in the region already exists. An Obninsk enterprise that is engaged in the
disinfection of medical waste established a joint
venture with its French partners and produces special furnaces. This innovative products of the French
enterprise are in demand throughout the world.
It is planned to increase the volume of support
of Kaluga innovative projects, including “START”
and “BEST BRAINS” programs in 2014.
Future of the regional economy belongs to
cluster development. Today automotive, logistics,
pharmaceutical and ICT clusters have been actively
developed in Kaluga Oblast. The last two clusters
have already been formed organizationally and the
synergistic effect of uniting enterprises as a cluster
is being observed.
The cluster of energy efficiency technologies
will be developed in 2014. A special fund introducing energy service contracts in Kaluga Oblast that
is planned to be created with the participation of
the government of Kaluga Oblast will facilitate it.
Russian Direct Investment Fund (RDIF) has already
been interested in this project. Its representatives
have already visited the region. An agreement on
cooperation of Kaluga Oblast and RDIF was signed
in February 2014. It is aimed at the attraction of foreign investments in new global projects [7. p.331].
The cluster of composite materials and aerospace technologies has been formed on the basis
of Obninsk enterprise State Research Center “Technologiya”. It is an opportunity to have direct contacts with European aerospace clusters and develop
cooperation with the world’s best companies [5,
p.350].
As we can see, the national economy would do
well to learn from the management of its separate
regions. Because, returning from particulars to generals, we would like to state more figures.
In 1985 in the USSR in the days of planned
economy there was one government official per
115 persons. In the Russian Federation in 2010
there was one government official per 58 persons.
I.e. the amount of officials engaged in the administrative apparatus, at least, doubled in a quarter
Trutneva, Kruglov 39
of a century. Expenses for public administration
amounted to 0.8% of the budget in 1985. In 2010
the amount of expenses exceeded 14% of the budget [6, p.377].
Therefore, mobile innovation management
schemes at the regional level can and shall become
a prototype of creation of development clusters at
the regional level when economic growth points are
not established by order from above but by trial and
error as a result of creative development of small
and medium-size businesses.
References
1. Denisov D. Indefinite-personal. /D. Denisov//Kaluga
Business Journal.—2014.—# 4.—p. 1.
2. Denisov D. Searching for figures. /D. Denisov// Kaluga
Business Journal.—2014.—# 8.—p.1.
3. Kruglov V. N. National priority projects: development
dynamics and introduction experience. /V. N. Kruglov//
Audit and financial analysis.—2012.—# 1. p. 319–337.
4. Vasilyeva N. A., Kruglov V. N. Provision of investments in the innovative development of the region.
/N. A. Vasilyeva, V. N. Kruglov// Audit and financial
analysis.—2013.—# 1.—p.292–297.
5. Vasilyeva N. A., Kruglov V. N. Economic and social
aspects of implementation of national priority projects in the region (by the example of Kaluga Oblast).
/N. A. Vasilyeva, V. N. Kruglov// Audit and financial
analysis.—2013.—# 3.—p.336–351.
6. Kruglov V. N., Lyeontyeva L. S. Problems of innovative
development of small business in the Russian Federation. /L. S. Lyeontyeva, V. N. Kruglov // Audit and financial analysis.—2013.—# 3.—p.374–379.
7. Kruglov V. N., Lyeontyeva L. S. Ways of provision of the
innovative development of economy with resources. /
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Alternative and Mass Tourism
Combination Analysis in South
Europe
Nadezhda Detelinova Zlatareva
People’s Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
Abstract. This paper will explore alternative models of tourism and analyze their real world implication.
It will use the experience of Spain, Greece, Slovenia, and Croatia to determine the best practices and
recommend ways of transferring them to other countries. Additionally, the paper will discuss Mass tourism
and Alternative tourism from a more socio-political and economic standpoint.
Sustainable tourism is a rising alternative to the Mass tourism model and offers a number of distinct
advantages in certain areas. However, the Sustainable tourism model is slow and more complicated to
develop. It requires a more developed infrastructural and economic base, as well as accommodating cultural
philosophy. This paper will argue that Mass tourism can be leveraged to provide a stronger foundation for
Sustainable tourism. Additionally, a healthy mix of Mass and Alternative tourism can make the transition
more efficient and development much faster.
The first part of the paper will discuss different types of tourism and will provide a general overview of the
advantages and disadvantages associated with them. In the second part, I will analyze the experience of
Spain, Greece, Slovenia, and Croatia and determine the extent, in which their policies were successful. I
will also derive certain best practices and discuss how they can be implemented in other locations and forms.
Finally, I will discuss the tourist sector of Bulgaria and the potential for developing Alternative tourism
models in the country.
Keywords: Alternative Tourism, Mass Tourism, Sector Growth, Sustainable Sector Growth, Environmental
Challenges, Socio-economic Impact, Social Stability, overdevelopment
Socio-economic impact of Mass and
Alternative tourism models
an issue. Tourists are attracted to those warm and
exotic places year-round and provide a steady and
secure customer base. Additionally, they are willing to pay premium prices for high-end services
and exclusive life style. As the most exclusive and
profitable locations get overdeveloped, investors
start looking for new opportunities and become
more acceptable towards lower level of returns. The
crowding-out effect pushes them to secondary and
Mass tourism is the most broadly developed
tourism model throughout the world. The main reason for this is the potential for rapid development
and quick returns on investment.[1] Mass tourism
is especially profitable in rich and warm locations,
where profit margins are high and seasonality is not
40
Zlatareva 41
tertiary markets, which can still be fairly profitable.
Profitable businesses pay taxes and generate steady
flow of income for the government. This is why the
Hotel Industry has strong lobbies and good relationship with governments in numerous countries.
All those factors make Mass tourism the natural
first-choice for many nations around the world.[2]
Excessive development of Mass tourism can be
harmful for the economy, social stability and natural
environment of tourist destinations. Profitable markets are prone to overdevelopment due to the natural behavior of investors. Government regulations
aim at controlling that risk, but fulfill their purpose
only to a certain extent. Corruption and lobbying
often lead to small groups of people profiting at the
expense of entire communities. Such behavior is
harmful not only at an economic level. Overbuilding inflicts permanent damage on natural resources
and habitats. Overdeveloped tourist destinations
often have problems with air and water pollution.
Additionally, large inflow of tourists can be harmful
to the local culture and customs. Many communities with developed Mass tourism start losing their
cultural heritage after certain period of time.[3]
Alternative tourism has emerged as a model that
is more consistent with natural and community values. The fact that alternative tourism stresses on sustainable growth and allows for better distribution of
economic benefit has contributed to its popularity.
Additionally, as the Mass tourism markets get saturated and government regulation becomes more
stringent, Alternative tourism emerges as a profitable investment opportunity. In an environment of
low interest rates and economic uncertainty, investments that generate relatively stable cash flows are
highly desirable. Furthermore, government subsidies and tax benefits can make such opportunities
even more attractive. Increasing public awareness
on environmental issues has also benefited the
development of Alternative tourism. The model is
viewed as environmentally safe and beneficial for
small communities. [4]
Sustainable tourism evolved the notion of alternative tourism to a new level. Sustainability is becoming an increasingly important factor as societies
realize that natural resources are perishable. This
movement is especially strong in Europe, with sustainable economy, energy, and tourism gathering
strong support from governments and institutions.
However, economic efficiency has been serious argument against the push towards sustainability. Proponents of the free market argue that if something
is economically feasible and beneficial, it would
occur through a natural process. Sustainable tourism, on the other hand, has been slow and hard to
develop due high up-front costs and slower return
on investments. [5]
Despite that, Sustainable tourism provides longterm advantages and economic growth that mass
tourism does not. The model is not that dependent
on seasonal and climatic conditions, providing opportunity to create average capacities year round.
In addition, Sustainable tourism is based on smaller
groups of people, creating logistical advantages
over Mass tourism. This also creates opportunities
for smaller-scale projects, which would require less
financing and less time to payback the initial investment. Sustainable tourism does not require the
huge investment in infrastructure and creates a supply that can more effectively meet the demand. The
model is less prone to overdevelopment and has
the potential to redistribute profits more efficiently.
Communities can benefit from financing local projects the same way they finance infrastructural projects like bridges or roads. [6]
Lessons from Europe
Spain had experience serious damages from
overdeveloped Mass tourism locations. The country tried to develop its Sustainable tourism platform,
but faced serious challenges such as low technical quality and lack of suitable infrastructure. The
Southern European nation is the 5th largest economy
on the continent and has historically been strongly
dependent on its tourist sector for much of its budget needs. Mass tourism revenues in Spain grew
from almost nothing in 1950s to more than $60 billion in 2012. [7] Most of this growth has come at
the expense of local culture and architecture. Many
resorts have been seriously overbuilt and have lost
their Spanish identity. Water pollution, crime, and
drug trafficking have also become serious issues
in certain destinations. Even though the country’s
tourist sector had over 50 years of experience, it
was slow to recognize the harms of mass tourism
and stimulate change. The country failed to leverage its key competences such as culture and history
and focused on expensive sectors such as golf and
skiing. The Financial troubles since 2008 have seriously impaired the ability to raise capital in Spain.
Development of expensive projects and infrastructure is becoming increasingly hard and sectors
without competitive advantages such as skiing will
suffer from that. [8]
Greece is very different from Spain both on an
economic and social level. If exploited efficiently,
certain characteristics of the nation could have given
it a serious edge in developing Sustainable tourism.
Despite being much smaller geographically and economically, Greece has historically and cultural traits
that could make it a leader in sustainable tourism.
The nation has a small population and huge number
of scarcely-populated islands—a perfect setting for
high-quality sustainable attractions. However, the
Mediterranean nation has become rather dependent
on its mass tourism sector, providing close to 20%
of its government budget.[9] Such massive contribution to the economy cannot come along without
large concentration of power and wealth. In reality,
political instability and corruption have been a serious issue in Greece. The lack of efficient reforms
has impaired the ability of the country to efficiently
upgrade its tourism sector. However, the nation has
limited the amount of damage inflicted by mass
tourism by robust environmental regulations. [10]
Slovenia is a smaller and less developed economy, which lacked competitive advantages in any
particular sphere of tourism. However, the country
managed to build a successful model through leveraging its weaknesses and promoting tourism as
its most important economic sector. Slovenia undertook a very structured and insightful approach
towards reforming its tourism sector. The nation first
set out to determine what are the key trends and developments in the international market. Next, they
identified the key advantages of their country—
mainly undamaged nature and small and flexible
economy that could meet the industry’s changing
needs. By doing that, Slovenia was one step ahead
of countries such as Spain in Greece. Instead of
fighting change and being pressured by time constraints, Slovenia was embracing it. Additionally,
the small nation tried to focus services and benefits
that other tourist destination were ignoring—better
organization, quick access and flexibility, as well
as packaging together business and natural activities. This unique approach created a niche market
for Slovenia, where they delivered complimentary
rather than competing services. [11]
Similar in size and economy to Slovenia, Croatia also managed to develop a strong alternative
tourism sector through strong planning and reform
implementation. The Mediterranean nation focused
on delivering high-quality, value-add services
rather than cheap and affordable attractions. Croatia recognized that the tourism industry is becoming increasingly commoditized and recognized the
opportunity in a value-add approach. The country
started with a well-structured program aiming at
increasing competitiveness and diversifying their
offerings. There was a strong focus on local communities and sustainability. The aim was to leverage
every aspect of the Croatian culture into delivering
a full customer experience to tourists. The government encouraged local population to develop infrastructure and promoted transparent and open environment for operation. They believed that tourism
should become and integrated part of the economy
and way of life, rather than just an industry. This
innovative approach built strong foundations for
sustainability and future growth of the sector. [12]
The different experience and varying success
of the four reviewed countries provides important
ground for future Sustainable tourism policies and
initiatives. As world population grows and natural
resources become scarce, Sustainability will become increasingly important. Nations are doing a
mixed job in recognizing and keeping up with this
trend. Some countries, such as Spain and Greece,
are trying to combine Mass and Sustainable tourism,
while Croatia, for example, is focusing solely on Alternative tourism models. If implemented properly,
both can be winning strategies. The trick is to have
the organizational and infrastructural flexibility to
meet the shifting demand and changing environment. In general, smaller countries with younger
institutions have the advantage of being more flexible and innovative. On the other side, larger economies have the resources and historical expertise in
exploiting arising opportunities. [13]
Zlatareva 43
Slovenia and Croatia are a great example of
how small economies should approach their tourism policies. Both countries performed a cost-benefit analysis and identified their key advantages and
disadvantages. They managed to leverage those
advantages and, in some cases, even the disadvantages in providing value-add services and integrated solutions. They recognized that the industry is becoming commoditized—largely driven by
costs, and that smaller economies cannot compete
on those terms since they cannot achieve economies of scale. On the other hand, they can use their
flexibility to target niche markets and provide complementary services. In other words, they can ride
the flow of change, rather than sail against it. [14]
Bulgaria is small mid-low income Eastern European country that has historically developed Mass
tourism locations. However, now the country finds
much of its best destinations overbuilt and experiencing serious environmental issues. The lessons
learned from Slovenia and Croatia may be especially useful in helping Bulgaria diversify into Alternative tourism and develop a sustainable economy. Despite its slightly larger economy, Bulgaria
carries many similar characteristics to Croatia. Its
economy has made a recent transition from Communist to free market regime and has a young and
flexible institutional body. Despite the typical issues
with corruption and lack of legislation, the country
is open enough for reforms and new policies. Given
that there is enough political will the country could
transform its tourism sector with a few efficient and
decisive steps. The guidelines for this transformation should come from countries such as Slovenia
and Croatia, which have already achieved significant success in reforming their industries.
First, Bulgaria should start by conducting comprehensive analysis on international trends in the
tourism industry. Once the country is familiar with
those trends, it can start thinking where exactly it
could positions itself and what value it can bring. By
analyzing its key competences and advantages, the
Eastern European nation will be able to have a clear
idea of its capabilities and set realistic goals. Since
Bulgaria has a well-developed Mass tourism sector,
probably the best choice for the country would be
to keep that stable source of revenue, while start
diversifying into Alternative touristic destinations.
The revenue from the Mass sector could be used
to subsidize Sustainable tourism policies on a local
level. The government would give incentives to local population to start developing hotels, as well as
other small infrastructural and cultural projects. The
preserved and authentic spirit of some destinations
would target a specific segment of the Cultural tourism sector and provide year-round source of revenue. [15]
Bulgaria should put additional effort into
strengthening its skiing and golf sectors, areas
where the country has distinct competitive advantages. The main threats to both sectors are the lack
of infrastructure and strategic investments. Both of
them have been dominated by investments aiming at short-term gains, rather than sustainability.
A strong public policy would change this and give
proper incentive to long-term investors and stakeholders. Since its small economy and limited ability
to raise capital, Bulgaria should focus on attracting
foreign investors by providing security and stable
political and legislative environment. Similarly to
Croatia, The Black Sea nation should consider making tourism a national objective and turn into a cultural experience rather than simply an industry. That
would create a drive to sustainability and allow for
longer-term goals and objectives.[16]
Conclusion
Sustainable tourism is an emerging and powerful trend that will shape the future of the touristic sector. The road towards sustainability has been
hard, but economic and environmental issues in
Europe have considerably raised the public awareness. Government is looking for ways to reform
their tourist industries and implement objectives
and policies for long-term development. Income
inequality and urbanization also support the development of sustainable tourism destinations, as local
population sees it as the only way to secure a yearround source of revenue.
Spain and Greece are big economies, which
are struggling with the after-effects of mass tourism. Both countries started developing their touristic sectors in the 1960s and 1970s, but have just
started to realize the benefits of sustainability. The
two nations are trying to diversify their Mass sectors
with plans and policies stimulating the adoption
of Alternative tourism models. That transition has
faced a series of financial, economic, social, and
political issues. Historically, Greece has been more
environmentally conscious of its destinations and
has experienced lower levels of pollution and damage from mass tourism.
Slovenia and Croatia are dynamic small economies, which are trying to find their position in the
international touristic market. Both nations have
adopted strong and structured policies for the adoption of Sustainable tourism. However, Croatia has
decided to abandon Mass tourism, while Slovenia
is pursuing a mixed model. The valuable experience of those two nations can provide insightful
guideline for other Eastern and Central European
countries that face the challenge of reforming their
industries.
Bulgaria is a small Eastern European economy
that has historically developed a strong Mass tourism sector. As a result, the country is facing a series
of environmental, social and political issues. The
lack of adequate investment, infrastructure, and political will for reforms have left the tourism industry
weakly regulated and with no clear objectives. Corruption and lobbying have distorted development
and have concentrated wealth in the hands of a few.
Water pollutions and lack of filtration technologies
threatens some of the strongest summer destinations. Lack of infrastructure impedes the growth of
the skiing and gold sectors—two of the main drivers
in the country.
Despite all this, Bulgaria might be capable of reforming its industry through taking a series of steps
and following the example of Croatia and Slovenia.
The country should conduct a thorough analysis of
trends in the industry and determine its competitive
advantages. Next, a structured and detailed plan
for development and reform should be adopted.
The government should focus on limiting the environmental damage from Mass tourism and the promotion of Sustainable tourism at a local level. The
country has the natural resources and potential to
become the primary skiing and golf destination on
the Balkans, with the ability to attract millions of
international tourists each year.
References
1. United Nations Environment Programme—Tourism
Investing in energy and resource efficiency. 2011.
[Electronic resource]. — Mode of access: http://
www.unep.org/resourceefficiency/Portals/24147/
scp/business/tourism/greeneconomy_tourism.pdf
2. United Nations Environment Programme, WTO—
Making Tourism More Sustainable. A Guide for Policy Makers. 2011. [Electronic resource]. — Mode
of access: http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/
pdf/DTIx0592xPA-TourismPolicyEN.pdf
3. John Fien, Margaret Calder and Clayton White using
material written by Rob Gilbert in Teaching for a
Sustainable World (UNESCO—UNEP International
Environmental Education Programme). 2012. [Electronic resource]. — Mode of access: http://www.unesco.org/education/tlsf/mods/theme_c/mod16.html
4. Robinson, M. and Picard, D. Tourism, Culture and
Sustainable Development, Division of Cultural Policies and Intercultural Dialogue, Culture Sector,
UNESCO. 2012. [Electronic resource]. — Mode
of
access:
http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001475/147578e.pdf
5. Bulgarian Association of Alternative Tourism.
“Information about the alterantive tourism” [Electronic resource]. — Mode of access: http://www.
baatbg.org/alternativen-turizym/5/
6. United Nations, New York, 2013. Department
of Economic and Social Affairs. World Economic
and Social Survey 2013. Sustainable Development Challenges. [Electronic resource]. — Mode of
access: http://sustainabledevelopment.un.org/content/documents/2843WESS2013.pdf
7. The World Bank IBRD—IDA. International tourism,
number of arrivals. [Electronic resource]. — Mode
of access: http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/
ST.INT.ARVL
8. Ministry of Economy of Spain, Tourism 2013. [Electronic resource]. — Mode of access: http://www.
investinspain.org/invest/en/-invest-in-spain/immigration/tourism/index.html
9. European Commission. Eurostat. Tourism statistics. 2014. [Electronic resource]. — Mode of
access: http://epp.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/statistics_
explained/index.php/Tourism_statistics
10. Dimitrios Stylidis, Matina Terzidou Annals of Tourism Research. Tourism and the economic crisis in
Kavala, Greece, Volume 44, January 2014
11. 2012-2016 Slovenian Tourism Development Strategy. Article 5 of the Promotion of Tourism Development Act. Official Gazette of the Republic of Slovenia,
Zlatareva 45
No. 2/04 [Electronic resource]. — Mode of access:
http://www.slovenia.info/pictures%5CTB_board%5Catachments_2%5C2012%5C2012-2016_SLOVENIAN_TOURISM_DEVELOPMENT_STRATEGY_%28summary%29_14629.pdf
12. Bulic, N. Croatian Tourism In Sustainable Development Invited Lecturer. In Environment Protection and Health—what can UWE do in 21st century. Croatian Association of University of Women.
October 11—12, 2010: Dubrovnik -Croatia.
13. UNWTO Tourism Highlights, 2014 Edition
14. Tourism and Hospitality Management, Vol. 16,
No. 2, pp. 219-228, 2010 K. Vodeb: Cross–border
regions as potential tourist destinations along the
Slovene Croatian frontier.
15. Ministry of Economy and Energy of the Republic
of Bulgaria. Sustainable tourism development strategy 2014—2030. [Electronic resource]. — Mode
of
access:
http://www.mi.government.bg/bg/
t h e m e s / n a c i o n a l n a - s t r a t e g i y a - z a - u s t o i c h ivo-razvitie-na-turizma-v-republika-balgariya-2014-2030-g-286-349.html
16. Press-release from the Bulgarian Ministry of Economy and Energy from 2013. “European tourism in 2013—Trends and potentials” [Electronic
resource]. — Mode of access: http://www.mee.government.bg/files/useruploads/files/turism_-_statistika_i_analizi/eutourism2013_tendpersp.pdf
Education
The Technology of Advanced
and Innovative Experience in the
Process of Constant Pedagogical
Education
Khabibullo Abdukarimov1,
Sojida Gofurova2
Gulistan State University, Gulistan, Uzbekistan
Jizzakh Polytechnic Institute, Jizzakh, Uzbekistan
1
2
Abstract. The article considers two substructures of young teacher-educators, and experimental data on the
theme of investigation are described. The author reveals moral and professional qualities of a programme
character.
Keywords: Substructures, teacher-educators, forming an educator, professional upbringing, constant
pedagogical education, pedagogical techniques.
P
rofessional education includes trust in the
teacher predestination, professional pride and
personal dignity. Scientific experience shows that
very often, having chosen a trade according to their
wishes, people facing difficulties in real life, especially in the educational aspect, can’t cope with
conflicts and unexpected situations, and, as a result,
they decide to change their work or become passive
executors of their professional duties. Many teachers and educators are not afraid of going outside the
framework of traditional experience and introducing innovations in the educational process.
The beginning of each new course provides
a golden opportunity for teachers to get off on the
right foot in their classes. To initiate the development of rapport, teachers need to show their students that they are human by revealing snippets of
information about themselves, such as their enthusiasms or phobias.
Teachers must establish a learning community
that nurtures teachers and teaching. Just as there
is strength in numbers, power lies in community
and collaboration. Because learners learn best in
a supportive community, teachers must become
learners in their own process of professional
development.
In accordance with the social and professional
activeness or passiveness of educators and class curators, we have selected two substructures of young
teacher- educators in our theoretical experimental
investigation.
1. Educators who are looking forward to
managing modern advanced pedagogical
49
experience and cultivating significant professional qualities;
2. Educators who are adapting to environmental conditions.
Young educators and class curators from the
first substructure are always interested in new ideas
in pedagogics, the development of significant professional qualities, and investigation of advanced
pedagogical experience. Such educators pay a lot
of attention to such professional qualities as the
ability to analyse and predict the results of their
own work, adapt to new conditions, and be able
to comprehend the inner world of students, parents
and colleagues. They demonstrate new professional
thinking and profound awareness of the teacher’s
social role. They quickly learn new tendencies.
Young educators from the second substructure
are indifferent to children and their trade; they think
primarily about their private issues, do not improve
their professional skills, and are dissatisfied with
their professional choice.
Experimental data confirm that educators from
this substructure do not always understand students
and do not take into account their moral and psychological qualities; use a very limited stock of word
influence on their wards; and try to excessively regulate students’ behaviour. As a result, a feeling of
dissatisfaction predominates, which leads to the
reduction of the level of professional qualities and
a desire to give up teaching.
The professional development of future teachers
through constant pedagogical education is a very
complex and socially significant issue. A solution
might be a reference point in educating future
teachers, no matter how low their level is at first.
Such an approach opens broad perspectives for the
reappraisal of the work of pedagogical institutes and
universities, which now direct future teachers only
in the sphere of their subjects or specialties, not in
the field of student development, which contradicts
the humanitarian sense of an educator’s profession.
Not a single textbook of the ‘20s or ‘90s of the last
century reveals a systematic analysis of professionally significant qualities of future educators; they
only reflect a personal concept of education, based
on progressive pedagogical experience.
Nowadays there is a step-by-step model for
forming educators who create personality. Teachers
carry out the steps for forming a personality of
a definite type. Specialty technology is not only the
necessary condition for executing this noble and
humane mission. It is also urgent to combine this
technology with advanced pedagogical experience
and innovative ideas.
Teachers who are willing to continue to grow,
take risks, and make changes in their teaching also
need ongoing support. To be conducive to these
needs, the structure of staff development programs
must continuously provide some mechanism for
this ongoing support. (English Language Arts _
Framework)
In the process of constant pedagogical education, the professional development of future teachers is successively connected with developing the
ability of self-education and self-perfection.
Educators should be both competent users of
innovative experience and its producers and distributors, to the degree that they may need it for a purposeful and free realization of practical activity.
Under the conditions of market relations, the
study of the advanced pedagogical experience and
the introduction of scientific and practical recommendations into practice is actualized more and
more. In the future, it will become more significant
and will be executed as an inseparable part of constant pedagogical education.
The notions of advanced pedagogical experience and innovative experience are not identical.
Delivering new educational ideas and knowledge with definite methods on the basis of earlier
worked-out program material can serve as a model
for advanced pedagogical experience. But if we
want to reproduce this experience and transfer it to
others, it must be considered by teacher-researchers
in notions and methods in the constant pedagogical
education system.
The study, generalization and distribution of
advanced pedagogical experience is a difficult job
taking many years and requiring special methods
of research. Just advanced and generalized experience is of great value for the theory and practice of
constant pedagogical education. Such experience
is the result of the creative approach to work, when
teachers have a scientific and pedagogical background and apply them successfully to new pedagogical and computer technologies.
Abdukarimov, Gofurova 51
Innovative experience is a completely new
complex of methods, a totality of new ideas, and
new pedagogical thinking. This experience serves
as a basis for new curriculums, new pedagogical
and computer technologies, new teaching materials
and scientific and practical recommendations.
Educators who are experts at their jobs always
look forward to combining scientific knowledge
with the study and use of advanced pedagogical
and innovative experience, to implement the recommendations of scientists. So, various sources
nourish the development of theory and practice,
and add to, enrich, and develop each other. Educators should be very attentive to such small details as gestures, looks, mimicry, and head shaking,
because all of them help people to demonstrate or
disguise their feelings. Besides, it is urgent to avoid
swallowing words and to diversify intonation; according to Makarenko, teachers must be able to express one and the same idea with fifteen different
intonations or inflections.
The essence and necessity of pedagogical skills
are closely connected with pedagogical technology. In this aspect, pedagogical techniques are the
basis and ground for forming skilled educators.
Having learnt innovative ideas of different educators, we discovered the following personal and
moral qualities of a curriculum character.
1. Mastering the methodological basis and
categories of the national pedagogies;
2. Mastering and applying poetic and acting
method in educational work;
3. Mastering the individualized approach to
children, knowing their individual, psychological, gender and age peculiarities;
4. Accepting the necessity of professional education and self-education;
5. Managing self-control in any situation of
pedagogical communication;
6. Managing self-control, self-evaluation,
self-analysis, and self-criticism in pedagogical work;
7. Modelling various pedagogical situations;
8. Building the organizational and pedagogical structure of nontraditional educational
events;
9. Establishing effective relations with students, teachers and parents;
10.Choosing methods and nontraditional forms
of the educational process based on theory.
One very important professional skill of educators is the ability to make students choose, which
removes necessity for authoritarian pedagogies. At
the same time, a chance to choose means trust to
people, stimulating students’ initiative, independence, and creative self-management under the
conditions of market economy, which, like any
self-management, should start in preschool education and compulsory secondary education.
Based on the results of the monographic
method of investigating the characteristics of experts, we have established that the most impressive
and brightest quality of teachers is their skill in finding a language in common with students, parents,
authorities and public representatives. The basis of
their pedagogical activities is the deliberate, intuitive and deeply felt appropriateness of ethnopedagogics, which allow them to manage the educational process effectively.
References
1. Abdukarimov Kh. Professional Pedagogic Activity _
Teacher, 2010.—160 page
2. Ziyomuhammedov B. The Principles of Pedagogic
Skills. _ T. (TIB _ KITOB) 2009._ 184 page
3. Leonova E. B. Pedagogical Skills and the Personality of
a Teacher. // High education in Russia. 2011. 112–115
pages
4. Pokrovskaya S. E. Professional Mentality as the Principle of Formulation Personality of Intended Teachers. //
Psychology in Higher education. № 3 69–73 pages
5. Turakulov Kh. A. The Methodology of scientific Activity.
/Monograph. _ T: Science, 2006. _ 252 page
6. English Language Arts _ Framework. 1996:5 _ 92 page
“Inspired” Technology of Learners’
Interaction with Metapoetic Text as
a Metasubject Motion from Images
and Ideas to an Action
Maria Akhmetova
Transbaikal State University, Chita, Russia
Abstract. The article presents the technology of meta-actions and metaknowledge as the emotional
interpretation of the world by learners.
Keywords: metapoetic text; “inspired” technology; universal meta-actions.
T
he idea of “inspired” technologies was introduced into pedagogy by Y.P. Azarov, who was
the author of the aesthetic upbringing conception.
The scientist used the term of “afflatus” and considered “an open window to the ozonous humanities” to be the main component of this upbringing
technology. The concept of the “contemplative and
mental eidetic imagery” is actualized in the image
memories of the learners as the ability to keep bright
color images. As A. Voznesensky wrote, the “emotional hunger” is the challenge of our time: “I am
a nuclear age. // I am rational//<…>and the emotions are inappreciable in this world”. Meanwhile
according to Y.P. Azarov any humanity as well as
any talent “begins with fascination of contemplation, some mysterious excitement”. And this excitement can’t be changed: “there is no need to teach
the exultant contemplation, maybe it is impossible
at all, but it’s necessary to move emotional to the
beauty”, because every learner must “find his/her
own palette, touch its colors carefully, learn and
produce the shine of the coloring, find his/her own
light inside him/her, his/her main chord, leitmotiv, ultimate priority”. The “inspired” technology
searches the way to child’s heart, to his/her exultant
aesthetic fontanel” [1].
The “approach” is defined in pedagogy as a
cognitive mean, a method, a cognition implement,
and a mean of transformation of the reality. It is the
general leading strategy of the activity. The metasubject result is aimed to the philosophic interpretation of phenomena and ideas, to the formation of
knowledge under conditions of the transition from
images and ideas to an action, under conditions of
emotional perception of the world.
Meta-actions are considered to be “over-subject” by scientists. They appear and actualize under condition of “over-situationality”. According
to D.B. Bogoyavlenskaya, the learner defines his/
her actions himself/herself as he/she stands “over
the situation” which has been already solved and
now is understandable, thereby his/her own search,
his/her creative activity appears and the learner
acts as a real actor. There are some peculiarities of
52
Akhmetova 53
formation of meta-actions and meta-knowledge:
these are spontaneous and intuitive nature of their
appearance, indefiniteness of their content and
their modest solvability from the viewpoint of the
technology. This moment of appearance of “not triggered by a teacher activity” is creative. It should be
noted, that according to V.P. Zinchenko, “not everyone has the intuition”. The children can only reach
the border beyond which a creative idea appears.
Unexpectedness and solution indeterminism are
peculiar to meta-actions and meta-knowledge. The
children feel “growth of their energies”, appearance
of the search energy. It is their search, their motion
to action.
The experience appears as an activity feeling,
personal vision of the world: “Ego—the other”,
“Ego—the Conception”, “Ego and the world”. Initial principles of the activity are freedom of choice
of viewpoint, freedom to create, to excogitate, to
demand. This is an attempt to interpret the phenomena of the formed “live” knowledge philosophically. Personal choice of creation of an activity image, picture, and pattern appears under conditions
of inspiredness, when “Ego” of the learner “is being
built into” the World.
The strategy of the metasubject approach in
meta-poetic text interpretation leads up not only to
contemplation, but also to “human aesthetic activity” in which the learners themselves are actively
involved (F.E. Vasilyuk). The emotion acts as evaluation criterion of life phenomena in “experience-activity” situations, so the motion from images and
ideas to an action appears. This is the “inspired”
technology that leads up the child to beauty of the
action.
The main points of the metasubject approach
are the philosophical interpretation of life, the innermost personality of the child as base, and the possibility to have an extraordinary experience which
is near to afflatus. The phenomenon of the afflatus
is hard to explain from the viewpoint of the technology. We can only come near to this borderline
of appearance of some spontaneous creative idea.
Let us give a practical example: the child painted a
flower, which he had drawn. He thought, he mixed
colors, but something went wrong. It emerged that
this boy tried to find ten colors instead of seven, i.e.
three new colors of the rainbow! It didn’t manage,
but the child wasn’t upset, he would seek. There was
still the mystery of the possible discovery (“School
of arts”, Chita).
The metasubject is the knowledge of mysteries
of the human soul of a child; it is the mastery to take
into account all the principles of development of
the most intimate moments of his/her inner world
under conditions of everyday communicating with
a developing human being.
Whether these tasks are understood by term
“teaching actions” even though they are universal?
We can only come near to the border of the appearance of the situational not-triggered activity.
The unexpectedness and solution indeterminism
are peculiar to meta-actions and meta-knowledge.
The learner feels “growth of his/her energies”, the
search energy appears. How can the moment of
“border crossing” be caught? A human being goes
beyond the borders of images” and creates his/her
own one images: interaction with the world serves
to existential effort of learners’ souls, to birth of the
inner light of the creative ambitions. It is a path to
self. Thus the term “universal metasubject actions”
is quite logical. But these actions are not “teaching”:
universal teaching actions provide the motion from
actions to ideas (A.G. Asmolov). Universal metasubject actions are considered to be formed from images and ideas to an action.
The life itself as well as the perception of knowledge as “live”, as event, as “forbidden border crossing”, “heavy divergence” or “violation of some
ban” teaches the learner to see in ideas and images
an unexpected new motion to an action (Y.M. Lotman). The metasubject action as an event is a specific change of state, “real and effective” (V. Shmid).
It is a drive to the nature effects which is based on
the innermost personality of the child and his/her
innate tendencies. The live” knowledge is emotional, imaginative while the knowledge, which the
children get at school are scrappy and fragmentary.
Learners’ perception is overcharged by “thousands
of separate things” (L.S. Vygotsky).
Thus, the metasubject approach is the image-conceptual way of the reality perception, which
is based on the transition just from ideas and images to an action; it is the way of formation of patterns, projects, models and pictures as some activity
solution on the base of ideas and images; it is the
concept and implementation of actions, hypotheses
or strategies. That is our interpretation.
The answer is in the term itself: meta (from
Greek “meta”—between, after, through)—is the
first part of compound words, which means a transition to something else; a system, which serves to
research and description of the others (metatheory).
G.M. Morgunov considers the conception of
“forward education” by A.D. Ursul to be of importance. It is the overrun of the narrow bounds of
predicative paradigm and transition to metasubject
activity. The main point of this activity is the interpretation of knowledge as meta-actions. These actions are aimed to the future problems. The metasubject space is being formed under condition of the
“inspired” technology, of the intellectual and emotional “field” of interaction of adults and children,
which includes also interaction with books, living
nature, and biosphere in whole. It is a metasubject
space of creation, which helps learner to act on the
basis of images and ideas, to establish his/her ego.
A little human being peers at the world, cognizes its motions and transformations. He/she acts,
but in his/her own sometimes fictional world, where
he/she passes from an image to a motion. A preschool child shows his “another world” in his own
poem: “And there is another world! // Of course,
nobody knows about it, nobody understands it. //
Everybody thinks there isn’t any other world.// But
why they think so?// The children play in a sandpit
there.// And the adults sit near them on a bank// and
don’t see such a beautiful world!// And where is this
world?// Nobody knows.// Only children know.// As
well as the most of the most adult people…” (Chita)
The author of this poem isn’t a scholar yet, but
he thinks already about problems of the world of
the adults.
According to V.A. Petrovsky, an individual experience of a child is not the “work stock” of the
educational process, which can be “manufactured”
and on which it can be based. The value of a child’s
experience is something special, his/her thoughts
are active. The childhood as well as the school-time
is “a mysterious land with its own logic and interpretation” and with own wish and skill to repair
“the deformed space” (A.B. Bossart). Let us imagine
our interpretation of the “inspired” technology of
the perception of a metapoetic text as some “living”
form, which interacts with the external environment,
as an individual dynamic phenomenon, as a mean
of formation of transitions from images and ideas to
an action, where an experience, which induces a
man to interpret the world from the point of worldview, is of importance.
A demonstrative example of a metapoetic aesthetic text can be some pages of the book by Boris
Akunin “The murder on the Leviathan” that can be
offered for analysis to learners of middle and upper
school.
“I had been visited by the great miracle of which
every man dreams—I have experienced satori, or
catharsis, as the ancient Greeks called it. <…> if
satori comes, it comes when it will and on its own
terms, it cannot be induced or impeded! The radiant
majesty of satori comes suddenly <…> I felt that I
am not only I, but also an infinite multitude of other
lives. I am in all that exists, and all that exists is in
me. <…>
This certain knowledge will always dwell in the
depths of my soul, my salvation and comfort in time
of difficulty. I am no longer a shallow puddle that
any strong gust of wind can spill across the ground.
I am the ocean, and the storm that drives the all-destroying tsunami across my surface can never touch
my inmost depths”.
So the primary focus is on the image, the mental and action assemblage of some worldview ideas,
where the emotion induces the direction of actions
like an energetic explosion. A man can endure the
cold and dark of the Universe, can support and
save when the chips are down. “I am the ocean,
and <…> nothing can touch my inmost depths”. A
man attains the power of actions, whose metasubject motion is directed from images and ideas to
actions of high-minded meaning and value.
V.V. Davydov wrote: “The imagination provides
something like a closure of the abstract knowledge
on the specific fact, of something general on something particular and this closure helps solve one or
another problem. <…> In the space of imagination
a particular fact appears so, that one can detect its
general nature. The imagination provides an opportunity to see the individuality of a fact in view of
something general and vice versa to specialize any
general knowledge creatively [9, p.126-127]. The
main point is to teach the learners to comprehend
Akhmetova 55
the key to image-experience. The condition under
which such a comprehension becomes possible is
a common experience and contemplation, which
can evoke sense of involvement and empathy. For
example during a real lesson a task was given to
draw a picture on the base of the poem “The sail”
by M.Y. Lermontov. One of the pupils’ works turned
out to be an unexpected interpretation of text: the
girl drew a bay surrounded by the rocks where the
sail was waiting out the storm, i.e. the girl saved the
sail. In such a way the girl demonstrated her sense
of involvement: she saved the sail having experienced this situation. According to Akunin, a man
“can endure the cold and dark of the Universe” (or
of the rough ocean), “can support and save”. So that
is the choice of this little reader to save the sail.
The poet expressed of course another idea but the
choice of the reader is her own and is worthy of
respect. Thus we see the inner world of the little human being, the world of her inner self, her mental
world. “By the mental world of a human being we
mean the world of his/her feelings, creative life, perception level of the cultural life (music, literature,
paintings, poetry, philosophy and so on), talent, and
his/her mental ambitions” [4].
The actions of this girl are metasubject, they
show the motion from the image and idea to the
action, which has a moral sense and value: the girl
saved the sail from the storm (“The billow play, the
mast bends creaking, // The wind, impatient, moans
and sighs...”)
Thus the teacher is in a complex moral dilemma
and we would like to conclude our article with a
question: what should the teacher do in such a situation? Is the reader right? From the viewpoint of
the metasubject approach this philosophical issue
concerning the worldview is to be discussed collectively. Here is the complicity and at the same
time the importance of the metaknowledge, which
appear under over-situational conditions as the actions of a specific nature, of the “inspired” technology. According Y.P. Azarov, the teacher should act
in concordance with principle of care. The author
of this unusual picture Svetlana M. explained: “The
protagonist sails alone. There is only sea around him.
He is lonely. He “doesn’t look for happiness and
doesn’t run away from it”. The reader is excited by
the emotional implication of the poem. V. Marantsman called it “naive realism”. We can’t but agree
that nowadays the choice of Svetlana seems to be
high-minded. Of course it is essential to induce the
readers to try to understand the author’s viewpoint,
to show them his admiration for the main character,
which “doesn’t look for happiness and doesn’t run
away from it”. It is necessary to help the developing
human being to make the right choice among all
these feelings and estimations. The metasubject approach is complex as well as our life. And teaching
of the younger generation to identify some complex
worldview issues, to move from ideas and images
to right actions and sensible perception of life is of
the necessity.
References
1. Azarov Y. P. Pedagogy of love and freedom. Moscow,
1994. 608 h.
2. Akunin B. “The murder on the Leviathan”: novel. Moscow: Publishing house “Zakharov”, 2000. 234 p.
3. Asmolov A.G. How to project the universal teaching
actions at the primary school: from actions to ideas:
teacher edition. Moscow: Publishing house “Prosvescheniye”, 2008. 151 p.
4. Ayrapetyan L. The mental space. Montreal, 2005.
5. Bogoyavlanskaya D.B. The “actor” from the viewpoint
of creativity // Voprosy Psychologii. 1999. № 2. p.
28–36.
6. Bossart A.B. Are these paradoxes of age or upbringing?
// teacher edition. Moscow: Publishing house “Prosvescheniye”, 1991. 80 p.
7. Vasilyuk F.E. Experience psychology. Moscow, 1984.
200 p.
8. Vygotsky L.S. Art psychology. Moscow: Publishing
house “Pedagogika”, 1987. 344 p.
9. Davydov V.V. The theory of developmental education.
Moscow: Publishing house “Inter”, 1996. 544 p.
10. Zinchenko V.P. Live knowledge: psychological pedagogy. 2nd edition. Samara, 1998. 296 p.
11. Petrovskiy V.A. Role of the idea “Ego = World” in development of the personality // new values of education:
ten concepts and essays. Moscow: Publishing house
“Innovator”, 1995. 160 p.
Synergistic Nature of CompetencyBased Training in the Higher
Education System
Vladimir Artemov
National Academy of the Security Service of Ukraine (Kiev)
N
owadays the whole world is in a state of the
historical process of critical transformations
in the course of which special significance of such
regulation of social relations as morality and ethics
get acquire. So the special place in the education
process get the ethical components because it contributes to the formation of such basic concepts as
civil and professional duty, honor, decency, conscience, justice, freedom, right, good and evil.
Recently the education gets the development of
synergy and competence-based approaches. This
phenomenon is explained by the fact that the deterministic approach to education based on the norms
of classical education became impossible in the
modern unpredictable changing world. According
to the views of supporters of the synergetic approach
in teaching, the effect of education is not achieved
by the direct pedagogical impact, but only thanks to
synergetic educational interaction between teacher
and students. In a literal sense, the teacher is not the
sole one who forms of identity, but only creates the
conditions under which the pupil is included in the
self-improvement process.
In this article, the problem of application of
the synergetic approach to the learning processes
has been reviewed. It is shown that, unfortunately,
teachers-researchers in the post-Soviet countries
unnecessarily bind the synergy in teaching exclusively with processes of self-organization. Indeed,
what most expect from synergy in the education
associated with the concept of self-organization.
In fact, the process of self-organization in synergy
is a spontaneous occurrence in open nonequilibrium nonlinear systems with new, more efficient
structures. It is believed that the synergy is able to
explain and suggest the mechanisms of self-organization in education.
The author’s idea is that synergetic always deals
with collective phenomena, phenomena that occur
on a large group, regardless of whether homogeneous or heterogeneous. Synergetic approach cannot be isolated within the subject-object or subject-subject relations only. Synergetic always has
deal with something that is characterized by openness, nonequilibrium, nonlinearity, fluctuations
and bifurcation. In the literature, there no clear
definition of these concepts in the context of the
education process. In this regard, author proposed
the definitions of the pedagogical interpretations of
these concepts.
Modern educational process is open. This
means that in modern conditions the subject of educational activity is open to perception not only under influences of the educational environment, but
also under the influence of society, the media, Internet, team, family and other unpredictable factors.
The educational community is open too. Getting
rid of ideological dogmas, it is open to new ideas,
methods and techniques. As result the content of
education is constantly changing, the process of
Artemov 57
information exchange between subjects of the educational process and the external environment is
constantly changing too.
It is because of the openness of the educational process becomes non-equilibrium. The
nonequilibrium instability is one of the Central
concepts of synergetic. It is connected with presence of fluctuations of the many components of
the system. The nonequilibrium in the educational
process is manifested in the fact that it is under
the influence of openness relationships develop
alternative, uncertainty, doubt and hesitation. The
nonequilibrium as a manifestation of the synergistic properties of the educational process is that
the situation in this process is constantly changing. These changes reflect important in synergetic
phenomena fluctuations. Fluctuations motivate
the participants of educational process to reflect
the comparison of the facts, stimulates the development of moral qualities necessary ethical competencies. All this leads educational process to
the evolution, during which a new order, a new,
more efficient mechanisms for the implementation of the educational process. Here may be seen
a certain analogy with genetics: genetics, in order
to achieve the desired mutations, first translate
the genetic structure of crops in a nonequilibrium
state, acting on it, for example, radioactive radiation, and as a result it become to be able to acquire new qualities.
Nonlinearity in synergetic systems manifests
as how changes occur in them. Synergetic systems
characterized by nonlinear, nonmonotonic, abrupt
characters of changes. In a sense, the nonlinearity
can be expressed in disproportional efforts, which
are applied, and the obtained result. Nonlinearity
in synergy manifests itself in the form of bifurcations. Bifurcation in the synergetic is a single-step,
rapid change of parameters of a complex system
influenced by a combination of weak fluctuations
of its component parts. The bifurcation point is
a critical point, around which the behavior of the
system becomes unstable, i.e. they select one of
the behaviors. Education sense of the bifurcation
point can be considered as the moment of personality values choice. The teacher’s task in this
sense is to lead, guide the individual to the point
of bifurcation and to create conditions to make
independent decisions. This is the phenomenon of
self-organization.
That the teachers most expect from synergetic
associated with the concept of self-organization.
