Banana production methods

Transcription

Centro Ecológico
Banana production methods
A comparative study
André Luiz Gonçalves and Jim R. Kernaghan
July 2014
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draft. July 04, 2014
Acknowledgements
Centro Ecológico and the authors of this study wish to thank all organizations that contributed to its
completion. We include in our appreciation the various ecological farmers’ associations in Brazil
which provided information about organic banana production. In the Dominican Republic we wish to
thank the Institute for Development of Associative Economy (IDEAC – Instituto de Desarrollo de la
Economía Asociativa) and the COOPPROBATA banana producers´ cooperative. We thank also the
indispensable participation of Dr. Eduardo Salas, an agronomist who helped us in our field visits to
banana production farms in Costa Rica. And finally, we would like to express our deep appreciation
and gratitude to the many farmers of the three countries that were visited, people who patiently
provided us with relevant information concerning banana production.
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Index
Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................... 1
I. Background and Context ................................................................................................... 3
I.1. Some basic elements of banana cultivation ............................................................................................................................... 6
I.2. Methodological Strategy ................................................................................................................................................................... 9
II. Banana conventional production ................................................................................... 10
ll.1. Establishing the crop ....................................................................................................................................................................... 10
II.2. Crop management ........................................................................................................................................................................... 12
II.3. Harvesting, transport, and processing...................................................................................................................................... 17
II.4. Marketing/distribution.................................................................................................................................................................... 20
III. Organic banana production ........................................................................................... 21
III.1. Establishing the crop ...................................................................................................................................................................... 21
III.2. Crop management .......................................................................................................................................................................... 22
III.3. Collection, transport, and processing ...................................................................................................................................... 30
III.4. Marketing/distribution .................................................................................................................................................................. 33
IV. Final remarks .................................................................................................................. 35
V. Main references ............................................................................................................... 37
Appendix .............................................................................................................................. 38
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I. Background and Context
The banana is one of the most produced and commercialized fruits in the world. According to the
FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) the area harvested in 2012 was
approximately five million hectares, and production was roughly 102 million tons. Brazil, India, and
the Philippines are the principal countries in terms of cultivated area, representing 722, 481 and 454
thousand hectares respectively. In 2011, international commercialization of banana embodied
approximately 19 million tons of product. The main exporting countries were Ecuador, the Philippines,
Costa Rica, and Colombia, while the main importers of the fruit were United States, Belgium, and the
Russian Federation. Table 01 summarizes the international marketing patterns of bananas.
Table 1. World trade – major importers and exporters of bananas in 2011 (source: FAO 2014)
Major exporting
countries
1
Major importing
countries
Volume (x 1,000 t)
United States of
America
4,122
Ecuador
5,778
Belgium
1,340
Philippines
2,046
Russian Federation
1,306
Costa Rica
1,913
Germany
1,288
Colombia
1,828
Japan
1,064
Guatemala
1,425
United Kingdom
1,019
Belgium
1,272
China, mainland
818
United States of
America
516
Italy
661
Honduras
489
Iran (Islamic
Republic of)
615
Germany
366
France
567
Dominican Republic
330
Others
6,114
Others
275
World imports
(Total)
18,919
World exports
(Total)
Volume (x 1,000 t)
18,721
Thus the crop is important to millions of families, most notably in various countries in Latin America
and the Caribbean such as Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Dominican Republic, and Guatemala
where exportation of the product represents a significant source of income. In Brazil, the fruit is
cultivated in all regions of the country, from north to south, and covers an area of approximately
480,000 hectares. Several production methods characterize the banana culture, including the
simplest manner of cultivation in which farmers merely collect the fruit, to highly sophisticated
1
Some countries such as Belgium, United States, and Germany appear in the statistics as exporters even though they are
not banana producers. This is characteristic of the banana trade and is not necessarily related with production.
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production systems designed to produce the banana for the external market using intensive labor,
advanced technology, and a wide number of chemical inputs. To respond to the increasing demand
and the expectations imposed by a competitive market, farmers are compelled to use substantial
amounts of chemical fertilizers, pesticides, and other technologies which can cause serious and
negative impact upon both the environment and the health of millions of people, including farmers,
workers and consumers. Taking all this into consideration, there is a growing interest from
consumers, especially in northern countries, for responsible production and more equitable ways of
marketing and distributing the product.
Considering this potential negative impact, while believing that it’s possible to establish commercial
relationships that promote social and environmental advancement, the Swedish Society for Nature
Conservation (SSNC) requested a study comparing the two banana production systems – the organic
and the conventional. For the purposes of this paper, then, an organic system is that which refrains
from using chemical fertilizers or pesticides, while the conventional systems analyzed here are those
that employ highly intensive inputs and that are oriented toward servicing external markets. The main
thrust of this work, then, is to compare these two systems – the organic to the conventional.
The description of the organic production system presented in this paper has been based upon a
form of cultivation adopted by farmers in two specific geographical regions: the northern coast of Rio
Grande do Sul, in southern Brazil (also known as the Torres Region), and the province of Azua de
Compostela in the Dominican Republic. In these two areas several small-producer families,
supported by civil society organizations, have successfully adopted organic banana cultivation
practices. In the case of the Brazilian farmers, production is completely focused upon the
internal/domestic market, while the banana yield produced by the members of COOPROBATA in the
Dominican Republic is mainly destined for export to the U.S. and European markets. An analysis of
these two different processes has allowed us to draw certain broad generalizations concerning the
organic banana production chain – from production to marketing procedures for both the local and the
international markets. Brief descriptions of these two approaches are presented in the paragraphs
below.
The Torres Region, as implied above, is located on the northern coast of the state of Rio Grande do
Sul bordering the state of Santa Catarina. This region is also considered the southern boundary of
the Atlantic Forest Biome. The climate is subtropical, with average temperatures ranging between 12
°C in the winter and 27 °C in the summer. Rainfall is around 1,200 mm and is well distributed
throughout the year. This rural area is characterized by a predominance of family farms where the
average land-holding is approximately ten hectares. Banana, the main crop of this area, is grown
upon the steep sides of slopes while the flat lands are typically devoted to pasture, sugar cane,
cassava, and a wide variety of other vegetables. Along the river bottom-lands, paddy rice is the
predominant crop.
The first organic production systems emerged in the early 1990’s, as a response to the widespread
use of chemical inputs and other modern technologies adopted by local producers. Centro Ecológico,
a local non-governmental organization (NGO) devoted to promoting ecological agriculture, together
with some other local leaders, encouraged farmers to use production systems founded upon organic
farming methods. The approach was initially based upon agroecological production, organizations of
farmers in small associations, who directly marketed their organic produce at street fairs. After 23
years of working in the region, Centro Ecológico has recognized a gradual consolidation of a
significant number of smallholders (approximately 400 families) who have organized into several
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production associations and cooperatives – organizations that have been marketing their products
through a variety of distribution channels.
The province of Azua in Dominican Republic is located in the southern portion of the island, at a
distance of approximately 100 km from the capital, Santo Domingo. The climate of the region is
typically tropical, with the temperature at an average of 26 °C, and with an annual rainfall of
approximately 600 mm. The main economic activity of the region is agriculture, a pursuit that
occupies an area of approximately 70,000 hectares. The main crops are coffee, sugar cane,
bananas, and a wide variety of vegetables. The majority of farmers work on small to medium-sized
holdings – one to ten hectares – frequently on a subsistence regime. Properties that are considered
large in the region possess an area greater than 800 tarefas (one tarefa = 620.83 m2), that is, an area
covering approximately 50 hectares in size. The COOPPROBATA – Cooperativa Agrícola Los Taínos
was initially created in 1997 as a small-holders’ association and was ultimately transformed into a
cooperative in 2005. The cooperative itself has as its main objective the exportation of organic
bananas to international markets and was designed for direct sales by excluding middlemen.
Currently the organization has 223 associated producers, and the average size of the production area
of each member varies from between five and twenty-five tarefas, i.e., between 0.3 hectares to 1.7
hectares. According to the registrar of the Coop, in 2013 the total banana production was 4,275
tarefas or 265.4 hectares. Currently, the Coop exports on a weekly basis six containers (one
container is equal to 1,080 boxes of 18.1 kg), mainly to the European market.
In order to characterize and define the conventional banana cultivation and exportation system, Costa
Rica production areas were also visited. These areas are located in Sarapiquí and Guapiles, close to
the Caribbean region of the country. Costa Rica is one of the main banana exporting countries and is
highly productive in employing intensive use of sophisticated technology and chemical inputs. All
production is concentrated on large producing farms, with an average of 250 hectares of planted area
per farm. Bananas produced here are exclusively destined for the external/export markets, and it is
very common to have the presence of large international companies involved in the production chain
– companies such as Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes. With the objective of broadening the
study’s scope, the intensive production process, oriented as it is to the external market, and the
conventional banana production systems in the Torres region were also analyzed. The table below
summarizes the sites studied.
