Montessori in VET

Montessori in VET
Another way of learning in Vocational Education and
Training
Teacher Guide
Theoretical Background
This project has been funded with support from the European Commission.
This publication reflects the views only of the author, and the Commission cannot be held responsible for any use which may be made of the
information contained therein.
LLP-Leonardo da Vinci TOI Project number: 2011-NL1-LE005-05061
Montessori in VET
Another way of learning in Vocational Education and
Training
Teacher Guide
Theoretical Background
Margrieta Kroese
Roberta Marsili
Anabel Menica
with educational articles from: Roberta Marsili, Harm Biemans a.o., Cherith Megaw
Associazione Lingua Più, Città di Castello, Italy
[email protected]
Landstede Group, Zwolle, The Netherlands
[email protected]
Politeknika Ikastegia Txorierri, Derio, Spain
[email protected]
Summary
The following method is an outcome of the European Leonardo da Vinci project FROJOL
(2011-NL1-LE005-05061), FReestyle Montessori On the JOb Learning. The project was
carried out by six partners from six different countries. They have developed a Guidebook
for teachers/trainers. The theoretical background is meant to be used by teachers and
trainers in vocational education and adult training. It shows the current situation in
Montessori education in the six European countries. It analyses the basics of Maria
Montessori’s method, and shows trends in user groups of Montessori schools. It compares
the use of Montessori methodology in secondary and adult training in order to display a way
of using the Montessori inheritance in VET. This without the aim of setting up Montessori
institutes for VET. Examples from how to address the VET target groups and obstacles that
some of these groups experience are shown. Also some current educational ideas in Spain,
The Netherlands and Italy are referred to. Teachers and trainers are provided with a toolbox
to use the method. You can find this in the practical part on the website. The theoretical
background ends with the abbreviations and references that have been used.
2
Index
Preface
4
1 Montessori: introduction of the pedagogical method, basic topics
5
2 Today’s educational use (non VET) of Montessori basic topics
6
2.1 The previous Montessori target groups and today’s application
6
2.2 Nursery school
6
2.3 Primary school
7
2.4 Secondary school
7
2.5 Adult training
7
2.6 Conclusions / summary
8
3 Today’s educational research and needs for VET
9
3.1 The FROJOL Project
9
3.2 Article: Montessori teaching methodology: Application to Adult training,
Roberta Marsili, IT
10
3.3 Article: Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: Background and Pitfalls
Harm Biemans, a.o.
13
3.4 Article: Educational Development in Spain, Cherith Megaw, ES
22
3.5 Current European research about ‘student careers’;
Insights in tomorrows' education
26
3.6 Outcomes from the International Research report FROJOL
27
3.7 Conclusions / summary
28
4 Transfer of Montessori ideas to VET
30
4.1 The Montessori method applied to adults – Lingua Più
30
4.2 Transfer of the Montessori principles from Secondary education to VET
32
4.3 Comparing adult and secondary Montessori training
38
4.4 Summary
38
References
39
3
Note:
Writing this method we chose to use “He” and “his” referring to the student/ trainee, in order
to make the reading simpler, as we thought the use of “he/she” could cause reading
confusion and slowing down. It must then be considered valid both for male and female
students/trainees.
Preface
This theoretical background of the teacher’s guide is one of the outcomes of the European
Leonardo da Vinci project “Freestyle Montessori on the Job Learning” (FROJOL)1.
Education is still struggling with students that drop out from the school system. Also not
every European citizen has the expected educational level. Although these are political
issues, it is also the responsibility of the professional schools, called VET2. And this brings us
to the target group: teachers and trainers.
Educational systems do change during the decades, as we concluded in our project reports.
All over Europe a lot of didactic and educational approaches came and went, although there
are huge differences in approach between European countries. The learning by heart, for
instance, makes way for learning by doing.
However, it is typical to see that the basic ideas of nineteenth’ century educationalist Maria
Montessori still fit so well in today’s educational strategies! The optimal learning environment
had a crucial position in her didactical method. And, looking deeper into today’s education we
found that in all European countries the value of an optimal environment is big. But this does
not mean that students can only learn in a workplace or at school!
And it was Maria Montessori herself that made a strong connection between her home
country Italy and her second country The Netherlands! So it was no coincidence that Marsili,
fully involved in today’s Montessori adult training ended up with a Dutch contact to set up the
FROJOL project!
Six partners from different countries collaborated in this 2 year-long project, funded under the
European Lifelong learning Programme Leonardo da Vinci, Transfer of Innovation call 2011.
Transfer of the vision from the Italian partner Lingua Più on the possibilities of the Montessori
method in Vocational Education and Adult Training (VET) was the basis for this new
Leonardo da Vinci project.
We aim to use the basic principles of this method with a new target group, age 16+. As a
consortium we will focus on future and existing students in traditional VET, as each 16+
student more or less has had his own lifelong learning experiences..
As writers of this method we (Anabel Menica, Roberta Marsili and Margrieta Kroese) believe
that it is the combination of learning in school and in a company that leads to a most effective
path a student can walk. This, knowing that each student is different, has his own
background and also his own best way of learning a lesson.
We address the following target groups:
Teachers/ trainers - these are the professionals from school or training centre
Tutors
- these are the professionals from the work place, who tutor the trainees
Students
- these are the people preparing for the work placement
Trainees
- these are the students at the work placement
1
2
You will find more information on the project homepage: http://frojol-project.org/about-frojol
Vocational Education and Training (VET)
4
1 Montessori: introduction of the pedagogical method, basic topics
Maria Montessori was born on 31st August 1870 in Italy. Montessori’s parents encouraged
her to take up a career in teaching, one of the few occupations open to women at the time,
but she was determined to enter medical school and became a doctor. In 1901 Montessori
immersed herself in her own studies of educational philosophy and anthropology. In 1907
she opened “La Casa dei Bambini”, her first school in Rome, bringing some of the
educational materials she had developed during her experience at the asylum in Rome. Her
surname - Montessori - became associated with schools applying her educational approach
(schooling tailored to children’s developmental needs) and educational materials.
One distinguishing feature of the Montessori method is that learners direct their own learning,
choosing among the sections of a well-structured and stocked classroom. The curriculum is
including Practical Life (materials that help with practical and often daily activities, which
include motor skills), Sensorial (senses and brain), Language, Mathematics, Geography,
Science, and Art. Exams and strict programs, collective lessons and toys were abolished.
A summary of the general pedagogical aspects of the Montessori method3:
 Children are capable of self-directed learning.
 The teacher is not a “teacher” but a facilitator and he is an "observer" instead of a
lecturer, and does not transfer his knowledge but helps learners to discover and see
what it is already in them.
 There are numerous "sensitive periods" for learning. Learning outside of one’s own
corresponding sensitive period can be difficult and frustrating.
 Children have an "absorbent mind" from birth to around age 6, possessing limitless
motivation to achieve competence within their environment and to perfect skills and
understanding. This phenomenon is characterized by the young child's capacity for
repetition of activities within sensitive period categories.
 Children master their schoolroom environment, prepared for them to be academic,
comfortable, and to encourage independence by giving them the tools and
responsibility to manage its upkeep.
 Children learn through discovery, so didactic materials with a self-control of error are
used and they learn to correct their own mistakes.
 Children most often learn alone during periods of intense concentration and the child
is not to be interrupted by the teacher.
 The hand is intimately connected to the developing brain of children. Children must
actually touch the shapes, letters, temperatures, etc. They are learning, not just watch
a teacher or a TV screen telling them, about these discoveries.
According to Montessori’s philosophy these are the most important features for
education:
suitable
environment
modest teacher
3
scientific
materials
repetition of the
exercise
self control over
mistakes
movement
analyses
silence exercise
tidy rooms
good manners
writing and
reading
By Lingua Piu, IT, Roberta Marsili 2011
5
2 Today’s educational use (not VET) of Montessori basic topics
2.1 The previous Montessori target groups and today’s application
Maria Montessori was the first Italian female doctor. In spite of her degrees she started with
an objective: try to educate “idiots”, “not educable people”. The method that followed the
initial experience was applied in Rome to children from the poorest families who couldn’t
afford the high educational costs. These children had a very low educational background and
often the family opposed the child’s education due to financial reasons. Montessori had to
convince these families to educate their children, so that their standard of life increased, had
to find and prove the effectiveness of her method and show them that it was not a waste of
time. In spite of the initial criticisms, the method became famous all over the world.
We realized from our National researches4, that nowadays most of the children trained at
Montessori schools are from middle-class and high society, also because - in some countries
- the majority are private schools. In some way we are ‘betraying’ the real and initial intention
of Maria Montessori…
Now the Montessori method is living a new revival in some partner countries such as Italy,
The Netherlands and France; in Europe in general and in other countries such as the USA.
This new “birth” is happening because its fundamentals match the modern idea of education.
In fact, leaving the idea of the severe, standard and global approach in education,
teachers/trainers, schools and training centres are getting into the idea of tailored programs
for each student; this new approach matches perfectly with the Montessori method. The
innovative idea of Lifelong Learning went beyond the rules, as Maria Montessori did. Her
approach, to put the learner at the centre of the education system, is more than 100 years
old. “But good ideas and practices are timeless and that method has shown its effectiveness
all over the world. And now I think that the world is finally joining the intuitions of a brave
Italian woman, innovator in education, born in 1870”5.
The application of the method in partnership countries, resulting from the national
researches, seems to be characterized by original elements of the Montessori concept. Of
course most of them must take into consideration the changing times, and that some tools
are obsolete and not applicable anymore, and new tools have been introduced such as the
use of the computer and internet.
2.2 Nursery school
To show the difference in method this quote by Maria Montessori, is very clear: “So, here is
the place where a child can do what he wants?” asked the inspector. “No Sir, we don’t do
what we want, we want what we do” a child replied.
In nursery schools (‘Kindergarten’) the observer6 helps the child think by himself. At this
stage the child needs to experience through the mentor. The child can understand only by
doing by himself. He is considered the aim of the education, and adults only stay aside. Any
useless help can be an obstacle.
The learning aims in Kindergarten are:
 Education of the senses: self-creation of mental categories, as a basis of mathematic and
logical knowledge; integrated activities such as non-verbal expressions, listening ability,
body perception; self-control of mistakes.
4
National researches from Spain, Poland, France, The Netherlands, Italy, Austria –
http://frojol-project.org/national-research-on-montessori
5
Roberta Marsili, Lingua Più, 2011
6
In Montessori education a mentor is called an observer or facilitator
6

Living in an environment: live and work in a group, choose and perform a task, respect of
the environment with order, silence, and concentration.
2.3 Primary school
Quoting Maria Montessori: ” Every part of study is strictly joined to others, and each subject
is a more detailed description of the same fundamental principle”
From doing to thinking, this can be the general idea of the Montessori primary schools. With
the help of the mentor, the child reflects on his/her actions, so actions become experiences.