But synergetic self-organization in the educational
system involves a lot of preparatory work. Synergetic
approach allows to consider upbringing work as
the process which is largely self-organizing, but not
based on authoritarianism, direct causal dependencies, and such that flows is ambiguous. The process,
which proceeds due the many internal and external
influences; natural and random, unpredictable and
spontaneous; the orderly and chaotic. Synergy begins where there is a fluctuation of the many components of some complex system. Such a complex
system is a human been. In the consciousness of the
personality frequent, small changing of motives and
values governing its behavior are usually happening. At some point, under the influence of external
or internal attractors are disposable, rapid changes
of the motives and values system happen. They dramatically changes the perception of values system
and behavior of the individual. This fact can be interpreted as an act of self-organizing and self-improvement. The teacher, tutor, mentor must be interested in the system of motives and values of the
subject, imagine her at least in General terms and
to create adequate attractors. This is the individual
approach in the processes of ethical education.
Synergetic allows methodologically to reinforce the importance of the of self-determination
and self-development process of personality. It allows representing the synergistic activity model of
educational support of the self-improvement and
self-regulation processes of the individual. The
model is represented as a sequence of steps, which
is presented in the figure below.
The first component of the model as the first
stage of the activity is to identify existing education
problems and to form the task of the ethical consciousness of the person in a professional activity.
At this stage the problem is diagnosed, highlight all
communication gaps in deontological understanding at the level of the highest ideals, moral values,
culture and law. It is essential that this step is socio-historically conditioned.
The next step involves the transfer of pedagogical concepts into the synergistic thesaurus and adds
basic synergetic principles for solving identified
problems. At this stage involves the basic principles
of synergetic (openness, nonequilibrium, nonlinearity), which help to build the following stages of
the model.
The third step is to identify the internal moral
values, motives, and determination dissipativeness
of the person. Dissipativeness means as the individual’s ability to resist external influences on its
sustainable system of value, preferences and motives. Dissipativeness, therefore, is characteristic of
the level of consciousness of the person, the sustainability of its personal guidelines. At this stage
appear communicative qualities of the teaching
staff in the educational process. And this process
itself characterizes the level of subject-subject relations, adopted in this teaching environment.
It should be noted that in higher educational institutions in the educational process is significantly
more than in school, involved not a single person
(teacher, tutor), but the all teaching staff. Although
the teacher’s personality, the student team’s role
cannot be leveled. It should be noted another: the
person, being in a team, very much depends on
the environment. Therefore, the teacher’s task is to
identify not only the level of s personality dissuasiveness, but dissipative of the collective and the individual in it in particular. This conclusion is a consequence of the synergistic openness and complex
system’s dissipativeness.
The next step is to explore ways of creating
a zone of attractors for the one who learns, based
on identified system of moral values and dissipativeness. Attractors here should be understood as
new motives and values in social and professional
ethical type competencies, the achievement of
which is the task of the educational process. This
is the standard, but non-trivial system stage, which
has the synergistic nature. It should be remembered
here about fractals as a manifestation of collective
experience, which is that the new system of values
must be modeled previously identified or at least
save their external features.
The fifth stage of the proposed model lies in the
casting of the person’s internal values and motives
in a non-equilibrium state. In fact, it is placed under
doubt previous motives and values of the individual. The teacher should be able to generate doubts
as to the negative reference points in the soul of the
one who learns, and to offer him a new direction
and values by appealing to higher ideals and categories: patriotism, national identity, professional
honor, justice, conscience, etc. Career and other
considerations may be put in motion. In synergy
terminology, this corresponds to the creation of
a zone of the attractor.
The most important stage is a statement of the
subject before choosing an independent choice,
which is an act of self-regulation, self-improvement.
The act of self-improvement is simultaneously
changing of the value systems, the emergence of
new values, changing priorities of old ones. In synergy terminology this corresponds to the approximation to the bifurcation point, but the decision
still remains with the subject. He who decides and
how alone he makes his choice how he consciously
accepts the new value depends on the adopted sustainability principles.
An important step is the further educational
support process, which is carried out through monitoring. Monitoring is especially important because
of high social and political life dynamics. In the
monitoring process, the analysis of changes in legislation, technology, media behavior and cultural
programs is successfully executed. Along with the
external factors, the ethical education subject’s
behavior is analyzed. Special attention is given to
identifying negative factors: internal discord, professional deformation. Special attention is given
to identifying negative factors: internal discord,
professional deformation. Instead, it is suggested
adding moderate and objective impacts taking into
account the object of education internal dynamics.
Developing the system of rewards and punishment
is carried out taking into account the fractal nature
of the subjects of education behavior. Here there is
a special role of interpersonal communication in
which a collective entity of deontic activities are
emerging and developing. Thus, the synergy generates a special approach to the design of deontology educational activities, which appears in the
proposed model.
Artemov 59
FIG. 1. Synergetic model of deontology training
1. Identifying educational problems, the formulation of competence deontology problems
2. The transfer of educational concepts for the synergistic thesaurus and add a basic synergetic
principles
3. Identify internal moral values and motives and the definition of personality dissipativeness
4. Analysis ways to create attractors
5. Bringing the system of internal values and motives of a person in a non-equilibrium state
6. Statement of the subject before an independent choice, which is an act of self-regulation,
self-improvement
7. Further educational support of synergistic process improvement
Family Education. The Basic
Principles of Successful Family
Upbringing
Eugenia Bakhurova
Peoples’ Friendship University of Russia, Moscow, Russia
Abstract. The article covers the issue of the main principles of reaching successful family education.
The essential notions discussed include the types of families’ overview, leadership schemes, parents’ selfimprovement processes, the presence or absence of mutual leisure time and friendly family atmosphere.
Keywords: family, successful family upbringing, children, individuality, egalitarian family, pedagogical
laws, shared pastime.
They (children) will not live as you want them to.
Living like that means the end of life.
They have to live, following themselves –
in freedom, in responsibility, in danger, in doubt.
Radzhnish Osho
E
veryone knows that personality formation starts
in the family. The family lays the foundation
of the necessary human qualities: love of friends,
kindness, tenderness, compassion, commitment,
understanding, optimism, determination and other
equally important human virtues. As was set in the
abrogated variant of the Federal Educational Law
of the Russian Federation, clause 18, paragraph
1: “Parents are the first teachers. They must set the
basis of physical, moral and intellectual kids intelligence development in the early age”. [1]
The mentioned statement cannot be denied
as parents become the indisputable authorities for
their own children. On account of his/her total dependence: physical, psychic and emotional, the
baby starts not only to copy the adult’s way of behavior but also produces or—it’s better to say in this
context—presents the absolute love. What is that,
“the absolute love”? What does this notion mean?
As Julia B. Gippenreiter explained in her book “We
continue our talk with a child. This way?”, the absolute love is the way each parent has to love his/her
child. [2, p.29-35] It’s not the love for something, it’s
not the love for obedience, it’s not the love for being
a good student or a good kid—it’s the overwhelming feeling we should try to find or cultivate inside.
It’s our gratitude for the child himself for being his/
her parents. It’s the happiness to spend every day
together. There’s no doubt that this very love type
should be the basis of every full family; the mutual
60
Bakhurova 61
PIC. 1. The kid’s inner happiness dependence on the type of family he/she is being brought up in.
Photograph by author.
feeling—presented by parents to their children and
given back by kids in return.
The notion “a family” itself covers the following meaning: “… it is considered a basic society
cell… When talking about an adult, a family becomes the source of his/her needs satisfaction and
also is understood as a minor human group, making various and sometimes complex or intricate
demands. As far as a child is concerned, his family
understanding is as following: it is the environment
where the indispensable conditions for his/her successful physical, psychic, mental, emotional and
intellectual development and future progress”. [7]
We should bear in mind that each family lays the
basis of the kid’s positive and prosperous future
and success in life.
The success or failure of the family upbringing
is also determined by such componential factors as:
DIAGRAM 1. The importance degree of the family components
pedagogical, emotional, national, moral, psychological, spiritual, material.
All the factors were classified by me in descending significance degree, as I see it, from the most
to the least significant. For the better visualization
I used the diagram field diminution as to demonstrate the factor importance decrease.
What’s more, the type of the considered/studied
family is of no small importance as well. According to N.G. Miloradova, there are two main family
types:
1. a nuclear family (coined from Latin
— “nucleus”);
2. an extended family. [4, p.285-290]
The nuclear family type is usually represented
by a traditional family with both parents mutually
taking part in the upbringing and educational processes—thus, forming “a full family unit”. However,
the nuclear family may consist of one parent only
so that it is called “a one-parent family”.
The extended family type shows us not only a
“parent/parents-plus-children- model” but also the
representatives of grandparents living together.
As the consequence of existing nowadays various family types, the domination, or the leadership,
is arranged differently. The leadership is believed to
be one of the most important conditions or reasons
of successful or unsuccessful kids’ upbringing processes. In such a way, the leadership in the nuclear
family may belong to a man/a husband (in case of
the patriarchal family), to a woman/a wife (in case
of matriarchy). If the equality of rights takes place,
we can talk about the equalitarian/egalitarian family, which is considered to be the most desirable
and favorable family model. What is the main reason? It happens so that mutual spouses’ participation and collaboration in the processes of reaching
decisions and kids’ education plays the positive role
in forming the required human qualities in the coming generations.
The parents objective consists not only of making an egalitarian family but also in creating comfortable and child-friendly family atmosphere, help
them find their life course and mark their future
professional orientation. For some family members,
this mission may appear the most complicated and
intricate one, even unrealizable and unachievable.
Here is the description of the scene that can
be frequently seen in Russian families: when being youngsters, some parents had no opportunity to
make a choice of the future profession and later on
they start interfering in their kids’ life, plans and affairs or do not approve a son’s or a daughter’s choice.
It happens so that some parents even choose their
kid’s future occupation themselves. But how can a
person be happy when some other’s point of view
(sometimes a proper one, of course) is imposed?
Choosing such a way of kids’ upbringing, parents
often unconsciously make their children live their
DIAGRAM 2. The family models according to the leadership sharing
Bakhurova 63
own (parents’) lives, making the same mistakes and
facing the same difficulties.
The family behavior models are passed and delivered to the following generations and it becomes
really difficult to overcome this trend as few people
are ready to make efforts and work at self-improvement and relationships within the family cell.
Long ago, at the beginning of the XXth century, a well-known Russian novelist, playwright and
essayist Lev (Leo) N. Tolstoy wrote in his articles:
“Each person has only one living objective: his or
her aim is to reveal and develop the individuality.
Modern upbringing erases it (the individuality)…
Upbringing seems to be a complex, difficult and
time-consuming business up to that moment when
we start bringing up our own children or somebody
else… without working at self-improvement… But
if we realize that the educational pursuit is simply
impossible without self-work, that we can successfully educate our children with a great effort of
self-control, self-study and self-improving only…
Then just one question is left: “How should we live
ourselves?” [6, p.102-103]
Parents, kindergarten teachers and school instructors have no right to impose their own ideas
and points of view, they may just offer the variants
possible, give the choice, provide—in a friendly
way—with a piece of advice, show the proper direction in educational and moral fields. This principle, called by Irina Manichenko “The Open-Palm
Law” [3, p.68-71], in my opinion, is the basic principle of successful family upbringing. Our open
uncovered palms are the symbols of help willingness and offered alternatives. But it is the choice
of a child—what shall he choose or accept within
the offered. The parents’ success depends in many
respects on our readiness both to listen to our child
and to hear him/her. It is essential that we possessed
the certain wisdom extent in order we could feel
beforehand what shall be accepted by a child and
what—rejected. It is in the power of parents, kindergarten and school instructors to teach the way to
be pleased and rejoiced over ourselves, the life in
general, our environment and people surrounding
us, natural phenomena, this world’s beauty and human wisdom. If we succeed in raising the best human qualities in ourselves first, they will undoubtedly be passed on from generation to generation to
our children.
What’s more, the mutual parental and child’s
leisure time also seems to me one of the most important components of the successful family education. Sharing spare time and devoting it to some
creative work is always desirable. That’s not a secret that we live in a swiftly developing high-tech
world. Parents frequently have no time to spend
with their kids tete-a-tete because of their increased
busy work and deadlines. As consequence of all
this, they choose the easiest and the worst way of
behavior and education from the pedagogical point
of view: instead of spending spare time together,
they present a kid a laptop, a computer, a mobile
phone, a game console—in a word—any modern
electronic gadget—only to free themselves from
PIC. 2. L.N. Tolstoy while working. (1st part of the XXth c.)
PIC. 3. The mutual parental and child’s pastime. Photograph by author.
such questions as: “Why is it so?... / Why…?/ Tell
me, why?...” and pleadings: “Mum, let’s go/do…
together…/ Dad, let’s ….”. Choosing this way of upbringing parents deprive their children of the pleasure for mutual pastime and close contact between
an adult and a kid. Moreover, such children have
no positive memories including themselves as an
Individual and their Mother or Father taking care of
them. Let’s bear in mind that electronic gadgets can
not substitute parents.
Let’s recall that at the 1st part of the XXth century an outstanding Russian (Soviet at that time)
psychologist Lev S. Vygotskiy (1896-1934) discovered and formulated “The Child’s Next-Step Development Law”. [2, p. 103-107]. It says that a child
will be doing tomorrow the same things that he’s
doing right now with his/her parents. The main aspect is the following: tomorrow everything will be
done BY HIMSELF.
It means that all our mutual activities:
—household chores—cooking, cleaning up,
washing up, etc.;
—leisure time spending—drawing, clay modeling, singing, board games, outdoor activities, etc.;.
—communication with the child—books, children movies and cartoons discussion, sharing opinion on its heroes;
—general explanations about the world surrounding us, nature, natural phenomena, etc.
—all these activities shared with a child create
the knowledge basis and lay the essential foundation
of the future independence of a Growing Human.
It should also be remembered that parents have
to create positive, friendly and comfortable atmosphere in their families as children are very susceptible to this aspect. No laws will work out without
psychological comfort.
In conclusion I would like to cite Bhagvan Shri
Radzhnish (1931-1990), well-known as Osho,
Hindi spiritual leader, who wrote in his works dedicated to children and their upbringing the following lines: ”… A child is jumping and dancing and
shouting and shrieking, and you are reading your
newspaper, your stupid newspaper. And you know
what is there—it is always the same. But you feel
disturbed. There is nothing in your newspaper, but
you feel disturbed. You stop the child: “Don’t shout!
Don’t disturb Daddy! Daddy is doing something
great—reading the newspaper.” And you stop that
running energy, that flow—you stop that glow, you
stop life. You are being violent.
And I am not saying that the child has always
to be allowed to disturb you. But out of a hundred
times, ninety times you are unnecessarily disturbed.
And if you don’t disturb him those ninety times, the
child will understand. When you understand the
child, the child understands you -children are very
responsive…” [5, p. 51]
Bakhurova 65
FIG. 1. The process of child’s self-dependence development (according to L.S. Vygotsky). Photographs by author.
Dear parents, kindergarten instructors, teachers
and tutors! Let’s start the children’ upbringing and
education from ourselves as, from my point of view,
that is the essential clue leading to the successful
family education.
References
1. Federalniy zakon Rossiyskoy Federatzii “Ob Obrazovanii” № 3266-1, utrativshiy sily 01.09.2013,
Glava II, Statya18/ Doshkolnoye obrazovaniye
[Web-resource].—URL:
http://www.zakonrf.info/
zakon-ob-obrazovanii/18/. [Federal Educational Law
of the Russian Federation № 3266-1, invalid since
01.09.2013, Part II, Clause 18/Preschool Education].
2. Gippenreiter, J.B. Prodolzhaem obshatsya s rebyonkom. Tak? / J.B. Gippenreiter.—Moscow: AST: Astrel,
2011, 304 p. [We continue our talk with a child. This
way?] (in Russian)
3. Manichenko, I.V. Desyat zakonov vospitaniya rebyonka. / I.V. Manichenko .—Chelyabinsk: maminy skazki, 2009, 87 p. [Ten child’s upbringing laws/ Mum’s
fairy-tales] (in Russian)
4. Miloradova, N.G. Psichologiya i pedagogika: uchebnoe posobiye./ N.G. Miloradova.—Moscow: Gardariki,
2005, 335 p. [Psychology and pedagogics: a textbook
for students] (in Russian)
5. Osho, Radzhnish. O detyah./ V perevode О. Vishmidt.—
Moscow: Izdatelskiy Dom Sofia, 2010, 224 p. [The book
of children/Publishing House Sofia] (in Rissian)
6. Tolstoy, L.N. Vospitaniye v svobode: izbranniye pedagogicheskiye statyi./ Sostavitely: M. Boguslavskiy,
К. Sumnitelniy.—Moscow: Karapuz, 2005, 240 p.
[Upbringing in freedom: selected pedagogical articles/
Compiled by M.Boguslavskiy, K. Sumnitelniy] (in Russian)
7. Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia [Web-resource].—
URL: https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D1%E5%EC%FC%FF
Innovative Technology in Learning
Foreign Languages
Lyailya Jumanova,
Madina Tulegenova
Karaganda State Technical University, Karaganda, Kazakhstan
Abstract. This article deals with the necessity and importance of innovative technology in the foreign
language classroom. It also discusses in detail multimedia technology acting as a method for special
intellectual activity. This technology has a number of advantages compared with other information
technology training, as it allows: improvements in the process of organic combinations of traditional and
innovative forms and methods of education; implementation of training, information, games, modeling,
design and analysis functions; performance of such principles as visibility and accessibility; feasibility of
systematic transition from education to self-education; creation of a positive emotional background for
learning; and linking theory with practice. The use of innovative learning technology creates the most
favorable conditions and contributes significantly to motivation in learning foreign languages.
Keywords: Multimedia learning, paradigm learning, communicative activities, student intensification of
independent work.
L
earning foreign languages is impossible to imagine without the use of multimedia learning tools.
Of course, important tasks for the methodology
of teaching foreign languages include providing
opportunities to illustrate the actual process of communication in English, and creating an educational
environment that provides real conditions for learning use of the target language and its culture.
The 21st century, often called the information
age, is bringing about changes to the traditional
teaching of language. The use of computer technology in teaching in our time is of great importance,
thanks to its new possibilities. The introduction of
new information and communication technology
expands access to education, forming an open education system, and changes the idea of the qualifications needed by modern graduate students [1].
The most significant group of benefits is teaching the virtues of computer-based training. For example, teachers use the ability of computers to react instantly to input information to create simple
training programs in the form of exercises. The technical advantage of teaching English with the help
of multimedia technology is that sound cards allow
users to record their speech and then compare it
with the pronunciation of native speakers. Graphics
capabilities of computers can represent any type of
activity in the form of pictures or animation. This is
particularly important when learning new vocabulary, as images on the monitor allow students to associate English phrases directly with actions, rather
than with phrases in their native language. Moreover, the media are an excellent means of interactive communication between different linguistic
66
Jumanova, Tulegenova 67
groups, which is particularly evident in the application of computer networks. This could be a local
area network connecting several machines in one
school, or the Internet—a global network of millions of users [2].
These advantages allow us to conclude that
multimedia learning has great potential for teaching oral speech in other languages. Through the
optimal combination of a number technology (language laboratory, video, television, radio, newspapers, magazines, books, bibliographies, and
phones) and having additional features (interactivity, graphics capabilities, etc.), multimedia learning
provides almost limitless opportunities for teaching
and learning.
In recent years, there has been a tendency in the
Kazakhstani education system to change the learning paradigm, such that schools are transitioning
from transfer of knowledge to students in finished
form toward the organization and management of
self-learning and cognitive activity. With today’s requirements for education, where a major element
is independent work by students, high schools can
enhance the process of learning, teaching methods,
and forms of work organization that will develop
the ability to learn, find needed information using
a variety of information sources, and students’ cognitive independence [7].
Modern pedagogical science seeks to use new
technology in teaching. The aforementioned interactive media get their proper use. Most of the wide
variety of interactive educational software for learning English is aimed at independent elaboration
of phonetic and grammatical aspects and making
their use automatic. Features of these programs
include interactive dialogues, speech recognition
and visualization of pronunciation, animated videos showing articulation of sounds, exercises for
development of all kinds of speech skills, videos
with translation, and tracking one’s own learning
outcomes.
Since the purpose of learning the English language is communicative activity, which requires
practical command of the language, the task of
teachers is to revitalize all students in the learning process to create a context for their creative
activity. The use of modern means, such as awareness programs and Internet technology, as well as
cooperative learning and project methodology, allow us to solve these problems [9].
So, Internet sources that may come to the aid of
foreign language teachers in the organization of independent work, include broadcasting, interacting
with and searching in online resources, where cognitive information, training materials and conditions
can be found that are conducive to the formation of
professional competence for future specialists [3].
Today we have a unique helper that allows us
to bring in the best teachers from many countries
through the software they create. Intensification of
the process of transition to an information society,
associated with the widespread introduction of new
information technology and computer telecommunications, necessitates the development of other
forms and methods of teaching foreign languages.
Along with the use of traditional technology
learning, opportunities for new information technology can help teachers in the selection of more
interesting and varied educational materials to carry
out a differentiated approach for each student, and
thereby contribute to better assimilation of necessary knowledge and skills.
Among the various types of innovation, as
shown by the results of a survey conducted in the
universities of the CIS, teachers are most familiar
with training through the use of multimedia tools
(66.7 %) [6].
Multimedia technology is considered to be information technology training that integrates audiovisual information in several media (text, video,
audio, graphics, animation, etc.). This implements
interactive dialogue with user systems and various
forms of self-employment [4].
The use of multimedia technology in the learning process allows for improvements in the process
of organic combination of traditional and innovative
forms and methods of education; implementation of
training, information, games, modeling, design and
analysis functions; performance of such general didactic principles as visibility and accessibility; feasibility of systematic transition from education to
self-education; a positive emotional background
for training; and linking theory to practice [5]. In
addition, multimedia technology is supported by
multimedia programs, encyclopedias, dictionaries,
and a special information educational environment
created for holistic knowledge of the world in the
context of computer-aided design and modeling.
Multimedia technology acts as a special intellectual activity, which means it has a number of
advantages compared with other information technology training:
1. The pedagogy means continuous improvement of content and methods of education
in modern conditions.
2. Provides opportunities to identify and support students with linguistic abilities.
3. Represents the basis of distance learning.
4. Provides access to best practices in education and training of the general public
through the educational world of the Internet and an extensive communication
network.
5. Creates an artificial language environment,
allowing the study of foreign languages (FL)
at students’ own pace, increasing the independence and responsibility of students
when organizing FL training for all age
groups. Allows building FL training in accordance with student interests and goals,
and allows students to enter into training in
the intercultural component of FL.
6. Multimedia technology is new and apparently has limitless possibilities for creation
of means of graphic clarity.
Multimedia (computer with additional devices)
can be a powerful tool for everyone to learn foreign
languages through self-study, and allow close monitoring and ongoing operational support [3].
Along with positive aspects, there are some negative trends affecting the mass creation and implementation of multimedia technology in the learning
process. These include:
1. Lack of ability of existing education systems
to make active use of multimedia technology, and to integrate it into the educational
process and its organization;
2. Lack of qualified developers;
3. Lack of a developed methodology of multimedia technology;
4. Lack of financial resources for the creation
and widespread adoption of multimedia
technology;
5. The device is not designed evaluation.
In order to introduce multimedia technology in
the learning process, it is first necessary to create
conditions for sound pedagogical and methodological application of multimedia technology. The integration of the Internet in education and, in particular, its use in the teaching of foreign languages, is
now quite relevant.
Currently, most schools and universities in our
country are equipped with multimedia rooms for
English language learning. These rooms have computers, projectors and interactive whiteboards [10].
Thus, the combination of traditional and newer
teaching methods of language teaching will ensure
a higher level of learning.
Unfortunately, at the present time, the use of
multimedia technology to intensify individual work
in the study of foreign languages is largely constrained by the high cost of computer equipment,
as well as the lack of a sufficient number of theoretically grounded and experimentally tested computer programs intended for independent foreign
language learning.
In general, a situation currently exists in which,
on the one hand, there are a small number of theoretical studies that have not been widely put into
practice; and on the other, there are many disparate
programs that do not have a serious theoretical basis [8].
The current analysis showed that in pedagogical science, especially in the practice of domestic
university teaching, the capabilities of learning software, including multimedia technology, are underestimated. This is due primarily to complexity and
insufficient development of a theory of the concept
of multimedia technology as a didactic tool.
References
1. Modern information technologies in education. Robert I. V. -Moscow School Press, 1994.-215p.
2. Benefits and drawbacks of controlled laboratory studies
of second language acquisition. Yang L. R. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 2001.—173–193 p.
3. Problems of application of multimedia technology in
higher education // High technology in the pedagogical process: abstracts Interuniversity Scientific Conference university professors, scientists and specialists.
Frolov N. H.—Nizhny Novgorod, VSPI, 2000.—96–98
p.
Jumanova, Tulegenova 69
4. New teaching and information technology in the education system. Polat ES—Moscow, Education, 2000.45–46p.
5. The use of electronic information and educational
resources to support scientific research of young scientists.// Vestn. Tomskogogo. ped. Univ (Tomsk State Pedagogical University Bulletin). Galtsova NP, Mezentceva
TI Shvadlenko I. A. V.10. Series: Pedagogy, 2006.13–
18p.
6. What is the Internet? Information and communication
technologies in education.// Kouchnirenko AG, AG
Leonov, Kuzmenko MA and t. d.Informatics and educa-
tion.—№ 5, 7. -1998.-56–57p.
7. A new intensive training method. Magazine “Foreign
languages at school”, AN Shchukin2005,№ 2;-36–37p.
8. The computerized textbook-the basis of new information and educational technology. Pedagogika.Glazov
BI Catchers DA—№ 6. 1995.- 12–13 p.
9. The communicative method of teaching a foreign speaking.- Passow EI Moscow, Education,1991.-88–89p.
10. Innovative technologies for foreign language lessons.
Polat ES Magazine “Foreign languages at school”, № 3.
2001 97–98p.
Speech Development of Young
Children as a Factor of Their Social
Growth in the Modern Society
Helena Malkova
Chelyabinsk State Pedagogical University, Chelyabinsk, Russia
Abstract. The article represents an attempt of more detailed analysis of the definition “speech development”,
and shows the impact of some peculiarities of speech development of young children on their future social
growth in the society. The article includes the analysis of various academic researches regarding to pedagogy,
psychology and linguistics.
Keywords: speech development, speech activity, speech, young child, social growth, social environment.
T
he problem of care and education of young children draws attention of many scientists all over
the world. This theme was considered also during
the first world conference on early childhood care
and education (WCECCE), which took place in
Moscow in September 2010. [4]. According to the
“Federal national requirements to the structure of
the basic pre-school general education curriculum”
(Order #665 d/d 23rd of November 2009) the tasks
of education include inter alia the “Social growth”
and the “Communication” [14].
During the last years the scientists in their researches define various concepts such as “speech”,
“language”, “speech development”, and “speech
activity”. The researches of speech include the analysis of speech development of young children in
the course of communication, i.e. during the social
growth, during the ingoing of a child into the social
environment.
Long ago the mankind mastered such a complicated phenomenon as the speech is. K.D. Ushinsky
who was the founder of the academic pedagogy in
Russia wrote in his works that the language was the
most living, the largest, and the strongest tie, which
combined the belated, the living and the future generations of the nation into one great and historical
living whole [12 p. 147].
The researches by W. Humboldt, which include
all the sides of the speech development, had a
great impact on its development. The German scientist accentuated the social form of the language
and spoke of its systemacity and consistency. “The
language is the organon, which forms the thought.
The intellectual activity, which is quite mental and
inner, and which disappears to some extent, materializes by means of the sound as the speech and
becomes available for sensorial perception. So the
intellectual activity forms a unity together with the
language” [2, p. 75]. His researches were continued by K. Becker and F. de Saussure, and further
by A.A. Potebnya and L.V. Scherba. The concepts
of the “language”, the “speech” and the “speech
activity” became demarcated (L.S. Vygotsky, S.L.
70
Malkova 71
Rubinstein, P.P. Blonsky, L.P. Yakubinsky,, N.I.
Zhinkin, A.A. Leontyev, I.A. Zimnyaya and the
others).
Thus, based on the viewpoint of the researchers
it would be quite logic to analyze the connection of
the speech as the talking process and the language
as the semiotic system, which acts in the defined
community. So, the speech is the process of communication of people by means of the language.
[11 p. 334].
In the linguistic encyclopedic dictionary the
speech is defined as the “implementation of the language (code) appearing in speaking and entitative
(real) signs only, which correlate conceptual content and typical sounding; as well as the system of
their use and co-ocurrence” [7 p. 414].
Russian thinker and researcher of the language
M.M. Bakhtin wrote in his book the following: “The
speech has always the form of an utterance, which
belongs to the concrete speech subject and which
can’t exist beyond this form” [1, p. 263].
L.V. Scherba was the first linguist who introduced the theory of the speech activity. The main
point of his message laid in the fact of the distinction between the concepts of the speech activity,
the language system and the language material [15
p. 9].
A.N. Leontiev, who was in the 30’s the follower
of L.S. Vygotsky, developed the theory of structure
and units of the activity. Further during the 60’s
from the viewpoint of the activity approach A.A. Leontiev analyzed in detail the speech activity on the
base of Moscow psycholinguistic school, which he
found. The activity approach gives another interpretation of the concept of thinking. According to this
approach the thinking “appears not only in speech,
… but also in real purposeful acts of people…” [8
p. 12].
The researches of such scientists as L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev, A.A. Leontiev, A.R. Luria
and the others formed the basis of the theory of the
speech activity. The essential message of this theory
is the idea about the development of the speech as
a result of the generalization of the language phenomena, the activity of the proper speech and the
speech perception.
Taking into account the distinctive feature of the
development of children under three years of age,
we may define that the viewpoint of A.A. Leontiev
is the most applicable so far as concerns the young
children. The scientist considers the speech activity
to be a complex of some speech acts which are determined by practical activities. This is the ability to
reflect the language system in the consciousness of
the speaker. A.A. Leontiev considers the processes
of formation of speech skills and speech habits to
be different.
The language system is not a special object of
mastering for young children; it appears only in
concrete acts. So the process of the speech habit
training by a young child is a creative one, as the
child takes them out form the speech of the adults
itself. A.A. Leontiev in his researches marks the following skills of children: the instantaneous orientation during the communication, the ability to plan
the speech and to select its content in such a way as
to make the communication effective.
D.B. Elkonin considered the extreme perceptivity of a child to the language to be resulted from the
conditions under which it is being mastered. “The
dialogic form of the speech of young children is the
result and also the manifestation of their insufficient
self-dependence as well as of the inherence of their
activities from the activities of the adults”. [16 p. 5]
The linguists define the speech as a specific sequence of linguistic units, which is subjected to the
laws of the language and the mental activity (B.N.
Golovin, F.M. Berezin, 1979).
The psychological researches devoted to the
speech and thinking development contain characteristics of various sides of the speech of a child (L.S.
Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, P.P. Blonsky, A.N. Leontiev, A.V. Zaporozhets, D.B. Elkonin, A.R. Luria, N.I.
Zhinkin, N.Kh. Shvachkin) [13 p. 116].
S.L. Rubinstein basing on the communicative
role of the speech developed the periodization
of the formation of the situational and contextual
speech. A.R. Luria considered the dialogic speech
to be of great importance as the prime model of a
speech act.
D.B. Elkonin wrote that the speech was of a
great value for young children as a way of cooperation with their peers and adults. “… In early childhood the speech of a child being an instrument of
communication with adults and the other children
is directly related to the practical activity of this
child as well as to the situation which is being discussed…” [17 p. 367].
M.M. Koltsova, doctor of medical science, considers the irregularity of the speech of young children to be related to a quite narrow association area
of words and sentences. She writes in her book the
following: “The speech plays a great role in the process of adaptation of a child to the demands of the
human community and establishment of contacts
with the other children” [6 p. 5]. A number of scientists note in their works that the young children
have specific constituents of the monologue by age
of 2 or 3 (A.M. Leushina, A.N. Gvozdev). The formation of the contextual speech is determined by
the tasks and conditions of the communication,
personality factors of a child and the content of this
speech of course.
In foreign countries the speech, language and
speech activity within the context of psycholinguistics were studied by such scientists as B. Skinner, J.
Brunner, G. Miller, C. Osgood and the others.
The term of psycholinguistics was for the first
time mentioned in the article of N. Pronko, a psychologist from USA. It became a separate science
as a result of the seminar, which took place in Indiana University, USA, and was organized by the
Committee on Linguistics and Psychology of the Social Science Research Council of America. All the
participants of that seminar were that time scientists
of world reputation, and the leaders of the seminar
were two psychologists C. Osgood and J. Carroll
and the literary critic T. Sebeok.
During the summer months they studied the basic statements of the theory and summarized them,
and also studied various experimental schools,
which were found on the base of those statements.
This theory is based on three main sources, these
are: the mathematical theory of communication
by Shannon and Weaver, according to which the
communication is the transferring of certain information from one independent person, who speaks,
to another, who at the same time listens to him. The
second source is the descriptive linguistics by J.
Greenberg, and the third one is the neo-behaviorist
psychology by C. Osgood. The development of the
conception was sluggish and it kept side with the
researches by B. Skinner, but their contribution to
the American and world science consisted in the
fact of appearance and uniform understanding of
the problem on the part of representatives of various sciences, who further became the developer of
different problems.
According to C. Osgood, the speech is a system
of immediate or mediated (delayed) reactions of a
human being to some speech or non-voice stimuli. The scientist presents the system of the speech
behavior as follows: Representation level → Integration level → Self-stimulation level → Reception
level → Motor encoding level. [9 p. 24].
The main characteristic of the psycholinguistics
of the first generation is the relation “stimulus-reaction”. It is guided by the theory of the speech adaptation to the circumambiency, and formation of a
certain balance between the human beings and the
circumstance they act in, i.e. speech behavior of a
human being.
The next characteristic of this science is its “atomism”, i.e. it is concerned with grammatical relations and forms, as well as with separate words. The
“atomism” is largely manifested in Osgood’s theory
of mastering of language by a child. According to
it the children master separate words and their further generalization. But as G. Miller noted, in order to master the language “according to Osgood”
the child must do it for one hundred years running
without any intermission [3, p. 25].
And the last characteristic of the psycholinguistics of the first generation was its individualism,
when a human being was isolated from the society
or process of a certain communication, i.e. simple
scheme of the information transfer from the speaker
to the listener. Most of the researchers were disappointed by the approach of both C. Osgood and
his followers, and although they acknowledged the
psycholinguistics as a theoretical discipline, there
was no denying that the psycholinguistics of the
first generation couldn’t explain some meaningful
facts, i.e. had the insufficient explanatory power.
The representatives of the psycholinguistics
of the next generation were N. Chomsky and G.
Miller, a linguist and a famous American psychologist. As distinct from C. Osgood who developed
his own psycholinguistic model on the psychological base, these two researchers proceeded from the
linguistics. The main characteristic of their theory
consisted not in the mastering of any separate sign
Malkova 73
elements (words) but in the acquirement of a system
of rules according to which one can form a meaningful and informed utterance.
The third generation of psycholinguists is presented by American psycholinguist J. Wertsch and
psychologist J. Bruner, French psycholinguists G.
Noisette and D. Dubois, and Norwegian psycholinguist R. Rommetveit. The main point of the researches of these scientists consists in the “autonomy of the psycholinguistics”.
According to Noisette these actions are of
cognitive and at the same time of communicative
nature. They become cognitive when they are being realized during the certain communication,
cooperation, and persuasion [9 p. 31]. J. Wertsch
spoke of the simultaneous conversion of linguistic and psychological information. R. Rommetveit wrote about the necessity of studying of the
utterances, which constituted the communicative
environment.
In Russia the psycholinguistics was developed
in a greater degree by the following psychologists:
L.S. Vygotsky, S.L. Rubinstein, A.V. Zaporozhets,
D.B. Elkonin, D.N. Uznadze. Such scientists as A.R.
Luria, N.I. Zhinkin, A.N. Leontiev made a great
contribution into research of the speech, and in the
late twentieth century the scientists A.M. Shakhnarovich, A.A. Leontiev, S.N. Tseytlin and the others
continued the researches.
In works by A.A. Leontiev the language is considered to be a system, which is necessary for a
human being. He writes the speech is a system of
orienting points, which are necessary for the activity of a human within the material and social environment [10 p. 19].
A.A. Leontiev and I.A. Zimnyaya consider the
speech to be a certain subject’s activity, which fulfills the function of communication of subjects in
the community. A.R. Luria considers the speech to
be a system of utterances, and the language is according to him a system of codes which denote the
subjects, features, actions and relations.
According to I.A. Zimnyaya, whose viewpoint
is congenial to our opinion, the speech is the way
of formation and formulation of a thought by means
of the language, and the language is a tool [5]. But
allowing for special aspects of young children the
language is defined as a tool, and the speech is
defined as a way of utterance of a thought, which
happens both verbal and non-verbal.
Many linguists, educationalists and psychologists draw recently in their works upon the problem
of language capacities.
There are several approaches: the first one is the
neurophysiological approach. According to it the
language capacity is a mechanism, which provides
its activity (M.E. Khvatsev, T.B. Gleserman and the
others).
The second one is called the psychological approach, according to it the language capacity is considered to be a complex of speech skills and habits,
which give a child the possibility to understand and
compose new phrases on the base of the current
communicative situation and norms of the native
language. Within this context the formation of the
speech habit is considered to be the right making
and actualization of the utterance by a young child,
and the speech skills development implies the subordination of the type of the speech utterance to
the purpose of the communication (A.R. Luria, O.S.
Ushakova, E.D. Bazhovich).
The third one is the pedagogical approach; here
the researchers are at variance with each other on
an issue of definition of the concept of the language capacity. The correctional pedagogy define
the language capacity as the specific intellectual
and speech activity which is evident as the creative
application of earlier mastered means of language
(L.P. Noskova, L.A. Golovchits and the others).
According to the psycholinguistic approach
the language capacity is considered to be one of
the constituent forms of the language together with
the speech activity and the language system (A.A.
Leontiev). From the viewpoint of A.R. Luria and
other scientists the language capacity forms in early
childhood in the process of mastering of the subject
activity.
On the base of the discussed researches we can
conclude that the speech and language capacities of
young children appear during the communication.
Summing up the foregoing we should note that
mastering of language changes the acts of children.
The purpose, which is defined through a word,
brings in the action the distinct directionality and
rationality. Absolute merit of the speech consists in
the fact that the actions of a child during the process
of development become optional and aimed. The
mastering of the speech helps children to establish
the contacts with their peers, to organize any cooperation and to acquire various kinds of activity, i.e.
to adapt to the social environment successful.
References
1. Bakhtin M.M. Aesthetics of Verbal Art. [Text] Moscow:
Publishing house “Iskusstvo”, 1986.—445 p.
2. Humboldt W. von. Selected works on linguistic.
[Text]—Moscow: 1984.—400 p.
3. Glukhov V.P. Alphabet of the psycholinguistics: training manual for students of Pedagogical Institutions of
Higher Education [Text]- Moscow: Publishing house
ACT: Astrel, 2005.—351 p.
4. “Obruch” (Hoop) journal, № 6, 2010.
5. Zimnyaya I.A. Pedagogical psychology. [Text]. Rostovon-Don: Publishing house “Phoenix”, 1997.—486 p.
6. Koltsova M.M. A child learns to speak [Text]—Moscow:
Publishing house “Sovetskaya Rossiya”, 1973.—p. 122.
7. Linguistic encyclopedic dictionary. [Text] Moscow:
Publishing house “Sovetskaya entsiklopediya”. 1990.—
685 p.
8. Leontiev A.A. Language, speech, speech activity.
[Text]—Moscow: Publishing house “Prosvescheniye”,
1969.—214 p.
9. Leontiev A.A. Alphabet of the psycholinguistics.
[Text]—Moscow: Publishing house “Smysl”, 1997.—
287 h.
10. Leontiev A.A. Psychology of communication. [Text]
Moscow: Publishing house “Smysl”, 1997.—456 p.
11. Maklakov A.G. General psychology [Text]—S.-Petersburg: Publishing house “Piter”, 2001–592 p.
12. Ushinskiy K.D. Selected works on pedagogy: of 2 volumes. [Text]—Moscow., 1974.—V. 1.—584 p.
13. Ushakova O.S. Development of the speech activity of
pre-school children. [Text] Moscow: Publishing house
of the institute of psychotherapy, 2001.—256 p.
14. Federal State Educational Standard of the pre-school
education //http//www.rg.ru/2013/11/25/doshk-standart-dok.htm).
15. Scherba L.V. Language system and speech activity
[Text] /Publishing house “Nauka” Leningrad department, Leningrad, 1974–427 p.
16. Elkonin D.B. Speech development at the pre-school
age [Text] (Essay) Publishing house of the National
academy of pedagogical sciences of RSFSR, Moscow
1958—p.116.
17. Elkonin D.B. Selected works on psychology [Text]—
Moscow: Publishing house “Pedagogika”, 1989. 560 p.
On Certain Problems of Studying
Ethnical Self-Consciousness
through National Fictional
Literature
Fariza Mezhidova
Chechen State Pedagogical University, Grozny, Russia
Abstract. The article is devoted to the problems of studying ethnical self-consciousness through national
fictional literature. The author has analyzed the educational potential of several works of the Chechen
fiction and made conclusions about the factors having potential to facilitate preservation of ethnical selfconsciousness under severe living conditions.
Keywords: ethnical self-consciousness, ethnic group, problem, spiritual culture, the Chechen fictional
literature, personality, morals.
O
ne of the relevant pedagogical problems is the
revival of ethnical spiritual cultures, and, in
particular, of ethnical self-consciousness development. Its relevance arises from the fact that the Russian Federation is a motherland of many different
ethnic groups.
Nevertheless, this problem is insufficiently studied, only individual works being devoted to it. In
those works the authors analyze self-consciousness
of ethnic minorities. However, not enough attention has been paid to development and formation
of the Chechen ethnic-group self-consciousness in
humanities as of this moment. Therefore, we have
undertaken to analyze the Chechen ethnic group
self-consciousness in this work.
As is well-known, there are many approaches
to ethnic group self-consciousness and many definitions of it in the psychological and pedagogical
science. Thus, according to the definition suggested
by O. N. Myagkova, “Self-consciousness is a result of
individual and collective consciousness evolution”
[6]. V. S. Kukushin and D. D. Stolyarenko note: “Ethnical identity is conscious awareness of own’s affiliation to a certain ethnic group perceived as different from other ethnic groups... a sense of belonging
to one ethnic group and self-distancing from other
ethnic groups” [4]. Speaking of national consciousness, A. Ya. Gurevich introduces a notion “mentality” which is, according to him, a spiritual toolware,
mental equipment, mind-set [3]. L. M. Drobizheva
suggests the following definition “Ethnical self-consciousness is the sense of belonging to a certain ethnic group, awareness of own nation’s interests, concepts of culture, language and territory” [7].
Proceeding from the abovesaid, it can be concluded that ethnical self-consciousness is a complex sociocultural phenomenon which facilitates
formation of a specific outlook and influences on
75
the person’s realising own place and role in the
society. It is exactly ethnical self-consciousness
that forms life values which are prioritised in one
or another ethnic group. Today, in the age of total
globalisation and technification, the problem of
preserving ethnical self-consciousness is especially
acute. Ethnical self-consciousness is formed based
on the national spirit. Much of L. N. Gumilev’s work
was devoted to national spirit: “So, ethnic group is
a group of specimens which distinguish themselves
from all other groups. Ethnic groups are more or
less stable, although they appear and disappear
throughout history. There is not a single real feature
which would define an ethnic group and be applicable to all the known cases at the same time. Language, origins, traditions, material culture, ideology
can serve as definitive features only in some of the
cases. There is only one thing common to all ethnic
groups—each specimen’s belief: ‘We are like this,
and they are like that’” [2].
Spiritual culture—namely, language, religion,
fine and applied arts, folk music and national literature—are the basis of national spirit. Hence national
literature is especially important in the conditions of
globalization. The reason for this is that national literature develops within the universal human progress
and reflects philosophical comprehension of current
events, occurrences, and facts. In this connection,
national literature is one of the important modern
translators of spiritual culture containing social and
pedagogical experience of the ethnic group’s past.
This problem is especially topical for the Chechen
nation which was on the verge of extinction many
times during its existence. We believe that one cannot understand a nation’s spiritual and moral values
without deep understanding of its literary legacy.
National fictional literature contains the desired
educational goals as the nation sees them at one
or another time period. K. D. Ushinsky wrote that
“literature of every nation… shows what a man
should be like, according to the nation’s view”
[8]. The role of literature in preserving, developing, and promoting spiritual and moral values can
hardly be overestimated at the present time. Thus,
national fictional literature is full of pedagogical
ideas. Educational possibilities of national literature
are endless if only we choose to turn to it, read it
and study it. Literature has always been a powerful
means of influencing people’s minds and actions.
In general, the level of national literature development defines the ethic group’s culture. Ethnical and
cultural values allow an ethnic group to evaluate
them, to determine which of them are truly relevant
at the given historical stage. Therewith, ethnical
self-consciousness takes on enormous importance
in this. It can be fairly said that there is a considerable uplift in the Chechen literature at present so as
in the Chechen culture in general which is partially
because of the recent military events and current
regional policy. Prose by Chechen writers reflects
freedom-loving, proud, and fearless national spirit.
In our opinion, especially notable literary
achievements have been made by the Chechen writer
Musa Beksultanov. His works reflect such problems
as formation and transformation of national self-consciousness in modern conditions, the problems of
its preservation and development. Many pedagogical methods to develop courage, tolerance, honour,
patriotism, love of freedom, adherence to traditional
values and high moral standards can be found in his
novels. All the above-mentioned qualities constitute such a national concept as “konakhallah” (the
Chechen ethics code). “Konakh” is a man whose
words and deeds conform to the Chechen idea of an
“ideal man”. In his novels (the plots of which range
from touching lyrical love stories to nation-wide tragedies such as war, deportation, war, terrors of prison
life) M. Beksultanov often describes a “konakh”.
