INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS OF RURAL LIFE

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
EUROPEAN CONFERENCE
ON RURAL LIFE 1939
General Technical Documentation
INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS
OF RURAL LIFE
Prepared b y th e International Institute
of Intellectual Co-operation
Published previously:
Report on
SYSTEM S O F AGRICULTUR
CREDIT A ND INSURANCE
submitted by M. Louis Tardy, Honorary DirecteCaisse nationale de Crédit agricole, Pari-
the
(Ser. L.o.N. P . 1938.II.A.24.)
v in , 116 pages
g-
An enquiry into systems of agricultural credit an
tural insurance. The report is accompanied b y ;
of brief monographs relating to the working of ag
credit in about forty countries.
In the conclusions to his report, M. Tardy pointfarmers, to be able to carry on and to ensure
prosperity, must have the support of a properly
system of agricultural credit with adequate funds. '
a series of recommendations and adds certain okbased on his enquiries in various European coun
$0,60
ul, iber
ural
that
ural
-cd
kcs
:ions
SURVEY O F NATIONAL
NUTRITION POLICIES, 1937
(Ser. L.o.N. P. 1938.II.A.25.)
120 pages
This volume supplements the works hitherto pu:
the League of Nations on the problem of nutrition,
much interesting information collected from official
a large number of countries. It is a study from whit
can learn what is being done in other countries
own. At the same time, the Survey is written in a
is readily comprehensible to the ordinary man or
is therefore of interest, not only to those directly
with the problem of nutrition, but also to the gen
2
S0.60
Official N o. :
C. 9 0 . M. 49. 1939.
Conf. E. V. R. 16.
Geneva, April 1939.
LEAGUE O F N A T I O N S
EUROPEAN CONFERENCE
ON
RURAL
LIFE
1939
G eneral Technical D o c u m e n ta t io n
INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS
OF RURAL LIFE
Prepared by th e International Institute
of Intellectual Co-operation
Se rie s o f L e a g u e o f N a t i o n s P u b li c a tio n s
EUROPEAN CONFERENCE
O N RURAL LIFE
16
CONTENTS
Page
I n t r o d u c t i o n ..................................................................................................................
I.
R ural
5
B roadcasting :
School B r o a d c a s t s — A d u l t E d u c a t i o n — T e c h n i c a l
A gricultural B r o a d c a s t s .................................................................
6
A n n ex:
B r o a d c a stin g :
1.
O r g a n i s a t i o n of L i s t e n e r s ’ G r o u p s :
(а)
I n t h e U n i t e d K i n g d o m ............................
( б ) I n G e r m a n y ......................................................
2.
3.
4.
.j.
(j.
7.
8.
9.
10.
I
j
I
,
I
III.
R ural
B roadcasting
in
|
11.
II.
C zecho-Slovakia . . . .
j D e n m a r k ................................
i G e r m a n y ................................
I t a l y ...........................
18
' N o r w a y ...............................
, P o l a n d ...................................
I R o u m a n i a ..........................
I S w e d e n ................................
the
U n i o n of
S o v ie t
S o c ia lis t R e p u b l i c s . .
I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n t r e of R u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g
14
15
17
21
21
23
23
23
. .
25
IV'irional O r g a n i s a t i o n — R e c r e a t i o n a l a n d E d u c a t i o n a l
C in em ato g rap h — M a t e r i a l R e s o u r c e s — M e a n s of
Organisation — C o n c l u s i o n s .......................................................
27
T in: C i n e m a t o g r a p h
R ural E
and
R
ural
L
ife
:
:
d u cation
Organisation — P e d a g o g i c s — T h e T e a c h i n g P ro f e s s i o n
- L eg is la tio n — P o s t - s c h o o l E d u c a t i o n ..............................
IV
10
14
R ural L i f e
and
L
ibra ries
32
:
I'l rin u nent L i b r a r i e s — T r a v e l l i n g L i b r a r i e s .........................
35
Annex:
Rural L i b r a r ie s : B e l g i u m — U n i t e d K i n g d o m —
C z e c h o -S l o v a k ia — D e n m a r k — F r a n c e — G e r m a n y
- Italy — P o la n d — Sweden — S w itzerland — i
I riion of S o v i e t S o c ia lis t R e p u b l i c s ..............................
1
A rt
in
R
ural
L
37
ife
■ y t and L e is u re — R u r a l M u s e u m s — T o u r i s t Traffic —
Collections — R e s o u r c e s a n d O r g a n i s a t i o n .........................
'■ — S. d. N. 2.080 (F.) 1.440 (A.) 5/39. Imp. Granchamp, Annemasse.
47
in t ellec tu a l
aspects
of
ru ra l
life
Annex
A rt
I
2.
3
T h e C o n c e p t of t h e O p e n - a i r M u s e u m in the
N o rth e r n C ountries
...........................................
T h e O r ig i n s of t h e " H e i m a t m u s e e n " m
G e r m a n y ...........................................................
T he
A rch itectu ra l
P rogram m e
of Local
M u s e u m s ...................................................................
INTELLECTUAL ASPECTS O F RURAL LIFE
IN T R O D U C TIO N
In pursuance of th e decisions t a k e n b y th e A ssem bly of
the L e a g u e of N a tio n s in S e p t e m b e r 1937, th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
I n s t i t u t e of Intellectual C o-operation has collected th e m a te r ia l
in its possession re la tin g to th e principal p ro blem s of an in te l­
lectual character w h ic h come w ith in th e scope of a E u r o p e a n
Conference on R u ra l Life.1
I. Rural Broadcasting. — As th e o u tc o m e of th e I n s t i t u t e ’s
enquiries, it has collected a large v olu m e of m a te r ia l on th e
subject of school b ro a d c a s ts a n d also on a d u l t e d u c atio n by
wireless, agricultural techn ical b ro a d cas ts a n d th e e x p e rim en ts
•irried out in v ario us countries ( s ee A nnex) b y s t u d y circles
or li s t e n e r s ’ groups.
II. The Cinematograph. — One i m p o r t a n t p ro b lem arising
out of the intellectual rôle of th e c in e m a to g ra p h is t h e use of
the film in rural districts. The questio n m a y be considered
from various aspects : regional organisation, th e recreatio nal
vinematograph. th e e d u c atio n al c i n e m a to g ra p h ,
m a te r ia l
resources and m ea n s of local organisation, w ith due reference
lu Ihe re com m endations passed b y th e v ario us congresses, m ore
particularly th e In t e r n a t i o n a l Congress of the E d u c a tio n a l
Cinematograph.
ill
Education. — R u ra l ed u c a tio n in general raises a
whole scries of problem s : policy, pædagogic problems, tra in in g
of teachers, etc.
1 \ . Libraries. — The rôle of libraries, w h e th e r p e r m a n e n t
r travelling, as a fa cto r in arresting the ru ral exodus is no less
important th a n t h a t of th e cin e m a to g rap h . I m m e d i a t e steps
should he taken, in ev ery ru ral centre possessing th e necessary
"'luipment, to ensure co-ordination b e tw e en the “ lib raria n ”
■mil the cinema m a n a g e r ” ,
V. Art Questions. — To m e e t I he conditions of m o d ern
rural centres should mobilise all factors likely to appeal to
n)ral populations — e.g., local trad ition s, folklore, trades, songs,
■ — special pro m inence being given to regional m u s e u m s a n d
lisplays of folk art.
6
INTELLECTUAL
I.
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
R U R A L B R O A D C A S T IN G
I t is proposed to deal in succession w ith the s e r v i r , w h i r l ,
b ro a d c a s tin g ca n re n d e r to th e school, to general adult
tio n a n d to a g r ic u ltu ral interests, ce rtain features beinu
....
to all th re e ty pes of b ro a d cast.
I.
S
chool
B
roadcasts
In th e intellectual co-operation dossier on
sch o o l b n ,incasting ” will be found the e x p e r t s ’ re com m endations mi 1 1„.
sub jects b e s t suited to wireless teaching, th e most snila|,|,<
m e th o d s of pre sentation , an d the a d a p t a t i o n of Iima,lra-|.
to the school cu rriculum a n d class-work.
T here are, in ad d itio n to th e m ore general pmM, mschool b ro a d cas ts , a n u m b e r of pro blem s relating mon |>arli. ularly to th e use of wireless in ru ral schools :
(a) Radiotéléphonie E quipm ent. — Cost
choice an d use of a p p a ra tu s .
of insl a l l ai
am
(b) Pædagogic Problems. — Wireless teaching is ,,1 i
v alu e unless th e p u p il’s in te re s t can be aroused and his at Icut i<,n
held ; it is essential to find them es suited to the rural min i and
to p re s en t th e m in readily com prehensible form — in a w o n !
to s t u d y th e m e n t a l i t y of pupils, w hich is n o t a t all lie -.ini•■
t h a t of children in u rb a n centres. One object of rural c<1m-aIi,.u
m u s t be to s tre n g th e n in th e child a love of the plan- w ir r, i,
was born. It m i g h t therefore be desirable to organi-r .-[im;
b ro a d cas ts for children in rural schools, as has already hern 'Liein some countries (Italy, P o la n d a n d Sweden, among >>tIu-i'
(c)
For teachers i n r u r a l s c h o o l s , l i v i n g , a s it w e re , on l!i<
e d g e o f c i v i l i s a t i o n , b r o a d c a s t s m i g h t b e g i v e n b y rer,,Lriii-, :
a u t h o r i t i e s o n p æ d a g o g i c p r o b l e m s a n d l i t e r a r y a n d -eienlili
te n d en cies.
II.
B
r o a d c a st in g
and
A
dult
E
d u ca tio n
This question had alre ad y been studied by the Internal!
In s t i t u te of Intellectual Co-operation. The In stitute - pule;
lion on The Educational Role of Broadcasting c o n t a i n s I
e x p e r t s ’ reco m m end atio n s, which are applicable also I" ‘I1
ed u c atio n of ru ral populations.
It is i m p o r t a n t to distinguish clearly between e d i i r a t i " i w courses and talks.
in t e l l e c t u a l
aspects
of
ru ra l
life
7
a\ C o u r s e s , im p lying ed u c a tio n proper, are held a t regu lar
lixed hours according to a set p ro g r a m m e ; t h e y will follow,
mu/alis m u t a n d i s , th e rules applicable to school b ro a d casts.
Regular agricultural courses, for instance, should be organised
j,,r"the rural p opulations ; th e lessons m i g h t be followed up a t
\,ninLr courses or ru r a l c o n ti n u a t i o n schools u n d e r th e direc­
tum of the teacher in charge of th e class.
b) In the case of educational talks, it is obvious t h a t only
part of Ihe p rogram m es i n te n d e d for th e general public will be
,,f interest to rural populations.
Experts on e d uc atio nal b r o a d c a s tin g em p ha sise the im porof diiïerentiation in a d u l t p ro g ram m es . It is of in tere s t
m note, in this connection, t h a t in G e rm a n y b r o a d c a s tin g was
r e o r g a n i s e d in 1937 ; b ro a d c a s ts in te n d e d essentially for a parh.-ular group of listeners were replaced b y b ro a d c a s ts dealing
with special subjects, given in such a form as to in te re s t all
l
iasses of Ihe population. Talks and re p o rts , for instance,
live instructive in fo rm a tio n on a g ric u ltu ral technical m a tte rs ,
fur the benefit even of listeners n o t a c tu a lly engaged in agri• ulture. The same applies to th e re cre atio n al a n d cultural
broadcasts dealing w ith prob lem s of t h e G e rm an p e a s a n t r y or
the interests of the ru ral p op u latio n .
There is the fu r th e r p ro b le m of th e better utilisation of
Mich talks by listeners.
E x p e r t s on a d u l t e d u c atio n al bro ad ■asting all agree as to th e necessity for grouping listeners into
sltidg groups (cercles d ’étud e, H ô rg e m ein sch aften ) u n d e r a
zroup-leader.
In Ihe United K in g d o m , for instance, where lis te n e rs ’
.Tulips are p articularly nu m erous, th e A d u lt E d u c a t io n A dvisory
Oimmittee has been formed to advise th e B ritish B ro a d c a s tin g
■"rporation on b ro a d c a s t talk s for listen ers’ groups a n d to
publish general directions for these groups. T h e organisation of
listeners’ groups has been v e r y generally a d o p t e d in th e n o rth e r n
"iinfries: it is carried on s y s te m a tic a lly in G e rm a n y a n d in
Italy, ami is m ak in g h e a d w a y in the U nion of Soviet Socialist
Republics in the form of " self-culture sections ” , In th e
United States of Am erica, t h o u g h n o t v e r y widely kn o w n
intil a few years ago, th e sy stem is s p re ad in g ra pidly. This
important problem w as dealt w ith at th e last two an nu a l
matings of the Conference on B ro a d c a s t E d u c a t io n an d the
National Advisory Council on E d u c a t io n in Radio.
If listeners are to be enrolled as m e m b e r s of these groups,
i* not sufficient to rely on th e good offices of e du c atio n al
r !'"• and the Press.
I t has been found that- general
propaganda does n o t pro du ce th e desired results unless personal
has first been m ad e w ith th e school a n d post-school
,uthorities and w ith local persons willing to direct listeners’
1,'iiire
8
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
groups. S t u d y centres h av e acco rd ing ly been f o u n d e d m (;
U n ited S ta te s for p ro p a g a n d a and group-organisers a n d fu| llr,.
group-leaders.
L is te n e r s ’ groups are even m ore necessary in rum I r , , m i m inities ; t h e o rga n isa tio n of s t u d y g roups presents e v e n "renter
difficulties t h e r e t h a n in u r b a n centres :
(i) E q u ip m e n t of prem ises: school-library r-nlhiIm.i-,-,tin w ith t h e groups. Technical equipment of groups ; irisl ;ill;it j,,,
u pk eep a n d use of a p p a r a t u s . Cost of installation mid upke.-j,.
— These pro blem s are m ore difficult of solution for
11er--,i
ru ral populations.
(ii) T r a in in g of group-leaders. — E x p e r t s agree I hat i!..
mere f a c t of m e e tin g t o g e th e r to listen to a b r o a d c a s t rivalea receptive m o od in listeners. T h e group-leader m u s t fir-t
p re p a re listeners for th e su b je c t to be d ea lt with. A "rmipleader can also a c t as i n t e r m e d i a r y between listeners and II.■■
organisers of e d u c atio n al broadcasts.
T h ere are, however, certain d ra w b ac k s attai hiiiLr In lie
s y stem of listeners’ groups : th e re is th e danger, durim: I h- dicussion which follows th e b ro adcast, t h a t partisa n or nritiqual- .i
opinions m a y obscure th e m ea n in g of th e talk and <d dit t-rat.t h e p u rp o se an d principles u n derlyin g it. This may 1i;iji|>>:, if
th e g ro up -le ad er is n o t sulliciently im p artial or not rapaMe
re ta in in g th e m a in poin ts of the t a lk and summing up tieprinciples a r o u n d w hich the discussion should g r a v i t a t e .
T he grou p -lead er is the corner-stone of the group : tiee d uc ation al results of the b ro a d c a s t a n d of the di.-i u^i-m
d epend v e ry largely on his personal qualities. It is soim-lim.v ery difficult to find competent group-leaders in sm all rural
communities. If this is the case, it will be necessary In le-l-l
...... an-i
special courses for train in g th em . T he judicious
tra in in g of such persons would be fa cilitated by colInL-nili"!
between t h e associations in terested in educational Ln>adi a-tand the universities and colleges. Special broadra.-t lalk*
m ig h t even be organised for school-teachers and kadi-rs :
listeners’ groups.
In add ition to I he special p ro g ram m es for listener.' -rmip-.
group-leaders should be urged to s tu d y th e ordinary edurati"iial
p ro g ram m es b r o a d c a s t by th e various stations. It h-1^ * j!
found t h a t m a n y teachers and group-leaders do n e t ‘ dv- fun
a d v a n t a g e of these p rog ram m es. The various cult ural
tions m ig h t be asked to direct a t t e n t i o n to t h e us-didness
such p ro g ram m es from the p o in t of view of study -map--.
III.
T ech n ical
A g ric u ltu ra l
B
r o a d c a s t s
B y th is is m e a n t b roadcasts in ten ded more p ari irubr!.for ag ricultural population s : w e a th e r reports, stale "I ■
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF R U R A L
LIFE
9
, - r i i - u l t u r a l m ark et, talk s on a g r o n o m y a n d ag ricu lture, etc.
It" is generally re c o m m e n d e d t h a t these p ro g r a m m e s should be
divided into two p arts , th e first dealing w i t h general cu ltu ra l
q u esti ons o f interest t o ag ric u ltu re, an d t h e second w i t h tech nical
agricultural questions.
School b r o a d c a s t s , g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t s , o r
agricultural b r o a d c a s t s p r o p e r f o r r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n s a l l i n v o l v e
certain c o m m o n p r o b l e m s c o n c e r n i n g m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y e q u i p ­
ment. p r o g r a m m e s a n d a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
B r o a d c a s t s addressed to ru r a l p o p u la tio n s are in te n d e d to
develop a taste for ru ral life a n d should be soaked, as it were,
in a rural atm osphere t h a t will m a k e th e m a t t r a c t i v e to, and
stimulate the in te re s t of, country-dw ellers.
F o r this, it is
absolutely essential t h a t p ro g r a m m e c o m m itte es should consult
an expert on ru ral b ro a d cas ts . Some people even urge t h a t , in
countries in which th e p o p u la tio n is largely rural, th e n a tio n al
broadcasting organisation sh ould include a special section for
rural broadcasts. S u ch services alre ad y exist in th i r t y - t w o
countries.
Italy has gone even fa rth e r, a n d has fou n ded a special
institution — th e E n t e R ad io R u ra le — to e x t e n d ra d io p h o n y
in rural districts, in the i n te re s ts of th e m o ral a n d cu ltu ra l
education of the ag ricultu ral pop ulation s. This i n s t it u t i o n deals
with the question of school b ro a d c a s ts in ru ral localities, which
it supplies generously w ith receiving-sets ; it also utilises school
broadcasts to p av e t h e wray for ru ral ra d io p h o n y , by tea chin g
the inhabitants of th e c o u n t r y districts to e d u c a t e them selves
by means of the radio.
T h e provincial c o m m itte es of th e E n t e
Radio Rurale, w hich were until re cen tly concerned m a in ly
with rural schools, also m a k e th em selves responsible for th e
distribution and w orkin g of receiving-sets for listening-in to
the " Farmer’s H o u r ” an d for t h e o rg a n isa tio n a n d encourage­
ment. of collective listening-in.
Lastly, there is a t e n d e n c y to w a r d s i n t e rn a tio n a l collabora­
tion in the case of n a tio n a l b r o a d c a s tin g a n d agricu ltu ral
groups. An I n te r n a tio n a l C entre for R u ra l B ro a d c a s tin g has
been founded, for instance, w ith h e a d q u a r t e r s at Rome.
According to its sta tu te s , a p p r o v e d a t th e e n d of 1936, one of
‘t- objects is to p ro m o te ru ral b ro a d c a s tin g services in countries
"here these do n o t y e t exist, and to encourage relations betw een
the national ag ricu ltural b ro a d c a s tin g services w i t h a view to
improving their org a nisa tion an d p ro g ram m es in th e interests
agriculturists in th e different c o u n trie s ; th e s t a t u t e s provide
urther th a t the Centre shall ta k e steps to encourage t h e
^tabhshment of n a tio n al a n d local ru r a l b ro a d c a s tin g
"mrnittees in every co u n try , w ith th e object, inter alia, of
Wending the use of wireless in ru ral schools and am o n g groups
' a&n<'ulturists and ag ric u ltu ral workers, an d of im p rov ing
10
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
w ire le ss p r o g r a m m e s i R t e n d e d for y o u n g people
,
ag ricu lture, a d u l t s living in c o u n t r y d is tr ic ts , and )ncinl»n
of t h e v a r io u s unions of a g ric u ltu rists a n d agricultural vorki'r;
Use of Short Waves and Ultra-short Waves. — Slmrt-wax,and u ltra - s h o r t-w a v e b ro a d c a s tin g statio ns are r e l a t i v | v
simple to erect, fairly cheap a n d easy to w ork ; the numlm- , ;
such w a v es being v e r y great, there is less likelihood o f i n t e r ­
ference. T h eir use in th e service of agriculture — for weal hr;
forecasts, warnings, etc. — has become m ore clearly n r ' n - « ;irv
t h a n ev e r for in te rn a tio n a l messages a n d inter-regional cunimiin ic a tio n w ith in th e different countries.
Y o u n g people in ru r a l d istricts m ig h t be further initiate-:
into t h e te c h n iq u e of send ing sho rt-w ave p riv a te me s^av e- an-t
th e re cep tio n of sh o rt-w a v e messages from regular slalionThe generalised use of sh ort-w a v e b ro a d casts a n d message-,
b y a m a te u r s and official stations, for agricultural purpHMw ould necessitate v ario u s m easu res a n d agreements mi inf
n a tio n a l an d n atio n al lines. The use of ultra-short wave- t--r
regional agric u ltu ral services is v e r y i m p o r t a n t — q u i t e apart
from t h e ir value for purpo ses of in fo rm a tio n a n d w arn in ':
from th e p o in t of view of television, w hich opens up Ip-!
horizons for a g r ic u ltu ral ra d io p h o n y w i t h the p ro sp ect -i
s u p p le m e n tin g th ese spoken b ro a d cas ts by m ea n s of illusl rat ion-.
ANNEX
B R O A D C A ST IN G
1.
O
r g a n isa tio n
(a)
of
L
is t e n e r s
’ G
roups
I n the U nited K in g d o m .
T h e B r it is h I n s t i t u t e of A d u l t E d u c a t i o n h as dev u tn l - i n ­
f
a t t e n t i o n to t h e t r a i n i n g of g ro u p - le a d e r s , w h ile th e Central 1■.....
B r o a d c a s t A d u l t E d u c a t i o n of t h e B r it is h B r o a d c a s t i i r j
a i
in c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h its re g io n a l c o m m i t t e e s , h a s been ■-11■ ■, ■- -11.f o u n d i n g u p w a r d s of 1,300 g r o u p s of a d u l t listen ers,
lie |!-l - 1
also s e t up, as p a r t of its o r g a n i s a t io n , an A d u l t E d u catio n Xl!u"
C o m m i t t e e to a d v i s e it on b r o a d c a s t t a l k s fo r s t u d y gro ups v 1
g e n e r a l d ir e c ti o n s for th e g u i d a n c e of l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s.
T h e B r it is h B o a r d of E d u c a t i o n has p u b l i s h e d , in ils
11"
e d u c a t i o n a l d o c u m e n t s , tlie r e s u lt s of a n e n q u i r y w h ich il
" |l
a t t h e r e q u e s t of t h e C e n t r a l Council for B r o a d c a s t Adult 1
INTELLECTUAL
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LIFE
11
into the a d v a n t a g e s of t r a i n i n g l i s t e n e r s ’ g r o u p s fo r li s t e n in g - i n to a d u l t
edu catio n al t a l k s . 1
T h is g r o u p s y s t e m e n a b l e s li s t e n e r s to fo llo w s u c h
b r o a d c a s t s u n d e r t h e g u i d a n c e of c o m p e t e n t p e rs o n s w h o c a n i n i t i a t e
them into the s u b j e c ts to be d e a l t w i t h a n d t a k e c h a r g e of t h e dis cu ssio n
which follows.
The en q u iry has b e e n r e s t r i c t e d to a specific n u m b e r of g ro u p s , c are
being taken, h o w ever, to i n c l u d e d i f f e r e n t t y p e s , b o t h r u r a l a n d u r b a n .
The en quiry did n o t c o v e r S u n d a y t a l k s or m o d e r n l a n g u a g e cours es.
The programmes w e re d r a w n u p so as to e n a b l e t h e d if fe re n t g r o u p s to
hear nil the lectu re s a n d to p e r m i t of c o m p a r i n g t h e r e s u lt s in t h e v a r i o u s
categories of g r o u p s a n d reg io n s. S ch o o l i n s p e c t o r s c o n v e r s a n t w i t h
problems of a d u l t e d u c a t i o n c a r r i e d o u t r e g u l a r in s p e c t i o n s f r o m
January to Mar ch 1932 a m o n g t h e l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s .
H e r e a r e th e
principal conclusions of th i s e n q u i r y .
Importance of the Rôle of Ihe L eader of a L is te n e r s ’ Group.
The gro u p -leader m a y be r e g a r d e d as t h e c o r n e r - s t o n e of t h e g r o u p ;
the social an d e d u c a t i o n a l v a l u e of t h e g r o u p d e p e n d s v e r y l a r g e l y on
his personal qualities.
Group-leaders a re r e c r u i t e d f r o m a m o n g b u s i n e s s m e n a n d m e m b e r s
of the liberal pro fessi ons, school a u t h o r i t i e s , social p r o p a g a n d a w o rk e rs ,
etc. They need n o t n e c e s s a r il y be sp e c ia lists, b u t s i m p l y r e q u i r e to be
experienced a n d well e d u c a t e d a n d t o b e c o n v e r s a n t w i t h t h e B.B.C.
publications a n d th e w o r k s r e c o m m e n d e d b y t h e le c t u r e r s on w h a t e v e r
subject is being d e a l t w i t h .
One essential q u a l if i c a ti o n is t h a t t h e y s h o u l d be a b l e to m a k e
listeners think for th e m s e l v e s a n d p ic k o u t t h e s i g n if i c a n t f e a t u r e s of
the talks, so t h a t a r e g u l a r d is c u ssio n m a y be follow ed a n d n o t m e r e ly
a repetition of s t a t e m e n t s a n d facts. L e a d e r s m u s t d r a w o u t m e m b e r s
"I the groups a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e m to e x p re s s t h e i r ide as in p u b li c.
A su m mer co urs e is held e v e r y y e a r a t O x f o r d , d u r i n g t h e lon g
vacation, at w h ich g r o u p - l e a d e r s a r e i n i t i a t e d in t o t h e i r d u ti e s . R e g io n a l
and national co nferences a r e also h eld w i t h th e s a m e o b je c t.
Listeners' G r o u p s .