This is because a child has a vital need of experience and knowledge. The child is fascinated
by the mystery, in a continuous wondering between what he knows and does not know, to
find the key of the world. He needs a cosmic idea, as it is not possible to understand biology
without understanding chemistry or physics. It is impossible to study the earth without
knowing what is around it, which means astronomy.
2.4 Secondary school
Quoting Maria Montessori: “It is important to organize secondary schools on the same
scientific basis on which Casa dei Bambini 7 has been built”
The teenage years are considered a second birth: teenagers are born into society. At this
stage much consideration is given to: silence, listening and respect for others. In secondary
education the role of the trainer is very sensitive: the trainer can listen, wait, understand, and
follow the student’s capacity and attitude. Mentor’s flexibility, that is the main feature at this
stage, means the choice and personal selection of subjects within the main basic programs,
the availability of listening and the acceptance of each student.
The main goal is to make the student autonomous, building a tailored learning environment
around him. At this stage it is common to use the didactics with a “contract”, drawn up
between the mentor and the student, who is aware of his/her own learning time. With the
contract the student can organize his/her work for all subjects, seriously respecting the
assignment deadlines, agreed with the mentor.
We are using the outcomes of the following document: The Montessori Education in the 21st
century8 as a link to transfer the application of Montessori principles piloted by Lingua Più in
adult language training into VET. A set of 6 characteristics must be used in Dutch Montessori
Secondary Schools. These are: Head, heart and hands, Learning by choosing, Reflect,
Social learning, Cohesion of teaching material and Inside and Outside of school. There are
no curriculum requirements except those set by the state, or college entrance requirements,
for specific grades and these take a minimum amount of time. Then, when specified to
secondary schools only: Students of 12+ age design 1-2 week contracts with the teacher to
balance their work, and learn time management skills. There is at least one 3-hour period of
uninterrupted work time each day, not broken up by required group lessons or lessons by
specialists.
2.5 Adult training – Not existing organized institutions for Montessori method applied
to adults9
There does not seem to be literature concerning the application of Montessori method to
adults’ training.
Lingua Più10, the Italian partner, started to pilot a methodology based on Maria Montessori’s
philosophy and applied this in their adult training. For more information please see the article
“Montessori teaching methodology: Application to Adult training”.
7
Note of the editor: the first primary Montessori school founded by Maria Montessori
Het Montessori onderwijs in de 21e eeuw, www.montessori.nl/files/media/document_60.doc
9
See FROJOL international report on Montessori education, http://frojol-project.org/
10
For general information: http://www.linguapiu.eu/people/lassociazione.html
8
7
2.6 Conclusions / summary
Although Montessori started her educational work with children from the poorest families with
no educational background, we realized from our National researches that nowadays most of
the children trained at Montessori schools are from middle-class and high society, and quite
often these are private schools.
Montessori provided with a pedagogical and educational input for Nursery schools, Primary
schools and in the twentieth century also for Secondary schools. Although the role of the
trainer changes through these school systems, it is always based on observing and
facilitating the child/student and giving him as much free space as possible to make his/her
own choices within the curriculum.
Real Montessori schools are not yet to be found in adult or professional education, but
Lingua Più integrated the Montessori method in their own teaching approach for adults. For
vocational education the same approach will be used for this project.
8
3 Today’s educational research and needs for VET
3.1 The FROJOL Project
About FROJOL
There are too many employees without a sufficient qualification level for a strong and global
competitive European labour market. Therefore we need to find clever solutions to 'trigger'
more trainees, and offer them fitting opportunities to succeed in education, training and finally
the labour market. This includes finding new didactical ways of addressing the young or
unemployed, because they are not the same as the ‘regular’ VET-students! Therefore the
project Freestyle Montessori on the job learning (FROJOL) will transfer and improve the
innovative didactic approach to adults of Lingua Più, the Italian partner in this Leonardo da
Vinci LLL-project.
Coordinator of the FROJOL project is Landstede (NL). The other partners are: GEFAS Academy for Generations (AT), Politeknika Ikastegia Txorierri – HETEL (ES), RADAR – B
(FR), Centrum Kstalcenia Ustawicznego w Sopocie (PL) and the already mentioned Italian
partner Associazione Lingua Piú.
Summary
Within the European educational field the Maria Montessori method is well known, but until
today it has been used with the target group of 4-16 year olds. FROJOL wants to use the
basic principles of this method with a new target group, age 16+. As a consortium we will
focus on future and existing students in traditional VET, as each 16+ student more or less
has had his own lifelong learning experiences. Meanwhile we are also aiming at a second
chance group of learners that should be challenged in a (job) surrounding that triggers the
gaining of experience and learning. And a target group fearing failure and not entering VET,
may be reached by the project, because they could be offered personal and reachable goals
within the curricula.
Target group
Teachers and trainers from several sectors of vocational education are the direct target
group in the FROJOL project.
We aim to:
 Design a new learning methodology for a new target group without the use of starting
specific Montessori schools for VET
 Train the trainers in blended learning
 Pilot the method in on-the-job learning as an internship or stage
 Valorise the outcomes through strong local, regional, national and international
networks
 The consortium aims to address the new learning method (also) to groups at risk.
Our project contributes to the European priority ‘to support to initial and continuous training of
VET teachers, trainers, tutors and VET institutions’. And as this project is applied for in the
Netherlands we also contribute to national priorities like innovating continuous education by
implementing concrete and innovative ways for training in the workplace for (future)
employees and the further professionalization of teachers in I-VET.
Why Europe
Combining the transnational knowledge from our different institutes and countries enables us
effective organizational learning and the opportunity to disseminate our knowledge widely to
the target groups and beneficiaries. Thanks to the decision to exploit the method through elearning components, VET teachers and trainers from all over Europe can participate.
9
This project therefore has a high potential role in facilitating interactions between European
institutions because of the use of social media as dissemination tools. European partners in
and outside the consortium will have the opportunity to transfer the knowledge on this, from
the Netherlands to their countries. Development of a common strategy with fine-tuning in
specific regions for the use of this innovative methodology for lifelong learning.
What impact do we expect?
FROJOL will provide a new method for on the job learning, offering the possibility of
attacking the percentage of not qualified youth and early school leavers. An international
report, comparing National qualifications, might also open possibilities for partnerships with
study mobility on VET level within the consortium countries.
3.2 Montessori teaching methodology: Application to Adult training11
Introduction: the methodology in practice
With the 1907 opening of Dr. Maria Montessori’s first school in Rome, her surname Montessori - became associated with schools applying her educational approach and
educational materials in schooling tailored to children’s developmental needs. Worldwide,
many schools implement the Montessori method for educating students in a wide range of
ages, about which Montessori stated:
From the moment the child enters the classroom, each step in his
education is seen as a progressive building block, ultimately forming the
whole person, in the emergence from childhood to adult. All focus is on the
needs of the child.
One distinguishing feature of the Montessori method, at the pre-school age, is that children
direct their own learning, choosing among the sections of a well-structured and stocked
class-room, the curriculum including Practical Life (materials that help with practical and
often daily activities, which include the refinement of fine and gross motor skills), Sensorial
(senses and brain), Language, Mathematics, Geography, Science, and Art.
The teacher’s role is to introduce children to materials, and then remain a “silent presence” in
the classroom. Montessori schools pride themselves on seeing and meeting the student’s
personality and intellectual needs, rather than viewing them as a part of a class-room
process. The students are encouraged to teach and help each other.
Concepts
The Montessori method discourages many of the traditional measurements of achievement
(grades, tests). The method, instead, focuses on sparking a child's interest in learning
through presenting materials to students that will catch their interest. The Montessori Method
does measure feedback and qualitative analysis of a child’s schooling performance. The
analysis does not come from grades, but from careful observation of the child. Montessori
teachers do evaluate children's progress: when giving lessons, through ongoing observations
in the classroom, by examining the products of their work. It is simply not often obvious to
children that they are being evaluated. Although they are not given grades, nowadays
Montessori schools write out reports on progress for the children and parents are invited to
come and talk about the progress of their child twice a year12. Grades are given in words, not
in marks.
11
Roberta Marsili 2010 - Is Montessori methodology suitable also for adult teaching? The Italian experience at
Lingua Più Training Centre
12
In Dutch Montessori schools
10
Premises
That children are capable of self-directed learning. That it is critically important for the
teacher to be an "observer" of the child instead of a lecturer.
That there are numerous "sensitive periods" of development (periods of a few weeks or even
months), during which a child's mind is particularly open to learning specific skills or
knowledge such as crawling, sitting, walking, talking, reading, counting, and various levels
of social interaction. These skills are learned effortlessly and joyfully. Learning one of
these skills outside of its corresponding sensitive period is certainly possible, but can be
difficult and frustrating.
That children are masters of their school room environment, which has been specifically
prepared for them to be academic, comfortable, and to encourage independence by giving
them the tools and responsibility to manage its upkeep.
That children learn through discovery, so didactic materials with a control for error are used.
That children most often learn alone during periods of intense concentration.
That the hand is intimately connected to the developing brain in children.
Implementation and classroom
“Moreover, the method which obtains in the Casa dei Bambini offers, it seems to me, an
experimental field for the study of man, and promises, perhaps, the development of a
science that shall disclose other secrets of nature.”13
Montessori is a hands-on approach to learning. It encourages children to develop their
observation skills by doing many types of activities. These activities include the use of the
five senses, kinetic movement, spatial refinement, small and gross motor skill coordination,
and concrete knowledge that leads to later abstraction.
Montessori classrooms provide an atmosphere that is pleasant and attractive, to allow
children to learn at their own pace and interact with others in a natural and peaceful
environment. In the ideal classroom, children would have unfettered access to the outdoors,
but this frequently is impossible, given modern-day limited space and cost considerations. In
response, Montessori teachers stock their classrooms with nature shelves, living plants, and
small pets, or perhaps a window-sill garden, allowing children to experience as much as
possible of the natural world, given modern constraints.
In the elementary-, middle-, and upper-school years, Montessori schools ideally adhere to
the three-year age range of pupils, to encourage an interactive social and learning
environment.
This system allows flexibility in learning pace, allowing older children to become ‘helping
hands’ when they are the helpers of their facilitator for a week, by sharing what they have
learned but also by keeping the classroom tidy and neat.
Maria Montessori: connection to Città di Castello
Maria Montessori printed her first book concerning her methodology in Città di Castello 14,
Italy.
13
14
Quote from Maria Montessori
Metodo della Pedagogia Scientifica applicato all'educazione infantile nelle case dei bambini , Città di Castello,
publishing house Lapi, 1909, pg. 283
11
This happened because she was a good friend of Alice Hallgarten15, wife of the local Baron
Leopoldo Franchetti, with whom she elaborated and refined the methodology and to whom
she dedicated her book.