Table 2. Synthesis of the regions visited
Country
Banana cultivated
area (x 1,000 ha)
in the country*
Country
production
(x 1,000 t)*
Production method
Region visited
Organic
Brazil
481.1
6,902.2
Torres Region,
Brazil
Costa Rica
41.4
2,136.4
Sarapiquí and
Guapiles, Costa
Rica
871.9
Azua Province,
Dominican
Republic
Dominican
Republic
53.3
Conventional
Family farming and production oriented
to domestic market
Big farms and
production oriented
to external market
Family farming
and production
oriented to
external market
*Year 2012 Source: FAO 2014
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I.1. Some basic elements of banana cultivation
Banana (Musa acuminata or Musa balbisiana) is a giant herbaceous plant and is complete in its
morphological characteristics, i.e., it has roots, an underground stem (rhizome), leaves, flowers, fruit,
and seeds (Figure 01). Despite its having seeds, these are not usually viable, and therefore the
multiplication of bananas commonly occurs by vegetative processes. The natural cycle of the banana
plant begins when the shoot (the sucker) that grows alongside the main plant (mother) appears at the
ground level. The shoot grows, emitting leaves until flowering, and then the inflorescence develops
forming the banana bunch. After the bunch is harvested the banana leaves dry up and the plant dies.
The next shoot (“the daughter”), which always appears next to the mother plant, will replace the dead
tree, thereby maintaining the process on a continuous basis. The whole cycle, from the appearance
of the sucker at the ground level until the harvesting of the bunch takes approximately one year.
Figure 1. Morphological characteristics of the banana plant (adapted from Epagri 2002)
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Each banana tree produces a single bunch, formed by many banana fruits (or “fingers”) and clustered
in several hands (Figure 2). The banana flesh is yellowish, sweet, and soft. In the middle of the fruit it
is possible to have tiny black specks, which in fact are unviable seeds (without an ability to
germinate).
Figure 2.Banana bunch with hands and fruit (Source: FAO 2014)
In general the banana is cultivated in sunny regions with plenty of water, heat, air, humidity, and light.
The culture is considerably vulnerable to strong winds, as the large leaves are very sensitive to the
effects of wind surges and may be damaged thereby reducing the capacity of the plant to make
photosynthesis. Soils should be rich in organic matter, with a capacity to drain quickly, as the plant
doesn’t tolerate saturated or flooded areas. Commonly, for commercial purposes, the banana is
cultivated in areas where rainfall is near 1,200 mm/year, the temperature is around 25 °C, and in
nutrient-rich soils. Most of the international exporting areas are found in Central and South America.
For domestic consumption, however, banana trees can be found in all tropical regions. In Africa, for
instance, banana production plays a fundamental role in food security as it is a staple food for millions
of people. After established, a banana plantation can remain viable for a lengthy duration, for new
shoots are constantly emerging and growing. In some regions, it is possible to find banana
plantations more than 50 years old. However, on commercial banana plantations it is common to
renew the plants after a period of between seven and ten years. Significantly, the main purpose of
replanting is to control pests and diseases that usually appear during conventional cultivation.
There are hundreds (perhaps even a thousand) of banana varieties in the world. However, one very
broad division is to classify those bananas as either to be eaten raw or else to be cooked as
plantains2. The first classification is also known as the “dessert banana” and is the type that is sweet,
soft, and not very mealy. Such fruit are grown on commercial plantations chiefly for export, but for
domestic consumption as well. Plantains, though, are grown mainly as a food crop, particularly in
forest regions. The fruit are very large, not sweet, and are typically not very mealy. Therefore these
should be cooked prior to eating.
2
One of the sources consulted for this report, A tribute to the work of Paul H. Allen: a catalogue of wild and cultivated
bananas (INIBAP, 1999) contains data on 337 types of banana. However, it is estimated that the number of different
varieties of bananas can well be closer to a thousand.
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Figure 3. Banana varieties (Source: http://www.fruitlovers.com/BananaPoster)
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Among the dessert bananas are two main types and these, in turn, are divided in two subgroups that
are particularly important for this study. The first one, the Cavendish subgroup, is the most important
in world trade and encompasses the majority of exporting varieties such as the Williams and Grand
Nain. These are the bananas to be found in most supermarkets in European countries. The second is
the Silk subgroup, which is very important for the local market in Brazil and includes some varieties
such as Apple, Silk Fig, and Silver.
Figure 4. The two main types of banana
2. Subgroup Cavendish banana
1. Silver banana
I.2. Methodological Strategy
The methodological strategy for conducting this study was based, principally, on interviews with
technicians and banana producers in the three visited countries – Brazil, Costa Rica, and the
Dominican Republic. For the organic production in Brazil, four farmers were interviewed as well as
the agricultural technicians who work for Centro Ecológico – the local NGO responsible for promoting
organic agriculture in the region. In the Dominican Republic the source of information was four
farmers associated with COOPPROBATA. In addition, managers and field technicians of the Coop
also cooperated in our endeavor. Information collection characterizing the conventional production
systems was performed with a conventional smallholder in Brazil and the field managers of two
exporting farms in Costa Rica. In total, four organic production areas were visited in the Dominican
Republic, as were two conventional areas in Costa Rica. In conjunction with this direct information,
the study’s senior author drew upon his more than twenty years of experience in organic banana
production in and around the Torres Region. Complementing the primary data, several bibliographic
sources and internet pages were consulted with the aim of filling in any elusive information gaps.
This study is organized into three consecutive parts. In the first section, the conventional banana
production chain is discussed. In the second part the main characteristics of the organic process are
highlighted. The study is then concluded with a brief comparison between the two systems. As a way
of organizing the information, four large segments of the banana production were explored: 1.
Establishing the crop; 2. Managing the crop; 3. Harvesting and transporting; 4. Marketing/distribution.
In the diagram below, the main stages are highlighted, as is the sequence of activities – from
production to marketing.
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Diagram 1. Banana production stages
Establishing the crop
Managing the crop
Harvest and
transporting
Marketing
Each stage of the two production methods – conventional or organic – is characterized below,
highlighting the key elements relevant to this study. Given the very nature and purpose of the work, it
was not possible to deeply detail the main activities associated with farming. Moreover, as was
mentioned above, there is an uncountable diversity of banana production systems, which reveals the
limitations of the study. To conclude the study and to illustrate the production chain and its integral
parts, the final section of the report provides examples of conventional and organic production that
are summarized and compared.
II. Banana conventional production
ll.1. Establishing the crop
The methods used for establishing conventional banana plantations vary widely depending on the
type of business interested in establishing such an enterprise. Among small farmers of the northern
coast of Rio Grande do Sul, the land preparation is accomplished by eliminating the more bushy
vegetation (capoeira) by cutting with a sickle, and often by applying an herbicide to suppress
undergrowth – mainly grasses. A very general recommendation for this process is one liter per
hectare of glyphosate herbicide before planting. This amount will vary depending on terrain and initial
weed infestation. Then holes are opened that have an average size of 20 cm in width and 20 cm in
depth, depending on the available propagation material. Many farmers apply a systemic insecticide,
carbofuran, in the pits to control the weevil borer (Cosmopolites sordidus). In Brazil this product is
sold under the trade name, “Furadan,” and the manufacturer's recommendation is three to five grams
of the product, in its granular form, 30 days before planting, applied on baits prepared from pieces of
rhizome. In general, it is necessary to apply an average of 50 baits per hectare (therefore, 1.5 to 2.5
kg/hectare). However, as this method is considered labor intensive, farmers often simply apply it
directly into the pits.
The planting material (the rhizomes) is taken directly from established banana plantations. As
bananas are usually spread by vegetative means, farmers remove the suckers of a plant, which can
be from either his own crop or else from those of a neighboring plantation. For plants of the Silver
variety (the most widely grown in the region), the spacing adopted is 3.0 m X 3.5 m, providing a
population of approximately 1,000 productive units per hectare3. Another commonly used spacing is
4.0 m X 4.0 m (when the plantation is initially established), and 3.0 m X 3.0 m, for farmers who prefer
3
Each production unit, commonly called a clump, has three plants at different growth stages: the oldest, where the bunch is
in development, is called the “mother”; the second, which will be the next to produce a bunch, is called the “daughter”; and a
third, which is the subsequently produced bunch, is typically called a “granddaughter”. The three names are used in the text
– productive unit, clump, and plant – to refer to a productive unit.
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to work with the more densely packed populations. These variations are based merely on farmers’
preference, and are not necessarily the result of any official recommendation.
When the banana plants are beginning to take hold, a topdressing is sometimes made with a generic
fertilizer formulation of 5-20-20 (NPK). In general, 100 to 150 grams of fertilizer are used per plant, or
roughly 100 kg per hectare (5 kg of nitrogen, 20 kg of phosphorous, and 20 kg of potassium). Until
the bananas are fully formed, which usually occurs within a year, approximately four herbicide
applications are needed (one liter of glyphosate per application), because the area exposed to
sunlight typically favors the growth of weeds.
For more intensified plantations (where larger amounts of chemical inputs are employed), such as
those occurring in the banana plantations of Costa Rica, the adoption of technologies recommended
by traditional research institutions is even greater. At first, all planting material are clones developed
from various Cavendish cultivars, always with the goal of generating productive plants, midsized and
resistant to black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis) – the major disease threat to banana cultivation
and export4. The seedlings are propagated in laboratories from tissue cultures, a micropropagation
technique that ensures the maintenance and genetic identity of individuals when generating a large
number of plants. Then, before planting in the field, the seedlings are transferred to a nursery until
they reach a size suitable for transplanting.