In our opinion, “Cross Bay” is one of his most
powerful novels. It shows an example of an extremely
severe situation in which human life and safety are
in danger. The author tells us about soldiers imprisoned in Soviet concentration camps and about subhuman conditions in which people have to fight for
survival. The main character Alkhast Pariev (based
on a real person) who was fighting against Germans
during the WWII is sent to a Siberian concentration
camp after he was unjustly found guilty of treason.
His nation is deported to Siberia and the Middle
Asia. The prisoners are deprived of all human rights;
they suffer from injustices, cold, starvation, thirst,
lice, and excruciating diseases. Once, after the
fourth day without water he meets his compatriot,
a Chechen named Akhmed. Akhmed commands respect of other prisoners. At his own wish he can start
a riot or stop it. Nevertheless, he is embarrassed and
Mezhidova 77
fussed at the first encounter with Alkhast. Here we
see that, even being among people of other nationalities, Akhmed follows his national traditions when
communicating with someone of his ethnic group.
“I am Pariev from Khildekhoroy, my father’s name
was Pkhari, my name is Alkhast” [1]—this is how
Alkhast introduces himself to Akhmed. According to
the Chechen traditions, a person has to tell his/her
father’s name and the place of birth in the first place.
It is a tradition with the Chechens to help each other,
even when far away from homeland. Therefore,
since that moment Alkhast, being under Akhmed’s
protection, lacked nothing. “You should not talk soft
to them,—says Akhmed,—They don’t know mercy.
You have to be cruel to them as to your blood enemies (*blood enemy is, according to the Chechen’s
traditions, a person guilty of killing one of your relatives or ancestors; it is considered to be a matter of
honour to avenge the spilt blood of your murdered
relative—the translator’s note) (blood vengeance is
one of the Chechen’s traditions, author’s note). Never
be kind to them and don’t mistake them for human
beings. They don’t understand kindness. They will
not respect you until you beat them… Remember,
Alkhast. Be steel-hearted and steel-hearted only…
Be cruel and just, but not merciful. Forget mercy,
we are not home” [1]. “We are not home” are the
key words in this monologue, in our opinion. “Not
home” means in a place dominated by other values,
in a cruel prison world where kindness and mercy
are regarded as vices. Following Akhmed’s lessons,
Alkhast beats up everyone who dares to violate the
order he established in his shack or disrespect him.
“We keep away from you, Chechen, and you keep
away from us” [1].—say the prisoners to him.
The question is: what helped Alkhast and thousands of other Chechens to survive and maintain
their human qualities in unbearable conditions of
a concentration camp? What helped thousands of
our compatriots not to break during the 1944 deportation, not to forget own culture, origins, traditions
and customs during the 13 years outside Homeland?
And what helps the Chechens now, after two military campaigns, to revive and improve their life?
We believe that the basis of the Chechens’ worldview is strict adherence to their national system of
values. As is well known, starting with the first stages
of self-identification, a Chechen becomes bound by
a system of moral obligations and restrictions. Thus,
a man bounded by this system and conforming to
its requirements can control his behaviour, emotions
and actions. He becomes resistant to life hardships
and misfortunes. In our opinion, one of the most
important values of this system is faith and, first of
all, faith in God which is a fundamental element of
the Chechen’s national self-consciousness. This faith
gives people self-belief and strength to live and enjoy
life. I. M. Beksultanov emphasises this in his novel.
“In spite of your doubts, God has not left you. You
did not doubt Him when you felt good. God was
your only friend, your closest and nearest friend” [1].
In the most extreme conditions of a concentration camp, Alkhast tries to preserve his humanity.
Once, when he got tired of fighting for his life, he
decided to die. It takes compromising with one’s
conscience to survive. To get food or to get warm
near a fireplace you have to make someone else cry,
someone who wants to live just like you. Alkhast realises that he cannot be like that, no matter at what
circumstances. And he leaves the camp. He should
have been shot for this, but he was not. Once again
he cheated death (or death cheated him). Then he
gets to a place where people store dead bodies
and… eat them. But even suffering from horrible
starvation, Alkhast cannot do this.
Aside from the main character Beksultanov also
introduces several characters of other nationalities.
The authour mentions the Chuckchi, Germans, Lithuanians, Tatars. “The Lithuanians and Tatars were
decent and brave men. Lithuanians were dying in
silence, without preagonal moans and groans. They
believed in something. Or maybe they believed in
nothing…” [1].
Having gone through multiple ordeals, Alkhast
finally ends up in a medical unit. He awakes and
much to his terror sees that both of his hands were
amputated. And in the end, salvation comes from
a German doctor Horst Kaschnitz.
A paradox: Alkhast fights for his Homeland, but
his Homeland betrays him, make of him a traitor
and leaving him to die. He killed Germans, but
a German doctor saves his life.
But all those tribulations and torments did not
break his spirit. After Stalin’s death, on the happy
day when Alkhast is sent to Kazakhstan to his relatives, he meets a familiar Chechen begging for
money in a train. “You stood in amazement, not believing your own eyes, not understanding what was
happening to you… you held him tight, you shouted
and cursed. Your feelings were hurt, you were offended because of all tortures you had gone through,
and you were offended on behalf of your country…
You hit him, and then you started to cry …” [1]. The
main character is heart-struck, because begging has
been always considered a terrible shame among the
Chechens. Under no circumstances it could be acceptable for a Chechen. If a Chechen suffered real
hardships, his relatives, the clan or tribe would always be there to help. And if they were not, then
it would be better for him to die than to beg. “Your
world collapsed, heavens fell, and the Earth heaved
like on the Judgment Day. The World did not exist anymore… a proud and free-spirited Chechen’s
world that you cherished, guarded in your dreams,
in rare memories; the world you even feared to
recall sometimes… painful it was to live in world
where one can leave without honour and dignity,
having betrayed God and become slave of the flesh.
Instantly you realised: the whole world, and everything in it were the Last Judgment” [1]. These are the
last words of the novel.
“A proud and free-spirited Chechen’s world” is
the core motif of all M. Beksultanov’s literary legacy. We believe that the problem of preservation of
this world is one of the most relevant and acute in
modern Chechen society. Analysing the characters’
lives, penetrating into their real world, and into the
readers’ world, M.Beksultanov gives answers to
questions that concern everyone: what is life, what
is happiness, what kinds of people are there in the
world, what is good and what is bad, what is vice,
and what is virtue? Through each character he reveals something unique and universal (relevant to
everyone) at the same time. In revealing this dialectism through emphasising with the characters
he sees the seeds of creative power which lead to
a person’s moral and spiritual ascension. That is
why M. Beksultanov’s works are so valuable from
the point of view of national pedagogics. [5]
Total globalisation and urbanisation taking place
at the present time significantly complicate preservation of ethnical self-consciousness. It should also
be noted that the Chechen Republic’s government
does its best to preserve the Chechen ethnic group’s
mentality and ethnical self-consciousness. A great
emphasis is laid on developing native language, national museums are opened throughout the whole
Republic, folk creative works receive governmental
support. Thus, there is a strong and full-fledged tendency to development of the nation’s spiritual culture by means of studying national ethnic values,
culture, and religion..
Literature concentrates and preserves time-honoured spiritual and moral legacy. Writers raise the
problems of relations between younger and older
generations, commitment to ancestors’ traditions,
the role of family, of mother and father in cultivating
moral principles. They assert national educational
traditions in every epoch, including the modern
one, and enrich a pedagogue’s “inventory” with
new ideas, new approaches.
Thus, summarizing all the above-said, we can
say that ethnical self-consciousness is a complex
sociocultural phenomenon, and the problem of preserving ethnical self-consciousness is a topical one
in the modern pedagogical science. National literature reflects collective mind of a nation, its ideas,
spirit, and mentality. In our opinion, ethnopedagogical values are a means to develop a person’s ethnical self-consciousness.
Reference
1. “Nakh peoples”, literary and art magazine, Grozny,
№ 8.2011–96 p.
2. Gumilev L. N. Ethnogenesis and biosphere of Earth.
–М., 1994, p.92–96
3. Gurevich A.Ya. The problems of Medieval Folk Culture.- М.: Art, 1981 (М., 2002).—359 p.
4. Kukushin V. S., Stolyarenko L. D. Ethnopedagogics and
ethnopsychology. Rostov-on-Don, 2000. p.448.
5. Muskhanova I. V. Ethnopedagogical potential of modern Chechen literature //Theory and practice of social
development. -2011.—№ 6.—p.109–113
6. Myagkova O. N. “Ethnical self-consciousness as
a sociocultural phenomenon: regional aspect”, dissertation, 2007, 197 p.
7. Cited by: Magomedova M. Z. Identity and tolerance
as a precondition for stability of the North-Caucasian
socium.—Makhachkala, 2009. p. 25
8. Cited by: Aidarova G. P. Ethnopedagogical values as
the national and regional component of education in
the Kalmyk writers’ literary legacy, 2001. p.170
The Role of Personality Type and the
Child’s Thinking When Establishing
the Type of Giftedness in a Rural
School
Almir Miniakhmetov1,
Rail Akhmetov1,
Aliya Usmanova2
Askino Secondary school №1, Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia
Ufa Multidisciplinary Professional Colleges, Republic of Bashkortostan, Russia
1
2
Abstract. The article examines the role of individual approach in the identification of gifted children in
the village school. We propose to take into account the type of personality and thinking of the child. We
have made the analysis of scientific publications in recent years on the issue of giftedness. This approach has
the theoretical and practical significance for teachers of secondary schools, gymnasiums, lyceums, university
teachers.
Keywords: children’s gifts, gifted child, personality, thinking, ability, development, creativity, talent, kind of
giftedness, rural schools.
A
t all times, children who have a talent in a particular field of school discipline have always
been in a special account for teachers of educational institutions. These children were always for
teachers a sort of “magic wand” whose are different
from the others and they always ready to almost any
lesson [1]. As it is generally known, in most cases,
they have always belonged to a particular segment
of society, because they played a key role in its formation and development.
However, there is still not a direct scientific-methodological research on the identification,
support and development of gifted children either
in Russia or abroad. This issue is just a part among
large problems in additional education. Moreover,
in most cases, psycho-educational data of the child
has not initially accounted. These educational and
scientific problems are of the whole society.
In this regard, the aim of this work is to examine
the importance of the type of personality and thinking of the child when it is used student-centered
approach to identify the type of giftedness based on
a review of scientific methods to identify gifted children and our own researches.
It’s not a secret that many of the issues associated with the identification of gifted children in the
general education remains understudied. This concerns not only the psycho-pedagogical diagnosis of
79
giftedness in children, but also the influence of the
many social and psychological factors on the manifestation and development of intellectual giftedness
[2]. Working experience with gifted children shows
recurring pedagogical and psychological difficulties that are caused by different kinds of giftedness,
a lot of theoretical approaches and methods for its
study, a small number of professionals trained to
work with these children.
The term “gifted child” is used very often in
pedagogical literature, but it does not always open
its contents. According to the authors [3], the giftedness is the ability to do any particular activity, the
ability to master quickly the skill to perform these
activities and make it with the elements of creativity. Giftedness as the ability can be congenital, but
most often it is formed in a child by the influence of
pedagogical and psychological impact on both the
individual personality.
Therefore, to make the result more effective a
modern teacher should properly design their psycho-pedagogical activity while working with gifted
children. However, for starters, you need to allocate such children in the class, a group at school or
kindergarten.
One approach of establishing the process of
giftedness is overall concept of giftedness diagnosis
and monitoring types of giftedness, creativity and
intelligence of didactic principles “Working concept of giftedness” [4] and the model of the human
potential by J. Renzulli. According to the authors,
the concept is based on the ideas about developing educational environment which is maintain and
strengthen the health of pupils; develop the cognitive, creative and personal spheres of pupils.
In modern psychology, there are two main approaches to the process of establishing giftedness
[5]. The first approach is based on a system of uniform assessment—a traditional system of definitions
of giftedness based on Standford-Binet scale. The
second approach [6] is based on a system of Integrated Assessment—”Reservoir Module” by Gowen
(1975).
During the analyzing other methods of identifying of gifted children, it seems to us that the individual approach to children is rarely used. Basically,
all the methods are based on a number of procedures of assessment, including the results of the
group test, class teacher recommendations, which
resulted with a fairly narrow range of candidates for
gifted or talented children.
All modern methods do not take sufficient account of the fact that every child—is a person, an
individual, and the main approach in the determination of the gifted child is still a method of observation, not just observation, but professional
observation by a specially trained teacher or class
teacher.
In this regard, it is appropriate to start all kinds
of testing, surveys and other methods to identify
gifted children, pay special attention to the type of
personality and thinking of a child.
It will help to apply methods to identify giftedness, according to the age-specific features of each
child, previously having discussed this with both
parents and professionals: 1) joint observation; 2)
special psycho-diagnostic age trainings; 3) expert
assessment of the behavior of a child by teachers,
parents; 4) conducting trial lessons using special
programs to include the child in the game, and domain-specific lessons; 5) expert assessment of the
products of the creative activity of the child (pictures, poems) by skilled persons in the art.
Determining the type of personality. The
method of individual differences can be used to
correctly identify the type of personality [7], which
gives clear answers to many questions, both in
individual counseling children and professional
selection.
This method includes an identifying preferred
poles on four dichotomous scales and definition of the type of personality by a revealed pole.
As a dichotomous scales mutually orthogonal
scales are used: 1) Intuition—Logic; 2) Process—
The State; 3) The Facts—The Relationship; 4)
Extraversion—Introversion.
All of these scales characterize preferred a type
of information for the person: the integrated or discrete, dynamical or statistical, descriptive or valuation, concrete or abstract. The method improves the
accuracy of diagnosis of personality type.
This stage allows even in the future (at the senior
stage of training), to attract the child to various intellectual competition, but do not only participate at
the school subject Olympiads. Experience in rural
schools shows that there is an opportunity to attract
Miniakhmetov, Akhmetov, Usmanova 81
pupils participate in conferences at various levels,
creative researches and scientific projects.
Determining the type of thinking. For proper
diagnosis and monitoring, you should identify
correctly the type of child’s thinking [8], consider
a scheme of the process of thinking in relation to
such types, as perceptual (perception), cognitive
(learning), behavioral and creative. These will help
to evaluate the effectiveness of the educational environment in which the child is placed, and may
make adjustments to the process of its further training and education.
Thus, an individual assessment of the identification and development of intellectual and creative
abilities of an individual child will be completely
different, different from that which applies, for example, in a frontal or group approaches.
Sure, it entails organizing and creating of professional psychological-pedagogical staff of teachers to search for new types of giftedness, it is difficult in a rural school.
One of the outputs in this situation may be using school and university regular psycho diagnostic
techniques to identify gifted children, which depends on the particular case of the gifted child.
The monitoring system. The process of identifying gifted children is held constant from year to
year. However, it is necessary to inspect the efficiency of the educational process in educational
institutions. Of course, any school is regularly been
accredited. But, as the experience of work shows,
we need more monitoring system not only children,
but also professional aptitude of every teacher, educator, classroom teacher.
External socio-cultural factors of teachers of
further education should be included in the development process of each child. Thorough testing the
system of monitoring the effectiveness of education
will give one more positive result—it is the connection of the small village schools as the branches to
the main schools.
The modern rural school should cooperate with
nearby universities for a joint experimental verification technologies of developing training, application of new innovative methods of diagnosing
learners, apply developing materials for the development of psycho intellectual and creative abilities
of pupils. Rural schools need to develop criteria
for evaluating the effectiveness of the work of each
teacher.
Identifying giftedness. Taking in consideration
the above, you can identify the types of giftedness
of each child directly in the preschool and educational institutions.
It is necessary to apply different methods to
identify gifted children, for example, eight kinds
of giftedness by Savenkov A.I. with his methods of
research training younger students: 1) Fine-Art; 2)
Music; 3) Literary; 4) Artistic; 5) Technical; 6) Leadership; 7) Sports; 8) Intellectual.
Other known methods of determining the abilities of pupils and teens of different ages should
be used. In this case age limits and methods of
measurement of various abilities should be clearly
defined.
For preschool children (2-6 years old) test for
social development evaluation can be applied. This
test is based on method of Californian scale of social competence (Levin, Elzey and Elzey, 1969),
which gives an estimate of the level of social and
personal development of the child.
For primary school level (grades 1-4), one of the
methods of measuring intelligence is picture tests
(French, 1964), which shows the mental capacity
of children up to 8 years. Torrance Tests can be applied to measure creative abilities for revealing visual and verbal creative thinking, creative abilities
in action and movement (Torrance, 1980). These
methods make it possible to assess the verbal ability
of the child, show their creativity in the process of
free movement in any room.
In the middle level school (grades 5-8) rating
scale of giftedness by Renzulli (Renzulli, Hartman,
1971) can be applied, which allows pre-screen out
candidates and helps to evaluate giftedness of remaining pupils. As you know, this is the use of 10
special forms to be filled either by pupils or parents.
In the senior school (grades 9-11), it is important
to correctly identify the presence of specific knowledge and skills of high school pupils. The evaluation talent project by “RAPYHT” (Karnes and etc.
al., 1978) can be applied to detect possible signs of
talent on the basis of the points. It is important for
pupils of classes 9 and 11.
Before 9th grade pupils and their parents have
an important choice of training on special profile
in grades 10-11, unless the child leaves school after 9 years of education. For graduates—is the right
choice of subjects for the delivery of the Unified
State Examination (USE), which leads to the definition of the university and the future profession.
Working with gifted children. The individual approach to each child based on the type of
personality and thinking reveals those ability that
could be unnoticed, for example, during a frontal
or group approach. This is due to motivational and
instrumental aspects of the child’s behavior as in a
separate group as well as the whole in class.
For pedagogical and scientific activity we suggest two approaches to training and development of
gifted children.
1) Work with specially selected child with developed enhanced ability. For example, the practice
of writing a joint research projects and research articles for various conferences.
2) Creation of additional conditions within
the educational institution for the development of
giftedness, inherent in every child. For example, a
child under the teacher’s observation is able to increase its sensitivity to certain aspects of objective
reality. Most often, he shows a pronounced interest
in one or another school course subjects or areas
of activity.
It is noticed that solving the test tasks on a favorite subject, the child’s cognitive needs and curiosity are raised, it produces high self-criticism to
the results of its own work, which allows to set very
difficult purpose in the future for themselves.
The child produces its own specific and strategic approach that lays the foundation for a quality
peculiar individual style. This entails a special type
of learning in some subjects, and the child is ahead
of their peers at school, and it is not necessarily
to be “excellent pupil”. These children show high
structuring of knowledge, they are able to see the
object in the system under study.
Undoubtedly, the gifted children—the future of
our country, where every child is gifted in their own
way. The purpose of a student-centered approach
to each child—this is the maximum creation of
such socio-educational, psycho-pedagogical and
personal environment in which every child could
become the subject of self-development and inner
world.
The subject of the individual approach is becoming a separate child in a specific social and educational situation with its own individual characteristics, but does not a child in a group class. The
central principle of student-centered approach to
the child—is the value of personal choice in learning, it is vitally important in the determination of
situations.
Thus, the identification of gifted children in rural areas, taking into account individual approach—
is a completely new approach of the work for the
teacher. Therefore, when building a system of identification of gifted children in rural schools must
competently and professionally define the concept
of giftedness, to develop a special procedure for
evaluating giftedness.
Modern school should identify correctly the
function which should have assessment, collect
data on children with the specification of selection
criteria.
The educator should not dwell on the results
achieved but continue to improve, should search
and find other gifted children, undergo regular refresher courses.
In turn, any educational institution of rural type
should work with gifted children purposefully, systematically organize a controlled process, to carry
out a holistic approach to cover all kinds of educational activities and bring up children.
Identification of gifted children and the principles of identification are today’s prerequisites for
the new phase of research—finding a solution to
the problem of the organization of student-centered, psycho-pedagogical and individual work
with gifted children, based on the interaction between school and family.
References
1. Dolinsky V.S. The concept of work to identify, support and development of gifted youth in electronics. //
Municipality: innovation and experiment.—№2.—M.,
2010.—P.17-25.
2. Zhurba N.N. Children’s talent as a pedagogical concept. // Bulletin of SUSU. Series: Education. Pedagogical sciences.—№23 (199).—Chelyabinsk, 2010.—
P.127-133.
3. Gifted children: Transl. from English. // Society.
Ed. G.V. Burmenskaya, V.M. Slutsky; foreword.
Miniakhmetov, Akhmetov, Usmanova 83
V.M. Slutsky.—M.: Progress, 1991.—376 p.
4. Bodoyavlenskaya D.B. Working concept of giftedness.—M., 2003.—95 p.
5. Stepanov V.R. Psychology of gifted children and adolescents. // Questions of psychology.—№7.—M., 2002.—
P.140-143.
6. Magafurova D.N., Teslenko V.I. Analysis of the common methods of identifying gifted children. // Bulletin
of the Krasnoyarsk State Pedagogical University. V.P.
Astafeva.—№1 (27).—Krasnoyarsk, 2014.—P.88-91.
7. Ishkov A.D. A method of diagnosing personality type. //
Invention patent №2203619.—M., 2003.
8. Shamis A.L. Thinking: definitions, types, process
scheme. // School Technologies.—№2.—M., 2012.—
P.3-14.
Law
Legal Standards in the Transport
Infrastructure of the Republic
of Bulgaria
Gena Tsvetkova Velkovska
Trakia University, Stara Zagora, Bulgaria
Introduction
facilities (bridges, tunnels, overpasses, underpasses, crossings, etc.);
• transmission (inlet and outlet) lines (networks) and related facilities in Unregulated
territory;
• transmission (inlet and outlet) lines (networks) and related facilities in the regulated
territory;
• distribution lines and distribution systems
and related facilities (transformer stations,
electrical substations, water treatment
plants for water and wastewater, and the
decreasing distribution stations, etc.), including the connecting lines to the building systems and common measurement
tools;
• irrigation transmission (inlet and outlet)
lines (networks) and related facilities, and
irrigation works built for protection from the
harmful effects of water;
• electronic communications networks and
facilities;
• the beaches, coast and geo-protection
works;
• facilities and installations for waste
treatment.
Basic legal requirement, according to Art. 64
(2), is the technical infrastructure elements to provide a spatial plans. In this respect, an integral part
of the general and detailed plans are plan schemes
of the technical infrastructure elements.
Infrastructure is usually defined as a set, a set
of equipment, a system of branches and facilities
that serve the industry and provide conditions for
functioning and reproduction of society, operational equipment of territory, including the theater
of hostilities.
Infrastructure exists in different versions:
• Transport infrastructure: roads, railways,
transport facilities, bridges, tunnels, canals,
ports, airports, warehouses and more.
• Production infrastructure, factories, companies, and other reservoirs.
• Social infrastructure: education, science,
health and others.
• Military infrastructure.
• Information infrastructure.
• Parks and gardens.
• Central heating and drainage system.
In this connection, the subject of the present article are Bulgarian legal standards that relate specifically to the technical infrastructure.
1. General requirements for the elements of
technical infrastructure
Requirements to the elements of the technical
infrastructure are included in the Law on Spatial
Planning.
According to Art. 64 (1), elements of the technical infrastructure are:
• transport technical infrastructure and its
87
Design and construction of technical infrastructure is subject to the rules and standards that are set
out in the present Law on Spatial Planning.
Essential requirement is underground and the
surface common networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure to be designed and constructed
in municipal and state land. When this is not possible, the networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure is built in land—property of individuals
and legal entities.
Another standard in terms of technical infrastructure is that the lots that are on or near the
ground or other communication networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure, provide for such
development, which does not adversely affect the
construction of technical infrastructure and not to
enter into easement strips for operation and maintenance of this infrastructure. Therefore, a legal
requirement, in the case of impossible to achieve
appropriate development or when the easement
strips covering more than 1/3 of the area of a plot of
land with detailed development plan for the property to provide for the network, such as the expropriation at the expense the relevant owner of the
network or facility subject to the established legal
requirements.
The investment projects of buildings and facilities of the technical infrastructure is required to provide the necessary measures for improvement of the
land plot, which is located with a view to the function and proper operation of buildings and sites.
It should be noted that it does not agree and are
not approved investment projects, which are not
provided necessary:
• measures for improvement and landscaping
of the estate planning of buildings and facilities of the technical infrastructure;
• measures for improvement (restoration of
the adjacent terrain for technical infrastructure networks) in regulated areas, including
landscaping, which disturbed the estimated
construction;
• restoration projects adjacent terrain for technical infrastructure networks in non-regulated areas;
• projects for roadside landscaping projects to
transport infrastructure and national roads,
including outside of the regulated area.
2. Laws standards in transport infrastructure
A / Street networks and facilities of the technical
infrastructure
Within the meaning of Art. 70. (1) of the Law
on Spatial Planning, the ducts of the technical infrastructure and facilities of transport infrastructure
related to the movement of vehicles and pedestrians, be designed and constructed as street networks
and facilities.
Location of underground and surface street networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure
shall be determined by the general and detailed
plans in compliance with the relevant technical
rules and regulations.
When there are lines or facilities—public state
or public municipal property, for technical reasons,
it is impossible to be displaced, allowing them to be
saved by their respective emphasis with a detailed
development plan.
Important role in compliance with legal standards
is the mayor. The mayor of the municipality or the authorized officer ensures the necessary consistency in
application and construction of various underground
street networks and facilities and coordinate with
above-ground underground street construction.
Furthermore, it should be noted and the mandatory requirement of a building permit, as work
related to digging up the street and sidewalk pavement and the internal spaces can not be made without such authorization. For the start of construction
contracting authority shall notify the municipal administration after consultation with the authorities
in traffic safety in the Republic of Bulgaria.
What happens if there is damage to underground networks and facilities of the technical
infrastructure?
Answer this question found in Art. 72 (2) of the
Law on Spatial Planning. When damage to underground networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure, which must be removed immediately,
the contracting authority or utility company can start
work immediately, by notifying the respective municipal administration and owners of the affected land.
Another important function of the contracting
authority is in work on his behalf when in connection with the construction is necessary to change
the situation or device built street and underground
networks and facilities. In cases provided for
Velkovska 89
displacement in detailed plans and special schemes
to their ducts and funds for new construction are
also borne by the developer.
What is the legal procedure inapplicable street
regulation?
When not applied street regulation where necessary the construction of new or reconstruction
of existing lines to the area with the exception of
pipelines, may be allowed as a temporary power
supply to an existing position on the pitch with
a notarized statement of the contracting entity (or
its operating partnership) voluntary shift on his behalf in the future realization of the detailed development plan.
In art. 74 (1) of the Law on Spatial Planning are
assigned to specific functions of the builder of street
networks and facilities of the technical infrastructure. He must:
• before construction starts to take the necessary measures to ensure the safety making
fences and crossings, put warning signs, instructions for diversion of traffic and other;
• to take the necessary measures to safeguard
against damage and displacement of existing underground and surface networks and
facilities, survey monuments, landscaping,
ornamental trees and others;
• notify the municipal administration to open
during the implementation and underground networks and facilities, unmarked in
the relevant specialized maps and registers;
such networks and facilities are closed only
after surveying the established order;
• immediately notify the municipal administration and the nearest historical museum at
finding archaeological finds;
• immediately notify the authorities on fire
safety and protection of the population and
traffic safety commencement and duration
of construction on the respective streets being dug;
• to immediately notify the relevant departments and operating companies for damage
to networks and facilities occurred during
the operation, and in the case of damage
to pipelines, heat or gas pipelines—to notify
immediately and Quarantine and bodies for
fire safety and protection of the population;
• notify at least three days before the municipal
administration and services and the operating companies, which manage and operate
networks and facilities for the forthcoming
covering of newly constructed or preustro
eni underground networks and facilities;
• to perform at his own expense necessary remedial work within time limits set by the
municipal administration;
• to remove the caused damages found by
the municipal administration and reflected
in the statement of findings in terms determined by the municipal administration.
B / Roads, streets and transport networks and
facilities
Within the meaning of Art. 75 (1) of the Law on
Spatial Planning, the elements of the transport technical infrastructure is also built on the basis of the
provisions of the general and detailed plans linked
to the structure of the territory.
Transport technical infrastructure has an important task to provide the best conditions for
a comfortable, safe and economical transport of
passengers and goods and accessibility of persons
with disabilities, while protecting the environment.
An important point in the legal standards of the
road infrastructure is the text of Art. 76 (1) of the
Law on Spatial Planning, according to which the
design and construction of highways, speed roads
and roads first and second class of the national
road network in the territory of the settlements be
allowed in exceptional cases, when both the following conditions are met:
• very difficult terrain and other conditions;
• proven technical and economic feasibility;
• compatibility with the development plans
of the settlement;
• positive decision on the assessment of environmental impact.
When the national road network (Map 1) be designed and constructed in the territory of the settlements, they are scaled as elements of the primary
street network in compliance with the requirements
for protection of the urban environment from harmful effects.
The street network in the Republic of Bulgaria
within the meaning of Art. 77 (1) of the Law on Spatial Planning, in populated areas and settlements
MAP 1: National Road Network
according to its functional purpose is divided as
follows:
• primary road network: I class—speed city
highways; Class II—urban highways; Class
III—regional arteries; IV class—main streets;
• secondary street network: V class—gathering streets; Class VI—serving streets.
There is the following feature in the primary
road network. It is determined by a master plan,
and failing that—with a detailed development plan.
The class of primary and secondary street network
is determined by the detailed plan.
Train stations, ports and airports are being built
according to the provisions of the development
plans and obligatory connected with the primary
street network, with lines of mass public transport,
respectively rail and road network.
Serious legal requirement reflected in art. 79 of
the Law on Spatial Planning, in terms of the development plans is that they should provide public parking
conditions for movement of pedestrians through the
construction of sidewalks, walkways, passages, streets
and areas and bicycle traffic—through bike lanes,
conducted alone or in cross-section of the street.
Which are the specific parameters of some elements of the road infrastructure?
The width of the service roads in settlements is
determined by the detailed plan and depending on
the need to build infrastructure, ensuring the normal functioning of the site.
Small settlements and villa zones breadth of
service roads between regulation lines provided
without sidewalks, at least 6 meters in urban areas and resorts and 5 meters—in the villa zones.
In these cases the width of the roadway is 4.50 m,
respectively—4 meters.
Not allowed streets without sidewalks in settlements with a population of over 30,000 inhabitants.
The width of the walkways in the settlements in
resort and cottage areas is at least 2.25 m.
The width of the sidewalks in the settlements in
resort and cottage areas is:
• at least 1,50 m—sidewalks for pedestrians;
• at least 0,75 m—for service sidewalks.
Velkovska 91
Dead ends to provide access to a limited number of estate planning should have a width of at
least 3.5 m, and in the cities where the impasse
serves more than 4 plots of lands—at least 6 meters.
Deadlock more longer than 100 meters, ending finally with widening ensuring turning of the vehicle
in the opposite direction.
Plot with output deadlock may have to face her
with size not smaller than its width.
In the settlements according to communication
and transport requirements are designed and constructed tunnels and transport facilities at different
levels, according to the detailed plan.
The lines of rail transport, tunnels and other facilities under the streets, squares and neighborhood
spaces in urban areas are designed in a way that
provides the greatest degree of welded preserve
buildings and equipment, and available underground networks.
When construction of lines and tunnels have to
affect already constructed underground networks,
they are reconstructed according to approved projects for their displacement by the contracting authority for its own account.
Conclusion
Bulgaria’s membership in the European Union
set the country serious requirements in terms of
transport infrastructure and its elements. This was
one of the main reasons for bringing the Bulgarian
construction legislation in line with European directives in this area. Moreover, in recent years in
Bulgaria is carried out active road construction, primarily highways of the modern type. This Bulgaria
has the opportunity to utilize funds from the EU
structural funds and programs and primarily under
the Operative program “Transport”. As an example
may be given the presently built highway “Struma”
(Map 2), which covers transport corridor № 4 and
has an important geopolitical significance.
MAP 2: Lot 1 of highway “Struma”
References
1. Act of Spatial Planning
2. http://www.api.bg
3. http://www.bg.wikipedia.org
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
http: // www.ec.europa.eu
http://www.eufunds.bg/document/6700
http://www.government.bg
http://www.mrrb.government.bg
http://www.lex.bg
Political Science
Computer Games as “Soft Power”
in World Politics
Kudrat Ortikov,
Sidora Bakhtiarova
Gulistan State University, Gulistan, Uzbekistan
Abstract. The paper consists of information on the appearance and historiography of computer games and
their influence on modern society, especially among young people. The paper also includes structural analysis
of ideological expansion during game play. In addition, the authors show clearly that computer games are
connected with the idea of “soft power.”
T
he 21st century came to human civilization as
the information century. In the 20th and 21st
centuries, world scientists created a great jump in
the field of information and computer technologies,
including communication systems. Almost all difficult or problematic issues have become easy to
solve in a short time through these technologies,
and they are deeply rooted in our lives.
At present, most youths in the world cannot
imagine their lives without modern and computer
technologies. Modern computers can do many different functions, from typing texts to creating new
and advanced software. However, it is necessary to
underline that a large part of the world population
uses computers for entertainment—listening to music, watching movies and video clips, and playing
games. So, the present paper is devoted to the issue
of computer games.
Virtual reality (VR) is highly advanced computer
modeling that helps to absorb users into artificial
worlds, where it is possible to move with the help
of special sensory devices and equipment, accompanied by audiovisual effects and moves.
So, computer games are one type of virtual reality. Almost all computer games are created on the
basis of the multimedia capabilities of computers.
As we know, all computer games are defined with
algorithmic stages which describe all processes of
passage. The majority of computer games today
can be divided into two types—role-playing games
(RPG) and non-RPG.
In role-playing games, gamers are playing the
part of imaginary characters. So, gamers can feel
that they are heroes in imaginary game worlds. In
non-RPG, gamers don’t play the part of characters,
so the psychological activities are weaker than in
RPG.
So, in the present paper we desire to show how
computer games can influence lives and roles in
social life. In computer games, the main aspect
is directed to the emotional point, because only
emotion is tightly interconnected with human
consciousness. In the present day, science has
shown that 80 % of events that are impressed in
our memory are colored by emotion, 16 % are indifferent, and 4 % are undefined attributes. If that
is the case, we can assume that by influencing the
emotional and psychological aspects of humans
or society, it is possible to organize psychological
war [1].
95
So, in this case, computer games, through storylines, soundtracks and graphics, have the ability to
convey additional information that is not connected
with games. This means that computer games can
serve to transmit ideological views. This includes
two aspects:
• Computer games can absorb gamers, making it possible to transmit information on the
subconscious level;
• Age-specific description. Present day computer games are played by youths whose
ideological and political views are not fully
constructed [2].
The first computer games were invented in the
mid-20th century. The computer game industry was
led by several men. Ralph Baer introduced to the
public the idea of interactive television (the concept today known as game consoles). This concept
was further developed by A. S. Douglas in 1952; he
created the first interactive game, called OXO. The
next-generation computer game was Tennis for Two
(known in the former Soviet Union Tennis), which
was created by William Higinbotham.
Today, computer games have significant potential for carrying out psychological and ideological
wars, because they are one of the most effective
tools for spreading state ideology and formation
an image wholly state at once. For example, after
the terrorist attack of September 11, 2001, the U.S.
entertainment industry developed anti-terrorism
ideology. The game industry subsequently created
several games with themes of fighting against world
terrorism, such as Apache: Air Assault, Counter-strike and Quest for Saddam. Most present-day
gamers around the world know that very interesting games are produced in West, especially in the
U.S., a country that produces huge amounts of
entertainment products, which means ideological
production.
Interestingly, it is possible to psychologically
transmit an image of enemies to gamers through
computer games, and gain their approval for large
political operations. Oriental wisdom says, “If you
desire to get something from others, first give them
an insignificant thing.” In this case, we mean the
spread of ideological computer games. Good computer games unnoticeably spread ideological information to the subconscious of gamers.
An example is a series of anti-Russian games
known as Command & Conquer: Red Alert. The
prologue of the game is based on alternate history.
In the game, in 1946 Albert Einstein created the
Chronosphere, a time machine in which he went
to 1924 and change history such that Adolf Hitler
did not come to power in Germany in 1932. Germany did not begin the Second World War. Instead,
the Soviet Union, led by Stalin, began military expansion on Europe. The main aspect of this game is
directed toward creating a negative feeling about
Russian aggression in gamers’ minds.
Another example is the game known as General, which is part of the series Command & Conquer: Red Alert. This game emerged in the gaming
world in February 2003, a month before the U.S.
invasion of Iraq. The story takes place in the near
future, and players are given a choice of three factions. The United States and China are the world’s
two superpowers, and are the targets of the Global
Liberation Army (GLA), an omnipresent borderless
terrorist organization, fighting as a fanatical irregular force. The United States and China are depicted
as allies who occasionally cooperate against the
GLA, whose goals are the elimination of the military forces of the two countries.
The game begins with a devastating GLA nuclear
attack on Beijing and a subsequent GLA attack on
the Three Gorges Dam. The player assumes the role
of a Chinese general who rallies the remaining Chinese forces and counterattacks. The general eventually destroys the GLA cell that is masterminding all
Pacific Rim operations.
The player then assumes the role of another GLA
general, who regroups GLA forces in Central Asia
and gathers funds and biological weapons. In doing
so, he has to face both U.S. and Chinese armies and
a GLA splinter cell. His campaign eventually culminates in taking over the Baikonur Cosmodrome and
firing a Soyuz rocket bearing a biological MIRV at
an unnamed city.
At this point, the U.S. campaign begins; the U.S.
engages the GLA across the Middle East and Central Asia. A joint U.S.-Chinese operation eventually
destroys the main GLA command base in Astana,
Kazakhstan [3].
Present day computer games are a new way of
transmitting information and a tool for influencing
Ortikov, Bakhtiarova 97
people’s mind in a way that is convenient for
those producing ideological points. In the antiterrorism genre of modern computer games, lists of
states where military operations are carried out are
included.
Emulation of terrorist enemies helps military
personnel know their foes much better and accept
correct action in real military time. So, after September 11, 2001, the University of Southern California and the USC Institute for Creative Technologies in Los Angeles developed a special computer
game to help CIA personnel better understand the
mentality of terrorists. In this game, the personnel
represent two sides: agents represented as ordinary
agents, and others—different official persons who
observe compliance of the law. In this game, all
participants can play the roles of terrorist leaders,
terrorist suicide attackers or financers of terrorist
groups. During play, gamers try to cause as much
damage as possible to each other. Those playing the
CIA roles should maximize their efforts to halt criminal actions of the opposite (terrorist) side [4].
In the end, it is necessary to underline soft power,
which is the ability to attain desired results through
voluntary participation of allies and without compulsion. The success of soft power depends heavily
on actors’ reputation within the international community, as well as the flow of information between
actors. Thus, soft power is often associated with the
rise of globalization and neoliberal international relations theory. Popular culture and mass media are
regularly identified as sources of soft power, as is the
spread of a national language or a particular set of
normative structures; a nation with a large amount
of soft power and the good will that it engenders
inspires others to acculturate, avoiding the need for
high hard power expenditures [5].
History yields three outstanding examples of
policies that used elements of soft power:
The Four Freedoms Speech by Franklin Roosevelt during WWII [6];
Youths in the Soviet Union listening to American songs and news transmitted by Radio Free Europe and the Voice of America during the Cold War;
Youths in the Islamic Republic of Iran watching
banned sex videos transmitted via satellite in spite
of theocratic government.
Examination of these examples leads us to conclude that computer games also can also serve as
soft power in world policy.
References
1. Video-games as mean of the information and psychological struggle—http://psyfactor.org/lib/psywar39.htm
2. A.E. Balyantsev, I.Z. Herstein—Image of the country
through the glasses of a computer game: historical and
political dimension
3. Wikipedia—http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Command_%26_Conquer:_Generals
4. V. Makarenkova, Major—http://ambition.ucoz.com/
publ/psikhologicheskaja_vojna/videoigry_v_psikhologicheskoj_vojne/2-1-0-18
5. Soft Power—Wikipedia—http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Soft_power Franklin Roosevelt’s Annual Address to
Congress—The “Four Freedoms”—http://docs.fdrlibrary.marist.edu/od4frees.html
Psychology
Conceptualization of the Term
‘Psychological Resilience’ by
the Convicted and the Role of
Psychological Resilience under
the Conditions of Long-Term
Placement
Tatyana Bystrova
Vologda Institute of Law and Economics, Vologda, Russia
Abstract. In this article we review psychological resilience as an ability of an organism to cope with stressful
situations keeping your inner balance without becoming less successful. It covers the structure of psychological
resilience and describes its main components. The article also deals with the phenomenon of personal
transformation under the conditions of isolation from the society and concentrates on the understanding of
the concept “psychological resilience” by the long-sentenced.
Keywords: psychological resilience, components of psychological resilience, personal transformation, the
convicted, long-term placement
O
ur life is full of trials: all people have to overcome crises and face difficulties. The problem
of people’s psychological resilience in difficult situations has always been interesting and important; it
attracted and still attracts attention of philosophers,
medical professionals, writers and poets, educators
and psychologists.
Under the conditions of life hazard or threat to
people’s social and psychological well-being, the
problem of their psychological resilience in the face
of adversity becomes especially significant. The
idea of psychological resilience implies people’s
best realization of their psychological capacities in
difficult situations, ‘psychological survivability’ and
‘increased effectiveness’ during such events.
The term ‘hardiness’ was introduced by Salvatore Maddi in 1967. This concept is in the borderland of theoretical views of existential psychology
and the experimental area of stress overcoming
psychology. In 2000 a Russian researcher Leontiev
introduced the term ‘psychological resilience’ to
explain the concept of hardiness [3].
Psychological resilience (hardiness) is represented by transformational coping, hardy patterns,
101
hardy attitude to surrounding people and is a characteristic of psychosomatic health. It motivates a
subject to transform stress-producing life events.
The research carried out by S.R.Maddi and S.C. Kobasa demonstrated that psychological resilience is
a personal characteristic that is a total measure of
a person’s psychological health and includes three
relatively self-sufficient components determining
people’s interaction with the world: commitment,
control and challenge [2].
The first component of psychological resilience,
commitment, can be characterized as ‘an assurance
that being involved in an activity provides the highest possibility to find something worth doing and
interesting for a personality’ [4]. As a result, people
with the highly-developed commitment component
get pleasure from their activities and feel their significance and worth while doing them. These people demonstrate proactive attitude, interest in life,
involvement in relationships with others (instead of
inactivity and estrangement).
The next component, control, means assurance
that struggle lets us influence the result of events,
even if this influence is not absolute and the success is not guaranteed [4]. Control over yourself and
the circumstances of your life implies responsibility
for your actions while overcoming difficulties and
the productive influence on your own life events
(instead of strengthlessness, immaturity, learned
helplessness).
The third component within the structure of
psychological resilience, challenge, is people’s assurance that everything that happens to them contribute to their development owing to the knowledge gained from experience, whether positive or
negative [4]. It’s a wise attitude to life challenges
and ‘leaving your comfort zone’ (instead of pursuit
of safety and avoiding efforts aimed at overcoming
difficulties).
Apart from the components mentioned above,
psychological resilience also includes such basic
values as cooperation, creditability and creativity.
In Russian psychological literature there are
concepts with the meaning close to “psychological
resilience”. For instance, D.A. Leontiev introduces
the concept of personal potential as a basic individual characteristic of a person’s maturity level, and
the main phenomenon of personal maturity and a
form of personal potential demonstration is actually
the phenomenon of personal self-determination. E.I.
Rasskazova and D.A. Leontiev describe personal resilience as a component of personal potential; therefore we can see that the concept ‘personal potential’
has a broader meaning that ‘personal resilience’.
Personal resilience is a system of beliefs about
yourself, the world and your relationships with the
world. Personal resilience characterizes the measure of a person’s ability to deal with stressful situations keeping inner balance without becoming less
successful.
Nowadays in modern Russian psychology there
are different views on the phenomenon of psychological resilience demonstrating essential features
of this phenomenon in its definitions. For example,
L.A. Alexandrova gives such a variant of the definition: personal resilience is an integral capacity fundamental for a person’s adaptation. In such a case
the components of personal resilience form the
block of general abilities including basic personal
attitudes, responsibility, self-awareness, intellect
and sense as a vector organizing a person’s activity.
The block of special abilities includes the skills of
overcoming different types of problems and situations, interaction with people [1].
Research works of Russian specialists point out
that a person’s psychological resilience is some
kind of resource of potential that can be in demand
in some difficult situations. Besides, psychological
resilience is an integral psychological quality of a
personality which develops on the basis of psychological patterns of active interaction with life events.
It’s an integral capacity for socio-psychological adaptation in modern conditions.
To sum up, the research works of modern researchers state that a person’s psychological resilience is
• some kind of resource or potential (can include different psychological attributes) that
can be needed in some situation;
• a person’s integral psychological quality
developing on the basis of psychological patterns of active interaction with life
situations;
• an integral capacity for socio-psychological
adaptation based on the dynamics of conceptual self-adjustment.
Bystrova 103
Moreover, the researchers emphasize the dynamics of this personal phenomenon, its interaction
with people’s natural characteristics and skills.
In spite of the fact that the study of the phenomenon of psychological resilience is important and
urgent and there is a lot of research done in this
field, the psychological resilience of the long-sentenced is not studied yet.
Isolation of the convicted for a long period of
time helps us restore social justice, protect the society from dangerous criminals. But does it always
contribute to their correctional rehabilitation and
prevent them from committing new crimes?
It’s reported that Russia’s incarceration rate (the
amount of prisoners per 100,000 population) is one
of the highest in the world. Legally, long sentence
can be characterized as the one longer than half of
the maximum limit of penal confinement that is longer than 10 years provided that the maximum limit
is 20 years of penal confinement (S.S. Akulenko,
V.U. Yalunin, V.V. Popov, B.B. Kazak and others).
Our point of view is quite consistent with the
opinion of I.A. Bobylyova, S.S. Akulenko, V.V. Leneev, A.V. Naumov, G.F. Khokhryakov, V.V. Popov,
B.B. Kazak, Y.V. Slavinskaya stating that more than
10 years’ penal confinement can be considered a
long sentence because during this time the convicts’ socially-proactive attitude and motivation
for socially beneficial activities fall considerably,
most of these people lose social ties, which causes
their aggressiveness threshold increase and other
consequences.