Italy and The Netherlands bonded by Montessori
The methodology has been applied and is still applied from pre-school age to the age of 16.
The teacher’s role16 is to introduce children to daily life materials and remains as a silent
presence in the classroom. Students personal and intellectual needs are the most important
parts in the learning process and they are encouraged to teach and help each other, always
under the silent supervision of the teacher.
Maria Montessori is clearly connected with The Netherlands as in 1936 she moved to The
Netherlands. And the first Secondary Montessori school was built in Amsterdam, Anne Frank
being one of the famous students.
100 years after the launch of the first Montessori school I – Roberta Marsili - being another
local woman in Città di Castello, started testing the basic philosophy of Montessori in adult
training. This, because I searched for didactical and methodological ways to make it easier
for adult students in Life Long Learning programmes to learn and remember. And as the
connection with the Netherlands already existed during Maria Montessori’s life, I searched for
a Dutch project partner.
“It is not my intention to present a treatise on
Scientific Pedagogy. The modest design of these
incomplete notes is to give the results of an
experiment that apparently opens the way for
putting into practice those new principles of
science which in these last years are tending to
revolutionize the work of education.”
Figure: The first Montessori classroom in Città di
Castello
Modern training in Lingua Più
In time, the methodology has resulted in a successful way to approach the learning process,
here in Lingua Più; during our training activities, we faced and are still facing the adult’s
difficulties in the learning process, both in updating their already existing abilities and as a
new subject.
This has been due to many factors: a lack of time, life-style, and stress, the feeling of not
being able to learn new subjects due to age and also learning among young people. In order
to help our students get more self-confidence in the learning process, as well as to allow
trainers to better train adults, we started looking for new approaches. We took part in
meetings about Montessori, held in our town because of the mentioned connection: we found
them very interesting and attended a course in Rome at the Opera Nazionale Montessori.
From this background, personal and professional experiences, we had the idea to elaborate
a method to apply the Montessori methodology for the 16+ groups, because of the lack of
15
16
http://www.telaumbra.com/Maria_Montessori_e_Alice.htm
Although the term ‘teacher’ is not used in Montessori education, we use it here because we couldn’t find a
correct translation in English
12
effective techniques. We started the application of this methodology internally, with our 16+
groups and verified the usefulness of it.
The results reached with our team strengthened our opinion, that even in the 21st century
the Montessori system still has a future.
New input for VET
Lingua Più understands that, when the basic methodology of Maria Montessori can be used
for adults, it also might prove powerful for the group that until now is never targeted by
Montessori schools: vocational education and training (VET).
This without starting specific Montessori schools, but by integrating the methodology in
learning systems that are open to it. For example: for the training, you only use the
curriculum as set by the countries’ legal authorities,
It would be great if we can combine competence learning with this. We learn by using our
senses: smell, taste, touch, sight, sound etc. Assessment is by portfolio and observation of
the coach (during the learning period). Our target students (young adults) can design at least
2 weeks contracts with their coach, this depending on their VET level and personal
competences, contracts contain what they plan to learn; environment (being on the job)
providing enough input for it. Our target trainees can learn wherever they want (simulated or
real environment fitting with the curriculum/ college grades) but ‘learn’ in time periods of 3
hours.
But to know exactly how we should implement the heritage of Montessori in VET, we need to
research possibilities and pilot a new design methodology, fitting in the new ‘New jobs - new
skills’ competence based VET. And we realized we couldn’t carry out such a big project
without the interaction of other institutions dealing with training, because of the international
importance of such a subject and for the innovative contribution on training and education
this project will have. And when we have the possibility to start a project on this subject, how
are we going to reach the teachers, our target group for implementing the methodology? By
training the trainers!
We need to professionalize the teachers in coaching the trainees while they are
environmentally learning a subject in the curriculum that they set in the contract. And in
giving clear insights to coaches in the labour field because they also need to be able to
observe and to discuss student’s internship portfolios.
3.3 Competence-based VET in the Netherlands: background and pitfalls17
ABSTRACT In the Dutch Vocational Education and Training (VET) system, competencebased education is the leading paradigm for innovation, both at the system level and at the
level of learning environments. This article provides an historical analysis of the development
of competence-based education in various countries and explores the concept of
competence and its popularity. Possible pitfalls with respect to the concept of competence,
standardization, school and workplace learning, determining learning activities, assessment
of competencies, changing teacher roles/identity and competence-based management will
17
Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 56, Number 4, 2004 523. HARM BIEMANS, Education
and Competence Studies Group,Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands; LOEK
NIEUWENHUIS Stoas Research, The Netherlands; ROB POELL, Department of Human Resources Studies, Tilburg
University, The Netherlands; MARTIN MULDER & RENATE WESSELINK, Education and Competence Studies
Group, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands Correspondence: Harm Biemans,
Education and Competence Studies Group, Wageningen, University and Research Centre, PO Box 8130, 6700
EW Wageningen, The Netherlands ([email protected]).
13
be discussed. Taking these pitfalls into account, roads for future development will be
sketched. A learning policy connecting governance, practice and research is believed to be
the most fruitful way to develop flexible VET systems that are suited to the emerging
knowledge-based economy.
Introduction
The concept of competence has become very popular in the Dutch Vocational Education and
Training (VET) system, both at the level of policy-making and the level of educational
practice. Competence-based education is the leading paradigm for innovation, both at the
system level and at the level of learning environments. This is one of the main conclusions
formulated by van Merriënboer et al (2002) in their study on the concepts of competence and
competence-based education, carried out for the Educational Council of the Netherlands. An
example of this trend is that competence-based professional profiles are currently being
developed in Dutch secondary vocational education at the national level. These serve as a
basis for designing, competence-based, education programmes. In higher vocational
education, many educational programmes can already be described as competence-based
(Mulder, 2003). Therefore, the introduction of competence-based vocational education in the
Netherlands is an interesting case for educational researchers. Competence thinking also
appears to have made its way back into education in the USA (US Department of Education,
National Center for Educational Statistics, 2002) and in various countries in Europe (Descy &
Tessaring, 2001).
An important reason for the popularity of the concept of competence is the expectation held
by many stakeholders in the VET field that the gap between the labour market and education
can (and will) be reduced through competence-based education. The underlying idea is that
vocational education should enable students to acquire the competencies needed in their
future professions and in society as a whole. Additionally, while working as professionals,
they should continue to develop their competencies so that they are able to react to and
anticipate future developments in their work and outside (Jenewein et al, 2002). In this
respect, lifelong learning can be defined as ‘a continuous, stimulating and supporting
process, initiated in regular education, supporting needs, possibilities and experiences of
persons, to develop their ability to acquire competencies necessary for personal
development and professional functioning in their own organizations and the rapidly
changing society’ (Lans et al, 2004, p. 77). Thus, there is a growing recognition of the need
for vocational education to be directed at developing competencies and not just at acquiring
a diploma; the emphasis has to be on capabilities and not on qualifications. Capability is an
important prerequisite for employability.
Shifting the emphasis to developing capabilities is therefore assumed to improve the link
between education and the labour market (Mulder, 2004). Moreover, according to Mulder
(2004), recognition of informally gained competencies and the testing of these competencies
acquired outside the educational system also play an important role, not only in the
Netherlands, but also in many other countries (Descy & Tessaring, 2001). Additionally, there
is public interest in recognizing these informally gained competencies, as unnecessary costs
can thus be avoided. Finally, the tendency to design vocational education on the basis of
competencies is influenced by the current Dutch government policy to only determine the
global outlines of future vocational education programmes and not to define fragmented
qualification structures. The notion of competence-based education also receives a lot of
attention in the research on Dutch VET (see, for example, van Merriënboer et al, 2002).
The Dutch Programme Board for Educational Research formulated the following main
questions to be examined in VET research carried out in 2003:
• How do processes of competence development take place in learning environments in
vocational education?
• How can these processes be conceptualized and explained?
14
• Which factors have a direct influence on these processes, and how can competence
development processes be optimized?
These main questions refer to three different themes that are all related to processes of
competence development and determining factors of such processes:
• learner characteristics and competence development;
• design of learning programmes and environments;
• the role of teachers and supervisors of practical internships in the learning environment.
Research on competence-based assessment can be integrated in each of these themes
(PROO, 2002). This article provides a critical reflection on the usefulness of the competence
movement for the development of Dutch VET. The article starts with a historical analysis of
competence-based education in various countries to shed light on the attractiveness of
competence-based education for Dutch VET. The concept of competence is explored, and
possible pitfalls and roads for future development are sketched.
Background
Competence-based Education in Retrospect
Interest in competence-based education and training arose in the 1960s and 1970s as a
result of various publications on competence-based organizational training and competencebased teacher training in the USA.18
With respect to competence-based VET in the UK, Boreham (2002).argues that the
competence-based training model behind the UK National Vocational Qualifications (NVQ)system is ‘mechanistic, reductionist and denies the importance of human agencies in
processes of learning’. In the NVQ-system, school-based learning is erased because of the
claim that any theory taught in college would be inert because active knowledge is
necessarily constructed through performance in the workplace. In a Taylorist industrial age
this leads to empty skills in a low-skilled economy. (Payne, 2000). Modularization often goes
along with competence-based curricula. This reinforces the disintegrative approach to job
analysis. The same argument applies to the use of behavioural assessment techniques:
these tend to measure only the overt, routine aspects of tasks.
So, in Anglo-Saxon literature, competence-based education does not generally have a
positive connotation. A rigid backward mapping approach, in which the state of the art on the
shop floor is the untouchable starting point for the definition of occupational competencies,
leads to routinized job descriptions, in which the proactive and reflective worker is left out (cf.
the canonisation process, mentioned by Brown & Duguid, 1996).
Achtenhagen & Grubb (2001).conclude that competence-based training is appropriate for a
Taylorist world, but is an inadequate preparation for the highly-skilled workplace, where
flexibility and problem-solving abilities are required. Despite the objections made against
competence-based education and training, countries have continued to adopt competencebased systems during the last decades.
According to Arguelles & Gonczi (2000,.p. 9) ‘the educational framework for addressing the
deficiencies of vocational education and training has become, in an increasing number of
countries, competence-based education. This can be defined as education based on
outcomes and pre-determined standards, on what students can do’. Moreover, competencebased education has continued to evolve in countries where the system has been in place for
some time. For example, in Australia, competence-based education is now quite different
from how it was originally introduced (Miller, 2001).
18
Note: The history of competence based learning from 1960-2000 has been removed from the original article
by the writers of this document
15
Arguelles & Gonczi (2000) examined the implementation of competence-based education
and training in a number of countries. They provided case studies of the application of
competence-based education and training to VET systems in countries including Mexico,
Australia, Costa Rica, France and New Zealand. According to Miller (2001), these case
studies provide insight into the implementation of competence-based education into various
cultural and educational systems and show the importance of having the various
stakeholders (particularly government, industrial bodies, the education profession and
enterprises) working together with a common purpose.