Soil tillage is done by a mechanized method, by plowing and harrowing, until all vegetation is
removed. In conjunction with such mechanical methods, it is also common to use an average of one
liter/ha of herbicides, glyphosate, or paraquat, to eliminate underbrush. Fertilization during both preplanting as well as that carried out by the establishment of cultures follows recommendations
determined through soil analysis. It is also common to use pesticides for the initial control of pests,
especially nematodes. The amount of chemical fertilizers and pesticides varies considerably among
planting areas, depending principally on the type of soil, the banana variety, and upon the spacing
between plants. However, a very general recommendation is around 180 kg N/ha, 200 kg P/ha, and
260 kg K/ha in the first year (during the establishment of a plantation), and three applications of a
nematicide (carbamate or organophosphorous), 3 gr/plant per application (around 16 kg of
nematicide/ha/year). Recommended plant spacing range from 2.0m X 2.0m to 2.0m X 3.0m,
generating a density ranging from between 1,800 to 2,100 units per hectare. Specified in the table
below are the main features for establishing a plantation in the regions studied.
4
The black sigatoka or black leaf streak is caused by a fungus called Mycosphaerella fijiensis which causes necrosis on the
leaves, affecting plant photosynthesis, which ultimately leads to reduced yields and premature ripening of bunches. Losses
caused by the disease can reach up to 50%.
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Table 3. Key features for establishing a plantation in the region of Torres and Costa Rica
Stages
Torres Region
Costa Rica
Soil preparation
Chop the bush
Plowing and harrowing
Weed control
Herbicide
Herbicide
Pest control
Insecticide (weevil borer)
Nematicide (nematodes)
Plant material
Buds from own plantation
Seedlings from laboratories
Varieties
Silk
Cavendish
Fertilization
Only one
Several until plant
establishment
Spacing
3.0m X 3.0m
2.0m X 3.0m
II.2. Crop management
Fertilization
Among farmers in the region of Torres, chemical fertilization is employed following the
recommendations of the public extension service. The quantity and form of fertilizer is determined by
soil analysis. In general, farmers spread approximately twelve bags (600 kg) of NPK fertilizer per
hectare, distributed over three applications. The common formula used in the region is 5-20-20 – that
is, a total application of 30 kg of N, 120 kg of P, and 120 kg of K in a year. There is no special time for
fertilizing the plantation, but in general farmers like to distribute the applications evenly (three
applications of 200 kg each).
Some farmers also apply lime and organic fertilizer. The quantities vary widely, but as a rule the
amounts suggested per application are approximately two tons of limestone and five tons of organic
matter (such as cattle manure). Despite being recommended by extension services so as to improve
soil fertility, weed control, and general nutritional enhancement, the use of green manures is rare
among producers who adopt conventional methods.
In banana-producing farms in Costa Rica, nutrient management is more intensive and includes
substantial applications of chemical fertilizers. All nutrient recommendations are provided by
CORBANA, the public agency that fosters the development of the banana industry in the country.
Through analyses of soil and leaves as a means of evaluating soil fertility and plant nutritional status,
technicians are able to prescribe the fertilizer formulation, the amount, and the frequency of
applications for a given area. Recommendations can vary widely from 1,500 to 2,000 kg/ha/year of
NPK, and may even reach up to three tons per hectare per year of fertilizers. On one of the visited
farms fertilizer application was performed by introducing 60 grams of NPK fertilizer per plant every
two weeks. For a population of 1,650 production units per hectare, the total amount of NPK fertilizer
used in a year is about 2,400 kg.
In the second case, the management of nutrients was even more intensively enhanced. The chemical
fertilization was accomplished by applying 50 grams of NPK fertilizer per plant every fifteen days all
year round. As the population of banana plants ranges between 1,800 and 2,100 plants per hectare,
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the amount of fertilizer is between 2,100 and 2,500 kg per hectare per year. In addition, twice a year
each productive unit receives 3.0 kg of organic matter – a mixture of cattle manure, straw, and
sawdust produced on the farm itself – i.e., between nine and twelve tons of organic fertilizer per
hectare each year. Additional biological fertilizer and organic manure is applied every month in the
form of 150 ml of a liquid biofertilizer which is also produced on the property. These applications
achieve a total ranging from between 3,200 and 3,700 liters per hectare.
Table 4. Synthesis of nutrient management
Torres Region
Brazil
Limon Province
Costa Rica
Observation
Lime
Up to 3,0 t/ha
Up to 3.0 t/ha
Recommendations depending on
soil analysis
Chemical
fertilizer (NPK)
Up to 600 kg/ha
distributed in
three applications
(3 X 200 kg)
Up to 3,000 kg/ha/year,
distributed in bi-weekly
applications.
Recommendations and
formulations depending on soil
analysis and production
Micronutrients
No application
Undetermined
Recommendations depending on
soil analysis
Organic fertilizer
Up o 10 t/ha
Up to 10 t/ha
Depending on the availability of
organic matter but in general it is
not utilized
Input
Pests and diseases control
The main banana pest in Central America is the nematodes. These small worms living in the soil and
roots penetrate the plant, destroying its root system, and hindering the absorption of water and
nutrients by the organism. The control of this pest is preventively accomplished during planting by
selecting seedlings free of nematodes. In crops already established, the control is done through a
periodic application of nematicides, usually at a frequency of three applications of approximately 5.0
kg/ha of a carbamate or organophosphorous product per year (15.0 kg/ha/year). For small producers
in the region of Torres, as was mentioned above, the main pest is the weevil borer (Cosmopolites
sordidus), which is controlled by applying insecticides. The general recommendation is the same
when planting, that is, 1.5 to 2.5 kg/ha/year of carbofuran applied once.
Among the banana diseases, one that has greatest prominence and causes widespread damage is
the destructive black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella fijiensis), particularly in exporting countries such as
Costa Rica. However, this disease can be controlled with frequent applications of fungicides. Among
the producers of Costa Rica, the decision to apply the fungicide is determined by a professional in the
area called a “pisquero,” who is able to evaluate and determine the level of possible attack by the
disease. In most unfavorable years, according to the reports of the directors’ own farms, one comes
to expect more than 50 fungicide aerial pulverizations (sprayings), applied with the aid of mineral oil.
Generally recommended amounts are 8.0 liters per hectare of systemic fungicides and 4.0 liters of
protective ones.5 Thus, in a year when conditions are conducive to the spread of the disease on
5
Fungicides are generally classified as systemic and protective. The first acts on the plant, since the active ingredient is
absorbed and translocated to the site of infection in the plant. Protective fungicides, on the other hand, act directly on
pathogens, preventing or reducing the chances of disease.
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some farms, one can assume applying approximately 300 liters per hectare of different fungicides.
The most common ones and their recommended doses are delineated in the table below.
Because production is less intensive and climatic conditions are less favorable to the spread of
disease, among the small producers in Torres the use of fungicides is not as frequent as that cited
above. A common recommendation, which is adopted by the majority of conventional producers in
the region, is three applications during the hottest period of the year – November to March. The most
widely used products is “Tilt” – a systemic product whose active ingredient is propiconazole and
Dithane – and whose active ingredient is made up of dithiocarbamate fungicides. The doses may
vary, but in general, about 500 ml of product is used per hectare and is mixed with 10 liters of mineral
oil. In the table below the main pesticides used in banana production are listed with their
recommended dosage.
Table 5. Main pesticides utilized in banana cultivation
Technical and
commercial
names
6
Recommended
doses
Frequency
Purpose
Main side-effects
0.5 – 6.0 L/ha
4 to 6
applications per
year
Weed control
Moderate toxicity to crustaceans.
Potential groundwater contaminant
1.5 – 3.0 L/ha
4 to 6
applications per
year
Weed control
Acute toxicity. Mortality of amphibians,
insects, and aquatic organisms.
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Moderately toxicity to fish, insects and
mollusks. Possible carcinogen and
developmental or reproductive toxin
Herbicides
Glyphosate
(Roundup)
Paraquat
(Gramoxone)
Systemic fungicides
Propicolazole
(Tilt)
0.5 L/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Benomyl
(Benlate)
150 ml/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Possible carcinogen, developmental
or reproductive toxin, and suspect of
endocrine disruptor
Thiabenzadole
(Cercobin)
400 – 600 ml/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Mortality of amphibians and insects.
Carcinogen and developmental or
reproductive toxin
125 – 150 ml/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Mortality of amphibians, crustaceans,
fish, and insect. Carcinogen,
developmental or reproductive toxin,
and potential groundwater
Metiltiofanato
(Cycosin)
6
Observations: a) This is a very general list of main pesticides utilized in banana cultivation. In fact, the list of products that
may be used in growing bananas is much more extensive; b) the number of pesticide applications may vary substantially,
depending upon several factors associated with weather conditions, cultural management of the crop, etc. In one year
pesticide pulverization to control black sigatoka in some areas of Cost Rica can reach up 50 applications, that is, more than
300 kg/ha. For main side-effects and a detailed information on pesticides effects see www.pesticideinfo.org
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contaminant.
Protective fungicides
Mancozeb
(Dithane)
2.2 – 4.5 kg/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Highly toxic to amphibians.
Carcinogen, potential groundwater
contaminant, developmental or
reproductive toxin, suspect of
endocrine disruptor
Tridemorph
(Calixin)
0.6 L/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Mortality of amphibians and fish.
Moderate toxicity
1.0 – 2.0 L/ha
Up to 30
applications per
year
Black and
yellow sigatoka
control
Mortality of amphibians and insects.
