Fagus sylvatica

Fagus sylvatica
Fagus sylvatica in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and threats
T. Houston Durrant, D. de Rigo, G. Caudullo
Fagus sylvatica L., or European beech, is one of the most important and widespread broadleaved trees in Europe. It is a
large deciduous tree that can maintain its high growth rate until late maturity. Its natural range extends from southern
Scandinavia to Sicily, from Spain in the west to northwest Turkey in the east. Though not demanding of soil type,
beech requires a humid atmosphere with precipitation well distributed throughout the year and a well-drained soil. It
tolerates rigorous winter cold, but is sensitive to spring frost. Owing to the capacity of its root system for assisting in
the circulation of air throughout the soil, and the amount of potash in its leaves, Beech trees conserve the productive
capacity of the soil better than many other species. Its wood is strong and wears well making it ideal for a wide range
of uses, from furniture to musical instruments, as well as for pulp and firewood.
The European beech (Fagus sylvatica L.) is a large deciduous
tree that commonly reaches 30-40 m and is capable of attaining
heights up to 50 m in some locations1 . In contrast to many other
tree species, it is able to maintain a high rate of growth until a
relatively mature age. The tree is usually single-stemmed with
silver-grey bark. The leaves are typically 10 × 7 cm, dark and shiny
green. They have an oval to elliptic shape, with wavy margins and
short teeth at the end of the parallel veins on each side2, 3 . Beech is
monoecious: the male and female flowers are borne on the same
branches. It has a typical life span of around 150-300 years, and
reproduces very late (40-50 years old). Fruiting normally occurs
every 5 to 8 years. Its seed production is characterised by irregular
mast years (when a very heavy crop is produced), usually following
hot summers of the previous year. The bitter edible nuts are sharply
tri-angled and are borne singly or in pairs in soft-spined husks. The
beech nuts are an important source of food for several animals
and birds including squirrels, woodpigeons, woodpeckers and jays;
they also play a major part in seed dispersal by hiding the seeds
and failing to retrieve all of them1 .
Distribution
Beech is widespread across Europe: it can be found from Sicily
in the south to Bergen in southern Norway4-6 . An analysis of pollen
records indicate that the species has spread across Europe from
small scattered populations left after the last glaciation, and is
currently probably at its maximum post-glacial spread7. It needs a
growing season of at least 140 days, and for this reason cannot
survive too far north in Scandinavia7. Longitudinally its range is from
the Cantabrian Mountains in the west to the Carpathians and Balkan
Mountains in the east, although there are some areas in Europe
where it is not found as a native tree, such as the Po valley and
the Hungarian plain. As the climate becomes more continental in
the eastern parts of Europe it is replaced by oriental beech (Fagus
Frequency
< 25%
25% - 50%
50% - 75%
> 75%
Chorology
Native
Large beech in a mountain pasture in Piani di Praglia (Genova, North Italy).
(Copyright Ettore Balocchi, www.flickr.com: CC-BY)
Habitat and Ecology
Map 1: Plot distribution and simplified chorology map for Fagus sylvatica.
Frequency of Fagus sylvatica occurrences within the field observations as
reported by the National Forest Inventories. The chorology of the native spatial
range for F. sylvatica is derived after Meusel and Jäger, and EUFORGEN27, 28 .
orientalis). At the southern part of its range (Spain, Sicily) it is only
normally present at altitudes of more than 1 000 m, and can even be
found at elevations of up to 2 000 m1, 8 . High summer temperatures,
drought and moisture availability are limiting factors for the
distribution of beech in Europe, but continentality is also associated
with limiting its spread in north-western regions4 . Climate change
may have impacts on its future distribution, particularly at the
extremes of its range where it is likely to become less competitive in
the south and east (primarily because of drought), but could expand
its range into Scandinavia and the Baltic9.
Beech is a hardy species. It tolerates very shady situations
(it is the most shade-tolerant broadleaved tree in its range10),
so that natural regeneration is possible in silvicultural systems
with continuous crown coverage as the seedlings are able to
survive and grow below the canopy of established trees. The
predominance of beech means a reduction of light level in the
understorey vegetation level and in that case beech seeds survive
better than those of other tree species. It is not particularly soilsensitive11 and grows on a wide variety of soils with a pH range
from 3.5 to 8.5, although it cannot tolerate the most acidic
conditions. Beech shows a moderate soil-acidifying ability12 . It
prefers moderately fertile ground, calcified or lightly acidic and is
also sensitive to late frosts13; therefore it is found more often on
the side of a hill than at the bottom of a clayey basin. It grows
well on soft soils in which the root system can easily penetrate
and its optimal growth is in humid soils situated on calcareous
or volcanic parent rocks. On the contrary, it does not thrive on
sites that are regularly flooded or which have stagnant water,
since it needs good drainage and will not tolerate waterlogged
or compacted soils1, 14 . Beech furthers soil conservation due to
its production of a large quantity of litter (around 900 g/m2 per
year). The root system tends to be shallow, making it susceptible
to drought when compared to coniferous stands15 . However, there
appears to be some genetic variability across different climatic
zones, since trees in southern Europe are able to cope better with
drought than those in the north1 .
