Facial Analysis of a Tsantsa (shrunken head)

 Facial Analysis of a Tsantsa (shrunken head) Tobias Houlton Centre for Anatomy and Human Identification, University of Dundee, Dundee. DD1 5EH Abstract The McManus Museum, Dundee, have in their collection, a shrunken head (tsantsa), believed to be a ‘‘war trophy from the head‐hunters of the Amazon’’ (McManus Museum). Although this head has long been assumed human, there has been recent speculation that it could in fact be simian. This research was performed to conclude if the head is human or simian, and estimate its possible age and sex during the event of death. To establish the identity of the McManus tsantsa, morphologies of extant authenticated human tsantsa, counterfeit tsantsa shaped to appear similar to human tsantsa, and potential South American monkey groups were assessed. Microscopic hair analysis from the McManus tsantsa head finally confirmed that it was human and of Mongoloid ancestry. Using existing anthropological research and Shuar health records, sex was estimated as male and the age at death as being between 20‐30 years. These were determined for the purpose of forensic facial reconstruction, which will be discussed in, Forensic Facial Reconstruction of a Tsantsa (Houlton, 2011). The McManus tsantsa Morphological comparisons between authentic Shuar tsantsa and the McManus tsantsa In 1923, the McManus Museum in Dundee, received a tsantsa loaned by an Alfred W. Cox (see Fig. 1). This head (assumed to be human) was believed to be a “war trophy from the head‐hunters of the Amazon” (McManus Museum). Forensic anthropologist Professor Sue Black has recently questioned this, suggesting instead that the head might be simian. This research aims to confirm the origin of the tsantsa through comparison with other existing tsantsa, primates, hair analysis, and extent data relevant to the tsantsa. AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) Examination of the Blythe House tsantsa Three genuine Shuar tsantsa, from Blythe House in London, were examined and compared with the McManus tsantsa. Measurements of the Blythe House tsantsa, and McManus tsantsa, were collected using sliding calipers and a soft measuring tape, and a protractor. These measurements made a numerical comparison between scale and proportion possible on the tsantsa. 1 AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 2 PhysicalexaminationoftheMcManustsantsa(30thJune2010)providedthefollowing:
1.Aseveredsuspensioncordfromthevertexofthehead.
2.Stitchesrunalongaline,alongtheposteriorofthetsantsa,fromvertextonape.
Stitchesareevidentalonganincisedlinefromundertherightear,extendingaround
andtothefrontoftheneck,underthejaw‐line.Anotherstitchline,disguisedbythe
featherearpiece,extendsalongtheneckbeneaththejaw‐linefromtheleftside.
3.Thereisaminorcut(withoutstitches)fromthelateralcanthusoftherighteye,and
anothersplitispresentliningtheheadabovethefringe.Amoredistinctcutrunsalong
therighttempleandstretchesdownbehindtherightear,followingthehairlineatthe
posteriorscalp.Thisdoesnotsurroundtheentirescalpandisconsistentwithhair
belongingtothetsantsa(notaddedfromanothersource).Thecuthaspatchesofastiff
(gluelikeinappearance),transparentsubstance.Thesamesubstancewasfound
markingthelowerhalfoftheleftear.
4.Neckorificeismisshapen.
5.Stippledskintexture.Surfacefeltdryandbrittletothetouch.
6.Theearsareintricateandexceptionallysmall,anddecoratedwithtoucanfeather
earrings.Onbothearlobes,apiercingholewasnotpossibletoaccesswithoutthe
possibilityofdamagetothetoucanfeatherearpieces,whichwereadheringtotheleft
earandcloselyheldagainsttherightear.
AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 3 7.Theeyelidswerestitchedclosedasisexpectedinagenuinetsantsa.Thick,
overhangingeyebrowswerepresent.
8.Thenosewasmarkedlyupturned.
9.Lipsweredistortedinaprognathicdirectionwiththreeverticalpenetratingholes
(possiblyfromtheinsertionofchontapins).
10.Thehairwaslong,darkandstraight,cutintothreedistincttiers.Astraightfringe
ranabovebotheyebrows,andhairinthetemporalareawascutstraightbelowthejaw
line.Thelongestlengthofhairwasatthebackofthehead.
11.Lightdownyhairwasevidentalongthe‘sideburn’area(zygomaticomandibular).