Acute toxicity, carcinogen, potential
ground water contaminant
1.5 to 2.5 kg/ha
Up to 3
applications per
year
Weevil borer
and nematodes
control
Highly toxic to honeybees. Acute
toxicity, cholinesterase inhibitor,
potential groundwater contaminant,
and suspect of endocrine disruptor
2 – 4 L/ha
Up to
4applications
per year
Nematodes
control
Mortality of crustaceans and fish,
moderate toxicity to honeybees. Acute
toxicity and cholinesterase inhibitor
Spraying the
bananas with a
0,2% solution
Post-harvest
fungal disease
control
Mortality of fish. Moderate toxicity,
carcinogen and developmental or
reproductive toxin
Chlorothalonil
(Bravo)
Insecticides and nematicides
Carbofuran
(Furadan)
Oxamyl
(Vydate)
Post-harvest products
Imazalil
0,2% solution
(20 ml/10 liters
of water)
Cultural practices
There are a number of cultural practices believed necessary to ensure a good crop. Among those
recommended practices, thinning is used to keep each production unit to three plants – the mother,
daughter, and granddaughter. The thinning is done periodically, by removing the excess sprouts
using a tool in the form of a pipe with a sharp edge (Figure 5). The peeling of the banana plant, which
consists of removing the old, dried, and sick leaves, should also be a periodic practice. This routine is
designed to increase sunlight and aeration of the banana plant thereby reducing the incidence of pest
and disease. In regions with more intensive production, as is the case of Costa Rica, there is also a
shoring up of banana trees protecting against their tipping over with the weight of the bunches. In
shoring, the bananas are tied to each other using nylon cords. It is also a common practice to use
bamboo struts to support the plants in production.
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Figure 5.Instrument utilized to remove banana suckers
Protecting the bunch with plastic bag (bagging) is a technique often used to cover the bunches with a
covering of low density polyethylene. The aim of bagging is to protect the fruit from pests and
diseases as well as from strong winds and any friction with leaves. Simultaneously, the bunches are
marked with a ribbon of a certain color indicating the physiological age of the plant. After a period of
nine to twelve weeks, depending on the region, all bunches marked with a specifically colored ribbon
are ready to be harvested. However, to be certain, there is still a check to be made with a calibrator to
ensure that the fruit is at least 40 mm in diameter.
Figure 6. Banana bunch covered with a polyethylene bag
Eliminating the heart of the banana tree and pruning the lower banana hands are also everyday
practices. These activities allow for better fruit quality and ensure heavier bunches. Weed control is
also carried out in a systematic manner by virtue of the application of herbicides. Depending on the
geographical area, infestation can occur with a frequency of sometimes eight events a year. The
most widely used herbicide is glyphosate, applied directly to the areas of the weed occurrence. In the
Torres region, farmers spray approximately 1.0 liters of this pesticide once or twice per hectare/year,
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while in Costa Rica the applications occur on an average of once every 10 weeks, applying 0.2 liters
per hectare of the herbicide.
Table 6. Main cultural practices and weeding
Cultural practice
Finality
Frequency
Sucker management
Improves bunch quality and
productivity
Three times a year
Leaf removal
Increases sunlight and aeration
of the banana
Three to four times a year
Bunch management –
propping
Sustains the plants so they do
not tip over with the weight of
the bunch
Permanent
Bunch management – cover
Increases the quality of the
bunch. Protects against pests
and diseases
Permanent. When bunches
are with all hands
marking with colored ribbons
Registers the physiological age
of the plant
are with all hands
trimming the heart
bunch
are with all hands
Bunch management – prune
bunch hands
bunch
are with all hands
Weeding
Increases production
Three to ten applications of
between 0.2 and 1.0
liter/ha/ year.
II.3. Harvesting, transport, and processing
Contrary to most other crops, the banana is harvested all year round with no intervals between
harvests. In the region of Torres, crop harvesting is carried out usually with a frequency ranging
somewhere between every fifteen or thirty days. In colder times, when temperatures reach only an
average of 10 °C, the interval period between harvesting may be higher, sometimes reaching up to
45 days. Also, during warmer periods, such as those occurring in the summer months, the interval
may decrease to every 21 days. The selection of bunches to be cut is made by virtue of visual
assessment when those with the fullest fruit (the more rounded) are taken. Another way to select
bunches is to harvest a banana, cut it open, and assess its coloring. A more yellowish internal
appearance indicates that the fruit is at the ideal moment to be harvested.
Harvesting is typically carried out by only one person, partly by cutting the pseudostem with a
machete, and lowering the bunches down slowly. Once harvested, the fruit is manually transported to
a location where it is collected by truck. At the time of its sale, which usually occurs on the same day
of its harvest, the bananas are dehanded (cut to transporting size) and arranged in boxes having a
standard weight of 21.0 kg. Some farmers may dehand the bunches into a vat containing cold water
or a 0.5% solution of water with some disinfecting product with sanitizing action. One such commonly
used disinfecting and sanitizing product is Bacterol (its commercial name).
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On the large farms in Costa Rica bananas are harvested by teams of three people. One person is
responsible for cutting the bunch, and the other two have the responsibility for its transportation. The
bunches are placed on the shoulder of a worker, protected by a foam pad so that the fruit is not
damaged. A protective polyethylene pad is also placed in the middle of each bunch with the aim of
protecting the fruit against possible harm caused by transportation impact. Then the bunches are
hung onto a system of steel cables, spread across the banana plantation, designed to carry the fruit
crop to the processing plant.
Figure 7.01. Bananas with spots caused by friction, and 02. Steel cables for banana transportation
Upon arriving at the processing plant, still hanging from their steel cables, all bunches are washed
with a solution of soapy water in order to remove dirt and stains. Then the floral remnants that persist
at the end of the fruit are removed. This step is also done at the same time as a test is conducted –
by a selecting and cutting a fruit to verify its state of maturation. If the bunch is in an advanced state
of maturation, it is removed, because it will hardly be likely to survive the shipping time necessary to
reach the consumer. Then all bunches are dehanded and placed in a water tank with a bactericidal
product such as Bacterol aiming in order to sanitize the fruit in addition to coagulating and
precipitating the sap7 (so that the latex sap doesn’t ooze out to spoil the appearance of the fruit). The
next step is to cut the banana hands into smaller units called “bouquets” (typically containing between
five and seven fruit), spraying them with a 0.2 % fungicide solution (usually commercially obtained
Imazalil or Bankit), weighing them, and finally placing them in cardboard boxes containing 18.1 kg.
Employing a conveyor belt, boxes then go into a container that goes straight to the port for exporting
procedures.
7
Sap or banana latex is a sticky liquid compound which is present in the stem and green fruits.
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Figure 8. Steps of the fruit-preparation for export
Picture 01. Banana transportation from the field
Picture 02. Bunches arriving in the packing house
03. Bananas in the tank for disinfection and sap
precipitation
Picture 04. Bananas in the tray for fungicide
spraying and weighting
Picture 05. Boxes in the conveyor belt
Picture 06. Container
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Export bananas are picked green and are usually ripened in special rooms upon arrival in the
destination country. Fruit ripening is made in chambers with controlled temperature and humidity. To
standardize the ripening period, and to increase banana shelf life, the fruit is acclimatized by the use
of ethylene gas at a temperature around 16° C and at a relative humidity ranging from between 85
and 95%. The shelf life is increased as all fruit is uniformly ripened at a lower temperature than under
natural conditions. The ethylene gas is a natural ripening hormone produced by many fruits such as
bananas, apples, and pears. Even though the gas used for ripening commercial bananas is artificially
produced, there is no evidence that the process is harmful to human health. In fact, the use of the gas
is exclusively employed to bring uniformity to a natural process, thereby allowing and facilitating fruit
commercialization. The average period between harvest to a final market destination in either Europe
or the United States varies between three and four weeks.
Table 7. Stages of harvesting and processing in a commercial exporting banana farm
Stages of bananas from the field to final consumer
Step 01. Bunch harvested by a team of three people
Step 02. Bunch transportation on aerial cables
Step 03. Bunches washed with a soap solution to remove dirt and stains
Step 04. Removal floral remnants
Step 05. Bunches are dehanded and placed in a tank with a solution of bactericidal product to sanitize the
fruits and precipitate the sap
Step 05. Cut the banana hands into small bouquets (five to seven fruit) and spray with a 0.2 % fungicide
solution
Step 06. Pack the fruit in a 18.1 kg box
Step 07. Boxes go upon a conveyor belt into the container
Step 08. Container goes to the port and is shipped to its destination countries (Europe and USA)
Step 09. Upon arriving, banana boxes go to distributors (for fruit ripening)
Step 10. Distribution to supermarkets and final consumers
II.4. Marketing/distribution
Most of the marketing of conventional bananas produced in the Torres region is conducted through
intermediaries until reaching the final consumer. In general, truckers collect the product directly on the
farm’s property and deliver it to wholesalers, who in turn sell it to the retail markets. Supermarkets, in
turn, have the responsibility of the final marketing of the product. The diagram below characterizes
the banana marketing and distribution chain.
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Diagram 2. Banana marketing and distribution chain
Farmers
(Production)
Truckers
(Transportation)
Wholesalers
(Ripening)
Supermarkets
(Direct selling)
Final
consumer
A very common problem in the marketing of bananas in the Torres region concerns the weight of the
boxes sold. The pattern box should only hold 21.0 kg of product, but it is common for buyers overpack with excessive weight, often reaching 24.0 kg, thereby only paying the referral weight of 21.0 kg.