In the ongoing debate on competence-based education, Arguelles & Gonczi (2000) clearly
support the continuation of an integrated approach to competence-based education. In this
respect, Hyland (2001) suggests that the authors have expressed a general and sometimes
uncritical commitment to VET reform along competence-based education and training lines.
According to Miller (2001), there are still many unresolved issues and much more research is
needed before competence-based education can be regarded as meeting the expectations
of its proponents.
In the recent German and Dutch discussions on competence-based education, a more
holistic approach is advocated, to overcome the risks of the disintegrative approaches. In
these discussions, competence is regarded as the integrated abilities required to cope with
complex tasks.
Boreham (2002) suggests work-process knowledge as an innovative approach, embedding
and integrating specific jobs in full production processes. Work-process knowledge should
enable workers to have an idea of the meaning of their job in relation to other tasks and jobs.
In the recent policy debates on Dutch VET the same holistic approach is seen as a vehicle
for educational innovation and the introduction of lifelong learning. Toolsema (2003)
concludes, however, that although the policy device is a holistic approach, the practical
design of learning processes and assessment procedures is still based on a narrow definition
of tasks and competencies. Van der Klink (2003) describes the same movement: the holistic
approach is often used as window dressing for behaviourist instruction. He argues that
assessment is the drawback to a holistic competence-based education approach.
To conclude, competence-based education was historically based on a behaviourist model of
training and learning, within a Taylorist industrial model. In the recent competence-based
movement, a holistic approach is normatively put forward, but in practice the pitfalls of a
disintegrative S-R model are still great. Modularisation and assessment techniques are
pushing educational practice back to the traditional mechanistic and reductionist approach. In
his critique of Bastiaens & Martens (2003), de Jong (2003) argues that implementing IT tools
in vocational education is reinforcing this tendency, by delivering virtual, individual training
trajectories. De Jong states that competencies ‘should not be acquired, but should be
developed in a collective community of practice and knowledge’. In this view, competence is
not only a technical aspect of work, but should be seen as culturally embedded.
The Current Popularity of the Concept of Competence
Competence-based education has rapidly become very popular both in vocational
educational practice and in the policy field in the Netherlands, and other countries as well. Its
attractiveness to schools and other VET institutes lies first of all in the emphasis that the
concept places on the positive side of education and learning. Making people competent has
a more positive and practically relevant connotation than making up for their knowledge
deficits. The approach matches well with the culture of advancement and empowerment
espoused by many in educational practice. VET teachers also feel that, because of its
practical relevance, competence-based education can motivate students to finish their
schooling much more than traditional education can. Moreover, through their direct contacts
with work organizations, VET institutes notice immediately how modern companies,
occupations and jobs are changing, encouraging schools to deliver graduates with broad
skills in addition to specific knowledge.
16
As mentioned above, the main reason why competence-based education has gained so
much popularity in the VET policy arena is its alleged capacity to reduce the gap between the
school system and the labour market. There is a belief among policy-makers that graduates
educated under a competence regime will be better able to perform in jobs required by
modern organisations than those with traditional qualifications. Also, the notion of
competence-based education fits very well within the policy discourses of employability and
lifelong learning.
Competence systems carry with them the promise of rendering learning processes and
outcomes that are measurable and manageable throughout their life span. On a related note,
the concept of competence can easily be linked to the performance approach of learning and
education made popular by ideas on core competencies of organizations (Prahalad & Hamel,
1990). The latter reason is another example of the perceived potential inherent in the
concept of competence to bridge the education-work divide.
An interesting phenomenon in the whole competence discussion at the practice and policy
level is the tendency to largely ignore the disadvantages that may be associated with it. Over
the last 5 years a major bandwagon effect has been visible among Dutch schools and VET
institutes, when it comes to shifting to the competence paradigm. From an academic point of
view, this is all the more pressing because of the serious lack of scientific research and
theory to underpin its claim to fame. What we do know from the earlier competency
movement that peaked during the 1970s, but also from more recent UK experiences with
National Vocational Qualifications and Investors in People programmes, is that the risk of
bureaucratisation of an essentially good idea is very real. The question is warranted to what
extent competencies are perhaps viewed as a panacea for all problems of an educational
and labour market nature. For example, can one system, whether competence-based or not,
realistically serve all stakeholders in the practice, policy and political arenas? Can introducing
another educational model really substantially reduce student dropout rates? Such questions
deserve to be asked and answered, but to date they are not very prominent in the
competence discussion at the practice and policy level.
A final, rather different take on the popularity of the concept of competence revolves around
the question to what extent schools are already working according to the competence
arrangement without referring to it as such. In other words, when does competence-based
VET ‘officially’ become competence-based VET? The lack of a clear definition does not help
much in this matter, but it seems that many schools have been using teaching practices and
methods that are at least compatible with competence-based education for some time
already. Notions around self-directed, participatory and project-based learning, for instance,
may differ from each other, but are similar – and compatible with competence-based
education – in that transferring subject matter is no longer their primary concern. Instead,
they focus on the way in which learners (co-)construct situated knowledge and learn to learn
(collaboratively) by doing so. To a certain extent, therefore, the popularity of the competence
approach may be a case of old wine in new bottles.
Defining the Concept of Competence
As mentioned above, the concept of competence has a fairly long history in education and
training research and practice. Nowadays, the notion of competencies as integrated
capabilities has become very popular. Reviewing the many studies on competence
development, however, it is possible to conclude that the concepts of competence and
competence-based education are still very diffused and require clear definition and
conceptualization. It would therefore not be prudent to present a fixed definition of the terms
‘competencies’ and ‘competence’, so we adopt a working definition from which to proceed. In
this connection, Mulder (2001) formulated the following working definition for the term
competence, taking the opinions of other relevant VET researchers into account:
Competence is the capability of a person (or an organisation) to reach specific
achievements. Personal competencies comprise integrated performance-oriented
capabilities, which consist of clusters of knowledge structures and also cognitive, interactive,
affective and where necessary psychomotor capabilities, and attitudes and values, which are
17
required for carrying out tasks, solving problems and, more generally, effectively functioning
in a certain profession, organisation, position or role. Building upon this definition,
competence-based education implies creating opportunities for students and workers, close
to their world of experience in a meaningful learning environment (preferably professional
practice) where the learner can develop integrated, performance-oriented capabilities for
handling the core problems in practice.
Van Merriënboer et al (2002) carried out a study to determine whether it is possible to
harmonise the concept of competence. After a literature study and expert consultation, they
also concluded that many conceptions of competence exist, both in theory and in educational
practice. Competence as a concept turned out to be (too) elastic. This raised the following
question: what are the commonalities with respect to the concept of competence in various
sectors and contexts? They derived six common characteristics of competencies, as defined
by relevant authors in the field:
• competencies are context-bound;
• they are indivisible (knowledge, skills and attitudes are integrated);
• they are subject to change;
• they are connected to activities and tasks;
• competencies require learning and development processes;
• they are interrelated.
Therefore, in their opinion, the concept of competence is valid, although the relationships
with other concepts such as key qualifications and expertise can be quite strong.
Pitfalls in Competence-based VET
This section discusses several possible pitfalls in applying competence-based education.
The overview starts with conceptual and institutional problems, several technical issues are
presented and finally problems related to the implementation of competence-based
education within the context of Dutch VET are dealt with.
The Concept of Competence
As van Merriënboer et al (2002; see also Toolsema, 2003) have shown, there are many
conceptual definitions of competence and competency. There is little consensus on the
meaning of these concepts among the many researchers and authors (see also van der
Sanden et al, 2003). In practice, institutional actors and colleges use different descriptions.
This sometimes serves as an excuse for defining competencies as one likes, decreasing the
trustworthiness of the concept (Mulder, 2000, 2003).
According to Nijhof (2003), designing competence-based curricula, learning processes and
assessment procedures can only be done fruitfully, when competence is operationalized as
unambiguously as possible. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the underlying learning
processes (cf. van der Sanden et al, 2003; Onstenk, 2003; Simons, 2003).
On the other hand, it is important to avoid competence jargon while actually designing and
implementing competence-based education, and to choose a more practical approach
(Mulder, 2003). In this respect, a common vision of the desired competencies should be
reconstructed in interaction with all actors involved (students, teachers, social partners,
government; Simons, 2003).
Standardization
A second pitfall is an over-reliance on standardization of competencies, whereas the power
of competence-based education lies in its context embeddedness. Usually, the reality of work
is quite different from job descriptions and organizational regulations on paper (Klarus,
2003).
Using overly standardized competencies is really missing the point, since every abstraction
from actual practice makes them less applicable. Related to the problem of standardization is
the belief in forecasting techniques: competence standards should describe jobs in the
future, for which students are educated, but they can only describe jobs from the past (cf.
18
den Boer & Nieuwenhuis, 2002). Too strict a use of competence standards leads to
conservative training, instead of preparing students for innovative developments.
Competencies are more than the sum of their composing parts, so a certain contextindependence should exist. However, the risk of bureaucratisation looms large when
attempts are made to separate the system of (required) competencies from actual work
practice. The potential power of working with a concrete set of meaningful competencies will
soon be lost as a result (Klarus, 2003).
School and Workplace Learning
Thirdly, it is often underestimated how hard it is to integrate learning in schools with learning
in the workplace (Klarus, 2003). Different people are involved, speaking different languages,
coming from different cultural and historical backgrounds, and pursuing different interests. It
is no wonder that aligning the two different learning systems is so difficult. However, the
distinction between the two settings should be reconsidered (Klarus, 2003): in a sense, this
boundary is artificial, because in the end it is all about individual students, learning in
different places,
at different times, constructing and adjusting their mental models of
the reality of work. Trying to ensure some form of continuity throughout their learning
pathways (e.g. by developing their metacognitive skills) may be easier than solving the
integration problem at system level.
According to Simons (2003), the implicit character of workplace learning leads to a major
problem (how to foster implicit learning?) that should be taken into account in designing
learning arrangements and environments, both in school and in the workplace. Onstenk
(2003) raises the question whether a new mix of implicit learning, guided learning and selfdirected learning is needed. People should be made aware of their competencies and ways
of learning, but this requires different approaches in the workplace than in school settings.
Formalizing work based learning for acquiring standardized competencies is still an unsolved
dilemma in designing effective pathways to becoming competent. This aspect has specific
consequences for competence-based education, but holds for vocational education and
training in general.