Groups v a r y v e r y m u c h : so m e c o n s i s t of m e m b e r s of t h e u p p e r
lasses, and o th e rs of e m p lo y e e s , a r t i s a n s a n d v illag e people. O th e rs ,
again, are formed b y t h e u n i v e r s i t y e x t e n s i o n co u rs e s a n d b y religious,
•wial and o th e r o r g a n i s a t io n s .
Besides these g ro u p s , w h i c h m e e t in lib raries, etc., o t h e r sm a ll e r
groups of friends m e e t in p r i v a t e houses.
Unlike th e a d u l t cours es o r g a n i s e d b y t h e a s s o c ia t io n s , w h e r e th e
-Indents can be re d u c e d to a c o m m o n d e n o m i n a t o r , t h e r e is n o h o m o wnrity among w irel ess l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s .
Ed uc at io n, W i r e l e ss L i s t e n e r s ’ G r ou p , B o a r d ol E d u c a t i o n , P a m p h l e t
12
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Statistics.
I t is e s t i m a t e d t h a t , d u r i n g th e p e r i o d 1931/3 2, some 4 ,nfiii prisonbel o n g e d t o l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s . As a ru le , t h e m e m b e r s h i p of these
n o t ex c e e d tw e l v e , a n d o n l y a fe w l a r g e r g r o u p s exist. Li-tenorg r o u p s a re f o u n d to b e c o m m o n e r , on t h e w h ole , in towns
j,
c o u n t r y d is tr i c ts .
T h e in c re a s e in t h e n u m b e r of g r o u p s is n o ti c e a b l e mostly unionth o s e w h i c h m e e t fo r a li m i t e d p e ri o d of t w e n t y - f o u r weeks, with twrlv,
m e e ti n g s . T h is in c r e a s e is d u e to th e r e o r g a n i s a t i o n of the lemrc h o s e n fo r t h e ta lk s.
I t sh o w s t h a t g r o u p s a r e p re p a r e d in f o l l o w
series of l e c t u r e s o v e r a f a i r l y lo n g period. T h e figures kepi sin. r ()„.
i n t r o d u c t i o n of t h e s t u d y - g r o u p s y s t e m in M a r c h 1932 slimy th I
f i fty -e ig h t g r o u p s m e t for a p e rio d of f o r t y - e i g h t w eek s and v".11 L'roupfo r a p e ri o d of t w e n t y - f o u r weeks.
L a s t l y , of t h e 174 g r o u p s w h i c h follo w ed t h e s u m m e r pr<<lti -; i mmin 1932, t h i r t y - s e v e n w e r e n e w g r o u p s f o r m e d a m o n g workers'
ti o n a l a s s o c ia t io n s — a n i n t e r e s t i n g e x a m p l e of co-op eration.
P r o g ra m m e of Talks.
To beg in w i t h , a series o f six t a l k s w as o rg a n i s e d on different subjectw i t h o u t a n y p a r t i c u l a r p la n . L is t e n e r s co u ld n o t m a k e a systennh.
s t u d y of a n y s u b j e c t . B u t , in o r d e r to fa c i li ta t e t h e methodical stmh
of a q u e s t io n , i t w a s d e c i d e d to o rg an ise c o m p le t e courses or <••!•«•< "f
ta lk s , all lo gically c o n n e c t e d w i t h one a n o t h e r .
T h is n e w a r r a n g e m e n t h a s g r e a t l y in c r e a s e d t h e n u m b e r of listener^
gro u p s .
I t m a y be a s s u m e d t h a t a series of t a l k s cou ld be given, spiv :
o v e r a p e rio d of t w e n t y - f o u r w eek s, on s u b j e c t s co n n ected with n
a n o t h e r . B e t t e r still, su c h t a l k s co u ld b e s p lit u p in t o two - n a p - ■(
tw elv e, or, in d e e d , w hile still k e e p i n g to t h e one genera l theme. Hey
m i g h t be s u b d i v i d e d in to g r o u p s of six c o n n e c t e d in some s|H-rial « ;■
w i t h one a n o t h e r . T h is w o u ld e n a b l e l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s , w hen tir -nlijf t
i n t e r e s t s t h e m , to follow p a r t of t h e t a l k s on so m e q u estio n other Una
th e one t h e y a r e s t u d y in g .
T h e p ri n c ip l e of c o n t i n u i t y s h o u l d n o t b e carr ie d too far, i n u r v r
I t has b e e n f o u n d t h a t a series of ra d i o ta lk s , e v e r y d a y of I inis r a r e l y follow ed fr o m b e g i n n in g to end b y l i s t e n e r s ’ gnmp-, vhkii
s e l d o m m e e t m o r e t h a n o n c e a week.
P u blica tio ns.
T h e b u l l e t i n s p u b li s h e d in c o n n e c t io n w i t h these talk:- ~i. ■■■■
refer, n o t m e r e l y to a single ta lk , b u t to t h e w h o le series. 1 ■ h hull' ti
d e a lin g w i t h t h e s u b j e c t of a giv e n t a l k s h o u l d in c lu d e a more l'i'iht.u
p a r t , c o n v e y i n g a c o m p r e h e n s i v e ide a of th e w h o le s u b je c t.
I - 1 li'h'11'will t h u s be fr ee to m a k e his p a r t i c u l a r selecti on f r o m a given -■ re It h a s b e e n s u g g e s t e d t h a t one m e m b e r of t h e g ro u p sir il l 1 •'
th e q u e s t io n d e a l t w i t h in t h e s e v e r a l b u ll e ti n s a n d dir ect tl a -:,iiniti"j
of o t h e r m e m b e r s to p o i n t s s u i t a b l e for a m p l e r d iscussion . 11 is al-" " r-
INTELLECTUAL
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OF
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I)Vi fuller use s hould b e m a d e of b i b l i o g r a p h i e s a n d of t h e sy l la b u s , w h i c h
dimild be more d e t a il e d a n d c o n t a i n a li st of q u e s t i o n s fo r d iscu ssio n .
Talks.
The lecturer s h o u l d possess tw o q u a l iti e s : a t h o r o u g h k n o w l e d g e
nf the subject a n d t h e ability' of a d a p t i n g h im s e l f to his a u d i e n c e . H is
i !k must form a logical w h o l e ; he m u s t b r i n g o u t t h e m a i n p o i n t s for
,li~,Mission ; he m u s t g iv e his li s t e n e r s t h e n e c e s s a r y i n f o r m a t i o n , b u t
without trying to g e t to o m u c h i n t o a single t a l k .
Lustly, lie m u s t m a k e a p o i n t of h o ld i n g h is l i s t e n e r s ’ a t t e n t i o n ,
pausing when necessary, a n d r e m e m b e r i n g to h e l p t h e g r o u p - l e a d e r b y
stressing the poin ts fo r dis cussion. H e m u s t t a k e ca re to f o r m u l a t e his
questions slowly, in o r d e r t h a t t h e g r o u p - l e a d e r m a y m a k e a n o t e of
Ihcin, and m u st r e p e a t t h e m , if n e c e s s a r y . T h e q u e s t i o n s sh o u l d , in d e e d ,
he iriven in th e s y lla b u s, t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e b i b l i o g r a p h y o n t h e s u b j e c t
that i-. lo be dis cu ssed . T h e l e c t u r e r m u s t r e m e m b e r to refer to t h i s
lid of works — a p o i n t o f t e n o v e rl o o k e d .
Talks b y a single l e c t u r e r a r e p r e f e r a b l e to d ia lo g u e s .
Consultation between the L ecturer arid L is te n e r s ’ G roups.
II l i a s been su g g e s te d t h a t t h e l e c t u r e r s h o u l d r e p l y t h r o u g h t h e
microphone to q u e s t io n s a s k e d b y l i s t e n e r s ’ g r o u p s . T h is is n o t v e r y
feasible. In th e first pla ce, i t m e a n s a w a s t e of v a l u a b l e t i m e , b esides
which, listeners, w ho d o n o t a l w a y s p u t t h e i r q u e s t i o n s v e r y c le a rly ,
may feel th a t t h e y h a v e n o t b e e n g iv e n an a d e q u a t e r e p l y . M o s t
lideners th ink t h a t t h e t i m e co u l d b e m o r e u s e f u ll y e m p l o y e d in e x t e n d 11 ,r the scope of th e t a l k itself.
Discussions by th e G r o u p .
The first d u t y of t h e g r o u p - l e a d e r will b e to m a k e m e m b e r s of t h e
.•roup formulate th e ir v ie w s clearly . T h i s is e ss en tial. T h e n a n y
'hjeelion m u st be m a d e clear. T h e r e m a r k s m a d e a re o ft e n s u p er ficial
ail quite ir relevant.
To guard a g a i n s t t h e s e difficulties, t h e g r o u p - l e a d e r m i g h t , a t t h e
":,|1 of the talk, go o v e r t h e p r i n c i p a l p o i n t s for d is cussion , t h e p o i n t s
i'dug indicated in th e s y l la b u s , or b y t h e l e c t u r e r himself.
Hie gro u p-le ader w ill o f t e n find t h a t li s t e n e rs do n o t k n o w t h e
■•uiijpri well e n o u g h to d is c u ss i t usefully, in w h i c h c ase r e c o u r s e m u s t be
!i;"i to books. T h is w o u l d n o t be n e c e s s a r y if m e m b e r s of t h e g r o u p
*(T|' invited to s t u d y c a r e f u l l y p u b l i c a t i o n s d i s t r i b u t e d b e f o r e h a n d .
ihe g ro up-le ader m u s t t r y to s u m u p t h e dis cussion a f t e r t h e m e m ­
bers have exp ressed t h e i r p o i n t s of vie w . T h is is n o t a l w a y s easy , b u t
11 is essential.
Broadcasting
and
its
Connection
w ith
other Post-school
E d u c a tio n a l
Institutions.
Ialks are of th r e e k i n d s :
1 E l e m e n t a r y ta lk s , to fa m iliarise li s t e n e rs w i t h a q u e s t i o n . —
Itiese I a Iks, it lias been f o u n d , a r e followed b y m a n y li s t e n e rs w h o
14
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w o u l d n o t o th e r w i s e c o m e i n t o t o u c h w i t h p o st-sch o o l educate,mi
a ct iv i tie s .
(2) T a l k s b y w e ll - k n o w n sp ecia lists o n t h e i r own partieular
s u b j e c t s fo r th e g e n e r a l p u b li c . — T h e s e m a y also be of in i m -t t,
l i s t e n e r s ’ g ro u p s .
(3) T a l k s b y e x p e r t s o n sp ecial s u b j e c t s of interest tu certain
c a t e g o rie s of p e rs o n s. — T h e s e are i n t e n d e d r a t h e r for listeners j.,
schools.
B r o a d c a s t t a l k s c a n be u ti li s e d in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h evening n,nr,,.
a n d t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s , e i t h e r as a n i n t e g r a l p a r t of th e programme >,•
as a n a d d i t i o n a l so u r c e of i n f o r m a t i o n . As a rule, pupils :i|
_•
s chools follow se t co u rs es, f r o m w h ic h , in t i m e , t h e y derive .iriinif.i n s t r u c t i o n . T h e y s h o u l d n o t b e a s k e d , t h e re fo re , to listen-in to a wlmlr
series of t a l k s g iv e n p e r h a p s for q u i t e a d if fe re n t p u rp o s e . These simulil
be r e g a r d e d r a t h e r as a so u r c e of o c c a sio n a l in f o r m a t i o n , when a l> - ln i al
or c o m m e r c i a l s u b j e c t , for i n s t a n c e , is b e i n g d e a l t w i t h by ..... wallk n o w n speciali st.
A g a in , g r o u p - l e a d e r s c a n usefu lly d ir e c t th e a t t e n t i o n oi listener.'
to t h e e x i s t e n c e of te c h n ic a l i n s t i t u t i o n s a n d e v e n i n g schools.
Close c o - o p e r a t i o n s h o u l d b e a i m e d a t b e t w e e n group-leaders an.I
t h o s e d i r e c t i n g t e c h n i c a l i n s t i t u t e s a n d e v e n i n g schools, particularly
in r u r a l d is tr i c ts , w h e r e s u c h c o - o p e r a t i o n will also help to determine
w h e t h e r t h e e v e n i n g school or t h e l i s t e n e r s ’ g r o u p is th e most suita 1>!•■
fo r m of e d u c a t i o n .
(b) I n G erm any.
I n G e r m a n y , t h e o rg a n i s a t i o n of li s t e n e rs h a s been systematically
p u r s u e d u n d e r t h e N a t i o n a l - S o c i a l i s t regim e. T h e te r r i to r y is divide!
in t o t h i r t y - e i g h t regions, ea c h w i t h a d i r e c t o r of b ro a d c a s ti n g . Re_i -:. .
ag e n t s , u n d e r his orders, e s t a b l i s h e d in th e v a r i o u s d is tr icts and lar.'e
to w n s, h a v e to see t h a t all schools, w o r k s h o p s a n d public premises arc
e q u i p p e d w i t h receiving-sets , in o r d e r to e n a b l e t h e w hole population to
h e a r b r o a d c a s t s o r g a n ise d b y t h e official b r o a d c a s t i n g stations.
■2.
R
ura l
B
ro a d ca stin g
in
Cz
ec h o
-S
lovakia
In re s p o n s e to r e q u e s t s f r o m a g r i c u lt u r i s ts , special b r o a d e a - l - t
c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s w e re o rg a n i s e d in 1925. T h e o rg anisatio n ot the-’
b r o a d c a s t s w a s o riginally e n t r u s t e d to t h e A g r ic u l tu r a l I ni"ii. ,l-'
c e n t r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n of t h e v a r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l sy n d icates .
I h - agri ­
c u l t u r a l r a d i o servic e b e c a m e i n d e p e n d e n t of ttie A g r ic u l tu r a l 1 n i " ' . , an
it now p r e p a r e s its ow n p r o g r a m m e s . T h e C e n t r a l E d it o r ia l Online '
fo r A g r i c u l t u r a l B r o a d c a s t s is r e s p o n sib le fo r p r e p a r i n g prom m"1’ '■
w h ic h are b r o a d c a s t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y b y reg io n al tr a n s m i t t e r s . He-i"1- *
e d i to r i a l c o m m i t t e e s a m p l i f y th e p r o g r a m m e s p r e p a r e d by the ceiil:
c o m m i t t e e . T h e o b je c t of th e s e b r o a d c a s t s is to im p ro v e avriciill
p r o d u c t i o n , to ra ise th e i n t e ll e c t u a l level of t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n ai e.
help to w n -d w e lle rs a n d c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s to a b e t t e r u n d e r - l a ' ■ -
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
15
The following i n s t i t u t i o n s a re r e p r e s e n t e d o n t h e G o v e r n i n g B o d y
of the B r o a d c a s t i n g C o m p a n y : t h e M i n i s t r y of A g r i c u l t u r e , t h e A g r i ­
c u l t u r a l Union (C en tral P r o f e s s i o n a l A g r i c u l t u r a l A s s o c i a ti o n ), all t h e
W i c u l t u r a l Councils ( C h a m b e r of A g r i c u l t u r e ) , a n d t h e C e n tr o -c o o p e r a ti v o , which is t h e c e n t r a l a g r i c u l t u r a l c o - o p e r a t i v e i n s t i t u t i o n .
The hitter i n s t i t u t i o n ’s e x e c u t i v e b o d y f o r m s t h e B o a r d of C u r a t o r s ,
the C h a i r m a n of w h ic h is t h e C h a i r m a n of t h e C z e c h o -S l o v a k A g r i c u l t u r a l
Radio Company (R .A .T .) , t h e o t h e r m e m b e r s b e i n g t h e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s
uf the a b o v e -m e n tio n e d i n s t i t u t i o n s (f o u n d e r i n s t i t u t i o n s ) , a p p o i n t e d
hv the latter for t h r e e y e a r s a n d c h o s e n in t h e v a r i o u s p ro v i n c e s .
In
a d d i t i o n , ce rt ain m e m b e r s a re a p p o i n t e d fo r o n e y e a r .
The b ro ad cas ts t a k e p la c e t w ic e d a ily , f r o m 11.55 a .m . to 12.10 p . m .
and from 6 to 6.10 p .m . T h e y i n c l u d e m e t e o r o l o g ic a l i n f o r m a t i o n for
the different p a r t s of t h e c o u n t r y a n d t h e fo llow ing w eek , a n d n e w s
about the stock e x c h a n g e , m a r k e t s a n d t h e e c o n o m ic s i t u a t i o n . T h e
remaining ten m i n u t e s a r e d e v o t e d to m u s ic a l i t e m s , p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e ,
etc. On S u n days, s u c h i t e m s a re follow ed b y a s h o r t w ireless p l a y
dealing with some te c h n i c a l o r p o p u l a r s u b j e c t , brief d ia lo g u e s w i t h
vocal a c c o m p a n im e n t o r c o m m e n t a r i e s .
Programmes are p r e p a r e d a t t h e c e n t r a l e d i to r i a l office in P r a g u e .
The lirst pa rt, w h ic h is d e v o t e d to n e w s , is b r o a d c a s t s i m u l t a n e o u s l y
from the various t r a n s m i t t e r s . T h e seco n d p a r t is p r e p a r e d b y th e local
transmitters th e m selves, w h i c h e x c h a n g e t a l k s a n d w irele ss p la y s.
The p ro g r a m m e s fo r a g r i c u l t u r i s t s a r e a d a p t e d t o t h e v a r i o u s
«tarons. C u ltura l p r o g r a m m e s — m usic , m o r a l e d u c a t i o n , et c. — a re
arranged b y the o r d i n a r y b r o a d c a s t i n g service a n d a r e th e s a m e fo r
country- as fur to w n -d w e lle rs. T h e s e g e n e r a l p r o g r a m m e s o cc a s i o n a ll y
include talks on q u e s t i o n s w h i c h are of p a r t i c u l a r i n t e r e s t to p e a s a n t s .
Agricultural b r o a d c a s t i n g is th e r e f o r e chiefly of i n t e r e s t to a g r i c u l ­
turists. It is, h o w e v e r, p l a n n e d in s u c h a w a y as t o e n a b l e t o w n dwellers to becom e a c q u a i n t e d w i t h t h e life of t h e p e a s a n t s .
In order to m a k e c o u n t r y li s t e n e r s m o r e i n t e r e s t e d in b r o a d c a s t i n g ,
an elTort is m a de, n o t o n ly to o b t a i n t h e i r o p in i o n s a n d s u g g e s tio n s on
the spot and b y c o r r e s p o n d e n c e , b u t also to g e t t h e m to t a k e p a r t
themselves in th e b r o a d c a s t s .
F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e y h a v e b e e n a s k e d to
describe inventions a n d i m p r o v e m e n t s in a g r i c u l t u r a l e q u i p m e n t w h ic h
they may hav e been a b l e to d e v ise in t h e c o u rs e of t h e i r w o rk .
As regards m e t h o d s of p r e s e n t a t i o n , a t t e n t i o n s h o u l d b e d r a w n to
the results o b t a i n e d b y d ia lo g u e s b e t w e e n tw o a c t o r s r e p r e s e n t i n g
peasants. A lth o u g h s u c h d ia lo g u e s a l w a y s d eal w i t h te c h n ic a l s u b j e c t s
and are didactic in t e n d e n c y , t h e y a r e e x t r e m e l y p o p u l a r . T h e s a m e
'I'I'lies to “ mixed ” b r o a d c a s t s : m u s ic , a r t , d ia lo g u e s a n d selecti o n s
dealing with p rofessional s u b j e c ts .
3.
R u ra l
B ro a d c a s tin g
in
D e n m a rk
In D en m ark , b r o a d c a s t i n g is a S t a t e i n s t i t u t i o n d i r e c t e d b y a
'Uncil known as t h e ” W ire le ss C ouncil ", T h is C ouncil co n sists of
16
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
fifteen m e m b e r s .
T h e P r e s i d e n t a n d V i c e - P r e s i d e n t are ;tpjh.int.,| |1Y
th e M i n i s t r y of C o m m u n i c a t i o n s ; t h e M i n is t r y of N a ti o n a l Edm-atj„, ,
also r e p r e s e n t e d , a n d t h e e d i t o r s ’ a n d j o u r n a l i s t s ’ associations h a v e ,,ll(,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e each. T h e v a r i o u s o r g a n i s a t i o n s of wireless |j.>...... _
h a v e six r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s on t h e Council, a n d t h e fo u r p r i n c i p a l
,|
p a r t i e s o n e r e p r e s e n t a t i v e e a c h . A g r i c u l t u r e is n o t re p résen te ! ,-ith<r
on t h e W ire le s s C o u n c il or on it s e x e c u t i v e o rg a n respon sible f<w or ,wii •
up the program m es.
T h e p r i n c i p a l a g r i c u l t u r a l o r g a n i s a t i o n s in D e n m a r k h i m - . however
s e t u p , in a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e S t a t e w ireless a u t h o r it ie s , a Rural H i m . , , ; .
c a s t i n g C o m m is s io n to o rg a n i s e t a l k s of a p u r e l y agri cult ura l nature
T h e s e t a l k s d e a l w i t h c u r r e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l q u e s t io n s an d agricultural
w o r k . T h e y also e x p l a i n in a p o p u l a r f o r m t h e pro gress m a d e a n d I!.,
re s u l t s o b t a i n e d b y a g r i c u l t u r a l science. T h e s e ta lk s are usually Lriw:
b y a g r i c u l t u r a l a d v i s e r s , p ro f e sso rs a t t h e h ig h e r schools of ntri i. ult-.ir.-.
te a c h e r s o f a g r i c u l t u r e , etc., a l t h o u g h t a l k s a re also given bv p r a c t i c a l
agriculturists.
T h e b r o a d c a s t s giv en b y t h e chief a g r i c u l t u r a l organisations re­
a r r a n g e d w i t h th e W i r e le s s Council. E v e r y m o n t h , th e C h a i r m a n , (
t h i s C ouncil m a k e s a r e p o r t on th e m o s t u r g e n t agricultural pi, >le ms.
F o r o r d i n a r y a g r i c u l t u r a l b r o a d c a s t s , f r o m t w e n t y to th irty inintit• a r e allow ed e a c h , w e e k , a n d w e a t h e r f o r e c a s ts for agri cull uri ds ami
fi s h e rm e n a re b r o a d c a s t t h r e e ti m e s a d a y — in th e m o rn in g , at midday
a n d in t h e ev en in g .
O n th e o ccasio n of t h e h u n d r e d - a n d - f i f t i e t h a n n i v e r s a r y of the h :
a g r i c u l t u r a l r e f o r m s c a r r i e d o u t a t th e en d of t h e e ig h te e n lh i i-ntury,
a sp ecial series of l e c t u r e s a n d p l a y s w a s o rg an ised b y the Slate ra-lid u r i n g t h e w i n t e r . T h is in c l u d e d a n u m b e r of d ia lo g u es on lie 1 proprem a d e in v a r i o u s b r a n c h e s of a g r i c u l t u r e f r o m 1788 to 1938.
A series of l e c t u r e s a n d dia lo g u es w a s also o rg an ised on agricultiir; i
l a b o u r p ro b l e m s , i n t e r n a l s e t t l e m e n t , et c. T h e special subjects dealt
w i t h in 1938 w ere t h e le gal s i t u a t i o n of a g r i c u l t u r a l workers ami the
p r o b l e m of r u r a l h ousing. T h e s e b r o a d c a s t s w e r e m a d e on the initiative
of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s ’ o rg a n i s a t io n s .
A sp ecial s e c t io n of t h e D a n i s h S t a t e ra d i o is in ch arg e of broadcast 4
for y o u n g people. T his s e c t io n h a s o f t e n d e a l t w i t h topical qm-stiom
w h i c h are also of i n t e r e s t to y o u n g a g r i c u lt u r i s ts , chiefly in the form "I
p la y s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s in w h i c h y o u n g p eo p le themselves take
part.
B r o a d c a s t s on h o r t i c u l t u r e a n d g a r d e n i n g a r e p ro p o s ed and orgaiub y a sp ecial C o m m iss io n . F o r the se b r o a d c a s t s , t h i r t y minutes are
allo w ed e v e r y tw o weeks.
T h e S t a t e B u d g e t a r y C ouncil t r a n s m i t s s h o r t c o m m u n i c a t i o n ' l»i 1
a m o n t h on n u t r i t i o n q u e s t i o n s an d m e t h o d s of p r e p a r i n g f oud. ami •
th e “ H o u s e w i f e ’s T e n M in u te s ” f e a t u r e to p ical p ro b le m s of i n t e r - - to c o u n t r y - w o m e n are dis cussed. T h ese l a t t e r b r o a d c a s t s are prepareb y t h e w o m e n ’s o rg a n i s a t io n s .
INTELLECTUAL
4.
R
u ra l
B
ASPECTS
OF
r o a d c a stin g
in
RURAL
G
LIFE
17
e r m a n y
B r o a d c a s t i n g p r o g r a m m e s w e r e r e o r g a n i s e d d u r i n g 1937, so t h a t
broadcasts in ten d ed fo r a s p ecial g r o u p of li s t e n e r s m i g h t t a k e t h e f o r m
of b r o a d c a s t s dealin g w i t h sp ecial s u b j e c ts , b u t w h i c h c o u l d be u n d e r s t o o d
bv all l iasses of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
Consequently, th e f o r m of b r o a d c a s t s i n t e n d e d for t h e r u r a l p o p u l a ­
tion has been ch a n g e d , so as to m a k e t h e m i n t e r e s t i n g to p e rs o n s n o t
engaged in agricultu re, b y g i v i n g t h e m so m e id e a of t h e w o r k — w h i c h
is often ard uous — of a g r i c u l t u r i s t s . N e w serie s of t a l k s h a v e b e e n
organised. in w h ic h c u r r e n t a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o b l e m s a r e d is cu ssed in a
way which is b o t h a m u s i n g a n d i n s t r u c t i v e .
T h e t a l k s a r e in t e r s p e r s e d
with musical item s.
Organisation oj R u ra l B ro ad castin g.