Thus, for each eight boxes sold, producers deliver the equivalent of nine banana boxes. And beyond
this issue, farmers also face a problem concerning product classification. Buyers, or the truck owners
who collect the product, are in the habit of defining whether a certain number of banana boxes will be
ranked in the first or second grade categories – the second grade being sold at half the price of the
first grade. Generally, the classification criteria are extremely subjective, and are based upon fruit size
and appearance, and not necessarily related to the real quality of the product. Therefore, besides the
problem of the weight of boxes, farmers can also become victims of a product classification scheme
by virtue of truckers who down-grade first tier fruit to second-grade status.
In the case of banana farms in Costa Rica, the product is sold in boxes of 18.10 kg, mainly through
large multinational production systems, and thus the marketing of fruit is done through such entities
as Chiquita, Del Monte, Dole, and Fyffes. These companies are highly vertically integrated,
controlling the entire production process including transportation, processing, and final product
distribution. Some farms, however, are able to export directly to distributers and thus are able to sell
to buyers in major consumer markets.
III. Organic banana production
III.1. Establishing the crop
In the organic farming system, the methods for establishing a plantation are somewhat similar to the
conventional methodology. The main differences are related to the initial preparation of the land, pest
control, and fertilization. In the Torres region farmers merely cut the vegetation where the banana
plants will be established, i.e., they lower the brush without performing any soil tillage activities (no
plowing and harrowing). If soil fertility is low, some farmers report the need to add a green manure
mixture prior to planting. The most commonly species used for this soil improvement approach are
the dwarf mucuna (Mucuna deeringiana), the perennial peanut (Arachis pintoi), the lablab (Dolichos
lablab), the wild radish (Raphanussativus L.), and oat (Avena strigosa). Dwarf mucuna, lablab and
perennial peanut can extract nitrogen directly from the air through the process of biological fixation,
as do leguminous species. The cut material is left on the ground to decompose and fertilize the
banana trees as they are established. Liming the soil, using no more than two tons of lime per
hectare, can also be employed. The pits dug for the seedlings, or “cradles,” as organic farmers prefer
to call them, are open depressions approximately 30 cm wide by 20 cm deep depending largely on
the size of the seedlings. In general, no fertilizer is used at the time of planting, but some producers
put a little cattle manure (one liter) inside each cradle.
The planting material, the seedling, is typically taken from already-established banana plantations,
but is always carefully acquired from areas free of diseases such as panama (Fusarium oxysporum).
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Those who use this seedling acquisition technique recommend that the rhizomes are thoroughly
cleaned and free of insects, especially the weevil borer (Cosmopolitan sordidus). Some treatments
utilize a solution of water mixed with wood ash with which to clean the fruit. And even enriched
biofertilizer – a liquid fertilizer prepared with cattle manure and micronutrients – may sometimes be
used. The main variety of product grown in the Torres region is the locally-known white dwarf banana
or Silver, from the group of dessert bananas. This variety is planted in a spacing of 3.0 m X 3.0 m, or
in a density of 1,111 plants per hectare. The second variety used in the region, but less so because
of its sensitivity to cold, is the banana of the Cavendish group. For this variety, the recommended
spacing is 2.5m X 2.5m thereby representing a density of 1,600 plants per hectare.
In the case of established conventional bananas, ones that farmers intend to convert to an organic
growing system, it is recommended that the transformation process be carried out in stages:
incrementally changing methods of pest control, fertilizing, and disease intervention over time. The
general guideline is that the farmer puts aside only a portion of his banana crop at a time for organic
production – perhaps beginning with those areas that have fewer banana trees per area, or areas
that are more isolated. Gradual incorporation can also include a substitution of inputs, especially
chemical fertilizers with organic manures. It is common also to slightly reduce production in the first
years – around 20% – but in general this reduction is offset by higher gains on the sale of the new
product and less costly expenditure on inputs8. As they gain confidence, producers can integrate
other organic steps until the entire banana plantation is fully converted to organic production. The
conversion time depends largely on the producer and the size of the area, but in general three years
are typically demanded to completely change a production system from conventional to organic.
In the case of farmers visited in the Dominican Republic, the methods adopted for the initial
establishment of a banana plant or the renewal of a plant consists in removing all vegetation and
turning the soil with a three-point plow. Then the pits are opened using a shovel or pickaxe, as in
other production regions. Each hole has an approximate size of 30 cm in width and depth, depending
on the size of the planting material (seedlings). In general pieces of rhizome from old and/or renewal
areas plantings are used. As a whole, the production is destined for the foreign market, and
consequently the variety used is the Grand Nain from the Cavendish subgroup. The adopted density
of plants is 130 productive units for each tarefa (620.83 m²) – an approximate spacing of 2.0m X
2.5m – totaling a population of approximately 2,000 plants per hectare. As in conventional production
elsewhere, organic bananas in the Dominican Republic are cultivated in monocultures, and it is
common after a period approximating 10 years to renew the plantation in an attempt to increase
production by reducing possible infestations of pests and diseases.
III.2. Crop management
Fertilizers
In the Torres region, managing the nutrients of organic banana production varies greatly depending
on the specific location of the crop. For example, plantations established in the sunnier and wind-
8. In a study conducted in 2006 to compare conventional and organic banana produced in the Torres region, the author
found an average for conventional production of 12.8 tons/ha, while for organic bananas the average was 8.3 tons/ha.
However, the net income per hectare was around U$ 2,154 for the conventional producers and U$ 2,570 for the organic
farmers.
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sheltered areas tend to be naturally more productive even with less use of organic fertilizers. This is
because in the region, the location for a banana plantation is a critical factor for production.
Accordingly, plantations located in areas less exposed to the sunlight and unprotected from the
southern cold winds require higher nutrient intakes. As a general rule, a wide range of organic
materials such as cattle dung can be used as crop fertilizers without any restriction. However such
material is not found in sufficient quantities to fertilize the areas of banana, and therefore it is
common for farmers to purchase poultry manure from other regions and to spread one to two tons per
year over their plantations. Considering that very often such manure comes extremely moist and raw,
with high content of soluble nitrogen, it is recommended for farmers to compost it for a few months.
After a couple of months the poultry manure composted is ready to be applied and contains
approximately 2.4%, 1.15%, 3.7% of nitrogen, phosphorous and potassium respectively.
It is also well known that ash is rich in potassium and that this mineral is an element of fundamental
importance in the nutritional health of bananas. Thus, another source of mineral nutrition used by
some farmers is ash from firewood burned in their home stoves, or even from rice husks burned to
dry the rice grains. In the Torres region there are many rice fields producing hulls that are used as
fuel in the grain drying process. Given adequate availability, this by-product might also be used for
fertilizing the banana plants. Also common in the region is sugarcane bagasse, produced by various
mills that manufacture liquor and/or brown sugar. Some producers also recommended bagasse use,
because of its rich fibrous nature and the time it takes to decompose in the soil. Even though these
by-products (rice husks and bagasse) may come from conventional farms they are allowed (and even
recommended) for organic farming. When transferred from farm fields, it becomes a way of recycling
locally produced nutrients.
Green manure cover crops are also widely used for fertilizing the banana plant. As noted above, the
most common plants used by producers are dwarf mucuna, peanut forage, lablab, forage turnips, and
oats. Among the weeds that occur frequently in the region is the purslane (Portulaca oleracea L.), the
dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), the amaranth (Amaranthus viridis), and spiderwort (Trades cantia
sp.). Contrary to conventional production where weeds are controlled through the spraying of
herbicides, management is achieved through the periodic scything of vegetation, but only when such
foliage begins to affect the bananas.
An organic fertilizer being used by farmers is the locally produced bokashi. This material is made from
a mixture of several organic and mineral materials such as bran wheat, castor bean, straw, lime, rock
phosphate, ashes, etc., and is fermented by inoculating them with microorganisms. Organic compost
bokashi has a nutrient composition depending primarily on the materials originally utilized for its
production. It can be expected that 1.0% to 2.0% of nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium can be
used, as well as small amounts of other nutrients such as calcium, magnesium, boron, manganese,
etc. It is recommended to apply up to 1.0 kg of this compound per banana plant each year, that is,
around 1,200 kg/ha/year. For less fertile areas in which the banana production is substantially less, it
may also be fruitful to use a slightly more concentrated mixture.
Among the mineral inputs used by producers, phosphate rock is the most common. Applications
range from 100 to 300 kg per hectare every year, as a source of phosphorous. More recently,
because of increased availability and the technical recommendations of Centro Ecológico, farmers
also apply powdered basaltic rock, which has a slower rate of decomposition. The recommendation is
two tons per hectare per year. As most of the soils in Brazil are acid, farmers are recommended to
use lime to increase pH and therefore enhance soil fertility. Dolomitic limestone and calcareous shells
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Banana report – 2
are recommended and also employed in proportions of up to two tons per hectare in every two or
three years.
As a source of potassium some farmers are using a product with the trade name K-Mag, which is also
rich in sulphur, and magnesium. The amount of this material to be employed is up to 300 kg per
hectare per year. The product is made from rocks, and has in its composition 21% potassium, 21%
sulphur and 10% magnesium. K-mag is certified for organic production and it is manufactured by a
global company devoted to producing phosphate and potassium fertilizers called “Mosaic”. It is
noteworthy that the general recommendation for nutrient management in banana production is the
use of materials that have a slow solubilization. Unlike agricultural chemical fertilizer, the use of
materials with low solubility, thus providing a gradual release of nutrients, is the rule in organic
production.
For members of COOPPROBATA in the Dominican Republic, the general recommendation for
nutrient management is fertilization with approximately 3.0 kg of vermicompost for each banana
clump, distributed in three (1.0 kg per application) applications per year. Vermicompost is the product
derived from composting organic materials such as manure, vegetables, and food waste while
introducing earthworms. The humus is spread around the plants and covered with dead leaves.