Determining Learning Activities
Specifying the competencies to be acquired by students does not automatically result in the
design of effective learning activities. Planning, designing and implementing effective ways of
learning require specific attention. Many authors in this field argue that learning
arrangements and pathways should be based on principles of social, constructivist learning
(cf. Mulder 2003; van der Sanden et al, 2003; Simons, 2003). Teachers should work in multidisciplinary teams to design new competence-oriented learning activities, using existing
practical periods and on-the-job training. Translating competence-oriented goals into actual
learning activities is crucial in the implementation of competence-based education. If the
implementation gets stuck at the preparation phase and/or does not get carried on into the
execution phase, true innovation will fail. In this respect, students should not only develop
work-related competencies, but also learning competence if they are to be equipped for
lifelong learning (Mulder, 2003; Van der Sanden et al, 2003).
Assessment of Competencies
A fifth pitfall is that assessment of competencies, especially in work situations, it is a labourintensive and time-consuming exercise (Jellema, 2003). It is hard to standardize and often
involves structured observation rather than classroom examination. Developing and using
valid and reliable assessment tools is a crucial, but very difficult task. Moreover, the criteria
for the quality of assessment become stricter as its importance increases (cf. Nieuwenhuis et
al, 2001). For example, if selection or certification rather than self-development is the main
goal of assessment, it is even more crucial to use high-quality instruments and tools (cf.
Roelofs & Sanders, 2003). Also here the dilemma between national standards for
assessment and local flexibility is pressing (cf. Nieuwenhuis et al, 2001). Since traditional
assessment methods are ill-suited to a competence-based curriculum, schools, enterprises
19
and institutional actors have to find new ways to develop appropriate assessment tools (cf.
McClelland, 1973).
Changing Teacher Roles/Identity
The extent to which the role of teachers (and students!) changes can easily be overlooked
when competence-based education is implemented (Jellema, 2003). The teacher is
supposed to switch from the role of an expert, transferring knowledge to a coaching role,
guiding students’ learning processes. Students are supposed to take responsibility for their
own learning, whereas the teacher used to be in charge. This requires a totally different
attitude from both parties, perhaps even a paradigm shift. Achieving this challenge is all too
easily forgotten by policy-makers, talking about implementing competence-based education.
Competence-based Management
In developing competence-based education, it is essential that structural attention is paid to
competence development of teachers and school managers. ‘Practice what you preach’
should be the leading principle. According to Mulder (2000), competence-based
management implies an open culture and cooperation. If these conditions are not met,
competence-based management will be a failure. Management itself has to ‘walk the walk
and talk the talk’; otherwise, people at lower levels in schools will perceive it as an ordinary
management tool, instead of appreciating it as a supporting strategy to develop both the
school organization and the individual.
Concluding Remarks
The recent development of competence-based education in Dutch VET has raised an
innovative challenge for both teachers and policy-makers at all levels in the system.
However, it should be recognized that the concepts of competence and competence-based
education have been in use for a long time in education and human performance technology.
Competence-based education is seen as an alternative for working with qualifications and
qualification structures, as has been the case in Dutch VET during the last 20-25 years.
In fact, both approaches are based on the same assumptions: qualifications and
competencies are both derived from job analysis and forecasting techniques and are both
used as input for curriculum development and for the assessment of learning output. So the
innovative flavour of competence-based education can easily become ‘old wine in new
barrels’, especially when job requirements are translated into fixed goals for educational
pathways.
However, introducing competence-based education in Dutch VET has raised substantial
interest in and support for developing and introducing teaching-learning arrangements in the
direction of flexible pathways and self-directive learning, according to the principles of socio
constructivist learning theories. The introduction of competence-based education stimulates
and facilitates the development of customized pathways, in which students, teachers and
masters on the shop floor can build learning communities. This creates a paradox in the
competence-based education movement: at the level of learning processes it is expected to
deliver more flexibility, whereas at national level, competence-based education fits well in the
trend towards standardization based on job descriptions. Most of the pitfalls and dilemmas
described have to do with the balancing of local flexibility with national standardization. To
guarantee the exchange value of qualifications, and to regulate (financial) duties and rights,
national arrangements are needed, but often, national regulations hinder local flexibility and
professionalism. The discussions concerning competence-based education in Dutch VET
can be understood within the context of this system-level dilemma.
A holistic approach to competencies is difficult to establish (cf. Toolsema, 2003): empirical
scaffolds are urgently needed. For curriculum and assessment instrumentation, an
analytical/atomistic approach can easily be adopted from the older competence-based
education movement: this adoption can be observed in the daily policy practice of the Dutch
20
VET system. To use competence-based education as a vehicle for flexible VET trajectories,
in which students and teachers have a large quantity of self-steering power, requires debate
and measures at the national level: the policy instruments for financing, accreditation and
assessment are built on features of the older competence-based education movement,
based on fixed goals and an atomistic approach.
Flexible VET for a knowledge-based economy requires policy instruments that enable selfsteering by students and tailor-made trajectories fitted to the requirements of local labour
markets. A knowledge-based economy requires more than knowledge from professionals.
Current society demands more individual independence in the context of work, which
requires coping with uncertainty, taking calculated risks, making deliberate but informed
choices. This requires competence (cf. Mulder, 2004).
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3.4 Educational Development in Spain
Introduction: Entrepreneurial Thinking and Development
In Spain and especially some autonomous regions, the Departments of Education have been
working over the past decade with special emphasis on the development of young people’s
entrepreneurial capacity. If a young person uses entrepreneurial skills they are ideally
prepared for the future as they have developed the many valuable and desirable personal
competences needed for life and the workplace. This focus and drive has led to the
implementation of many new programs and projects in the curriculum and wider educational
area, which all contribute to the furthering of entrepreneurial thinking and initiatives.
Entrepreneurial Competences
What are entrepreneurial Competences?
Some competences of an Entrepreneur were set out in the “Entrepreneurial Manual”
produced by the Basque Department of Innovation and Economic Development in 2007.
They were outlined as:
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Clarity and Precision in Discussing Ideas or Projects
Capacity for Observation and Analysis: Attention to Detail
Entrepreneurial Spirit and Initiative
Time Management
Capacity to overcome Disappointment and frustration
Competitive Spirit
Capacity for taking calculated risks
Clear decision making
Ability to deal with Tension and Uncertainty
Completion of Work undertaken or objectives
Open mindedness
Project Planning
Organizational Capacity
Ability to manage a challenging workload
Adaptability
Tolerance
Ability to sell one’s ideas
Ability to resolve conflict
Negotiating Skills
Optimism
Confidence, Self esteem and Self Knowledge
Ability to establish personal contact
Independence
Ability to inspire confidence
Desire to succeed
Manual de Emprendizaje ISBN: 978-84-690-7042-0 pp.41-47
http://www.caminospaisvasco.com/Profesion/emprendizaje/masinfo/manual
The development and stimulation of such competences in students regardless of the
establishment of new enterprises was and is seen and understood to be invaluable as the
competences coincide with necessary life skills for all future projects and work settings.
Since the beginning of the International Economic Crisis, the need to stimulate job creation
has intensified a pedagogical direction already initiated.
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Entrepreneurial Initiative in Young People in Spain
The Institute for Entrepreneurial Initiative (ESADE) in Spain was commissioned by the
Foundation Principe de Girona (FPdGI) in 2010 – an organization, which specializes in
Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Creative Development to aid progress and professional
opportunities for young people – to produce a report on the current situation of youth
enterprise in Spain, compare that with activity in the rest of Europe and assess what is
needed. 19 The report on Entrepreneurial Initiative in Spain analyzed data, compared and
evaluated programs throughout the peninsula and interviewed 7000 young people using
social media. It concluded in the executive summary that to stimulate entrepreneurship, the
wider social culture, finance and education were all needed to encourage and promote
entrepreneurial thinking and activity.
All factors are crucial. Education seems particularly relevant given that the report found that
43% of new entrepreneurs in Spain are between 18 -34. (p. 8). The need to stimulate
entrepreneurial activity has become more important in the past 3-4 years given that 19%
more companies closed than those which are set up: a percentage which rises to 29% if
closures include the self employed without employees. Another result revealed that only
5.1% of the population as a whole set up a business venture. In the U.S. this figure is 8%
while in Norway it is 8.5%. The main difference is seen to be a culture, which is averse to
risk, with less press coverage and prestige given to entrepreneurs and comparatively low
investment in I&D. Most entrepreneurs in Spain also set out in business from necessity
rather than from a burning desire to do so. A very interesting mention is made in the report
to the self image Spanish young people have of themselves. They typically regard
themselves as less creative and believe their fate is determined by others or luck. That and
a poor evaluation of entrepreneurs as a professional class all perpetuate a low rate of
entrepreneurial activity or behaviour.
The report highlighted the need for wide social encouragement of entrepreneurship through
the values and characteristics transmitted in the family and society. The characteristics of
Independence, attitude to risk, self confidence, creativity and sense of control were studied
among Spanish young people. Less than 50% of the young people surveyed rated
themselves as having these characteristics: 46% that they had a sense of control over their
lives and futures, 37% that they were independent, 36.3% that they were creative, 29.3%
that they felt self confident and only 14.6% who were open to taking risks.
Education
Education is needed to improve the competences (characteristics and values) of young
people and their vision of what they can achieve. It is well known that those who believe
they have the skills and knowledge necessary to enterprise will do so. It is now believed that
Entrepreneurs are not simply born to be such but entrepreneurship as a discipline can be
learnt.
What should entrepreneurial education consist of?
The report based on a survey carried out in March 2011 (p. 19) presents statistics as to
percentages of how strongly students perceive the following in their current education: learn
to run and implement projects, assess and assume risk, understand the entrepreneur
mindset and how to set up a business in the future. The results are low. Only 28% of
students felt they would know how to go about setting up a business in the future.
The report thus lists the basis of what entrepreneurial education should include. They list:
Autonomy in the process of learning: negotiating objectives, processes
and methods to meet objectives
19
“Libro Blanco de La iniciativa Emprendedora en España: Resumen Ejecutivo”
http://issuu.com/marketing_esade/docs/resumen_ejecutivo?mode=a_p
23
Problem Solving in real life situations: teamwork, developing intuitive
as well as rational thinking and understanding the multiple dimensions
of problems
Decision making even with incomplete or uncertain information:
stimulate the ability to face uncertainty
Providing reference models: should be included in the learning
process, be inspiring, motivate and show that it’s possible.
Spain does make reference to Autonomy and Initiative in its eight key competences in
learning based along the model of the European Parliament established in 2006. It does not
mention the word entrepreneurial leaning specifically and as evaluation from the students
surveyed show this is an area which requires further development.
EU Key Competences
Spanish Key Competences
1. Communication in mother tongue
1. Competence in Linguistic Communication
2. Communication in foreign languages
2. Mathematical Competence
3. Mathematical and technology based
competences
3. Competence in Knowledge
Interaction with the Natural World
4. Digital Competence
4. Information Management and Digital
Competence.