Let’s now turn to the concept of ‘transformation’. The most famous research works devoted to
the study of personal transformation are by M. Sh.
Magomed—Eminov. Within the concept of personal
transformation he paid his special attention to the
role of an extreme situation (an example of which is
serving a prison sentence) causing stress which, in
its turn, results in personal transformation. The category ‘personal transformation’ is usually discussed
either from the perspective of destructive changes
or with regard to the problems of rehabilitation and
correction.
Some personal transformation researchers emphasize a high probability of long-term negative
changes in the behavior and mentality of people
having gone through some negative experience (Ts.
P. Korolenko, V.I. Krivokon’ and others). But there
are works which don’t narrow down extreme stress
experience to only negative influence on individuals’ development. People who once suffered from
the negative influence of hard life events will not
only bear up against misfortunes. On the contrary,
in the future such people will be able to bear difficulties with fortitude (e.g. S. R. Maddi) [5].
According to our survey, a lot of correctional
officers point out that after 10 years of penal confinement they notice irreversible physiological and
psychological changes in convicts’ behavior. The
long-sentenced don’t have goals for the future; they
demonstrate aggressiveness, violence, impulsivity,
suspicion, apathy, lack of trust. Consequently, the
long-sentenced have to learn how to get through
the stresses of their environment (penal institutions)
without their personality being ‘destroyed’.
We conducted a survey of 139 convicted from
different regions of Russia serving long-term prison
sentence (longer than 10 years) concerning their understanding of the term ‘psychological resilience’.
When the convicted were asked ‘Do you consider
yourself a resilient person?’ 114 people (82%) gave
an affirmative answer, 10 people (7.2 %) partly
agreed with this characteristic of themselves. That
means that only 10.8% of those asked don’t consider themselves resilient people.
As a follow-up question, the convicted were
asked to explain what exactly they mean by ‘resilient’. It turned out that the vast majority of the
long-sentenced give the definition of psychological
resilience quite close to the one given in academic
literature.
Then the convicted were offered to answer the
following question: ‘In your opinion, what personal
qualities does a resilient person possess?’. The most
popular replies were ‘self-confidence, capacity to
handle stress’, ‘the core of the character’, ‘being
able to take a punch’, ‘strong will, determination,
courage, commitment’, ‘self-possession, fortitude,
composure’, ‘persistence, patience, diligence’, ‘zest
for life and an ability not to fall into despair in any
situations’, ‘composure, readiness to overcome difficulties, optimism’, ‘fairness’, ‘bravery and good
health’, etc. Judging from these results, we can conclude that most convicted claim they possess the
characteristics mentioned above.
As we can see, researchers focus not only on difficult situations, stresses, crises and conflicts but also
on individuals’ psychological reserves and personal
resources that help people overcome them. Psychological resilience is an integral personal quality, a
survival attitude letting people cope with distress effectively and always contributing to personal growth.
It implies people’s realization and acceptance of their
own vulnerability and their real capacities.
Summing up what has been said, psychological
resilience should be considered the key surmounting
resource, a person’s capacity and means that a person
is ready to participate in difficult situations, control
and manage them with interest, is able to perceive
negative events (such as serving a prison sentence)
as a kind of experience and cope with them successfully. Our research is aimed at stimulating the further
study of the phenomenon of psychological resilience
among the long-sentenced in order to find out and
develop qualities helping them overcome problems
and prevent them from forming destructive psychological patterns. Considering the special characteristic of the convicts’ psychological resilience will open
up the possibilities to organize appropriate and person-centered psycho-corrective work.
References
1. Alexandrova L.A. (2005) K osmysleniyu ponyatiya
‘zhiznestoikost’ lichnosti’ v kontexte problematiki
psikhologii sposobnostei [About understanding of the
concept ‘psychological resilience of a person’ within
the context of faculty psychology problems].—Psikhologiya sposobnostei: sovremennoye sostoyaniye i
perspectivy issledovanii [Faculty psychology: Modern
Condition and Research Perspectives]—Proceeding of
the academic conference. Moscow: RAN Psychology
Institute, p.19
2. Khoshoba D., Maddi S. (1999) Early Antecedents of
Hardiness. Consulting Psychology Journal: Practice and
Research, Spring, vol.51, no.2, p.107
3. Leontiev D.A. (2002) Lichnostnoe v lichnosti: lichnostniy potentsial kak osnova samodeterminatsii [Personal
in personality: personal potential as a basis of self-determination]. Proceedings of Lomonosov Moscow State
University General Psychology Department, vol.1 (eds
B.S. Bratus’, D.A. Leontiev). Moscow: Smysl, p.57
4. Leontiev D.A., Rasskazova E.I. (2006) Test zhiznestoikosti [Resilience test]. Moscow: Smysl, p.4
5. Magomed-Eminov M.S. (2009) Deyatelnostno-smyslovoi podhod k psihologicheskoi transformatsii lichnosti
[Pragmatically-conceptual approach to a person’s psychological transformation] (Ph D Thesis), Moscow, p.81
Transform and Prediction Abilities
as Components of the Psychological
Structure of the Verbal Creativity
Tatyana Shilo
Leningrad Regional Institute of Education Development, St. Petersburg, Russia
Abstract: The article is devoted to the current issue of the modern psychology—to the psychological structure
and structural components of the verbal creativity. One of the main components of this type of the creativity
of a person is the ability of a writer to transform and predict; and it is not fortuitous as the writers transform
the actual world in their literary works, creating a secondary reality which exists independent and filling
it with living images and emotional content. Meanwhile the writer predicts the reaction of his reader in
advance and even tries to trigger it, to make his reader feel all the depth of the emotional state. So the
particularity of the work of a writer lies in it.
Keywords: creation, abilities, verbal creativity, components of the psychological structure of the verbal
creativity: transform and prediction abilities.
S
pecific components of the psychological structure of the verbal creativity are two unique abilities, which are determined by the nature of the verbal creativity itself and the creativity in whole, these
are transform and prediction abilities.
The base of the transform ability lies in the
transformative activity of a writer, in his/her search
of some new structure of well-known elements, of
a new quality of their combinations and interplays.
The structure of this ability includes two opposite
processes:
—Destruction of standard models and
stereotypes;
—Creation of new forms and models.
It affords ground for considering the transformation ability to be the leading component of the
structure of the creativity. According to T.A. Barysheva, the results and the objects of the creative
transformations are global; these are civilization,
culture, science, art, social relations and the people
themselves. Many scientists consider the creativity
to be an activity of a human being, who transforms
the world around (social, natural, objective etc.).
The creative transformation offers the opportunities
which according to E. De Bono being the drivers of
the civilization provide the survival and development of the human society and culture. The creative
thinking itself can be the object of the creativity and
in this case the human being itself will be the implement and the object of cognition and transformation. “In process of any creativity the human proves
itself as an active and self-developing being, as a
subject and at the same time as a product of own
activity” [2].
As we can see the transformation is the source
of the progress, the main law of creativity; and
105
transformation ability is one of the main characteristics of a creative person, which provides opportunities of qualitative changes of the object of the
creative activity. The creative transformation leads
to the creative achievements, to the transformation of the person in whole and its connection with
the world around. During the process of creativity
the new products are being created by means of
the transformation of existing in the world objects,
through the changing of their shapes, states, structures and relations and by combining them in a new
system of elements. According to V.N. Druzhinin,
the creativity is the ability to transform the available
knowledge by means of imagination and fancy;
and the creativity is considered as one of the kinds
of the transformative activity, which create a new
ambiance.
The transformation is the most fundamental
and important component of the structure of the
verbal creativity. Being able to transformation, the
writer transforms in his works the collective world
into personal poetical viewing, creates on the
base of the existing space the ideal one and creates the images, which are unique. The writer in
his works transforms his mental world and personal
conscious experience. Through the transformation
ability the author changes the linguistic units converting their sounding, meaning and interpretation;
by means of the transformation ability one can create also own unique language with its own structure (for example, language systems created by J.
Tolkien of T. Petrushevskaya). For the purposes of
the most complete and exact verbal expression of
the conception and ideas the author transforms not
only the modern language, but also the contexture
and structure of the verbal text itself. The variation
is provided during this process by the stochastic
nature of the literary language as well as through
the variety of combinations of different transformation ways: allusion, metaphoricalness, allegorism,
hyperbole, stress accentuation, symbolization,
pastiche, comparison, distortion, reminiscence,
conformation and so on. So the processes of transformation being “included” into all superior psychological functions represent the dynamic side of
the verbal creativity.
The next important component of the verbal
creativity is the prediction ability, a unique ability
of the writer to predict the emotional responses
of the readers to the created images and to select
the expressive means of language which would be
capable to trigger the feelings preplanned by the
author. The prediction ability is related to the emotional sphere of a person, which defines the content
as well the quality and dynamic of the emotions
and feelings. This peculiarity of the personality
helps the writer see in the different segmental current of impressions the expressiveness and unusual
richness of the primary images, which take shape
of the literary images further. The impressive emotionality is one of the indicators of the emotional
ability of a person; it consists in the over-response
to the actions of every level, which is the base of
accumulation of the human emotional experience.
The expressive emotionality plays in the structure
of the verbal creativity a great role. The expressive
emotionality is the ability to express the emotions
adequate by different means in particular through
the allologs, different syntax constructions and
expressive means of language. Significantly, that
the expressiveness is a professionally important
criterion of the literary and artistic creativity. The
emotionality is clearly reflected in the emotional
response, which is essentially the transformed
personal emotional experience of a human being, which is being obtained during the communication of the person with the world around and
is evident as the empathy and comprehension of
the emotional state of the others. In other words
according to S.A. Kurnosova this is the ability of
a subject to fall outside the limits of the personal
emotional experience. The transformed personal
emotional experience transforms then to a qualitative new system formation of the person to what is
peculiar the following types of the understanding
of meanings: [4]
—Empathy—the ability to pierce into the states
of the other people, to feel for them, to share their
experiences. The elements of the empathy are the
imaginative insight (an experience on the base of
the identification of the same emotional states of the
other people) and sympathy (own emotional states
concerning the feelings of the other people which
includes also the moral experience, assessment and
involvement in the experience of the other people
on retention of independent feelings);
Shilo 107
—Social perception—perception, interpretation
and assessment of the other people, groups, social
communities and oneself by the subject;
—Projection—the process and the effect of the
comprehension which lies in conscious or unconscious transfer by the subject of own characteristics
and states to the external objects;
—Identification—emotional and cognitive process of the unconscious unification by the subject
with the other one or the group, or pattern;
—Introjection on the base of the formed emotional bond, the inclusion of the values and norms
of the other people in own mental world;
—Study and transferring oneself into the space,
circumstances of the other people, digestion of their
personal meanings;
—Decentration—change of the viewpoint and
position of a subject resulting from the conflict,
comparison and integration of it with the other
viewpoints; ability of a person to change the viewpoint, to leave own position of cognition and to
adopt the role of another person through the social
intercourse or the self-talk.
The personal emotional experience is an indicator of the fertility of the mental world of the writer
and helps him reflect in the text all the connotations of feelings which are able to trigger a variety of
emotions. The poet is sufficient with rudiments and
opportunities of mood, feelings, affinities or passion
only to find the right words or expressions which
would express any state of a human soul best of all.
So we can conclude that the creation of a literary verbal text is a great work in which the most of
psychological processes of the writer are involved
and it demands from the authors to have some specific abilities which help them share their personal
experience and feelings through the verbal form.
References
1. Barysheva T.A. Psychological structure of the creativity.
//News of the Herzen State Pedagogical University of
Russia.—2012.—№ 142.
2. Goldentricht S.S. The nature of the aesthetic creativity.—Moscow: Publishing house of Moscow State University, 1977.
3. Druzhinin V.N. Creativity psychology // Psychology /
under the editorship of V.N. Druzhinin.—2nd edition—
St. Petersburg: Publishing house “Piter”, 2001.
4. Kurnosova S.A. Concerning the definition of the concept “emotional response” // Primary school plus before
and after.—2010.—№ 6.
5. De Bono Е. The Use of Lateral Thinking. Maidenhead:
McGraw-Hill; L: Penguin, 1967.
6. De Bono E. The Five-Day Course in Thinking. Maidenhead: McGraw-Hill; L: Penguin, 1968.
Sociology
The Role of Community
in the Development of Society
of Citizenship
Umid Abdalov,
Rasulbek Hadjiyev
Urgench State University, Urgench, Uzbekistan
Resume: This article is about the role of publicity in the development of society and the notion of the public
relations.
H
umanity is taking successive steps in the age of
information. The notion of managing information comes from the present period, which is called
“the Age of Information Technology.” As shown by
experiences around the world, problems sometimes come about in society through providing false
information, negative interpretation of information,
and using information in a selfish way or with bad
intentions. That is why special care is taken about
strengthening ideological affairs in our country. We
can say that nowadays the fate of nations is determined by information, not by armed forces. Two
presidential decrees had great impact in this sphere:
“Supplementary arrangements on improving the
influence and efficacy of traditional education,
publicity and propaganda among the population”
and “Propaganda on national ideology and increasing the efficacy of spiritual education.”
The 21st century is the age of information technology. Step by step, the process of information
exchange is influenced by the global sphere. The
process of information exchange has not only positive features but also negative influence on users.
As a result, ideological “weapons” are increasingly
becoming more powerful than any nuclear arsenal.
In turn, the value of public relations among people is increasing. Information technology is one of
the main sources of ideology and has already become an inseparable part of our lives, because it
has a great effect on developing public opinion in
social relations. Increasing that influence by presenting numerous presentations on legal topics is
a requirement for present day life. In order to reach
this goal, it is necessary to first establish relations
between political factions in parliament and the
public. As we have chosen this way of establishing
a legal democratic state and public citizenship society, achieving the priority of law and developing
legal knowledge, legal concourse, and legal culture
among citizens are the bases of this great task.
It is necessary to point that the increase in the
importance of information has had an impact on
the appearance of new branches of social public
relations. Public relations is the youngest modern
professional activity, and it occupies a very high
position as a large sociopolitical structure. Public
relations activity meets the needs of present day
society; it regulates inner relations in society by
using information, creating a friendly atmosphere,
111
measuring the sociopolitical climate, and creating
people`s positive attitude toward events.
There is very high demand for public relations
activity in government. Government use of public
relations provides opportunities for improving relations between government and the people, fostering positive attitudes among citizens toward laws
and their correct execution. That’s why it is first
necessary to introduce and explain the function of
state ruling power to the public in a certain order.
As a matter of fact, highlighting democracy in official state functions is one of the main features of
public society in legal democratic states, and public relations serves to broadcast government activity
through mass media. According to world experience, 65 % of relations with the public is closely
connected with mass media. The other 35 % consists of creating various programs and organizing
many festivals.
The most famous public relations specialist in
the world may be Sam Blake, the former president
of the International Public Relations Association. In
his book Preface to Public Relations, he claims that
“Public relations is a science and art providing internal equality and solidarity in society based on
truth and eventual orbicular information”.
Public relations was founded on the basis of
journalism and nowadays these two activities are
closely connected, so their relationship is very
complex. It is clear that public relations plays an
important role in mass media. The press, radio and
television are the most effective way to communicate with the public. In world experience, the cooperation of public relations activity with the press
is called media relations. As our country is building
market economy relationships, public relations is
more important than ever. If we organize public relations services for huge enterprises, their products
become popular among customers. This prevents
the spread of low-quality imported products, and
local products will be sold in wide area.
It is also necessary to point out that building a
legal democratic state in our country and establishing a citizenship society is closely connected with
the activities and laws of the Supreme Assembly
(Oliy Majlis) and their implementation and acceptance by the people and the nation. For this process,
the significance of public relations is unique. The
branches of political parties in the legislative chamber of the Supreme Assembly of the Republic have
their own experience with public relations. According to the Constitution of the Republic of Uzbekistan, “The State government system of the Republic
of Uzbekistan is divided into legislative, executive
and judiciary branches,” principally the “Oliy Majlis.” The legislative branch not only passes laws but
also pays special attention to public relations. To this
end, Supreme Assembly factions organize meetings
with the public by their deputies in their regions.
The legislative branch of the Supreme Assembly has
own methods, logical form and directions.
First, it takes public opinion into consideration
in the legislative process. This is shown by the organization of expert groups in each community.
Secondly, it carries out control-analysis of public attitudes toward the laws passed; this activity is
an expression of the national legislature. There no
control-analysis activity in many countries. We can
point out parliament questionnaires and various
commission activities as examples of parliament
control-analysis activity. For example, two commissions were organized during the early two-chamber
parliament in the first two years. One was an independent commission tasked with studying events in
Andijan and the negative influence of an aluminum
plant in Tajikistan on the northern districts of Surkhandarya. A second was a special commission of
the Supreme Council (Oliy Majlis) of the republic
of Uzbekistan. These two commissions studied the
problems thoroughly and, taking public opinion
into consideration, presented their conclusions.
Thirdly, the Supreme Assembly pays sufficient
attention to propaganda. From the early days of
independence, the road to democracy were open.
The commit of press and evidence was organized in
Oliy Majlis. President Islam Karimov In a speech at
a Council session in the Fergana region on February
14, 1995, President Islam Karimov of Uzbekistan
had this to say about democracy, public relations,
and the press:
We are building an evident and democratic society. Our purpose, ambitions and work are open,
there is nothing to keep secret. So, the president,
ministers, governors, and the common people
shouldn`t be afraid of evident talk and conversation.
The press must be the link between the common
Abdalov, Hadjiyev 113
people who voted for us and the members of government. We have nothing to keep secret. Our policy is evident.
We will win, when we consult the nation, carry
out reforms and inform the people about the results,
not keeping secret troubles in society, also being
open about the most difficult points in society.
Democracy and evidence will be a strong power
against rumours, lies and false facts from our enemies. There will be no job for fault finders.
In his book, We Build Our Future with Our
Own Hands, Karimov said: “Another solution to
the problem is related to freedom of thought and
speech. Gaining freedom of speech for members of
society, defending it, and providing these rights in
real life are our main duties. The broadcast system
in society should have fixed position and express
citizens’ right freely, with pride and honor.”
Political parties have come a long way in
this direction. In particular, the acceptance of a
two-chamber system was a good chance to improve
public relations. Political parties have acquired experience in public relations over the past five years.
The activity of political party factions and meetings
of their deputy members with the public are presented in the mass media. The information program
on National Television begins with an examination
of the activity of the Supreme Assembly. There are
special programs, such as “Parliament hours” and
“Parliament time.” The front page of the broadsheet
“Xalq suzi” has a footer that says “in the legislative chamber of Oliy Majlis.” Organizing and publicizing social events and festivals, expressing laws
by means of mass media, and organizing meetings
and communication by deputies with electors have
become frequent activities in public relations. One
form of publicity is providing the legislative activity
of Supreme Assembly. Article No. 62 is titled “ It has
been decided that work among voters in electoral
districts for deputies will take place during the last
weeks of November, February, and May.”
In general, legislative activity by political party
factions in the Supreme Assembly aims to carry out
new steps and intensities of innovation, putting into
legal order the political, social, economic, spiritual
and other spheres in the country have widely been
implemented in order to introduce people.
References
1. Constitution of Uzbekistan. Tashkent: Publishing house
”Uzbekistan”, 2008.
2. I. Karimov. Security and Sustainable Development.
The 6th vol., Tashkent: Publishing house ”Uzbekistan”,
1998.
3. I. Karimov. We are building our future with our hands.
The 7th vol., Tashkent: Publishing house ”Uzbekistan”,
1998.
4. I. Karimov. The homeland is in charge for the development of everybody. 9th vol., Tashkent: Publishing house
”Uzbekistan”, 2001.
5. I. Karimov. We’ve chosen the way of the democratic
development and education by means of the cooperation with the world, 11th vol., Tashkent: Publishing
house ”Uzbekistan”,, 2003.
6. Traditional educational and propaganda measures
intended to the improvement of the efficiency of the
program “With respect to the Resolution of President”,
April, 2006.
7. “Public relations. PR and business”, Moscow: The association of authors and publishers “Tandem”, 1999.
8. V.A. Moiseev “Public relations. Theory and practice”,
Kiev: Publishing house “Vira R”, 1999.
9. Sam Black. “The Essentials of Public Relations”. Rostov-on-Don: Publishing house “Fenix” 1998.
10. “Explanatory dictionary and reference book of journalism, advertising and public relations. 1700 definitions”,
Tashkent: Publishing house “Zar khalam”, 2003.
11. Sadullaeva O. “PR: the science and the art of public
relations”, Tashkent: Publishing house “Istikhlol”, 2005
Prospects for Rural Youth in the
Development of the Agricultural
Sector of the Republic of
Bashkortostan
Fania Igebaeva
Bashkir State Agrarian University, Ufa, Russia
N
owadays the agro-industrial complex (AIC)
of Bashkortostan is the most labor-intensive
branch complex of the national economy. Under
current market-oriented economic conditions new
approaches to economy management are required
to maintain stable social and economic development of the branch. It is apparent that agriculture,
like any other sector of economy, needs young
specialists as youth is the primary factor of sustainable development and, to some extent, the driving
motive for radical changes in modern society.
Youth is a socio-demographic group distinguished by the following peculiarities:
• it is at its stage of formation of social and
psychophysiological maturity and adaptation to playing social roles of adults;
• it has a high potential social self-fulfillment
and social activity
• most young people are characterized by
social dependence and lack of economic
independence;
• this category is characterized by high mobility of changing the social status;most
young people are in need of organizational
forms of socialization.
Rural youth is a socially promising group of Russian society that determines the future of rural Russia, its workforce potential, viability of the national
agricultural sector, preservation of the village as a
historically predetermined model of standard living
conditions typical of Russia and Bashkortostan.
Note that young people are highly susceptible
to a variety of forming and learning effects. Mobility, initiative, and ability to generate and perceive
innovations make youth an invaluable resource of
the country. That is why interaction with young people is one of the key challenges for the state seeking
to work for the future and setting long-term strategic
plans.
Transition to a market economy predetermined
the need for professional training and retraining of
young specialists according to new educational
programs that provide enhanced studying of economic and administrative problems of agricultural
development. In this context the major concern of
rural education advancement should be formation
of a developed personality and AIC provision with
qualified personnel. Educational level improvement
involves sharing ideas and experience exchange,
development of its innovative potential, as well as
reformation for the benefit of rural society revival
and development in Russia and Bashkortostan.
Ministries of Agriculture of Russia and Bashkortostan use the agricultural education system to
take focused efforts related to branch provision with
young specialists having diplomas of higher education and introduction of targeted contractual training ensuring their attachment to rural areas. For this
114
Igebaeva 115
purpose it is necessary to provide for: conditions for
universal complete secondary education and professional training of rural youth housed by general
and vocational schools and colleges; occupational
guidance of rural school leavers to professions and
specialties required in AIC and other sectors of rural economy; making higher and vocational secondary education (including targeted training for
professions and specialties that are in demand in
rural areas on a contractual basis) affordable to rural youth; improvement of the system of personnel
training and retraining for agriculture in accordance
with the requirements of the market [1].
Many of the abovementioned measures are reflected in the Republican Purpose-Oriented Program “Strategies of development of the agricultural
complex of the Republic of Bashkortostan for 20112020” and the sectoral program for the development
of the agricultural educational system adopted by
the Ministry of Agriculture jointly with the Ministry
of Education of the Russian Federation. The main
objectives of these programs are as follows: creation and development of legal, social, economic,
and organizational conditions for self-fulfillment of
young people and their spiritual and moral education; training of young scientists and specialists having in-depth knowledge and practical skills. These
solutions can be implemented just on the basis of
new social, economic and political technologies of
social revival of the village which are based on the
approach to the village as a social and territorial
subsystem that performs a wide range of social production functions [2].
This is the corollary here that the most important problems for rural youth are problems related
with possibilities to fulfill themselves as professionals. However, it must be clearly realized that gained
knowledge can quickly lose the potential of influencing success of professional activities, if it is not
constantly improved and grown in productive experience and innovative and creative components.
A new economic mechanism aimed at intensification of production in the agricultural sector
of the republic requires a more flexible attitude to
the formation and rational use of labor potential, a
real increase in the role and degree of responsibility
of employees, creation of opportunities for showing their initiatives, making material incentives
more attractive to everybody interested in the result
of their activity. If we want to have a competitive
business in the agricultural sector not only in Bashkortostan but throughout Russia it is necessary to
change the psychology of rural workers, namely,
eliminate the leading-strings mentality with respect
to all forms of life activity, cultivate entrepreneurial
skills, a respective attitude to becoming qualified,
as well as change labor behavior of agricultural
sector workers. For this purpose young people in
the market economy conditions should have certain
character traits that would be constantly manifested
in their labor behavior. In other words, they must
have business acumen, behave in an appropriate
manner in society - strive for victory and success in
the course of a competitive struggle, strive to win a
high position in society, have authority and influence the people around them, moreover, actively
strive for power and fast career progress.
Youth small business development is a solution
to the problems of employment and youth prosperity. Business support agencies shall develop programs of concessional lending to young rural entrepreneurs. Provide for funding of youth projects in
the area of information and computer technology
introduction as one of the most promising areas of
youth entrepreneurship.
Of course, the new labor behavior of a man can
be produced only in the process of carrying out of
his own activity when the nature of work is creative,
when there are elements of risk in getting final results and, especially, risk in getting considerable income. According to a social research conducted in
a number of Bashkortostan regions, 35% of respondents feel the ability to be engaged in independent
farm labor, 23% - mistrust their own powers, 29%
- do not feel a special talent for this type of activity. Business acumen of men is greater that business
acumen of women. Thus, 43% of men said that they
are able to do business, 22% - doubt their abilities, 24% of respondents said their strong “no”. As
for women, this ratio looked simpler: “yes” - 19%,
doubt their abilities - 26% and “no” - 38% [3].
Today it is educated, creative, and proactive
young people able to ensure implementation of
competitive advantages of the region who become
the main driver for economic growth and development of Bashkortostan. Considering the fact that the
Bashkir State Agrarian University is widely regarded
as a unique center for training senior executives and
specialists for the agricultural sector of the republic,
requirements to students are also modified. Today
specialists graduated from the Agrarian University
both shall have special knowledge and skills and
be socially competent persons who know the principles of organization, the structure and development of society in which they live and work, know
the basics of competent communication, are able
to understand various difficult situations in social
life [4 ].
Young people striving for success in life, dreaming of becoming managers, entrepreneurs or leading specialists both shall know the rope in niceties
of their businesses and know the rules of behavior in
society, in the business area. Business success will
largely depend on the ability to create their own image, behave in different situations in a proper manner, and communicate thoughts properly.
Thus, we, teachers, face the following important
challenge – to provide such knowledge, develop
such common cultural and professional skills, such
value systems that will allow our graduates - future
specialists to work successfully in all areas of the
multifunctional economy of the republic.
Youth is one of the main factors ensuring development of Russian society. Investments in youth
policy, social development of young people, their
involvement in creative and active participation
in life of the society and state – all these also represents investments in the development of productive forces of the state as a whole.
Rustem Khamitov, President of Bashkortostan,
noted in his speech when he took his office: “Much
has been done in the republic in recent years. But
life does not stand still and constantly confronts us
with new challenges. Preserving and enhancing everything that made the strength and soul of our ancestors - the language, customs, traditions, we must
form a modern society, competitive and dynamic.
The prerequisite of this work is reliance on youth,
with its energy, ability to generate new ideas and
entrepreneurial spirit. We need to reconcile traditionalism and modernity, experience and young
enthusiasm”.
Contemporary youth is the future of agricultural development and development of rural areas
in general. It is capable to take a fresh look at the
problem, understand that agricultural production
today is an interesting and exciting business, offer
new ways of development, and use new approaches
and technologies in its solution.
Rural youth is clever and talented. It acquires
knowledge, works on up-to-date machinery, and
masters information technologies. And we are convinced that only youth can make rural economy to
emerge from desolation and revive Russian village.
It is just required to create necessary conditions to
develop the potential of rural youth, give it an opportunity to implement their ideas and thus give an
incentive to work in rural areas.
In conclusion, we would like to note that in the
current situation the state and its institutions jointly
with non-governmental organizations shall have an
active social position in the development of the potential of youth as the main condition for increasing the quality of human capital of social and economic transformations. After all, the quantity and
quality of future AIC specialists able to introduce
innovative technologies in the agricultural economics for the purposes of boosting and maintaining the
agrarian business of Bashkortostan at a proper level
depend largely on health, education, professional
training, culture and civil maturity of contemporary
youth.
References
1. Igebaeva P.A. State of human potential in rural areas:
problems and prospects // AIC state, problems and
prospects of development. International scientific and
practical conference. Part III. - Ufa: HVE Bashkir State
Agrarian University, 2010. - 268 p.
2. Dolgushkin N.K. et al. Problematicity of modern rural
life and ways of its improvement. // Sotsis. - 2009. – No.
2. - p.94.
3. Igebaeva P.A. Formation of new labor behavior of Bashkortostan agricultural sector workers // Theory and
practice of modern scientific knowledge: Sourcebook
of the All-Russian Research and Practice Conference. 2
volumes. P.II. - Ufa: RIC BSU, 2011. P.183-186.
4. Igebaeva P.A. Sociology: Textbook - M.: INFRA-M,
2014. – 236p.
HUMANITIES
History and Archaeology
THe System of Servicing on Caravan
Roads in the Middle Ages
Umid Abdalov,
Quvonchbek Hamrayev
T
he number of tradesman on trade caravan routes
[1] was determined by a number of factors,
including: the distance to the city or country to be
visited; the geographical position of the territory to
be crossed; the quality and safety of roads; the existence of infrastructure on the routes; the available
opportunities; and the climate of the season when
the trip occurred.
In large caravans, 20 to 60 camels were organized into one drove, called a “kush” or “tup” [2].
Trade caravans were ruled by “caravan bashi,” who
were the chiefs of the caravans and were responsible for determining the make-up of the caravan,
identifying the direction, establishing discipline
how it would be administered, and taking measures
for providing security. Chiefs of caravans usually
held letters of certificate from the governor of the
corresponding country that guaranteed rights on the
roads and service and help when needed. Chiefs
of caravans usually came from the authoritative social level of society, and often had high political
and economic prestige. They succeeded in achieving wealth and becoming influential and effective
representatives of society. During his father, Caliph
Umar`s reign (634–644), Somonkhudot (Ismoil Samani, founder of the Samanids dynasty, was his
great grandson) lost his political power and became
a chief of caravans. He achieved great wealth, and
as a result, managed to restore his political position
[3].
The Turkish people were also active participants
in economic and trade relations during the Middle
Ages. Tradesmen who took part in international
trade and trade caravans were called “Arkish” or
“Arqis” [4]. This term means “message” or “news
bearer” or “ambassador” and shows that the Turkish
people were active in the region [5]. Two features
can be observed in the development of service on
trade roads. The first has been mentioned above and
was closely connected with service organizations
for trade caravans, representatives in embassies or
travelers in large trade centers, cities and in other
infrastructure on the routes. The second type of service consisted of serving trade caravans directly on
caravan routes or becoming members of caravans.
The second group included cabmen taking care of
large livestock (horses, cattle, camels), individual
guides or groups of guides in some directions, interpreters who took a major part in conversations
when tradesmen were speaking different languages,
and healers who were required for trade caravans
traveling to distant countries.
Cabmen, or people serving trade caravans by
taking care of livestock, had a long history. Their
work played an important role in organizing trade
relations in the highly developed Middle Ages, and
this is the subject of our investigation. Cabmen were
usually came from regions on caravan routes. In the
Middle Ages, the job of cabmen was the main profession of certain people or groups in society. Even
for some nomadic Turkmen and Kazakh tribes, the
carrier`s trade was their only way of earning money.
In particular, in the late Middle Ages, Kazakhs and
Turkmens were hired as guides and cabmen when
Central Asia established large trade caravans in
trade relations with towns in Russia and Iran [6].
119
Russian sources claim that it was possible to rent
wagons and camels in Bukhara and other large
trade cities in the Emirate of Bukhara [7].
The payment for carrying luggage with camels
was 8 verst for a distance of one stone, which is
equivalent to an average of 25 to 29.5 Russian roubles. Karshi was one of the centers for renting camels, and Russian sources note that cabmen could
be seen in all regions serving with their camels for
1 silver coin for a distance of 1 stone [8]. It was
also possible to hire camels and wagons to carry
luggage from Karshi to Bukhara and Samarkand [9].
In general, we can say that renting carts and
camels to carry luggage was possible in all large
cities of the region. For instance, in the second
half of the 19th century there were approximately
1,000 carts and 5,000 camels were used to carry
luggage for travelers and tradesmen in the Emirate
of Bukhara. Wagons could carry loads of 25 poods
(one pood equaled about 16.38 kilograms), camels
could carry 16 poods, horses, 6 poods, and asses, 4
poods [10, c. 9–10]. In mountainous areas, mainly
horses and asses were used to carry loads [11].
Wagons were also used on the roads from Bukhara
to Kukon [12], and the merchants going from Kukon
to Kashkar loaded their purchases on rented horses
(8 poods for each horse) and paid 2 to 4 gold coins
for each horse [13, c. 109].
In addition to providing security and other types
of services on caravan routes, the quality of roads
had a great impact on the efficiency of trade relations. Central and local governments were responsible for ensuring uninterrupted use of roads and
route construction [14]. Information is available
about the money spent by state treasuries and private individuals [15] to establish route constructions [16].
However, there are notes about the bad condition of roads in the Emirate of Bukhara [17] and
Kukan Khanate [18].
Progress in medicine had a positive impact on
improving medical service on caravan roads. Notable successes were achieved in medicine in the
Middle Ages. Special groups of healers [19] were
organized to provide medical care for travelers and
trade caravans outside cities, large villages and important stopping places. Healer dynasties developed
through passing medical knowledge and secrets of
treatment from ancestors to younger generations.
In particular, it was noted in sources that even in
remote areas, local healers provided effective medical care for travelers and livestock in caravans [20].
There were special healers in embassy missions
and large trade caravans. This served in development of political and economic relations among
different countries and in exchange of medical experience and knowledge on trade roads to other
regions [21]. Special couriers, secret service men
and other state personnel usually had the most necessary medical supplies and a variety of medicinal
(herbs). They could also support emergency medical aid for fellow travelers and themselves.
Cultural events organized in trade centers and
large caravansaries on the caravan routes were a
great of income source for owners of property. It
is worth to remembering a sensitive issue when
speaking of the service system on ancient routes:
protecting marital rights for tradesmen who had to
live in other countries for long periods. In various
large trade centers, Muslim tradesmen participating
in international trade had several families. Islamic
religious laws supported Muslim tradesmen in these
marriage relations. Also, it is noted that some merchants on trade routes and in large trade centers
enjoyed the services of light-minded women. It is
noticeable that this type of service was especially
widespread in cities of China and Eastern Turkistan,
and state governments were unable to completely
stop this practice [22].
In conclusion, we can note that the service system on caravan routes was widespread and studying this subject nowadays is very important.
References
1. Caravan (Persian word)—a group of people, livestock,
wagons and cabmen going to distant countries in a line.
The first and the last animals had a bell on their necks.
2. Agzamova G.A. Central Asian Khanates and Russia:
with respect to the history of the caravan trade (16th—
first half of the 19th centuries) // Russa and Uzbekistan.
History and Modern age. Special edition.—Moscow,
2008.—p. 15.
3. Abd al-Kadyr ibn Muhammad-Amin. Маджма’
ал-ансаб ва-л-ашджар // Introduction, translation
from Arabic, Farsi and Turkic, comments, preparing
of the facsimile for publication by Sh.Kh. Vokhidov,
Abdalov, Hamrayev 121
A.K. Muminov, B.B. Aminov. The history of Kazakhstan
according to the Persian sources.—Almaty: Publishing
house Dike-Press, 2005.—vol. II.—p. 216.
4. Caravan // National encyclopedia of Uzbekistan.—
Tashkent: State publishing house “National encyclopedia of Uzbekistan”, 2000. 1st vol.—p. 440–441.
5. Dictionary of Ancient Turkic.—Leningrad, 1969.—p.
54.
6. Agzamova G.A. Khanates of Central Asia and Russia:
concerning the history of the caravan …—p. 15, 22–23.
7. Gintello. Information competent in the intendant, collected in the Khanate of Bukhara in May and June of
1885 // СМА.—St. Petersburg: Military printing establishment, 1886. Vol. ХХI.– p. 9.
8. Maev N. Documentaries of mountain beyliks // Data
for statistics of Turkestan region.—St. Petersburg., 1879.
vol. V.—p. 328.
9. Arkhipov. Military reconnaissance of the plains of the
Khanate of Bukhara // СМА.—St. Petersburg: Military
printing establishment, 1884. Vol. Х.—С. 204
10. Gintello. Information competent in the intendant, collected in the Khanate of Bukhara in May and June of
1885 // СМА.—St. Petersburg: Military printing establishment, 1886. Vol. ХХI.– p. 9–10.
11. Matveev. Epitome of Bukhara. 1887 г. The General Staff
of the colonel Matveev // СМА.—St. Petersburg, 1888.
Vol. XXXLI.—p. 3.
12. Nebolsin P.N. Documentaries about the trade of Russia and Central Asia. Notes of the Imperial Russian
Geographical society.—St. Petersburg, 1856.—p. 6.
13. Bababekov H. The history of the Khanate of Kokand.—
Tashkent: Publishing house “Fan”, 1996.—p. 109.
14. In some cases, the amount of money from state treasur-
ies was not enough, or was spent on other affairs. That’s
why local people had to repair the roads. For example, the Kukan Khanate ordered reconstruction of the
road from Kukan through Tuytepa to Tashkent by local
inhabitants. You can find this information in Masson
M.E. Okhangaron. Archeological and topographical
essay.—Tashkent, 1953.—p. 44.
15. For instance, in the Kushbegi archive in Bukhara, there
is a letter to Emir Abdullakhad of Bukhara asking him
to build a stopping place on the road from Karshi to
Shakhrisabz. You can find this information in Central
National Arkhives of Uzbekistan. 126th repository, 1st
box, 823.
16. Mukminova R.G. Bukhara: the capital of the khanate,
the city of merchants and craftsmasters // ОНУ.—Tashkent, 1997.—vol. 9–11.—p. 56; Akhmedov B. The lessons of the Past.—Tashkent: Publishing house “Uykhituvchy”, 1994.—p. 187.
17. Khanykov N. Description of the Khanate of Bukhara.—
St. Petersburg, 1843.—p. 162.
18. Khoroshikhin A.P. Collected works concerning Turkestan region by A.P. Khoroshikhin.—St. Petersburg,
1876.—p. 26–27.
19. Uyrolov A. Health and medical facilities in medieval
Samarkand—p. 234–253.
20. Logofet D.N. “In the mountains and on the plains of
Bukhara”.—St. Petersburg, 1913.—p. 247.
21. Khuyzhaev A. Turkestan medical science in China // retroactivity of the resonance.—Tashkent, 2006.—vol. 3
(315).—p. 46–48.
22. Marco Polo. The description of the world / translated
by I. Minaev.—Moscow: Publishing house “EKSMO”,
2005.—p. 91–92, 164, 261–262.
Dynamics of AzerbaijanIsrael Political Relations
(1991–1998-years)
Samira Mammadova Iskandar
Sumgayit State University, Sumgayit, Azerbaijan
Abstract. The main purpose of this research is to explore the dynamics of political relations between
Azerbaijan and Israel covering the years 1991–1998, the establishment of political relations with Israel.
The research is based on analysis of official documents and literature. Sources and literatures in different
languages demonstrate that political relations between Azerbaijan and Israel were weak in the years of
1991–1998. This research has potential applications in lectures and seminars at institutions of higher
learning.
Keywords: Azerbaijan-Israel, bilateral relations, Jewish, strategy partnership, official meetings
R
elations with Israel play an important role in
the foreign policy of the Republic of Azerbaijan. After researching the relationship between the
two countries in the years of 1991–2008, it can be
concluded that the development of political relations between the two states can be divided into
two stages. The first stage covers the period of
1991–1998. In these years relations were weak. The
second stage covers the period of 1998–2008. This
period was marked by the greatest development in
the relations of the two countries.
In December 1991, the Azerbaijani-Israeli community organized a meeting that was attended by
twenty-seven ministers. Both the ambassador of
Israel and UN representative, Arye Levin, were invited to this meeting. They discussed the possibility
of opening an Israeli Embassy in Azerbaijan. Former, deceased President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Abulfaz Elchibey, met with Haim Barlevi,
an extraordinary and plenipotentiary ambassador
of Israel, in Russia in February 1993. The aim of
the meeting was to discuss the prospects of political, economic and cultural cooperation between
Azerbaijan and Israel, especially in the fields of agriculture, medicine, and science. The meeting was
focused on the creation of expanded inter-parliamentary relations and the opening of embassies in
the two countries.
First Deputy Prime Minister of Azerbaijan Republic, Vahid Ahmadov, met with the Israeli ambassador on the same day. During the meeting, they
discussed a number of issues, in particular the resolution of the Karabakh conflict and the problem of
(im)migration.
Consequently, on December 25, 1991, Israel
became one of the first states to recognize the
independence of Azerbaijan. On April 7, 1992
Azerbaijan officially established diplomatic relations with Israel. The following year, in 1993, Israel opened its embassy in Baku and demonstrated
122
Iskandar 123
a strong desire to cooperate with Azerbaijan in all
contexts.
Azerbaijan took the appropriate steps to open its
embassy in Israel and attempt to improve bilateral
relations with Israel. The development of economic,
political and cultural relations with Israel was one
Azerbaijan’s foreign policy priorities. The development of relations with Israel reached its height
during the tenure of former Azerbaijani national
leader, Heydar Aliyev. In August 1993, after the
opening of the Israel Embassy in Baku, diplomatic,
political, trade, scientific, cultural and humanitarian cooperation had been successfully developed.
The expansion of economic, political and cultural
relations with Israel is one of the most important
issues for Azerbaijan’s foreign policy from a strategic point of view. Former President of Azerbaijan,
Heydar Aliyev, sent the Adviser for Foreign Affairs,
Vafa Guluzadeh, to Israel to meet with government
officials. [8, p.].
Vafa Guluzadeh spoke in an interview about
the importance and difficulties of bilateral relations
between the two states: “ [Israel] supported Azerbaijan in the international organizations on some
issues. However, Azerbaijan is a young state, there
are some issues in opening an embassy in terms of
financial and technical problems”. [12, p.233].
Relations between Israel and Azerbaijan were
founded in 1992, but progressed slowly until 1998
[6, p.412–413]. The leaders of the Azerbaijan-Jewish community were invited to Israel in July 1993.
They met with ministers, members of parliament,
and the chairman of the Knesset.
The Azerbaijan-Israel Association cooperates
with the Embassy of Israel in Baku. Azerbaijani officials joined the meeting organized by the Azerbaijan-Israel Association in July 1993 [13].
In September 1993, the acting Minister of Foreign Affairs, A. Salamov, received Israel’s official, E.
Yotvat. During their conversation, A. Salamov reported on the social and political situation in Azerbaijan to the Israeli ambassador. A. Salamov emphasized the issue of military aggression by Armenia
against the Republic of Azerbaijan and encouraged
the ambassador to take more effective measures
to resolve the UN Security Council’s amendement
822 and 853 by the international community [12,
p.233].
On November 24th of that year, the chairman
of the Supreme Soviet of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Ramil Guliyev, received Israel’s Charge d’Affaires, E. Yotvat. During their meeting, the Speaker
of Parliament stressed the importance of friendly relations between Azerbaijan and Israel. The Speaker
added that their relations should be based not only
on friendship, but also on business interests. He
also stated that the Jewish community in Azerbaijan should consider the country they live in as their
motherland. The Head of the International Relations
Department of the Supreme Council, N. Akhundov,
also participated in the meeting.
On March 22, 1994 the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev, received the Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of Israel, E. Yotvat, at the Presidential Palace. During the
meeting, the ambassador spoke about the historical
contract signed between Israel and Palestine. Adviser for Foreign Affairs, V. Guluzadeh, and Minister
of Foreign Affairs, H. Aliyev, attended the meeting.
There was a ceremony at which Yotvat presented his
credentials to the President of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Heydar Aliyev. [9].
Bilateral meetings continued in 1995. On January 28, 1995, the President of Azerbaijan met with
Israeli Foreign Minister, Shimon Peres, while attending the World Economic Forum in Switzerland.
These meetings played an important role in the
development of relations between the two countries. During the talks, both sides noted that there
are many opportunities for cooperation in the areas
of medical services, technology, agriculture, and
industry. Shimon Peres stressed that Israel looked
forward to the visit of Azerbaijani President, Heydar
Aliyev. The head of state said, “even though this is
the first well-organized meeting between our two
countries, our relations are at a good level” [9].
On March 9, 1995, Health Minister of Israel,
Efrahim Siney, was the first Israel Minister to visit
Azerbaijan. Heydar Aliyev, Efrahim Siney, and other
officials continued their discussions on strengthening bilateral cooperation [9].
On October 22, 1995, President Heydar Aliyev
met Israeli Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin in New
York. During this meeting, Israel’s Prime Minister
emphasized Israel’s interest in establishing close relations with Azerbaijan. The meeting was held in
a warm and congenial atmosphere. Later, I. Rabin
gave detailed information about a Israeli-Palestinian peace. Both sides discussed many other issues
that were of interest to their countries. Prime Minister Rabin kindly invited President Heydar Aliyev to
visit Israel. Heydar Aliyev also invited Prime Minister Rabin to visit Azerbaijan [1].
On December 4th, The Speaker of the National
Assembly, R. Guliyev, received Israeli ambassador,
E. Yotvat. During the conversation, they discussed
about Yotvat”s visit to his country (to Israel) Yotvat
replied, “I informed our government about the new
parliament in Azerbaijan”. The heads of the departments in the Azerbaijani Parliament, N. Akhundov
and A. Babayev, were in attendance at the meeting.