Bokashi compost is also used by farmers in the cooperative. The recommendation, however, is
roughly 2.0 kg per application (amounting 6.0 kg per year) of bokashi also scattered around each
plant. All fertilizer is produced by the cooperative and passed on to farmers at a price of U$ 3.40 per
bag of 38.5 kilograms of bokashi and U$ 4.60 per bag of vermicompost. Some farmers also spray
their plants with an enriched biofertilizer called Biol, a fermented liquid fertilizer prepared with water,
fresh cattle manure, brown sugar, and milk. The recommendation of COOPPROBATA technicians is
two sprays per year of approximately 10 liters of the product diluted in 200 liters of water (dilution of
5%) per hectare. The biofertilizer is also produced by the cooperative and a plastic vat containing 200
liters of product costs around U$ 50.00.
Figure 9. COOPROBATA’s Vermicompost and Biol production plant
Picture 01. Vermicompost production
Picture 02. Biol production
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Table 8. Nutrient management on organic bananas in the Torres and Dominican Republic regions
Fertilizer
Main finality
Torres Region
Dominican Republic
Cattle manure
Organic matter and
nutrients
Up to ten tons ha/year
Not available
Poultry manure
Organic matter and
nutrients
Up to two tons ha/year
Not available
Keen
Sugarcane
bagasse
Organic matter and
nutrients
Not available
Bokashi
Organic matter and
nutrients
every two years
Up to 12 tons/ha/year
Green manure
Organic matter and
nutrients
Annually trimming the
vegetation
Not common to use
Vermicompost
Organic matter and
nutrients
Not available
Up to 6 tons/ha/year
Biofertilizer
Nutrients
Up to 100 liters ha/year
(5% solution)
Up to 200 liters/ha/year
(5% solution)
Wood and rice
husk ash
Potassium and
micronutrients
Not common to use
Rock phosphate
Phosphorous, calcium and
micronutrients
Up to 300 kg ha/year
Not common to use
Rock powder
Calcium, magnesium,
phosphorous and
micronutrients
Not common to use
Dolomitic and
shell lime
Calcium, magnesium and
micronutrients
Not common to use
K-Mag
Potassium, magnesium and
sulphur
Up to 300 kg ha/year
Not common to use
9
Organic
Minerals
Pests and diseases control
At the heart of organic management of pests and diseases is the strategy of working with nature
toward the health of the entire production system. Plants grown in well-structured and balanced soils,
in sunny conditions, and sheltered from adverse winds, are much more likely to flourish and to resist
attacks from insects or disease. Thus, the logic of organic production management is founded upon
working preventively through the nutritional balance of the plant for the purpose of lessening
vulnerability. The recommended treatments are conceived in such a way, then, as to balance the
9
As mentioned before, these are only general recommendations. Nutrient management depends upon several factors such
as the local of the banana field, availability of inputs (organic or mineral), price, technical extension service, markets for the
bananas, and even the preference or comprehension of the producer about banana production. Some farmers are very
enthusiastic about using technical inputs, while others are less strict, preferring instead to manage the banana plantation in
a less intensive way.
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nutritional status of the plant so that the organism’s natural protective elements can do their work.
However, some organic farming treatments can also be used to directly combat insects and fungi.
Biological control and the use of natural plant extract that has insecticide and fungicide power – such
as tobacco (Nicotianatabacum), neem (Azadirachta indica), rosemary (Lippia microphylla Cham), etc.
– are examples of such techniques. In the Dominican Republic for instance, farmers utilize a solution
made from a plant locally known as Anamu (Petiveria alliacea L.) to control bugs and thrips. Farmers
spray a solution prepared from the extract of this plant along with some garlic (Alliun sativum) and,
according to reports, the control is very efficient.
The main insect pest of the banana plantations worldwide is known as the rhizome borer or weevil
borer (Cosmopolitan sordidus), and can be easily controlled, as was stated above, by pieces of bait
containing the fungus Beauveria bassiana which are preventively distributed among the plants. The
process consists in spreading infected baits (pieces of rhizome) among the plants – bait that has
been sprayed with a solution containing the infectious inoculums of the fungus. The recommended
number of treated rhizomes is approximately 150 per hectare or around 1.0 kg of a rice substrate
containing the fungus diluted in a water solution. Despite being very efficient in reducing borer
infestation, and even though its application is relatively simple, few farmers in the Torres region
employ this technique. The most common approach, unfortunately, is doing nothing at all. In the
Dominican Republic farmers reported that they have only minor infestations from this pest, and
therefore they take no steps to control it.
To control diseases, especially the yellow sigatoka (Mycosphaerella musicola, Leach), a fungi
disease that creates necrosis on the leaves thus hampering photosynthesis, organic farmers
frequently use a solution of water, mineral oil, and enriched biofertilizer. The purpose of adding the
biofertilizer is to improve the nutritional state of the plant, thereby enabling the organism to resist the
deleterious effects of the disease. The recommended application is five to ten liters of oil per hectare,
mixed with 500 ml of biofertilizer applied three to five times a year directly upon the banana leaves. A
container with 20 liters is enough to spray an area of one hectare. More recently a number of farmers
have also used a compound of mineral extracts, prepared from various rocks, which carries the
trademark “Gigamix” (www.gigamix.agr.br). The purpose is the same as applying biofertilizer to
improve the nutritional balance of the plant.
In the case of the Dominican Republic organic producers, control of black sigatoka (Mycosphaerella
fijiensis) is done through cultural methods and spray products such as Timorex Gold permitted by
certification companies. Cultural methods as used, initially, to allow good ventilation between the
plants so as not to create a favorable microclimate for disease proliferation. Periodic defoliation and
removal of leaves showing symptoms of infection are also important cultural practices. Sprays are
highly dependent on climatic conditions, which may be conducive to disease development. In very
wet years farmers even known to make six applications of palm oil (Elaeis guianeensis) associated
with a product that has (as above) the trade name Timorex Gold – a natural, broad-spectrum
fungicide made from a plant extract from Australia called Melaleuca alternifolia that can inhibit fungi
proliferation. For one hectare of banana plants approximately 500 ml Timorex Gold is recommended,
as well as eight liters of organic palm oil, all diluted in water. The general recommendation is
approximately 1,000 liters of solution per hectare of bananas for each spraying.
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Table 9. Principal pest and disease control for organic bananas
Control method
Pest or disease
Main effect
Torres Region
Dominican Republic
Not harmful in the region
Producers don´t control
Pest
Weevil borer
(Comopolitus
sordidus)
Most damage is done by
the extensive tunneling of
the larvae in the rhizome,
thus weakening the plant
Biological control with
approximately 50 pieces of
bait spread in the banana
plantation containing the
fungus Beauveria
bassiana
Nematodes
(Radopholus similis)
Destroys the root system
and makes plants
susceptible to toppling,
especially when fruiting or
during strong winds.
Preventively controlled
with green manures
cultivated on the banana
plantation
Thrips
(Chaetanaphothrips
signipennis)
May cause injury to the fruit
that thereby significantly
affecting marketability
Not harmful in the region
Control through spraying
extract of anamu
(Petiveria alliaceae L.)
Diseases
Black sigatoka
(Mycosphaerella
fijensis)
Causes necrosis on the
leaves, affecting plant
photosynthesis, which
ultimately leads to reduced
yields and premature
ripening of bunches
Don´t occur in the region
Palm oil associated with
Timorex Gold. In general
200 liters/ha distributed in
two applications during
the year
Yellow sigatoka
(Mycosphaerella
musicola)
Causes necrosis on the
leaves, affecting plant
photosynthesis, which
ultimately leads to reduced
yields
Mineral oil associated
with biofertilizers. In
general 50 liters/ha
distributed in five
applications during the
year
Same as above. When
controlling black sigatoka
it is also controlling the
yellow sigatoka
Cultural management and weed control
Banana management practices in the organic production system are also largely similar to the
recommended maintenance processes for conventional planting. A most striking difference, though,
is how much weed control can be achieved using organic methodologies that, unlike conventional
systems, do not to employ herbicides. The organic solution involves periodic mowing at a frequency
of up to three times per year. This solution commonly uses costal trimmers because of their
practicality and efficiency. For infested areas with grass, which is detrimental to the banana, it is
recommended that a green manure be used preferably in conjunction with leguminous species –
dwarf mucuna, perennial peanut, lablab, etc.
The cleanliness of the banana plants involves periodic removal of old leaves and may be necessary
27
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Banana report – 2
two or three times a year. A practice of removing the suckers, so that the clump becomes only three
plants – mother, daughter, and granddaughter – also follows the same custom as conventional
cultivation. Other practices common to both systems is covering the bunch with a polyethylene bag,
extracting the heart of the banana plant, and removing the “last hand,” so that the fruit has a higher
quality (bigger).
Many organic farmers in the Torres region manage their banana plantations through the principles of
agroforestry. For example, some plant their bananas and combine them with other species of trees,
both native and exotic. This technique is reflective of the basic management concept, that is, to mimic
nature so that the whole system acts much like a natural forest consisting of a wide variety of plants,
insects, and animals. As a consequence, some growing systems come to support more than 40
native species thus contributing to the promotion of several environmental benefits – biodiverse
conservation, the production of biomass (carbon sequestration), soil protection, etc. In general the
yields are not significantly different from other organic banana systems, and farmers who adopt this
management method are compensated with less use of fertilizers and eventually being able to
harvest products from the other species of plants.