The p e a s a n t s ’ r e g i o n a l a s s o c ia t io n s ( L a n d e s b a u e r n s c h a f t e n ) , of
which there are t w e n t y , possess t e n t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s , ea c h of w h i c h
ha* a b ro adcasting e d i to r. T h e s e e d i t o r s f o r m o r g a n i s i n g c o m m i t t e e s
under the direction of t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g e d i to r s of t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g
stations. The h e a d s of th e o r g a n i s i n g c o m m i t t e e s m a i n t a i n li ais on w i t h
the Reich B r o a d c a s t in g S t a t i o n a n d t h e L a n d e s b a u e r n s c h a f t e n . T h e
H' i' hsnahrstand ( N u t r i t i o n B o a r d ) s u p p lie s t h e m w i t h i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h
they incorporate in t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s a f t e r a d a p t i n g i t to t h e r e q u i r e ­
ments of their r e s p e c ti v e L a n d s c h a f t e n .
The b ro a d c a s ti n g s t a t i o n s t r a n s m i t th e s e p r o g r a m m e s on th e
recommendation of t h e h e a d s of t h e o r g a n i s i n g c o m m i t t e e s , w h o a d v ise
Hi" stations on all m a t t e r s c o n n e c t e d w i t h r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g .
In addition to t h e te n b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s m e n t i o n e d a b o v e ,
whose p ro g ram m es a r e a d a p t e d to r e g i o n a l c o n d i tio n s , t h e b r o a d c a s t s
"f the national D e u t s c h l a n d s e n d e r a r e d e a l i n g w i t h p r o b l e m s of a g e n e ra l
nature.
•Vafure of Broadcasts.
:i
Weather forecasts. — U s u a l l y fo r a c o n s i d e r a b l e t i m e a h e a d .
I'
Market reports is su ed by the R e ic h sn a h r sta n d in t h e li g h t of
Ihe conditions p r e v a i l i n g in local m a r k e t s . — T h e s e r e p o r t s g iv e
onsumcrs in f o rm a ti o n a n d a c q u a i n t m e r c h a n t s w i t h m a r k e t t r e n d s a n d
the demand for v a r i o u s p r o d u c t s .
c) Daily advice, d r a w n u p b y t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g e d i to r s in co lla b o ra l'°n with ex perienced a g r i c u l t u r i s t s in ea c h d is tr i c t. — S u g g e stio n s for
**>sonal work at h a r v e s t t i m e a n d on t h e f a r m , in t h e fields a n d forests.
d) Talks a n d reports. — U s u a l l y b r o a d c a s t b e t w e e n 11 a.m . a n d
•- noon a n d G a n d 7 p .m . I n f o r m a t i o n r e g a r d i n g a g r i c u l t u r a l w o rk of
Merest also to u r b a n listen ers. R e p o r t s f r o m f a r m s a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l
r*1'I'lishments, a g r i c u l t u r a l in d u s t r i e s , etc.
18
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
(e) I n f o r m a t i o n service. — G e n e r a l i n f o r m a t i o n transmit I,,,]
t h e c e n t r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g o r g a n i s a t i o n to t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g st;itinn- ;■
c o l l a b o r a t i o n w i t h th e R e i c h s n a l i r s t a n d . T h e r e are a l s o n - ; , ,
i n f o r m a t i o n services.
(f) Recrea tio na l an d ed uca tion al broadcasts, dealin g w i t h t he
p r o b l e m s of t h e G e r m a n p e a s a n t r y a n d t h e i n t e r e s t s of th e rural pnpui
t io n . — T h e s e a r e p r e p a r e d b y t h e t r a n s m i t t i n g s t a t i o n s in r o l l a i i o r n t i e !
w i t h t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g e d ito rs .
T im e s of Broadcasts.
R e c r e a t i o n a l b r o a d c a s t s a n d t a l k s of a n y l e n g t h are usui.lh L'iv.n
in t h e e v e n i n g . As r e g a r d s o t h e r b r o a d c a s t s , ex p erien ce h a - s h o w n
t h a t th e b e s t t i m e s are , in s u m m e r , b e t w e e n 5 a n d 6 a.m . and , in winter,
b e t w e e n 5 a n d 8 p .m . On S u n d a y s , t h e b e s t ti m e s are b e t w e e n s :m :
9 a.m . a n d f r o m 2 to 4 p .m .
Group L is te n i n g .
U n t i l t h e r e is a n a d e q u a t e n u m b e r of re ceivin g-sets , aiTan-ene Mwill c o n t i n u e to be m a d e fo r t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of a vil lage to listen in I
m o s t i m p o r t a n t p o litic a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l b r o a d c a s t s in a h a l l will, i
re c e iv in g - se t. G r o u p li s t e n i n g will c o n t i n u e to be organised fur the
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s o rg a n i s e d e a c h y e a r b y t h e S t a t e in connectio n with the
h a r v e s t f e s ti v a l a n d i m p o r t a n t sp e e c h e s m a d e b y th e Leader nf lieR e ic h P e a s a n t s a n d t h e M in is te r for N u t r i t i o n .
5.
R
u r a l
B
ro a d ca stin g
in
I
taly
T h e L a w of J u n e 15th , 1933, h a s h a d for its o b je c t " tu develop
b r o a d c a s t i n g in r u r a l d i s t r i c t s w i t h a v ie w to th e m o r al and rultunl
e d u c a t i o n of t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p o p u l a t i o n ” .
I n a d d i t i o n to its o w n r e v e n u e , t h e R u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g A s s o e h i t i m i
re ceiv es a n n u a l su b sid ies f r o m t h e
M i n is t ry of C o m m i m i e i i t i " i i >
(150,000 lire), t h e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n (100,000 lire), t h e M i n i s t r y
A g r i c u l t u r e (50,000 lire), t h e M i n is t r y of C o r p o r a t i o n s ( 5 0 , 0 H i l l i r e e ;
t h e M i n i s t r y of t h e I n t e r i o r (30,000 lire), m a k i n g a t o t a l o f
>n lu­
i t h a s t h e m o n o p o l y for t h e sale a n d in s t a l l a t i o n of w i r e l c . - s r e e i v i n . -s e t s in schools a n d o t h e r p u b li c b u il d in g s in r u r a l c o m m u n e ' . ItR u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g A s s o c i a ti o n b u y s sets f r o m t h e m a n u f a c t u r e r - i ■
sells t h e m to c o u n t r y schools, w h i c h a r e n o t a llo w e d to g e t t h e m (ruin
o t h e r supplie rs.
A t m e e t i n g s of t h e R u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g A ssociati on, a u r e e m n . i w e r e c o n c l u d e d w i t h th e l e a d i n g I t a l i a n m a n u f a c t u r e r s w ith a v i e "
p r o v i d i n g c o u n t r y schools w i t h w ireless sets as soon as p o s s i b l e . \
c o m p e t i t i o n w a s o rg a n i s e d for th i s p u r p o s e b y t h e M in istry of <."mmi i i - i ca t io n s . T h e r e c e iv in g - se ts m u s t c o m p l y w i t h t h e following
lni "a. (a)
T h e set m u s t be sufficientl y p o w e r f u l (with an <>riliu
e a r t h a n d a n i n d o o r aerial) to en su re s a t i s f a c t o r y r e e e p l i " i i fr"t h e n e a r e s t n a t i o n a l s t a t i o n for a n a u d i e n c e of a b o u t s i x t y p u p i l - ■
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
19
( b) T h e re c e i v i n g - s e t m u s t e n s u r e s a t i s f a c t o r y r e c e p t i o n
from t r a n s m i t t e r s s i t u a t e d 100 to 150 k i l o m e t r e s a w a y ;
(c)
As r e g a r d s w a v e - l e n g t h s , i t m u s t b e p o ssib le to use t h e
set in a n y c o u n t r y sc hool in I t a l y ( w h a t e v e r its g e o g r a p h i c a l
situation) a n d to r e c e i v e t h e p r o g r a m m e s , n o t o n l y of t h e n e a r e s t
national b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n , b u t also of o t h e r n a t i o n a l s t a t i o n s
usually h eard in t h e lo c ality .
The ap p ro v ed se ts a re of t h e m o s t m o d e r n t y p e . W i t h o n e e x c e p ­
tion, they are s u p e r h e t e r o d y n e , h i g h l y s e n s iti v e , w i t h f o u r v a l v e s of
three or more ele c tro d e s w o r k i n g on a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t . T h e y c a n be
had with a g r a m o p h o n e p i c k - u p . T h e s e s e t s c a n b e o b t a i n e d f o r 600 lire,
payable by in s ta l m e n t s . T h e b a l a n c e is p a i d b y t h e E n t e R a d i o R u r a l e
Rural B ro a d c astin g A s s o c ia tio n ).
The E . R . R . sells t h e sets d i r e c t to schools. S c h o o l - t e a c h e r s o b t a i n
the sum require d for t h e p u r c h a s e of a s e t e i t h e r f r o m t h e c o m m u n a l
authorities or b y co lle c tin g s u b s c r i p t i o n s ; p a y m e n t m a y be s p r e a d o v e r
twelve m onths.
The R u ra l B r o a d c a s t i n g I n s t i t u t e p e r i o d i c a l l y d r a w s lo t s for th e
repayment of p a r t of t h e a m o u n t s p e n t o n t h e p u r c h a s e of sets.
Special c o m m is sio n s h a v e b e e n se t u p to s t u d y b r o a d c a s t i n g
programmes b o t h fo r s c h o o l - c h i ld r e n a n d for a g r i c u l t u r i s t s . S ch o o l
broadcasts are m a d e e v e r y tw o d a y s . T h e y a r e a n n o u n c e d in t h e
Radio R u ra le b u ll e ti n , w h i c h also c o n t a i n s i n s t r u c t i o n s f o r t h e u se of
school-teachers.
On Sundays, a g r i c u l t u r i s t s c a n go to t h e n e a r e s t s c h o o l to listen
to the bro adcasts specially i n t e n d e d for t h e m .
Development oj B roa dca sting i n E le m e n ta r y Schools.
On D ecember 3 1 st, 1937, t h e r e w e r e 11,643 w ir eless s e t s in t h e
elementary schools a n d 3,396 a d d i t i o n a l l o u d - s p e a k e r s , m a k i n g a t o t a l
of 15,039 receivers. D u r i n g t h e m o n t h of D e c e m b e r , 28 6 n e w se ts w e re
acquired, 172 of th e “ R a d i o r u r a l e ” t y p e a n d 114 f r o m dealers, as well
as 113 additional l o u d - s p e a k e r s , m a k i n g a n a v e r a g e i n c r e a s e o f a b o u t
twenty-four receivers p e r d a y . O n t h a t s a m e d a t e , t h e n u m b e r of
school-child listeners w a s 2,428,1 29.
1'he F a sc ist A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ C o n f e d e r a t i o n m a d e a n offer to i m p o r t
4,000 sets of th e “ R a d i o r u r a l e ” t y p e to be g iv e n to e l e m e n t a r y schools
in rural dis tricts w i t h a n e l e c t r i c i t y s u p p l y ( a l t e r n a t i n g o r d i r e c t
current). The C h a i r m a n of t h e E . R . R . d e c i d e d t h a t , f o r t h e m o s t p a r t ,
these sets should be s u p p lie d , n o t fr ee of ch a rg e , b u t a t h alf price.
It
*>11 be possible th u s to p r o v i d e 8 ,0 0 0 sets, a n d all r u r a l schools in pla ces
"'Hi an electricity s u p p l y c a n be p r o v i d e d w i t h w ireless sets d u r i n g th e
•ear *338. T h e n th e C h a i r m a n of t h e E . R . R . will t a c k l e a n d solve
quickly the q u e s t io n of sets for schools in p la c e s w i t h o u t a n e l e c tri c it y
supply.
Si-liool b r o a d c a s t i n g is d e v i s e d a n d o r g a n i s e d as a p r e p a r a t i o n fo r
‘-Ti'-ultural b r o a d c a s t i n g .
H a v i n g b e c o m e a c c u s t o m e d to school
20
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
b r o a d c a s t s , y o u n g c o u n t r y p e o p l e feel t h e n e e d for conlinuh i" thf-ir
e d u c a t i o n b y wireless.
The “ A g r ic u l tu r is t s ' H o u r ” ,
A p a r t f r o m schools a n d b a r r a c k s , eff orts a r e also m a d e I
vamcollective li s t e n in g , n o t b y s m a l l g ro u p s , b u t b y la rg e nu m b ers. Cniii-. a r e s e t u p in t h e v a r i o u s c o m m u n i t i e s in b u il d in g s w h ere scliooI-chiMna n d a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s a r e a c c u s t o m e d o r ob li ged to meet
T h e “ A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ H o u r ” is t r a n s m i t t e d th r o u g h the I . H I;
b y all I t a l i a n b r o a d c a s t i n g s t a t i o n s e v e r y S u n d a y fr o m 10 to 1 ! :i.m
T h is b r o a d c a s t c o n s i s ts of a p r o g r a m m e of n a t i o n a l in te re s t tian-mitlci
f r o m R o m e a n d r e l a y e d b y t h e o t h e r s t a t i o n s . I t in clu d es musical ilerns,
e co n o m ic, p o li ti c a l a n d so cial s u r v e y s in t h e f o r m of dialogue-. ,-t,.
a n d l a s ts f r o m 10 to 10.45 a .m . T h is fi rst p a r t of th e programme is
d r a w n u p a n d o r g a n i s e d b y t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o g r a m m e service ,,f t|,,
E . R . R . w i t h t h e a r t i s t i c c o l l a b o r a t i o n of M. A le s s a n d ro de S le f a n i. :
b y th e t e c h n i c a l a n d ec o n o m ic i n s p e c to r s of t h e M in istry of Aura ultu:.
a n d t h e c o n f e d e r a t i o n s a n d f e d e r a t i o n s c o n c e rn e d .
T h e s e c o n d p a r t is of a te c h n i c a l c h a r a c t e r a n d was formerly
b r o a d c a s t b y all s t a t i o n s . T h e s e b r o a d c a s t s w e r e p rep ared , in tin- liçlit
of local r e q u i r e m e n t s a n d c o n d i t i o n s , b y a d i s t r i c t c o m m it te e coiM-tii:.of th e politi cal, s y n d i c a l a n d e c o n o m ic a u t h o r i t i e s of l l v province.
U n d e r t h e n e w a r r a n g e m e n t s fo r t h e “ A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ H o u r " , the—
c o m m i t t e e s h a v e b e e n a b o l is h e d . T h e d i s t r i b u t i o n an d upkeep - !
w ireless se ts u s e d for t h e “ A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ H o u r ” a n d the ort-aiii-alion
of p r o p a g a n d a on b e h a l f of co lle ctiv e l i s t e n in g will b e a mat 1er fm- tli-p r o v i n c ia l c o m m i t t e e s of t h e E . R . R . , w h i c h w e r e fo rm erly responsible
chiefly for r u r a l school b r o a d c a s t i n g . T h e s e p ro v in cial eommillet-,
t h r o u g h t h e i r r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s in t h e c o m m u n e s , colle ct the impression?
a n d c o m m e n t s of t h e a u d i e n c e on t h e b r o a d c a s t s . The technical
p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m m e is d r a w n u p b y s p e cialised edito rs . The provin­
ci al councils of t h e E . R . R . i n f o r m t h e m a n a g e m e n t of the réactions
of th e a u d i e n c e to t h e g e n e ra l p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m m e , an d the e-liturs
of t h e t e c h n i c a l p a r t of t h e m o s t u r g e n t t e c h n i c a l and olticultural
to p ic s w h i c h n e e d to be d e a l t w i t h a n d of t h e a u d i e n c e ’s observation?
a n d su g g e s tio n s on t h e p a r t of t h e p r o g r a m m e d e v o t e d to airri -ultur .i
science. Close a n d c o n t i n u o u s c o n t a c t b e t w e e n t h e tcchni- -1 e,litera n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l sectio n s of t h e p ro v i n c ia l c o m m i t t e e s of Ihe
is a n e ss e n tia l c o n d i tio n of t h e success of th e s e technical broadCQS t s .
Close c o - o r d i n a t i o n of t h e g e n e r a l a n d te c h n ic a l parts of Ur
“ A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ H o u r ”, b o t h in f o r m a n d s ty le a n d in contents, i?
essential. T h e m a n a g e m e n t of th e E . R . R . a g r i c u lt u r a l proL-mnm»'
se rvice a c c o r d i n g ly sen d s t h e special a g r i c u l t u r a l ed ito rs an a d \ : •
s u m m a r y of t h e s u b j e c t s to be d e a l t w i t h in t h e g e n e ra l p a r t of the I n­
g r a m m e on t h e fo llo w in g S u n d a y . T h e special ed i to rs will then, bearinlocal c o n d i tio n s in m i n d , m a k e a p o i n t of r e v e r t i n g to the sul'i'
v e r y b r o a d l y to u c lie d on in th e g e n e ra l p a r t , a n d of d raw in g tlt- r e f r •
INTELLECTUAL
■enclusions
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
21
LIFE
h av in g a m o r e i m m e d i a t e b e a r i n g on q u e s t i o n s of a g r i c u l t u r a l
technique.
On Ju n e 15th, 1938, m o r e t h a n 4 0 ,0 0 0 w ireless s e t s b e l o n g i n g to
,.,mntrv schools a n d to p o li ti c a l a n d c o - o p e r a t i v e o r g a n i s a t i o n s w e r e
régularly used t o e n a b l e c o m m u n i t i e s to li s t e n to t h e 11 A g r i c u l ­
turist-' Hour ”. T his figure does n o t i n c l u d e t h e la r g e n u m b e r of sets
pliiced ut the p e a s a n t s ’ d is p o s a l b y p u b li c a n d p r i v a t e e s t a b l i s h m e n t s .
0.
R
u r a l
B
r o a d c a stin g
in
N
o r w a y
The rural b r o a d c a s t i n g servic e p r o v i d e s a s p ecial b r o a d c a s t e v e r y
week for co u n try -d w ellers. F o r m e r l y , t h e s e b r o a d c a s t s w e re co n fin ed
entirely to a g ri c u lt u ra l to p i c s ; o t h e r s u b j e c t s a r e n o w b e i n g i n t r o d u c e d ,
nit ns a rule th e t a l k s h a v e a b e a r i n g on a g r i c u l t u r e . B esid es, s h o r t e r
broadcasts on t h e s u b j e c t, l a s t i n g f r o m fifteen to t w e n t y m i n u t e s , are
often given.
One S u n d a y e v e n i n g e v e r y m o n t h , f r o m S e p t e m b e r to A pril, t h e
broadcasting service o rg a n i s e s a sp ecial “ Y o u t h P r o g r a m m e ” for y o u n g
people living in th e c o u n t r y , w h o m e e t in y o u t h g r o u p s to liste n to th e s e
broadcasts.
T h e p r o g r a m m e s a re p a r t l y e d u c a t i o n a l a n d p a r t l y
recrentii'iial. T h e y o ft e n e n d w i t h a d is cussion, w h i c h will be c o n t i n u e d
hv the li-teners’ g r o u p s of y o u n g p e o p le b e l o n g i n g to th e a ss o c ia tio n s.
In a n u m b e r of p r o g r a m m e s , c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s a re t h e m s e l v e s
invited to b ro a d c a s t. T h e s e “ t a l k s f r o m r u r a l a re a s ” f o r m a c o m p l e ­
ment to the “ t a l k s f r o m i n d u s t r i a l a re a s ” .
Tin' b ro a d c a s ti n g a u t h o r i t i e s c o n c e n t r a t e m a i n l y , h o w e v e r, on t h e
■■reanisat ion of l e c tu r e s fo r w o r k e r s ’ s t u d y circles. S u c h l e c tu r e s are
çiven regularly e v e r y w eek . T h e y a r e g r o u p e d in series of f r o m f o u r
t" -i\ broadcasts. B efo re a series s t a r t s , t h e s t u d y circles rec e iv e a
c i r c u l a r letter c o n t a i n i n g a concise s u m m a r y of t h e s u b j e c t s w h i c h will
!"■ dealt with in t h a t p a r t i c u l a r series of ta lk s. T h e y also r e c e i v e a
pamphlet entitled “ A d v ic e to L i s t e n e r s ’ G r o u p s ” a n d a list of q u e s t io n s ,
Hi'1 replies to w h ic h are to be s e n t to t h e P r o g r a m m e s C o m m i t t e e .
These series of t a l k s d e a l s u c c e s siv e ly w i t h social q u e s t io n s , i n t e r n a t i o n a l
relations, the h is to r y of c ivilisatio n, a n d to p i c a l a n d te c h n ic a l p ro b l e m s ,
'"mu of the ta lk s are d e v o t e d e n t i r e l y to a g r i c u l t u r a l q u e s t io n s , s u c h
• the orga ni sation of t h e sale of a g r i c u l t u r a l p r o d u c e a n d le g islatio n
afTfvtiiiL.' ag ri cu lture. T h e s e t a l k s a re h i g h l y a p p r e c i a t e d .
At present, th e r e a r e s ev er al h u n d r e d l i s t e n e r s ’ g r o u p s in a g r i c u l t u r a l
areas.
1 HVCATIONAL
Since
“Utlior iti es
AND
RURAL
BROADCASTING
IN
POLAND1
their e s t a b l i s h m e n t te n y e a r s ago, t h e P o lish b r o a d c a s t i n g
have a l w a y s t a k e n th e n e e d s of a g r i c u l t u r i s t s in to a c c o u n t
tiiicumenL c o m m u n i c a t e d Jjy t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l R u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g Cen tre .
22
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
in t h e i r p r o g r a m m e s . T h e P o li s h a g r i c u l t u r i s t , finding in the n, ur-v
of ti m e t h a t , in a d d i t i o n to i n t e r e s t i n g a n d u seful in form ati on fr,,nt his
o w n c o u n t r y a n d a b r o a d , t h e b r o a d c a s t i n g p r o g r a m m e s also prny icleil
h i m w i t h e n t e r t a i n m e n t d u r i n g his le is ure h o u rs , b e c a m e a k v n wjr
devotee.
A t p r e s e n t , m o r e t h a n 100,000 s m a ll f a r m e r s in P o la n d lioliiwir l‘ll‘-licences.
T h e sp e c i a l p r o g r a m m e s fo r a g r i c u l t u r i s t s b e s t reflect the rre;il
i n t e r e s t w h i c h c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s t a k e in t h e ra d io . A special dej iarlm e n t p r e p a r e s p r o g r a m m e s g iv i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t agricultural prod u c t i o n , t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of r u r a l p r o p e r t i e s , of m e a n s of production and
of m a r k e t s for p r o d u c t s of t h e e a r t h , a n d a b o u t p re s e n t-d u y aericult ural
p r o b l e m s for c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s in c o n n e c t i o n w i t h economic cwiia c c o r d i n g to t h e e c o n o m ic p l a n d r a w n u p b y th e governin'
a u t h o r i t i e s . L e c t u r e s a n d t a l k s d e a l e x t e n s iv e l y , ac co rd in g In ' ;- ons,
w i t h s u b j e c t s closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l a n d professional \vnrk
of th e a g r i c u l t u r i s t , a n d w i t h s u b j e c t s h a v i n g a b e a r i n g on the r, : •ini .
social a n d e d u c a t i o n a l p r o b l e m s of t h e c o u n t r y s i d e .
B r o a d c a s t s w h i c h are i n f o r m a t i v e in c h a r a c t e r include :
(1) “ R e v i e w of A g r i c u l t u r a l P r o d u c e M a r k e t s "
very
S u n d a y ) . — In th e se b r o a d c a s t s , w h i c h a re v e r y imp'n huit fur
a g r i c u l t u r i s t s , t h e s p e a k e r r e p o r t s on t h e prices of ;il-i icull ural
p r o d u c e in h o m e a n d foreign m a r k e t s , m e n t i o n s t h e most imicr tant
e v e n t s a n d r e m i n d s liste n e rs of t h e s e a s o n a l w o rk to he ilmn(2) “ A g r i c u l t u r a l J o u r n a l ” (e v e r y S u n d a y ) . — ThiIourn a l ” i n f o r m s a g r i c u l t u r i s t s of n a t i o n a l e v e n t s of th e past week.
d ir e c t l y or in d i r e c t l y c o n n e c t e d w i t h a g r i c u l t u r e or alTct im; I he
c o u n t r y s i d e a n d its p la c e in t h e social a n d economic life id the
country.
I t also deals w i t h t h e m o s t i m p o r t a n t problem- 1" fun1
t h e G o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e a g r i c u l t u r a l o rg a n i s a t io n s , di->n—
n o m i c q u e s t i o n s a n d giv es i n f o r m a t i o n of special inlvic-l aljoul
a g r i c u l t u r e in fo reig n c o u n t rie s . T h is “ A g ric u ltu r a l Jminial ” i '
a k i n d of s u p p l e m e n t a r y n e w s b u lle tin for listeners wlw rcc eive
t h e i r p ro f e ssio n a l n e w s p a p e r s la te.
(3) “ F a r m i n g N ew s ” — a re v ie w of topical even!- in the
c o u n t r y s i d e (weekly).
(4) A s p ecial b r o a d c a s t for a g r i c u l t u r a l y o u t h
i- t
(tw ice m o n t h l y ) .
(5)
“ R e v i e w of t h e N a t i o n a l a n d Fo reig n A l i i ■■al l ural
Pres s ” (tw ice m o n t h l y ) . — A b r o a d c a s t g iv in g infurninlnm al
a g r i c u l t u r a l t h e o r y a n d pra c tic e .
(6 ) “ R e v ie w of A g r i c u l t u r a l P u b l i c a t i o n s ” m o n t h l y
C o n t a i n i n g i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t t h e m o s t u seful a n d in ten tui-- ne»
bo o k s for c o u n t r y - d w e ll e r s .
In t h e f e a t u r e e n t i t l e d “ R epli es to L i s t e n e r s ’ L etters
mi
c u l t u r a l q u e s t io n s ) (t wice weekly ), a specialist gives ad v ice on uL'ricultur.u
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
23
ofessional problems.
“ F o r e s t r y N e w s ” ( m o n t h l y ) is a k i n d of c o r r e ­
spondence exchange for f o r e s t r y w o r k e r s .
Besides these p e ri o d ic a l b r o a d c a s t s , t h e r e a r e w ireless s k e t c h e s a n d
d ia lo g u es on to pical s u b j e c t s of s p e c i a l i n t e r e s t to c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s , as
well iis broad casts d e s c r i p t i v e of c o u n t r y life.
There are o t h e r f e a t u r e s w h i c h m a y i n t e r e s t c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s ,
;i' the “ M i d d a y N e w s B u l l e t i n ” (ec o n o m ic t a l k a n d m u s ic) a n d
the " Evening N ew s B u ll e ti n ” ( t o p ic a l t a lk s , l i t e r a r y f e a t u r e s , etc.).