Uncertain, no-data
Importance and Usage
Marginal/no presence < 5%
Beech is an important European forestry tree. Fine grained
and knot-free, the wood is hard and has a pale cream colour
and good workability16 . With around 250 known usages, it
is one of the most diversely used tree species in Europe. Its
wear-resistance, strength, and excellent bending capabilities
make it ideal for boatbuilding, flooring, stairs, furniture, musical
instruments (piano pinblocks), plywood, panels, veneering and
cooking utensils such as bowls, platters and wooden spoons. It is
also used for pulp and can be coppiced for fire wood and charcoal
due to its relatively high energetic potential1, 8, 16 .
Low presence 5% - 10%
Mid-low presence 10% - 30%
Medium presence 30% - 50%
Mid-high presence 50% - 70%
High presence 70% - 90%
Very-high presence > 90%
Threats and Diseases
The root system architecture of beech may vary depending
on local soil conditions17. While generally showing a noticeable
resistance to rockfall and wind-throw17, 18 , under unfavourable
local conditions a relatively shallow root system may make
the tree vulnerable to wind-throw1 . The thin bark provides little
protection from fire, and can also be damaged through stripping
Map 2: High resolution distribution map estimating the relative probability of presence.
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European Atlas of Forest Tree Species | Tree species
Shiny dark green leaves with red galls caused by the fly Mikiola fagi
(Diptera Cecidomyiidae).
(Copyright AnRo0002, commons.wikimedia.org: CC0)
Fagus sylvatica
Fagus orientalis
Fagus orientalis, or oriental beech, is closely related to Fagus sylvatica.
Some authorities consider them to be sub-species; others consider
them to be two separate species1 . In appearance they are generally
very similar. The leaves are slightly longer, darker and less glossy than
those of European beech, and tend to have more vein-pairs (9-14 as
opposed to 5-9)3 . Oriental beech can be found in the Balkans, Anatolia,
the Caucasus, northern Iran and Crimea18 . Its range overlaps with that
of the European beech and there is frequently hybridisation between the
two18 . Where both species are present, oriental beech tends to favour
the valleys while European beech is found further up the slopes; this is
because the European beech is more susceptible to late frosts12 .
Uncertain, no-data
Tundra, cold desert
Negligible survivability
Low survivability
Mid-low survivability
Medium survivability
Mid-high survivability
High survivability
Foliage and fruits of oriental beech (Fagus orientalis).
(Copyright Drahkrub, commons.wikimedia.org: CC-BY)
and gnawing by squirrels and other mammals. The presence of
deer is a limiting factor because they eat young stands. Spring
frosts often damage young trees or flowers appearing at the
same time as leaves. Young beech trees are susceptible to
woolly aphid; mature trees can suffer internal rot by the fungus
Ganoderma applanatum. Old trees (100-1 200 years) may suffer
’red heart’ which reduces stability and timber value8 . Beech is
among the susceptible hosts to Phytophthora ramorum and
large regions across Europe have climatic suitability to this pest,
Map 3: High resolution map estimating the maximum habitat suitability.
which may become a more serious problem in the future5 . The
large pine weevil (Hylobius abietis) is harmful for beech and
markedly coexists with part of its natural niche19-22 . Herbivory
by short-snouted weevils (Strophosoma melanogrammum Forst.
and Otiorhynchus scaber) is another threat to beech21, 22 .
References
Mature beech forest with autumn colour foliage in Delamere forest, Cheshire, UK.
(Forestry Commission, www.forestry.gov.uk: © Crown Copyright)
Observed presences in Europe
Annual average temperature (°C)
Autoecology diagrams based on harmonised
field observations from forest plots.
Sum of precipitation of the driest month (mm)
Annual precipitation (mm)
Average temperature of the coldest month (°C)
Field data in Europe (including absences)
Potential spring-summer solar irradiation (kWh m-2)
Seasonal variation of monthly precipitation (dimensionless)
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(2011). 108 pp.
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[7] D. Magri, Journal of Biogeography 35,
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ecology and silviculture of beech: from
gene to landscape.
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(2015). Invasive Species Compendium.
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N. Welander, Forest Ecology and
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[23] G. Kandemir, Z. Kaya, EUFORGEN Technical
guidelines for genetic conservation and
use for Oriental beech (Fagus orientalis)
(Bioversity International, Rome, Italy, 2009).
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www.euforgen.org.
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This is an extended summary of the chapter. The full version of
this chapter (revised and peer-reviewed) will be published online at
https://w3id.org/mtv/FISE-Comm/v01/e012b90. The purpose of this
summary is to provide an accessible dissemination of the related
main topics.
This QR code points to the full online version, where the most
updated content may be freely accessed.
Please, cite as:
Houston Durrant, T., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., 2016. Fagus sylvatica
and other beeches in Europe: distribution, habitat, usage and
threats. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., de Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston
Durrant, T., Mauri, A. (Eds.), European Atlas of Forest Tree Species.
Publ. Off. EU, Luxembourg, pp. e012b90+
Tree species | European Atlas of Forest Tree Species
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