5. Learning to Learn
5. Social and Civic Competence
6. Social and Civic Competence
6. Cultural and Artistic Competence
7. Sense of Initiative and Entrepreneurial
spirit
7. Learning to Learn
8. Cultural Awareness and Expression
8. Autonomy and Personal Initiative
of
and
43% of experts in education and pedagogy surveyed believed that primary and secondary
education encourage entrepreneurial learning and entrepreneurship. However, only 14%
agreed that this was the case in Higher Level Education in Universities. VET is not included.
29% felt that the education system as a whole helped students develop their competences
such as independence, risk taking, creativity etc.
The conclusion made by experts is that entrepreneurship in education in Spain has some
very developed programs in certain regions but overall, entrepreneurial education needs to
be strengthened and a wider scale of activities undertaken in the curriculum based on
adequate tools and materials and with links to local entrepreneurs. The last point is
emphasized. Pedagogy needs to be joined to content and a combination of teacher plus
24
interaction with entrepreneurs is key. New modules on entrepreneurial initiative are called
for in the curriculum.
Existing Entrepreneurial Programs in Place in the Curriculum
In the Basque Country, a region which has invested in entrepreneurial training in VET, there
are several programs in place, which aim to stimulate entrepreneurship and improve student
competences.
EJE project: EJE in Spanish means axis and stands for Empresa Joven Europea, Youth
European Company
The EJE Programmed is promoted by the Department of Education and the Department
of Industry. VET students create and manage a company that has a commercial
relationship with similar companies in other schools. At present 33 schools are linked in
the project. 568 new companies have been created as a result of the program.
Entrepreneurial Day Schools involved in EJE organise an annual event to promote
entrepreneurship among students. There are different activities such as talks by former
students who became entrepreneurs, games, quizzes, awards for the best business
ideas…
Urratsbat Project: Urratsbat in Basque literally means seed or hotbed. All final year
students in VET receive a talk on entrepreneurship. If they show interest, they will get a
16-hour course taught by a specialist. They work on a pre-project with their tutor and the
external consultant (Gaztempresa) that helps the entrepreneur make viability plans. The
school becomes a business incubator and offers the college facilities and technical
resources where possible or necessary.
The Urratsbat programme is also directed and offered to former students or part time
students in the College.
Since 2004-2005 when the program was initiated 608 projects have been tutored and
298 companies have been formed. It was calculated that in the first year after
implementing the project some 489 young people were employed by the resulting
companies created.
Empresa Iniciativa Emprendedor The Entrepreneur and Business Initiative transversal
Module was introduced into the Basque VET Curriculum in 2010-2011. It consists of 60
hours training in fostering entrepreneurial skills and practice.
Both projects are a key part of the III Basque Plan for VET. Coordinators of both projects
(PIli Diez and Javier Unamuno) in the Basque Country coincided recently with the ESADE
Report that stimulating entrepreneurship was something which required long term nurturing
and favourable conditions in society as well as adequate training in education.
Recent initiatives nationwide include the Social Dreamers20 which promote entrepreneurship
and social responsibility programs in education and there are many other programs in
entrepreneurial learning also available to young people beyond further education such as the
Team Academy in the Basque Country which offers one year training in Leadership and
Entrepreneurship with a recognised regional business group of companies21.
The objective is still to integrate entrepreneurial learning and competences further into the
curriculum so that students in VET also finish their training with a confident sense of their
20
http://socialdreamers.es/fomentar-la-cultura-emprendedora-un-desafio-educativo/
http://www.tecnalia.com/es/divisiones/innovacion-sociedad/sistemas-innovacion/noticias/abierta-lainscripcion-para-la-5o-edicion-de-los-programas-de-emprendizaje-y-liderazgo-team-academy-euskadi.htm
21
25
skills and knowledge, and face the future with the competences they will need to start
companies and work.
Conclusion
Spain is aware of the need to equip students from all fields and levels in entrepreneurship
and entrepreneurial behaviour. There is a need to turn around students’ perceptions of their
entrepreneurial learning and to increase their confidence so that they can design their future
successfully. The competences involved in establishing a business venture are also those
required for a mature, creative worker and citizen, as the social dreamers forum highlight.
Applying methodologies such as Montessori to VET is a further innovation, which can
support educational goals in the entrepreneurial development of students. Montessori can
help students to develop their autonomy in learning, to gain confidence at solving problems,
negotiating, to work together, motivate themselves and others to reach goals, to take risks,
create, make decisions and to deal with uncertainty and stress. (see Chapter 4).
3.5 Current European research about ‘student careers’; Insights in tomorrows'
education
School & work place
Learning should not only take place at school. This is what research in several countries
shows clearly. When developing a students' talent, learning in practice plays an important
role. Teachers, coaches, practice supervisors, programme managers and management
should understand this.
Learning is not possible without school, but also not without practice. This practice provides
students a realistic, meaningful and context-rich learning environment. It is best to carry out
assignments in real practice; we are after all dealing with vocational education. You cannot
learn to swim from a book. An additional advantage is that many students enjoy “doing
something” or “making something” more than learning something from a book22.
Honest approach of students
When asked after, students made it clear that they look to different people for different kinds
of advice. Students want those advising them to be honest and objective, to see things from
their point of view and to allow them to make their own choices. It’s also important to them to
have reassurance that they are making a good decision. Their teachers recognized this.23
No job for life!
Today students do seem aware that the days of a „job for life‟ are over and that they will
need to be prepared to change direction. They are also concerned to be challenged and to
expand their horizons. Their teachers emphasize the developmental benefits and the notion
of lifelong learning. However they pointed out that repetition, deepening learning, is also
important.24
22
Experiences in Practice, rawing from a goldmine of experience, Jos Geerligs (editing Theo van Geffen, Marjo
Lam) January 2012 English version page 4
23
Synthesis of Findings - Report on the key findings of the teacher panel and student panel questionnaire
sessions in AT, BE, DE, ES, FI, NL, PL, UK, Anne Gillen, LdV DOI Project, Student Career
24
Synthesis of Findings - Report on the key findings of the teacher panel and student panel questionnaire
sessions in AT, BE, DE, ES, FI, NL, PL, UK, Anne Gillen, LdV DOI Project, Student Career
26
Connecting learning cycles
To offer our students the best of two worlds, we now know that connecting learning by
experience and learning by explaining is essential. Gaining expertise (learning goal >
instruction > reproductive test) and practical repertoire (perspective > asking questions about
experiences > formulating à question to learn something) are different processes.25
How learning at the workplace occurs might be understood based on analysis of social
processes that individuals get involved in and the social sourcing of knowledge. The process
of learning due to using existing knowledge, combining it with new knowledge is influenced
by individuals’ identities and also changes or shapes those identities. The degree to which
individuals engage with the social world depends on individual cognitive experience, it is
unique and based upon personal experiences and histories. Cultural change that is taking
place in the workplace results from interactions between activities that are socially driven and
involvement of an individual in these activities. The learning that results from new events
depends on how individuals direct their intentions when experiencing these events. The
individual experience of workplace practices will at times contribute to changes in the
individual way of knowing and sense of self: identity.26
3.6 Outcomes from the international research report FROJOL
In this paragraph you can find the conclusions that the project partners formulated tor
writing this method.
Italy: Following the research on the target group and the offers for VET, a method for
training adults seems to be important and necessary mainly to avoid early abandonment.
Considering the actual economical European situation, a requalification for EU people is
compulsory and now cannot be postponed. After the discussion with Prof. Mazzetti, Opera
Montessori President, we are convinced that our project will give an important contribution
to VET teaching and early education abandonment.
France: In France, VET is very fragmented but there is a demand for new methods by
teachers and trainers. They always are searching for new ways to allow learners to learn in a
more efficient way. Most VET teachers build up their own material. They adapt them to the
aim of the different qualifications to be acquired. As the global approach is competence
based, it is obvious a new methodology would be warmly welcomed by trainers and
decision-makers. The conditions of VET have to be respected and the curricula constructed
in accordance to the global system of VET for adults in France, as well as the funding
capabilities of the training centre. Current methods are not very far from Montessori
principles. What will be difficult is to convince decision-makers to implement it on a large
scale because it needs a complex dissemination process of the methodology created
involving different levels of decision. It is obvious to involve the state level and specialized
agencies like the French National Agency for Fighting Illiteracy and/or decision-makers at
the Regional level (the level competent for VET in France). The question of illiteracy is
redundant inside companies. It concerns the lowest level of skills required to develop
professional skills. A lot of young adults involved in professional learning don’t master the
Key Competences. Those KC are relevant in the professional field to allow young adults to
reach their professional aims and enter the knowledge society.
The Netherlands: The pilot group will be formed by Landstede. The idea is that the coach,
25
26
Article Landstede, onderwijs dat bij je past, page, by Talentvol Ontwikkelen group
Transformation at Work: Identity and Learning. Stephen Billet Margaret Somrville,(Research of literature
27
the supervisor of the trainee and the student consult and discuss about the way(s) in which
the student would like to fill up his/her traineeship or day release (BBL) while having a blank
format of a project/assignment in front of them.
These groups are more independent (starting from their higher level) to organize their own
learning processes. At their work placement, a new surrounding, they will be inspired and
invited to do so: they can see (new) chances and challenges.
In this way you can bring together/cohesive independent way of working, the taking of
responsibilities and the personal pace of work. Students learn how to plan and organize their
activities, to give priorities to questions, to cooperate and join forces, to consult/discuss and
agree upon matters. Those are skills students will need now and always in daily life. This
way of learning will stimulate, motivate and activate the students: they will have more
room/space than we normally allow in schools. We trust in their possibilities and their power
to grow in several aspects (of life/profession). For unlocking the value of On-the-job-learning
you could have a look at: http://www.executiveboard.com/human-resources/clc-learning-anddevelopment/pdf/on-the-job-learning.pdf
Austria: In times of financial and economic crisis, traineeship could be seen as a challenge
for every institution or private company. A new learning methodology means a good support
in following work placement strategies. Using a new learning methodology based on
Montessori method has also an effect on psychical and cognitive health of elderly people
Spain: Students’ engagement in their own learning process is a must that can be achieved
by a higher involvement in their own learning paths. Getting involved in their own work
placement search and initial contact with the company would be a step forward for students
in VET in Spain. Higher expectations and demands by teachers and companies result in
better performances by the trainees. Students need to be challenged.
Poland: There is a demand for new methods by teachers and trainers in Poland in times of
change, which are going on nowadays. And especially teachers are always in search for
new ways for showing how to learn in a more efficient way. Most VET teachers build up their
own material according to existing needs / competences, which have to be acquired by
learners. A new methodology would be welcome, even if current methods are not far from
the Montessori principles. However, it could lead to the aim of improving the image and
attractiveness of VET in Poland. This project has a potential and can give an important
contribution in VET teaching and early education abandonment.