Figure 10. A banana agroforestry and palm heart (Euterpe edulis) system in the Torres region
Agroforestry management also involves enriching a system that includes the species of interest,
either through facilitating natural regeneration or even by planting seedlings that do not occur
naturally but that provide for the needs of the species of interest. Periodically the trees are either
pruned or otherwise removed, thus facilitating the entry of natural light and promoting nutrient
recycling. For some older fields, areas in which the agroforestry system is already consolidated,
28
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Banana report – 2
farmers do not use external inputs such as fertilizers or insect sprays; the production of bananas is
guaranteed by recycling nutrients derived from the periodic pruning of trees. Using this methodology
the farmer almost works solely with the resources of nature. Even though some nutrients are
exported from the production system through the harvested fruits, this is compensated by the
capacity of certain tree species to extract nutrients from lower soil layers. Contrary to the banana
plants the root system of the trees can penetrate into deep soil layers, extracting nutrients from areas
which would be not possible for the banana root system to reach. In these agroforestry areas pest
and diseases are naturally controlled by their predators, and the whole system is in equilibrium.
Among farmers in the Dominican Republic, the management processes of plantations is very similar
to the region of Torres, also consisting of defoliation, bagging the bunches, and removal of suckers
so that the clump is generated by three plants to ensure production of good fruit. Some practices,
however, carried out by Dominicans producers, are different. In this country, all of the banana
bunches of a similar age, as was stated above, are marked with a ribbon of one color at the time of
bagging to indicate the physiological age of the plant (Figure 11). After nine weeks, all that have been
flagged with that particular color of tape are ready to be harvested. Another striking regional
difference is in irrigation practices. While the Torres region's farmers depend only on rain as a water
source for the banana, among farmers in COOPPROBATA gravity flood irrigation is common. All
parcels of land in this area are subdivided into areas separated by small ridges. Through canals and
pipelines subplots are completely flooded every twenty days. As the soils are relatively sandy, after
some time the water is completely drained.
Figure 11. A blue ribbon is affixed to indicate when to harvest the bunch
29
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Banana report – 2
III.3. Collection, transport, and processing
In the Torres region, banana harvesting is carried out and is scaled according to the marketing
strategy adopted by the farming family. In the case of farmers who participate in street markets or
those who supply the local consumer cooperatives, banana cutting is carried out on a weekly basis.
Among the producers who sell to the larger markets, harvesting is enacted on a monthly basis. The
selection of the bunches to be harvested is made through the visual mode in which those with the
fullest fruit (rounded) is selected. Another way to select bunches is to harvest a fruit, cut it and assess
its coloring. If it has a more yellowish appearance, this indicates that the bunch is at the ideal point to
be harvested.
The bunches are harvested and usually dehanded in their own area, with the fruit transported in
boxes of 11 or 20 kg. Some farmers dehand the bunches in a container with cold water or a solution
of water mixed with wood ash. The transportation of boxes to the ripening chamber is done with small
carts coupled to micro-tractors. Some producers, however, carry each bunch to the local processing
plant where the fruit is packed. The ripening process follows the same steps adopted for conventional
production. In chambers where the temperature and humidity are controlled, the fruit is acclimatized
with the aid ethylene gas.
In the Dominican Republic, the bunches are dehanded in the field, discarding the fruits that do not
meet optimum marketing conditions. Fruit that has small spots or other imperfections on the skin
caused by stain or even friction between the fruit is rejected. The fruit is carefully accommodated in
cubatas, or in small buckets – vessels rounded and shaped like tanks – fully lined with banana leaf.
Each of these containers has an approximate capacity of 20 kilograms. The buckets are transported
to a location where a truck picks them up and takes to the packing house.
Upon arriving at the processing plant the bunches are dumped into large tanks of water so that the
fruit is washed and goes through a selection process. Then the selected fruit is cut into smaller
bouquets and directed to a second tank where they sit for approximately twenty minutes to allow the
sap to coagulate and precipitate. After, the bouquets are placed on a scale for weighing and all are
sprayed with a natural fungicide called Biozytron, made from extract of citrus seeds, to prevent crown
rot and to increase the shelf life of the fruit. All bunches are then bagged and placed in boxes of 18.1
kg each, then go into containers for export. As are the conventional bananas, the fruit is ripened upon
arriving in the destined country.
30
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Banana report – 2
Figure 12. Steps from harvesting to processing in the Dominican Republic
Step 01. Farmer cutting the banana bunch
Step 03. Haitian employee transporting the fruit
Step 02. Farmer filling the cubata
Step 04. Employees filling the truck with bananas
31
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Banana report – 2
Step 05. Bananas arriving in the packing house
Step 06. Bananas in the water tank and employees
cutting the hands in bouquets
Step 07. Banana bouquet
32
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Banana report – 2
Step 08. Spraying a natural fungicide
Step 09. Packing in plastic bags
Step 10. Filling the cardboard boxes
Step 11. Carrying the boxes to the patio to await
the container
III.4. Marketing/distribution
Organic farmers in the Torres region have adopted different forms of banana marketing. Initially the
only strategy was to sell their product through ecological fairs that were held most frequently in Porto
Alegre, the capital of Rio Grande do Sul. Later, this practice was expanded to other cities. Over the
years, to the extent that new farmers were converting their production systems to the organic
approach, it was necessary to seek alternative markets for selling their various products.
Consequently, fruit was sold to locations both within the region and in more distant cities. Other local
marketing initiatives were organic product consumer cooperatives located in the neighboring
municipalities near to Torres and were even sold to school lunch programs.
With an expanding demand for organic products, some supermarkets have begun offering organic
bananas to their clients. Today, a major supermarket chain, present in the main cities of Rio Grande
do Sul, sells a substantial amount of this product to their shoppers. Other initiatives, such as those of
the federal government’s school lunch program – The National School Nutrition Program (PNAE) –
have also contributed to a significant increase in demand for organic bananas. The PNAE mandates
that at least 30% of all food intended for public schools are to come from a family farm. For certified
organic products, farmers receive a bonus of 30% over the normal price. Thus, many farmers have
33
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Banana report – 2
organized in associations and cooperatives to provide foods to many public schools. Another
program, The Food Purchase Program (under the Zero Hunger Program), provides food to people
who are considered to be in a condition of food insecurity. Through collective purchases this federal
program acquires food directly from farmers and is also organized to provide foodstuffs to day-care
institutions, nursing homes, hospitals, etc. These two marketing initiatives – the supermarket chain
and institutional purchases – have significantly helped to expand the market for organic bananas. It is
estimated that over 70 tons of bananas from the Torres Region are traded monthly through such
initiatives.
As indicated above, the whole production from the COOPPROBATA in the Dominican Republic is
intended for export to the foreign market. The cooperative commercializes every week six containers
loaded with 1,080 boxes each. Of this total, only a single container is marketed directly, while the
remainder is sold to two companies: Horizon (4 containers) and Banamiel (1 container). Through
direct marketing a box of 18.1 kg is sold at a price of U$ 11.00 (approximately U$ 0.60/kg), while the
ones sold through companies have the price of U$ 9.70 per box of 18.1 kg. Besides the organic label,
part of the output is also marketed under fair trade certification (fair trade). For each box, the producer
receives an approximate value of U$ 5.70 if it has the Fair Trade seal and U$ 3.67 if it is only sold as
organic. A substantial volume of bananas that reach the processing plant, around 30%, is not sold
because of the visual appearance of the fruit and the demands of the foreign market. This remaining
fruit is sold on the local market at a price of about U$ 0.46 per box of 18.1 kg. On average a tarefa
(620.83 m2) of banana plantation produces 1.5 boxes per week. In one year, a farmer who owns 10
productive tarefas of bananas can market a total volume of 825 boxes, which are sold at an average
price of U$ 5.00, thus resulting in a gross annual income of about U$ 4,000. In the table below
production and farmers’ income for both conventional and organic banana is presented.
Table 10. Banana production and farmers income
Conventional
Organic
Costa Rica
Torres
Dominican Republic
Torres
Production
Between 1,900 and
3,000 boxes of 18.1
kg/ha/year (34.4 and
54.3 tons/ha/year)
Between 11.0 and
16.0 tons/ha/year
(average = 12.8
tons/ha/year)
Average of 20
tons/ha/year
Between 6.0 and 12.0
tons/ha/year (average
= 8.3 tons/ha/year)
Income
(gross)
Between U$ 11,400
and U$ 18,000/
ha/year.
Between U$ 3,500
and U$ 5,000/ha/year
Average of U$
6,400/ha/year
Between U$2,800
and U$ 5,500/ha/year
Considerations about production and income
a) Costa Rica has one of the highest banana productivities in the world. This is because of the
country’s ecological conditions (volcanic soils, temperature, flat lands, rainfall, etc.) and the
use of technological inputs. In 2012 the average productivity was 2,535 boxes/ha/year of
conventional bananas – that is 45.8 tons ha/year.
b) According to informants, the Dominican Republic productivity is around 1,500 boxes/ ha/year
for conventional bananas; that is, around 27.6 tons ha/year.
c) The substantial productivity difference between the Torres Region and the other two regions
(Costa Rica and Dominican Republic) is explained by the varieties cultivated. Silver bananas,
34
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Banana report – 2
the variety most cultivated in Brazil, is less productive than the bananas from the Cavendish
group, which is primarily grown in Costa Rica and the Dominican Republic.
d) The income reported in the table above is the gross product, that is, the amount earned by
farmers without subtracting production and commercialization costs. For the Torres region the
net income is approximately U$ 2,154 ha/year for conventional producers and U$ 2,570 for
organic farmers (Gonçalves 2008).
e) Production costs of conventional bananas in Costa Rica can reach up to U$ 15,000 ha/year
while in the Dominican Republic, production cost for organic bananas is around U$ 1,200
ha/year, if farmers labor is not taken into account.