8.
R
ural
B
ro adcasting
R
in
o um ania
Every S u n d a y f r o m 11 a . m . to m i d d a y , t h e B u c a r e s t i a n d R o m a n i a
b r o a d c a s t w h a t is called “ T h e V illage H o u r ”, w h i c h d eals
regularly w ith q u e s t io n s c o n n e c t e d w i t h r u r a l e c o n o m y a n d also w i t h
cultivation an d sto c k -ra i s i n g . T h e g e n e r a l p r o g r a m m e in c lu d e s m u s ic
and a talk for p e a s a n t s . T h is ta lk , w h i c h is n o t sp ecifi call y a g r i c u l t u r a l
in character, inclu des p r a c t i c a l a d v i c e on e v e r y d a y m a t t e r s f o r f a r m e r s
and their families. T h e r e a r e also w e e k l y b r o a d c a s t s e n t i t l e d “ A g r ic u l­
tural Topics ”, w h ic h co n s i s t of n e w s a n d c o m m u n i c a t i o n s f r o m t h e
Ministry of A g ricu ltu r e a n d r e p o r t s o n a g r i c u l t u r a l t o p i c s of t h e w e e k .
The a u th o rities are n o w c o n s i d e r i n g m o d i f y i n g th e s e p r o g r a m m e s ,
so as to take into a c c o u n t t h e sp ecial c o n d i t i o n s in t h e v a r i o u s a g r i c u l t u r a l
districts of the c o u n t r y : t h e D a n u b e a r e a , B u k o v i n a , t h e S u b - C a r p a t h i a n
district, etc.
The Radio U n i v e r s i t y g iv e s a t a l k on a g r i c u l t u r e a n d z o o t e c h n ic s
once a week in w i n t e r a n d s e v e r a l t i m e s a m o n t h in s u m m e r .
tra n s m itte rs
9.
R
u r a l
bro a d c a stin g
in
S
w e d e n
In Sweden, le c tu re s on a g r i c u l t u r e , s t o c k - r a i s i n g , k i t c h e n - g a r d e n s ,
arboriculture, forests a n d fisheries h a v e b e e n o r g a n i s e d in c o l l a b o r a t i o n
with I ho Ministry of A g r i c u l t u r e . T h e y a re a r r a n g e d in s u c h a w a y
j- to enable a g r i c u l t u r i s t s to p u t t h e m in t o p r a c t i c e a t once. T h e
talks are given r e g u l a r l y on S u n d a y s f r o m 9 to 9.30 a .m . E x p e r i e n c e
bas shown t h a t th is is th e h o u r m o s t s u i t a b l e fo r a g r i c u lt u r i s ts .
Since 1928, m o r e t h a n 900 t a l k s on sp ecifi call y a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b j e c t s
bave been b ro a d c a s t. As f e w e r p e o p l e a t t e n d a g r i c u l t u r a l colleges in
Sweden th a n, for i n s ta n c e , in D e n m a r k , th e s e b r o a d c a s t t a l k s are of
sreat importance.
10.
E
d u c a tio n a l
S
o v iet
B
S
r o a d ca stin g
ocialist
R
in
t h e
e pu b l ic s
U
n io n
of
1
As is well k n o w n , b r o a d c a s t i n g in t h e U n io n of S o v ie t Socia list
Republics p la ys a g r e a t p a r t in t h e e d u c a t i o n a n d o rg a n i s a t i o n of th e
1 Account bas ed on a s t u d y b y M. D r a n s k i n e , Musical D i r e c t o r of t h e L en i n - 11 broadcasting s t a ti o n .
24
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
m asses. M ore t h a n h a l f of t h e b r o a d c a s t s a re d e v o t e d to edurntj,,,,
t h e a n a l y s i s of e c o n o m ic f a c t s , a n d p o li ti c a l p ro p a g a n d a . " Tu.i,
E d u c a t i o n ” is t h e b o d y r e s p o n s ib l e fo r d r a w i n g u p th e p ro g r a m m a ,,[
t h e n e w S o v i e t s y s t e m of e d u c a t i o n .
H a v i n g s t a r t e d a s y s t e m of i n d e p e n d e n t ed u catio n al lecturer
th e W o r k e r s ’ a n d P e a s a n t s ' R a d i o U n i v e r s i t y (f o u n d e d in 1928)
r e g u l a r c o u rs e s a t L e n i n g r a d a n d Moscow . T h e Moscow course- w,.rP
l i s t e n e d to b y o v e r 130,000 p e o p l e in 1930, w h ile t h e Radio LniveMlv
of L e n i n g r a d h a d o v e r 2 0 ,0 0 0 li ste n e rs. T h e f a c t t h a t t h e mmiL-r
of b o o k s p u b l i s h e d in 1930 to s u p p l e m e n t t h e ra d i o ta lk s was liw
si x t i m e s g r e a t e r t h a n t h e n u m b e r of s t u d e n t s reg iste re d shows thaï th.n u m b e r of p e r s o n s li s t e n i n g to th e s e e d u c a t i o n a l b ro a d c a s ts was mu- i
g r e a t e r t h a n t h e figures g ive n.
T h e s e co u rs e s a r e l i s t e n e d to b y g ro u p s .
L isten ers circles in­
f o r m e d e v e r y w h e r e , in w o r k e r s ’ cl u b s a n d “ c o l l e c t i v e ” houses. In „r,|-T
to g e t i n t o p e r s o n a l t o u c h w i t h listen ers, t h e le c tu r e r s occasionally
on to u r .
S t u d e n t s also v i s i t th e R a d i o U n i v e r s i t y professor- ami !
p r a c t i c a l w o r k , p a r t i c u l a r l y in foreign la n g u a g e s . T h e y alsu submit
w r i t t e n e x ercises ( t h e ir n u m b e r e x c e e d e d 15,000 in t h e scholastic
:
1929/30), w h i c h a r e c o r r e c t e d b y t h e professo rs.
T h e r e are s p ecial m e t h o d s of t e a c h i n g e a c h p a r t i c u l a r subject, ami
c e r t a i n s e c t io n s p u b l i s h t h e i r ow n bo oks.
T h e c e n t r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g a u t h o r i t i e s also o rg an ise wireles- i n s t r m ti o n in t h e “ h i g h e r sc hools ” . I n v ie w of th e p ro g r ess made in i m l u t r i a l i s a t i o n a n d t h e n e e d fo r t r a i n i n g n e w te c h n ic i a n s , this q u c - l i u a io f th e g r e a t e s t i m p o r t a n c e in th e S o v ie t U n io n . T ech n ic al h i s t n i c l m a
b y w ireless t h u s m a k e s up fo r t h e lack of e n g in eers in m a n y t echni c; , !
schools.
In o r d e r to a s s o c ia t e li s t e n e rs in g e n e r a l w i t h th is w o rk and get them
t o t a k e a m o r e a c t i v e p a r t in th e cours es, a “ W ireles s F an s' S o c i e t y
h a s be e n fo u n d e d . T h is o r g a n i s a t i o n h a s local b ra n c h e s i n the I :.’
i n d u s t r i a l a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l c e n t r e s . T h e s e g r o u p s elect c o r r v - | > o m l e n t - .
o r “ R a d i o k o r s ”, w h o s e n d th e R a d i o J o u r n a l local information aid
th e c o m m e n t s m a d e on b r o a d c a s t s b y th e ir colleag ues. The Mo-m«
c e n t r a l t r a n s m i t t e r alo n e re ceives 800 to 9 0 0 le tte r s a day. I'h’r e p o r t s a r e s t u d i e d b y a special staff a n d so m e 8 0 % of t h e m ci■ iimn iit.- I
on a t t h e m i c r o p h o n e , w h ile o t h e r s a re p r i n t e d . N o n e is lefl imim-werc.!
T h e te c h n ic a l a n d c u l t u r a l v a l u e of th e s e b r o a d c a s t s i- ti-cii—
b y li s t e n e rs a t t h e c e n t r e s th e m s e l v e s , in th e p res en ce of the .Iircct"rof b r o a d c a s t i n g a s s o c ia t io n s a n d t h e ir c o l l a b o r a t o r s . These exchançcof v ie w s w i t h li s t e n e rs a t t h e p la c e w h e r e t h e y a c t u a l l y work a r e \ i n ­
v a l u a b l e , not o n ly to the li steners, b u t also to t h e le c tu re r s t hein-eh>'•
P l a y s a c c o m p a n i e d b y w ireless c o m m e n t a r i e s fo r w o rk e rs are a 1ised a t the se m e e ti n g s .
T o e n l iv e n so m e of th e s e b r o a d c a s t s , t h e y are d ivided ini" '
sections , w i t h in t e r v a l s for m u s ical a n d l i t e r a r y ite m s . T h e - e
ca s t s also in c lu d e p o li ti c a l sp eeches a n d s k e t c h e s fr om e v e r > a l a > hf'
w h ic h , b y t h e i r d r a m a t i c p r e s e n t a t i o n , are i n t e n d e d to a w a k e n Hr
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
25
-on-M'iou.sness of t h e m a sse s.
T h e m e t h o d a d o p t e d c o n s i s ts of
prf'i'iitinir strikingly c o n t r a s t e d scen es f r o m t h e life a n d s t r u g g le s of
■in' w o r k i n g d usse s. T h e s u b j e c t is g e n e r a l l y th e b i o g r a p h y o f a p o li ti c a l
p e r s o n a l i t y or a n e p iso d e f r o m t h e h i s t o r y of t h e r e v o l u t i o n .
Agricultural Instruction.
The Lenin U n i v e r s i t y of K a z a n a n d t h e P e s t r o t s v m a c h i n e r y a n d
trartor depot in t h e A u t o n o m o u s T a r t a r R e p u b l i c h a v e f o r m a l l y a g r e e d
I,, help one a n o t h e r in t h e i r w o rk .
By this a g r e e m e n t, t h e U n i v e r s i t y h a s u n d e r t a k e n s e v e r a l ta s k s ,
in p a r t i c u l a r t h a t of t r a i n i n g s u i t a b l e sta ff a n d of g iv i n g m e m b e r s of
kolkhozes " t r a i n i n g a n d e d u c a t i o n a l facilities.
The leading k o lk h o z in t h e K r a s n y i P a k h a r ( R e d P l o u g h m a n )
district is to receive a n e l e c t r i c i t y w o r k s f r o m t h e U n i v e r s i t y , fitted a n d
installed by I he la t t e r . To p r o v i d e t h e t r a c t o r d e p o t w i t h electric
p o w e r . ;i d y n a m o is to be i n s t a l l e d the re.
The U niv ers ity h a s also u n d e r t a k e n to c o n s t r u c t a n d i n s t a l in t h e
.iistrii I a wireless e x c h a n g e for 600 s u b s c rib e r s .
Fiiithei', a p la n fo r e n s u r i n g c o m m u n i c a t i o n b e t w e e n th e v a r i o u s
kolkhozes b y m e a n s of a w ireless v a n , w h i c h will also e n a b l e t h e d e p o t s
to keep in touc h w i t h t h e i r t r a c t o r c o l u m n s , is a t p r e s e n t b e i n g e l a b o r a t e d .
Pestrotsv will t h u s b e c o m e t h e first d i s t r i c t of t h e U n i o n of S o v ie t
Socialist R epublics in w h ic h t h e o r d e r s of t h e k o lk h o z a u t h o r i t i e s will
tie transmitted b y w ireless d i r e c t to th e fields.
At D mitrov, t h e c e n t r a l r a d i o a u t h o r i t i e s a r r a n g e d f o r f o u r l e c tu r e s
ft» economic s u b j e c ts to b e r a d i a t e d t h r o u g h t h e lo cal s y s t e m d u r i n g t h e
harvest. P r o p a g a n d a on te c h n i c a l a g r i c u l t u r a l s u b j e c t s is all i n c l u d e d
in the rural b ro a d c a s t i n g p r o g r a m m e . T h e m e e t i n g s of k o lk h o z w o r k e r s
■re ;ilso b ro ad cas t. T h e c e n t r a l r a d i o a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e a d o p t e d r e a l ly
effective m odern m e t h o d s of r e a c h i n g t h e h a r v e s t i n g a r e a s . T r a v e l l i n g
transmitters t r a n s p o r t e d in v a n s h a v e be e n sp e c i a ll y c o n s t r u c t e d to m e e t
the needs of th e k o lk h o z e s. T h e c e n t r a l r a d i o a u t h o r i t i e s h a v e s e c u r e d
the regular c o l la b o r a t io n a t t h e m i c r o p h o n e of t h e chiefs of t h e b e s t
brigades to te a c h m e m b e r s of k o lk h o z e s h o w t o o r g a n i s e t h e i r w o r k
better.
11.
In
t e r n a t io n a l
C
e n t r e
of
R
u ra l
R
ro a d c a stin g
the S t a t u t e s of t h i s n e w i n s t i t u t i o n , t h e h e a d q u a r t e r s of w h i c h is
8 6 , v i a R e g i n a E le n a ) , w e r e a p p r o v e d a t a m e e t i n g of t h e
1-""triil C o m m i t t e e h eld in P a r i s o n O c t o b e r 2 9 th , 1936.
I he Centre will ke e p in t o u c h w i t h all n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l
-■--inisations w o r k i n g fo r t h e s a m e o b j e c t s as itself, in p a r t i c u l a r t h e
International B r o a d c a s t i n g U n io n , t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l I n s t i t u t e of
1,1 R°me
Aerii-uiture, the I n t e r n a t i o n a l L a b o u r Office a n d t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
e,lerntion of A g r i c u l t u r a l A s s o c i a ti o n s ( I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m i t t e e on
Agriculture).
26
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
T h e o b j e c t s of t h e C e n tr e , w h i c h it h o p e s to ach iev e by <niriiiu-jn ,
a n i n f o r m a t i o n se rvic e, a r e as follo w s :
(a) T o p r o m o t e t h e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of r u r a l b r o ; , , . | j , •
servic es in all c o u n t r i e s w h e r e t h e y do n o t y e t exist ;
( b) T o i n f o r m all c o u n t r i e s w is h i n g to e sta b lish rural in
c a s t i n g services of t h e m o s t effecti ve w a y of organising them;
.
(c)
To d e v e l o p r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e n a t i o n a l rural bn,:, ,1 c a s t i n g services, in o r d e r to i m p r o v e t h e i r o rg an isatio n an,I |,r.,.
g r a m m e s in t h e i n t e r e s t s of a g r i c u l t u r i s t s in t h e v ari ous conntriV- ;
(d) T o fa c i li ta t e e x c h a n g e s of review s, books
p ublications connected w ith rural b ro a d c a s tin g ;
ami nth,-;
(e)
To p r o m o t e t h e f o r m a t i o n in all co u n tries ,,f : li ::
a n d loc al r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g c o m m i t t e e s for th e following p u n -
i
(1) T o d i s s e m i n a t e a k n o w le d g e of th e aims ami Mr;,.
of t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C e n tr e of R u r a l B r o a d c a s t i n g :
(2) T o d e v e l o p t h e use of wireless b y ru ral sc in n ,1- an,'
b y g r o u p s of a g r i c u l t u r i s t s a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l worker-; :
(3) To i m p r o v e w ireless p r o g r a m m e s for y m u i L '
a n d a d u l t s in c o u n t r y d i s t r i c t s a n d m e m b e r s of the
f a r m e r s ’ a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l w o r k e r s ’ u n io n s ;
(4)
van
To o rg a n i s e c o m p e t i t i o n s for r u r a l receiviiiLr--ct - :
To r e c o m m e n d a n d e n c o u r a g e t h e p u b l i e n t inn
rev iew s, s t u d i e s a n d a rt ic l e s a b o u t r u r a l b ro a d c a s ts :
(5)
-
-,f
(/)
T o p r o m o t e , t h r o u g h th e p u b l i c a t i o n s of the In tern ati^n !
F e d e r a t i o n of A g r i c u l t u r a l T e c h n i c i a n s a n d the Internali".- 1
F e d e r a t i o n of t h e A g r i c u l t u r a l P res s, a n y a c t i v i t y calculate,I i
i m p r o v e a n d p e r f e c t r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g ser vices b y proviilini' il
c o u n t r i e s w i t h t h e m o s t p e r t i n e n t i n f o r m a t i o n on the subject :
(g)
T o o rg an ise p e ri o d ic a l congre sses, c o m p e ti tio n s ami i n t e
n a t i o n a l e x h i b i t i o n s of r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g , a n d to cu-operalc in
si m i la r n a t i o n a l a c t iv i tie s ;
(A) To s t u d y , in c o l la b o r a t io n w i t h t h e v a ri o u s i nt ci i,., e-i- i
o rg a n i s a t io n s , t h e p o s sib ility of e s t a b li s h in g in R o m e a bni ,1 -In servic e to p r o v i d e n a t i o n a l r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g o r g a n i s a i imis fr
t i m e to t i m e w i t h useful i n f o r m a t i o n fo r r a d i a t i o n b \ them.
In o r d e r to c o m p l e t e its d o c u m e n t a t i o n on r u r a l broadcn-tin-’. i C e n tr e h a s s e n t to th e p r i n c ip a l a g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ o r g a n isa tio n ' in
v a r i o u s c o u n t r ie s a q u e s t i o n n a i r e a s k i n g for p a r t i c u l a r s of the agriciiltur 1
b r o a d c a s t s m a d e in th o s e c o u n t r i e s — t h e i r fr e q u e n c y , le n g th a mi p r e g r a m m e s , t h e t y p e s of r eceiving-sets , a n d t h e special publicatio ns île ilmw ith rural broadcasting.
Tills i n f o r m a t i o n will be p u b li s h e d in t h e rev iew I.n I •■•■hm
agricole internationale, w h i c h will in f u t u r e c o n t a i n a s p e c i a l -e, h 1-1
dealing w i t h r u r a l b r o a d c a s t i n g .
INTELLECTUAL
II.
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
27
THE C IN EM A TO G R A PH AND R U R A L L IF E
Is it desirable t h a t th e c i n e m a t o g r a p h should sp re ad in
rural areas to the sam e e x t e n t as in th e to w n s ? This question,
,liked, as it frequently is, w ith a to u ch of ap p rehensio n, m a y be
answered in the affirmative, su b je c t to c e rta in reservations.
The dweller in th e c o u n t r y or th e village lacks th e o p p o r­
tunities for observing and com paring, a n d th erefo re for discri­
minating. which cities offer to u r b a n po p u latio n s. He is th e re ­
fore less qualified to ju dg e c e rta in aspe cts of life w hich he
sees on the screen an d w h ich are ou tside his n o rm a l experience.
Hi' life is much calm er t h a n t h a t of th e tow n-dw eller ; his w o rk
makes less dem and on his m e n t a l faculties, w ith th e re s u lt t h a t ,
if he does not th i n k v e r y d eeply a b o u t t h e scenes w hich h av e
moved him, his m ind a t least te n d s to linger over t h e m in re tr o ­
spect. Thus his im pressions of a film are less superficial and
more lasting th a n those of th e town-dweller, t h o u g h he is less
capable of seeing in t h e i r t r u e ligh t episodes w h ich h av e left a
d^ep impression on his m ind.
It follows t h a t th e p e n e t r a t i o n of th e cin em a into ru ral life
raises delicate pro blem s for which one solution — a solution of
principle — is im m e d iately applicable : the selection of films
fur rural districts d e m a n d s special p re cautio ns, if t hey are really
to serve the purpose of p rov idin g h e a l th y re c re a tio n and in s tru c­
tion. 1Ience the necessity for a special orga n isa tio n to supervise
the rural cinematograph.
A.
R
eg io n a l
O
r g a n isa tio n
ll(‘Lrional organisation would a p p e a r to surpass in im p o rtan ce
all other aspects of th e question. While th e dwellers in great
rties
in the same c o u n t r y or in different lands — are in m a n y
respects alike, the ru ral p o pu lation s show m a rk e d local traits
haraeteristic of each province. T hu s m easures to enhance the
Hucational and lessen th e harm fu l influence of th e cinem ato^ ap!i may be alm ost equally effective in th e tow ns of a n y
"J|mtry belonging to th e so-called W e s te rn civilisation, b u t their
"line becomes strictly relative w hen t h e y are applied to c o u n try çjlers whose differences are a c c e n tu a te d by a n y n u m b e r of
•piritual and m ateria l factors.
In speaking of th e p e n e tra tio n of the cinema into rural life,
ll seems desirable n o t to sepa rate th e two m ain aspects of the
!l m
recreational and educational.
28
INTELLECTUAL
B.
R
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
F
ec r ea tio n a l
LIFE
ilm s
R ecreatio n al films offer one of several means by whirl,
co untry-dw ellers m a y be p ro v id e d w ith one of the chief nltrartions of th e tow n, a n d m a y t h u s co n s titu te a possible nit‘lln>,i
of checking th e flight from th e land. The cinematograph may.
indeed, pro v e a useful factor in arresting this exodus to Unto wns, so long as th e villager is n o t shown films which will l.-ad
to fallacious com parisons b etw e en his own simple, hard-workinç
existence a n d w h a t he t a k e s to be th e g littering and easy rewards
of life in cities. Most w riters on th e influence of the ciii-mali g ra p h in ru r a l districts h av e considered this point of ,-a|>ilal
im p o rta n c e and em p ha sise d the necessity for a judicious scln-tinn
of films for country-dwellers.
In general, it w ould seem t h a t g re a te r attentio n slimild Inp aid to p ro vid ing recreation al films of a h ea lth y and -■ 1u■.■rf111
t y p e for ru ral audiences. As to th e ir selection, this can liantK
be carried o u t w ith a d e q u a t e knowledge except by îv^mnal
o rg anisations. Only t h e l a t t e r would a p p e a r to be qualified
to ju d g e of th e p ro bab le or certain reactio ns of " their public
to follow and s t u d y th e m an d to d ra w conclusions likely to be
of fu ture assistance.
C.
E
d u ca tio n a l
F
il m s
T h e pow:er of judging, or a t all events of observing IIn'
au d ie n c e ’s reactio ns is q u ite as necessary — perhaps even mure
necessary — in th e case of t h e e du c ation al film. This i- e s p e ­
cially tru e w hen th e o b jec t is n o t m erely to raise the L'cneral
c u ltu ra l level, b u t to encourage the public to accept and put into
practice suggestions of a practical, economic or social nature,
such as the im p r o v e m e n t of farm in g a n d stock-breeding. He
e n c o u ra g e m e n t of a ru ral a r tis a n class w ith m odern e q u i p m e n t ,
co-operation, household amenities, hygiene, etc. Here airain,
regional organisations are b est qualified to assume r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
for it is not enough m erely to u n d e r s ta n d the p s y c h " ! " . ' }
peculiar to th e rural public in a given area ; it is necessan also I"
be familiar w ith t h e special needs of the region c o n c e r n e d , ami
w ith its n a t u r a l resources and potentialities. Country-dwidleis
will ta k e k in d ly to progressive ideas only if these do not run
c o u n te r to th e ir in n a te com m on sense, b u t on the con Irai)
appeal to it and a c t as a stimulus. If geographical consider1"
tions m ak e certain ideas impossible of realisation, it is u s e l e to dwell u p o n th e ir ad v a n ta g e s . The p e a s a n t ’s common sen-’
will rise up in revolt, and sub seq uen t — an d more j ud i ci "U— efforts m a y t h u s be doom ed to failure.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
29
This does not m e a n t h a t e d u c a tio n a l films need be specially
produced for each p a r ti c u la r region. R egional org an isation s
may well have films m a d e u n d e r t h e i r d irectio n , to overcom e
old-established h a b its cherished b y th e i n h a b i t a n t s , or to enr our ase new crops o r a r ti s a n ind u stries. B u t w h e n it comes to
the world production of films m ade, or likely to be m ad e , for th e
benelit of rural audiences, it is clear t h a t m a n y of these will be
suited, not only to v a rio u s regions in a given co u n try , b u t also
to similar regions in o t h e r countries. This s im ila rity of geogra­
phical conditions, w h ich is th e source of so m a n y o t h e r resem ­
blances. may be of g re a t i m p o rt a n c e in e n a b lin g e du c ation al
iilms to be shown over wide areas. Moreover, c e rtain subjects
are uf general interest, q u ite i n d e p e n d e n t l y of th e w a y in which
thev are treated, a n d are t h u s suitable for p re s e n t a t i o n alm ost
anywhere. This applies p a r ti c u la rl y in t h e case of e d u c atio n al
pictures and news-reels, which, t h o u g h t h e y aim only at su p p ly in g
information, m a y here a n d th e re suggest useful ideas which
would not otherwise occur to th e s p ec ta to r.
D.
M
a teria l
F
actors
The regional org a nisa tio n would n o t exist solely for th e
purpose of choosing films suitable for t h e country-dw ellers
within its area a n d rejecting those likely to e x e r t a h arm fu l
influence. It would also d ra w up p ro gram m es, m a i n ta in in g a
just balance betw een th e re cre atio n al and e d uc atio nal aspects,
and consider how to a r ra n g e for c in e m a to g rap h ic perform ances
to be given as often a n d in as m a n y places as possible.
The im pro vem en ts in tro d u c e d into m o d e r n projectors for
sub-standard films — p a r tic u la rly 16-mm. o r 17.5-mm. films —
make them suitable for m ed ium -sized or small-scale cinemas.
Some of these models are co n v e n ien tly p ortab le , and m a n y of
them give very satis fa c to ry results as reg ards b o th pictures and
sound. The only difficulty m a y arise in connection w ith th e
supph of electric pow er in districts re m o te from gen e ratin g
stations. Cine-vans c a rry in g a c c u m u la to rs offer a solution for
this problem ; th e y can n ow be m ore lig htly an d less expensively
equipped to deal w ith small projectors.
I he supply of s u b - s t a n d a r d films will h en c efo rth be a b u n ­
dant and will u n d o u b t e d l y increase w ith t h e rising d em a n d.
Almost all edu cation al films are 16 m m . in w id th , a n d some firms
specialise in re p ro d u cin g th e best “ s p ec ta cu lar ” films in this
format.
In a n u m b er of countries, especially in ru ral areas, cinema
managers are so m e w h a t a la rm e d by this new d ev e lo p m e n t in
!"‘ industry, which goes to prove t h a t t h e s u b - s t a n d a r d film
ias reached a stage a t which its c o m p e titio n is a factor t.o be
reckoned with.