Nowadays Poland is reforming its vocational education and trying to focus on good and
effective practical trainings ,as well as competences of future employees thus all efficient
methods in this field are very much welcomed.
It is sometimes difficult for adults to give up a teaching and learning style learnt before and
used so far and to change it for a new one. These aspects could be mentioned during the
workshops. Learning how to look at each student from the perspective of his achievements
is not in relation to curriculum requirements. Furthermore, seeing that the individual
capabilities require time and continuous work on themselves and it should be taken into
consideration also that very often teachers have no time for it during the usual lessons.
Therefore this new method could be recommended for practical trainings.
3.7 Conclusions / summary
The national partners’ researches were very important for the knowledge of the actual use of
the Montessori method in Europe, as the comparison of outcomes from each partner gave us
a wider vision of this famous method and its application. From the research we found very
important basis for writing the Guidebook. In fact we concluded that the method is still used
as it was, even with slight innovations due to modern tools in all partnership countries.
28
The methodology follows Montessori’s directions, taking into account the concept of the
“cosmic idea”, where all subjects are connected. In the Netherlands the Dutch National
Montessori Association seems to be more active, fixing important features in the application
of the Montessori Method. In Poland, even though the Montessori method is less wide
spread, its application is close to the Dutch directions for education in 21st century. The
method based by Lingua Più inside its own institution has the same features as those used
and listed in the National researches of the partnership countries (The Netherlands, Austria,
France, Italy, Poland, Spain).
Montessori method is based on the idea of the student’s uniqueness and his ability and
necessity to structure and design his own training path. From the researches we deduced
that in VET teaching student’s individual competences are not always taken into full
consideration.
In times of financial and economic crisis traineeship could be seen as a challenge for every
institution or private company. A new learning methodology means a good support in
following work placement strategies. Using a new learning methodology based on the
Montessori method for emplacement has also an effect on psychical and cognitive health of
elderly people, mainly for those institutes who work with the Active Ageing.
Following the research on the target group and the offers for VET, a method for training
adults seems to be important and necessary also to avoid early abandonment. Considering
the actual economical European situation, a requalification for EU people is compulsory and
now cannot be postponed. In Spain there are higher expectations and demands by teachers
and companies. Students need to be challenged. And as read in the educational articles,
the best learners’ outcomes are reached when learning is taking place in a combination of
on the job learning and school learning.
Learning should not only take place at school. This is what research in several countries
shows clearly. When developing a students' talent, learning in practice plays an important
role. Teachers, coaches, practice supervisors, programme managers and management
should understand this.
Learning is not possible without school, but also not without practice. This practice provides
students a realistic, meaningful and context-rich learning environment. It is best to carry out
assignments in real practice; we are after all dealing with vocational education. You cannot
learn to swim from a book. An additional advantage is that many students enjoy “doing
something” or “making something” more than learning something from a book.
To offer our students the best of two worlds, we now know that connecting learning by
experience and learning by explaining is essential. Gaining expertise and practical
repertoire are different processes.
The learning that results from new events also strongly depends on how individuals direct
their intentionality’s when experiencing these events. The individual experience of
workplace practices will at times contribute to changes in the individual way of knowing and
sense of self.
The Spanish article shows that Spain is aware of the need to equip students from all fields
and levels in entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial behaviour. There is a need to turn
around students’ perceptions of their entrepreneurial learning and to increase their
confidence so that they can design their future successfully. The competences involved in
establishing a business venture are also those required for a mature, creative worker and
citizen as the social dreamers forum highlight. Applying methodologies such as Montessori to
VET is a further innovation, which can support educational goals in the entrepreneurial
development of students. Montessori can help students to develop their autonomy in
learning, to gain confidence at solving problems, negotiating, to work together, motivate
themselves and others to reach goals, to take risks, create, make decisions and to deal with
uncertainty and stress.
29
4 Transfer of Montessori ideas to VET
To transfer the ideas to VET we first analyzed the method for adults and secondary
education, before deciding, which indicators could be used in VET.
4.1 The Montessori method applied to adults – Lingua Più
Lingua Più started to adapt and pilot some aspects of the Montessori method with tailored
made adults training in 2007, after the participation in a course at Opera Nazionale
Montessori in Rome for children education. After a few years’ experience, this is the way
Lingua Più adapted some of the Montessori principles, referring to the main features listed
above.
Please note: the following directions refer to the specific use in foreign language learning.
Suitable environment - The lesson rhythm is calm and clear. Frenetic and confused
lessons, requiring efficiency, must be avoided. Touch the persons on the shoulder to calm
down and let them feel to be at ease. The physical contact helps to be at ease. It is important
to pay attention to the different cultures, where the physical contact can have different
meanings and different times. The trainer, never called teacher, must avoid to sit behind his
desk, creating in this way a kind of barrier with the students, but walk around the students
and pay attention to each student’s different needs, learning time, psychological blocks, and
attitudes.
Modest teacher - The trainer has a passive role. He respects the learning time of each
student, considering that every person has his own learning approach, time and level. The
trainer must explain his role in the class from the first lesson: “I am NOT a teacher but a
person who will help you to reach your goals as much as possible. I am here to help you to
find your way in accordance with your skills and character. I am only a means that you can
use without restraint to free all capabilities in all of us, capabilities that are implacably
compressed by the traditional teaching methods” The trainer must help the student to find
his own goal in accordance with personal needs and attitude.
Scientific material - Use also tools and materials for children. Nursery Rhymes and jingles,
well known fairytales for teaching a new language. Flash cards with coloured and easy
pictures are very useful in the memorisation process. Use touch as much as possible. Do to
learn. It is very important to introduce this method to adult: in fact most of them can feel
frustrated to be treated like a child. Strong resistance can be found from those people whose
job is quite “important” and are used to taking control of everything.
Repetition of the exercise - To avoid boring and student frustration, address repetition in
different contexts and times
The control of the mistake - The correction of the mistake is a very delicate part with adults.
Very often adults feel frustrated and offended, mainly in a group, with a defiant attitude and
the necessity to show anytime the personal abilities. The main task of the trainer is to
demolish this attitude, pointing out that students are never required to “show” in such context.
The trainer can demonstrate himself to be subject to errors, deliberately making mistakes.
The correction of the mistake must also be done indirectly. Never use negative sentences
(you don’t understand, you are wrong, that’s not right...)
Movement analysis - Movement helps with memorization, and mime is recommended.
Every movement must be easy, simple and perfect
30
Silence exercise - Avoid students speaking too loud and of subjects not relevant to the
lesson. It is very effective if the trainer speaks a little bit with low voice. Students are forced
to be quiet, if they want to listen. Mind that the training should not be boring and to send
students to sleep. To avoid that, the voice must be modulated between higher and lower
tones, often use jokes and funny examples, use the facial expressions, often ask for
students’ interactions
Writing, reading and speaking - During the speaking activity, use signs with ready
sentences to allow an immediate interaction with the new language. New sentences and
words must be used in several contexts, to allow memorisation and self-confidence. It is
important in this phase to take into deep consideration the character and background of each
student: a shy person speaks less than a talkative one also in the native language. During
the reading and writing abilities avoid the use of the dictionary: it is a kind of addiction, but
the trainer should explain the new words and forms using colours and easy pictures (see
before), sensorial production and mime.
Suggestions for VET (Based on Lingua Più expertise and participation)
It is the trainees who decide the path to arrive at the chosen job, the stopping points for
verification. Trainer/coach keeps aside and helps only when required. Remember:
unnecessary help produces negative effects: low self-esteem, losing of motivation, passivity.
The trainer/coach can stipulate a “contract” with the trainee in which the trainee chooses his
learning path with checking deadlines. The contract counts on the sense of responsibility of
the trainee and it must be completely tailored and personal.
The contract should be:
a) Constantly updated, can be changed in accordance to the trainee’s needs, and all
deadlines can be delayed after mutual agreement
b) Personal and adjustable on the personal needs. It must be prepared by the trainee
with the help of the trainer/coach
c) It must contain all detailed explications of what the trainee is going to do, all tasks and
possible difficulties. Each task must be contextualised to the final goal (ex: why I have to
learn English if I want to be a plumber? Because it can help you to be more efficient for a
company and/or get new clients)
d) If the contract has many tasks, it is a good practice to have them in sub-tasks, which
can have different deadlines
The contract gives the trainee the idea of fidelity to his self chosen path and it is morally
binding. It increases the self respect and esteem.
The contract is a good tool for trainers/coaches to evaluate the trainee not only from a
knowledge point of view but also from the trainee’s potentialities. It also helps the trainee to
be aware of his “hidden” possibilities.
31
4.2 Transfer of the Montessori principles from Secondary Education to VET
Below we’ll examine the six Montessori characteristics, selected by the Dutch Montessori
Association.
We will first give a general explanation of the principle, then we’ll check the possibility of
transferring it into VET and we’ll suggest different ways in which these principles can be
applied both in the classroom setting and in on the job learning. We’ll also highlight the main
Montessori principles that need to be applied by the trainer.
A Head, heart and hands
GENERAL: Montessori education is not only pointed to cognitive growth of the student but
also on social, moral, emotional and creative growth. By the integration of head, heart and
hands, Montessori education strives for deeper learning.
VET: VET students are looking at the labour market where the emotional/ social/ moral/
creative/ safety level of the student is as important as his cognitive level. Students learn
better by practice, by doing (hands) in a good and safe environment where they feel part of
the team (heart). But it’s also important to make students aware of the importance of their
own attitude when they start working in a company.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU: In order
to allow students to use their heads and hands at the same time as taking into account the
improvement of their soft skills, the trainer needs to provide:
A visual example of how to fulfil the task
A suitable environment where the student can use appropriate tools and materials
according to his professional career.
Space for the student to work at his own rhythm and repeat the task if needed.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: The students can discuss the following question in small groups:
who would a company hire first: a less skilled employee with the right attitude (involvement)
and desire to learn or a very skilled worker without manners or the desire to listen and learn?
Why? This could be followed by a visit from an employer.