(CraniofacialmeasurementsoftheMcManustsantsaweretakenusingthesamemethodas
othermeasuredspecimens.Seepage9‐10).
approximations. Photographs were taken using a Nikon D20 digital camera and an attached D20AF‐N iTTL AF Nikon camera flash. Two interchangeable lenses were incorporated. A Nikon 18‐200mm F3.5‐5.6G IF‐ED AF‐S VR DX zoom lens was used at a 6 foot distance from the tsantsa to avoid distortion. For close‐up images of the ears, a 60/2.8 AF macro lens was used. From visual assessments and metric data, it was apparent that the scale, shape, hair pattern and stippled skin texture of the McManus tsantsa was similar to that of the three Blythe House tsantsa. The light downy hair on the McManus face was similar to that on Heads 2 and 3. The ears, however, of the three Blythe House tsantsa were considerably larger, and their facial features more clearly defined. The neck circumference of the McManus tsantsa was larger. Head 1 was an exception, as the neck was removed. The McManus tsantsa neck lacked the solid, round shape of the Blythe House tsantsa, and the mandibular body was smaller, a shorter nose and larger, more prognathic lips. The lips were sometimes extended by the Shuar to mock their enemy, so this feature is not unusual amongst authentic tsantsa, even though it is not as evident in the Blythe house collection (Up de Graff, 1925). Results The Blythe House Shuar tsantsa photographs and visual assessments (see next page) Discussion Human error is documented when recording craniofacial measurements (Giles and Elliot, 1962; Howells, 1973; Rhine, 1990). These measurements are therefore best AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 4 Head 1: Fig.2:[1]Fullfrontprofile;[2]Frontprofilewithscale;[3]Sideprofilewithscale;[4]
Neckorificewithscale;[5]Rightearwithscale;[6]Leftearwithscale.
AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 5 Head 2: :
Fig.3:[1]Fullfrontprofile;[2]Frontprofilewithscale;[3]Sideprofilewithscale;[4]
Neckorificewithscale;[5]Rightearwithscale;[6]Leftearwithscale.
AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 6 Head 3: Fig. 4: [1] Full front profile; [2] Front profile with scale; [3] Side profile with scale; [4] Neck orifice with scale; [5] Right ear with scale; [6] Left ear with scale. AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 7 McManus tsantsa AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 8 (Continued over page) Table 1: Craniofacial measurements of the Blythe House tsantsa, compared to the McManus tsantsa. The vermilion lip borders lacked the shapely form evident in the three Blythe House tsantsa. Mouth strings* and chonta pin perforations were evident in the Blythe house tsantsa, but only the pin perforations were visible on the McManus tsantsa. The McManus tsantsa had a brachycephalic cranial shape. The Blythe House tsantsa were more dolichocephalic, all displayed lateral compression at the temples, which Up de Graff (1925) noted is a feature common amongst authentic Shuar tsantsa (as a result of grasping the head at these two points during preparation). This established that there was a difference in the handling of the McManus and three Blythe House tsantsa, but did not necessarily determine that the McManus tsantsa was counterfeit. All Blythe House tsantsa had suspension cords present, but the McManus tsantsa cord was severed*. The three Blythe House tsantsa had a tougher, more polished skin with no sign of skin tears, unlike the McManus, in which the skin was dry and brittle with multiple tears. It is expected that these tears would have been repaired at the time of head shrinking, as they were not, they were probably caused by later damage, explaining the glue‐like droplets present on the head. Studying the three Blythe House tsantsa alone, demonstrated the range of difference in scale and shape possible in human authentic tsantsa. This is understandable when considering the variable factors presenting during head shrinking, including the head size, and the equipment used in head shrinking. Distinct variation in facial morphology must be acknowledged. Each shrunken head (tsantsa) is unique ‐ which is a reflection of the fact that each skull and face is considered unique within the human population (Wilkinson, 2004). Tsantsa do not necessarily provide a clear representation of how they appeared in life. Head 3 demonstrates *Stringwasavaluablecommodityso
possiblythestringshadbeenremoved
forrecycling.
AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 9 investigation was carried out using monkey specimens. perhaps, how scars and wrinkles can exaggerate a face to the point of caricature. A common feature, in both the Blythe House and McManus tsantsa, which is found among Shuar tribesmen generally, was the (long) hairstyle. Comparison between a known shrunken monkey head and the McManus tsantsa Conclusion Monkey heads have often been made to resemble human tsantsa in the counterfeit trade (Stirling, 1938; Jamieson, 2010). William Jamieson (July 2010), ethnologist, museologist and tribal art collector, provided a photographic example of a monkey tsantsa (species however unknown) (see Fig. 5). The evidence indicating that the McManus tsantsa could be a genuine Shuar shrunken head was as follows: 
The hair and general facial morphology was similar to the Blythe House tsantsa.  The lips were more prognathic, (which was not unusual amongst Shuar tsantsa) (Up de Graff, 1925).  There was evidence of a severed suspension cord.  There was no evidence of strings through chonta pin mouth‐holes (although this could be incidental). The fact that there were appropriately positioned holes around the mouth was, however, positive.  The skin surface has been blackened. Evidence against the McManus tsantsa being authentically Shuar was as follows: 
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

Absence of temporal finger indentations. The orifice around the neck area was misshapen. The ears were very small, which could be due to disproportionate shrinking, the head not being human, or merely that the subject had small ears. There was a lot of damage to the head. This might be the result of rough treatment, if the tsantsa was discarded following its ‘loss of powers’. The head is not as solid and weighty. Based on the evidence, no definitive conclusion could be reached. Further AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 10 Additionally, the Shuar are not documented as having plaited the mouth string, or using dyed string, as in this monkey tsantsa. Morphological comparisons between monkey groups and the McManus tsantsa The McManus tsantsa is reputed to be from the Amazon region of South America. If this is true, it is reasonable to assume it would be South American native species of monkey. Monkey groups that are typical within the Upper Amazon include: See Photographs on next page (Fig. 6): 1. Woolly monkeys (lagothrix lagothricha), 2. Spider monkeys (ateles belzebuth), 3. Howler monkeys (alouatta seniculus), 4. Black‐capped Capuchins (cebus apella), 5. White‐fronted Capuchins (cebus albifrons), 6. Squirrel monkeys (saimiri sciureus), 7. Sakis (pithecia monachus), 8. Night/Owl monkeys (aotus trivirgatus), 9. Bolivian Gray Titi (Callicebus donacophilius), 10. Tamarin (saguinus fuscicollis), 11. Pygmy Marmosets (cebuella pygmaea). Fig. 5: Photograph of a counterfeit monkey head tsantsa, provided by William Jamieson (2010). Species unknown. The differences between a human and monkey tsantsa, like the given example, are: 
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Head appears large relative to a human tsantsa. The hair is course. The ears lack the intricacy of the human shape. Eyebrows are raised from brow ridge and are overly thick, (which does not follow the human eyebrow hair pattern). The distance between eyebrow and hairline is too narrow to be human. The skin is coarse and waxy compared to human skin. (Izawa, 1976) The majority of these monkey groups have short, coarse hair covering the body, head and face. The Tamarin (saguinus fuscicollis) [10] has cheek more exposed than others. The Howler (alouatta seniculus) [3] and Sakis (pithecia monachus) [7] have comparatively long hair, whereas the McManus tsantsa has longer, softer hair, than all these groups. During head preparation, excess hair may be singed away to reveal smooth skin – on the tsantsa face there is no sign of thick hair ever being present. The features displayed in this monkey specimen were absent in the human tsantsa and the McManus tsantsa. The limitation of this particular comparison is that this specimen represents only one monkey. Hair: AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) The tsantsa hair was a dark brown/auburn colour, which further limits the number of potential monkey groups from which it could 11 Fig. 6: South American monkey groups (Hamre, 2010). AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 12 originate. If monkeys are adapted to look like human tsantsa, hair would have to come from an independent source. As previously noted, the McManus tsantsa hair was genuine. Nose: The monkey facial morphology displayed a central vertical depression lining the nose, and laterally orientated nostrils. These features were not visible on the McManus tsantsa. 