30
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
All t h e n ecessary facilities are t h u s available for exlrnhn"
th e influence of t h e c in e m a to g ra p h in rural life. This xvif]
m e a n finally o u s tin g th e itin e r a n t s h o w m an who t r u n d l e from
fair to m a r k e t his stock of old and inferior films bought for a
m ere n o th in g a n d so fr e q u e n tly c u t a n d re-cut, stuck toother
a n d defaced b y usage t h a t th e y are no longer of the slightest
c u ltu ra l or artistic value, even t h o u g h t h e y m a y once have heen
good a n d artistic p ro du c tion s. Incidentally, his old-fashioneri.
b ro k e n -d o w n a n d ro u g h ly repaired p ro jec to r is still only too
o ften a cause of fires an d fatal accidents. The rational orcr,mi­
sa tio n of th e rural c i n e m a to g ra p h should p u t an end In this
s ta te of affairs.
Should all p riv a te c in e m a to g ra p h enterprise therefore Inexcluded ? B y no m ean s. Unless th e rural cinema loirrnph
o rganisation is itself pre p are d to ta k e over th e risks of I ho umlertak in g , it should, on th e c o n tra ry , encourage and stimulait'
p riv a te enterprise b y e v e ry possible m eans, at the same tinir.
however, offering advice an d guidance, a n d exercising super­
vision, to p r e v e n t th e m oral, social, cultural and artistic p o s s i ­
bilities of th e film from being sacrificed to selfish commercial
ends.
E.
P
ersons
pa r tic ipa tin g
in
the
O
rg an isa tio n
Moreover, th ere w ould be n o th in g to prevent amusement
p u rv e y o rs from becom ing m em b ers of th e regional r u r a l ci nema­
to g rap h ic orga n isa tio n as rep rese n ta tiv e s of the recreat ional
film in d u s try . T he regional centre m ight quite roncei x ahly
consist of responsible officials connected w ith education, or Uni m p r o v e m e n t of agriculture an d hygiene, to geth er willi i'-pr
sen tatives of th e ecclesiastical auth orities and o f t hi- vari micivic, sporting, to u ris t an d industrial interests — i n short, "f
persons c o m p e te n t to express an opinion on m atters all erl ii n:
th e cu ltural an d social progress of th e region ami its m a l '-rial
prosperity. T he regional centre could keep in t o u c h w i t h the
new e du c atio n al films as t h e y become available, and c oul d draw
up th e pro g ram m es in ag reem en t w ith th e cinema m a n a ^ - i Small local com m ittees, consisting of leading p e r s o n a l i t i e s , imvlc
also su pp ly the regional centre w ith inform ation as to the local
facilities for showing films in p riv ate houses or a c c o m m o i l a l m ç
travelling c i n e m a s ; th e y m ig h t suggest likely f i l m s , indicate
the reactions of th e public, etc.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
31
indeed been em bodied in th e resolutions passed b y v ario us
congresses, more especially in April 1934 b y th e I n t e r n a t i o n a l
Congress on E d u c a tio n a l a n d I n s t r u c ti v e Films. The t e x t
adopted by this Congress m a y be q u o ted , b y w a y of conclusion:
1
The Flight from the L a n d .
The Congress is of o pinion t h a t th e c i n e m a t o g r a p h m ig h t
be a useful factor in arresting the flight from the land, b y showing
how livinsr conditions in th e c o u n t r y can be im p ro v e d from th e
point of view of hygiene an d h ealth, a n d d e m o n s t r a ti n g t h a t
the pleasures of the co u n try s id e are h e a lth ie r a n d t h e conditions
of home life h ap p ier t h a n in t h e town.
The Congress is of opinion t h a t steps should be t a k e n to
ascertain which forms of e n t e r t a i n m e n t could be found to co m ­
pensate rural i n h a b i t a n t s for tho se av ailab le in towrns. The
rural cinematograph should also aim at enhancing the agricultural
labourer’s sense of dignity by showing that his work is in no
respect inferior to that of urban workers.
The cinem atograph should illustrate th e intelligence re­
quired in performing th e v a rio u s ta s k s of th e a g ric u ltu ral w orker.
These remarks ap ply e q u a lly to m en and w o m en living in th e
country.
(2) Co-operation between the Cinematograph In d u stry and
Agricultural Experts.
The Congress u n a n im o u s ly agrees t h a t th e producers of
instructional films dealing w ith ag riculture or ru ral life should
secure the co-operation of ex p e rts h a v in g a scientific knowledge
of the subjects tre a te d or experience of ru r a l conditions.
(3) Educational F ilm s for R u r a l Audiences.
Educational films should em p hasise w h a te v e r is calculated
to enhance the d ig n ity of m a n . T h e o rg anisatio ns concerned
in each country should unite for th e purpose of encouraging
educational films calcu lated to raise th e m oral s t a n d a r d s and
outlook of the individual.
I he Congress is of opinion t h a t the rural cinematograph
should ban all films which, b y t h e ir re p re s e n ta tio n of to w n life,
m y fjire Hie country-dweller a false idea of hum an d ig n ity ,
whether by an exag gerated em phasis on lux u ry , th e ex hibition
of vice or the u n d e r m in in g of h u m a n s ta n d a r d s .
* Agricultural F ilm s of a Regional Character.
I he Congress is also of opinion t h a t , if agric u ltural films
ar<* to he truly instru ctiv e, they must be essentially regional in
racter, though this need n o t preclude th e possibility of showmg how a single p r o d u c t is grown in different countries.
32
INTELLECTUAL
III.
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
R U R A L EDUCATION
Up to t h e p resen t, we have been considering certain auxi­
liary m e th o d s of e d u c a tin g the ru r a l p op u latio n , and such instru­
m e n ts of cu ltu re as are a t th e ir disposal. There remains II ,
question of th e organisation of rural education proper
\ 1ml h
general a n d tec h n ic al e d u c atio n and. m ore particularly nsriniltu ra l t ra in in g for th e special purpose of p re p arin g younir persnns
in ru ral areas for c o u n t r y work.
L e a v in g te c h n ic al and ag ric u ltu ral train in g for the m< >mk-uI
o ut of ac co u nt, since these are m a t t e r s for th e Interna Ii<m;d
L a b o u r Office a n d t h e I n te r n a tio n a l B u re a u for Technical Train­
ing r a t h e r t h a n for th e I n s t i t u t e of Intellectu al Co-operation,
general e d u c atio n in ru ral schools, considered in itself, mises a
n u m b e r of prob lem s in re g ard to pædagogics, organisation ami
legislation, which can h a r d ly be d e a lt w ith authoritatively
w ith in t h e fr a m e w o rk of the Conference on B u ral Hygiene.
A.
(1)
P
roblem s
of
O
r g a n isa tio n
Do Villages require Complete Educational Facilities ?
(a) N ecessity for open ing i n f a n t s ’ schools attaehe-l t>
th e e le m e n ta ry school.
(b) Should m ixed e le m e n ta ry schools be opened ? Shout!
t h e y h av e one or m ore tea ch ers ? Or should there he séparai''
schools for boys a n d girls ? Should these have one or mere
tea ch ers ?
(c) T he n u m b e r of pupils req uired to open a school. I h"
m a x i m u m n u m b e r of pupils p er class.
(d) H o w can villages ta k e full a d v a n t a g e of complete
e d ucational facilities ?
(t) Necessity for s t a rtin g higher elementary course.on an in te r- c o m m u n a l basis, or e x t r a courses with s m a l l
w o rksh op s a n d d e m o n s tra tio n g ro u nd s ;
(it) O rg an isatio n of central schools of I he s l a m l a r l
of s econ dary general e d uc atio n an d agricultural and t e c h ­
nical training.
(2)
D uration and Periods oj Compulsory School . [ttmihinx.
Time-tables, Transport Facilities, etc.
(a) B eginning a n d end of com p ulsory school altemlan"
(b) D u ra tio n of th e school y e a r — n u m b e r of houi> h'
v o te d to class-work, acco rdin g to the season — dates ot holnla\ -■
b earin g in m in d d e m a n d s in th e m a t t e r of labour.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
33
Ic) T ransport facilities for children. School canteens,
boarding-schools (for c e n tral schools), bursaries a n d allowances.
School B uildings.
Assembly hall for school use, p eo ple’s libraries, consultingroom for medical e x a m in a tio n , sho w er-baths, playing-fields.
Pupils’ garden, w orkshop, dom estic science room , t e a c h e r s ’
lodgings.
,3
B.
P/EDAG OGic
P
roblem s
a) Should th e curricula be th e sam e in r u r a l a n d u r b a n
schools ? Or should ru ral schools aim a t p ro v id in g a general
education which shall include scientific subjects, chosen w ith
a view to their bea rin g on agriculture, w ith o u t a c t u a l l y consti­
tuting a specialised ag ric u ltu ral course ?
Sh ou ld special
courses in agriculture be organised ?
b) Should te a c h in g methods be identical ? M ay it n o t
be desirable in rural schools to establish ru ral “ in tere s t centres ”,
so as to interest th e children in rural life a n d m a k e th e lessons
alive and concrete ?
C.
T
r a in in g
and
P
o sitio n
of
T
eachers
a) Should fu tu re tea ch ers in ru r a l schools be given, in
addition to their general train ing , in s tru c tio n in conditions of
rural life, and should t h e y t a k e a p ractical course in ag ricu lture
or in the case of w om en) domestic e c o n o m y ?
b) Means w h e re b y tea chers in ru ral areas can com plete
their training and keep in to u c h w ith scientific a n d pædagogic
progress.
(c)
Should th e a p p o i n t m e n t of tea ch ers from ru ral schools
to urban posts be avo id ed or en cou raged ?
d How are good teachers to be k ep t in th e ru ral schools ?
salaries and allowances.
D.
L eg islativ e
P ro b lem s
a) Should th e legislation governing rural e d u c atio n be
the same as for u r b a n schools ?
V Should ru r a l and u rb a n schools be ad m inistered b y
he same authorities or b y sepa rate G o v e rn m e n t and regional
bodies 1
in t e l l e c t u a l
aspects
of
rural
life
34
E.
P
o s t -s c h o o l
E
d u c a tio n
P e o p le ’s h ig h er schools (as in D e n j A ) . Boys'
dubs
c orresp o nd e nce cm.j e , brane^
tio n a l b r o a d c a s t s — listeners circles
m o v e m e n t — r u r a l b ro a d c a s ts , etc.
INTELLECTUAL
IV.
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
35
RURAL L IF E AND LIB R A R IES
Lack of com fort is h a v i n g a n u n d en ia b le influence on th e
exodus from the cou n try sid e , but. lack of e n t e r t a i n m e n t is
perhaps an even m o re pow erful factor. L ibra ries can p lay an
important p a r t in r e m e d y in g th is situ atio n.
The rôle of ru r a l libraries m i g h t be defined as follows : to
provide relaxation for t h e villagers a fte r t h e i r w o rk in the
fields : to increase t h e i r k now ledge of t h e i r own p a r tic u la r
sphere : to help t h e m in a d a p t i n g them selv es to th e p a r t of
the territory in w hich t h e y live ; to en co u rag e th e m to t a k e
an intelligent in te re s t in civil life ; to pre serv e and enrich th e
national soil an d to develop a feeling for th e fam ily an d th e
community.
There are two possibilities : (a) th e financial resources of
the community a n d subsidies from outside m a y enable a p e r m a ­
nent library to be set u p ; (b) in th e absence of funds, o th e r
methods of supplying th e people w ith re a d in g m a t t e r will have
to be considered.
A.
P
er m a n e n t
L
ib r a ries
The first h ypothesis is obviou sly th e m o re favourable, b u t
the conditions re q u ire d ares till often lacking, even in countries so
advanced in this m a t t e r as, for instance, th e U n ited S ta te s of
America.
In towns, libraries m a y som etim es be m e re ly places w7here
people come to r e a d or b o rro w books ; b u t in th e co u n try , t h e y
should serve as social or c u ltu ra l centres, g ro u p in g t h e various
social and intellectual activities of th e region an d , if necessary,
actins as a stimulus. F o r this purpose, v e r y close c o n t a c t is
required between th e lib rarian a n d u r b a n m o v e m e n ts such as
adult education a n d betw e en a g r ic u ltu ral associations and
groups such as th e A m eric an H o m e Eco n om ics in E d u c a t io n ” ,
It is clear also t h a t th e re m u s t be close collaboration w ith
the cinema, if th e re is one in th e village ; if th e re is not, the
library must e n d e a v o u r to o b t a i n a p ro je c to r a n d show films,
at the same time p ro vid ing a b i b lio g ra p h y of w orks on th e same
subject.
the village lib ra ry can organise p erform an c es b y th e a tr ic a l
'ompanii's in Italy , th e “ C hariots of Thespis ” are doing excel­
lent work on these lines).
It should also be a centre for th e org a n isa tio n of lectures
!‘n literary, social or e d u c atio n al subjects, a n d for group readings,
book exhibitions and so on. I t need n o t even close its doors to
"bjects other t h a n books, a n d can g ra d u a lly becom e a so rt of
riJraI museum. It should e n d e a v o u r to o b ta in a fair percenta g e
36
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
of books on a g ric u ltu ral a n d d o m es tic questions and on tinfolklore of the district.
There is no need to p o i n t o u t th e im p o rtan ce of relations
w ith th e sch oolm aster, w h o is often also th e librarian.
B.
T
r a v e ll in g
L
ib r a r ie s
P e r m a n e n t libraries a lre a d y exist in m a n y count ries, but
are u n f o r t u n a t e l y to o few ; a lth o u g h countries like Denmark
h av e re ach e d t h e conclusion t h a t ru ral dwellers prefer
p e r m a n e n t libraries, trave lling libraries are nevertheless tIn­
m o s t r a p id m eans of fostering public read in g in th e coun'rysii],-.
especially in co u ntries w h ere th e farm s are isolated ami the
houses are n o t g ro u ped to g e th e r , as, for instance, in Poland ;md
F in la n d .
Travelling libraries assu m e variou s forms. They sometimeconsist of boxes co n ta in in g from t w e n t y to fifty books, sent by
a tow n library for use in t h e village, w here one of the inhabitants.
generally th e schoolm aster, u n d e r ta k e s to distribute the i ks
an d get a newr s tock w h e n th e y have all been read.
T h e books are conveyed in v ariou s w ays — aceoniin" I"
th e d is trict — s o m etim es by post, or b y m ule in Lin -a-e nf
m o u n t a i n villages (S witzerland) or b y b o a t (N o r w a y . Some­
tim e s m o to r-v a n s, re cently b ap tised “ bibliobuses " or bookvans, are fitted u p specially for the t r a n s p o r t of books. They
are driven b y a lib ra ria n a n d go r o u n d th e villages e v e r y t w
m o n t h s or so. T h e i n h a b i t a n t s choose th e ir books u n d e r the
l i b r a r ia n ’s guidance. T h e y m a y also borrow from one another
or ask for books to be sent out., giving a list to th e visit im: libra­
rian. In th e l a t t e r case, th ere is. of course, the question "i
postage. P re s i d e n t Boosevelt has a t t e m p t e d to solve this pmlilem in th e U n ite d S ta te s by according such books the reduced
ra te in force for n ew spa p ers an d periodicals ; the sehenie is
being tried o u t from N o v e m b e r 1st, 1 9 3 8 , to J u n e 30th. l'.ti'J.
P o rta b le libraries are s o m etim es placed in cafés nr mesroom s ; the fire brigade a t A n k a ra is a case in p o in t.
B o o k -v an s in China are not. m o t o r driven : they are drawn
b y coolies, a n d ev en c a r r y seats so t h a t people can eonie ami
read w h e rev e r t h e y stop.
The use of th e b o o k -v a n for prov idin g country dwellerwith re ad in g m a t t e r is e x te n d in g (U nited States of America.
F ran ce. N e th e rla n d s Indies, Tonkin, etc.), because, t h a n k s le
the presence of t h e librarian an d th e advice he gives, t h e y pr m o te c o n ta c t betw een to w n s a n d villages an d are able In as^
th e villagers th r o u g h a b e t t e r knowledge of t h e latter - r e q u i r e ­
m ents.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
37
A NN EX
R U R A L L IB R A R IE S
The m o v e m e n t for s u p p l y i n g c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s w i t h b o o k s is
steadily growing. B u t , g e n e r a l l y s p e a k i n g , i t is still to o s o o n to sa y
that any rural r e a d i n g p o li c y h a s b e e n d e l i b e r a t e l y follo w ed.
The
benefits of re a d i n g h a v e b e e n e x t e n d e d t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , b u t t h e t y p e
of people c o ncerned h a s n o t a l w a y s b e e n t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t . F o r
instance, there is a dif ference b e t w e e n a v il la g e r e a l l y i n h a b i t e d b y
peasants an d a c o m m u n i t y w h e r e m o s t of t h e i n h a b i t a n t s w o r k in
factories, the p e a s a n t s b e i n g in a m i n o r i ty 7.
Laws dealing w i t h r e a d i n g fa cilities fo r t h e p e o p l e s e l d o m c o n t a i n
special provisions a p p l ic a b l e to c o u n t r y lib raries.
I t m a y , h o w e v e r,
be of interest to give s o m e id e a of w h a t h a s b e e n d o n e in a fe w E u r o p e a n
countries.
B
e lg iu m
In Belgium, Ike L a w of October 17lh. 1921, is a p p l i c a b l e to r u r a l l i b r a ­
ries as well as t h e o t h e r p u b li c lib ra r ie s.
I t m a k e s p ro v i s io n for
assistance, s u b j e c t to c o n t r o l, in t h e f o r m of a fi n an cial c o n t r i b u t i o n
towards li b ra r ia n s ’ salaries, a n d a g r a n t for t h e p u r c h a s e of b o o k s,
providing also fo r b o a r d s of in s p e c ti o n .
The libraries are c o m m u n a l a n d m a y b e fr ee or “ a d o p t e d ” , a c c o r d ­
ing as to w h e t h e r t h e y e x i s t e d or n o t b e fo r e t h e p a s s i n g of t h e la w .
Each library is r e q u i r e d to s p e n d n o t less t h a n 25 c e n t i m e s p e r i n h a b i t a n t
and to open a t l e a s t o n c e a w e e k for c h a n g i n g b o o k s. T h e r e is a d e l i v e r y
service, for w h ich a s m a ll c h a r g e is m a d e .
Numerous o r g a n i s a t i o n s h a d a l r e a d y t u r n e d t h e i r a t t e n t i o n to
supplying c o u n t r y - d w e ll e r s w i t h r e a d i n g m a t t e r be fo r e t h e p r o m u l g a ­
tion of the a b o v e - m e n t i o n e d l a w — e.g., t h e W i l l e m s f o n d , w h i c h o r g a n ­
ised circulating li braries, t h e L ig u e belge de r e n s e i g n e m e n t , w h i c h a t
first subsidised e x i s t i n g lib ra r ie s, b u t l a t e r s e t u p li tt le li b r a r ie s i n s t e a d
— batches consisting of 115 t o 150 b o o k s l e n t free for t w o y e a r s to a n y
M'hoolmaster u n d e r t a k i n g to allo w t h e i n h a b i t a n t s of t h e c o m m u n e free
aecess to th e m a t l e a s t once a w eek .
Every li b r a r y c o n t a i n s b o o k s f o r c h i ld re n , or a d o l e s c e n ts , in a d d i lion to light re a d i n g a n d b o o k s s u i t a b l e f o r a d u l t s .
I lie Ligue also l e n d s t h e li b ra r ie s s e t s of l a n t e r n slides.
lhe D avid F u n d , fo r t h e g e n e r a l e d u c a t i o n of t h e F l e m i s h people,
supplies readers w i t h five b o o k s on p a y m e n t of a n a n n u a l s u b s c r i p t i o n
°f 12.50 francs.
There are also t h e c o u n t r y li b r a r ie s o r g a n i s e d byr t h e c o m m u n a l
usure c o m m ittee s — th o s e o r g a n i s e d byr t h e P r o v i n c e of Liège, for
‘ ■'lance, are n u m e r o u s a n d fl ourishin g.
38
INTELLECTUAL
U
ASPECTS
n it e d
K
OF
RURAL
LIFE
in g d o m
T h e first efforts to p r o v i d e r e a d i n g m a t t e r for t h e ru ral prmiil; ii,.:
w e re d u e to t h e C a rn e g ie U n i t e d K i n g d o m T r u s t , a n d th e iirst experi­
m e n t w a s m a d e in t h e O r k n e y a n d S h e t l a n d I s la n d s.
T h e r e s u lt s b e i n g s a t i s f a c t o r y , o t h e r r u r a l li b raries, also en,low.
b y th e C a rn e g ie U n i t e d K i n g d o m T r u s t , w e r e s e t u p in several pl;,re,
in th e B r i t i s h Isles.
T h e P u b l i c L ib r a r ie s A c t of 19 19 g a v e , as it w ere, official sinetiiin
t o th e a c t io n a l r e a d y t a k e n . E x p e r i e n c e sh o w ed , however, that in
v il la ge s w i t h a school t h e r e w e r e o f t e n less t h a n a h u n d r e d books in tie
sc hool l i b r a r y , w h i c h w a s g e n e r a l l y i n a d e q u a t e for a n a d u l t populating
T h e w h o le s y s t e m w a s th e r e f o r e re o r g a n i s e d a n d t h e N ati o n al Central
L i b r a r y in L o n d o n n o w p r o v i d e s c o u n t y li b ra r ie s w i t h books required
o n l o a n w h i c h t h e l a t t e r do n o t possess. If necessary , the Central
N a t i o n a l L i b r a r y b o r r o w s b o o k s fo r t h e c o u n t y libraries frnni tie'
o u t l i e r li b r a r ie s , sp e c i a ll y s e t u p fo r th i s p u rp o s e .
T h e c o u n t y li b ra r ie s h a v e d i s t r i c t b r a n c h e s a n d su b sid ia ry hraie ie in t h e village s. T h e y also c o l l a b o r a t e closely w i t h t h e ru ral edie alien
c o m m i t t e e s , a n d t h e s e s e n d b a t c h e s of b o o k s — w h ich an elmnL'cil
f r o m t i m e to t i m e — to t h e v il la g e schools.
T h e c o u n t y l i b r a r y b u y s a n d d i s t r i b u t e s t h e b o o k s in the villages,
th e c o s t of p u r c h a s e a n d p a r t of t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e co sts beiir home l.y
the E d u c a tio n C om m ittee.
I t is h o p e d t h a t e a c h t o w n will e v e n t u a l l y h a v e a branch where,
once a w eek, on m a r k e t d a y , t h e r u r a l p o p u l a t i o n will be able to obtain
b ooks.
I n t h e m e a n t i m e , t h e b o o k s are to b e s e n t b y post and ly
b o o k - v a n in th e case of i s o la t e d h o u s e s a n d h a m l e t s .
D u r i n g t h e p a s t few y e a r s , in a g r i c u l t u r a l c o u n t ie s such a- Hert­
f o r d s h ir e , t h e boo k s, i n s t e a d of b e i n g d e p o s i t e d a t some plaee in tie*
villa ge, h a v e b e e n h a n d e d o v e r to o n e p e rs o n , w h o is responsible t d i s t r i b u t i n g t h e s t o c k re c e i v e d ( a b o u t t w e n t y v o lu m e s ) a n d for obtainin'.'
a fr e sh s t o c k once a m o n t h or so.
W h e r e it w a s f o u n d im p o s s i b le to d e p o s i t th e s e sm all stoeks nwin.
to t h e s c a t t e r e d p o p u l a t i o n , b o o k - v a n s h a v e b e e n used. A book-van
c a n se r v e a p o p u l a t i o n of a b o u t 16,000 ; it is d r i v e n b y a librarian 1
is s t o c k e d b y t h e c o u n t y li b r a r y .
P e r m a n e n t v il la ge li braries, w h e r e v e r it h a s b e e n possible to ordaint h e m , a re h o u s e d in a t t r a c t i v e p re m is e s a n d are o p e n in the evei la­
u n d e r t h e d i r e c t i o n of a p ro f e ssio n a l l i b r a r ia n . W h e r e there is i
c o u n t y li b r a r y , t h e R u r a l C o m m i t t e e h a s g r o u p e d th e vüh
:
o rg a n i s e d a sale for t h e p u r c h a s e of book s. A b o u t a th ousand v o l u n e h a v e b e e n b o u g h t a n d h o u s e d in t h e t o w n halls, b e i n g sen t in box' fo r ty -f iv e to t h e villag e s w h i c h m a k e a fin a n c ia l contribution. H*'
E d u c a t i o n C o m m i t t e e m a k e s a n a n n u a l g r a n t of £2 for th e lirst year £1 for th e y e a r s following.
INTELLECTUAL
Cz
ASPECTS
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-S
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39
lo v a k ia
The C zecho-Slovak L a w of J u l y 2 2 n d , 1919, p r o v i d e s for t h e
,-ompulsory e s t a b l i s h m e n t of l i b r a r ie s in r u r a l a n d u r b a n c o m m u n e s .
Libraries m u s t c a t e r for t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of ra c i a l m i n o r i t i e s ;
if the c o m m u n e refuses to e s t a b l i s h s u c h lib ra r ie s, t h e M i n i s t r y of P u b l i c
[■duration reserves th e r i g h t to e s t a b l i s h t h e m a t t h e c o m m u n e ’s ex p e n s e .
The i n h a b i t a n t s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e fo r t h e c o s t a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of
rural libraries (as in t h e ca se of t o w n li brarie s), t h e e x p e n d i t u r e b e i n g
fixed at one cro w n p e r i n h a b i t a n t .
A council, c o n s i s ti n g of m e m b e r s a p p o i n t e d h a l f b y t h e m u n i c i p a l
I'liuncil and half b y r e g u l a r r e a d e r s , t o g e t h e r w i t h t h e s c h o o l m a s t e r , is
re s p o n s ib le for the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n of t h e li b r a r y .