IV. Final remarks
As observed in the field there are significant differences between the two production methods –
organic and conventional. However, one of the marking conclusions is that both production systems
can be improved significantly by incorporating some practices that are already established as good
production rules. Initially, while conventional systems rely on revolving the soil through plowing and
harrowing, organic plantations just open the holes for planting the seedlings. It is well accepted that
the less soil is revolved it is better for improving its fertility. In addition, green manure such as the
ones utilized by organic farmers in the Torres region is recommended for nematode control. Instead
of spending considerable resources in controlling the pest through pesticides, threatening
environmental quality, green manures can be cheaper and also an efficient way of enhancing soil
quality.
In terms of nutrient management one of the striking particularities was the lack of using organic
matter for fertilizing conventional banana plantations. It is well known that organic materials such as
cattle manure, bokashi, or any other organic compound improve soil vitality. Moreover, it is a way of
improving the overall production system health and to increase productivity. Banana plantations
properly fertilized requires less use of chemical inputs for pest and disease control. Herewith, the
number of pesticide applications can be reduced dramatically.
Some other practices with scientific evidence can also contribute to decrease pesticide use. It is well
determined that banana plantations under partial tree shade are less likely to develop black sigatoka
disease. Instead of applying fungicides up to 50 times during one production cycle, conventional
banana plantations in Costa Rica could test this ecological solution. Apart from improving
environmental conditions and the health of thousands of workers, it can also contribute to save
substantial financial resources.
Commercialization is perhaps the key aspect to improve the overall quality of the banana production
chain. As attested in the Torres region, good marketing channels can stimulate farmers to improve
their plantations, and even inducing them to adopt better practices. On the other hand,
commercialization systems based on exploitation practices, such as the one where the products are
downgraded, can prevent farmers to have higher incomes.
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Banana report – 2
Table 11. Chronogram of main activities in conventional and organic banana cultivation
Activity
Month
Conventional (Costa Rica)
Organic (Dominican Republic)
Establishing the crop (year 01)
September (Month 01)
Plowing and harrowing the soil;
opening the pits. Weeding with 1
L/ha of Glyphosate or Paraquat.
Planting the seedlings. Initial
chemical fertilization: 150 gr/plant
= 100 kg/ha NPK (5 kg N, 20 kg
P, and 20 kg K). Nematicide
application 04 L/ha of Oxamyl
Cutting the vegetation; plowing
with a three-point plow; opening
the pits. Planting the seedlings
February (Month 06)
Suckers removal
Suckers removal
March (Month 07)
Weed control with 1 L/ha of
Glyphosate
Hand weed control (hoeing)
August (Month 12)
Harvest first bunches
Harvest first bunches
Crop maintenance (year 02 onward)
September (Month 13)
Fertilizer application = every 15
days 50 gr/plat of NPK (100 kg
every 15 days). Pesticide
application = in general a weekly
application of 10 l/ha of mineral oil
associated with 0,5 l/ha of
Propicolazole for instance
Fertilization = 2.000 kg/ha of
vermicompost or 4.000kg/ha of
bokashi
October (Month 14)
Nematicide application 04 L/ha of
Oxamyl
Leaf and sucker removal
December (Month 15)
February (Month 17)
Oxamyl
March (Month 18)
April (Month 19)
June (Month 21)
Oxamyl
July (Month 22)
August (Month 23)
bokashi
bokashi
Biol application = 200 L/ha (5%
solution)
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Banana report – 2
V. Main references
Internet sites
http://www.coopprobata.com.do/
https://www.corbana.co.cr/
http://faostat.fao.org/
http://www.pesticideinfo.org/
Key informants
Brazil: Célio Schwanck, Cristiano Motter, Dirceu Schwanck Borges, Irineu José Carlos, João Evaldt
Borges, Leandro Silva da Costa, and Mauro Fernandes Martins
Costa Rica: Eduardo Salas
Dominican Republic: Adalgisa Encarnación, Alcedo Beltre, Angel Augusto Silverio, Carlito Veriguet,
Cristian Sanchez, Dani Manuel Ramirez Mendes, Donal Alfredo, Elbis Ramirez, Elizandro Mendes,
José Gomez, Juan Felipe Arvelo, Luca Ferrera, Luis de la Cruz, Luis Ramon Sanchez, and Reyita
Minyetty
Literature
EPAGRI. XIV Curso de Bananicultura. Itajaí, 2002
Gonçalves A.L. Ecological agriculture in the Torres Region of Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil: tradeoffs or
synergies? PhD dissertation, Cornell University, Ithaca 2008
Robinson J.C. Bananas and Plantains. Institute for Tropical and Subtropical Crops. CAB
International, Wallingford, 1996
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Banana report – 2
Appendix
Table 12. Main activities in banana cultivation
Operation
Conventional
Costa Rica
Organic
Torres
Dominican Republic
Torres
Establishing the crop
Soil
preparation
Plowing and harrowing. Use of
herbicide glyphosate (1 liter/ha)
to clear underbrush
Bushy vegetation chopped with a
sickle and use of herbicide
glyphosate (1 liter/ha) to clear
underbrush
Soil aeration with a three-point
plow. Weed control by
mechanical methods (hoeing and
trimming)
Bushy vegetation chopped with a
sickle. Weed control by
mechanical methods (hoeing and
trimming)
Plant
material
Seedlings from laboratories,
reproduced through micropropagation techniques
Plant material (suckers and
rhizomes) removed from
established plantations
Varieties
Clones compounded by a mix of
varieties, Cavendish subgroup
Silk (dessert banana)
Gran Nain (Cavendish subgroup)
Silver (dessert banana)
Plan spacing
Between 1,800 and 2,100 plants
per hectare
Around 1,100 plants per hectare
Fertilization
and pest
control
Up to 1,000 kg/ha and three
applications of nematicide (2-4
liters/ha/year)
100 to 150 kg/ha of NPK and 2.0
kg of insecticide Carbofuran
No initial fertilization and pest
control
Eventually (when available) up to
2 tons/ha of cattle manure
Initial weed
control
Between four and eight
applications of herbicide
glyphosate (1 liter/ha) until
plantation is fully formed (one
year)
Around four applications of
until plantation is fully formed
Weed control by mechanical
methods (hoeing and trimming),
around three times until
year)
methods (hoeing and trimming),
around three times until
year)
38
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Banana report – 2
Table 13. Main activities in banana cultivation (cont.)
Operation
Conventional
Costa Rica
Organic
Torres
Dominican Republic
Torres
Fertilization
Up to 3,000 kg/ha/year of NPK
distributed in biweekly
applications (around 50
grams/plant)
Up to 600 kg kg/ha/year of NPK
applied in three applications
Up to five tons/ha/year of
vermicompost or up to 10
tons/ha/year of bokashi compost,
distributed in three applications
Green manure; up to
300kg/ha/year of rock phosphate;
up to 300 kg/ha/year of lime and
up to 2 tons/ha/year of compost
Weeding
Between four and eight
applications of herbicide
glyphosate (1 liter/ha), only in
infested areas
Around four applications of
only in infested areas
methods only in infested areas
(once a year)
methods only in infested areas
(once a year)
Control of
pests and
diseases
Up to 50 applications of
fungicides (4 to 8
liters/ha/application) associated
with mineral oil (eight
liters/application) and up to three
applications of Nematicide (04
L/ha of Oxamyl)
Up to four applications of
fungicide (0.5 liters
ha/application) associated with
10 liters of mineral oil
Up to six applications of mineral
oil (8 liters/ha/application)
associated with 500 ml of a
natural fungicide (Timorex Gold)
Up to five applications of mineral
oil (8 liters/ha/application)
associated with biofertilizer
Sucker
management
Three times a year
Three times a year
Three times a year
Three times a year
Leaf removal
Three to four times a year
Three times a year
Three times a year
Three times a year
Managing the crop (main practices)
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Banana report – 2
Table 14. Main activities in banana cultivation (cont.)
Operation
Conventional
Costa Rica
Organic
Torres
Dominican Republic
Torres
Common practice, all farms
Some farmers, others don´t
cover the bunch
Managing the crop (bunch management)
Cover with
plastic bag
Marking with
ribbons
Harvesting, transportation and packing
Harvesting
Transporting
Packing
Every week, by a team of three
employees
Varies between every 15 to 45
days, depending on the period of
the year
Every week, by the farmer
Varies between every week to
once a month, depending on the
marketing strategy
In system of aerial cables
In wooden or plastic boxes (11 or
20 kg)
In small buckets (cubetas) of
approximately 20 kg
In wooden or plastic boxes (11 or
20 kg)
Packing house, in cartoon boxes
of 18.1 kg
Depends on the marketing
strategy, but in general wooden
and plastic boxes
External market
Domestic market, several
marketing strategies (street
markets, consumers Coops,
governmental programs, etc.)
Packing house, in cartoon boxes
of 18.1 kg
Marketing
Strategy
External market
Domestic market, through
middleman
40

Banana production methods

Transcription

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