On January 11, 1996, President Heydar Aliyev met with Israeli Prime Minister Shimon Peres
during a visit to Paris. During the meeting, President Heydar Aliyev expressed his sincere, personal
condolences and condolences on behalf of the
Azerbaijani people in regards to the death of former Israeli Prime Minister, Yitzhak Rabin, who was
killed in a terrorist act. Prime Minister Shimon Peres
told President Aliyev that he had discussed the importance of assistance to Azerbaijan, the cancellation of amendment 907, and the important role of
the international community in resolving the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict with American President,
Bill Clinton, and his Secretary of State, William
Christopher, during negotiations and meetings with
these men [3].
In February 1996, the Minister of Internal Affairs of the Republic of Azerbaijan, Ramil Usubov,
once again received the Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of Israel, E. Yotvat. The Interior
Minister briefed Mr. Yotvat, who was interested in
the country’s internal situation, and the situation in
the country last year. During the meeting, the two
sides discussed the possibilities of cooperation between the countries’ bodies for internal affairs [4].
On March 8th, the Speaker of the National Assembly, R. Guliyev, received the Ambassador of
Israel, E. Yotvat. They discussed the role of international organizations in the areas of regional conflict resolution and terrorism prevention. During the
conversation, the ambassador discussed anti-Semitism, problems of racial discrimination, and he expressed his opinion on these issues.
Israel’s first ambassador in Azerbaijan played
a great role in expanding Israeli-Azerbaijani relations to the highest level in three years. On August
28, 1996, the Chairman of the National Assembly,
R. Guliyev, received E. Yotvat at the end of his diplomatic mission. Guliyev said in his speech: “...I hope
the relationship will continue in the future and we
will see you in our country again”... The Heads of
Department in the Azerbaijani Parliament also attended the reception.
The next day, President Heydar Aliyev received
the Israeli Ambassador at the Presidential Palace. It
was a warm and amiable meeting. President Heydar Aliyev praised the role of E. Yotvat’s activities
in the improvement of relations between the two
countries. The president thanked E. Yotvat for his
contribution to the establishment and development
of relations between Israel and Azerbaijan during
his mission in Azerbaijan.
On September 27, 1996, Charge d’Affaires,
Michael Ronen, held a press conference regarding the recent events occurring in the Middle East.
Responding to questions from reporters, M. Ronen
noted that relations between the two countries are
in the best interest of Israel, and that the two countries both support the development of diplomatic
relations in all contexts.
On April 15, 1997, newly appointed Extraordinary and Plenipotentiary Ambassador of Israel, Arkady Milman, presented his credentials to President
Heydar Aliyev at the President’s Residence. During
the meeting, they discussed Azerbaijani-Israeli cooperation and future prospects for their countries’
relations. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, H. Hasanov,
and State Councilor, Vafa Guluzadeh, attended the
ceremony [9].
During his visit to Lisbon, President Heydar Aliyev met with Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamin Netanyahu, within the framework of the OSCE summit
on December 2, 1996. A number of issues were
discussed at the meeting, including the conflict between Armenia and Azerbaijan. [9].
On July 17, 1997, President Heydar Aliyev received the Deputy Director at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Israel, N. Meron, and head of Caucasus and Central Asia Department, Sh. Meyromat, at
the Presidential Palace. The visit served to expand
the cooperation between the two countries. Israeli
Iskandar 125
Ambassador Meron mentioned the role and efforts
of N. B. Netanyahu and Heydar Aliyev in the development of political, economic and cultural ties
during their 1996 meeting in Lisbon. State Councilor Vafa Guluzadeh and an Israeli ambassador, A.
Milman attended the meeting [5].
On July 28, 1997, the representatives of Jewish
organizations in the United States held a meeting
at the New York “Grand Hyyatt”. After this conference, they organized a special meeting in honor of
the Azerbaijani President. One of the main leaders
of the Jewish community, Peter Vilon, greeted Azerbaijan’s President on behalf of the New York City
Council [11, p., 68].
Heydar Aliyev welcomed the representatives of
the Jewish community and said:
…the Azerbaijani people have a great and rich
history, and an ancient culture and traditions. Many
other nationalities besides Azerbaijanis live in the
country. Azerbaijan is a multinational and tolerant
country. We consider this to be one of our great
advantages. All nations and citizens living within
Azerbaijan have the same rights in Azerbaijan. All
rights of the Azerbaijani citizen are equal and guaranteed. Jews have always lived and continue to live
in good conditions in Azerbaijan. They are citizens
of Azerbaijan, and Azerbaijan is a motherland for
them [11; s., 69].
H. Aliyev stressed the active participation of
Jewish people in the socio-political and economic
life of Azerbaijan. He said, “I would like to inform
you that Azerbaijani citizens of the Jewish nationality have a great role in the development of our
national culture, economy, and health today” [11;
s., 69].
In addition to discussing the future prospects
for relations between Azerbaijan and Israel, he also
spoke about the Karabakh conflict:
Azerbaijan’s main problem is the Karabakh
conflict with Armenia. Armenian military troops attacked our territory. They occupied Nagorno Karabakh. This conflict began in 1988. Many people
have been killed as a result of this agression. Twenty
percent of Azerbaijan’s territory has been occupied
by Armenian millitary services. Azerbaijan has
more than one million refugees. They live in tents,
in difficult conditions. We would like to resolve this
conflict. An agreement was signed three years ago.
I hope we will solve this conflict with peace. We
may fight against the Armenian diaspora with the
help of our partners…our friends will be our advocates…but Armenians have strong alliances...our
alliance will include you, the Jewish communities
of the United States. I believe in it. [11; s., 72, 74].
On August 29, 1997, President Heydar Aliyev received Israeli Prime Minister, Benjamen Neteyahu.
H. Aliyev expressed his opinion regarding the Jewish people. He said, “Azerbaijan is a peaceful and
multi-national country. All nations live and work in
equal rights...I believe this meeting will open a new
stage in Azerbaijani-Israeli relations” [10; s., 110].
Heydar Aliyev is a strong proponent of Azerbaijani-Israeli relations. Indeed, the visit of Israel’s
President marked a transition into a new stage of
relations between Azerbaijan and Israel.
On April 22, 1998, Heydar Aliyev addressed the
Jewish community in Azerbaijan on the anniversary
of a Jewish massacre. He said in his speech, “The
Azerbaijani people have also faced tradegy such as
genocide and deportation from their homeland by
the Armenians. We have the same fate as the Jewish
people. This fact brings us together....I present my
condolences to your people and call on mankind
to fight against fascism, racism, descrimination and
genocide” [7; s., 218].
On April 30, 1998, 30 the Embassy of Israel in
Baku organized an event on the occasion of the 50th
anniversary of independence [9]. President Heydar
Aliyev attended the event and spoke regarding bilaterial cooperation between Azerbaijan and Israel.
In the same year, the prime Minister of Israel,
Benjamen Netenyahu, visited Baku. During this
visit, a new direction of future cooperation was
agreed upon between Azerbaijan and Israel [6; s.,
413].
On September 28, 1998, President Heydar
Aliyev sent a letter of congratuations to the Jewish
Community of Azerbaijan on the occasion of Rosh
Hashanah (literally “head of the year” is the Jewish
New Year). It is a good example of the President’s
attention to Jewish people.
Thus, political and diplomatic relations between
Azerbaijan and Israel were established, leading to
the opening of an Israeli embassy in Baku, and the
development of a regulatory framework for mutual
economic, scientific, cultural, and humanitarian
cooperation was founded in the first stage covering
the years 1991–1998. This stage is characterized by
the presence of weak ties between the two nations.
In conclusion, the dynamics of Azerbaijani-Israeli
relations were weak during these years.
References
1. “Azerbaijan” the newspaper., November 2, 1995,
№ 210.
2. “Azerbaijan” the newspaper., November 2, 1995,
№ 123.
3. “Azerbaijan” the newspaper., December 13, 1996,
№ 9.
4. “Azerbaijan” newspaper., February 2, 1996, № 23
5. “Azerbaijan” newspaper., April 16, 1997, № 73.
6. Ali Hasanov. Modern international relations and the
foreign policy of Azerbaijan, Publishing House “Azerbaycan” 2005, 751 p
7. Call to the Jewish community in Azerbaijan on the
occasion of the Tragedy of Jewish people. Aliyev Haydar. Our Independence is forever: part XV Speeches,
declarations, interviews, letters, reports, appeals (calls)
and decisions, p. 218.
8. Cornell, Svante E., Small Nations and Great Powers:
A Study of Ethno political Conflict in the Caucasus,
(Surrey: Curzon Rutledge, 2000). This edition published
in the Taylor & Francis e-Library, 2005. p: 477.
9. Official materials of Israel Embassy in the Republic of
Azerbaijan
10. Speech at the meeting that organized in honor of Israel’s Prime Minister Benyamin Netenyaho on behalf of
the President of Azerbaijan Republic. Our independence is forever: Speeches, declarations, interviews,
letters, reports, appeals (calls) and decisions. August,
1997—October, 1997. K.: 12 / H. Aliyev; Edited by
Ramiz Mehdiyev B.: Publishing House. 2004.- 432 p
11. Speech at the official reception in honor of the President of Azerbaijan Republic Heydar Aliyev on behalf
of the Conference of Jewish Organization’s Presidents.
Our Independence is forever: Speeches, declarations,
interviews, letters, reports, appeals and decisions. May,
1997—July, 1997. K.: 10 / H.Aliyev; Edited by: Ramiz
Mehdiyev B.: Publishing House-Azerneshr, 2002.472 p
12. Vafa Guluzadeh. Future Horizons. Baku: Azerbaijan,
1999,—p. 288
13. Зйайчев Анатолий Ш. Беседа с Ароннешом. Газ.,
Азиз, 1995, январь; 2 сентября, 1993, № 169.
Khwarezmian Statuary Ossuaries
Bunyad Saparbaev,
Sakhiba Yangibaeva
T
he archeological researches conducted in Central Asia open to us step by step a rich and original culture of states which existed here in remote
antiquity.
The majestic ruins of the Khwarezmian fortresses speak volumes for the mastery of their builders, dynamic sculptures of Northern Bactria and
fine paintings of Sogdia allow us to imagine the vividness and originality of the local artistic schools.
Being in sphere of the Avestan geography,
Khwarezm is according to many scientists the most
ancient center of formation of the Zoroastrianism.
Some of the Khwarezmian ossuaries are the earliest
ones among those which were found in Central Asia.
The ossuaries in the shape of statues were found
in Khwarezm. The items of such nature are of great
importance for the history of arts of Central Asia
and cover the questions concerning the origin of
the ossuaries and the cult which is associated with
them in a different way. The last-mentioned is the
main thing for our research.
Ancient Khwarezm was closely related to the
world of the tribes of Saka and Massagetae, so this
fact gives us an opportunity to refer to important
historical sources and archeological materials in order to interpret the findings.
The Khwarezmian ossuaries began to draw the
particular attention of the historians and linguists
after the founding of the examples with ancient
writings. According to Livshits P.A. these writings
are the historical documents of great values as they
contain the dates, names, religious and social terms
[1. p. 81]. It should be noted that the ancient denotations of the ossuaries became known thanks to
these writings.
Therefore it must be emphasized that the ethnographical works and first of all the researches by
G.P. Snesarev [2, p. 36-38] show the comparative
persistency of those religious faiths and rite which
ascend to the pre-Islamic antiquity and are related
to the old cemeteries and the graves of the “holy
ones” whose pre-Islamic entity is hardly covered
with their Muslim names.
A lot of facts which are indicative of the
wide and long-term spreading of the ossuary in
Khwarezm were received during the last years of
the Khwarezmian expedition. The statuary ossuaries
as a new type of ossuaries are of special interest for
the science. The article is devoted to the description
of one item of such type.
The body sherds of the ossuary in the shape of a
horseman were found near the site of ancient settlement Uy-Kala in 1956. The horse was reconstructed
from these sherds fractionally; the found sherds,
which form in principle the figure of the horseman,
are too segmentary.
The body of the horse is made rather schematically and its outline in the orthogonal projection
has the oval-like shape. The glued legs of the horse
are bent under the body and disproportionately
small. The neck of the figure with thick short crest
is well shaped; the imaged tail is tied up. The figure
has no head; there are only sherds of it. The details
of the saddle are shaped as a low relief, but there is
no seat itself, there is a slightly beveled saddlecloth
instead. The straps of breast collar and breeching
drag from the saddlecloth. The legs of the horseman
are shaped as plain and insufficient sharply defined
relief. The figure of the horseman which served as
the top of the ossuary was shaped together with the
127
horse and cut off before the baking. The hole of the
ossuary is roundish; its diameter is 26 centimeters.
The length of the vessel is 60 cm, the height from
the base to the crupper of the horse is 35 cm, and
the height from the base to the ears of the horse is
50 cm. The clay puddle is of well baking and has
a lot of inclusions. There are remains of the bright
engobe on the surface of the vessel. The figure of
the horse and especially the sherds of the figure of
the horseman bear traces of slagging, so we can
conclude that it was a defect of the ceramics. In
point of fact the fragments were found near the ceramic furnace among the sherds of waste ceramics.
This ceramics could be dated by I-II centuries A.D.
On the territory of the same location there are also
the fragments of the ceramics of early Kangju (IV-III
centuries B.C.). However because of some reasons
we are brought to associate the ossuary with the
later ceramic complex and to date it properly.
Ossuary in the form of a horseman is one of
the types of the statuary ossuaries which are typical for Khwarezm and which are considered sometimes to be pieces of art. The ossuaries with images
of human heads on their tops are known beyond
Khwarezm; surely they ascend to the statuary ossuaries but this type is the later, simplified and raw
one [3, p. 51-53].
The ossuary which was found in Mingchukur
near Samarkand and published by Yusupov was just
the same later version of the ossuaries in the form
of a horseman.
The sherds of another ossuary in the form of a
horseman were found in 1956 near the 29th castle
in the oasis of Berkut-Kalin. The sherds posed a part
of the head of the horse and separate parts of the
rest of the figure.
This statue has the traces of coloring which accentuate the relief (for example the harness) and is
shaped more accurate [4, p.15].
All these above-mentioned and the other finds
give us useful data about the pre-Islamic culture of ancient Khwarezm and prove that ancient
Khwarezm is the original home and center of
spreading of the Zoroastrianism.
References
1. 1. P.A. Livshits. Obschestvo Avesty (The community of
Avesta). Moscow 1963. V.1, p. 81.
2. 2. G. P. Snesarev. Relikty domusulmanskikh verovaniy I obryadov u uzbekov Khorezma (The relics of
the pre-Islamic religious faiths and rites of the Uzbeks
of Khwarezm). –Moscow: publishing house “Nauka”,
1969.—pp. 36–38.
3. 3. A.Y. Rapoport. K voprosu o khorezmskikh statuarnykh ossuariyakh (Revisiting the Khwarezmian statuary ossuaries) / Brief reports of the Institute of Ethnography XXX.—Moscow, 1958.—pp. 51–53.
4. 4. G. P. Snesarev. Pod nebom Khorezma (Under the
Khwarezmian sky).—Moscow: publishing house
“Mysl”, 1973.—p.15.
Languages and Literature
Who is the Hero of the Modern
Russian Literature?
Galia Akhmetova
Transbaikal State University, Chita, Russia
Abstract. The article is devoted to the problem of the main character in the modern Russian Literature. The
questions which are related to the concepts of “a hero of our time”, “a real hero” and “the main character of
a literary work” are posed and solved here mainly on the base of the short novel by S. Esin “Memoirs of a
quadragenarian”.
Keywords: hero of our time, the main character.
A
s is known, the word “hero” has several meanings in Russian. Two of them which are of the
main importance are the following: 1) a hero is a
man of an extraordinary courage and bravery, 2) a
hero is the main character of some literature narrative. The second meaning is quite emasculated
evidently and for this reason the “classification” of
heroes is beyond of the traditional frames; so the
real heroes appear, who are not related to any literary text. The concept of “a hero of our time” is just
the example of such situation, when it is referred
not only to fictional characters, but also to real persons, and these real “heroes of our time” can be
often not heroes of the first meaning; on the contrary they can be antiheroes. So such an ambiguous hero of our time is Edward Snowden, who told
about himself the following: “I don’t see myself as
a hero, because what I’m doing is self-interested: I
don’t want to live in a world where there’s no privacy and therefore no room for intellectual exploration and creativity”.
Pechorin, who is the main character of the novel
“A hero of our time” by M.Y. Lermontov, is an unordinary man obviously, but he is also quite ambiguous as related to the title of the novel. The author
himself wrote in his preface: “A Hero of Our Time,
my dear readers, is indeed a portrait, but not of one
man. It is a portrait built up of all our generation’s
vices in full bloom” [18, с. 184]. It is also known
that V.G. Belinsky called him “Onegin of our time”.
It seems that the protagonist of Lermontov is
like a contrariety to the low ranker. But the point is
that “The Stationmaster” by Pushkin had been published already by that time, and “The overcoat” by
N.V. Gogol as well as the stories by A.P. Chekhov
were not known, not published, and not written.
M.Y. Lermontov didn’t carry on tradition of the “low
ranker” in Russian literature; he introduced his new
character, who on the one hand like the low ranker
was able to commit some actions, but didn’t play
any important role in life or history. On the other
hand this character was endowed with many faculties, he tried to self-actualize. But in whole he was
quite ordinary.
V.S. Rastorgueva advances an interesting idea
on the phenomenon of the “hero of our time”: “The
crisis of the modern world demands some new truth
about a man, which the modern prose writers try
to understand through the dialogue with the classic literature. In this regard the hero of our time is
131
some literary bearing, which helps understand the
place of a man in the modern world” [9, с. 12].
The relevance of the problem of the modern literary
character in the course of the historical process of
the literary development is confirmed with the appearance of researches related to it. For example,
O.Y. Ivanova analyzes the development in Russian
literature of the character of “Sasha-Sashka” (from
M.Y. Lermontova to Z. Prilepin): “The character of
the “hero of our time” is one of the main archetypes
of literature of every country and epoch, beginning
with the “Epic of Gilgamesh” and maybe even earlier. And in every national literature this archetype
has own set of traditional personifications, which
are presented by some options of characters or
plots, which appeared on the base of some circumstances and became a tradition further. From our
viewpoint the theme of “Sasha-Sashka” is just the
personified range of personifications of the “hero
of our time” [4, с. 221]. The spokesmen of Russian
clergy described by O. Nikolaeva are called the heroes of our time [19]. The concept of the “hero of
our time” became intertextual long age, it is used
by the modern writers both literal and perversely
(V. Makanin “Underground or A hero of our time”;
I. Denezhkina “The heroes of my time”). Such a
notional word-play is quite popular. Let’s compare:
“The story of a true man” (B. Polevoy)—“Soulless.
The story of a fake man” (S. Minaev).
Is there a transition from the “low ranker” to the
ordinary man? Whether the characters of the modern novels can be called ordinary? Artyom (novel
by Z. Prilepin “The cell”), Victor (novel by S. Shargunov “1993”), Roman (novel by R. Senchin “What
do you want?”), lieutenant D (novel by D. Granin
“My lieutenant”). These characters are not like
Pechorin. They act and although they don’t perform
the exploits as true heroes (see the first meaning of
this word in Russian), but they are ready to it. They
are people of actions although they are ordinary.
Thereby one can remember the recent speech of the
writer O. Pavlov during the discussion about stories
by M. Tyazhev in Maxim Gorky Literature Institute:
“The author saw a man in general”. Whether it concerns an ordinary man as a hero?
The novel by Z. Prilepin “The cell” (the novel
is quite new and hadn’t been translated into English yet) caught the great attention of philologists,
literary critics and readers. A. Kolobrodov speaking
of the image of the main character of the novel tells
about the removal “of a modern and well-known
to the author man into historical, geographical and
mental border zone. This man is perfunctory as well
as his knowledge, he is full of psychological complexes, hedonism, erotic hunger, interest for ugliness of the world, and mocking indifference. From
time to time he goes into single fight clubs or weight
rooms; media-trash is on his mind (or poems by poets of the Silver age as analogue), but meanwhile
deep inside him there is the readiness to an exploit
and a self-sacrifice, the readiness “to lay down his
life for his friends” [6, p.7].
Isn’t he an ordinary man? And wasn’t as well
ordinary the main character of the story by Sholokhov “Destiny of a man”, who committed an exploit
but didn’t define his act as something valiant? His
readiness to an exploit actualized in his life space.
For example, S. Sokolkin told in his interview about
the main character of his novel “Russian chock”,
who is a journalist and a preservationist of the Fimkovsky forest: “The prototype of Alexey Parimbetov
is Mikhail Beketov, who is a journalist, a preservationist of the forest of Khimki, and my close friend”
[11]. It is evidently that in this case one can also
speak of a life action of the main character. S. Sibirtsev in his estimates of the novel wrote the following: “For the first time in the modern Russian
literature the author shows the bottom of this luxurious pseudo-life and offers an amazing option of
the way out of this sweet but sinister abyss, using
for this purpose all the means of the artistic expression. As well as for the first time I see a real hero of
our time, of this period of change we live in, who
isn’t imposed by glossy mass-media as a hero, and I
sympathize with him. The prototype of this Hero is
Mikhail Beketov the legendary journalist and fearless preservationist of the forest of Khimki, who laid
down his life for these changes may come into our
lives” [10]. It is not fortuitous that V. Erokhin called
his article about this novel “The new hero of the
new time” [3].
V. Galaktionova in her interview speaks also of
a new type of a hero of the modern Russian literature: “Yes, I think the “crying” hero, who buries
Russia again and again, is replaced by another type
of people. They are often beautiful, bold, skilful,
Akhmetova 133
and brave even though their fates are tragic and absurd” [8, p.6]. These words, which had been said by
the author several years ago, were repeated again
like the words, which stood the test of time.
The problem of a hero in the modern Russian
literature catches the great attention of literary critics, writers and philologists, but because of the difference in the interpretation and understanding of
the word “a hero”, this problem is very ambiguous.
Jorge Luis Borges in his novelette “The four cycles”
wrote about four plots in accordance with one can
define four types of characters: a rebel, a stranger,
a searcher and a man who seeks something to believe in. There are also researches, which are devoted to the search of a hero in the literature of the
past ages1.
The hero is any way a man, who answers the
questions of life in some or other way, and his/
her answer isn’t always the actualization of his/her
motives.
The complexities in definition of a hero concern
also with the absence of solidarity in the modern
Russian literature like it was in former times, so for
example there isn’t any common literary movement, which would be accepted by the majority
of the philologists. Traditions of realism attain new
features as time goes (new realism, fantastic realism, post-modern realism etc.). And because of it
quite different men are considered to be the heroes,
even those, whose behavior is often far from heroism. These modern “heroes” are often opposite to
each other. May be it concerns the fact that the creative style of a writer became of more importance
than a common literary movement.
In the newspaper “Literaturnaya gazeta” the
topical questions related to the problem of the hero
in Russian literature are being raised. So for example in September the following question was put:
“What sort of man must be a hero of modern Russia?” [5]. Of course, there isn’t any agreement of
opinion among the writers and scientists. In many
ways it concerns the fact that the concept of the
Nikolaev N.I. A hero of Russian literature within a
context of the ethical quest of the 18th-19th centuries.
Monograph. Arkhangelsk: Publishing house Solty, 2009.
172 p.; Fesenko E.Y. Russian literature of the 19th century in
quest of a hero. Moscow: Publishing house Akademichesky
prospekt, 2013. 653 p.
1
“hero” involves the presence of something opposite, a “villain”. A natural shift from real to literary
heroes was evidenced in the answers of respondents. So I. Gobzev, the philosopher, evading the
straight answer said the hero of our time was a
hipster. According to him, Onegin was a hipster as
well. The answer by S. Shargunov seemed to be of
importance to us, as it pursues our idea of the hero
as an ordinary man: “There is a lack of ordinary men
in our modern prose—engineers, officers, teachers,
doctors, and taxi-drivers”. And of course there were
several answers, which concerned the problem of
Donetsk. So G. Sadulaev answered briefly: “Now
we have Strelkov”. The writers’ answers represent in
many respects the reflection of the general modern
literary process, whose main characteristic is the
appeal to the documentation, publicist genre and
autobiography.
So what can we conclude? What can one say
about the hero of the modern Russian literature?
Most likely he is an ordinary man that is the hero
is not a part of the whole, but the whole itself. The
world as a unity is reflected in every human being. That’s why every literary work is an inspired
living system, a living sprachraum, whose one of
the most important components is a word-picture,
which is inspired as well and is built in accordance
with the same laws as a living text and the whole
holographic universe. Michael Talbot wrote: “Because everything in the cosmos is made out of the
seamless holographic fabric of the implicate order,
he believes it is as meaningless to view the universe as composed of “parts”. <…> in a universe
in which all things are infinitely interconnected, all
consciousnesses are also interconnected. Despite
appearances, we are beings without borders [12]”.
According to A. Losev’s idea every human being is a union of a creative idea (design of God)
and a fate. The philosopher called it a miracle [7, p.
143]. Every creative work of a writer, who saw and
caught an image, an idea, a spiritual significance in
the Universe is a miracle as well.
It is not fortuitous that in the beginning of the
21st century some researches devoted to the analysis of a hero in the different historical epochs appeared, in which not some generalized image of the
Hero (as a rule, in the first meaning of this word)
was chosen but quite specific ordinary man, for
example an artist as in the thesis research by E.R.
Borovskaya: “For the purpose of the analysis we
chose the prose works, where the primary focus is
on an artist in the enlarged sense of this word—a
man of art, a painter, a stage director, a writer or
even someone of editorial staff. The determining
factor was the presence of such characters and related to them problems of the nature of the creation,
of the specific character of a creative personality as
a phenomenon, and of the mutual relation between
a genius and the “crowd” [2, p. 5].
In our article we address the prose by S. Esin.
Works of this writer give their readers an opportunity to consider and analyze a wide variety of
problems—philosophic, literary, and linguistic.
The autobiographical short novel “Memoirs of a
quadragenarian” was published in 1981 and then
was reprinted in several anthologies [15, 16, 17]. In
his book “Her days…” which was written well after and devoted to his deceased wife, S. Esin wrote
about this short novel the following: “The short
novel had a title fraught with meaning—“Memoirs
of a quadragenarian”. The second meaning of the
title was clear mainly to the literary critics. Besides
the years of own age as of the time of writing the
book I meant also a group of literary artists, which
were called the “quadragenarians”. Sometimes
I was placed to them; sometimes I was not and
placed to another section, which was announced
during every conference of writers: I was itemized
always in different ways” [14].
This short novel is lyrical but at the same time it
has some elements of the publicism and novelism,
which are typical for the writer’s creative style. It
is full of love for his mother, of his home town—
Moscow, of life in all of its manifestations. The
main character is presented as an ordinary man. He
hadn’t come in full play yet but he is confident of
his destination, of his fate: “Even in my best days I
didn’t be at ease with my coevals. <…> But I knew
what I wanted and what was my aim and despite of
the risk of wasted youth I did little by little my staff”
[15, p. 310].
The short novel begins with description of the
death of the author’s mother: “You are alone, and
now you are an adult irretrievable…” [15, p. 277].
And it ends with the same words: “You are alone
and you should get used to be accountable for
yourself and for those who are at your side. Now
you are an adult irretrievable…” [15, p. 364].
The language usage of the main character reflects those linguistic processes which take place
in the modern prose. However we noted that the
linguistic processes appear in the works by S. Esin
implicit; and this natural combination of traditions
with some new features is one of the advantages of
the classical writing. Let us give some examples of
anthropocentric metaphor in particular: “On my heroic roof I stood in rain and wind and could hardly
wait for the end of the execution” [15, p. 280]. The
elements of the formation of new words are typical
for the prose by S. Esin, but this phenomenon itself
doesn’t come in full force: “- Everybody drinks,—
my elder mates sermonized me <…>” [15, p. 280].
Presentation of the creative style is more typical
for the prose by S. Esin than those linguistic processes, which become stepwise a norm in the modern prose. The descriptions of different foods both
in his prose and diaries are not only a continuing
of traditions of Gogol, but also very intimate autobiographical experiences and remembrances (for
example the scene with a potato in the cold tram).
Narration in form of memoirs gives an opportunity
to develop the image of the narrator and this theme
appears again: “As epigraph to one of my stories I
took a phrase, which I’ve noted “from a letter”: “…I
was often told that I belonged to the generation,
which didn’t know the war. But I remember the
famine of the postwar years and catch myself feeling embarrassed to eat fully at somebody’s place”.
This phrase is very intimate, the origin of the experiences, which bore it are the years of 45th, 46th and
47th” [15, p. 285].
The theme of distaste of the main character
for his repressed father is repeated and continued,
it appeared later in the novel “The keeker”. This
theme is accompanied by the theme of fear, which
was typical for the people of that time so they both
were elaborated in many works by Russian writers.
The comparison of the epochs is quite natural for
memoirs: “How lucky we are that the rough time
taught us esteem the kindness as well as the work
and attention. There is a lack of them today” [15,
p. 235]; “<…> the youth is such that their intellectual superiority can make afraid. They know more,
their actions are more impudence, their love is
Akhmetova 135
more sincere and they live more lively. But our time
shouldn’t be wiped off the slate” [15, p. 326].
The novelism of the creative style of S. Esin
forms the image of the narrator, who has some autobiographical features. One can say that this image
is repeated in the writer’s prose, goes through his
works. The novelism finds its expression in the intertextual references. For example: “The classic authors were right having told that the happiness was
always the same and unhappiness in every family
was in its own way” [15, p. 291]. The quotations
in the text are unacknowledged as if the narrator
holds a discourse with a kindred spirit. So at the
time which are described in the novel there wasn’t
any need in comments to the strophes of the poem
by A.P. Mezhirow, a poet who had been at war:
“Let’s suffer, on the squared ring of life let’s put our
heads on the block. Come on! “In order not to make
the scions feel ashamed and to express the modern
age straighter” [15, p. 310].
The image of the narrator is developed throughout the novel step by step. We will not venture to affirm which scenes of the novel are autobiographical
and which are not. It is quite clearly that every literary text is an imaginative structure. The image of
the writer with his biographical remembrances and
interpretations becomes the origin of the literary
image: and the interpreter has often an invaluable
material which helps to cognize the literary text,
these are diaries of the writer, his letters, memoirs,
scribbling-diaries, random notes as well as photos
and pictures etc [1].
The image of the main character appears as
an image of an intelligent and sincere man, who
meditates on his life. Every reader can find with this
image something in common and this fact can be
defined as a typical and corporate phenomenon
which is proper to the hero of the Russian prose. So
for example whether we don’t go along the same
routes of life as the main character: “A view from
my time: I am destined to go along the same routes
from the cradle to the grave” [15, p. 306]. Whether
we don’t have the same features as the main character? “I couldn’t understand why our dwelling
is worse than the earlier one? By my nature I feel
the kindness edgy and forget about everything bad
quickly” [15, p. 299]; “I was always destroyed and
saved because of the ignorance of the rules of the
game” [15, p.313]; “I couldn’t be a cosset of the
school with my love of self-education” [15, p. 354];
“I was always absolutely sure that I wasn’t capable
to pulverize a companion, I was jealous of another’s
charm: I could share the mental world, entrust my
doubts or plans” [15, p. 355].
The hero of the modern Russian literature is an
ordinary man, who incorporates common features
and peculiarities of many people. This man is sure
of his destination, although meanwhile he doubts
and seeks, but he goes forwards. Seek and ye shall
find! “I always knew who I wanted to be. Where
did this wish appear from? Was it overconfident?
I was afraid myself of its definiteness sometimes
but what had I do if I wanted to be a writer since
my childhood?” [15, p. 314]. In the history of Russian literature the main character was often a man,
who wrote. Indeed, “A hero of our time” by M.Y.
Lermontov was written in form of the journal of the
main character of the novel.
Life of a man could be placed in several lines.
It seems to be that the recitation of staging points of
the main character contains not only his own actions; it seems to be that many people lived in that
way. But not every man can form his/her own image
and make it literary: “In my life I broke the bulks,
dug the ground, painted the fences, and stood
guard. Run with sub gun about the fields, screened,
drove a car, worked as a forester, a librarian, a fine
art expert, a news reporter, helped a geologic party,
was an artist, a postman… but I don’t know the
work which would be harder than to think and to
write” [15, p. 317].
The main character is void of vanity. Everything
he need is to know what he wants and to give lives
to his characters: “I just wanted to see my work finished. My work and that’s all” [15, p.321].
The main character is a man of great spirituality,
but meanwhile he talks about the role of surrounding people in formation of his spirituality: “Quite
natural that life and people around abrase a man as
well as the waves of the sea abrase the stones. I associate my spiritual inclusion and art exposure with
the names of those people” [15, p. 346]; “<…>
how excellent that there are such people and that
they bear a charge of pure intelligence and unconditional love of knowledge” [15, p. 350]; “what the
beautiful moments of spirit!” [15, p. 357].
A true artist of word is a modern hero as well
and he shows him in his literary narration: “To work
more and more and to feel himself as a small part of
the whole which is called motherland. And let it be
the curiosity, the search of new overtones, new detailing to this solution into the bargain. Let it be the
search of the threads, which stretch from the bottom
of the past centuries and cultures” [15, p. 361].
References
1. Akhmetova G.D. Image of the author vs. Image of the
writer? // Biographical method—projections into social
and human sciences: collection of scientific articles.—
University “Prof. D-r Asen Zlatarov”. Burgas, 2014. p.
98–107.
2. Borovskaya E.R. An artist as the main character in Russian prose of the early and late XX century: в русской
прозе начала и конца XX века: thesis research:
10.01.01) / Borovskaya Helena Raymondovna. Moscow, 2000. 193 p.
3. Erokhin V. The new hero of the new time // Literaturnaya
Rossiya № 40. 2014. The 3rd of October 2014. p. 15.
4. Ivanova O.Y. Reincarnation of the literary image in
Russian literature by the example of “Sashka” by M.Y.
Lermontov and “Sankya” by Z. Prilepin / O.Y. Ivanova
// “Social and cultural and philological aspects within
the context of education and science”. The first international virtual meeting dedicated to the problems of
Russian philology, culture and pedagogy in Japan / articles and reports of the international meeting in Japan
2014 / Japan, Kyoto, Kyoto Sangyo University, Publishing house “Tanaka Print”, 2014. p. 221–224.
5. What sort of man must be a hero of modern Russia? //
Literaturnaya gazeta. № 37, 2014. The 12th of September 2014.
6. Kolobrodov A. Heroes and genres of our time (polemics
attempt with a classic author of the “new realism”) //
Literaturnaya Rossiya № 40. 2014. The 3rd of October
2014. p. 6-7.
7. Losev A. Philosophy. Mythology. Culture. Moscow:
Publishing house Politizdat, 1991. 525 p.
8. Whether a Russian can be happy? Vera Galaktionova
considers the great Russian writers to be faced the great
impediments which are directionally-proportional to
their talents: the talk was recorded by A. Ermakova //
Literaturnaya gazeta. № 39, 2014. The 8-14th of October 2014. p. 6.
9. Rastorgueva V.S. “A hero of our time in the modern
prose” // Phililogichesky class. № 21. 2009. p. 12–16.
10. Sibirtsev Sergey. The newest writer of the modern age.
Novel “Russian chock” [digital resource]: [access
mode]: URL: http://www.proza.ru/2014/05/02/1794
(d/d 21.10.2014).
11. Sokolkon Sergey: I hate the word “tolerance”! [digital
resource]: [access mode]: URL: http://mospravda.ru/
interlocutor/article/sergei_sokolkin %3A_ya_nenavijy_
slovo_tolerantnost/ (d/d 21.10.2014).
12. Talbot Michael. “The holographic universe” [digital
resource]: [access mode]: URL: http://modernlib.ru/
books/talbot_maykl/golograficheskaya_vselennaya/
read (d/d 24.10.2014).
13. Literary sources:
14. Borges J.L. Collection (storybook). St. Petersburg: Publishing house “Severo-Zapad”, 1992.
15. Esin S. Her days… Moscow: Publishing house “ACADEMICA”, 2011. 672 p.
16. Esin S.N. Затмение Марса. novels, short novels. Moscow: Publishing house Golos, 1995. 576 p.
17. Esin S.N. Memoirs of a quadragenarian // Yunost. 1981.
№ 4.
18. Esin S.N. Memoirs of a quadragenarian: short novels,
stories. Moscow: Sovremennik, 1984. 398 p.
19. Lermontov M.Y. “A hero of our time” // 18.
Lermontov M.Y. Collected works issued in four volumes. The fourth volume. Leningrad: Publishing house
“Science” Leningrad department, 1981. p. 183–314.
20. Nikolaeva O. “Fire of the Heavens” and the other stories. Moscow: OLMA Media Group: Publishing house
of the Sretensky Monastery, 2013. 496 p.
Studying of the Uzbek Classical
Literature in the Russian Literary
Criticism of the XX Century
Gulnoz Khalliyeva
Language and Literature Institute of Uzbekistan Academy of Sciences, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
C
entral Asian-Turkic poetry in the Russian literary criticism of the first half of the XX century
The Turkish history and culture is one of components of the world civilization which heritage still
remains completely not lit owing to many socio-political reasons. Now, in the former Soviet Union
there were independent states and it was absolutely
new between them other relationship within the
Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS). The
attention to that unvalued contribution which was
made by the Russian scientists in general, philologists in particular in development of science was
unreasonably weakened.
In our opinion, the appeal to their heritage, can
define more accurately horizons of the scientific
progress. The end of XIX—the beginning of the XX
century are marked by successful development of
science in Russia. The scientific oriental studies finally developed as a complex of the humanities:
philology, history, philosophy, right, linguistics, literary criticism, geography, and also archeology, epigrafika, numismatics, ethnography and many other
western disciplines.
Outstanding domestic orientalists—V. V. Bartold, K. G. Zaleman, P. K. Kokovtsev, I.Yu.Krachkovsky, P. M. Melioransky, S. F. Oldenburg,
V. V. Radlov, A. N. Samoylovich, E. E. Bertels—removed oriental studies of Russia in the first raws of
the world science.
This brilliant group of scientists created basic researches, having laid in some cases the foundation
to development of new branches of science, in particular, of Turkology
The volume of the issued and unpublished articles on Turkish literature testify to collecting and the
analysis of the valuable data which are important
for science.
Academician A. N. Samoylovich (1880–1938)
had special love to literature of the East, it was
special love of one of the Russian scientists who
conducted work on the bases hand-written sources
under the Turkish literature. In studying of Uzbek
literature, language, ethnography, national creativity the scientist took the special place. “For me in
the east to be more important, than to be on island Vasilev (St.-Petersburg) I—Majnun, Turkestan—Layli. In my nature there is a certain affinity
to muslims and I get on with them quickly”, (Baskakov 1973: 90)—wrote A. N. Samoylovich. Really,
when he was a master, he devoted his life to Central
Asia. More than 300 printed works of the scientist
weren’t published yet and not carried out scientific
researches that it worked without a respite, all being. (Dmitrieva 1966: 206–211) At a scientific trip it
was possible both to track to us, and to study from
achievement of the scientist existing data.
Searches in archive data give the chance to distinguish even more widely A. N. Samojlovich’s putting the most valuable contribution to studying of
history of the Turkish literature and language works.
Researches of the scientist in area textual criticism
served as the primary goal for the subsequent works
137
created set. These researches have served development in area of linguistics, critics of the text, poetic
introduction, the general philology.
The analysis confirmed that, the scientist more
was interested “in inexhaustible richness of materials on a Turkology, mostly unpublished and not surveyed, in particular hand-written treasures. Thanks
to persistence and enthusiasm of the Russian philologists considerable scientific and organizational
work on studying of creativity of Alisher Navoi
(1441–1501) and Bobur was done (1483–1530)
A. N. Samoylovich, I. V. Stebleva, G. F. Blagova
made the significant contribution in acquaintance
with the content of creations of Bobur of world
community. The analysis of materials convinces us
what exactly E. E. Bertels belongs a merit of consecutive and systematic studying of creativity of Alisher
Navoi.
Thanks to the reliable scientific base created by
it, wide prospects for development of a Navoivedenie in Russia and Central Asia opened. On the basis
of the theory of a comparative scientist compared
Turkish poetry to Persian language poetry with
the purpose to prove originality and poetic skill of
Turkish authors. In the scientific work “Navoi and
Attar” he managed to disprove a methodological
mistake of the West European and many Russian
scientists that Navoi was the imitator, an imitator
of the Persian literature. Comparative researches of
the scientist proved that, Navoi the great poet having a peculiar talent. On a conclusion E. E. Bertels
“ a plot only a basis an outline on which the poet
embroiders the motley patterns and what objectively to estimate the poet it is necessary to pay attention to these patterns.
Studying of Turkic classical literature in Russian
oriental studies of the XX century is in the center for
a long time attention of turcologists. But this subject
still is completely not studied.
Our purpose to investigate this problem on the
basis of archival materials of Russia. We found and
investigated the low-studied manuscripts, unpublished анпаблишед works of the Russian scientists.
We studied scientific works of A. N. Samoylovich,
E. E. Bertels, V. V. Bartold, G. F. Blagova.
Each merit of the Russian philologists-orientalists which became object of the scientific analysis
for our researches deserves the bigger. It should be
perceived not only, as a tribute of great memory, but
also as an appeal to continuation of their research.
That is, on the reliable base it is necessary to develop those important scientific directions at which
sources they were.
References
1. Baskakov N.A A letter B. A. Gordlevskiy from A. N. Samoylovich //Soviet Turcology 1973 № 5. P.90
2. L. D. Dmitrieva Materials to describing hand written
gources A. N. Samoylovich //NAA(Nations of Asia and
Africa) 1966. № 3.P.206–211
3. The complete works of Babur // Arhive A. N. Samoylovich RNL (Russian national library) Fund № 671
4. N. Samoylovich Turkish linguistics.Philology.Moscow.
2005
Difficulties of Legal Translation
Anastasia Malakhova,
Anita Korgina,
N.Shishigina
Dmitrov State Polytechnic College, Dmitrov, Russia
I
f Judiciary or court is your professional field, there
is no need to explain the term ‘legal translation’ to
you. However, legal translation is not applied within
the judiciary field only rather it has vast application
on deeds, quotation etc. Usually legal translation
means to translate any text within the field of law.
Since it is quite a hard task and there is no room for
mistranslation, none but professionals are required
for legal translation and scholarly writing.
So, in order to translate legal documents, you
need to find a reliable and pro level translation because a single mistranslation in a deed or contract
paper may lead you to considerable loss of money.
However, finding such translator is not that easy as
well as time consuming.
Legal translation is often more difficult than
other types of technical translation because of the
system-bound nature of legal terminology. Unlike scientific or other technical terminology, each
country has its own legal terminology (based on the
particular legal system of that country), which will
often be quite different even from the legal terminology of another country with the same language.
Legal translation, needs the services of an expert that is highly knowledgeable in legal terms and
practices. Translating legal documents needs accurate and correct translation and is one of the most
difficult among all translation work. There are many
things that need legal translation, including birth
certificates, application letters, technical patent
confirmation, deposition records, financial statement, evidence documents, litigation materials and
business contracts. Translators should not only possess general knowledge of legal terminology, they
should also be well versed in statutory requirements
and the legal intricacies of foreign cultural and legal
systems.
Since legal translation need to maintain the
original structure of source document, some word
or term which are directly related to the culture or
manner of source document may found improper
irrelevant for target language. In these cases translator has to search for the most suitable equivalent
terms and linguistic structure that matches with
the ones in source text. However, problem arises
when selecting equivalent terms or linguistic structure since there are times when equivalent term
may provide little relation with the original term or
structure and causes alternation in meaning. In order to avoid this, translator often has to keep some
words or terms unchanged in the translated document. Sometimes these unchanged terms or names
also create confusion during trial or testimony since
lawyers and judges might not familiar with these
foreign terms or words thus they need the assistance of court interpreters and translators for word
for word translation. However word to word translation to the target language might sounds a series
of meaningless words and creates more confusion.
This is why many translators choose to stick with the
standard way of legal translation rather than using
unchanged word or term in translated document.
In solving international legal problems, a lawyer will be dealing with words, and the accuracy of
a written legal document depends largely on word
selection, syntax and good sentence structure. According to A. Samuel Adelo, “the lawyer must then
depend on a translator to render the words he uses
139
in a legal document into another language.” Conversely, a lawyer in international practice will often
require the services of a translator to render foreign
documents (usually drafted by an attorney subject
to equally demanding requirements relating to
word selection, syntax and sentence structure) into
the lawyer’s native language. Unfortunately, lawyers
often underrate the importance of selecting a good
translator to accomplish these important tasks.
Lawyers must often face a contrast between an
ideal vision of “the law” and the reality of legal life,
which is made up more by precedents subject to interpretation than by statutes carved in stone. These
difficulties are compounded in the cross-border
context due to the additional complexities of different languages as well as different legal systems.
Legal translation is bounded by the field of law
and need to maintain culture depended factors according to the source document or source text. So,
source text provides the structure of sentence which
is the reflection of law or culture. The translated
document or target text needs to fulfill this cultural
structure accordingly so that there is no slight violation of cultural manner, actual meaning or jurisdiction. This is why legal translation focuses more
into clear definition of rights, duties, obligation,
and other contract particular so that these factors
remain unchanged after translation. This is not all
but legal translation often require certificate of accuracy. In case of translating documents regarding
wills, articles of incorporation, trusts, depositions,
immigration, property exhibit levels often ask for
the presence of translator.
The professional legal translator must be part
linguist, part legal scholar and part detective, willing and able to search out and define legal concepts
expressed in the source language of a document
that may not even have an equivalent in the language or legal system of the target text. The translator must first decode the source text and reconstruct
its meaning in the target text. In many cases, the
translator is limited to finding a functional equivalent for a word or phrase or a parenthetical explanation because an exact translation is impossible.
A good legal translator also knows that even
within the legal field there are completely separate
areas of law that require specific translation techniques: a contractual document has little in common
with a will, an administrative certificate, a judicial
decision or a statute, to name a few examples.