D
en m a r k
Experience show s t h a t t h e D a n i s h p e a s a n t prefe rs p e r m a n e n t
libraries to the s y s t e m of s e t s of b o o k s r e n e w e d p e r i o d ic a l ly . F o r so m e
time, there has been in e x i s te n c e a n u m b e r of a c t iv e r u r a l li b ra r ie s
with their own a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
The Law of 1930, t a k i n g t h e s e f a c t s in t o a c c o u n t , s t i p u l a t e s “ t h a t ,
in rural c o m m u n es ” w h e r e lo cal c o n d i t i o n s m a k e th i s d e sira b le , t h e
Slate may g r a n t sub sid ies to t h e lib ra r ie s, o n t h e p r o p o s a l of t h e c o m m u ­
nal administra tion a n d w i t h t h e M i n i s t e r ’s a p p r o v a l .
The new o r g a n i s a t io n follo w s on t h e A n g l o - S a x o n s y s t e m . C e n t r a l
libraries were set, up w i t h th e tw o f o l d o b j e c t of “ s u p p l y i n g t h e v illag e
libraries w ith books a n d a c t i n g as t e c h n i c a l a d v i s e r s o n t h e i r
organisation ”.
The central li b ra r ie s s u p p l y b o o k s to t h e d i s t r i c t li b ra r ie s a n d t h e
smaller libraries c a n a p p l y to t h e l a t t e r w h e n t h e y t h e m s e l v e s h a v e n o t
-»t the require d v o l u m e s in stock.
The cen tral li b ra r ie s also b o r r o w f r o m scienti fi c li b ra r ie s a n y
scientific books a s k e d f o r b y t h e r u r a l li b r a r ie s ; t h e s e a r e g e n e r a l l y selfgoverning, t h o u g h a v e r y fe w are s i m p l y b r a n c h e s of t h e d i s t r i c t lib raries.
In add ition to t h e p e r m a n e n t lib raries, is o la t e d h o u s e h o l d s a re
supplied by b o o k -v a n s , a n d a n y D a n e w h o so desires c a n n o w o b t a in bo oks.
The c o m m u n e s m u s t a p p r o p r i a t e a c e r t a i n s u m in t h e i r b u d g e t
before they becom e e n t i t l e d to f in a n c ia l a s s i s t a n c e f r o m t h e S t a t e ;
this may be as m u c h as 8 0 % of t h e a m o u n t v o t e d b y t h e c o m m u n e .
Books are le n t free o r on p a y m e n t of a v e r y s m a ll ch a rg e .
A further f a c t o r in t h e g r o w t h of r u r a l li b r a r ie s h a s b e e n t h e n e w
law on e lem entary e d u c a t i o n , u n d e r w h i c h p r o v i s io n is m a d e fo r t h e use
l ib r a r y books alo n g w i t h sch o o l-b o o k s.
F
r a n c e
In France, a d e c r e e is su e d in 1862 s t i p u l a t e d t h a t " i n s t r u c t i v e
:!|,l attractive w o r k s fo r lo a n to a d u l t s a n d fa m ilies s h o u l d b e p la c e d
l!1 village and t o w n schools a l o n g w i t h t h e school t e x t b o o k s ” .
But
40
INTELLECTUAL
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m o n e y w a s scarce, fe w b o o k s w e r e b o u g h t , a n d m a n y c o u n t r y s.
w e r e w i t h o u t li b ra r ie s . C o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s m a y b e said, t h e r e f o r e , h>
i n d e b t e d to t h e L ig u e fr a n ç a is e de l ’e n s e i g n e m e n t ( F r e n c h J^dui-ntinn
L e a g u e ) s e t u p in 1866, w h i c h d e a l t w i t h t h e re o rg an isatio n of rur, ;
li b r a r ie s as one of it s e a r l i e s t act iv i tie s . W i t h t h e financial sissistan.-*
of t h e p u b li c a u t h o r i t i e s a n d p r i v a t e o r g a n i s a t i o n s , i t h a s be e n able t
s e n d r o u n d r o u g h l y 60,0 00 b o o k s, s e le c te d b y a c o m m it te e arnu,[in­
to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of t h e v illa g e s r e c e i v in g t h e m . R e a d e r s )iav
s m a l l y e a r l y s u b s c r i p t i o n , o r so m u c h p e r v o l u m e , th is m o n e y heini: use,]
f o r t h e p u r c h a s e of books.
“ C a n t i n e s ” a r e s e n t to s c h o o l m a s t e r s all o v e r F ra nce, inchidiii"
o u t - o f - t h e - w a y h a m l e t s . T h e w o r k s m o s t in d e m a n d are novels un
c o u n t r y life, t h e n t r a v e l b o o k s, a n d , la s t l y , p o p u l a r w o rk s on airrieulhiral
a n d e c o n o m ic s u b j e c t s . T h e “ c a n t i n e s ” a r e o ft e n used as a nucleus
f o r school lib raries.
T h e L i b r a r i e s C o m m i t t e e of t h e Paris branch .f
t h e L ig u e de l ’e n s e i g n e m e n t p r e p a r e s m o d e l lists of works, for cirnil a t i n g “ c a n t i n e s ”, s u i t a b l e fo r t h e v a r i o u s r u r a l schools and mount ai:,
villages.
S o m e y e a r s ago, t h e P a r i s b r a n c h , e x t e n d i n g its a c t i v i t i e s , chose hv
of th e p o o r e r d e p a r t m e n t s — H a u t e s - A l p e s a n d L o zère — a n i l , w i t h the
help of e l e m e n t a r y - s c h o o l i n s p e c t o r s a n d te a c h e r s , se t u p a r in u il a tn i.’
l i b r a r y in e v e r y c a n t o n , w i t h s e p a r a t e s e c tio n s for a d u l ts a n d children.
S o m e r u r a l lib raries, p e r m a n e n t o r tr a v e ll in g , owe th eir existent
to t h e a c t iv i tie s of t h e lo cal c o m m i t t e e s of t h e C om ité national
loisirs ( N a t i o n a l L e is u r e C o m m i t t e e ) , t h e p a r i s h e s , t h e Ligue palriidioc"
des F r a n ç a i s e s ( F r e n c h W o m e n ’s P a t r i o t i c L e a g u e ), etc.
Sin ce 1934, e x p e r i m e n t s h a v e b e e n m a d e w i t h th e use of h i
v a n s t o s u p p l y c o u n t r y - d w e l l e r s w i t h r e a d i n g m a t t e r . A publie readi: :
servic e, d u e to p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e a n d su b sid is e d b y th e Ministry "(
E d u c a t i o n , t h e Conseil g é n é r a l of t h e D e p a r t m e n t of th e Aisne and Hi
M u n i c i p a l i t y of Soissons, su p p lie s t h e f o r t y - n i n e villages included c
t h e s c h e m e s ; i t is u n d e r t h e d i r e c ti o n of a n e n t h u s i a s t i c woman librarian,
w h o goes r o u n d e v e r y tw o m o n t h s or so, c h a n g e s books, advises readers
a n d a c t s as p r o p a g a n d a a g e n t f o r t h e li b r a r y , a t t h e sa m e time handin':
ov e r f r e s h supp lies.
S o m e 20,0 0 0 i n h a b i t a n t s a re t h u s s u p p l ie d w i t h reading mathr:
in a c t u a l f a c t , t h e r e a re f a r m o r e r e a d e r s , f o r s u b sc rib ers " who pay
s u b s c r i p t i o n of 24 f r a n c s a y e a r a re e n t i t l e d to le n d th e ir books to tli'-i:
r e l a t i v e s a n d n e i g h b o u r s , a n d to e x c h a n g e b o o k s w i t h one aindhvr.
u n t i l t h e a r r i v a l of t h e n e x t b o o k - v a n ” — r o u g h l y e v ery two nvid!,Tlie n u m b e r of b o o k s d i s t r i b u t e d v a r i e s f r o m 1 0 0 to 10 ; the bunk'
u s u a l l y k e p t in t h e “ m a iri e s ” or scho ols. T h e c e n t r a l library
u p w a r d s of 1 0 ,0 0 0 v o lu m e s .
I n v ie w of t h e success of th i s u n d e r t a k i n g , a s e c o n d m o l " i - '
w a s p u t i n t o o p e r a t i o n l a s t O c to b e r, w i t h C h â l o n s - s u r - M a r n e afocal p o i n t in a p r e p o n d e r a t i n g l y a g r i c u l t u r a l d is tri c t. T h a n k s h
w o r k of a r e c e n t l y f o u n d e d b o d y — t h e A s s o c ia tio n p o u r le d e v c l" |li
m e n t de la le c t u r e p u b l i q u e — th i s n e w e x p e r i m e n t p r o m i s e s t i"
INTELLECTUAL
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unplete success. I t is s u b s i d is e d b y t h e t h r e e M inis tries, t h e Conseil
nouerai of the D e p a r t m e n t of t h e M a r n e a n d n u m e r o u s t o w n co u n cils
" m l by subscript ions f r o m t h e v illa g e s i t a l r e a d y se r v e s ( o v e r 2 0 0 in
number).
Loans are n o t confined to t h e sp e c ia l collectio n of b o o k s ch o sen b y
(he Ministry of E d u c a t i o n ; r e a d e r s also h a v e access to t h e co llectio n s of
several libraries in t h e r e g i o n — w i t h o u t a d d i t i o n a l c o s t — t h a n k s to
the regular ro u n d s of t h e b o o k - v a n .
The b o ok-v an c a rries a g r a m o p h o n e a n d re c o r d s , a w ireless re c e i v in g set, and a c i n e m a t o g r a p h , a n d c a n t h u s o rg a n is e all k i n d s of m a n i f e s t a ­
t i o n s connected w i t h b o o k s a n d re a d i n g .
Other b o o k -v a n s er v ices are t o be s t a r t e d in t h e L a n d e s a n d
Lorraine. In t h e w e s t of F r a n c e , c i r c u l a t i n g li b r a r ie s h a v e b e e n
organised ; the b o x es a r e t r a n s p o r t e d b y r o a d , a n d are r e n e w e d m o n t h l y .
Thev are sent to g ro u p s of r e a d e r s in t h e village s. T h e r e is a c h a r g e of
:>francs a year, a n d t h e v illag e m u s t h a v e a t l e a s t t h i r t y s u b s c r i b e r s to
obtain a li b rary box, w h i c h also c o n t a i n s c h i l d r e n ’s bo o k s. S pecial
catalogues are a v ailab le.
G e r m a n y
Rural libraries h a v e b e e n in e x i s te n c e for a h u n d r e d y e a r s o r m o re,
having evolved f r o m t h e p a r i s h libraries.
About 1870, social th e o r i e s on t h e f u r t h e r a n c e of p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n
rea- lied a new st a g e ; p e r m a n e n t li b r a r ie s w e r e o r g a n i s e d in m a n y
villages, while tr a v e l l i n g li b r a r ie s w e r e i n a u g u r a t e d elsew h ere.
Immediately a f t e r t h e w a r , a d v i s o r y offices ( B e r a t u n g s t e l l e n ) w e re
opened fur the o rg a n i s a t i o n of th e s e lib raries, m o s t l y n e a r t h e fr o n tie rs.
This movement, w h i c h w a s i n t e r r u p t e d f r o m 1929 to 1932, t o o k o n a
new lease of life w h e n N a t i o n a l S o cia lis m c a m e i n t o b e in g , b u t it s o b je c t
was different.
Rural librar ies are n o w p a r t of t h e v a s t s c h e m e fo r t h e d e v e l o p m e n t
"f an ideology. T h e y a r e i n s ta l le d in t h e c o m m u n a l b u il d in g s , c h u r c h
houses and schools, u n d e r t h e p e r s o n a l d i r e c ti o n of s c h o o l m a s t e r s a n d
pastors. The c o m m u n e p a y s t h e a d m i n i s t r a t i v e e x p e n s e s a n d t h e
Government g r a n t s g e n e r o u s subsidie s.
Travelling li b ra r ie s are g r a d u a l l y d i s a p p e a r i n g , as t h e r e a d e r s
'■omplain t h a t th e b o o k s a re t o o fe w a n d o u t of d a t e .
District a d v i s e r s ’ offices c h e c k t h e list of b o o k s to b e b o u g h t , a n d
these can be o b t a i n e d v e r y c h e a p l y f r o m a c e n t r a l d e p o t ( E i n k a u f s h a u s
fur Büchereien) a t Leipzig.
S e v e ra l of t h e s e offices t o g e t h e r f o r m a
regional office, d i r e c t l y u n d e r t h e c o m p e t e n t M i n is t r y . T h e w h o le
system is under t h e d ir e c ti o n of a “ S t a a t l i c h e V o lk s b ü c h e r e is t e ll e ”, a
Governmental b o d y b e l o n g in g to t h e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n a n d P o p u l a r
Culture.
When there is a school in t h e v il la ge, t h e school l i b r a r y a n d t h e r u r a l
library should be c o m b i n e d . W h e n t h e li b ra r ie s h a v e n o t g o t t h e b o o k s
■ 't are wanted, t h e y m a y a p p l y to t h e d i s t r i c t l i b r a r ie s a n d t h e l a t t e r
:lPPly in the ir t u r n to o ne of t h e c e n t r a l li b r a r ie s ; t h o s e h a v e b e e n
42
INTELLECTUAL
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s e t up ill e a c h d i s t r i c t to a s s is t t h e s m a ll e r libra rie s. They miM i
o p e n a t t i m e s w h i c h s u i t t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of a g r i c u l t u r a l workers. M , of t h e m h a v e r e a d i n g - r o o m s , w i t h w ireless sets.
Sin ce 1935, c o n s i d e r a b l e p r o g r e ss h a s b e e n m a d e as a result .,f ij
new law on p u b li c libraries, a n d t h e m o v e m e n t h a s been speeded e
N u m b e r s of r u r a l li b ra r ie s h a v e be e n e s t a b l i s h e d ; in 1937, they number.-,]
o v e r a t h o u s a n d . T h e s t o c k s of b o o k s a r e se lected so as lu sud t]
s u p p o s e d s t a n d a r d of c u l t u r e of t h e c o u n t r y - d w e ll e r s .
It a ly
I t a l y is fu lly alive to t h e v a l u e of li b ra r ie s in the intellc.-hi.a
d e v e l o p m e n t of t h e n a t i o n a n d t h e p r o p a g a t i o n of ideas, and rur :
li b r a r ie s h a v e b e e n in e x i s te n c e for a n u m b e r of y e a rs .
I n C e n t r a l a n d S o u t h e r n I t a ly , lib ra r ie s a re o ften due to private -r
c o m m u n a l in i t i a t i v e . T h e y are m a i n l y a g r i c u l t u r a l in character a.:
a re f o u n d e d in c o n n e c t io n w i t h r u r a l schools s e t u p for the licin-iu
of sm a ll a g r i c u l t u r a l g r o u p s in d i s t r i c t s r e m o t e f r o m towns and n i
v is it e d b y th e “ c a t t e d r e a m b u l a n t ! di a g r i c o l t u r a ” (travelling a g r i ­
c u l t u r a l le ctu rers).
O t h e r r u r a l li b ra r ie s of t h e a r t i s a n t y p e are so m eti m es found.
F in a l ly , s t o c k s of b o o k s are s e n t to o u t l y i n g districts : the\ , is e le c te d w i t h t h e o b j e c t of p r o v i d i n g a n e l e m e n t a r y knowledge f
g e n e r a l h y g ie n e , a n d of r u r a l h y g ie n e in p a r t i c u l a r .
S t o c k s in c lu d e F a s c i s t p r o p a g a n d a m a t e r i a l , agricu ltural lun.kp o p u l a r b o o k s on h i s t o r y a n d a r t a n d so m e lig h t read in g .
M o st of t h e l i b r a r ia n s , in t h e case of r u r a l libraries, ai r -ehe,-!te a c h e r s , o t h e r s b e i n g v o l u n t a r y w o rk e rs . T h e services of U.V1,, >.f ti.
ru ra l librarians are n o t re m u n erated .
T h e r u r a l li braries, w h i c h a r e u s u a l l y c o n n e c t e d with the srli...
lib ra r ie s, a r e a t p r e s e n t r u n b y t h e sch o o l -t e a c h e r. The DupulaviT'
h a s m a d e a decisiv e c o n t r i b u t i o n to t h e s o l u ti o n of the problem :
1935, t h e P r e s i d e n t of t h e D o p o la v o ro , w h o is a t th e s a m e time Seen tan
of t h e F a s c i s t P a r t y , g a v e i n s t r u c t i o n s t h a t all c o m m u n a l 1)■ ■| 11a\ ■-r
w ere to se t u p r u r a l lib ra r ie s a n d t h a t t h e c o m m u n e s were !■ sid a-i-i'
in th e ir b u d g e t s a s u m fo r t h e p u r c h a s e of b o o ks. Lists of 1 ks h
also b e e n is sued, f r o m w h i c h t h e c o m m u n e s ch o o se the volumes thr\
desire to rec e iv e as a g r a n t f r o m t h e G o v e r n m e n t , th ro u g h I he iid'-r
m e d i a r y of t h e p r o v i n c i a l D o p o la v o r o ; t h e r e is a special recoinnitiidalt.
t h a t in r u r a l c e n t r e s p re f e re n c e s h o u ld be g iv e n to w ork s d e a l i n g
a g r a r i a n p ro b l e m s , h a n d i c r a f t s or sm a ll c o t t a g e indu stries.
A n a c c o u n t of l i b r a r y ac t iv i tie s is giv en in t h e bulletins, générai.,
r o n e o g r a p h e d , is sued b y th e D o p o la v o r o c e n t r e s to encourage i
to m a k e u se of t h e li brarie s ; th e la t t e r , in s t e a d of represen ting !"1!"-'
local i n t e r e s t s a n d c o n s t i t u t i n g m e r e villa ge u n its, a i m now at -ei ' 1
m o r e g e n e r a l b i b l io g r a p h ic a l in te re s ts.
L i b r a r y h o u rs a re so a r r a n g e d t h a t a g r i c u l t u r a l labou rer- an b o o k s a f t e r th e ir w o r k is o v e r or d u r i n g b re a k s . P e a sa n t - ar e c ■
INTELLECTUAL
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OF
RURAL
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43
to
m a k e use of the li b ra r ie s a t all e v e n t s e v e r y S a t u r d a y , t h e d a y set
iiie j)V Fascism fo r p h y s i c a l c u l t u r e a n d i n t e l l e c t u a l i m p r o v e m e n t ;
tt,e libraries are o ften m a n a g e d b y a m e m b e r of t h e c o m m u n a l D o p o ­
lavoro.
Since 1033, all r u r a l li b r a r ie s h a v e b e e n g r o u p e d , a l o n g w i t h o t h e r
popular libraries a n d school lib ra r ie s, in t h e “ E n t e N a z i o n a l e p e r le
B i h l i o t e c h e pop ola ri e s c o l a s t ic h e ”, u n d e r t h e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n .
This organistion is r e s p o n s ib l e fo r f o u n d i n g lib raries, for t h e i r
inspection and for th e p u r c h a s e of b o o k s a t a d v a n t a g e o u s prices, g r a n t s ,
the encouragement of p r i v a t e i n i t i a t i v e in t h e p u r c h a s e a n d u p k e e p of
libraries, and th e t r a i n i n g o f r u r a l l i b r a r ia n s .
P oland
Libraries in t h e r u r a l d i s t r i c t s of p r e - w a r P o l a n d w e re f o r m e r l y
run bv the post-school a n d so cial o r g a n i s a t io n s . T h e s e v e r a l G o v e r n ­
ments gave no real ass istan ce, a n d , in R u s s i a n P o l a n d , P o lish b o o k s w ere
prohibited. Thus, e v e n in t h e c o u n t r y s i d e , th e s e li b r a r ie s w ere se r v in g
the cause of in d e p e n d e n c e .
In Austria n P o l a n d , r u r a l li b ra r ie s w e r e o r g a n i s e d b y t h e S o c ie ty
for People's Schools (I.S .L .) a n d t h e Macierz S z k o ln a S o cie ty , a n d in
Posnania by th e p e o p l e ’s r e a d i n g - r o o m s . T h e y w e r e f in an ced b y
means of collections a n d sp ecial f u n d s .
After the i n d e p e n d e n c e of P o l a n d , school li b r a r ie s w e re first o rg a n ise d
hy youth associations s u c h as t h e Y o u n g V i l l a g e r s ’ L e a g u e ( S . I . E . W . ) ,
the Village Y o u t h L e a g u e , t h e Y o u n g M e n ’s a n d W o m e n ’s C ath o lic
Society, the H u n t e r s ’ A s so c ia tio n , etc., a n d s u b s e q u e n t l y b y a special
-''lion of the post-sch o o l d e p a r t m e n t of t h e M i n i s t r y of E d u c a t i o n ,
which supplem ents t h e f u n d s of e x i s t i n g lib raries, i n s p e c t s t h e li b ra r ie s
and subsidises th e I n f o r m a t i o n Office for L i b r a r y M a n a g e m e n t fo u n d e d
in l!l'29 by the A sso ciatio n of P o lish L i b r a r i a n s ; t h i s l a s t - n a m e d associa
lion gives te chnical a d v i c e on t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of li b ra r ie s a n d su p p lies
li-ts of hooks suited to t h e r e q u i r e m e n t s of in d i v i d u a l libra rie s.
The libraries are o f t e n p r o v i d e d w i t h r e a d i n g - r o o m s w h e r e r e a d e r s
‘ii get tea and listen to t h e wireless.
Upwards of 3,000 li b ra r ie s of th i s k i n d h a v e b e e n f o u n d e d d u r i n g th e
list three years ; th e L ib r a r ie s L a w p r o v i d e s t h a t t h e i r co st shall be
turne partly b y th e G o v e r n m e n t a n d p a r t l y b y t h e c o m m u n e s . T h e
toan of books is free ; t h e h o u r s of a d m is s i o n v a r y b e t w e e n one a n d
twenty a week.
bi addition to t h e s e p e r m a n e n t li braries, t r a v e l l i n g li b rarie s,
handling ^50,000 v o lu m e s a y e a r , are se n t i n t o t h e c o u n t r y s i d e e i t h e r b y
■ "ii libraries or b y t h e i r ow n c e n t r a l offices.
S
w e d e n
**"' lural p o p u l a t i o n of S w e d e n i-. one of t h e b ig g e st “ r e a d e r s ”,
llu l'r"pui'l ion of b o o k s b o r r o w e d b e i n g one p e r i n h a b i t a n t , w h ic h m e a n s
Hiat four million p e a s a n t s in S w e d e n r e a d fo u r million b o o k s a y ear.
44
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T h is seem s v e r y n a t u r a l , as t h e r e is no il li te r a c y in Sweden
Morli-n
c o m m u n i c a t i o n s , th e close n e t w o r k of ro a d s , wireless, mid the Innw i n t e r e v e n i n g s a re f a c t o r s w h i c h e n c o u r a g e t h e p e a s a n t to m id .m,^
e n a b l e h i m to do so.
I t s h o u l d also b e r e m e m b e r e d t h a t t h e p e a s a n t r y h as always lire
well r e p r e s e n t e d in t h e S w e d is h P a r l i a m e n t a n d w a s in the nmjnriiv
for a fe w y e a rs , a f t e r 1866.
I t is th e r e f o r e n o t s u r p r is in g to l e a r n t h a t , t h o u g h the /-; „„
P u b li c R e a d i n g was o n ly pass ed in 1930, r u r a l li b ra r ie s h ad long ,.xist.-d
t h a n k s to relig ious b o d ie s a n d a g r i c u l t u r a l u n io n s ; th e y a n - imii-t-d
closely c o n n e c t e d w i t h t h e s t u d y circles d i r e c t e d b y th ese organis u..-,.
ch ief a m o n g w h i c h is th e Y o u n g A g r i c u l t u r i s t s ’ Association JAM
In th e se r u r a l lib ra r ie s, a b o u t 1 0 % of t h e b o o k s are on subjrrts ,,f
t e c h n i c a l i n t e r e s t.
S t a t e a id for li b r a r ie s is p r o p o r t i o n a t e to t h e c o m m u n a l <_•,iiitriln,tio n , p a r t of t h e G o v e r n m e n t g r a n t b e i n g e a r m a r k e d for the pm haof boo k s. O n l y a s m a l l c h a r g e m a y be m a d e fo r t h e loan of 1 ks, and
r u r a l li braries, like o th e r s , a r e in s p e c t e d p e rio d ic a lly b y a Gnwrnmi-nt
official.
S w itzerlan d
In S w i tz e r la n d , w h e r e m u c h is d o n e for p o p u l a r educatio n, - r v c i
fa c t o r s h a v e c o m e i n t o p l a y , a n d v a r y i n g re s u lt s , acco rd in g t.- liMri I.
h a v e b e e n o b t a i n e d in th e m a t t e r of r e a d i n g facilities fur (hr rur !
p o p u l a t i o n , as t h e C o n f e d e r a t i o n is d iv i d e d in t o tw en ty -fiv e a u h .
c a n t o n s a n d h a l f - c a n t o n s , w h o s e i n t e l l e c t u a l a n d c u l tu r a l tlovoliipnu-nt
is v e r y fa r f r o m u n if o r m .
I n g en eral, t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of v illa g e li b ra r ie s was of a ix-liei"»c l i a r a c t e r u n t i l t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n i n e t e e n t h c e n t u ry . A h a!
'
d a t e , r e a d i n g so cieti es w e r e org a n ise d , m o r e p a r t i c u l a r l y in the vill;
s i t u a t e d n e a r t h e la k e s a n d rivers. M e m b e r s ’ c o n t r ib u t io n s w n ■>- ■
f o r th e p u r c h a s e of books, w h ic h w e re l e n t free of charge. I
■:
so cieties su c h as t h e S ocié té suisse d ’u t i l i t é p u b l i q u e included in : :ai"
p r o g r a m m e t h e e d u c a t i o n of p e a s a n t s b y m e a n s of books, a 1 I '■
s t e p s to e x t e n d village li braries. E v a n g e l i c a l societies, y o u n g ["•<i;di- eva n g e lic a l u nions, a n d o t h e r rel ig ious b o d ie s also in c lu d e th e f o u n d a t i o n
a n d m a i n t e n a n c e of r u r a l li b ra r ie s a m o n g t h e i r activ ities.