ON THE JOB LEARNING: when the student starts his placement, ask him to observe the
relationships of his colleagues and find two examples ( positive or negative) where the right
or wrong attitude have avoided or created a conflictive situation at work ( i.e: a
misunderstanding that has caused a delay in an order; a meeting where all the participants
have left with clear aims and motivation or not; …)
32
B Learning by choosing
GENERAL: Choice is inherent in life. In the Montessori methodology the teacher, the
student and the environment create a learning triangle. The classroom is prepared by the
teacher to encourage independence, freedom within limits, and a sense of order. The
student, through individual choice, makes use of what the environment offers to develop
himself, interacting with the teacher when support and/or guidance is needed
VET: Learning how to choose is essential for the acquisition of competences. To learn how
to choose, the VET student must gain experience in various practical situations, connected to
their profession either on the job learning or on simulations at school or in work related
school projects, situations where he is given the possibility to make adjustments. He must
learn how things work in reality, what his role might be, but also what he is capable of, what
he wants and why.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU: In order
for the student to learn, to make appropriate choices, the trainer:
Must step aside and believe in the student’s capacity to choose well. If the teacher shows a
patronizing attitude or any kind of distrust, the student will probably not use his full potential
and the fear of failure will hinder his own judgment. This process must start small, so that the
student can build up trust in his own decision making capability.
Must provide different clear available possibilities to the student. The more these
possibilities relate to working life, the better for the learning process of the student.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: Give the student a set of X tasks from where he has to choose X in
order to get certain qualifications. Once chosen, these tasks cannot be changed without a
proven reason and must be delivered in the set time. Students must understand that the
freedom of choice also involves responsibility.
Before starting his work placement, the student is given the possibility to think about the kind
of company where he would like to have his placement, the kind of tasks he would like to
carry out. He will seek information about that company and will try to get a placement there.
ON THE JOB LEARNING: During his internship, the student will find himself in one or more
situations where he will have to make a choice. Ask him to write them down and explain why
he made those choices.
33
C Reflection
GENERAL: Self-correction and self-assessment are
classroom approach. As they mature, students learn
become adept at recognizing, correcting, and learning
and reflect on where they stand within their learning
achieve.
an integral part of the Montessori
to look at their work critically , and
from their errors. Students recognize
process and what they still need to
VET: For learning to take place it is not enough to provide the VET student with a practical
situation (work process). Reflection is necessary. When choosing the practical situation, it is
very important to determine beforehand what must be learnt. Then by reflecting with the
student on what he has experienced and what his own role was, the “experience” changes
into a learning process: the student will be able to assess whether he has learnt something
and what he still needs to learn, but he will also understand how things work in his profession
and how he has to handle different situations.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU: The
coaching role of a trainer naturally leads students/trainees to reflect about their own
learning path and about the topics they are learning and to better understand their strengths,
weak points and mistakes. Any unrequired and unnecessary interventions from the trainer
can break the active role of the student/trainee reached by reflection and can lead the
student/trainee into a negative passive role. After reflection, the student/trainee may have
realised he needs to repeat a task again and he needs to be given the opportunity to do so.
A quiet environment (silence) is helpful to reflect in what you are doing. Reflection can also
be used to realise by himself if he has reached his goal in that task.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: Ask the student to fulfil a project or a task. Once finished, ask the
student to reflect on what he has learnt and what was the aim of that specific task. Ask him
also in which way he could have performed better and whether he had missed some kind of
knowledge or skill during the process.
ON THE JOB LEARNING: Before starting the work placement, ask the student/trainee to
write down what he expects from his on the job learning: what he expects to learn and to
experience. Then, after one month in the work placement, ask the trainee to look back at this
document and to reflect on how far his expectations were right, how much or how little he
has achieved them. Do this again at the end of the work placement in order to get a general
picture. Ask the trainee to reflect on the whole process.
34
D Social learning
GENERAL: Although learning with and from each other is a very important part of the
Montessori method in general, youngsters between the age of 13 and 18 years old are very
sensitive to socializing.
VET: Even in VET social learning remains an important issue. Every student in VET has to
learn how to behave when being in a work surrounding. And he should be sensitive about
learning in a social setting in the work place too. Because learning does not only take place
when the work placement tutor explains a job related task. Learning takes place while
listening to the conversations during coffee breaks, or students have to learn how to enter
the work place in the morning (saying good morning, showing interest on colleagues, asking
about their welfare). Social learning is also about understanding when a colleague is trying to
give you a hint about your behaviour on the workplace. But social learning is also about
learning new behaviours and achieving behavioural changes in fixed settings: Observed
learning.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU: In
principle, social learning can take place everywhere. However, a suitable (relaxed and
trusted) environment will facilitate learning from each other (the trainer included). In this
environment, students won’t feel afraid of making mistakes but will realize these are part
of the learning process as long as they can reflect on them. Therefore the trainer needs to
give students the time (silence) and the space to reflect by themselves trusting they will be
able to observe and learn by reflecting on their achievements and their mistakes.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: You can for instance let groups of students discuss situations in
which students actually learned from each other. What was it that made them learn? Can
they learn something from their discussion that they may use in school or working life?
ON THE JOB LEARNING: Once the trainee is in his work placement, social learning takes
place through observation, imitation, interaction, the model role for own behaviour and
reflection:
The tutor prepares a machine for the production of an article. He follows a standard
procedure, and the trainee observes what he does and accepts the leading role of the tutor.
After some time the trainee is allowed to do the same task. He will imitate the tutor and follow
the same procedure. After doing so he will reflect on what he did. 'Was this a good
procedure? Did I do everything well? Is there another way to prepare the machine? Can I
discuss this with my tutor?'
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E Integrated learning
GENERAL: Cohesion in lessons provides learners with the opportunity to research the reality
as a whole. The barriers between separate courses will be lowered.
VET: In vocational training integrated learning should more or less be a 'normal' procedure.
We are teaching our students to become professionals and once working, students will
experience that their tasks are complicated too. Almost every task has several parts or
actions to take. And even if you do the same work every day, circumstances can be different,
meaning that the tasks will be different.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU:
although it sometimes is more complicated to integrate separate teaching courses in one
school task, this is a better way to learn for VET students too. Because on the job learning
also demands from the students to perform comprehensive activities. The trainer must
provide suitable environment and suitable proposals (projects/materials) for the students
to be able to integrate their learning.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: The students get a project assignment. They have to design a
leaflet for the re-opening of the school building. Before 200 leaflets are ready to use,
students will have been using: their language, computer skills, communications, design and
they will have worked on several competences like: negotiating, working together, leading,
organizing and planning, e.g.
ON THE JOB LEARNING: Once students are learning on the job, they will always be
involved in integrated learning. Tasks are never the same and are never isolated. Even if a
trainee works in a shop, and sells products, he integrates a lot of courses learned; language
knowledge, customer service, product knowledge, marketing, sales, communication,
logistics, mathematics... We will ask the trainee to reflect on how he has integrated all the
different courses he learnt at school into his placement. This is an integration of all of the
earlier mentioned Montessori principles.
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F In and outside the school building
GENERAL: The learning of skills and the gaining of a child’s own place in community or
society both takes place in and outside the school.
VET: It is obvious that the curricula of VET-students contain work placement periods beside
their regular school schedules. Practice learning also takes place inside the school, for
example when students work together on projects, or work on assignments related to the
working field together with other students.
LINK TO THE GENERAL MONTESSORI PRINCIPLES ADAPTED BY LINGUA PIU: To
provide optimal learning results both in on the job learning and in school a suitable
environment is essential. This environment seems to be reached easier outside the school
building, but one has to keep in mind that not every 'work environment' is suitable. This
counts for learning in school too. The use of functional materials in and outside the
school is very important when students learn. During on the job learning this is a very
important aspect of the learning process. Repetition is a strong aspect and the fact that any
activity or task can both be repeated in school and on the job makes it less enjoyable for
students, as it makes a big difference for them, when they are performing the same task 'for
real'.
PRACTICAL EXAMPLE: To integrate theoretical subjects with on the job learning,
simulations can be used. Like the reception desk in the school class, where students can try
out their conversations with clients that may take place life at the desk (other students), on
the phone or through mail or digital service desks.
ON THE JOB LEARNING: The best and most effective way of on the job learning is in
combination of it with learning at school. Most effective transfer of knowledge is the
knowledge given to students once asked for. So trainees will run into a difficult situation in
their work placement, return to school to get the required skills, knowledge and competences
to solve the situation. The other way around is possible too: trainees can remember a subject
more easily if they have seen it in practice too.
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4.3 Comparing adult and secondary Montessori training
This table shows how the indicators from secondary education and adult training relate to
each other.
In the horizontal line the indicators used by Lingua Più in adult language training and in the
first column you find the indicators used in today’s Dutch secondary education.
We used this table to select indicators for VET.
A
T
S E
Suitable
environment
Head,
heart,
hands
Learning
by
Choosing
Modest
Teacher
X
X
Scientific
Material
Repetition
X
X
Control
of
Mistakes
Movement
(D
Silence
Writing/Reading/
Speaking
x
X
X
Reflecting
X
X
X
X
Social
Learning
X
X
X
Integration
In and
Outside
School
X
X
X
X
X
SE=Secondary education
AT= Adult training
4.4 Summary
After comparing the indicator set in secondary Montessori education with the one Lingua Piu
uses in Adult training, a set of indicators has been set for vocational training.
On each of the indicators for Secondary education a practical exploitation in VET, combined
with an example has been written.
These formed the basis for the practical part (Part A) of this new learning approach to on the
job learning in VET.
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References
FROJOL Website :
htpp://www.frojol-project.org
International research report FROJOL :
http://www.frojol-project.org/files/filemanager/International_Report1.pdf
National research reports FROJOL:
http://www.frojol-project.org/national-research-on-montessori ( FR, AT, NL, IT, ES, PL)
Competence-based VET in the Netherlands:
Background and pitfalls - Journal of Vocational Education and Training, Volume 56, Number
4, 2004 523. HARM BIEMANS, Education and Competence Studies Group,Wageningen
University and Research Centre, The Netherlands; LOEK NIEUWENHUIS Stoas Research,
The Netherlands; ROB POELL, Department of Human Resources Studies, Tilburg
University, The Netherlands; MARTIN MULDER & RENATE WESSELINK, Education and
Competence Studies Group, Wageningen University and Research Centre, The Netherlands
Correspondence: Harm Biemans, Education and Competence Studies Group,Wageningen,
University and Research Centre, PO Box 8130, 6700 EW Wageningen, The Netherlands
([email protected]).
The Montessori Education in the 21st century:
http://www.google.com/url?sa=t&rct=j&q=in%20de%20nota%20%27het%20montessorionder
wijs%20in%20de%2021e%20eeuw%27%20van%20het%20wetenschappelijk%20bureau%2
0van%20de%20nmv%20&source=web&cd=2&ved=0CFIQFjAB&url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.
montessori.nl%2Ffiles%2Fmedia%2Fdocument_60.doc&ei=L0-T79IhL7yA7maoZEB&usg=AFQjCNEZrLQX0rL8QHF3_mC5Fi3aFDE0Eg&cad=rja
Website:
www.iestek
Website:
www.studentcarreer
Websites about Maria Montessori’s life and work:
http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maria_Montessori
http://biografieonline.it/biografia.htm?BioID=262&biografia=Maria+Montessori
http://www.operanazionalemontessori.it/
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