The translator knows that he or she must consult not only a monolingual legal dictionary, but
also a treatise regarding the subject matter, and
that bilingual dictionaries, while useful, should be
used with caution. The professional legal translator must understand the intended use of the translation, which has as much bearing on his or her
approach as the text of the document itself. Terminology, phraseology, syntax, register (tone) and
a myriad of other parameters will be affected by
the purpose of the translation (e.g., is the translation for information purposes only, binding contract language, or for submission as evidence in
court?). As source-text documents are not always
well written or clear, the translator must first decide, in the words of author Holly Mikkelson,
whether the source text is “unintelligible to the
laymen but not the expert, or simply unintelligible.” In this case, the translator would have to decide whether a faithful translation of the meaningless original should be equally meaningless in the
target language, despite the pain of deliberately
creating nonsensical text.
When faced with international disputes involving different languages and legal systems, legal
counsel and their clients would be well advised to
obtain the services of translators able to successfully bridge the divide of legal systems, as well as
language and culture, in order to provide literate
rather than literal translations.
The process
Translation per se is already a complex process that involves so many specific skills. However,
translating legal documents is more exacting, as the
ramifications of even the slightest of mistakes will
involve a complex legal process, notwithstanding
the financial costs, for it to be reversed.
There are some things to keep in mind when
doing legal translation. The source text is structured
to follow the legal system that conforms to its own
legal language and culture. The target text on the
other hand will be read by another person that is
familiar with another language and legal system.
Malakhova, Korgina, Shishigina 141
There should be clearly defined duties and
rights for all organizations and individuals concerned when creating the translation. It should ensure that these are delivered precisely in the source
and target texts. Likewise it should be remembered
that the linguistic structures of the source language
might not have direct equivalents in the target language, thus it is the responsibility of the translator
to find a suitable language structure that is similar
to the source text.
Translator requirements
A legal translator must have the competencies
in three areas: competency in the target language’s
particular writing style, familiarity with the pertinent
terminology and general knowledge of the legal
systems of the source and target languages. There is
no room for word for word translation when translating legal documents.
Due to this, the professional translator of legal
documents must be part detective, legal scholar
and linguist with the amount of research work that
needs to be done to be able to decode the source
and write its actual meaning that will never, in any
circumstances, deviate from the originate content,
even if an exact translation is not possible.
Likewise, the translator must understand where
the translation is to be used as this will affect the approach when translating the document. It definitely
affects several parameters, including tone or register, syntax, phraseology and terminology. When the
source text is not well written, it is also the job of
the translator to decide whether to translate it into
something vague as the original or make it meaningful, which could be the case but was hampered
by poor writing.
Legal document translation is such a demanding task. It requires professional legal translators
that have the right academic background, and are
backed by years of legal translation expertise.
Legal translations can be done in the following
areas of:
Estate Planning, wills and trusts
Arbitration
Workers compensation
Litigation
Corporate Law
Tax law
Family law
Immigration law
International law
Insurance law
Labor and employment law
Real estate law
Following are some tips that should be kept in
mind while doing legal translation:
1. The original material received should be minutely analyzed in order to determine its technical
difficulty, volume and linguistic peculiarities.
2. The legal translator should have a rich
vocabulary.
3. An unqualified foreign language translator
can ruin a whole case. So one should be aware
of this and should always hire a professional legal
translator.
4. The translation should be done with the help
of CAT (computer aided translation). This helps to
improve turnarounds and make sure that the terminology and the stylistic coherence is maintained
throughout the text.
5. A legal translator requires a sound knowledge in legal as well as cultural and linguistic fields.
6. There are separate areas of law within the legal field that require specific translation techniques.
A legal translator should be well aware of this.
7. For an improved legal translation, a translator
must not refer only to a monolingual legal dictionary but also study regarding the subject matter and
should refer to a bilingual dictionary also.
8. The translator should use the words from the
dictionary with proper vigilance.
9. Apart from the terminology the translator
should also focus on important aspects like textual
conventions in the source. In most of the case the
languages are culture dependent and may not communicate to the people in the target culture. So the
translator should find out language structures with the
same expression as written in the source language.
10. The quality of the legal translation should be
checked properly and a final strict check should be
done to make sure that the process has been done
in a correct manner and the translated documents
are ready for the court proceedings or usage as a legal document.
All the above-mentioned tips are very helpful
for improving the skills of legal translation. Practicing these tips will help you to minimize the number of mistakes and improve the standard of your
writing.
So, summarizing all that I have written here,
legal translation is the language conversion of
texts within the field of law. As law is a culture
dependent subject, legal translation is not an easy
task. Only professional translators expert in legal
translation should translate legal documents and
scholarly writings. The mistranslation of a passage
in a contract, could lead to lawsuits and loss of
money.
So while doing any legal translation one should
be very focused and concentrate on it. A legal
translator should have a fine understanding and
knowledge of the legal terms. He or she has to be
very careful to avoid any sort of mistake and error.
References
1. http://www.omniglot.com/language/articles/legaltranslation.htm
2. http://www.duhaime.org/dictionary
3. English-Russian Law Dictionary/ Andrianov S. N., Berson A. S., Nikiforov A. S.—Russo Press: Moscow, 1998.
4. Ivanova L. I., Sheberstova T. B. The Peculiarities of the
English Legal Term and Their Reflection in Translation //
The Problems of Intercultural Communication (international conference materials). ISUCT Press: Ivanovo, 2000.
5. Wilss, W, 1999, “Translation and Interpreting in the
20th Century”, pp. 89–110.
6. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/translation
7. www.eversheds.com
Category of Assessment
Within Public Political Speech
(based on Stolypin’s speech)
Svetlana Pogorelova,
Anna Yakovleva
Tyumen State University of Architecture, Building and Civil Engineering, Tyumen, Russia
C
ultural and linguistic aspects of communication
are equally important for successful cross-cultural communication. Linguistic aspect is focused
not only on different language units but it includes
knowledge of different types of texts belonging to
different functional styles. The texts of public speech
of prominent politicians—speakers are of particular
interest. These text patterns are determined by their
communicative and pragmatic tasks and special
nature of the communicative situation with a strong
focus on recipients. It is logical that categories of
modality including the category of assessment hold
a significant place in the text patterns.
The study aims at identifying assessment means
in the text structure—speech and analyzing the
most frequent language means for expressing assessment. The results of the analysis will represent
the author’s oratorical skills, his mastery of public
speaking. They will also help you learn how to influence the audience effectively in order to achieve
the desired success. The choice of material for research seems warranted.
P. A. Stolypin (1862–1911) was a Russian statesman, Home Secretary and Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the Russian Empire. He has been
known as an orator, reformer and the person who
suppressed the revolution of 1905–1907. Evaluation of Pyotr Stolypin’s activity has never been
clear: after some authors, Stolypin was a talented
statesman who not only offered unique reforms, but
also strived to conduct them by “the softest means”;
after other authors, Stolypin was “a strangler and
hangman”, “a champion whose political views
have been known as the Stolypin reaction”.
During his speech to the deputies of the State
Duma P. A. Stolypin manifested his oratorical talent. His phrases “You will not intimidate me!” and
“They need great upheavals, we need great Russia”
[5] became popular quotations.
The study analyzes three texts of P. A. Stolypin’s public political speech which, in our opinion,
were very significant for the political life of Russia at the beginning of the XX century: “Speech
on peasants’ family property made in the Council
of State on March 26, 1910”, “Speech on the bill
concerning road toll revenues in favor of the cities
(20.02. 1910)” and “Speech on Zemstvo institutions
in Western Region (1.02.1911)”.
P. A. Stolypin’s speech is strictly structured in
its composition. After E. N. Zareckaja and most
linguists, who adhere to classical composition of
speech, we highlight the following components of
the text structure and their elements, namely:
1) contacting (appealing);
2) reasoning principal thoughts (subject matter,
narration, description, proof, denial, appeal);
3) conclusion (result, prospects) [3].
It should be noted that the sequence of components and elements may vary depending on the volume of speech, its content and the conditions of the
143
communicative situation. These could be observed
in Stolypin’s speech.
Traditional appeal to the audience at the beginning of the speech is typical for him. He keeps in
touch with the audience appealing to it during his
speech. Let us compare:
“... Dear members of the Council of State”...;
“... Gentlemen”...; You”;
“... I’m sorry, gentlemen, I do not understand”...;
“Gentlemen, I do not exaggerate the importance of the law”....
Analyzing the structure and content of Stolypin’s political speech, one can conclude that every
composite component of the speech presents bright
assessments where “the subject of assessment considers that the object of assessment is good / bad”
[1].
Category of assessment implemented in the assessment situation performs a number of functions
in the speech context and, above all, it serves to
express the speaker’s relationship to the real world
(N. D. Arutiunova, A. A. Ivin, E. M. Wolf, B. N. Telia, et al.), as well as to describe the facts, events and
realities of our environment. Assessment statement
is aimed at drawing the listener’s attention to the situation or to the problem. It allows us to understand
the position or reaction of the speaker, even if he
does not give enough information about it [2].
Consideration of the assessment objects in the
texts showed that they could be actions or signs,
a community of people or one person, real phenomena, events, realities, etc.
The topic of “Speech on peasants’ family property made in the Council of State on March 26,
1910” is the draft law dated from November 9,
1906, providing measures to strengthen peasants‘
private property and their liberation from bondage.
However, for the upper classes of society this project seemed to be a harmful phenomenon which, in
their view, should be amended, modified and neutralized. For this purpose, “opponents of the law”
presented amendments to the State Council for its
„neutralization“. P. A. Stolypin tried to explain the
government’s view on this issue and to convince
the members of the Council to pass a law without
any changes. The assessment objects are: the draft
law and points concerning the draft, the proposed
amendments to the draft revealing positive (draft
law) and negative (amendments) sides of the speech
object, therefore, the assessment object.
P. A. Stolypin’s “Speech on the bill concerning road toll revenues in favor of the cities (20.02.
1910)” is devoted to the draft law aimed at solving
one of the urgent problems of Russia—lack of roads.
The purpose of the speech is to convince the members of the Council of State to adopt and approve
the proposed draft law. The assessment objects are:
Russia, Moscow, the Council of State, ministers,
government, draft law, tax, resource, goods and
roads.
Assessment statements in P. A. Stolypin’s speech
are bright, apt and expressive. They are contamination of expressive lexical and syntactic language
means. The most frequent means used are: lexical
repetition, metaphorical phrases and sentences, expressive word order and a rhetorical question. Due
to these structures Stolypin clearly identifies assessment objects and then combines them into one assessment situation for representing the problem.
Lexical repetition is frequently observed
in P. A. Stolypin’s political speech. It is used both as
a means of expressing the assessment and a means
of emphasizing the assessment aimed at logical and
emotional impacts on the listener. Lexical repetition adds greater persuasiveness and weight to the
assessment, promotes understanding and perception of the text and saturates it with emotionality.
Compare:
“After all, it was a troubled time when landlords’ estates were burning and burning down,....
political Revolt,... social Revolt,... destroy this revolt
and generated revolutionary revolt. And since the
time of Revolt—time for making decisions without
hesitation... ”;
“... The belief of the government that the law
is built correctly.... it is this law that laid the foundation, the foundation for a new socio-economic
system.... Therefore, the government, believing in
the viability of the draft law....... that a fundamental aspect of the draft law is the axis of our policy....
I firmly believe in the correctness of the basic idea
of the law.”
Lexical repetition in the second example also
serves as a means for emphasizing the assessment
meanings. Thus, evaluating the proposed government draft the speaker reiterates that it is the
Pogorelova, Yakovleva 145
government’s belief that, in our opinion, gives the
expression greater persuasiveness and weight:
Metaphor should be considered as a means
for expressing assessment, first of all, metaphorical
phrases and sentences. After I. M. Kobozeva, a metaphor in political texts performs “an interactive
function of smoothing the most dangerous political
statements involving contentious political issues,
minimizing the responsibility of the speaker for
the possible literal interpretation of his opinions by
recipients” [4]. Metaphors allow Stolypin to show
the assessment situation expressively and at the
same time to smooth the essence of his assessment.
Compare:
“Passionate debates”; “beautiful place sleeps”...;
“ardent supporter”; “time passes spontaneously”...;
“political temper”; “this mass is guileless, not politically educated, and not knowing how to swim
yet, and you want to throw it into the sea of political struggle”...; “Pinned, and defeated will be the
resurgent Russian identity—and not on the battlefield, not by the power of the sword, but on the
lists of thought, by hypnosis of theory and power
of... a beautiful phrase!”; “It would be a legislative
brake”...; “... lack of roads is one of the evils of life
in Russia”
Rhetorical questions and antithesis serve as
means of emphasizing the assessment in Stolypin’s
speech. Compare:
“Why do we need to put them in the position of
hibernation, and then be surprised that they do not
move? ” (Rhetorical question);
“How to recreate a strong Russia and at the
same time to extinguish the initiative, energy and
to kill spontaneous activity? ” (Rhetorical question);
“My personal opinion is that poor and undereducated people will take little part in Zemstvo activities, but well-off peasant proprietors will lead Zemstvo perfectly” (antithesis);
“Yet I most emphatically and definitely declare
that forced shackles, as the government thinks, will
not help, but harm” (antithesis);
The study of P. A. Stolypin’s public political
speech does not aim at exhaustive description of
all the linguistic means used for assessment in the
space of compositional and contextual structure of
the text. However, they give us an idea of the linguistic and national colour of Stolypin’s speech and
his oratory and rhetoric skills.
References
1. Wol’f E. M. Funkcional’naja semantika ocenki.- M.:
Nauka, 1985.—228s.
2. Gak V. G. Jemocii i ocenki v strukture vyskazyvanija
i teksta // Vestnik Moskovskogo universiteta. Ser.9.
Filologija.—1987.—№ 3.—S. 87–95.
3. Zareckaja E. N. Ritorika: Teorija i praktika rechevoj
kommunikacii.—M.: Delo, 1999.—480s.
4. Kobozeva I. M. Semanticheskie problemy analiza politicheskoj metafory // Vestnik MGU. Ser. 9. Filologija.
2001.—№ 6.—S.134.
5. Stolypin P. A. Nam nuzhna velikaja Rossija...: Polnoe
sobranie rechej v Gosudarstvennoj Dume i Gosudarstvennom Sovete. 1906–1911gg.—M.: Mol. Gvardija,
1991.—411s.
John Milton and his Influence
on Modern Art: Cinema
Volha Shkrabo
Belorussian State University, Minsk, Belarus
Abstract. This article is a part of a work investigating the impact of John Milton’s art on the contemporary
culture. It represents the review of reception of poet’s art in the American and European cinema during the
period between 1960s and 2014.
Keywords: John Milton, “Paradise Lost”, modern art, influence, cinema.
1. Introduction
Contemporary culture is an experience of past
generations. It is common, panhuman culture arisen
on the basis of the integrity of the world. It is universal in this sense.
In 2008 the whole literary world was celebrating
the 400-anniversary of John Milton’s birthday. This
event was widely reported in the press. It appeared
numerous articles, web-sites dedicated to life and
literary art of the great poet. E.g. web-site “John Milton: The Milton-L Home page” (www.johnmilton.
org), where one can find information about poet’s
life, his literary works as well as materials of recent
researches of his art.
Having turned the attention to such response
to the anniversary of the poet who was living 250
years before us, one put oneself a question: to what
extent the poet of the XVII cent. had influenced on
the contemporary culture (the term “contemporary
culture” refers to the period between 1960s and
2014).
Studying of different resources indicates that
contemporary culture rethought and continues to
rethink the creative legacy left by John Milton. One
can find allusions to his works in different spheres
of art: movies, theatre, music, painting, literature
and even in computer games.
This research is a part of a work investigating
the impact of John Milton’s art on the contemporary
culture and represents the review of reception of
poet’s art in the American and European cinema.
2. Influence on Cinema
One can find allusions to Milton’s work in a
number of movies.
In 1978 it appeared the comedy “Animal House”
directed by John Landis. The storyline features the
life of American college in the 1960s. In one of the
episodes the lecturer Mr. Jennings tells about John
Milton’s poem “Paradise Lost” and the poet himself:
Jennings: Now, what can we say of John Milton’s
Paradise Lost? It’s a long poem, written a long time
ago, and I’m sure a lot of you have difficulty understanding exactly what Milton was trying to say.
Certainly we know that he was trying to describe
the struggle between good and evil, right? Okay.
The most intriguing character, as we all know from
our reading, was Satan. Now was Milton trying to tell
us that being bad was more fun than being good?
146
Shkrabo 147
<…> I find Milton probably as boring as you
find Milton. Mrs. Milton found him boring, too. He’s
a little bit long-winded he doesn’t translate very well
into our generation, and his jokes are terrible [7].
Mr. Jennings’ manner is rather specific but maybe
such ironic and frivolous attitude contributes to attraction of auditory to the ideas and problems raised
in Milton’s poem as well as to the poet himself.
In 1994 it was produced a notorious film “The
Crow”, the debut work of Alex Proyas [10]. The direct quote from the Book IV of “Paradise Lost” was
used twice by the villain T-Bird and played the significant role in this film:
So spake the Cherub; and his grave rebuke,
Severe in youthful beauty, added grace
Invincible: Abashed the Devil stood,
And felt how awful goodness is, and saw
Virtue in her shape how lovely; saw, and pined
His loss [3, p. 298].
In the film “Se7en” (1995) directed by David
Fincher one of the main characters—detective Somerset (performed by Morgan Freeman),—was investigating “Paradise Lost” and “Canterbury tales” to
understand the motives of John Doe [8].
The most known example of allusions to “Paradise Lost” is the film “The Devil’s Advocate” (1997),
directed by Taylor Hackword [11]. One of the main
characters, being some kind of devil’s personalization, bears the name of John Milton. The main character—young and promising advocate Kevin Lomax
(performed by Keanu Reeves),—faced the choice:
between conscience and prospects, between good
and evil, between love and ministry as Adam in
“Paradise Lost” did. One can say that this film is
a modern version of story of Adam and Eve’s live
following their expulsion. Kevin and his wife began
new life in a new place that firstly looked as Eden,
being Hell in reality. In this film, one can hear also
direct quotes from the poem:
Better to reign in Hell, than serve in Heav’n [3,
p. 218].
In 2007 it was released the film for children
“The Golden Compass”, shot by Chris Weitz on the
first part of the trilogy “His Dark Materials” by Phillip Pullman.
The trilogy “His Dark Materials” (1995-2000)
is the most evident example of John Milton’s influence on literature and, as a result, on cinema.
Phillip Pullman noted that John Milton influenced
greatly on his trilogy but the writer didn’t want to
copy “Paradise Lost”, he just realized that “in his
patch Milton had been working on the same thing.
And a long time ago the original writer of the book
of Genesis had been working on the same story”
[6]. The title of the trilogy was taken from “Paradise
Lost”, and the epigraph to the first part of the trilogy
was the quote from the poem:
Into this wild Abyss,
The Womb of nature and perhaps her Grave,
Of neither Sea, nor Shore, nor Air, nor Fire,
But all these in thir pregnant causes mixt
Confus’dly, and which thus must ever fight,
Unless th’ Almighty Maker them ordain
His dark materials to create more Worlds,
Into this wild Abyss the wary fiend
Stood on the brink of Hell and look’d a while,
Pondering his Voyage [3, p. 253-254].
In 2009 the American producer Martin Poll set
out the screen version of the poem “Paradise Lost”.
The filming was also started by another American
producer Vincent Newman who announced the beginning of shooting in 2005 but the casting is still
in progress. The film had to come out in 2011[2]
but that’s not going to happen. In December 2011
the film company “Legendary pictures” announced
that the filming was discontinued because of excess
expenditure. The film was planned as free interpretation of the poem in the genre of thriller with fascinating visual effects [4, 5].
And finally, the name of John Milton was used
in the film “SPUD” based on the novel of the same
name by John van de Ruit. It was released in South
Africa on 3 December 2010. This is the story about
small boy named John Milton, and it is the only
connection with famous poet. A sequel, titled Spud
2: The Madness Continues was released on 21 June
2013. A second sequel, Spud 3: Learning to Fly released on 28 November 2014 in South Africa [9].
3. Conclusion
Apparently, John Milton’s art, and namely the
poem “Paradise Lost”, continues to be of interest
to contemporary human being. Life experience and
philosophy of the poet are universal, and currently
the reflection of John Milton’s influence on minds of
present time is represented in the form of allusions
to his works. Unfortunately, it is probably observed
the situation similar to one with Daniel Defoe who
is widely known for his “Robinson Crusoe” but only
few people know about his other works that are also
significant in his art but not so popularized.
People, who do not have professional interest
in John Milton and his works, unlikely would know
about his other works (maybe besides “Paradise Regained” and “Samsone-Agoniste” that are within
hearing), though they are very meaningful and useful for contemporary readers.
References
1. Jon Laurence. Legacy of Paradise Lost. [Electronic
resource].—Mode of access: http://www.christs.cam.
ac.uk/darknessvisible/imitation.html.—Date of access:
03.06.2014.
2. Legendary Pulls Plug on Bradley Cooper’s “Paradise Lost” / The Hollywood Reporter [Electronic
resource].—Mode of access: http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/legendary-pictures-paradise-lost-bradley-cooper-288520.—Date of access:
26.05.2014.
3. Milton John. Complete Poems and Major Prose / John
Milton // Edited by Merrit Y. Hughes. Notes and Intro-
ductions by the Editor.—Indianapolis: The Odyssey
Press, 1976.—1059 p.
4. Paradise Lost movies face off in Hollywood. [Electronic resource].—Mode of access: http://uk.reuters.com/article/2009/04/30/film-us-paradise-idUKTRE53T12S20090430.—Date of access: 14.01.2014.
5. Paradise Lost: Movie V. [Electronic resource]. Mode
of access: http://www.paradiselost.org/2-M-wbanner.
html.—Date of access: 24.07.2014.
6. Phillip Pullman’s Dark Arts. [Electronic resource].—
Mode of access: http://www.moreintelligentlife.co.uk/
story/an-interview-with-philip-pullman.—Date
of
access: 24.07.2014.
7. Quotes from the movie Animal House / Finest Quotes
[Electronic resource].—Mode of access: http://www.
finestquotes.com/movie_quotes/movie/Animal%20
House/page/0.htm.—Date of access: 26.05.2014.
8. Seven. [Electronic resource].—Mode of access: http://
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seven_%281995_film%29.—
Date of access: 06.01.2015
9. Spud. [Electronic resource].—Mode of access:
http://www.spudthemovie.com/.—Date of access:
06.01.2015.
10. The Crow. [Electronic resource].—Mode of access:
http://www.miramax.com/movie/the-crow/.—Date of
access: 06.01.2015.
11. The Devil’s advocate. [Electronic resource].—Mode of
access: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Devil%27s_
Advocate_%281997_film%29.—Date
of
access:
06.01.2015.
Anglicisms in the Modern Youth
Environment
Anna Maria Smirnova
Narva Language Lyceum, Narva, Estonia
T
he aim of the research was to find out the extent
of penetration of anglicisms into the speech
of modern school students. The hypothesis was
that modern youths widely use anglicisms in their
speech.
Various methods were used to achieve the objectives: theoretical (literature review, analyses and
generalization of the results of the current study, and
classification of foreign-language words), empirical
(supervision), sociological (conversations and interviews, and statistical (data processing).
The current study found that the main reasons
for increases in the use of anglicisms in the youth
environment are:
1. Influence of mass media on the speech of
teenagers
2. The importance of slang for communication
with peers
3. Social factors
The purpose of this research was to find out the
extent of penetration of anglicisms into the speech
of modern schoolchildren. The data obtained
during the research confirm the assumption and we
can see that the hypothesis was confirmed. Anglicisms are widely used in the Russian language by
teenagers. It appears that the Russian language is
being influenced by the English language. In fact,
it is unpleasant when Russian words are replaced
by foreign words. Nevertheless, the inflow of loan
words into Russian has accepted the total character
and it should not be regarded as a highly negative
phenomenon. Anglicisms are a major part of the
language and they are here to stay, to further enrich
the Russian language.
Introduction
The language of any people does not live an isolated life. Borrowing of words [1] is a natural and
necessary process in language development, and
there is no language that is absolutely free of foreign-language influences. In the last 20 or 30 years,
anglicisms [2] have entered Russian so rapidly and
in such large numbers that linguists have started
talking about such phenomena as English-Russian
bilingualism. Bilingualism is the ability of certain
groups in a population to speak two languages [3].
Development of the world economic market and
international tourism have led to strengthening of
information streams and emergence of the global
Internet, and to the appearance of new loan words.
On the one hand, the process of borrowing enriches
the lexicon of native Russian speakers; but on the
other hand, the originality and unique beauty of
Russian could be lost. Of special concern is the fact
that in the daily speech of Russian- speaking youth,
loan words from English slang and their derivatives
occur with increasing frequency. It is easier for
young people to express their thoughts and feelings
by means of a foreign language. As is well-known,
languages live and change together with the societies they serve, submitting to and influencing them.
What is the role of English loan words in modern Russian language? More specifically, what is
their role in the daily speech of Russian-speaking
youth? Is “Anglicisation” [4] a natural language process or is it related to social reasons? These inconsistent questions defined the relevance of the subject
of English loan words in Russian youth slang and
149
determined the subject of my research work. Lexical units and their derivatives were chosen as the
object of exploration. The research objective was to
find out the extent of penetration of anglicisms into
the speech of modern schoolchildren. The research
tasks were: to analyze the theoretical materials connected to the topic; classify loan words by communication spheres; find out the reasons for the loan
words; carry out a poll of pupils in 9th, 10th, 11th
grades to find out the relationship of teenagers to
phenomenon; make a table of the loan words used
by teenagers; and make the charts illustrating the
material obtained. In the research paper, we used
a number of methods: theoretical (literature review,
analyses and generalization of results of the current
study, and classification of foreign-language words),
empirical (supervision), sociological (conversations
and interviews) and statistical (data processing). My
hypothesis was that modern youth uses anglicisms
widely in their speech; the aim is to find out the
extent of penetration of anglicisms into the speech
of modern teenagers.
Theoretical methodology
Classification of anglicisms
It is possible to separate anglicisms into several
groups:
1. Hybrid [5], [6]. These words are formed by
the addition of a Russian suffix, prefix or termination to a foreign root. The meaning of
a foreign word often changes a little.
2. Barbarism [7]. The word occurs in Russian
with approximately the same view and in
meaning as in the original language.
3. Tracing-paper [8]. Words of foreign-language origin are used with their phonetic
and graphic shape maintained.
4. Semi-tracing-paper [9]. Words which in
grammatical development submit to the
rules of Russian grammar.
5. Foreign-language impregnation [10]. These
words usually have lexical equivalents, but
are stylistically different and fixed in one
or another sphere of communication as
a means of expression, giving speech a special character.
6. Composite [11]. Words consisting of two
English words.
7. Jargon [12]. The words which have appeared
owing to the distortion of any sounds.
Justified and unjustified anglicisms
Unjustified [13] loans of English words are loan
words which came to be used instead of previous
Russian words. The situation is different for justified
loan words; justified [13] anglicisms are borrowed
from English to designate subjects and phenomena
that were previously absent in Russian.
Communication spheres of foreignlanguage words
• Policy [14]. In recent years the political lexicon of Russian includes foreign words.
TABLE 1. Classification of foreign-language words by communication spheres
Policy
Vice-prime minister, speaker, president [15, p 345,458], [16, p 24].
Mass media
DJ, face control, stylist, loser, talk-show [15, p 451], [18, p 132, 178].
Sports
Fitness, surfing, bodybuilding, bowling [15, p 90], [17, p 72].
Equipment
Printer, mixer, Photoshop [15, p 346].
Home life
Air conditioner, mixer, toaster, blender [15, p 480], [16, p 30, 93], [17,
p 26, 28, 29, 623], [18, p 172, 206].
Economy
Summit, briefing, speaker, rating, voucher, impeachment, investment,
sponsor. [15, p 53], [17, p 622, 270, 282].
Smirnova 151
• Mass media [14], [17]. This sphere quickly
filled with anglicisms. The Internet is the
“champion” in use of loan words, especially in advertising texts, messages about
incidents, etc. It would seem that in this
sphere a great number of professionals
who work in philological education have
to bear the culture of the language “in
masses.” However, in practice all with an
accuracy on the contrary: the Russian mass
media, especially television, promote distribution of foreign loan words in Russian
speech.
• Sports [14]. These words, which we have
gotten so used to, came to us from English.
• Equipment [14]. New names are created
for new technology, and they sound like
English.
• Home life [14], [17]. This sphere is a powerful source for promoting English; the majority of these anglicisms was imported into
Russian without any obstacles.
• Economy [14], [17]. In this sphere there
are such loan words as investment and
marketing
Practical methodology
Reasons for use of anglicisms in the youth
environment
The reasons for use of anglicisms [19]:
1. The main reason is the absence in the native language of a word for a new concept
[20].
2. The need to use one loan word instead of
a description. For example: a short press
conference for journalists is a briefing [21].
3. The tendency to supplement expressional
means of Russian that lead to emergence of
foreign-language stylistic synonyms: protection—security guard, purchases—shopping,
motorcyclist—biker [22].
4. The need for specialization of concepts
leads to borrowing of many scientific terms.
5. A significant number of foreign-language
words relating to formal and Russian have
corresponding synonyms: to vary—to
change; vulgar—rough; to misinform—to
mislead; e ideal—perfect; and others [22].
6. Anglicisms in names of TV programs and
shops are especially popular: talk show,
show business, and others.
Reasons for use of anglicisms by modern
youth (questionnaire)
To find out the reasons for use of anglicisms by
modern youth, we carried out a questionnaire with
the following questions.
Answer questions:
1. Do you use anglicisms in your speech?
• Yes
• No
2. Why do you use anglicisms?
• There is no word in Russian with the same
meaning
• It is much easier to way what I want to say
with their help.
• Use anglicisms to concretize the meaning
of Russian words
• Anglicisms are much more expressive than
words in Russian
3. How often do you use anglicisms in speech?
• Always
• Rarely
• Never
4. What do you think of use of anglicisms in
your speech?
• Without them it is impossible to say what
you want
• They require less time to explain the meaning of words
• They only litter Russian
5. In what spheres do you use anglicisms?
• Mass media
• Music
• Equipment
• Sports
• Others
• Do not use
A total of 132 people took part in the questionnaire. After answering the questions, teenagers
were asked to give as an example 10 loan words
that they most often use.
A list of the most often used anglicisms
1.
Teenager
2.
Handmade
3.
Mainstream
4.
Creative
5.
Goalkeeper
6.
Mass media
7.
Okay
8.
Weekend
9.
Boyfriend
10.
Loser
The results first calculated for all respondents,
and then calculated for three groups, 9th graders,
10th graders and 11th graders. Students in the 9th
grade use English words to help them express the
meaning of a descriptive terms more easily (58 %)
or to concretize a word meaning from Russian
(21 %). Only 3 % of respondents stated that anglicisms are more expressive than words in the native
language. Students in the 10th grade use anglicisms
because there is no word in Russian with the same
meaning (30 %), to explain the meaning of a descriptive term (24 %) and to concretize the meaning of Russian words (26 %). Results were similar
for students in the 11th grade: the need to express
multiple-valued descriptive terms (51 %); the need
for the name of new subjects (21 %) by means of
anglicisms; and the need to concretize the meaning
of Russian words (14 %) are at the top.
2.3 Use of anglicisms in the speech by
teenagers
When results are examined for the entire group
of respondents, 42 % use anglicisms because they
help make explanations easier and more accurate;
31 % do so because it is more convenient for them;
and only 14 % are against the use loan words because they litter the native language.
Modern teenagers often use anglicisms in
speech (68 %).
Students in the 9th, 10th and 11th grades use
anglicisms because they help them express their
meaning more easily (44 %).
Students in the 9th and 10th grades replace difficult descriptive terms in the native language with
anglicisms.
Students in the 10th grade give preference to anglicisms in speech because, in their opinion, such
words do not exist in Russian.
The majority of young people (73 %) consider
that it is appropriate to use anglicisms in speech. (It
is easy and convenient to them to communicate).
Only 14 % of students are negative about anglicisms and think that they only litter the native
language.
2.4. The main reasons for the increase loan
words in the speech of modern teenagers
The main reasons for the increase in loan words
in the speech of modern teenagers are [23]:
1. The need to name new concepts.
2. The need to express difficult descriptive
terms by means of anglicisms.
3. Perception that an anglicism is a more expressive word.
4. The need for specification of the meaning
of a word.
The distribution of loan words by sphere was
as follows: mass media was highest at 38%; economy, 20.7 %; sports, equipment, and music, about
6.8 %; and policy, 6.7 %.
Conclusions
The aim of the research was to find out the extent of penetration of anglicisms into the speech
of modern teenagers. The data obtained during research confirmed the assumption that anglicisms
are widely used among modern Russian youth.
The main reasons for the increase in use of anglicisms are:
1. Influence of mass media on the speech of
teenagers [24].
2. The importance of slang for communication
with peers.
Smirnova 153
General comparative chart of loan words (percentage ratios for students in the 9th, 10th and 11th grades)
Students in 9th, 10th, 11th grades
50
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Equipment
Music
Mass media
Sport
Comparative chart of use of anglicisms (students in the 9th grade)
Students in 9th grade
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Others
Comparative chart of use of anglicisms (students in 11th grade)
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Comparative chart of use of anglicisms (students in the 10th grade)
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Smirnova 155
3. Social factors [25].
Russian as a whole appears to be influences by
English, and we probably won’t be able to stop that
process until we create something unique. Many
people who do not know English and do not understand the value of anglicisms feel that they only
litter Russian. It is regrettable that such lexical units
are already fixed in our mass media, advertising and
informal daily conversation. In fact, it is unpleasant
when Russian words are replaced by foreign ones.
Nevertheless, the inflow of loan words into Russian
has accepted the total character and should not be
regarded as a highly negative phenomenon. Anglicisms are a major part of the language and they are
here to stay to enrich Russian.
References
1. Loans in Russian. Available at http://ru.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Заимствования_в_русском_языке, accessed
14 October, 2013
2. Anglicism. Available at https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Anglicism, accessed 14 October, 2013
3. Bilingualism. Available at http://www.asha.org/practice/multicultural/issues/bll.htm, accessed 20 October,
2013
4. Anglicisation. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Anglicisation, accessed 14 October, 2013
5. Hybrid word. Available at http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/hybrid, accessed 10 December, 2013
6. Mixed language. Available at http://en.wikipedia.org/
wiki/Mixed_language, accessed 10 December, 2013
7. Barbarism (linguistics). Available at http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/us/definition/american_english/barbarism, accessed 10 December, 2013
8. Tracing-paper (linguistics). Available at http://dspace.
bsu.edu.ru/bitstream/123456789/233/1/Калька %20
и %20заимствование.pdf, accessed 13 December,
2013
9. Lexical tracing-paper. Available at http://www.lingvotech.com/kalka, accessed 20 December, 2013
10. Foreign-language
impregnations
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php?view=c&course=3&raz=4&pod=4, accessed 20
December, 2013
11. Definition “Compound word (composite)”. Available
at http://www.textologia.ru/slovari/lingvisticheskie-terminy/slozhnoe-slovo-kompozita/?q=486&n=1729,
accessed 23 December, 2013
12. Slangy and argotic lexicon. Available at http://www.
gramma.ru/RUS/?id=6.43, accessed 28 December,
2013
13. Krivoruchko K. A. “Usage of unjustified anglicisms in
Russian”. Available at http://www.school61.ru/Science/krivoruchkok_angl/krivoruchkok_angl.htm#6,
accessed 11 January, 2014
14. Dyakov A. I. Derivational integration of anglicisms in
Russian. Available at starling.rinet.ru/~minlos/thesis/
Dyakov2001.pdf, accessed 12 January, 2014
15. Litvinov P. P. 2001. The dictionary of the most used
English synonyms. Москва: Yahont.
16. Kochedykov L. G.. 1995. Short dictionary of foreign-language phraseological units.
17. Krysin, L.P. 2003. Explanatory dictionary of foreign-language words. Moskva: Russian.
18. Simpson, J. 1993. The Oxford dictionary of modern
slang. Great Britain: English language-Slang-Dictionaries.
19. Ananyeva E. A., Utyesheva I. V. The integrated lesson
“Anglicisms in Russian “. Available at http://festival.1september.ru/articles/582517/, accessed 19 January, 2014
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culture, how they work and what the aim in usage
of them. Available at http://ps.1september.ru/article.
php?ID=200504813, accessed 19 January, 2014
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in modern Russian language”. Available at http://festival.1september.ru/authors/100–431–688, accessed 26
January, 2014
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Anglicisms in Russian. Available at http://www.philology.ru/linguistics2/dyakov-03.htm, accessed 26 January, 2014
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(from the course “Russian language: yesterday, today,
and tomorrow”). Available at http://festival.1september.
ru/articles/612194/, accessed 1 February, 2014
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accessed 2 February, 2014
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2014
Imagery of Texts in Scientific and
Poetic Language Styles
Ann Wells
Vologda Polytechnic Institute, Vologda, Russia
D
o you think there any images in scientific texts?
We suppose there are. We decided to explore
this problem.
We think there is imagery in any text. But there
are a lot of differences in the degree of imagery in
texts in different language styles.
In this article, we explore and then compare the
scientific and poetic imagery of texts.
We believe that scientific texts have imagery.
The degree of imagery depends on the kind of science. Let’s take an example:
In chemistry, rates of reaction may determine
whether a particular chemical reaction will actually
yield a particular product. Although every reaction
is subject to the law of chemical equilibrium, we
may work on the system to modify concentrations
and temperatures in order to achieve the desired
results, provided the rates of reaction are favorable.
An example is as follows: by forcing an electric current through an electrolytic cell, liquid water can
be decomposed into hydrogen and oxygen. In doing so, we must provide the energy (68.32 kcal)
required for the heat of the reaction. According to
the equilibrium conditions, the hydrogen and oxygen, when mixed, should react to form water again;
however, the rate of reaction at room temperature
is so slow that the amount of water produced after
many years is negligible.
Rates of reaction are related both to the amount
of atomic rearrangement necessary and to the
strength of the bonds which must be broken before new ones are created. Strong bonds are broken
when water is formed from hydrogen and oxygen.
On the other hand, the reaction of ammonia and
boron trifluoride does not involve breaking any
strong bonds; hence, a reaction takes place almost
every time molecules with the proper orientation
meet.
If the rates of reaction are too fast or too slow,
chemists try to select reaction conditions that will
retard or accelerate them until they reach the proper
speed. Faster rates are favored by higher temperatures, greater concentrations, more thorough mixing
(in homogeneous reactions) and wide surface of
contact or interface (in heterogeneous reactions).
In general, a chemical equation indicates only
net reaction. It indicates the material balance between the amounts of substances consumed and
new substances formed, but does not show the
steps by which the atoms in the original substances
are rearranged to form new substances. These steps
can be determined only by experiment [4].
This example of a scientific text about chemistry
communicates to us precise information on rates of
reaction.
The syntactic structure of the text shows a lot of
complex sentences including subordinate clauses.
The word order is direct. Some simple sentences
“show” enough important ideas:
“These steps can be determined only by
experiment.”
“Faster rates are favored by higher temperatures,
greater concentrations, more thorough mixing (in
homogeneous reactions) and wide surface of contact or interface (in heterogeneous reactions).”
Connection between the elements in the
sentences is expressed explicitly by means of
157
conjunctions such as “if,” “whether,” “and,”
“which,” “when.”
The authors use the first person plural, “we
may,” “we must.”
There are many paragraphs in this passage.
This structure for scientific texts allows for the logical and objective explanation of scientific material.
The author uses expressions such as “an example is as follows,” “according to,”, and “in general.”
This language increases logical connections between paragraphs of the text.
The vocabulary includes words such as “slow,”
“chemists,” and “speed” in their direct meanings
and also includes words in their terminological
meanings, such as “water” and “reaction.”
As a matter of fact, we can find in scientific texts
as well as in poetic texts a lot of lexemes used in
both direct and figurative meanings. But there are
many more words using direct meanings and terminological lexemes in scientific texts.
Use of terminological lexemes is a special feature of scientific texts. In this case we can see a lot
of chemical terminology: “hydrogen,” “oxygen,”
“ammonia,” “trifluoride,” and “molecules.”
The effect on the audience is expressed by lexical means in this chemistry text: “but,” “in general.”
Some terms in exact technical texts are based
on metaphors. In this chemistry text they are: “electrolytic cell” and “net reaction.”
Exact technical scientific texts have imagery.
But perhaps we can say this imagery is effaced and
is not visible. These images are deprived of aesthetics because they have no artistic loading.
The degree of imagery increases in natural science texts and occupies the middle level in the hierarchy we are trying to establish. We began with
exact and technical texts. Now we move to the
humanities.
Let’s explore the definition of human beings
from the point of view of biology.
Human being: a. living being representing the
most evolved species on Earth. “Human” commonly refers to the species Homo sapiens (Latin:
“wise man” or “knowing man”), the only extant
member of the Homo genus of bipedal primates in
Hominidae, the great ape family.
There is a man’s image in the text, but it is deprived of liveliness and concreteness.
Man is described in general. Scientists determine man’s genus and species in the scientific and
natural world.
In order to imagine a contrast to man’s image in
the biological text, we should compare this scientific extract with the passage of a text in the poetic
style. So we are going to see another image of man.
When some proud son of man returns to earth,
Unknown to glory, but upheld by birth,
The sculptor’s art exhausts the pomp of woe,
And stories urns record who rests below;
When all is done, upon the tomb is seen,
Not what he was, but what he should have been:
.........................................................................
While man, vain insect! Hopes to be forgiven,
And claims himself a sole exclusive heaven.
Oh man! Thou feeble tenant of an hour,
Debased by slavery, or corrupt by power,
Who knows thee well must quit thee with disgust,
Degraded mass of animated dust!
Thy love is lust, thy friendship all a cheat,
Thy smiles hypocrisy, thy words deceit,
By nature vile, ennobled but by name [3].
Byron draws man’s image and uses different epithets: “unknown,” “upheld by birth,” “feeble.”
The poet also points to some human qualities:
“thy love is lust,” “thy friendship all a cheat,” “thy
smiles hypocrisy,” “thy words deceit,” “nature vile,”
“ennobled but by name.”
Man’s image is built with the help of metaphor.
It serves as a foundation in Byron’s poem. Man is
called a “vain insect.” Moreover, man’s image is
created with the help of comparison and contrast (it
is opposed to the dog’s image):
But the poor dog, in life the firmest friend,
The first to welcome, foremost to defend,
Whose honest heart is still his master’s own,
Who labours, fights, lives, breathes for him alone,
Unhonour’d falls, unnoticed all his worth,
Denied in heaven the soul he held on earth.
The expressive contrast [2] helps the poet to
create a vivid image of man. It also helps in understanding human nature and throws the “prism” of
the author’s own vision of it.
Wells 159
“Stylistic significance of the contrast is in the
relation which is created by the contrast itself between two elements [5].”
The poet uses the phrases in a definite order:
“son of man,” “tenant of an hour,” “degraded mass.”
We surmise that such an arrangement of word combinations depends on the indignation felt by the
poet as he looks at vain human nature.
Byron uses different parts of speech and word
combinations describing man. These parts of
speech are negative evaluations: “debased,” “corrupt,” “quit thee with disgust.” Thus, we can see the
vivid image of man created by Byron.
Let’s explore another example:
Weary of the barbarities of Mary’s reign, the
people looked with hope and gladness to the new
Sovereign. The nation seemed to wake from a horrible dream. Queen Elizabeth I was twenty-five years
old of age when she rode through the streets of
London, from the Tower to Westminster Abbey, to
be crowned. Her hair was red, and her nose something too long and sharp for a woman’s. She was
not beautiful, but she was well enough, and looked
all the better for coming after the gloomy Mary. She
was well educated, clever, but cunning and deceitful, and inherited much of her father’s violent temper. She began her reign with the great advantage of
having a very wise and careful minister, Sir William
Cecil, whom she afterwards made Lord Burleigh [1].
This fragment of a historical text shows an image of Queen Elizabeth I . By means of numerous
epithets are used to create the English Queen’s image: “red,” “too long,” “sharp.” Other lexemes recreate Elizabeth’s inner world: “clever,” “cunning,”
“deceitful,” “violent,” “well educated.”
The coloration of the epoch is concentrated
in the metaphor deployed, “The nation seemed to
wake from a horrible dream,” and also in the abstract noun and qualitative adjective, which are opposed to each other, “gladness” and “gloomy.” This
contrast shows the character of Queen Elizabeth’s
reign.
Thus, the imagery of scientific texts is different.
The degree of imagery depends on the branch of
scientific knowledge the text belongs to. We can
propose a certain gradation that we can call the increase in imagery. The degree of imagery increases
from texts of exact and technical sciences to texts of
natural science and the humanities.
Summarizing the above, we can conclude that
higher levels of imagery belongs to the poetic style
of language. It is the poetic style that is dominated
by fine and expressive means of language. Poetic
writing appeals to the senses and aspires to an aesthetic ideal.
Texts in scientific style also have imagery, but
it is not as high as in texts in poetic style. We can
find imagery in the language of science and also
in technical language because, although our mind
partitions off the sphere of feelings, the mind and
the feelings don’t and cannot exist separately from
one another.
As a general term for reproduction of some
elements of mind, we can choose the term “presentation.” Presentation is divided into imagery
presentation, which appeals to the sensory level of
knowledge, and conceptual presentation which appeals to the mind.
Such a terminological separation compares and
contrasts the notion and the image as different types
of knowledge of reality.
References
1. Bell J. J., The History of England.//London.—1995.—217 p.
2. Blokh. M. Y., A Course in Theoretical English Grammar.—1983.—137 p.
3. Byron J. G., Inscription on the Monument of a Newfoundland Dog.//Printed in Russia for the Publishers, Peter
Haddock Ltd. Bridlington, England,—1965.—77 p.
4. Curme J. N., Chemistry.//Barnes@ Nobel Books. Publishers: New York, London.—1997.—109 p.
5. Riffatter M., Stylistic Context. Word. 1960.—vol.
16.—№ 2—P. 67–73.
Philosophy, Ethics and Religion
The Role of the Tolerance in Society
and its Philosophical Interpretation
Maksuda Khajieva,
Rasulbek Khajiev,
Shirin Jumaniyazova,
Lochin Kurbonov
U
nder the conditions that emerged in our society
nowadays, the concept of tolerance is first of
all considered as the basis of the democratic process. In this case, several complicated theoretical
questions arise.