1. 2. 4. 3. 5. Fig. 7: Ears: [1] Orangutan; [2] Chimpanzee; [3] Human. (Buffalo Museum of Science, 2010). [4] McManus Tsantsa right ear; [5]McManus Tsantsa left ear. AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 13 Ears: Hair sample investigation The scale of the tsantsa ear limited the comparison that could be made between the monkey and the tsantsa ear. Despite this, it is clear that the tsantsa ear consists of an intricate detail. If the tsantsa was from a monkey, it could only be from one with a similar complex ear structure, otherwise it can be presumed human. Method A hair sample was removed at the vertex of the McManus tsantsa scalp. Microscopic analysis using standard protocol (Forensic Science Communications – FSC 2005), of the hair established its origin, ancestry and artificial treatments. Current external ear morphology research, by Grehan (2010 ‐ Buffalo Museum of Science), provided examples of different monkey group ears, which are relevant to this examination. According to FSC (2005) protocol, hair samples must be mounted on slides using a semi‐permanent medium with a refractive index approximating that of the hair (which is typically around 1.52). The mounting medium used in this study was therefore Styrolite5, which has an ideal 1.524 refractive index. Chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) and Orangutans (pongo abelii) have ear morphology generally similar to the tsantsa. The Orangutan ear skin, however, lacked the smooth, polished appearance of both the known human and McManus tsantsa ears. The chimpanzee ear had finer skin texture, and the inner helix, was much flatter and broader than that of the tsantsa. Shrinking would have reduced the breadth of the helix as it extends outwards, but would remain proportionately broad in comparison to the remainder of the ear’s morphology. The tsantsa outer ear helix was more defined than that of Chimpanzee. The microscope used in this study was a Leitz Wetlar® Microscope. This is an optical illumination microscope that is routinely used for investigations of transparent objects like that of the hair sample (Leitz Dialux ® 20). A Leica DFC 290 camera attached to the microscope, integrated with Leica Application Suite (LAS) software (version 2.5.0) then provided a 3‐megapixel standard resolution of full colour quality images that capture and save as .tif documents. These images are then used as evidence of the microscopic findings (Leica Microsystems, 2010). In both Chimpanzees (pan troglodytes) and Orangutans (pongo abelii), the triangular fossae are deeper set than in the tsantsa and human ear. In addition, neither of species are indigenous to the Amazon area. Longitudinal and cross‐sectional examination was then performed using criteria established by Robertson, (1999), Katz, (2005), Bisbing (2002), Deedrick and Koch (2004). Conclusion There were significant indications that the McManus head was not from any of the examined relevant monkey groups. Ear and nose morphology, hair distribution and texture, and the brow ridges of the monkeys were different to the tsantsa. 5 In a study evaluating the mounts available for use in forensic hair examination by Roe et al (1991), Styrolite was one of six other products that best fitted the criteria for the ideal mount. (All mediums had been tested for colour, fluorescence, ease of handling, setting time, toxicity of solvent, bubble and crystal formation, yellowing, and shrinkage of the mount). AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 14 tsantsa hair samples: Results The microscopic appearance of the longitudinal and transverse cross section Fig. 8: Longitudinal tsantsa hair sample viewed using a 170/‐ , 4/0.12 lens at a 36.7ms exposure setting. Fig. 9: Longitudinal tsantsa hair sample viewed using a 160/0.17, 40/0.70 lens and 283.8ms exposure setting. AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 15 Fig. 10: Transverse cross section of tsantsa hair using a 160/0.17, 40/0.70 lens and 211.8ms exposure setting Table2:Resultsfromhairanalysis.
AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 16 It is uncertain if the McManus tsantsa came from Ecuador, although it did come from the Shuar region of the Amazon. If the noted population studies reflect that of the rest of the Amazon region, it is likely that the tsantsa is Native Indian and descendant of the Shuar tribe, or possibly Mestizos, mixed Spanish and South American Indian. Predominant racial groups, in this region, in 1936, were Indian and Mestizos. The hair sample results were consistent with a human of Mongoloid ancestry. It was therefore compatible with the ancestry prevalent among the Shuar (Ecuador and Peru). This does not however, lead to a conclusion that the tsantsa is genuine to the Shuar practice of head shrinking (Stirling, 1938; Hendricks, 1993). Extended ancestry study Sex determination Population records circa 1936 (see Table 5) and 1942 (see Table 6) from Ecuador, demonstrate that the Native American is the only Mongoloid group existing at that time. Mongoloid groups from other regions are unlikely to have been present in that part of South America prior to the 1930’s. Sex was not clearly indicated. No facial hair was present; some soft downy hair was evident below the ears, and this is a typical feature on authentic tsantsa (Up de Graff, 1925; Karsten, 1935; Stirling, 1938; Harner, 1984). Without testing mitochondrial DNA from the hair, an accurate sex determination is not possible. Of note is the fact that women were, very rarely, if at all, victims of head shrinking by either the Shuar or counterfeiters (Up de Graff, 1925; Stirling, 1938). The tsantsa is therefore presumed to be male. Population records, from circa 1936: Races Percentage White 10.00 Indians 39.00 Mestizos 41.0 Mulattoes 5.00 Negroes 5.00 Table 3: Population recordings from 1936 of Ecuador taken by General Luis T. Paz y Miño (Linke, 1960). Races Age determination By the 1970s, warfare among the Shuar was suppressed, although it still played a large role in adult mortality (Kroeger and Barbira‐
Freedman, 1982). At the time the McManus tsantsa was acquired (circa 1923), it is likely that mortality from warfare was still prevalent. Percentage White 10.00 Indians 39.00 Mestizos 41.00 Mulattoes 5.00 Negroes 5.00 Table 4: A government publication of population recording from 1942 of Ecuador (Linke, 1960). Disease was also a cause of mortality. Although the Shuar isolated themselves from outside contact, they were at risk of endemic and epidemic diseases, both with high incidence of mortality, especially among children (Kroeger and Barbira‐Freedman, 1982). AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 17 Male population statistics in 1971, for the Shuar: Age Group in years % of Males 70+ 60‐69 50‐59 40‐49 30‐39 20‐29 15‐19 10‐14 5‐9 0‐4 As no statistics are available for the period from the 1900‐1930s, it is speculated that the population for that period would follow a similar pattern. Features of the McManus tsantsa face, do not demonstrate clear signs of aging. Visible skin creases could be a onsequence of the skull being removed and the process of shrinking, exaggerating the form of the face. It could be presumed that the tsantsa head was from an individual aged 20‐30 years, but there is no definitive method of concluding this. 0.025 0.05 3 3.8 5.25 7.25 5.75 7.75 10 9.5 Final summation on the McManus tsantsa. Table 5: Age groups and approximate population statistics of males from 1971 (Kroeger and Barbira‐Freedman, 1982). The McManus tsantsa is human and of mongoloid ancestry. These statistics show that the predominant age group for adult males, whom were most likely to enter warfare, was between 15‐39 years. Within this age bracket, the 20‐29 year olds were most prevalent. It is reasonable to assume it is from the Western Amazon area of Ecuador or Peru; that it was a male aged between 20‐30 years. It is not conclusive that it was Shuar. References Bisbing, R. E. (2002) Forensic identification and association of human hair. In: Forensic Science Handbook. Vol. 1, 2nd ed., R. Saferstein, ed. Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, New Jersey, 2002, pp. 390‐428. Buikstra, J. E., Ubelaker, D. H., Aftandilian, D., Finnegan, M., Hass, J, Kice, D. A., Nichol, C. R., Owsley, D. W., Rose, J. C., Schoeninger, M. J., Scott, G. R., Turner II, C. G., Walker, P. L., Weidl, E. (1994). Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains. Arkansas Archeological Survery Research Series No 44 1994. Available online from: www.cleber.com.br/standard.html. Accessed July 2010. Datwyler, Shannon L. and Weiblen, George D. (2004): On the origin of the fig: Phylogenetic relationships of Moraceae from ndhF sequences. American Journal of Botany 91(5): 767‐777. Deedrick, D. W., Koch, S. L. (2004). Microscopy of Hair Part 1: A Practical Guide and Manual for Human Hairs. Forensic Science Communications. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. January 2004, Volume 6, Number 1. AXIS Vol. 4, Issue 1 (Spring 2012) 18 Deedrick, D. W. (2000). Hairs, Fibers, Crime, and Evidence. Forensic Science Communications. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. July 2000, Volume 7, Number 2. Forensic Science Communications ‐ FSC (2005). Forensic Human Hair Examination Guidelines: Scientific Working Group on Material Analysis (SWGMAT). Forensic Science Communications. U.S. Department of Justice, Federal Bureau of Investigation. April 2005, Volume 2, Number 3. Grehan, J. R. (2010). Buffalo Museum of Science: External Ear Morphology. Available online from: www.sciencebuff.org/research/current‐research‐activities/john‐
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