B u t th e s e sm a ll li braries, i t w a s realis ed , w e r e u n e q u a l ly did ri 1■u»• '
o w in g to t h e v a r y i n g res o u rces a t th e d is p o s a l of th e canton s. A - :
in gly, in 1920, t h e A s s o c ia tio n des b ib l io t h é c a i r e s suisses f<’' nu i :
o r g a n i s a t io n for s u p p l y i n g b o o k s k n o w n as th e “ Bibliothèque j" ■
t o u s ” ; th is w a s c o n s t i t u t e d as a Swiss f o u n d a t i o n , in re ceip t of a substan­
tial a n d r e g u l a r G o v e r n m e n t g r a n t . T h e r e m a i n d e r of it- "" id e ri v e d f r o m th e c a n t o n s , th e c o m m u n e s , v a r i o u s f o u n d a t i o n ' .
1111 '
cial u n d e r t a k i n g s a n d p r i v a t e in d i v id u a l s .
T h e r e is a c e n t r a l d e p o t a t B e rn e , w i t h six r e g io n a l depot ' di-triba
ac c o r d i n g to g e o g ra p h i c a l, li nguis ti c a n d c u l t u r a l r e q u ire m e n t'. d e p o t s send o u t to t h e vil la ges " c a n t i n e s ” o r b o x es w ith bet wn : ! • >
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
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45
]U1 , hundred v o lu m e s c o n s i s ti n g of li g h t r e a d i n g a n d b o o k s o n g e n e r a l
-ulture Tilt 1 " c a n t in e s ” a r e e n t r u s t e d to a g r o u p of r e a d e r s , w h o p a y
! v n v g i n : 111 s u m for lo an a n d t r a n s p o r t , a n d a re d e p o s i t e d a t a “ s t a t i o n ”
1,.,'llv (hr tow n hall or school).
I n t h e case of r e m o t e villa ges, t h e
l„lXPs arc . :irriod b y m ules.
T h e reui' iial d e p o t s s u p p l y “ c a n t i n e s ” for p e r i o d s u p to o n e y e a r .
I'I1C i iv> ;ire selected w i t h t h e id e a of g iv i n g t h e r e a d e r “ a n o b j e c t i v e
survev of all c u rr e n ts of c o n t e m p o r a r y t h o u g h t ”, a n d t a k e in t o a c c o u n t
Ihe type Î village p o p u l a t i o n to b e c a t e r e d for. S p e c ia l b o o k s or
i H-ru[>;•tic *11;jI and te c h n ic a l w o r k s m a y be b o r r o w e d free of c h a r g e f r o m
the central depot in B e rn e . O v e r 2,0 0 0 b o x e s a r e sen t o u t y e a r l y , a n d
it is v a c i l l a t e d t h a t ea c h b o o k c h a n g e s h a n d s on a n a v e r a g e t h r e e t i m e s
;,l every " st ati on
T h e b o o k s a r e ch o s e n f r o m t h e a l p h a b e t i c a l
catalogues at th e reg io n al d e p o t s .
A Managing B o a r d , c o n s i s ti n g of r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of t h e c e n t r a l
opal and 1lie he a d s of t h e re g i o n a l d e p o t s , is r e s p o n s i b l e fo r g e n e ra l
urbanisation, and c o m m i t t e e s (conseils g é n é r a u x ) are f o r m e d to m a k e
proposals as to p u r c h a s e s a n d to a c t as liais on b e t w e e n t h e F o u n d a t i o n
,ii,l IIn' s e v e r a l regions, so as to re c o n c ile t h e i r i n t e r e s t s a n d desires.
Various i n s ti tu t io n s for t h e p r o m o t i o n of p o p u l a r e d u c a t i o n , su c h
- t h e Foyers p o u r to u s s a n s alcool, t h e P r o - J u v e n t u t e A s s o c i a ti o n , t h e
Association p o p u la ire c a t h o l i q u e , t h e C e n tr e suisse d e l ’é d u c a t i o n
Miivriert', the Y o u n g M e n ’s C h r i s t i a n A s s o c i a ti o n s , etc ., c o l l a b o r a t e
closely with th e B ib l i o t h è q u e p o u r to u s , w h i c h m a k e s use of t h e i r b o o k s
in villages where such s t o c k s e xist.
U
nion
of
So
v iet
S
ocialist
R
e pu b l ic s
Rural libraries did n o t c o m e i n t o e x i s te n c e u n t i l a f t e r t h e re v o l u t i o n .
Tlic Union of S ovie t S o c ia lis t R e p u b l i c s h a s o r g a n i s e d th e s e li b ra r ie s
iii every
kolkhoz ” or a g r i c u l t u r a l u n d e r t a k i n g .
T h e y f o r m p a r t of
ttn' " people's libra rie s ” a n d t a k e in t o c o n s i d e r a t i o n , f r o m a li n g u is tic
point of view, th e n a t i o n a l i t y of t h e p o p u l a t i o n c o n c e r n e d .
Over 20,000 li b ra r ie s a re a t p r e s e n t in u se ; t h e i r c o n t e n t s a r e ch o sen
with a view to p r o m o t i n g th e e x e c u t i o n of t h e “ p l a n s ” . A t t h e s a m e
time, efforts are b eing m a d e to lessen t h e dif ference b e t w e e n t o w n a n d
■ ounlry. The librarie s supply^ t h e i r r e a d e r s w i t h r e v i e w s a n d s o m e t i m e s
provide music, a n d m o s t of t h e m a re e q u i p p e d w i t h w ireless sets.
hi addition to t h e i r ow n re s o u rces, t h e li b r a r ie s c a n b o r r o w b o o k s
r"1" district libraries w i t h o u t c h a rg e .
R e a d e rs ’ subscriptions are v ery
• mut are oft en p a i d b y th e a g r i c u l t u r a l a ss o c ia tio n s. T h e G o v e rn "'"t makes g r a n t s in t h e f o r m of books.
Smce 1929, t h e b o o k s h a v e b e e n se lected b y th e B ib l i o g r a p h i c a l
Institute, which p u b li s h e s t h e B ib l io g ra p h ic a l Bull eti n.
Some scientific li b ra r ie s also t a k e an i n t e r e s t in th e r u r a l li b ra r ie s ;
hf Library of A g r i c u l t u r a l S cie nces a t L e n i n g r a d o rg a n i s e s villag e
shibitions of books a n d le c t u r e s a n d m e e t i n g s on a g r i c u l t u r a l q u e s t io n s ,
aJvises on a g r i c u l t u r a l b o o k s to be i n c lu d e d in r u r a l li b rarie s.
46
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
I n t h e case of t h e s m a ll e r a n d m o r e r e m o t e village com mimitip?,
t h e d i s t r i c t l i b r a r ie s s e n d b o x e s of b o o k s to o n e of t h e inhabit; nits, who
is m a d e r e s p o n s ib l e for t h e i r c u s t o d y a n d d i s t r i b u t i o n ; 70,001 1 ImXfs :ii>
sent o u t each year.
S p e c ia l c o u rs e s are held fo r l i b r a r ia n s in r u r a l distrii •tx TV
k o lk h o z lib ra r ie s, w h e n n o t u n d e r th e d ir e c tio n of a compeic t person,
ar e o ft e n in s p e c t e d b y p ro f e ssio n a l lib r a r ia n s . T h ese liin i
are in
th e n a t u r e of b o t h p e r m a n e n t a n d tr a v e l l i n g in s ti tu t io n s .
\.! suwinir
a n d h a r v e s t t i m e , i n s t e a d of r e t u r n i n g to t h e k o lk h o z , which i
f a r a w a y , t h e w o r k e r s c a m p in p r o v i s io n a l q u a r t e r s , an d Ii: librarian
com es d u r i n g r e s t p e ri o d s a n d in t h e e v e n i n g a n d la y s o ut hi< h HOks nil :i
stall. T h e w o r k e r s choose t h e i r b o o k s a n d a s k his advice,
If a book
th e y w a n t is n o t a v a i la b l e , it is o r d e r e d f r o m th e kolkh oz Iib ra ry r.r
f r o m a d i s t r i c t li b r a r y . A n u m b e r of a g r i c u l t u r a l librari
ull'anise
g r o u p s for r e a d i n g a l o u d a n d dis cu ssio n ; t h e y are also pi
ilf-il with
wireless sets, fo r liste n in g -in to b r o a d c a s t rev iew s of books mi il lists of
r e c o m m e n d e d books.
L i b r a r i e s sp ecialising in civics supply' th e villages, ami reader'’
g r o u p s o rg a n i s e w e e k l y v is it s to t h e p e a s a n t s ’ hom es.
INTELLECTUAL
V.
A
rt
and
L
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
47
A R T IN R U R A L L I F E
eisu r e
am ong
R
ural
P
opu la tio n s
Owing to the c o n s t a n t l y increasing a m o u n t of tim e which
workers are able to d evo te to interests o t h e r t h a n those of th e ir
own particular occupation, it will be necessary from now on to
conduct a systematic s t u d y of th e facilities w ith which t h e y m a y
be provided, so t h a t t h e y m a y m ake th e b est possible use of
Iheir leisure Lime. A m o n g these resources, a r t will ce rtain ly
play a part. Its possibilities and its limits w ith in th e f r a m e ­
work of rural life m u s t be e x a m in e d in accordance writh the
general aims of th e E u r o p e a n Conference. The pu rp o se and
organisation of the m u seu m , whose aim i t will be to aw aken
interest in artistic objects a n d h is to ry in ru r a l areas, deserve
special attention.
T
h e
R
ural
M
useum
General Principles.
The museum is considered here in th e w idest sense of the
term, as part of an organism of a m o re general c h a ra c te r — in
uther words, as a centre of regional culture. The possibilities
and scope of such a cen tre should n o t be ex a gg era ted, p a r ti c u ­
larly at the outset. No illusions m u s t be e n te rta in e d as to the
number of workers a n d p ea s an ts who, along w ith th e ir daily
occupation, will show sufficient predilection for a n d interest
in study, reading, a n d th e m ore refined pleasures of music a n d
the theatre to persevere in these p u rsu its. One need only
remember that:, of tho se m em b ers of th e m iddle classes who
have had a fair education, v e r y few co ntin ue th e ir intellectual
pursuits for their own personal satisfaction or from disinterested
motives, once their studies are com pleted. More c a n n o t be
• xperted of workers an d pea san ts. I t will therefore be necessary
111 awaken their artistic consciousness r a t h e r t h a n impose such
■' taste artificially, a n d this aim can only be done t h ro u g h slow
and often indirect action.
The Pari played by Ihe R ura l M u s e u m among Cultural Instilulions as a Whole.
Without going into th e details of such action which, so
a- museums are concerned, m u s t necessarily proceed h and
ln hand with o th er forms of intellectual ac tiv ity, a certain
number of principles m a y be laid dow n re g ard in g the n ature,
r,r-ani.sution and functions of the ru ral m u seu m .
48
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
One of th e first re quisites is t h a t th e cultural rrnliv i and
th e m u s e u m belonging to it, should be readily accesnl : o the
public for w hich i t is inten d ed , and t h a t the latter -h uU liinl
th ere an a t t r a c t i v e a n d con v en ien t place of recreation.
As p a r t of th e centre of regional culture, the musrum must
not be sim ply a sm aller edition of th e to w n museum, and, ! 1
its in te re s t will also be regional, it will differ in certain res
from th e local m u s e u m . T h e last is an essential point and >1ii mid
lie em phasised, since only by bringing o u t this distimT ini i can
I he special ch aracteristics of th e ru ral m u s e u m — as del en nined
by its aims, its functions, an d its public — be made , | e ; u
Distinctive Features of the R u ra l M u se u m .
In a large u rb a n centre, th e m useum , as a learned in si itution, seeks to display w ith in its walls representative t y p e .
consisting of t h e b e s t works an d objects of all schools. II aims
a t giving as com plete a p ictu re as possible of the evoluti on of
th e v ario us forms of art a n d cu lture by reference In car efully
selected specimens. Its ob ject is to provide the student witi)
v a lu a b le m ateria l, classified according to the criteria best -■abul a te d to facilitate research. In c o n tra s t to this selective analytical m e th o d , th e regional m u s e u m aims at providing ;i >vnth e tic view of all t h a t concerns th e history, art. arclnn )lo>y.
p a s t and p o p u la r t r a d i t i o n s of th e region concerned.
The ru ral m u s e u m will d ra w on b o th types o f i n- i i ! ut ion
as regards its m e th o d s and its cha rac ter. F r o m the urban
m u s eu m , it will borrow its edu cation al and general feat un ■s and
th e principle of selecting fine specimens ; from the rciri.-na I museurn, th e necessary links w ith local culture. Its a i m he ing to
i n s tru ct, it will have to provide a general survey o f ce rt ai n main
artistic an d e th n o g ra p h ic a l trends, w ith th e help o f i n e l l n " lie,ally
selected specimens. Its purpose is to inculcate a feelii lg fur
t h e beautiful in a public whose knowledge of a r t is rest i■iel ed.
I t will have, therefore, to show discrim ination in t h e du ice ol
th e works to be displayed a n d will be guided by rnetln
which f u r th e r a t t e n t i o n will be devoted later.
If, however, t h e ru ral m u s e u m is to establish c o n l m l with
th e public — and this would seem to be essential — cnllc étions
m u s t be m a d e of exhibits recalling the special eharad eristic
fe atures of t h e region. To collections of general interc- ,| will
be added o t h e r series of exhibits s o m ew h a t on the line- of the
regional m useum s, w ith o u t, how ever — in the case ol the rural
m u s e u m — a t t e m p t i n g to su p p la n t these museums, whicl i h a v
th e well-defined t a s k of collecting any m ateria l relating lo the
historical, artistic and cultu ra l aspects of a given re gion, The
of
ru ral m u s e u m will only ex h ib it th e m ore striking exaiiij
th e evolution an d characteristics of the region.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
49
Xalure and Constitution of Collections in R u r a l M u se u m s .
This brief survey of general principles has im plicitly d e t e r ­
mined the material to be collected in s e ttin g up a ru r a l m u s eu m .
The methods of acquiring such m a te r ia l m u s t now be ex am ined.
U f i r s t sight, it would seem t h a t th e ty p e of ru r a l m u s e u m
e n v is a g e d could n o t acquire a considerable p a r t of this m a te r ia l
otherwise than by loans. This applies p a r ti c u la rl y to general
collections, for which inferior specim ens would be un su ited .
No matter what kind of public is being p ro v id ed for, its i n itia tio n
can only lie accomplished w ith th e help of works of a r tis tic
value. In the case of regional collections also, th e re will have
In lie loans, b u t here fuller use ca n be m a d e of re p ro d u c tio n s
nr specimens. In a n y case, th e rural m u s e u m will h av e to
collaborate with u rb a n and regional m useu m s, a r ra n g e for loans,
temporary deposits a n d travelling exhibitions, a n d collaborate
with museum curators, whose interest in th e new in s titu tio n s
must be systematically encouraged.
T
h e
R
ural
M
u seum
and
T
ou rin g
Another factor w h ich m a y prove a useful asse t to th e rural
museum is the d ev e lo p m e n t of to u r i s t traffic. T h e different
regions are m aking increasing efforts to re sp on d to this m o d ern
development and the rôle of th e m u s e u m is assum ing im p o rta n c e
as one of the a ttra c tio n s which t h e y h av e to offer. B y opening
the eyes of the local p o p u la tio n to the bea u tie s a n d curiosities
of the region, the m u s e u m m a y p l a y its p a r t in t ig h te n in g th e
bonds between th e people a n d its soil, its trea su res an d its past.
Furthermore, if to u rin g facilities a t t r a c t to u rists to the region,
the peasant will experience a sense of pride a n d d isinterested
gratification which will te n d a t the sam e tim e t o rouse his
interest in the ru ral m u s eu m a n d m a k e him readier to c o n trib u te
towards its equipm ent.
M
useog ra ph y
of
R
ural
C
ollections
In connection w ith th e displaying of collections, th e dis­
tinction between u rb a n , regional an d ru ral m u s e u m s m a y be
recalled. I he scientific an d aesthetic a r r a n g e m e n t of th e big
museum must, in this case, give place to a p re s e n ta tio n which
!' first and foremost a t t r a c t i v e a n d in direc tly educational. The
"•"rangement of the exhibits, the sy stem of labels, c h a rts and
roinmentaries m u s t all stress a n y ed ucatio n al possibilities inher,‘nt in the various objects. T h a t is the p oin t — once questions
‘ hoice and grouping have been settled — on which the orga!H-ers oi rural m u seum s m u s t co ncen trate, in ord er to serve the
needs of their public.
50
INTELLECTUAL
M eans
of
A ctio n ,
ASPECTS
OF
R eso u rces
RURAL
and
LIFE
O r g a n is a t io n
Again, those responsible for organising the leisure
tions of th e ru ral p o p u la tio n m u s t be able to draw on a museum
of this kind for m a te r ia l to guide th e m ind s and inter- sts n( |}„.
p o p u latio n to w a r d s m ore intellectual pursuits. T h e y w i l l fin ,|
in it subjects an d suggestions for p o p u la r games, d a n e e - :ill,j
songs, as well as sub jects for d ra m a tic trea tm e n t a:n| nioih-h
for fancy w ork. Local trad itio n s, folklore and handienfu
will be pre sen ted in a striking w a y as a result of exhibiting
organised at the m u s e u m or elsewhere, constituting one inwv
link betw een the m u s e u m and th e p op u latio n Thus exrhaii^
between th e village and ils m u s e u m will be set in mol i n n . | e a <l u
to the dev e lo p m e n t of th e s t u d y of folklore, the revival o f c e r t a i n
crafts, an d th e pre serva tion of local traditions.
As to th e org anisation p ro p er of the rural m u s e u m , on.p o in t should be m a d e clear — nam ely , th a t it is quite imin ..sary, p a r tic u la rly to begin with, to provide a full-time air;.1er.
As a general rule, t h e leader of the cultural centre w i l l lie ahl*to u n d e r ta k e these duties. He will have to apply to t h e si a IT of the
big regional m u seu m s for help in connection w ith the formin':"]'
collections, th e te c h n iq u e of ex h ibiting objects, and tin- an-am."
m e n t of the rooms. This will serve to establish u se f ul <■.ml;o t
between th e tw o ty p es of institutio n, b o th of which wi ll havev e ry th in g to gain from this n ew form of collaboration.
It has alread y been suggested t h a t the rural m u s e u m dvuM
be a tta c h e d to a centre of a more general character, designed
widen the intellectual horizon of the local i n h a b i t a n t s . H
would p erh ap s be m ore ra tion a l to regard the m u s e u m a- -■
nucleus a r o u n d which would be gro uped th e various insl rume ns
capable of assisting in the education and intellectual I r a i n i n :
of the people : such are a library7 — which would u s u a l l y !"• tincom m u n al lib rary — a n d a hall to be used for m e e t i n g . S . l u r e theatrical and c in e m a to g ra p h perform ances, or any o t h e r m e a n of offering the country-dw eller a choice and varied f a r e
enter­
t a in m e n t. It w ould obviously be desirable to run. in eoum-ehm.
w ith this “ m u s e u m ” , an ac tual school of a r t or of deeoratn
or indu strial art, or a n y o th er vocational institution, w h e t h e r i!
already existed in th e district or could be establishc i Ihere ;■
a result of the facilities provided b y th e museum.
The spirit, th e organisation and th e p r o g r a m m e "I | | ’
rural m u seu m m i g h t t h u s m ak e it, n ot only the n u c l e u s "I -m h
intellectual activities, b ut also a link between the ael ivitie.- "•
e v e ry d a y life and all th e various m eans th e worker could emple.'
to t u r n his leisure hours to th e g reatest possible advantage.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
51
LIFE
ANN EX
ART
I
T hf
Concept
of
t h e
O
p e n
C
o u n t r ies
-a
ir
M
u s eu m
in
tiie
N
o r t h e r n
The museum in a r u r a l s e t t i n g is a n i n s t i t u t i o n w h ic h , in its origin
m,i a c t i v i t i e s alike, is e s s e n ti a ll y b o u n d u p w i t h t h e c u l t u r a l life of th e
- --inn. I’d !1 I his reason, a s t u d y of o p e n - a i r m u s e u m s in t h e N o r t h e r n
. ..untri'-s may furnis h v a l u a b l e su g g e s tio n s as r e g a r d s t h e ch o ice a n d
jj.play nf specimens, o r g a n i s a t i o n , a n d th e m e a n s of e s t a b l i s h i n g th e
necessarv c ontact w i t h t h e publi c.
Tin ni' ii 1 fa c t t h a t in S w e d e n n e a r l y a s i x t h of t h e c o m m u n e s ,
numbering some 2,600, posse ss a n o p e n - a i r m u s e u m show s t h a t th e
is a sound one a n d m e e ts a real n eed , a n d t h a t th e s e i n s t i t u t i o n s
,vi* obtained b o th t h e m a t e r i a l a n d m o r a l S u p p o r t of t h e p o p u l a t i o n .
Attention should, h o w e v e r, be d r a w n to t h e sp ecial f e a t u r e s of
!he<e muséums, in o r d e r to see a t once to w h a t e x t e n t o t h e r r u r a l
museums can be p l a n n e d a n d o rg a n i s e d on sim i la r lines. T o beg in
.villi, building m e th o d s in th e c o u n t r i e s in q u e s t i o n w ere p a r t i c u l a r l y
-,ili'l In the e s t a b li s h m e n t of o p e n - a i r m u s e u m s , w h i c h c a n in fa c t be
taken down and m o v e d f r o m one p la c e to a n o t h e r . T h is s o m e w h a t
primitive method of c o n s t r u c t i o n is t e n d i n g to d i s a p p e a r , a n d t h e r e is
general desire t h a t c e r t a i n s p e c i m e n s s h o u l d b e p r e s e r v e d . T h is
partly explains b o t h th e origin of th e s e m u s e u m s a n d t h e c o m p a r a t i v e
with which th e s c h e m e w a s c a r r ie d out.
Again, the desire to p re s e rv e relics of a c u l t u r e t h a t is p a s s in g a w a y
■i to the format ion of collections of p o p u l a r a r t , to w h ic h w ere a d d e d
exhibitions of old c o stu m e s , cere m o n ie s , a n d p o p u l a r songs. S u c h is,
in brief mil line, th e ori gin of t h e N o r d ic M u s e u m of S k a n s e n , w h ic h , as
innv wi iit on and its p o s i ti o n b e c a m e e s t a b li s h e d , e x t e n d e d t h e scope
I ils artivilii's far b e y o n d w h a t h a d o ri g in a l ly b e e n c o n t e m p l a t e d .
In inlililion to its ta s k of p r e s e r v in g relics a n d re c o r d s of h is to ri c a l a n d
'tliiu)L-ra|iliical in te re s t, it q u i t e n a t u r a l l y a s s u m e d a n e d u c a t i o n a l
Jum-liun. arising o u t of its rôle as a c e n t r e of a t t r a c t i o n to w h i c h th e
H'iir wa> more a n d m o r e r e a d i l y d r a w n .
Ironi ; m aterial s t a n d p o i n t , th i s m u s e u m is m o r e or less self"i!i|"rtiiiLr. most of its e x p e n s e s b e i n g c o v e r e d b y t h e fees p a i d b y
?'*cili>li and foreign v is ito rs, t h e n u m b e r of t o u r i s t s h a v i n g in c re a se d
vi p o x.su with th e i n t e r e s t s h o w n b y t h e local p o p u l a t i o n .
" i i t i n - basis of tlie p r o g r a m m e of t h e N o rd ic M u se u m , as co n ceiv ed
H:,zi-nu~. a large n u m b e r of loc al societi es or i n d i v i d u a l s h a v e , in
: ' luni- establish ed o p e n - a i r m u s e u m s in v a r i o u s p a r t s of S w e d en ,
*l>e upkeep of w h i c h t h e y p r o v i d e . V e r y g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e is
"
1,1 1lie choice of a c u r a t o r fo r the se i n s t i t u t i o n s ; t h e office is
52
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF RURAL
LI F
filled b y c u l t u r a l officials, p rie sts, d o c t o r s o r te ach ers, hut
.... ..
b y p r i v a t e i n d i v i d u a l s — p e a s a n t s , m e r c h a n t s , w riters , artUts
a few cases, b y la rge l a n d o w n e r s a n d o ccasio n ally b y \V..rk«-r«
D u r i n g t h e la s t fe w y e a r s , S w e d ish m u s e u m s h a v e -i
t e n d e n c y to s p ecialise — fo r in s ta n c e , b y il l u s t r a t i n g sonic parti,ui ■
a s p e c t s o f t h e i r o w n region c o n c e r n i n g w h i c h t h e y arc in a j.iKjij,,, ■
colle ct d e t a i l e d i n f o r m a t i o n . As a logical c o ro lla r y of this new j„ j,, •
closer c o - o p e r a t i o n is b e i n g e s t a b l i s h e d b e t w e e n th e various in-litut
to th e a d v a n t a g e of t h e m all, as w e ll as of th e u r b a n museum-.
In v ie w of t h e s a t i s f a c t o r y r e s u lt s o b t a i n e d , t h e St.nl t;:ila rg e g r a n t s to th e s e m u s e u m s , s ev er al of w h i c h h a v e ti n;i ;
to en g a g e sp e c ia lly t r a i n e d officials a n d to en la rg e th e ir I n i i M i n ç - ,
T h e p r o f e s s i o n a l t r a i n i n g of m u s e u m officials has n ow l i c -c
a u n i v e r s i t y cours e is follow ed b y p r a c t i c a l t r a i n i n g in the
nni-riii:.N o r w a y , F i n l a n d a n d D e n m a r k also h a v e a la rg e nun.!
air m u s e u m s w h i c h d i s p l a y t h e v a r i o u s te n d e n c ie s mi! ;
| :,| .
— t h a t is to say, t h e desire to p r e s e r v e b u il d in g s and I r.eiilimi-.
specialise in som e w a y or o th e r, a n d to r e c o n s ti tu t e
ivhih i achievem ents.
2.