The most important ones are the following:
• Does tolerance imply being patient and
open-minded towards everything? From the
perspective of the expressing the essence of
democratic worldview, answering this question becomes the main direction, since tolerating everything might cause the collapse
of the democracy.
• Following from the previous question, if
tolerance admitted intolerance as relevant
in a certain sense, would not it be denying itself? All the attempts to fully answer
this question raise contradictions that can
be solved logically and satisfyingly [1,
page 6].
Tolerance (from Latin toleratio—forbearance) is
being forbearing and open-minded towards unfamiliar lifestyles, points of view, ideas, and beliefs
[2, page 89].
In a sociological dictionary published in Russia,
tolerance is described as following:
a) Being forbearing towards alien person’s lifestyle, behavior, customs, feelings, opinions,
ideas, and beliefs;
b) Being understanding towards events that
happened as a result of overlooking inconvenient factors;
c) Also being patient with the influence of
unseemly and unpleasant factors [3, page
278].
However, Mark Natturno continuing his opinion says, “In my opinion, because we are independent and conscious creatures, we should avoid such
vestiges of the past as looking for others to blame.
Alolhusus, this, being related to tolerance, can be
described as our attempts in the path to overcome
religious, ethnical, and racial prejudices which for
a long time had been obstacles to the liberty.” [2,
page 81]
It is clear from the opinions of Mark Natturno
that, “Tolerance is being patient towards things
considered unpleasant, and even evil.” This kind of
attitude was interpreted as means against religious
exegesis by philosophers of enlightenment, Voltaire
and John Locke and starting from 18th century, it
was valued as an ideal of morals.
“If any kind of persecution is unjust, then tolerance is obviously reasonable and fair thing. However, it is not all that simple. Even if we consider
all the evidence in favor of tolerance, according
to Locke, free nation cannot be dependent on
particular religious beliefs held by its separate
members. Nevertheless, it depends in our faith to
163
God to some extent (for example, those who do
not believe in God cannot give an unbreakable
oath). There can be no debate and discussion with
a man who prefers to shoot you instead of being
granted with your trust. In other words, there are
limits to reasonable relations. However, it is fair
to describe this as exact tolerance. It is unacceptable to be inclined to the tolerance towards all the
impatient without proper preparation; and if you
still act this way even in this case, you will destroy
not only yourself, but also a tolerant attitude.” [2,
page 82]
As is known, to understand the adequate (peculiar) interpretation of the concept of tolerance, we
should pay attention to its concrete (exact) meaning in context. If tolerance acquires one meaning
in the system of interreligious relations, and it gets
another meaning in relations between people, nations, countries, or ideological-political and educational differences. Tolerance is a relevant issue in
the sphere of science and education. Mixture of different vies and opinions can become the cause of
tragic results. For instance, if religions and politics
can find a particular answer to questions which do
not have an only clear solution, in the case of science and education, it is undesirable if two opposing solutions to an issue are found. When suitable
(similar) solution to relations in different kinds of
tolerance and mentalities is found, such social and
political relations are formed in society that they
serve as the safeguard of democratic, sustainable,
and prosperous life.
Tolerance is important term of coming into
compromise (agreement) and solving arguments;
it’s essential to find out a solution to the question
that states how is the nature of tolerance which
arises from saying impatience brings humanity to
hell. We can point out from the aforementioned
opinions that tolerance is formed as a result of reverse moral effect against incidents which appear
because of different worldviews and create foundation for religious wars. Tolerance under the protection of the government does not consider being
forbearing and patient towards all social events
and actions as lawful. Giving tolerance legal image across the country creates necessary conditions for the formation of democratic governance.
Nowadays, tolerance which is being passionately
promoted is not limited only by showing empathy to people of alien nations and religions or detecting incidents of violation of human rights in
specific country. Such an empirical position can
lead to confusion between the concept of tolerance and discrimination. Tolerance needs to be regarded as positive integral phenomenon of social
life. And the perfect meaning of tolerance can be
achieved by understanding its integrity [1, page
9]. Therefore, as we mentioned before, tolerance
is realizing deeply that diversities, different merits
and characteristics are integral and important part
of one whole universe. Intolerance is ignoring reality of social life… [4, page 11]
There is a specific technique for solving the
meaning of tolerance. Each citizen realizes his
own personal dignity and position, and consequently designates his political culture by showing respect to a different subject. There is also
a moral side in this issue: social status, dignity are
not taught in family, and also not formed in education system. As a result, citizen makes conclusions from his natural and social distinction and
acts according to them. Depending on which social consciousness dominates (in high degree) in
a person’s mind, different types of tolerance are
formed. Independent society composed of free
social and cultural structure, and different origins
needs tolerance to ensure its own prosperity. And
the efficiency of tolerance depends on how suitable can be dominant mythological, religious, and
scientific types of consciousness.
Tolerance is manifested as a social phenomenon by shown attitude in social communications between people, and government and social
organizations.
Such kinds of attitude, in the sense not being
pressure, consist of attracting the attention of government and social organizations to a specific important issue and suggestions that appeared from
the concerns of people regarding the issue.
National traditions, values, and culture is also
should be considered while studying the characteristics of tolerance.
The tolerance of our nation has established the
national spirit of unity in Uzbekistan. Representatives of different nations, starting to feel Uzbekistan
as their own homeland, acquired wide opportunities
Khajieva, Khajiev, Jumaniyazova, Kurbonov 165
to show their national-cultural traditions, religious
attitudes, and beliefs. And this gives opportunity to
form characteristics of tolerance such as agreement
and benevolence.
Sciences, deliberate nurturing, discussions, and
freedom of opinion, conscious, and beliefs help the
formation and the establishment of tolerance in national consciousness. Training tolerance is one of
the important conditions of developing civil society.
References
1. E. Karimova. Peculiarities of Uzbek tolerance. T.,
Uzbekistan Writers’ Association. 2006.
2. Mark Natturno. Tolerance, freedom and truth: fallibilism and opening “closed societies”, Ijtimoiy
fikr.1998, № 2.
3. Russian sociological encyclopedia. M., “Nauka”, 1998.
4. L. V. Skvortsov. Absolute truth and tolerance. Human:
image and essence. M. Academy of Sciences., 1998.
Arts
About Three Differences
of Uzbek Cinema
Eldar Yuldashev
Uzbekistan State Institute of Arts and Culture, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Abstract. Previously unexplored and inaccessible for research materials of the Central Archive of the
Republic of Uzbekistan and the Fundamental Library of the Academy of Sciences of the Republic of
Uzbekistan have been used in this article. During the scientific analysis new historical facts on the history of
cinema in Central Asia were revealed and valuable information was found. It can later affect and revise the
history of cinema not only in the Central Asian region but also abroad.
Keywords: Uzbek cinema, screen, artistry, art, culture, opening, research.
Summary
Today more than ever it will be correct to prove
an actual role of Uzbekistan in the world cinema
epic. And the most informative method is the detailed historically reasoned, actual analysis.
Formation and development of cinema art is
most indissolubly connected with scientific research,
historic facts show the influence of research works
on progress and tendencies of cinema art as a whole.
In this article it is spoken about the phenomenal
fact that is known for a very few people. Namely,
about first-ever opening of cinema in Central Asia
is of that kind.
We consider this article actual and very valuable material for the historical description of formation and cinema development in world space.
“Uzbek cinema” is an unusual phrase for European or American audience. But it does not mean
that it is less interesting than any other country’s
cinema. It means something quite different from
what you have known before and you have an opportunity to discover a new deep mystery, unknown
page of the history of the cinema.
First film shows in Tashkent, and then throughout
Turkestan and Bukhara Emirate, now a territory of
modern Uzbekistan, began in 1897 after two years
from the birth of cinema, and the demonstrations of
the first movies by Lumiere brothers in Paris.1
Documentary evidence of this fact we found
in Central Archive of Uzbekistan, namely in an
old Tashkent newspaper where the sensational
news was published: “Attention! For the first time
in Tashkent. These days famous, real, French cinematograph of Lumiere (live moving Photo) arrives.
Naturally life-sized. On Sunday October 19, in the
town Winter Theater there will be the first session of
cinematography. Details are in the posters.”2 A few
days later, another newspaper reported new movie
performances: “ Cinematograph is one of the most
interesting recent inventions appeared in Tashkent. The first presentation will be given today, on
1
p 7.
Akbarov H. 1971. Maturity. Tashkent: Literature and art.
News, Tashkent. October 17, 1897. “About cinema”. In:
Okraina (Suburban), 4: 4-5.
2
169
Sunday, at 8 o’clock in the evening in the city theater”.1 Thus, we see how the cinematography and
world innovations of the time, became available for
local residents of Central Asia. As the newspapers
of those years report, the entire scientific community and elite of Central Asia lived in Tashkent, and
a favorite place of public was Kaufman Street, beginning from “Khiva” cinema to “Kaufman square”
where almost all the cinemas were placed.2
A few years later in Central Asia new movies
were started filming. Mesgish Felix, a French cameraman was one of the first to work in this region,
who was an employee of the famous Lumiere Company. In 1933 he published a book which had described his work in Turkestan and Bukhara Emirate.3
And just in two decades, local professionals began filming movies of their own, without the help of
invited filmmakers. Considering the film in its historical context, the following facts become apparent for
us today: in 1919 in the region, a special film department “Kinofotootdel” was opened and in 1923 it was
renamed into special organization “Turkgoskino”.4
First own independent studio “Bukhkino” was
opened in Bukhara Emirate on April 12, 1924. It
was the first film organization throughout Central Asia5 and in a year in 1925 in Tashkent Trust
”Uzbekgoskino” was organized and a large-scale
film studio “Sharq Yulduzi” (Star of the East) was
opened.6 Thus, Uzbek studios became the only major film organizations throughout the region.
In the history of world cinema up to this day
there are still many unsolved mysteries and secrets
that should be unraveled and revealed, about one
of which we would like to tell you. Exploring the
unique documents and publications in the Central
Archive we have discovered an interesting fact.
When in 1927 there was the premiere of the world’s
News, Tashkent. October 19, 1897. “Cinema”. In:
Turkestan Vedomosti (News), 4: 1-2.
2
News, Tashkent. October 20, 1912. “Cinema”. In:
Turkestan Vedomosti (News), 4: 1-2.
3
Mesguich F. 1933. Tours de manivelle. Paris: Grasset.
4
Aboul—Kasymova H. 1965. The Birth of Uzbek cinema.
Tashkent: Nauka. p 8 -9.
5
Abul—Kasymova H. 1991. Cinema and art culture of
Uzbekistan. Tashkent: Fan. p 15.
6
Teshabaev D. 1979.Uzbek film: traditions, innovation.
Tashkent: Literature and art. p 10.
1
first musical—sound film produced by “Warner
Brothers”—“The Jazz Singer” (directed by Alan Crosland), then in the same year in Uzbekistan a new
film “Jackals of Rawat” was produced where the
screen image symmetrically was enriched with musical illustration. This first national film where the
sound design i. e. expressive means of music was
enriched by the sentiments and it fully disclosed the
theme and concept of the film directed by Casimir
Hertel. Later Professor Natalia Yanov-Yanovskaya
wrote about the score of this film, “The value of this
movie score is especially high because it is—one
of the first in cinema in general”.7 In this domestic movie film composer was Viktor Uspensky who
showed the image and atmosphere of that period
especially well. After the film composer wrote: “The
successful undertaking of “Uzbekgoskino” organization gives us confidence that in the next release
of the films there will be used all the possibilities
in terms of revealing treasures of musical ethnography”.8 Fundamentally analyzing these films, it would
be correct to assert that the domestic film “Jackals of
Rawat” and the movie “The Jazz Singer” are modulated on the same musical genre principles; actually
there are no replicas and dialogues in the film “The
Jazz Singer”, but only the final phrase of the main
hero. After a productive research we may conclude
that in domestic film production sound design of the
films was actively developed almost together with
the world cinema. This fact is being sounded for the
first time in this article. It requires a large-scale study
by film critics. We must say that the first color films
shot in the USSR by the “MTS” method were also
carried out in Uzbekistan, and this fact also has not
been analyzed by anyone so far. But let’s get back to
the main topic of this article, to the main and striking differences of Uzbek cinema from all others.
Difference № 1
Unlike Bollywood which developed the Indian
cinema and Hollywood that created the American
cinema, Uzbek cinema and later “Uzbekfilm” created and developed the cinema of the whole region
and beyond. It is said that “All roads lead to Rome”.
Yanov -Yanovskaya N. 1969. Music of Uzbek cinema.
Tashkent: Fan. p 27.
8
Uspensky V. January 11,1927. “Ravat’s jackals” In:
Pravda Vostoka (The Truth of the East), 4: 7-8.
7
Yuldashev 171
Undoubtedly, all the roads of filmmakers from Asian
countries lead to Tashkent. Certainly a role in this
was the fact that in Uzbekistan all the conditions
for the film industry were created, as discussed previously the first film studio and cinema trusts were
opened. First film specialists also appeared in Uzbekistan. One example of the first cameraman in
Central Asia, or as many scholars state, “Kh. Devanov is the first Soviet operator “,1 that is, the first in
the vast country where cinema historically considered one of the best in the world. Well-known film
critic Khanjara Abul Kasymova wrote about cinema
in Central Asia, the end of XIX and the beginning of
XX century: “It is important to say that in the whole
territory of Central Asia there were only forty cinemas and half of them were placed in Tashkent”2 It
seems that these words say everything about Central
Asian cinema and the center of the Central Asian
cinema is Tashkent.
Over time, Tashkent became the “Mecca” of
film industry and everybody rushed there, it became
“stronghold” of the new cinema of that time. Tone
studios, pavilions, dubbing-in shops were opened
in the film studio; they were both acoustic and technical model of professionalism in our region. It is
encouraging that through history it became visible
that during difficult years domestic masters in Tashkent Film Studio (1958 studio “Uzbekfilm”) took
grand cinema films and helped other developed
republics.
Today, for many people it becomes obvious that
the Central Asian republics depended on the studio
of “Uzbekfilm” and its creative team. But having
studied the documents of the Central Archives and
analyzed historical facts, we concluded that the Uzbek cinema had influence on other more developed
countries. Here we can recall and cite as an example the film made at Uzbek film studio, “Two Soldiers” (in 1943 it was directed by Leonid Lugovoy),
with its famous musical accompaniment, the songs
“Dark Night” and “Barges full of mullet”. Later this
film received worldwide recognition and entered
the list of the best films of the twentieth century. It
Abul—Kasymova H. Teshabaev D. Mirzamuhamedova
M. 1985. Cinema of Uzbekistan. Tashkent: Fan. p 10.
2
Abul—Kasymova H. Teshabaev D. Mirzamuhamedova
was unjustly forgotten that this famous film was the
product of Tashkent studio “Uzbekfilm”. Also the
work on the musical accompaniment and lyrics for
the film of world cinema classic Sergei Eisenstein
“Ivan the Terrible” was carried out in Tashkent by
Vladimir Lugovoy with fruitful support of the Writers’ Union of Uzbekistan. In the creation of all these
films, which have become the “golden fund” and
the cultural heritage of all mankind, the cinema
of Uzbekistan and its talented team made a huge
contribution.
Also separately must be said about the process
of formation and development of cinema in Afghanistan. The country was under the strong influence
of Britain and the Russian Empire, where as we
know, the cinema was developed at a high level,
but the donor and the main impetus was Tashkent
film studio “Uzbekfilm”. Here, as a prime example,
we can name one of the many directors of “Uzbekfilm” who raised the country’s cinema, People’s
Artist of the USSR Malik Kayumov. His first film in
Afghanistan, “Locusts” was shot in 1935 when the
movie was exotic in this country. Then he created
in Afghanistan such films as “The road through the
Hindu Kush”, “Herat—Kandahar”, “The City of
Herat”, “Hydroelectric power plant of Naglu”, “The
country of mountains and legends”, “Land Reform”
and “Afghanistan. The Revolution Continues”. According to the stated above facts we may conclude
that if one Uzbek film director made such an undeniable and great contribution to the cinema in
Afghanistan, the contribution of the whole studio of
“Uzbekfilm” is priceless and immeasurable.
Today the modern territory of cinema in Central
Asian is also under the control of Uzbek cinematographers. Thus, the well-known Kazakh Film Critic,
Gulnara Abikeeva in her research work writes: “According to the number of produced films Uzbekistan is ahead Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan and can even
compete with Kazakhstan”, then the scientist writes
that Turkmenistan “since 1998 the cinema is virtually nonexistent”3 thus it becomes clear that the Uzbek cinema is the leader in the region.
1
Abikeeva G. 2006. Nation building in Kazakhstan and
other Central Asian countries, and how this process is
reflected in the cinema. Almaty: CCAK. p 273.
3
Film industry is to be objective in the evaluation. Stated above the authoritative scholar from
Kazakhstan (the country that competes with the
Republic of Uzbekistan) Gulnara Abikeeva in her
research concludes that in this large region, only
in Uzbekistan the spectator watches only their national cinema, and not popular foreign cinema,
which is such a big unsolved problem for many
countries in the world where viewers are watching basically just Hollywood or European cinema.
Analyzing the entire region, the author writes that
“ here we can see the situation not peculiar to any
Central Asian state: an Uzbek viewer watches Uzbek movies.1 Further, the scientist writes about the
main reason for her opinion according to which
cinema of Uzbekistan is the main leader throughout the region. “The government of Uzbekistan
pays great attention to the development of the national cinema: film production volume increases,
new camera technology are purchased, there is
gradually retrofitting the cinemas. So, in March
2004, Decree of the President of Uzbekistan was
published “On improvement of governance in the
field of cinema”. The number of films is growing,
and they are enthusiastically perceived”.2 These
words of the scientist conclude that cinema in Uzbekistan is under the patronage of the state and its
policies, which brings only benefits.
Also I must say that today in the world there is
demand for domestic filmmakers from Uzbekistan.
One example is the graduate of the State Institute of
Art and Culture of Uzbekistan, artist of studio “Uzbekfilm” nominee for “Oscar” Timur Bekmambetov,
who took the greatest world actors such as Gerard
Depardieu, Angelina Jolie, James McAvoy, Morgan Freeman and many others. He is a sought-after
director for such companies as Universal Studios,
Fox; his projects became the best in Hollywood and
were nominated for Oscar, the main prize in the
world.
If we consider historically the demand for Uzbek filmmakers, that is, more narrowly, traditionally
2
1
the territory of the former USSR, for example in the
Russian cinema, television industry and in the field
of film education one of the most outstanding personalities is Janik Faiziev, representative of the clan
of Uzbek filmmakers—the Fayzievs, who is one of
the best directors in the CIS and a member of governing body of the Russian TV. And there are many
such examples of graduates of Uzbek cinema and
studio “Uzbekfilm” in the Modern movie.
Difference № 2
Uzbek cinema historically wasn’t developed
under the strong influence of the technological revolution and Western cinema, but under the powerful influence of the national theater. Still in the
making and the first appearance of national cinema, the great Uzbek poet and philosopher Fitrat
in 1927 in his article “Sanatning manshai” wrote
that, “Cinema, like theater, has come from six “fine
arts”: dance, music, literature, painting, sculpture
and architecture. Anyway, we can say: the cinema
and theater are fruits of six ancient fine arts”.3
The diversity of an age-old culture and traditions, a peculiar exquisite music and art, a rapid
rise of science, and most importantly a high level of
education, intellectuals, professionals and national
theater in the Republic made possible the birth,
formation and development of domestic Uzbek
cinema.
Artistic Uzbek film absorbed great experience
of the national theater in the creation of man’s image through theater actor’s art. The first domestic
film actors and directors who have become classics
of cinema, were from the theater. And in the future
in many successful motion pictures theater actors
were filmed and shot in the leading roles.
Uzbek art cinema experience practically began
with the appearance of the theater and later screen
actors such as Shukur Burhanov, Maryam Yakubova,
Hamza Umarov, Nabi Rakhimov, Rahim Pirmuhamedov, Polat Saidkasymov, Zakir Mukhamedjanov, Alim Khodzhaev, Yayra Abdullayeva. They
and many others created the most unique and interesting images in the cinema.
As one example of the Uzbek cinema we can
bring such movie genre as film performances, not
Boltabaeva H. 1998. “Fitrat and theory of art”. In:
Literature and Culture of Uzbekistan 43, 4: 23.
3
Yuldashev 173
only by birth, but inherently movies where is the
inertia of theatrical canons, and aesthetic impact of
play, performances, and dramatic aspects prevail.
In the establishment and development of national cinema theater actors affected the movie,
when it became audible, sounding word art. Welltrained voice of speech and dialogues in the film
were influenced by experimental theater. And the
impact on our national cinema was not provided
by the classic theater, but by the national theatre, it
helped cinema to show oriental flavor and mentality of the Uzbek people.
Renowned film critic Khanjara Abdul-Kasymova, in her book about the Uzbek cinema writes:
“Theater Actors brought to the cinema the art of
sounding word. The culture of speech and dialogue
in the movie, of course, has been influenced by the
theater. Eventually, when the cinema as an art grew,
it itself influenced the theater”.1 Thus Uzbek cinema
and the national theater of Uzbekistan depend on
each other up to this day.
Difference № 3
Uzbek cinema created and developed another
screen art of the twentieth century, namely national
TV. In other countries television industry has evolved
as a separate line, but in Uzbekistan it was a continuation of cinema. One can exactly say that if worldwide television is predominantly informational part
of the media, in Uzbekistan, from the first days of
existence and to this day TV is the artistic element,
rather than information. Initially Uzbek TV was developed under the influence of cinema. As an example of this we can give appearance of the genre of
TV movie which was created by Uzbek cinematographers. Eight years before the opening of the studio of
“Uzbektelefilm” cinema comes through artistic apogee of TV in Uzbekistan. In 1961, in Tashkent film
studio of “Uzkinohronika” first TV movie “Azizahon” was filmed in the USSR.2 The National Theatre
of Uzbekistan significantly influenced the first TV
film, because a talented theater director and a wonderful theater troupe of actors with the help of filmmakers created this debut of TV film. With technical
Abdul—Kasymova H. 2007. Fundamentals of cinema.
Tashkent: Art.
2
Yuldashev E. 2013. “The first TV movie”. In:Gulistan 5.
4: 38.
equipment, advice and practical experience, sound
man of studio “Uzbekfilm” Vitaly Artashevsky actively helped to create the first television movie. All
technical groups which created this new TV genre
consisted of professionals of studios of “Uzkinohronika” and “Uzbekfilm”: operator Feruz Alimov, artist
Valentin Subbotin, film composer Saifi Jalil, sound
designer Alexey Tolaganov. They made the television
of Uzbekistan professional and relevant.
Let’s go back to TV genre created by the filmmakers, namely to the first TV film. TV film “Azizahon” was an experiment, which was the first step
towards a new and popular genre in the USSR. Despite the insufficient conditions for creating TV films
in the region, a young director, and now Honored
Artist of Uzbekistan and TV honors, Professor Mahkam Mukhammedov pioneered a new artistic genre
of television.
Since it was a debut on Soviet TV, a creative
team with the television movie “Azizahon” was
sent to Moscow, St. Petersburg and then to Kiev
and the film received the highest rating from specialists. Following this success, ninety copies of the
film were distributed on all television channels of
the USSR. This launch was the apotheosis of the
new genre and gave the background to the other
republics, which then also began enthusiastically
to take TV films, first one serial, another serial, and
then serialized. TV film played the perfect role, giving a new genre long and productive life. This TV
movie opened a new era of television genre in the
republic and far beyond its borders and regulated
further development of artistic rather than informative television. Later, thanks to filmmakers of the republic, studios “Uzbekfilm” and “Uzkinohronika”;
studio “Uzbektelefilm” was created. First serial
television series in Central Asia “Kungil kuchalari
“ (1996)3 (19) was shot by the same director Makhkam Muhammedov on a new cinema brainchild of
the country—the studio of “Uzbektelefilm”. Today
in the country there is no boundary between the
large screen and blue screen and on the same pavilions by the same principles films for the audience of
large screen and blue screen, that is the television
screen, are created.
1
Muhammedov M. 2012. “The television of Uzbekistan”.
In: Parvona 37, 4: 13.
3
We should also say that Uzbek TV in those early
years reached such a magnitude that on special decision of the central government of the USSR one
of the most ambitious construction projects in the
world at that time began, which lasted six years. TV
tower was built in Tashkent—the tallest building in
Central Asia with open to visit the observation deck,
the TV tower height is 375 meters. At the time of
commissioning on January 15, 1985 it was the 9th
height free-standing structure in the world. In 1991
Tashkent TV Tower entered the Federation of Great
Towers of the world and occupies 11th place among
more than 200 towers in the world. At the same time
it is the only one in Central Asia construction and is
the second in height after the Ostankino TV tower
(Moscow) in the CIS. Up to this day, the spread of
television signal is provided to the territory of the
Republic of Uzbekistan, as well to the southern regions of the Republic of Kazakhstan, which is very
important for regional significance.
In summary, we can conclude that the Uzbek
cinema phenomenon is unusual and historically
important for the vast strategic region which must
be studied and explored. In the materials found
dating from late 19th and early twentieth century,
entirely new facts are revealed. This fact objectively
has changed the whole picture of cinematograph in
Asia. All discoveries of this article shall be reviewed
by the scientific community and bring new benefits
to science of film studies.
References
1. Akbarov H. 1971. Maturity. Tashkent: Literature and art.
p 7.
2. News, Tashkent. October 17, 1897. “About cinema”.
In: Okraina (Suburban), 4: 4–5.
3. News, Tashkent. October 19, 1897. “Cinema”. In:
Turkestan Vedomosti (News), 4: 1–2.
4. News, Tashkent. October 20, 1912. “Cinema”. In:
Turkestan Vedomosti (News), 4: 1–2.
5. Mesguich F. 1933. Tours de Manville. Paris: Grasset.
6. Abul—Kasymova H. 1965. The Birth of Uzbek cinema.
Tashkent: Nauka. p 8 -9
7. Abul—Kasymova H. 1991. Cinema and art culture of
Uzbekistan. Tashkent: Fan. p15.
8. Teshabaev D. 1979. Uzbek film: traditions, innovation.
Tashkent: Literature and art. p10.
9. Yanov -Yanovskaya N. 1969. Music of Uzbek cinema.
Tashkent: Fan. p27.
10. Uspensky V. January 11, 1927. “Ravat’s jackals” In: Pravda Vostoka (The Truth of the East), 4: 7–8.
11. Abul—Kasymova H. Teshabaev D. Mirzamuhamedova
12. Abul—Kasymova H. Teshabaev D. Mirzamuhamedova
13. Abikeeva G. 2006. Nation building in Kazakhstan and
16. Boltabaeva H. 1998. “Fitrat and theory of art”. In: Literature and Culture of Uzbekistan 43, 4: 23.
17. Abdul—Kasymova H. 2007. Fundamentals of cinema.
Tashkent: Art.
18. Yuldashev E. 2013. “The first TV movie”. In: Gulistan
5. 4: 38.
19. Mukhamedov M. 2012. “The television of Uzbekistan”.
In: Parvona 37, 4: 13.
APPLIED SCIENCE
Engineering
THree-Dimensional Display for
Passenger Aircraft In-Flight
Entertainment System
Mohammed Ahmed Bazuhair
Kazan National Research Technical University named after A.N. Tupolev, Kazan, Russia
Abstract. This is a new improvement to the in-flight entertainment (IFE) systems. Three dimensional
(3D) displays have proven their effectiveness as a promising image and video display technology in various
entertainment applications. This research aims to highlight a new personal audio/video on demand (AVOD)
system provided by 3D display for aircraft passenger seats as to extend comfort services range onboard. In
addition to 3D LCD touch screen control, the developed herein display offers advanced remote control feature
using only passenger 3D glasses motion recognition to navigate desktop cursor.
1. Introduction
Since their first development in the early 1920s,
in-flight entertainment (IFE) displays have undergone several developments to their functionality
from being a public display device (projector) for
all passengers onboard as it was on the amphibious
airplane of Aeromarine Airways to the current IFE
multifunctional personal LCD touch screens [3].
Ongoing progress of display technology, specifically stereopsis display as 3D, holographic and
etc., imposes a significant need on engineers of avionics to implement those resulted achievements so
far as to provide ultimate entertainment and luxury
services for aircraft passengers. For the same purpose, recently a lot of passengers show a growing
trend to IFE provided passenger cabins according
to passengers’ feedbacks on the concerned internet
websites [4].
Enhancing passenger’s experience by means of
luxurious up-to-date IFE systems during long-haul
flights using interactive technologies including data
display options seems to be the next stage of manufactures’ innovative strategies in the field. It is already clear that Airbus 2050 aircraft project aims to
utilize holographic display technology in its future
aircraft IFE system, e.g. showing a holographic airshow [1]. Nowadays, perfect applications of the holographic displays in aviation industry are not within
reach due to the unpractical and complicated system configuration and extremely high price.
Modern display becomes more multifunctional
and interactive e.g. advanced remote control technology based on motion recognition. Thus, an increasing aware of various wealthy applications has
been noticed for integrating multiple advantages of
cameras within IFE systems, one of which is motion
recognition as a remote control option. Many filed
patents already propose integrating mini cameras
to be hardware of motion recognition applications
which enhances passenger’s entertainment experience and increases safety procedures onboard (see
[2]). Nevertheless, there is not a practical reliable
model as it is yet to realize the described above
177
remote control concept leading to perfect flight luxury service.
In this research we highlight our developed IFE
system display partially, devotion to raise flight luxury features in prospect still claiming is not the only
promising advantage. Safety level promotion in
terms of improving passenger recollection and information perception of preflight safety instructions
can be enhanced likewise by our system. However,
this say will be accurately investigated in a following study.
2. System Design
Aesthetic appearance is one of the main criteria
of luxurious design, for this final user interface of
herein proposed IFE display complex will approach
that norm as far as possible. As it shown below in
Fig.1, 3D display represents the functional component of IFE system seat complex.
The display is appended with 3D glasses that
have a bridge with highly reflective spot (e.g. tape,
mini diode lamp according to another embodiment
of the invention [2]), which became integrated
thereat to provide a remote control feature. For a
passenger having a seat almost at 60 cm away from
3D display wearing 3D glasses (see Fig.2), the exposure quality is expected to be high enough. Comfort
requirements restrict 3D glasses weight not to be
weighted more than 40 g. To protect 3D glasses or
joystick from occasional strikes we prefer to design
their holders in the armrests, so that each armrest is
comprised of one device. Although, the illustrated
FIGURE. 1: Complex external interface. 1- Joystick. 2- 3D display. 3- Ambient light sensor. 4- Camera.
5- 3D display case. 6- 3D glasses holder. 7- Highly reflective spot. 8- 3D glasses. 9- Microphone.
10- Headphones. 11- Joystick holder.
Bazuhair 179
FIGURE 2: High quality 3D image watching range
design in Fig.1 is remarkably popular as well. 3D
display case vertical hinge with at least 30o of axial
rotation to increase functionality during different
seatback positions is a substantial requirement to
our final design.
The expected advantages of the integrated 3D
display to IFE system are manifested in the aspect
of additional visual effect to the passenger’s TV and
movie watching experience. For instance experience of a new game sensation supported by the
3D visualization properties is capable to increase
positive impression and satisfaction of passengers
onboard.
According to our original filed patent, one of the
advantages of complex is the power saving method
using a special bottom inside the 3D glasses holder,
which is connected to the power circuit of display
so as to switch it off when the glasses are located in
the holder. This solution overcomes electrical energy waste caused by the IFE system, particularly,
taking in regards many passengers’ predilection e.g.
to sleep leaving behind IFE system switched on.
2.1 Integrated Camera
The main goal of the integrated mini camera
over the display frame as shown above in Fig.1 is to
provide remote control option using only passenger’s face motion recognition, which is represented
for the camera as the motion of highly reflective or
garish spot located at the bridge of 3D glasses. The
spot basic mechanism is to reflect the screen or ambient light to the camera matrix imaging intensively
lightening pixels inside the captured scene. In fact,
surrounding lightness level differentiates depending
on daytime sunshine and internal passenger cabin
lights, consequently, highly reflective spot design
should take into consideration the mentioned specifics. Using special algorithms processing unit of
PVOD system can detect intensively lightening pixels coordinates change on the camera matrix according to some fixed point and then pursue it by a
cursor, realizing remote control concept.
Detailed schematic diagrams of input and output processes carried out by processing unit and internal components to produce the required features
had been explained in [2]. It must be confirmed that
provided herein system configuration is not limited
to the aforementioned components or features, e.g.
infrared cameras could be integrated for certain
specific usages.
Besides, there are numerous future applications
of the mini camera starting from executing automatic security procedures to passenger personal usage. At this point we should refer to many previous
filed patents of camera integrated systems for security surveillance, surrounding landscape broadcast
and etc., some of which already have been realized. However, our technical solution extends user
options providing, for instance, interactive games
controllable by passenger’s face motion.
Internet-to-phone call or video chat software is
widespread growing and promising applications’
sector of the embodied camera. Present communication software available for aircraft passengers via
IFE application menu do not offer video communicating features, which is popular on the ground.
This is obviously explained by the absence of such
functional devices as camera for the personal use
within IFE hardware, in spite of the current availability of internal chat and messaging applications
enabling interactive dialogs between passengers
with each other. Nevertheless, we would like to
point out scarce usage of the onboard chat room
due to complexity during typing virtual letters by
joystick buttons. Video chat is a practical solution
to the current problem overcoming passenger boredom during message typing and related replies’ delay caused by typing difficulty.
Furthermore, live video chat supports interactive communication features, which, in return, contributes to increase passengers’ willingness to spend
their leisure in acquaintance or talking with other
passengers onboard, who may occupy far seats
from them.
Variability of mini camera future applications
exceed the foregoing range to more personal freedom of use implying such as creating selfie photo
and video recorded files being deleted as the IFE
system shuts down in order to remain the memory with a constant storage space. The created files
could be sent via in-flight email service using the
onboard internet or another compatible way with
the electronic safety regulations.
2.2 Microphone
Today cabin internal noise reduction is one of
the urgent requirements to increase onboard comfort conditions. From this standpoint, microphones
as voice input hardware have been avoided as
much as possible to be supplemented to economy
class IFE systems. Subsequently, such a procedure
could be justifiable, however, it deprives passengers of some interesting features such as voice calls
via IFE system and audio/video chatting or even
voice recognition based applications such as voice
commander.
In our technical solution, at the first phase of system implementation project microphones recommended to be appended to classes economy class
IFE systems of large airliners as A380 and B787 and
certainly first and business classes as well, where
seat room is quiet convenient to avert noising the
neighboring passenger.
It should be noted that both microphone and
mini camera combination is not limited to the
above-mentioned applications sphere since they
might be supplies as hardware platforms for many
other future developments, some of which may be
covered by our forthcoming studies.
Conclusion
In this paper we have produced our main within
reach concept of IFE system provided with 3D display technology in addition to peripheral devices
such as mini camera and microphone input hardware. The competitive advantages of the proposed
herein display complex varies from increasing user
entertainment options up to in-flight luxury enhancement means which become a decisive factor
in the future passenger cabin designs for aircraft industry leaders.
The study in future will investigate the expected
improvement of passenger flight safety aware
through proposed herein technical solution industrial embodiment.
References
1. Airbus S.A.S.2014. Future by Airbus. Smart Tech and
Interaction Zones. http://www.airbus.com/innovation/
future-by-airbus/
2. Ba Zuhair Mohammed Ahmed., Patent 149140, The
Russian Federation, 3D Video display and method of
In-flight entertainment system remote control, G09
G5/00 (2006.01), date of priority 03.12.2013.
3. Daniell Kusrow, Björn Larsson. The Aeromarine website.- 2004-2014, http://www.timetableimages.com/ttimages/aerommov.htm
4. Skytrax. World Airline Star Rating criteria.- 1999-2014,
http://www.airlinequality.com/StarRanking/star_system.htm
The Kelley-Walker’s Method
in Modelling of Information System
Andrey Semakhin
Kurgan State University, Kurgan, Russia
Abstract. The scientific article considers features of designing of information systems. The network model of
corporate information system is developed. The time parameters of the network diagram are calculated. The
topology and length of a critical path are defined. The network model of corporate information system allows
to lower financial expenses at designing information system.
Keywords: Information system, network diagram, critical path method, activity, event, task, earliest start
time, earliest finish time, latest start time, latest finish time, topology of critical path, length of critical path.
1. Introduction
3. The Decision Of A Problem
Computing systems, networks and telecommunications are in a modern society the most demanded resources [1]. Creation of corporate information system demands performance of great
volumes of works with high probability of observance of the set terms of realization and precise
coordination of interaction of executors. Effective
way of representation and management of a complex of the interconnected works are methods of
network planning and management. The network
model underlies a method of network planning and
management.
For the decision of a problem are used a critical
path method (Kelley-Walker method) and time parameters of the network diagram. The critical path
method has been developed by James E. Kelley and
Morgan R. Walker in 1957 year.
The list of carried out tasks on perfection of the
district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region is presented in table 1.
Time and cost characteristics of carried out tasks
are presented in table 2.
Earliest finish time of fulfillment of j event is
defined under the formula
, where
2. Statement Of A Problem
—earliest start time of fulfillment of i event;
tij—duration of i - j work.
Latest start time of fulfillment of i event is defined under the formula
, where
The problem is formulated as follows: to develop the network model of corporate information
system of the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region and to define topology and length of a critical path of the network
diagram.
[2].
181
t Lj —latest finish time of fulfillment of j event
TABLE 1. The list of tasks
№
Code of
task
1
1—2
Development of the technical project
2
1—3
Development of the contract design
3
2—3
The coordination of the technical project with the contract design
4
2—4
The statement of the technical project
5
3—4
The statement of the contract design
6
4—5
Inspection and the analysis of office buildings the district compulsory medical insurance
fund of Kurgan region in Kurgan
7
4—6
Inspection and the analysis of office buildings in regional departments (managements) of
the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region
8
5—7
Carrying out of a spadework in the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan
region in Kurgan
9
6—7
Carrying out of a spadework in regional departments (managements) in the district
compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region
10
7—8
Development of structure of a corporate computer network
11
8—9
The choice and a substantiation of network architecture of a corporate computer network
12
9—10
The choice satellite Internet the provider
13
10—11
Purchase of computer facilities, the network equipment
14
10—12
Purchase of the satellite equipment
15
10—13
Purchase of the system, network and applied software
16
11—14
Delivery of computer facilities, the network equipment in the district compulsory medical
insurance fund of Kurgan region in Kurgan
17
11—15
Delivery of computer facilities, the network equipment in regional departments
(managements) of the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region
18
12—14
Delivery of the satellite equipment in the district compulsory medical insurance fund of
Kurgan region
19
12—15
Delivery of the satellite equipment in regional departments (managements) of the district
20
13—14
Delivery of the system, network and applied software in the district compulsory medical
insurance fund of Kurgan region
21
13—15
Delivery of the system, network and applied software in regional departments
(managements)
22
14—16
Installation of a corporate computer network in Kurgan
23
14—17
Installation of the satellite equipment in Kurgan
24
15—18
Installation of a corporate computer network in regional departments (managements) of the
district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region
Task
Semakhin 183
25
15—19
Installation of the satellite equipment in regional departments (managements) of the district
26
16—20
Connection of the network equipment in the district compulsory medical insurance fund of
Kurgan region in Kurgan
27
17—20
Connection of the satellite equipment in the district compulsory medical insurance fund of
Kurgan region in Kurgan
28
18—21
Connection of a corporate computer network in regional departments (managements) of the
the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region in Kurgan
29
19—21
Connection of the satellite equipment in regional departments (managements) of the the
district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region in Kurgan
30
20—22
Installation of the software in the the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan
region in Kurgan
31
21—23
Installation of the software in regional departments (managements) of the district
32
22—24
Adjustment of the equipment in the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan
region in Kurgan
33
23—24
Adjustment of the equipment in regional departments (managements) of the district
34
24—25
Training the personnel
35
24—26
Testing of a corporate computer network
36
25—27
The passing examinations personnel of the district compulsory medical insurance fund of
Kurgan region
37
26—27
Reception in operation of corporate information system
TABLE 2. Time and cost characteristics of carried out tasks
№
Code of
task
Nominal
(normal)
duration of
task (days)
Critical
(minimal)
duration of
task (days)
Pessimistic
(maximal)
duration of
task (days)
The maximal
volume of
resources
(man—days)
The minimal
volume of
resources
(man—days)
1
1—2
2
1
5
5
4
2
1—3
5
3
7
6
5
3
2—3
2
1
3
2
1
4
2—4
2
1
3
2
1
5
3—4
2
1
4
3
2
6
4—5
7
5
8
10
8
7
4—6
12
10
15
26
24
8
5—7
4
3
5
8
7
9
6—7
6
4
8
16
13
№
Code of
task
Nominal
(normal)
duration of
task (days)
Critical
(minimal)
duration of
task (days)
Pessimistic
(maximal)
duration of
task (days)
The maximal
volume of
resources
(man—days)
The minimal
volume of
resources
(man—days)
10
7—8
2
1
3
4
2
11
8—9
2
1
3
5
3
12
9—10
3
2
5
4
3
13
10—11
3
1
4
12
10
14
10—12
2
1
3
10
8
15
10—13
2
1
3
5
4
16
11—14
4
3
5
11
10
17
11—15
4
3
6
7
6
18
12—14
2
1
3
6
5
19
12—15
6
4
7
5
4
20
13—14
2
1
3
3
2
21
13—15
3
2
4
4
3
22
14—16
22
20
28
26
21
23
14—17
2
1
3
8
7
24
15—18
26
23
30
35
32
25
15—19
2
1
3
19
15
26
16—20
2
1
3
15
12
27
17—20
2
1
3
13
11
28
18—21
4
2
5
25
22
29
19—21
2
1
3
20
18
30
20—22
2
1
3
4
2
31
21—23
3
2
4
5
3
32
22—24
4
3
5
3
2
33
23—24
6
5
7
13
11
34
24—25
8
6
10
10
9
35
24—26
2
1
3
4
3
36
25—27
2
1
3
3
2
37
26—27
3
2
4
3
2
FIGURE 1. The network diagram of corporate information system with a critical path
Semakhin 185
After calculation of the time parameters, we
shall define the topology of a critical path. The
length of critical path is 89 days. The total cost is
297 man-days.
The network diagram of creation of corporate
information system for the district compulsory medical insurance fund of Kurgan region with critical
path is shown in figure 1.
4. Results Of Research
Results of research have allowed to draw following conclusions.
1. The network model of corporate information
system is developed.
2. The topology and length of a critical path of
the network diagram are defined by critical path
method.
References
1. V.L. Broydo. Computing system, networks and telecommunications.: Textbook.—SPt.: Peter, 2005—703 p.
2. G.P. Formin. Mathematical methods and Models in
Commercial Activities.: Textbook.—M: Finansy and
Statistika, 2001—544 p.
Medicine
The Degree of Endothelial
Dysfunction in Patients with Acute
Coronary Syndrome and Medicinal
Methods of Its Correction
Salima Abdijalilova,
Majid Kenjaev,
Ulugbek Ganiev,
Gulom Kholov
Republican Research Center of Emergency Medicine, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Abstract. The problem of ischemic heart disease (IHD) remains important among cardiovascular diseases.
Acute coronary syndrome as a period of exacerbation of ischemic heart disease (IHD) is associated with marked
activation of inflammatory reactions. 42 patients (35 males and 7 females, aged 56, 22 ± 4, 65 years at the
average) entered the present study. After primary examination the patients were accidentally divided into groups:
Standard Acute coronary syndrome therapy all patients were divided into 2 groups: the 1st—group of
patients (n = 20) including in fractional heparin, and the 2d—n = 22 but instead of metoprolol tartars they
were given beta-bloker Nebivaolol effecting the production of nitric oxide. On the background of standard
therapy which includes antiaggregants decreasing blood cells aggregation including thrombocytes and
leucocytes and preventing their degranulation with release of cytolytic enzymes and inflammatory mediatrs
and statins with their powerful pleiotropic anti-inflammatory effect, considerable decrease of concentration
of inflammatory blood markers and anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α is observed. Accordingly
activating effect of cytokines on inducible NOS decreased. Additional introduction into the scheme of
Nebivalol effecting the production of endothelial NO inhibits in a greater degree degranulation of leucocytes
and thrombocytes and produces additional antiaggregant and antiinflamatory effect.
Keywords: Acute Coronary Syndrome, plasma of acute coronary syndrome patients’ nitric oxide, treatment
Introduction
Every year, approximately 1.2 million Americans survive an acute coronary syndrome event,
and many have clinically significant and persistent
depression [1].
The problem of ischemic heart disease (IHD)
remains important among cardiovascular diseases.
Acute coronary syndrome as a period of exacerbation of ischemic heart disease (IHD) is associated
with marked activation of inflammatory reactions.
Inflammation takes part both in destabilization of
189
plaque and in oxidative stress on the background of
revasculation (spontaneous or medical) and in the
basis of reparative processes.
Antiinflammatory cytokines, the mediators of
inflammatory cascade, are protein molecules produced by lymphocytes, endothelial and smooth
muscular cells [2, 3].
One of directions is decrease of NO inducible
activity by means of increase of endothelial NO
production. It is known that such proprieties have
statins [4] and to some degree antiaggregants [5],
however the quest for new effective antiinflamatory
interventions continues.
The purpose of the study: determination of inducible nitric oxide stable metabolite concentration
in plasma of acute coronary syndrome patients on
the background of standard therapy.
Materials and methods
42 patients (35 males and 7 females, aged 56,
22 ± 4, 65 years at the average) entered the present
study. They were admitted to Cardioresuscitation
department of RSCEMA with diagnosis: Acute coronary syndrome with ST segment elevation during
the time of more than 6 but less than 24 hours from
the moment of pain syndrome onset.
The criteria for exclusion were the following:
cardiogenic shock, background pathology like diabetes mellitus, blood creatinine level of more than
200 MKmol/l, signs of acute and chronic hepatic insufficiency. Acute coronary syndrome developed on
the background of infectious damage to respiratory
organs (pneumonia, chronic obstructive disease of
the lungs at exacerbation stage), signs of active infection of kidneys and urinary tract, concentration
of C-reactive blood protein of more than 10.
Acute coronary syndrome diagnosis is made on
the basis of subjective findings and electrocardiographic examination (ECG). All patients underwent
echocardiography (Echo CG) for estimation of hemodynamic status and character of disturbance of
systolic and diastolic function of the left ventricle
(LV) myocardium. General fraction of discharge (FD)
and regional contractility with estimation of disturbance of regional contractility index according to
17 segments (DRCI) of the LV, final diastolic volume
(FDV) of the LV (modified methods of Simpson), and
diastolic diameter of the left atrium (LA).
Greatest rates of early and atrial filling in of the
LV and their correlation (P/A) and duration of isovolumic relaxation phase were determined by Doppler cardiography. The received indexes of patients
were compared with normal parameters for healthy
persons.
After primary examination the patients were accidentally divided into groups:
Standard Acute coronary syndrome therapy was
administered for the 1st group of patients (CG n = 20)
including infractional heparine under the control of
activated partial thromboplastin time, aspirin -100
mg/24 hours, clopidogrel in a loading dose of 600
mg on admission, then 75 mg/24 hours, betabloker
which does not effect the production of nitric oxide
metoprolol tartars in the dose of 50 mg for 24 hours
and lysinopril in individual doses depending on hypotensive and chronotropic response.
The same standard acute coronary syndrome
therapy was administered to the patients of the 2d
group n = 22 but instead of metoprolol tartars they
were given beta-bloker Nebivaolol effecting the
production of nitric oxide.
Nebivolol was given instead of metoprolol tartras in the dosage of 10 mg for 24 hours. The groups
were not differential on antropometric data, clinical
features and studied parameters. Initially and on the
7th day of observation, the concentration of stable
metalolites NO-NO2+NO3 sum was studied.
In the process of investigation connection of
nitric oxide stable metabolites with structural functional parameter of the LV, dynamics of indicated
substances concentration depending on used therapy and clinical outcomes of acute coronary syndrome were estimated. The findings are presented
as average arithmetical meaning ± standard error.
Differences in findings before and after treatment
were estimated with application of pair criteria of
Student and intergroup meanings with add criteria
of Student. Differences were considered to be reliable in p<0, 05. Correlation analysis was carried on
using Pirsons (r) correlation coefficient. Differences
of distribution of patients among the groups were
determined with application of 2 criteria.
Abdijalilova, Kenjaev, Ganiev, Kholov 191
Results
EchoCG examination of acute coronary syndrome patients revealed increase of FDL of the LV
to 158, 35± 6,82 ml with simultaneous tending to
spherical transformation of the LV cavity and rounding of apical parts. LA diameter was also increased
to 4, 67± 0, 38 cm. LV systolic function manifested
decrease of FD to 49, 28 ± 2, 86 % and IHPC increase to 1,49 ± 0, 13 scores.
According to Doppler cardiography change of
transmitral flow configuration infavour of atrial fraction (E/A -1,2 ± 0,02 un) on the background of PhIR
increase (119,83± 32,86 msec) at the average is revealed according to a group.
Distribution of patients according to diastolic
dysfunction type revealed restrictive type in 2
(5 %), pseudonormal in 6 (14 %) and hypertrophic
in 34 patients (81 %). Thus acute coronary syndrome was characterized by disturbance of systolic
and diastolic functions of the LV of the heart on the
background of LV and LA cavities dilatation.
Dynamic observation revealed significantly stable metabolites in the blood plasma of acute coronary syndrome patients on the background of standard therapy (Table.1).
Additional introduction of Nebivaolol therapy
into the scheme made it possible to decrease significantly the production of inducible NO, which in
its turn increased the efficacy of therapy. However
evaluation of clinical acute coronary syndrome outcomes did not reveal reliable difference depending
on applied therapy, so in CG in 15 (75 %) of 20
patients transformation of OHM with Q wave, in 4
(20 %) patients ONM without Qwave and in one
patient (5 %) progressing cardiostenosis was observed while in Nebivaolol group final distribution
was equal to 15/5/2 (68/23/9 %), so it is accordingly
unreliable.
Reliability of initial data and post treatment
results differences between CG and Nebivaolol
groups ^ p<0, 05.
Conclusions
Acute coronary syndrome is a complex symptom complex associated with destabilization of
atherosclerotic plaque, rupture of operculum and
intracoronary thrombosis on the plaque surface.
Destabilization mechanism is suggested to activate inflammatory reactions with discharge of cytolytic enzymes. Macrophage and neutrophil activation with discharge of inflammatory mediators
activates the process of lipid peroxidation both
on the level of vascular bloodstream and in myocardium that intensifies mitochondrial deficiency,
developed due to the coronary bloodstream occlusion [6,7]. Lipid peroxidation of endotheliocyte biomembranes results in development of
endothelial dysfunction, manifested in decrease
of NO production (endothelial dependent vasorelaxing factor) and increase of vasoconstructive
factors production endothelins in particular. Endothelines contribute to calcium penetration into
cardiomyocytes, calcium resetting that on the
background of energetic deficiency results in ischemic contracture and inflammation of cardiomyocytes. Ischemic contracture increases myocardial
hardness and impairs not only contractive function of cardiomyocytes but also active diastolic
relaxation resulting in slower emptying of the left
atrium in early phase of diastole, LV overdilatation
and strengthening of atrial systole according to
Franc-Starling mechanism. At the present research
as well as in other authors’ investigations [8–10]
marked dilatation and spheric transformation of LV
cavity in acute coronary syndrome patients have
TABLE 1. Dynamics of plasmic concentration of NO2+NO3 in Acute coronary syndrome patients
depending on the used therapy
indexes
NO2+NO3, mkg/ml
KG (n=20)
Nebivalol (n=22)
Initially
The 7th day
Initially
The 7th day
24,96±4,87
18,96±3,97***
27,63±6,53
15,96±3,87***^
been revealed. Simultaneously high concentration
of inducible (independent calcium) to NO synthase is observed. Discharge of excessive amount
of nitric oxide, being a cytotoxic agent, impairs
cardiomycytes resulting in activation of apoptosis
mechanism. The result of toxic effect on cardiomyocytes is manifested in change of LV cavity geometry and decrease of contractive activity. So at the
present research cascade of disturbances in acute
coronary syndrome patients is revealed, probably
associated with endothelial dysfunction inhibition
of endothelial NOS and activation of inducible
NOS.
On the background of standard therapy which
includes antiaggregants decreasing blood cells
aggregation including thrombocytes and leucocytes and preventing their degranulation with release of cytolytic enzymes and inflammatory mediatrs and statins with their powerful pleiotropic
anti-inflammatory effect, considerable decrease
of concentration of inflammatory blood markers
and anti-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNF-α
is observed.
Accordingly activating effect of cytokines on
inducible NOS decreased. Additional introduction
into the scheme of Nebivaolol effecting the production of endothelial NO inhibits in a greater degree
degranulation of leucocytes and thrombocytes and
produces additional antiaggregant and antiinflamatory effect that has been revealed in the present
research.
Acknowledgement
We thank Babur Shakirov for support of this
manuscript.
References
1. Lloyd-Jones D, Adams RJ, Brown TM, et al. Heart disease
and stroke statistics—2010 update: a report from the
American Heart Association. 2010; 121(7):e46–e215.
2. Nijm J, Wikby A, Tompa A, Olsson AG, Jonasson L. Circulating levels of proinflammatory cytokines and neutrophil-platelet aggregates in patients with coronary artery
disease.// Am J Cardiol. 2005 Feb 15; 95(4):452–6.
3. Eklund A., Eriksson O., Hakansson L. et al. Nebivolol
reduces selected humoral markers of inflammatory cell
activity in BAL fluid from healthy smokers: correlation
to effects on cellular variables // Eur. Respir. J.—1988;
1: 832–838.
4. Macin SM, Perna ER, Farías EF, Franciosi V, Cialzeta JR,
Brizuela M, Medina F, Tajer C, Doval H, Badaracco R.
Atorvastatin has an important acute anti-inflammatory
effect in patients with acute coronary syndrome: results
of a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled
study.//Am Heart J. 2005 Mar;149(3):451–7.
5. Aruoma O. I., Halliwell В., Ноеy В. М., Bucler J. The
antioxidaпt action of N-acetylcysteine: its reaction with
hydrogen peroxide, hvdroxyl radical, superoxide, and
hypochlorous acid // Free Radic. Biol. Med.—1989; 6
(6): 593–597.
6. Robbie L, Libby P. Inflammation and atherothrombosis.// Ann N Y Acad Sci. 2001 Dec; 947:167–79.
7. Sargento L, Saldanha C, Monteiro J, Perdigão C, e Silva
JM. Long-term prognostic value of protein C activity, erythrocyte aggregation and membrane fluidity in
transmural myocardial infarction.// Thromb Haemost.
2005 Aug; 94(2):380–8.
8. Solomon S. D., Essential Echocardiography. //Humana
Press.-N.Jersey.-2006.-P.453.
9. Steinhubl SR, Badimon JJ, Bhatt DL, Herbert JM, Lüscher
TF. Clinical evidence for anti-inflammatory effects of
antiplatelet therapy in patients with atherothrombotic
disease.// Vasc Med. 2007 May;12(2):113–22.
10. Armstrong E, Morrow D, Sabatine M. Inflammatory biomarkers in acute coronary syndromes. Part I: Introduction and cytokines. Circulation 2006; 113: 72–5.
Galchyn 193
Clinical Observation of Autistic
Spectrum Disorder in a Patient with
Noonan Syndrome
Kateryna Galchyn
P. L. Shupyk National Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education, Kiev, Ukraine
Abstract. A case of Noonan syndrome in a 17-year-old adolescent is described. Analysis of clinical features,
peculiarities of the course of the Noonan syndrome, and diagnostics in this case is done.
Keywords: Noonan syndrome, diagnostics, clinical features.
Introduction
Noonan syndrome, or Ullrich-Noonan syndrome, is named for pediatric cardiologist Jacqueline Noonan, who described 9 children with valvular
pulmonary stenosis, short stature, and characteristic
faces and bodies in 1962. The karyotype of these
children was normal. The disease affects boys and
girls equally. The syndrome is caused by genetic defects, an autosomal-dominant form of inheritance
connected with PTPN11 gene mutations, with phenotype similarity with Shereshevsky-Turner syndrome. In the literature, this disease is often called
pseudo-Turner syndrome or the syndrome of cervical param [4]. The rate of occurrence is 1 in 1000
to 2500 childbirths. It occurs all over the world.
It was described for the first time by Kobylinski in
1883, and then again in 1928 by Wiessenberg. The
key feature is heart birth defects (valvular pulmonary stenosis, mitral and aortic valve abnormalities)
and hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. The syndrome is
characterized by multi-system damage. Typical features are short stature (height is up to 165 cm), and
chest deformation of shield form with lateral nipples
position. Such patients have short necks with winglike wrinkles. Typical facial features are widely set
almond-shaped eyes (hypertelorism) with drooping
of the eyelids (ptosis), strabismus, low-set ears, and
malocclusion [1]. Various developmental anomalies in the lymphatic system can occur, as well as in
organs such as the heart, arteries, and kidneys. Most
boys suffer from cryptorchidism [2]. Intellectual disabilities is observed in half of Noonan syndrome
patients. That’s why these patients are often sent to
psychiatrists.
Description of a clinical case
Patient M., born in 1996, was sent to a pediatric
psychiatry department because of behavioral problems, absence of contact with peers, and delayed
learning. He was sent to the hospital for the first time
in 2012. The heredity is not burdened. This adolescent is from a single-parent family; the parents are
divorced. He is the only child. The pregnancy was
complicated by toxicosis (in the first and the second
trimesters) and there was also a threat of miscarriage. The delivery was timely, but with pathology:
gluteal previa and entanglement with the umbilical
cord; the child was born with asphyxia, perinatal
damage to the central nervous system, and hydrocephalic syndrome. Birth weight was 3 kg, height
50 cm. He could sit at 8 months; he could also go
at 8 months. He could pronounce separate words at
the age of 2 years. He was sent to kindergarten at 3,
where he adapted satisfactorily. He went to school
at 7, but couldn’t cope with the school program.
He is now a pupil in the 11th form in a secondary
comprehensive school. His pedagogical evaluation
said “...poor level of knowledge, can hardly cope
with the program, doesn’t communicate with classmates.” In 2012 he was observed in the pediatric
department of Zhytomyr Regional Psychiatric Hospital No. 1. The diagnosis was mild intellectual disability, behavioral problems of schizophrenic type,
and stable social disadaptation as a result of organic
damage to the central nervous system, Noonan syndrome and connective tissue dysplasia.
Objective features
Height is 165 cm, weight is 65 kg. This individual has hyperstenic stature, hypertelorism, a short
neck, low-set ears, and slight facial asymmetry. The
chest has shield-like form. The pulse is rhythmic
at 46 beats per minute; blood pressure is 110/60.
Heart tones are rhythmic, breath is vesicular. The
belly is soft, painless.
Mental status
Available for formal contacts; gives short answers and speech is slurred. He is roughly oriented
as to place and time, well in personality. The attention is slightly distracted, and the patient is unsure
in conversation. The rate of mental activity is slow.
He is emotionally monotonous, but has a good natured smile. His thinking is clearly effective, and
he is capable of simple generalizations. The level
of general awareness and school programs is low.
Intellectual development is drastically reduced. He
was examined by a pediatrician and diagnosed with
secondary cardiomyopathy. A psychological evaluation diagnosed mental decline to the level of slight
dementia, emotional immaturity with primitive personality, and stable social disadaptation. A logopedical evaluation diagnosed specific articulation disorders (dislalia, lambdacism). An ophthalmological
evaluation diagnosed hypermetropia of both eyes.
A neurological evaluation diagnosed Noonan
syndrome and scoliotic stature. He was also observed in the National Scientific Center of Radioactive Medicine of the National Academy of
Medical Sciences of Ukraine. The diagnosis was
Noonan syndrome. A genetic evaluation diagnosed Noonan syndrome and congenital disorders
of the connective tissues. Chromosomal pathology
data were absent. Blood test, urine test, and biochemical blood test were all within age norms. An
electrocardiogram showed a heart rate of 45 to 47,
with rhythmic, sinus bradycardia. The semivertical
electric position showed increased biopotential in
the left ventricle, acceleration of atrioventricular
conduction, and moderate changes in the myocardium. An electroencephalogram showed an organized type of electroencephalogram, moderate diffuse changes, and lowering of convulsic readiness.
Ultrasonic examination of internal organs showed
biliary dyskinesia and dyspancreatism. Chest radiography showed kyphoscoliosis; focal infiltration
changes were absent.
Conclusions
The research conducted verified the presence of
Noonan syndrome in Patient M. The case is peculiar
due to secondary cardiomyopathy with atrioventricular conduction disturbances, specific articulation
disorders, and hypermetropia of both eyes. Since
the patient has stable mental disorders (dementia,
emotional immaturity, and stable social disadaptation with primitive personality), he is observed by a
pediatric psychiatrist.
References
1. Kozlov S. I., Semanova E. S., Blinnikova O. E. Inherited
syndromes and medico-genetic advising -М.: Practice,
Galchyn 195
1996-p.416
2. Psychiatry: national guidance under a release.
T. B. Dmitrievoi, V. N. Krasnova, N. G. Neznanova,
V. J. Semke, Tiganov A.S ¨C МS- Media, 2011-p.665
3. Electronic library. Far-Eastern state medical univer-
sity:Kirilov A. L., Kovalev I. F., Filippov G. P., Svincova L. I., Noonan Syndrome 2011-pp.58–59
4. Symptoms and syndromes are in endocrinology under
a release U. I. Karachenceva first edition -Kharkov,
2006. pp. 116–117
Diagnostics and Treatment
with Burn Sepsis
Erkin A. Hakimov1,
Babur M. Shakirov1,
Muso Haidarov2
Burn department of RSCUMA
Samarkand State Medical Institute, Samarkand, Uzbekistan
1
2
Abstract. Lethal outcomes for burn sepsis are still high, up to 50% or more (80 - 90%) in patients with
multiorgan insufficiency. The study aimed to determine the value of the procalcitonin test for early diagnosis
of sepsis and to study the course and treatment of burn sepsis in patients with severe burns. Eighty patients
in the Burn Department of Republican Scientific Centre of Emergency Medical Care (RCSUMA), aged
17 - 75 years with burn injuries covering 30%—85 % of the body surface, were enrolled in the study.
Procalcitonin (PCT) is marker of sepsis, PCT>2 ng/ml—sensitivity -89%, specific feature—94%.
Procalcitonin is prospective in the diagnosis of burn sepsis. The results showed that, among septic patients
with severe burns, rational use of intensive therapy for burn sepsis and septic shock in combination with
parenteral ozonotherapy resulted in decreases of SPOI and lethal outcomes from 70% - 80% to 46.9% 58%, 9% accordingly. The results allow the conclusion that the treatment examined leads to a significant
increase in survival coefficients. This in turn confirms the efficacy of early nectrectomy and auto-dermoplasty
of deep burn wounds in victims with sepsis.
Keywords: Sepsis, diagnosis, procalcitonin test, treatments
Introduction
Burn sepsis is a systemic response to infection,
characterized by inflammatory reaction symptoms
on the background of a marked inflammatory process [1,2]. The data on contemporary statistics devoted to patients with generalized inflammatory
complications show their significant number and
also identify the tendency for constant growth to 78
- 80% [3-5].
Lethal outcomes for burn sepsis are still high,
up to 50% or more (80 - 90%) in the patients with
multiorgan insufficiency [6].
In burn sepsis pathogenesis, an important role is
played by anti-inflammatory cytokines—interleukine-1, tumor factor, interleleukine-6, interleukine-8
and others—which form specific body responses to
so-called cytokine storms. Damage to different organs and tissues as a result of interleukine effects results in marked inflammatory disturbances, accompanied by development of interstitial edema (shock
lung, shock kidney, etc.), formation of a great number of circulating immune complexes, and others
[7- 8].
Severe burn trauma causes the systematic inflammatory response (SSIR) syndrome, which leads
196
Hakimov, Shakirov, Haidarov 197
to damage from possible sepsis and severe sepsis
development [9].
In light of the severity of these issues, the study
aimed to determine the value of the procalcitonin
test use for early diagnosis of sepsis and to study the
course and treatment of burn sepsis in patients with
severe burns.
On the background of sepsis PCT concentration
was 4.8±1.1 ng/ml in the 50 patients in group 1,
sensitivity 67%, specific features 92%, PPS 85%,
NPS 81%, and NPS 81%. For the 30 patients in
group 2, with severe course of sepsis, PCT level
was 15.6% ± 2.2 ng/ml, sensitivity 3.3%, specific
features 98%, PPS 83%, and NPS 81%.
Material and methods
Results
From 2010 to 2012, 80 patients with sepsis
were treated in the Burn Department of the Republican Scientific Centre of Emergency Medical Care
(RSCUMA), Samarkand, Uzbekistan. Generalization of purulent infection is most frequency marked
in deep burns of more than 40% of the body surface
(45, 1±1, 5% on average). The patients underwent
procalcitonin tests for early diagnosis.
Eighty patients aged 17 - 75 years with burn
injuries covering 30%—85% of the body surface
were enrolled in the study. All patients were admitted to the hospital during the first 12 hours after the
burn trauma. There were no thermoinhalation injuries or accompanying chronic diseases in all examined patients. For the purposes of the investigation,
patients with sepsis were subdivided into 2 groups.
In addition to standard clinical laboratory tests,
the following were carried out: thermometria;
heart rate;, clinical and biochemical analyses of
blood and urine; and microbiological analysis of
discharge from burn wounds with determination
of flora sensitivity to antibiotics according to the
PCT-QÒ (Brahms, Germany) method of measuring
procalcitonin (PCT) level in blood serum at 2, 3, 5,
7, and 10 days after the burn trauma.
PCT-Q is an immunochromatographic test for
half—amount determination of PCT level, used for
diagnosis and control of therapy for acute bacterial infections and sepsis. PCT-Q requires only a
30-minute incubation period and does not need
calibration or additional apparatus. The advantages
of this method include: simplicity of usage; absence
of complex equipment; and short time for receiving results. To obtain PCT sensitivity findings, specific features, positive prognostic significance (PPS),
and negative prognostic significance (NPS) were
determined.
Group 1 consisted of 50 patients with Index
Frank >70 units, in the acute period of burn trauma
(3 - 6 days); significant bacterial contamination
(>10, 5 KOE/g) was revealed, PCT level was < 2ng/
ml and scale assessment was SOFA 11 - 12.
Group 2 consisted of 30 patients with severe
burns with Index Frank >100 units, PCT levels of
more than 2 ng/ml in all cases correlated with development of a burn sepsis clinical picture. In 5
patients with PCT levels of more than 10 ng/ml,
specific features 95%, and positive prognostic significance (NPS) 70%; diagnosis of burn sepsis was
confirmed path morphologically as well. Reliable
effect on patient death was presented by PCT index> 2 ng/ml and scale assessment SOFA 18-20.
Thus, the PCT test is prospective in diagnosis of
burn sepsis. PCT levels in blood of more than 2 ng/
ml in patients with burn trauma with FI>70 units in
the acute period of burn injury is evidence for the
expediency of performing a deescalation regimen
of antibacterial chemotherapy.
In 50 (62.5%) patients with burns (group I) with
signs of burn sepsis, standard intensive therapy with
intravenous infusion of 200 ml of ozonized physiological solution was performed during the term of
11.54±2, 11 days after receiving burns, with ozone
concentration of 4 mg/l in the fluid, once every 24
hours for 10 days at the stage of burn shock and
acute burn toxemia (ABI).
In 30 patients with burns (group 2) with Frank
Index 105.75± 3.54 conventional units and signs
of burn sepsis Complex intensive therapy without
IVIOPS was carried out during 10 to 11 days after
receiving burn trauma (at shock stage and ABT).
Analysis of microflora and its sensitivity to antibacterial preparations was carried out for 45 patients, aged 16 - 75 years, of whom 29 were males
and 16 were females, with deep burns covering
25% - 65% of the body surface (39. 5%±5% on
average).
Examination was carried out on admission, and
then on 4-5 and 10-15 day of treatment. For sterility, blood was taken from the central vein. Cultivation of microorganisms was carried out according
to standard methods of microbiological blood study
on a double medium.
The results were estimated according to the
presence of colonies of microorganisms. In addition, analysis of sowings from the wounds to microflora was carried out. Sensitivity to 15 - 20 antibiotics produced in foreign countries was determined
in isolated pathogenetic and conventionally pathogenetic microorganisms.
In blood sowings with positive results, S. Aureus
(13 cases, 37.2%), Enterococcus (10 - 28, 6%), and
Ps. Aeruginosa (5 - 14, 3%) predominated, with
these 74<3% of agents were polyresistant strains
(Table 1).
TABLE 1. Types of agents isolated from the blood
of patients with burns
Types of
agents
S.Aureus
Enterococcus
Ps.aeruginosa
S.Epidermidis
Candida
E. Coli
Acinetobacter
Total
Number of
samples
Abs.
%
Including
resistant
Abs.
%
13
37.2
11
31.4
10
28.6
10
28.7
5
14.3
2
5.8
3
8.6
1
2.8
2
5.7
0
0
1
2.8
1
2.8
1
2.8
1
2.8
35
100.0
26
74.3
From wounds with positive results there primarily S.Aureus (42 cases, 37.8%), bacteria of intestinal
bacilli (30 cases, 27.1%), and Ps. Aeruginosa (20
cases, 18%) were found. Polyresistance of microorganisms sows from wounds to antibacterial preparations was noted in 63. 1% in purulent agents of
burn wound (Table 2).
TABLE 2. Purulent agents of burn wound
Types of
agents
Number of
samples
Abs.
%
Including
resistant
Abs.
%
S.Aureus
42
37.8
37
33.3
E. Coli
30
27.1
10
9.1
Ps.aeruginosa
20
18.0
11
9.9
S.Epidermidis
10
9.0
3
2.7
4
3.6
4
3.6
3
2.7
3
2.7
2
1.8
2
1.8
111
100.0
70
63.1
Streptococcus
Enterococcus
Acinetobacter
Total
The most frequent agents of sepsis are S. Aureus
and P. Aereginosa, which are discharged from burn
wounds and, according to our findings, predominate at 65% - 85% in septic patients. The advantage of hemocultures for grampositive flora is distinguished: correlation of sowing of S.Aureus and P.
aeruginosa strains in patient blood with burn sepsis
is 2:1. Less often, the agents of sepsis are E.coli,
Acinetobacter spp., Enterobacter spp., B- hemolytic streptococcus, and non-sporogenetic anaerobic bacteria. The most severe septic course is noted
in discharge of three or more microorganisms in
hemoculture.
Hakimov, Shakirov, Haidarov 199
Taking into account clinicolaboratory findings (Hb, A/Gcoefficient, lymphocytes, leucocytes,
body temperature higher than 38 °C) and 3 times
registrated bacteremia, we diagnosed sepsis in 80
patients with burns, which was 4.1% of the total
number of victims and 38% among patients with
severe burns.
In septic patients with RHB of more than 90
b/m, RR of more than 20 per min, average Hb level
of 72g/l, lymph of 11%, A/G coefficient of 0.97,
there was marked leukocytosis of more than 12x10/
ml or leukopenia of less than 4X10/ml or the immature form of more than 10% and body temperature
higher than 38 °C or lower than 35 °C.
In patients with critical burns, the risk of developing generalized infectious complications
increases. When such patients have deep burns
covering more than 20% of the body surface, they
undergo complex therapy consisting of antibacterial
preventive therapy and then treatment of complications immediately after elimination of shock. All
antibacterial preparations are introduced intravenously. Development of infectious complications is
considered to be an absolute indication for providing immediate and intensive antibacterial therapy.
Administration of antibacterial preparations must
be based on a complex evaluation of the patient’s
condition, taking into consideration the extent of
the injury, the stage of burn disease, complications,
degree of invasion of the burn injury by microflora,
immune status, the patient’s age and the character
and severity of accompanying pathology.
Preparations of choice for septic patients with
burns are polysynthetic penicillins (ampicillin, carbenicillin) alone or in combination with beta-lactamase inhibitors (amoxicillin + clavulanic acid,
ampicillin + sulbactam), aminoglycosides (gentamycin, tobramycin and sisomycin), ftorchinolons
(ofloxacin, pefloxacin and lomefloxacin). Sandal
burns with affected bone structures are treated with
lincomycin, and nonclostridial anaerobic infections
are treated with clindamycin and metronidazol.
Fundal infections make it necessary to administer
nystatin, amfotericin b or fluconazol.
Of 80 patients with burn sepsis, 40 underwent
operative treatment. In the first group (25 patients)
that underwent burn trauma, necrectomy was performed on 5% to 10 % of the body surface and the
area was covered with “xenoderma” (15 patients)
or amniotic membrane (10 patients) on an area of
500 to 950 cm2. Five or six days later, necrectomy
of the rest of the burn area was performed with onetime autodermoplasty by split skin graft (1:2). In the
postoperative period of 3-4 days in 19 patients, bacteremia was absent in hemocultures. In all patients,
PCT levels decreased and did not exceed 0.5 ng/ml
after early necrectomy (to 850 cm2) with one-time
autoplasty; septic signs were absent.
In the second group (17 patients), bloodless
spare necrectomy was performed; after cleaning of
the wounds, autoplasty was performed on granulating wounds (950-1050 cm2). Before and after the
operation hemocultures with growth sight were revealed. During the period of 7 - 10 days after the
operation, PCT was limited to 2—5 ng/ml, which
confirms continuation of the burn sepsis course.
Among patients of group 1, lethal outcomes
were 20% (5 patients); in group 2, 41.2% (7
patients).
Discussion
Burn sepsis is a systemic host response to infection and can in some conditions lead to severe
sepsis. According to the authors’ data, 23% - 82%
of patients die in the late stages of septic disease.
The damage from severe burn trauma causes the
systematic inflammatory response (SSIR) syndrome
with possible sepsis and severe sepsis development
[10].
Procalcitonin (PCT) was discovered accidentally
and described for the first time in 1993 as a new
marker of bacterial infection. It is a prohormone
of calcitonin (CT) and is related to anti-inflammatory cytokines. Procalcitonin is a polypeptide with
a molecular mass of 12.793 DA. It develops in the
neuroendocrine cells (thyroid, lungs, liver). In bacteremia, the unsplitted PCT molecule is discharged
from cells, and the calcitonin level does not increase. The concentration of PCT circulating in the
plasma of healthy people is very low at 0.01 ng/
ml. However, in severe bacterial infections it can
increase to 20 - 200 ng/ml.
We designed a prospective study to validate the
diagnosis of burn sepsis. The results showed that
with rational use of intensive therapy for burn sepsis and septic shock in combination with parenteral
ozonotherapy among septic patients with severe
burns, SPOI and lethal outcomes decreased 70%
- 80%.
References
1. Krutikov M.G. Palcin A.A., Bobrovnikov A.E. // Infection of burn wound (clinical, morphological, bacteriological investigations). J. Combustiology, 2003, №4,
p.1-6.
2. Dellinger R.P. Current therapy for sepsis. Infect Dis N
Am 1999, 13 (2), 495-509
3. Wheeler A.P., Bernard G.A. Treating patients with
severe sepsis. N Engl. J. Med 1999, 14, 155-160.
4. Tang BM, Eslick GD, Craig JC, McLean AS. Accuracy
of procalcitonin for sepsis diagnosis in critically ill
patients: systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet
Infect Dis. 2007;17:210–217. doi: 10.1016/S14733099(07)70052-X.
5. Heyland DK, Johnson AP, Reynolds SC, Muscedere J.
Procalcitonin for reduced antibiotic exposure in the
critical care setting: a systematic review and an economic evaluation. Crit Care Med. 2011;17:1792–1799.
doi: 10.1097/CCM.0b013e31821201a5.
6. Krilov K.M. Fillipova O.V., Shlik I.V. Role of wound
infection in development of inflammatory response in
victims with severe thermic trauma. // Emergency medical aid, Saint-Petersburg, 2006, №3, p. 61-62.
7. Tostov A.V., Filimonov A.A., Kolsanov A.V. Suggestions
on classification of burn generalized infection. “Niznegorodsky medical journal, appendix Combustiology,
2004, № 4, p.110-111.
8. Alexeev A.A., Krutikov M.G. // Sepsis in combustiology,
J. Combustiology 2004, № 20, p.57-63.
9. Bone B.C., Balk R.A., Cerra F.B. Definition for sepsis
and organ failure and guidelines for the use of innovative therapies in sepsis. Crit. Care Med., 1992, 20,
864-874.
10. Pittet D., Rangel-Frausto S.,Li N. et al. SIRS, sepsis,
severe sepsis and septic shok: incidence, morbidities
and outcomes in surgical ICU patients. Ibid. 1995, 21,
302-309.
Nebivolol Effect on Pulmonary
Hypertension in Chronic
Obstructive Disease of the Lungs
Gulom Holov
Republican Research Center of Emergency Medicine, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Abstract. Chronic obstructive disease of the lungs (CODL) is one of the leading cases of morbidity
and mortality all over the world. It is one of the causes which may form the basis of sudden death, it
serves as disturbance of cardiac contractions rhythm. The aim of the research is to evaluate the effect of
adrenoreceptor—nebivalol by selective blocker β1 on pulmonary hypertension degree in patients with chronic
obstructive disease of the lungs. 60 patients with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs of III-IVstage in
exacerbation phase were enrolled in the study. Introduction of nebivolol into the scheme of treatment of
patients with severe and extremely severe chronic obstructive disease of the lungs is statistically important
in decrease of pulmonary hypertension degree. In absence of negative effect on hemodynamic indexes,
electrophysiological parameters and sporometric data reveal changes in the rate of cardiac contractions to
adequate values and significant increase of tolerance to physical exertion in 2 weeks after taking nebivolol.
Decrease of heart rate correlates with decrease of pulmonary hypertension.
Keywords: Chronic obstructive disease of the lungs, treatment, nebivolol.
Introduction
Chronic obstructive disease of the lungs (CODL)
is one of the leading cases of morbidity and mortality all over the world [1—4]. It is one of the causes
which may form the basis of sudden death, it serves
as disturbance of cardiac contractions rhythm.
Among the factors causing the development of
arrhythmia are considered to be the following: aggravation of bronchial permeability, medicines prescribed to patients with chronic obstructive disease
of the lungs, dysfunction of autonomic conductive
cardiac system, ischemic heart disease, arterial hypertonia, dysfunction of the left ventricle (LV) and
right ventricle (RV), increase of catecholamine level
in the blood and development of hypoxemia. In
severe course of chronic obstructive disease of the
lungs the development myocardiodystrophy, intensifies contractive inadequacy of the myocardium
even in absence of coronary disease that may be accompanied by pains in the heart, arrhythmia [5—7].
Anticholenergetic preparations, β2-agonists and
xanthines are used as bronchodilatators in recent
years [8-9].
In administration of these preparations it may
be difficult to control therapeutic dosage because
overdosage also cases cardiotoxic effect, possible
development of sinus tachycardia, premature atrial
contractions, supraventricular tachycardia, fibrillation of atria and ventricular arrhythmia.
201
The aim of the research is to evaluate the effect
of adrenoreceptor—nebivalol by selective blocker
β1 on pulmonary hypertension degree in patients
with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs.
Material and methods
60 patients with chronic obstructive disease of
the lungs of III-IV (severe, extremely severe) stage in
exacerbation phase were enrolled in the study.
The criteria of enrollment in the study:
1) Chronic obstructive disease of the lungs III—
IV stage;
2) Roentgenographic signs of emphysema;
3) sinus tachicardia;
4) PH (higher than 25 mm/Hg at rest);
5) chronic pulmonary heart;
The criteria of exclusion from the study:
1) chronic form of atrial fibrillation;
2) paroxysmal disturbances of the rhythm;
3) fever.
The patients of able bodied—age mainly males
suffering from chronic obstructive disease of the
lungs for about 10 years are enrolled in the study.
The patients were subdivided into 2 groups: group
A for comparison (n-25) and group B for study
(n=35). The patients of both groups received standard therapy, directed to elimination of inflammatory process and improvement of bronchial permeability: antibiotics (cephalosporines of the third
generation), broncholytics (thiotropy bromide or its
combination with β2-agonist of long duration effect), mucolytics.
The patients of group B were treated with
nebivalol in the dosage 10 mg 24 hours (5 mg dose
2 times 24 hours) for 14 days. All patients were
taken electrocardiography at rest and were determined HR on the 1st and 14th days.
Echocardiography was performed (with the
same time intervals) on Fillips NNV VISER CHD
apparatus. Standard parameters of hemodynamics,
final diastolic size (FDS) of the LV, final systolic size
(FSS) of the LV, beat level (BL), fraction of discharge
(FD) of the LV, left atrium (LA), right atrium (RA),
thickness of the right ventricle wall (TRVW), average pressure above the pulmonary artery (PpA), relation of E/A rates of the RV.
The function of external breathing was studied
by bodyplethysmography technique with employment of Master Screen Body (Jaeger) apparatus,
with this the level of forced expiration per second
(VFEI), forced vital capacity of the lungs (FVCL),
FVIL relations were studied in dynamics.
The patients carried out daily control of arterial
pressure themselves using Digital automatic Blood
Pressure Monitor M 4 (Omron) apparatus with HR
registration. Tolerance to physical exertion was estimated according to 6-min. walkink test on the 1st,
7th and 14th days, enrichment of the arterial blood
with oxygen (Sa02) was determined with pulseoxymeter MD 300C with the same time intervals.
Results and discussion
Clinical description of patients included in the
study is presented in Table I. The formed groups
did not differ on age, sex, clinical features, initial
HR (more than 80 beats per min), standard therapy
and that is why they were regarded as identical. In
comparison of initial clinic instrumental indexes in
the studied groups there were not any statistically
significant differences. In the majority of patients
the level of arterial blood oxygenation was compensated. Respiratory rate (RR) in patients of both
groups made 19,40±1,08 and 19,50±1,26 respirations per min. accordingly. In both groups sinus
tachycardia was registered, HR made 99,1±1,64
beats per min in group A and 103,37±1,43 beats
per min. in group B. In the majority of patients the
III functional class of chronic cardiac insufficiency
(according to NYHA classification) is established
according to 6-min. walking test results.
Initially in patients of both groups increase
of thickness of RV wall was observed, it made
6,03±0,34 mm on the average, decrease of Е/А of
RV correlation to 0,71±0,09 and the level of average
pressure over the pulmonary artery was increased
to 38,0±2,8 and 39,15±2,46 mm/Hg accordingly
(Table 2).
In patients of the studied group (group B) good
tolerance of nebivalol was noted. During the whole
period of treatment with this preparation side effects
were not registered in any of cases, noted worsening
of cough, edema, and development of respiratory
Holov 203
TABLE 1. Initial clinicoinstrumental description of patients with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs
Group for comparision (А)
Group for study (B)
Р А—Б
59,30±5,2
61,30±4,3
> 0,05
Males/females
20/5
28/7
> 0,05
CODL duration
8,90±3,9
9,70±3,4
> 0,05
ICD
16
20
> 0,05
Hypertonic disease
9
15
> 0,05
RR per/min
19,40±1,08
19,50±1,26
> 0,05
FVCL %
64,20±4,46
63,25±4,72
> 0,05
VFEI %
41,97±3,60
41,39±5,61
> 0,05
VFEI/FVCL
48,71±2,40
50,23±5,66
> 0,05
HR per/min
99,10±1,64
103,37±1,44
> 0,05
PQ interval, mm
0,14±0,003
0,14±0,004
> 0,05
QT interval, mm
0,30±0,009
0,31±0,011
> 0,05
Sa02, %
92,57±0,76
90,59±0,63
> 0,05
226,11±16,68
224,19±13,36
> 0,05
Index
Age
6 min walking test
Note. CODL—Chronic obstructive disease of the lungs; IHD—ischemic heart disease; RR—respiratory rate;
FVCL—forced vital capacity of the lungs; LFEI—level of forced expiration per a second; HR—heart rate;
SaO2—arterial blood oxygenation.
TABLE 2. Initial echocardiographic indexes in patients with for chronic obstructive disease
of the lungs patients
Group comparision (А)
n=25
Group for study (B)
n=35
Р А—Б
39,88±1,17
40,0±1,35
> 0,05
ТW RV, mm
6,0±0,35
6,03±0,35
> 0,05
FDS RV, mm
34,71±2,15
35,32±1,66
> 0,05
Ppa, mm. Hg
38,0±2,8
39,15±2,46
> 0,05
E/А (RW)
0,71±0,09
0,72±0,07
> 0,05
Parameter
RA, mm
Note. In table 2: CODL- chronic obstructive disease of the lungs; RA—right atrium; TW—thickness of the wall;
RV—right ventricle; FDS—final diastolic size; Рра—pressure over pulmonary artery.
discomfort. In the group of patients receiving
nebivalol during two weeks statistically significant
increase of Е/А RV correlation was noted—81±0,08
and 0,72±0,08 (р<0,05), compared to the patients
who did not receive neivalol, but it did not achieve
the norm (normal correlation in persons older than
50 years makes 1,34±0,4). LV FD on the background of standart therapy and in taking nebivolol
did not change (table 3). In two weeks after performed therapy in patients of both groups tolerance
to physical exertion increased.
On the background of standard therapy (group
A) the distance covered in 6 min. walking test increased from 226,11±16,68 to 261,42±39,58 м
(p<0,05). When nebivalol is added to standard
treatment (group B) statistically more significant increase of the covered distance from 224,19±13,36
to 296,6±68,02 м (p<0,001) was noted.
The best results in group B were probably received due to HR decrease. In patients of both
groups (fig. 1) statistically significant HR decrease
was registered (р<0,05), although HR decrease
to normal (less than 70 beats per min.) was only
achieved in taking nebivalol. HR decrease in 92%
of patients was already noted from the 2d day of
taking the preparation but statistically significant
HR decrease was observed in 2 weeks from beginning of treatment (р<0,05).
PH (pulmonary hypertension) is one of the
most important factors of prognosispatients with in
cronic obstructive disease of the lungs. In the internist’s practice use of blockers of calcium channels,
prazozine, nitrates is limited for these patients due
to side effects and bozentane therapy is recommended at present only for treatment of idiopathic
PH and PH in scleroderma. In our research standard treatment did not effect PH degree (р>0,05),
average pressure above pulmonary artery statistically decreased significantly in the group of patients
taking nebivolol from 15±2,46 до 36,66±3,73 мм
рт.ст. (р<0, 05; fig. 2).
In determination of correlation between HR
and average pressure over the pulmonary artery
changes, direct negative connection is revealed:
decrease of HR and average pressure over the
pulmonary artery on the background of nebivolol
treatment. The chart of the objects of investigation
disperse in coordinates adequate to two studied
TABLE 3. Dynamics of echocardiographic parameters on the background of standard treatment and in
administration of nebivalol in chronic obstructive disease of the lungs
Group А
Parameter
initially
In 2 weeks
Group B
initially
In 2 weeks
FDS LV, mm
45,64±0,85
45,64±0,85
47,42±1,02
46,78±0,91
FSS LV, mm
29,87±0,83
29,94±0,78
31,22±1,07
30,52±0,84
FDV LV, ml
96,41±4,19
96,41±4,19
102,25±3,53
101,78±4,5
FSV LV, ml
35,29±2,1
35,29±2,14
40,17±3,98
37,52±2,33
PL, ml
61,11±2,31
61,13±2,35
66,03±2,45
64,52±2,69
FD, %
63,64±1,02
63,64±1,02
62,35±1,61
62,00±1,19
LA, mm
36,23±0,88
36,41±0,88
37,57±1,29
36,84±1,81
RA, mm
39,88±1,17
39,0±1,26
40,0±1,35
41,05±1,21
ТW RV, mm
6,0±0,35
5,79±0,27
6,03±0,34
6,41±0,39
FDS RV, mm
34,71±2,15
36,93±2,0
35,32±1,66
35,05±1,83
E/А RV
0,71±0,09
0,70±0,07
0,72±0,09
0,81±0,08**
Note. *—р<0,05 **—р<0,001 in comprasion with initial level. LV—left ventricule; FSS –final systolic size; FDV—final
diastolic level; FSL- final systolic level; PL –pressing level; FD—fraction of discharge; LA—left atrium.
Holov 205
FIG. 1. Dynamics of HR frequency in patients with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs on the bachground
of standard therapy (A) and in nebivalol administration (B)
Heart rate—HR beats per min (Fig 1,2) Std. Dev.—standard deviation, SteLerr—standard error, Mean—average
arithmetic; 1—before treatment; 2—after treatment
FIG.2. Dynamics of average pressure in pulmonary artery (Ppa) in patients with chronic obstructive disease of the
lungs on the background of standard therapy (A) and in administration of nebivolol (B).
Рра—average pressure in pulmonary artery mm/Hg.
signs clearly illustrates connection between parameters (fig.3).
In our research nebivolol affected PH degree by
decreasing HR, it improved hemodynamic.
Change of hemodynamic in pulmonary circulation probably contributed to clinical improvement
of condition of patients with cronic obstructive disease of the lungs according to 6-min walking test
findings. HR decrease influences the risk of hospitalization and death for cardiovascular diseases,
thus use of nebivolol makes it possible to improve
therapy in patients with chronic obstructive disease
of the lungs of severe stage and PH.
Conclusion
Introduction of nebivolol into the scheme of
treatment of patients with severe and extremely
severe chronic obstructive disease of the lungs is
FIG 3. Correlation between average pressure over the pulmonary artery (Ppa) and HR in patients with chronic
obstructive disease of the lungs on the background of nebivolol treatment
statistically important in decrease of pulmonary hypertension degree.
In absence of negative effect on hemodynamic
indexes, electrophysiological parameters and sporometric data reveal changes in the rate of cardiac
contractions to adequate values and significant increase of tolerance to physical exertion in 2 weeks
after taking nebivolol.
Decrease of heart rate correlates with decrease
of pulmonary hypertension in patients with chronic
obstructive disease of the lungs of III—IV degree.
Taking into account the received findings nebivolol can be recommended for treatment of patients
with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs and
pulmonary hypertension.
References
1. Adamyan K.G., Chilingaryan A.L. Comparative effectiveness of ivabradine and verapamil in patients with
diastolic cardiac insufficiency due to impaired relaxation of the left ventricle. Rational Pharmacotherapy in
cardiology 2009; 3:31-35.
2. Singch B.N. Impact of reduced heart rate. Morbidity in
cardiovascular disorders. J. Cardiovasc Pharmacol Ther
2001; 6:313—331.
3. Reil J.C., Bohm M. Beautiful results—the slower, the
better? Lancet 2008; 372:779—780.
4. Fox K. et al. Heart rate as a prognosic risk factor in
patients with coronary artery disease and left-ventricular systolic dysfunction (Beautiful): a subgroup
analysis of a randomized controlled trial. Lancet
2008;372:817- 821.
5. Salpeter S.R., Ormiston T.M., Salpeter E.E. Cardiovascular effects of beta-agonists in patients with asthma and
COPD: a meta-analysis. Chest 2004; 125:21—23.
6. Thollon C. et al. Electrophysiological effects of 16257, a
novel sino-atrial node modulator, in rabbit and guineapig cardiac preparations: comparison with UL-FS 49.
Br J Pharmacol 1994; 112:37—42.
7. Fomin I.V., Valiculova F.Yu. Antianginal effect of long
use of avabradine in patients with ischemic heart disease and diabetes mellitus. Journal Cardiology 2009;
3:9—15.
8. Komlev A.D. et.al. Influence of canals blocker Ifivabrodine on the indexes of external breating functions in
patients with chronic obstructive disease of the lungs
in the period of stable course of the disease. Ter. Arch.
2010; 3:23—27.
9. Abdurarachmanova G.M. et.al. Effect of Ifvabradine
and sabutamol combination on heart rate frequency
and external breathing function in patients with chronic
obstructive disease of the lungs in combination with
IHD. Collection of thesis of ХХ congress on respiratory
organs disease M.10:21.

- Young Scientist USA

Transcription

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