T h e
O rigins
o f
th e
“ H eim atm u seen
”
in
(I i - . hm \ n y
1 : 1
B y r e t r a c i n g t h e e v o l u tio n of m u s e u m s in G e rm a n y . .....
w i t h o u t dif ficult y t h e g r o w t h of t h e id e a w h ic h h as finally I d 1<> i:
e s t a b l i s h m e n t of local m u s e u m s ( H e i m a t m u s e e n ) . First ; i !t.
tions of cu rio sitie s w e r e g o t t o g e th e r , a n d th e s e acco u n t f a I !■.
v a t i o n of m a n y v a l u a b l e relics of a n c i e n t a r t ; th e n , du ri ng lie lean •
pe rio d , p e o p le b e g a n to t a k e a k e e n i n t e r e s t in n a t i o n a l lii-l"i;\ : : :
lisation. A f t e r t h a t , a m o r e solid li n k w i t h th e presen t wa- " 1
th e e s t a b l i s h m e n t of m u s e u m s of a p p l ie d art in w h ic h ohje ! - •• •••
te d a n d d i s p la y e d , n o t o n ly for th e ir h is to r i c a l interest er h . itlc-'r
successiv e style s, b u t also to p r o v i d e h a n d i c r a f t s ami in-lu-try
m o d e ls a n d “ ide as ” , T h i s n e w a s p e c t of m u s e o g r a p h v had
in d e t e r m i n i n g th e e d u c a t i o n a l e v o l u tio n o f o t h e r kinds <f n
th e r e l a t i o n s b e t w e e n t h e m u s e u m a n d th e p u b li c, and 1'
d is p la y i n g o b je c ts , all of w h i c h p o in t s h a v e a b e a r i n g on the |jr.'graiii:i.'
cf t h e r u r a l m u s e u m .
In t h i s c o n n e c t io n , a dec isive t u r n i n g - p o i n t w as n a -!;i-il
b e g i n n in g of t h e t w e n t i e t h c e n t u r y , if one m a y j u d g e ly He dll'
l e c tu r e d e liv e re d a t M a n n h e i m in 1904 on “ Museum s ' i ; : P o p u l a r E d u c a t i o n ” . T h is w a s n o t, h o w e v e r, th e origi "1 lie
k in d of m u s e u m w h ic h w a s to s p r in g u p in all p a r t s of <.c
ciall y a f t e r t h e w a r. T h e a i m of th e H e i m a t m u s e e n is I n r e \ ive
uf a place or a region a n d to r e c o n s t i t u t e t h e evironm ciil i."
i n h a b i t a n t s on c e lived ; t h e y m a y be re g a r d e d as a iialinn! ■
a g ain st t h e t e n d e n c y of m o d e r n science to d iv i d e a n d split ; I!
a s p e c t s of th e t a n g ib le w orld .
in tellectu a l
aspects
of
ru ra l
life
point, i t m a y b e w ell t o define w h a t is m e a n t b y t h e t e r m
th is will help to
e x p l a i n t h e wâde v a r i e t y of i n s t i t u t i o n s
1. ic r i b c i i as H e i m a t m u s e e n . “ H e i m a t ” m a y m e a n t h e e c o n o m ic
Hiuliticm5 of daily life ; c e r t a i n
H e i m a t m u s e e n a r e d e v o t e d to e c o n o m ic
,jong
lishery m u s e u m s , c e r a m ic s a n d o t h e r t e c h n i c a l m u s e u m s
come under this head .
“ H e i m a t ” m a y also h a v e a p u r e l y a b s t r a c t
mean in?, as in th e case of m u s e u m s p e r p e t u a t i n g th e m e m o r y o f a local
writer and his w o rk . G e n e r a ll y sp e a k i n g , t h e a i m is to c r e a t e in t h e
individual a s ta te of m i n d w h i c h in o n e w a y o r a n o t h e r b r i n g s h i m b a c k
I,, ([,(> “ roots ” of his existe n c e .
This does n o t m e a n t h a t t h e H e i m a t m u s e u m esch ew s al l s t r i c t l y
scientific activities ; scientific r e s e a r c h m e r e l y o ccu p ies a d i f f e r e n t pla ce,
beirn: no longer th e u l t i m a t e a i m of t h e m u s e u m b u t t h e m e t h o d e m ­
ployed to facilitate its ta s k , w h i c h is to t h r o w l i g h t o n t h e e ss e n tia l
aspects of the life of th e region.
While purs uin g its a i m o f e n r i c h in g t h e c u l t u r a l h e r i t a g e of th e
nation, the H e i m a t m u s e u m b y its v e r y n a t u r e felt t h e n e e d of n e w
methods suited to its p a r t i c u l a r o b je c ts . N e i t h e r as a m u s e u m of n a t u r a l
.. ience nor as a r e p o s i t o r y of p o p u l a r a r t is t h e H e i m a t m u s e u m calle d
upon to produce scientifi call y p e r f e c t s p e c i m e n s : an a n i m a l is t h e r e to
illustrate the f a u n a of t h e re g i o n , n o t to s u p p o r t a t h e o r y of biologic al
• volution; an o b je c t is h o u s e d to d e m o n s t r a t e s o m e p a r t i c u l a r u s a g e
or artistic form, n o t for p u r p o s e s of scientific r e s e a rc h . Casts , p h o t o ­
graphs and models will p l a y a n e ss e n tia l p a r t in t h e co lle ctio ns, t h o u g h
not to the exclusion of o rigin als. B u t th e p r i m a r y a i m will in e v e r y case
be to display and sy n t h e s is e li v in g g ro u p s , j u s t as th e a r t i s t co m p o ses
his picture, n o t like th e s c i e n ti s t w ho a n a l y s e s a n d classifies his m a te r i a l.
The scope of a m u s e u m o rg a n i s e d on th e s e lines w ill o f co urs e
depend on the m a t e r i a l a t its d is posal, b u t w i t h i n th e s e lim its it c a n
often curry out m o r e d e t a il e d a n d e x t e n s i v e re s e a rc h e s t h a n a g e n e ra l
museum. A lt h o u g h its p u r p o s e m a y be li m ite d , its f u n c t i o n s a re
unrestricted, so far as co n c e rn s t h e special i n t e r e s t s to w h ic h it can d e v o t e
itself : the evolution of th e a g r a r i a n regim e, th e d e v e l o p m e n t of h a n d i ­
crafts, local ethnolo gic al ori gin s, et c.
S p e c ia lisa tio n , w h ic h is t h u s n e c e s ­
sary in itself, has led q u i t e n a t u r a l l y to t h e f o r m a t i o n of w o r k i n g g r o u p s
which system atically r e s t r i c t t h e i r lield of a c t io n , in o r d e r to se r v e t h e
ffneral interest so f a r as th e m a t e r i a l a v a i l a b l e to e a c h i n s t i t u t i o n
U
■
tlii~
H e i m a t as
permits.
T he A r c h it e c t u r a l
P rogramme
of
L ocal
M useums
Without going v e r y d e e p l y in to t h e specific c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s w h ic h
Iistinguish the local m u s e u m f r o m t h e b ig u r b a n m u s e u m , so m e m e n t i o n
may be made of a n u m b e r of f e a t u r e s p e c u l ia r to t h e f o r m e r w h ic h will
çwern its a r c h i te c t u r a l p la n n in g .
In the first pla ce, a l t h o u g h t h e o b je c ts h o u s e d in t h e local m u s e u m
*re not so precious as th o s e in t h e big m u s e u m s , th e v a l u e of its collectio ns
^ ‘d importance of its t a s k s h o u ld n o t be m i n im is e d . W h e n co llectin g
INTELLECTUAL
54
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
relics of lo cal life, i t m a y o ft e n c o m e a c ro ss sp ecim en s which i
u r b a n m u s e u m w o u ld n o t h a v e h a d an o p p o r t u n i t y of discuvrrii
m u c h , t h e n , for t h e sc ope of t h e lo cal m u s e u m f r o m th e point -if view
of re s e a r c h .
S e c o n d l y , t h e loc al m u s e u m is, p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y speakim;, Visit o,|
m o r e f r e q u e n t l y t h a n t h e la rg e u r b a n m u s e u m s , a n d b v a publia W h i r l ,
t a k e s a m o r e s u s t a i n e d a n d , in m a n y cases, a m o r e active ini rest in
its “ o w n ” co lle ctio ns.
L a s t l y , t h e r e is a n o t h e r f e a t u r e w h i c h c learly different in I. - îe local
m u s e u m f r o m t h e u r b a n m u s e u m : w h e r e a s t h e l a t t e r spn-ial iscs in
s o m e p a r t i c u l a r b r a n c h of c u l tu r e , t h e lo cal m u s e u m has to covi-r ■tari iiiifields of h u m a n a c t i v i t y a n d , e v e n if its s p e c i m e n s are n o t lir-t-r la>s, it
m a y offer m o r e eclecti c o p p o r t u n i t i e s t h a n t h e m o r e specialise! 1 tvp p. This
m e a n s t h a t w h ile t h e collectio n a n d d i s p l a y of o b je c ts ncecsi-aril y form
t h e m a i n t a s k of t h e i n s t i t u t i o n , it is n o t its o n l y one ; th e loeal n niscimi
n a t u r a l l y b e c o m e s t h e c e n t r e of t h e c u l t u r a l in t e r e s ts of the .lis triit
a n d a ra l l y i n g p o i n t fo r c u l t u r a l a c t iv i tie s of v a r i o u s kinds.
T h e p u r p o s e a n d f u n c t i o n of th e lo cal m u s e u m m a y
n’diiiL'h
b e defined as follows :
(1) I t is i n t e n d e d for t h e p r e s e r v a t i o n of relics of I hr
t h e s p h e r e of d e c o r a t i v e a r t , e t h n o g r a p h y , th e h isto ry a nilure,
sci en ce, n a t u r e , a n d p r e h i s t o r ic r e s e a rc h . T h e vari .n> - x h itits h o u l d , if possible , b e g r o u p e d t o g e t h e r r a t h e r th a n hive
in t o s e p a r a t e sections .
(2) I t s h o u l d p r o v i d e a c c o m m o d a t i o n for manife-iati nil- n(
m o d e r n c u l t u r a l a n d a r t i s t i c life, in t h e fo r m of temp'
r\ ' rxilib it i o n s , in o r d e r to m a k e k n o w n t h e w o r k of local, nali
p o s s i b ly foreign a r t i s t s . T h e e x c h a n g e of colic-Liim- elwviii
refullv
m u s e u m s a n d t h e o r g a n i s a t i o n of t r a v e l l i n g e x h ib itio n - "a
t h o u g h t - o u t lines are no less i m p o r t a n t ; t h e a im should ha lU) L'iv
a clear a n d c o m p r e h e n s i v e v i e w of t h e s u b j e c t selected.
fli
ti m e b r i n g i n g o u t t h e s a l i e n t c u l t u r a l f e a t u r e s of e h
C o n s e q u e n t ly , in a d d i t i o n to r o o m s i n t e n d e d for the a \ - :
a r r a n g e m e n t of th e ir ow n colle ctio ns, sm a ll m u s e u m s - >a ■
line?.
o t h e r s — will r e q u i r e s p a c i o u s r o o m s d esig n ed on pea ■!
w h i c h c a n be r e a d i l y a d a p t e d for t h e h o u s i n g of t e m p 1 ■ • exliib itio n s .
(3) I t s h o u l d in c lu d e a le c t u r e hall, to be used aN . - a
hall, as b o t h l e c tu r e s a n d c o n c e rt s c a n q u i t e well he
c o n c u r r e n t l y w i t h t e m p o r a r y ex h i b iti o n s .
(4)
a lii'" ’
T h e p u b li c l i b r a r y s h o u l d b e c o n n e c t e d witli the nu
(5) A c c o r d in g to t h e res o u rces of t h e lib rary , r - ^ ini-'hl
u s e f u lly be p r o v i d e d for t h e local scho ol of a r t or musir
(G) T h e t o u r i s t offices s h o u l d be c o n n e c t e d w ith tie aa
t h e y w o u ld t h u s h a v e a s u i t a b l e s e t t i n g for th e ir prnpa^aini
i n f o r m a t i o n service.
INTELLECTUAL
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
OO
The buildings s h o u ld be p l a n n e d to m e e t t h e s e si x r e q u i r e m e n t s .
In Ihe centre, th e re s h o u l d b e t h e m u s e u m p r o p e r , w i t h t h e c u r a t o r ’s
•
the sales d e p a r t m e n t a n d i n f o r m a t i o n s er v ice s h o u l d b e s i t u a t e d
either side of th e e n t r a n c e h a l l ; t h e n s h o u l d c o m e t h e le c t u r e
I all and school of a rt , a n d a f t e r t h a t t h e p u b l i c li b r a r y , w i t h a w i n g
,„ntaining Ihe hall for t e m p o r a r y e x h i b iti o n s .
resrards a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n n i n g , t h e v a r i o u s p r e m is e s s h o u l d
preferably be on one floor — l a n d is u s u a l l y c h e a p in t h e p ro v i n c e s .
In
view of the diverse n a t u r e of t h e s p e c i m e n s a n d t h e n e e d for s y n o p t i c
-roupinsr, the m u s e u m s h o u l d c o n s i s t of a la rg e hall, w i t h r o o f lig h ti n g ,
which can be divided b y m o v a b l e p a r t i t i o n s to p e r m i t of m o d i f y i n g a n d
varvins Ihe a r r a n g e m e n t of t h e e x h i b its .
This last p o in t is p a r t i c u l a r l y i m p o r t a n t in t h e case of th e lo cal
museum: Hie p o p u la tio n of a s m a ll t o w n or d i s t r i c t c h a n g e s v e r y li tt le
:iinl the museum h a s to c a t e r fo r r e g u l a r v is it o r s , w h o s e i n t e r e s t m u s t
In' kept alive. T h is is t h e e s s e n ti a l c o ro lla r y , t h e re a l secret of t h e
museum’s ed u catio n al f u n c t i o n . T h e c u r a t o r w ill th e r e f o r e h a v e t h e
.i inewhal onerous d u t y of r e g r o u p i n g a n d r e a r r a n g i n g h is sp e c i m e n s ,
ii i lininological ord er, or to i l l u s t r a t e so m e p a r t i c u l a r a s p e c t of h u m a n
livity. An a r c h i t e c t u r a l p l a n p r o v i d i n g fo r a p e r m a n e n t d iv isio n of
thr rooms would n o t m e e t his r e q u i r e m e n t s .
Moreover, g e n e ra l ly s p e a k i n g , t h e s y s t e m w e h a v e a d v o c a t e d of
single floor w ith m o v a b l e p a r t i t i o n s will b e f o u n d to fit in w i t h th e
programme of th e local m u s e u m w h i c h c a n n e v e r b e a b s o l u t e l y fixed,
because, as the needs a n d i n t e r e s t a r o u s e d b y th i s c u l t u r a l c e n t r e in c rease,
Ihe arrangement of th e r o o m s a n d t h e i r r e l a t i v e size will n e c e s s a r il y h a v e
to be modified.
56
INTELLECTUAL
VI.
ASPECTS
OF
RURAL
LIFE
RURAL CENTRES
It will be seen from this ra p id survey t h a t the various acti­
vities discussed should s u p p le m e n t each other, and that Hip
p ro blem th e n arises as to th e best w a y to group them together
T he m o s t ra tio n a l solution w ould seem to be the establishment
w h erever possible, of a “ cen tre ” , to include the theatre hall,
th e wireless hall, t h e c in e m a to g ra p h hall, th e reading-room and
library, and t h e m useu m . A single building, properly equipped,
can serve all these purposes ; it m a y be decided either to use the
village halls a lre a d y existing in m a n y places or to equip a building chosen b y th e m u n icip ality , or again, if the la tter’s resources
p erm it, to erect a new building. In this case, the problems
associated w i t h “ a rc h ite c tu re of th e p e o p le ” would arise, and
th e a t t e m p t s to solve t h e m m i g h t prove of in terest. A rentre
of this kind, while it should n ev er t r y to make itself club or
a co-operative org anisation, m ig h t well serve to prob'd and to
give p u b licity to the n atio n al heritage an d th u s to stimulâtes
renaissance of music, dancing, th e p eop le’s theatre, festivals in
costum e, t r a d i t i o n a l games, reading, conversation and. in a morn
general sense, artistic education.
Pubi'r
:
eviously :
TH PROBLEM OF NUTRITION
Inter
P
Report o f the Mixed C om m ittee on the
Jem of Nutrition.
(Sr.. L.o.N. P. 1936.II.B.3.)
Repz
on the P hysiological B ases o f Nutrition.
(S r. L. o.N. P.
Nutn
1936.II.B.4.)
6d. 10.15
in Various Countries.
(So;. L.o.N. P.
Stati
out of prin t
1936.II.B.5.)
5/6 $1.40
5 of Food Production, Consumption and
Prices.
(Ser. L.o.N. P. 1936.II.B.6.)
The i
ai
lion of Nutrition to Health, Agriculture
Economic Policy.
{St:. L.o.N. P.
New
(In'
out of print
1937.11.A .10.)
7/6 $2.00
chnical Efforts towards a Better Nutrition.
nalion Section Pam phlet.)
6d.
$0.15
AUTHORISED AGENTS FOR THE PUB
O F
T H E
LE A G U E
U N IO N O F S O U T H A F R IC A . — M a s k e w
M ille r L td ., 2 9 , A d d e rle y S tre e t, C a p e
Tow n.
A L B A N IA .
—
L ib r a r y a
Lum o
S ke n d o ,
T ira n a .
U N IT E D S T A T E S O F A M E R IC A . — Co­
lu m b ia U n iv e r s ity P ress, In te rn a tio n a l
D o c u m e n ts S e rv ic e , 2 9 6 0 , B ro a d w a y , N e w
Y o r k , N .Y .
A R G E N T IN E . — L ib r e r ia “ E l A te n e o ” ,
M . P e d ro G a rc ia , 3 4 0 -3 4 4 , F lo rid a , B u e n o s
A U S T R A L IA (C o m m o n w e a lth o f). — H . A .
G o d d a rd P ty ., L t d . , 2 5 5 a , G e o rg e S tre e t,
O F
N A T IO N S
IR E L A N D . — E ason
M id d le A b b e y S tre e t, :
IT A L Y . — S .A . E d itric e
M a z z in i 2 4 , F l o r e n c e
J A P A N . — M a ru z e n C K a b u s h ik i-K a is h a ), 5
N ic h o m e , T o k i o .
M its u k o s h i L im ite d ,
b a s h i, T o k i o .
L A T V I A . — L a tv ija s Te;
“ L e ta ” , K r . B a ro n a 1er.
L IT H U A N IA . — Koot
“ S p a u d o s F o n d a s 31, L
K aunas.
Sy d n e y .
L U X E M B U R G (G ra n d -B iv
rie J . S c h u m n ie r, P ir
B ru sse ls.
M E X IC O . — C e n tra l de
(A n te s A g e n c ia M is ra c h i
c io n a l ” , A v e n id a J u a r
N E T H E R L A N D S . — N .V ,
B o e k h a n d e l en Uitgever?
h o u t, 9 , T h e H a g u e .
N E T H E R L A N D S IN DU
B o e k h a n d e l G . Kolfi &
B E L G IU M . — A g e n ce D e c h e n n e , M essageries
de la P resse, S .A ., 1 6 -2 2 , ru e d u P e rs il,
B O L IV IA . — A rn ô H e rm a n o s , G a lle Illim a n f,
N o s. 1 0 -2 0 , L a P a z .
B R A Z IL . — “ L iv r a r ia A lle m a ” , F re d e ric o
W ill, ru a d a A lfa n d e g a , 6 9 , R io d e J a n e i r o .
B U L G A R IA . — L ib r a ir ie F ra n ç a is e e t E tra n ­
gè re, J . C arasso & C ie ., B d . “ T s a r O s v o b o d ite l ” , N o . 8 , S o f i a .
C A N A D A . — L e a g u e o f N a tio n s S o c ie ty in
C a n a d a , 124, W e llin g to n S tre e t, O t t a w a .
C H IL E . — C a rlo s N ie m e y e r, L ib r e r ia U n iv e r­
s a l , Cas. 2 9 3 , V a l p a r a i s o .
C H IN A . — C o m m e rc ia l P re s s, L t d . , Sales
O ffic e , 2 1 1 , H o n a n R o a d , S h a n g h a i .
C O L O M B IA . — L ib r e r ia V o lu n ta d S .A ., c a lle
R e a l, N o s . 2 9 7 -3 0 1 , B o g o t à .
C U B A . — L a Casa B e lg a , R e n é d e S m e d t,
O 'R e illy , 5 9 , H a v a n a .
C Z E C H O -S L O V A K IA . — L ib r a ir ie F . T o p ic ,
I I , N a ro d n i, P r a g u e .
D A N Z IG (F re e C ity o f). — G e o rg S tilk e ,
B u c h h a n d lu n g , L a n g g a sse 2 7 , D a n z i g .
D E N M A R K . — E in a r M u n k s g a a rd , In t e r ­
n a tio n a l B o o k s e lle r & P u b lis h e r, N e rre gade, 6 , C o p e n h a g e n .
E C U A D O R . — V ic to r J a n e r, G u a y a q u i l .
E G Y P T . — G .M .’ s B o o k S h o p , 116, S h a ria
E m a d E l D in (O p p . D a v ie s B ry a n ), C a i r o .
E S T O N IA . — A k a d e e m ilin e K o o p e ra tiiv , Ü lik o o li- T â n , 15, T a r t u s .
F I N L A N D . — A k a te e m in e n K irja k a u p p a ,
K e s k u s k a tu 2 , H e l s i n k i .
F R A N C E . — E d itio n s A . P e d o n e , 13, ru e
S o u fflo t, P a r i s ( V e).
G E R M A N Y . — C a rl H e y m a n n s V e rla g , M a u erstra sse 4 4 , B e r l i n , W .8 .
M a n z ’ sche V e rla g s b u c h h a n d lu n g (J u liu s
K lin k h a r d t & C o.), G .m .b .H ., K o h lm a r k t
16, W i e n I.
G R E A T B R IT A IN , N O R T H E R N IR E ­
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S tre e t, L o n d o n , W .C .l.
G R E E C E . — “ E le fth e ro u d a k is ” , L ib r a ir ie
in te rn a tio n a le , P la c e de la C o n s titu tio n ,
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H A I T I . — L ib ra irie -P a p e te rie M m e . D . V ia rd ,
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H U N G A R Y . — L ib r a ir ie G r ill, R . G e rg e ly
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IC E L A N D . — P e te r H a lld o rs s o n , R e y k j a v i k .
I N D I A . — T h e B o o k C o m p a n y , L td ., C ollege
S q u a re , 4 /4 A , C a l c u t t a .
In d ia n B ra n c h O ffic e o f th e S e c re ta ria t
o f th e L e a g u e o f N a tio n s , 8 , C u rz o n R o a d ,
N ew D e lh i.
L u x e m b u rg .
^ L td ., 7 N î
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Agentare
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■ i il cio “ La NV
•EXICO, D.F.
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24, O sl o .
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Y . & W . A . S a id , Je
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tia g o P u ig b o n e t, CasilU
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rsitatlgal?R,
tin , Book and
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P a n a i l <.
: ;)aciooal S-2>
Correo Sil,
A su n c iô n .
12, ulica Zgvia
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12, W a r s a w .
& Cia., Bat
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For other countries, a pp ly :
PUBLICATIONS D EPA R TM EN T OF T H E LEAGUE O
GEN EV A (Switzerland).
ATI0N5
SOCIÉTÉ DES NATIO NS
CENTRE D ’IN FO R M A TIO N
EN MATIÈRE DE PR O TEC TIO N
DE L’ENFANCE
Rapport annuel en matière de protection
de l’enfance, présenté à la C om m ission
consultative des questions sociales, en vue
de sa troisième session ( 1 9 juin 1 9 3 9 )
Parus précédemment :
francs
R ap ports annu els des gouvernements
R é su m é d e s r a p p o r ts an n u els re ç u s des gouver­
n e m e n ts e n tre le l eI ja n v ie r 1936 e t la première
se ssio n de la C o m m issio n c o n su lta tiv e des ques­
tio n s so ciales (15 avril 1937). (C.316.M.212.1937 TV)
(Sér. P. S.d.N. 1937.IV.6)............................................
R é su m é d e s r a p p o r ts a n n u e ls re ç u s des gouverne­
m e n ts e n tre la c lô tu re de la p re m iè re session et la
c lô tu re de la d eu x ièm e se ssio n d e la Commission
c o n su lta tiv e d e s q u e stio n s so ciales (1er mai 19375 mai 1938). (C.81.M.36.193S.IV)-(Sér. P. S.d.N. 1938
IV .5 )...................................................................................... '
3
Centre d ’in form ation en m atière de protection
de l ’enfance
R é su m é de la S é rie lé g isla tiv e e t a d m in istra tiv e des
d o c u m e n ts du C e n tre d ’in fo rm a tio n p a ru s p en d an t
l ’an n ée 1938. (C.72.M.33.1939.IV.) (Sér. P. S.d.N.
1939.IV.I) ..............................................................................
1.-
T ribunaux pour enfants
L ’o rg a n is a tio n des trib u n a u x p o u r enfants et les
e x p érien ces faites ju s q u ’à ce jo u r. Recueil publié
p ar la Société des Nations, en collaboration avec la
Commission internationale pénale et pénitentiaire. (Sér.
P . S.d.N. 1935.IV .5)...........................................................
P rin c ip e s a p p lic a b le s au x tr ib u n a u x p o u r mineurs
e t a u x o rg a n is m e s an alo g u es, a u x services auxi­
lia ire s e t a u x in s titu tio n s d estin ées à ces enfants.
(Sér. P . S.d.N. 1937.IV.9).................................................
4.-
1.61
C onseils de protection de l ’enfance
(Danemark, Norvège, Suède.) (Sér. P . S.d.N. 1937.IV.1)...
2.50
Le placem ent fam ilial des enfants
Volume I. — Id é e s fo n d a m e n ta le s, h isto riq u e, traits
c a ra c té ris tiq u e s d e d ifféren ts s y stè m e s, principes
e t m é th o d e s d ’o rg a n isa tio n d e s serv ices. (C.260.M.
155.1938.IV.) (Sér. P. S.d.N. 1938.IV.14/I.).................. 3 Volume II. — D iv ers sy stèm es de p la c e m e n t familial
d es e n fa n ts. (C.260.M.155.1938.IV.) (Sér. P. S.d.N.
1938.IV.14/II.) ..................................................................... ’ " 1
Le c in ém a ré c ré a tif e t la je u n e sse . ( C . 2 5 6 .M . 1 5 2 . 1938.
IV.) (Sér. P. S.d.N. 1938.IV.13.).......................................
0.71